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Woman's Institute Library of Cookery. Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads

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Title: Woman's Institute Library of Cookery. Volume 1: Essentials of Cookery; Cereals; Bread; Hot Breads

Author: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences


        
Release date: February 1, 2006 [eBook #9935]
                Most recently updated: December 27, 2020

Language: English

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Credits: Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY. VOLUME 1: ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY; CEREALS; BREAD; HOT BREADS ***




Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Steve Schulze
and PG Distributed Proofreaders











WOMAN'S INSTITUTE LIBRARY OF COOKERY

VOLUME ONE

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY

CEREALS

BREAD

HOT BREADS



WOMAN'S INSTITUTE OF DOMESTIC ARTS AND SCIENCES, Inc.

PREFACE

The Woman's Institute Library of Cookery consists of five volumes that
cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on
in the home. These books contain the same text as the Instruction Papers
of the Institute's Course in Cookery arranged so that related subjects
are grouped together. Examination questions pertaining to the subject
matter appear at the end of each section. These questions will prove
helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate, as they are
the same as those on which students of the Institute are required to
report. At the back of each volume is a complete index, which will
assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained
in it.

This volume, which is the first of the set, deals with the essentials of
cookery, cereals, bread, and hot breads. In _Essentials of Cookery_,
Parts 1 and 2, are thoroughly treated the selection, buying, and care of
food, as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms
used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food. In
_Cereals_ are discussed the production, composition, selection, and care
and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds. In _Bread_ and _Hot
Breads_ are described all the ingredients required for bread, rolls, and
hot breads of every kind, the processes and recipes to be followed in
making and baking them, the procedure in serving them, and the way in
which to care for such foods.

Whenever advisable, utensils for the preparation of food, as well as
labor-saving devices, are described, so as to enable beginners in the
art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly. In addition, this
volume contains breakfast, luncheon, and dinner menus that will enable
the housewife to put into practical, every-day use many of the
recipes given.

It is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the
knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper
sustenance for each member of her family, teach her how to buy her food
judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly, and
also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become
enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art.



CONTENTS

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY
  The Problem of Food
  Selection of Food
  Food Substances
  Food Value
  Digestion and Absorption of Food
  Preparation of Food
  Methods of Cooking
  Heat for Cooking
  Utensils for Cooking
  Preparing Foods for Cooking
  Order of Work
  Table for Cooking Foods
  Care of Food
  Menus and Recipes
  Terms Used in Cookery

CEREALS
  Production, Composition, and Selection
  Cereals as a Food
  Preparation of Cereals for the Table
  Indian Corn, or Maize
  Wheat
  Rice
  Oats
  Barley
  Rye, Buckwheat, and Millet
  Prepared, or Ready-to-Eat, Cereals
  Serving Cereals
  Italian Pastes
  Breakfast Menu

BREAD
  Importance of Bread as Food
  Ingredients for Bread Making
  Utensils for Bread Making
  Bread-Making Processes
  Making the Dough
  Care of the Rising Dough
  Kneading the Dough
  Shaping the Dough Into Loaves
  Baking the Bread
  Scoring Bread
  Use of the Bread Mixer
  Serving Bread
  Bread Recipes
  Recipes for Rolls, Buns, and Biscuits
  Toast
  Left-Over Bread

HOT BREADS
  Hot Breads in the Diet
  Principal Requirements for Hot Breads
  Leavening Agents
  Hot-Bread Utensils and Their Use
  Preparing the Hot-Bread Mixture
  Baking the Hot-Bread Mixture
  Serving Hot Breads
  Popover Recipes
  Griddle-Cake Recipes
  Waffle Recipes
  Muffin Recipes
  Corn-Cake Recipes
  Biscuit Recipes
  Miscellaneous Hot-Bread Recipes
  Utilising Left-Over Hot Breads
  Luncheon Menu

INDEX

       *       *       *       *       *



ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)

THE PROBLEM OF FOOD

1. Without doubt, the greatest problem confronting the human race is
that of food. In order to exist, every person must eat; but eating
simply to keep life in the body is not enough. Aside from this, the body
must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's
work, as well as with the material needed for its growth, repair, and
working power. To meet these requirements of the human body, there is
nothing to take the place of _food_, not merely any kind, however, but
the _right_ kind. Indeed, so important is the right kind of food in the
scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases
in weight, and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for
adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power. If a
person is to get the best out of life, the food taken into the body must
possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary
building material; and this truth points out that there are facts and
principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food
may be made, that it may be so prepared as to increase its value, and
that economy in its selection, preparation, use, and care may be
exercised.

2. Probably the most important of these principles is the _cooking of
food_. While this refers especially to the preparation of food by
subjecting edible materials to the action of heat, it involves much
more. The cooking of food is a science as well as an art, and it depends
for its success on known and established principles. In its full sense,
_cookery_ means not only the ability to follow a recipe, thereby
producing a successfully cooked dish, but also the ability to select
materials, a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them, an
understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared,
and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use
of food that may be left over from the previous meals, so that there
will be practically no waste. Thus, while cookery in all its phases is a
broad subject, it is one that truly belongs to woman, not only because
of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her
family, but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work.

3. The providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to
the lot of the housewife; in fact, on her depends the wise use of the
family income. This means, then, that whether a woman is earning her own
livelihood and has only herself to provide for, or whether she is
spending a part of some other person's income, as, for instance, her
father's or her husband's, she should understand how to proportion her
money so as to provide the essential needs, namely, food, clothing, and
shelter. In considering the question of providing food, the housewife
should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost, and in
this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be
the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed
for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the
allotment. To a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by
selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has
bought. It is only by constant thought and careful planning, however,
that she will be able to keep within her means, and she will find that
her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to
prepare them.

4. A factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is
_waste_, and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should
understand the distinction between waste and refuse. These terms are
thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused; but there
is a decided difference between them. _Waste_, as applied to food, is
something that could be used but is not, whereas _refuse_ is something
that is rejected because it is unfit for use. For example, the fat of
meat, which is often eaten, is waste if it is thrown away, but potato
parings, which are not suitable as food, are refuse.

In connection with the problem of waste, it may be well to know that
leakage in the household is due to three causes. The first one is lack
of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between
waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well. As an
illustration, many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a
pound as being too expensive and, instead, will buy chicken at, say, 5
cents a pound less. In reality, chicken at 5 cents a pound less than the
price of turkey is more expensive, because turkey, whose proportion of
meat to bone is greater than that of chicken, furnishes more edible
material; therefore, in buying chicken, they pay more for refuse in
proportion to good material. The second cause for this leakage in the
household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table,
arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of
skill in cooking; and the third cause is the serving of too large
quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and
unfit for any other use in the home.

5. Another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods
she shall select for each day's meals. To be successful, all meals
should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing,
giving them variety, and using the left-overs. Every woman should
understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons;
that is, it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must
satisfy the appetite, which to a considerable degree is mental and, of
course, is influenced by the appearance of the food. When the housewife
knows how to cook ordinary foods well, she has an excellent foundation
from which to obtain variety in the _diet_--by which in these lessons is
meant the daily food and drink of any individual, and not something
prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply
a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing
in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods
and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand. However, ample time must
always be allowed for the preparation of meals, for no one can expect to
produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time
and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner. Well-planned
meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill
of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned.

6. In the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be
planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body
and caring for it. As soon as any woman realizes that both the present
and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods
depend on so many things that are included in cookery, her interest in
this branch of domestic science will increase; and in making a study of
it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that
affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for
acquiring knowledge, displaying skill, and helping others to be well
and happy.

The fact that people constantly desire something new and different in
the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity
along this line. Then, too, each season brings with it special foods for
enjoyment and nourishment, and there is constant satisfaction in
providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which
they are unaccustomed, or an old one prepared in a new or a better way.
But the pleasure need not be one-sided, for the adding of some new touch
to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food
as to those who partake of it. When cookery is thought of in this way,
it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than
the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal.

7. From what has been pointed out, it will readily be seen that a
correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme
importance to those who must prepare food for others; indeed, it is for
just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from
day to day, as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to
perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up
the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in
cookery are intended.

In the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed
advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is
presented. As will be seen before much progress is made, the lessons are
arranged progressively; that is, the instruction begins with the
essentials, or important fundamentals, of food--its selection,
preparation, and care--and, from these as a foundation, advances step by
step into the more complicated matters and minor details. The beginner
eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much
attention is given to preliminaries. However, these are extremely
essential, for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of
food depends; indeed, without a knowledge of them, very little
concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended.

8. Each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in
the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every
detail. No lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood, for
the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject
and should be continually put into practice as progress is made. This
thought applies with particular emphasis to the Sections relating to the
essentials of cookery. These should be used in connection with all other
Sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that
must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge. By
carrying on her studies systematically and following directions
carefully, the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter
and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that
she learns.

       *       *       *       *       *

SELECTION OF FOOD

MATTERS INVOLVED IN RIGHT SELECTION

9. Each one of the phases of cookery has its importance, but if success
is to be achieved in this art, careful attention must be given to the
selection of what is to be cooked, so as to determine its value and
suitability. To insure the best selection, therefore, the housewife
should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs
of the persons who are to eat it; whether the amount of labor involved
in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results
obtained; whether the loss in preparation, that is, the proportion of
refuse to edible matter, will be sufficient to affect the cost
materially; what the approximate loss in cooking will be; whether the
food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked; and, finally,
whether or not all who are to eat it will like it. The market price also
is a factor that cannot be disregarded, for, as has been explained, it
is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent
and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each
member of the family.

10. In order to select food material that will meet the requirements
just set forth, three important matters must be considered; namely, the
_substances_ of which it is composed; its measure of energy-producing
material, or what is called its _food_, or _fuel, value_; and its
_digestion_ and _absorption_. Until these are understood, the actual
cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined, although its
price at all times may be known.

However, before a study of any of these matters is entered into, it is
necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the
body. As is well understood, the body requires material by which it may
be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and
exercise. In addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at
normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work
required of it. The material that will accomplish these important things
is food, which may therefore be regarded as anything that, when taken
into the body, will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with
the energy required to do its work.


FOOD SUBSTANCES

11. Although, as has just been stated, food may be considered as
anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in
living and working, not all foods are equally desirable any more than
all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and
in the production of its working power. Those food substances which are
the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen, but proper
choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food
consists and what it is expected to do. To aid in the selection of food,
therefore, it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five
substances, constituents, or principles of which foods are made up;
namely, water, mineral matter, or ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. A
knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to
adopt, for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various
substances present in a food. Of course, so far as flavor is concerned,
it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes
successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food
constituents; but to cook intelligently, with that success which makes
for actual economy and digestibility, certain facts must be known
concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat
on foods.

12. Water.--Of the various constituents that are found in the human
body, water occurs in the largest quantity. As a food substance, it is
an extremely important feature of a person's diet. Its chief purpose is
to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of
food. Although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most
foods, large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage. In
fact, it is the need of the body for water that has led to the
development of numerous beverages. Besides being necessary in building
up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition, water has a special
function to perform in cooking, as is explained later. Although this
food substance is extremely essential to life, it is seldom considered
in the selection of food, because, as has just been mentioned, nearly
all foods contain water.

13. Mineral Matter.--Ranking next to water in the quantity contained in
the human body is mineral matter. This constituent, which is also called
_ash_ or _mineral salts_, forms the main part of the body's framework,
or skeleton. In the building and maintaining of the body, mineral salts
serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton,
to form an essential element of active tissue, and to provide the
required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other
secretions.

The origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest.
Plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and
combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue.
Then human beings, as well as other living creatures, get their supply
of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food, this being
the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated. These
salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that
removes such of them as are readily soluble in water. When this occurs,
the result is usually waste, as, for instance, where no use is made of
the water in which some vegetables are boiled. As is true of water,
mineral matter, even though it is found in large quantities in the body,
is usually disregarded when food is purchased. This is due to the fact
that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly
all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to
question its presence.

14. Protein.--The food substance known as protein is a very important
factor in the growth and repair of the body; in fact, these processes
cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet. However,
while a certain quantity of protein is essential, the amount is not very
large and more than is required is likely to be harmful, or, since the
body can make no use of it, to be at least waste material. The principal
sources of protein are lean meat, eggs, milk, certain grains, nuts, and
the legumes, which include such foods as beans and peas. Because of the
ease with which they are digested, meat, fish, eggs, and milk are more
valuable sources of protein than bread, beans, and nuts. However, as the
foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others, a mixed
diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to
purchase foods is available.

15. So much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that
the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood. The
cooking of any food, as is generally understood, tends to break up the
food and prepare it for digestion. However, foods have certain
characteristics, such as their structure and texture, that influence
their digestibility, and the method of cooking used or the degree to
which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to
increase or decrease the digestibility of the food. In the case of foods
containing protein, unless the cooking is properly done, the application
of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible, for the heat first
coagulates this substance--that is, causes it to become thick--and
then, as the heat increases, shrinks and hardens it. This fact is
clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg, the white of which is the
type of protein called _albumin_. In a raw egg, the albumin is nearly
liquid, but as heat is applied, it gradually coagulates until it becomes
solid. If the egg is cooked too fast or too long, it toughens and
shrinks and becomes less palatable, less attractive, and less
digestible. However, if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has
coagulated the albumin, the white will remain tender and the yolk will
be fine and mealy in texture, thus rendering it digestible.

Similar results, although not so evident to the sight, are brought about
through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods
that contain much protein. Milk, whose principal ingredient is a protein
known as _casein_, familiar as the curd of cheese, illustrates this fact
very plainly. When it is used to make cottage cheese, heating it too
long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil
the texture of the product, which will be grainy and hard, instead of
smooth and tender.

16. FATS.--The food substances just discussed--water, mineral matter,
and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the
tissues of the body, but, as has been explained, the body also requires
foods that produce energy, or working power. By far the greater part of
the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose, and of
these fats form a large percentage. Although fats make up such a large
proportion of the daily food supply, they enter into the body
composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been
explained. The fats commonly used for food are of both animal and
vegetable origin, such as lard, suet, butter, cream, olive oil, nut oil,
and cottonseed oil. The ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively
little effect on fat, except to melt it if it is solid. The higher
temperatures decompose at least some of it, and thus liberate substances
that may be irritating to the digestive tract.

17. CARBOHYDRATES.--Like fats, the food substances included in the term
carbohydrates supply the body with energy. However, fats and
carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy, the
former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the
most economical form.

So that the term _carbohydrate_ may be clearly understood and firmly
fixed in the mind, it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the
composition of the body and the food that enters it. Of course, in a
lesson on cookery, not so much attention need be given to this matter as
in a lesson on _dietetics_, which is a branch of hygiene that treats of
diet; nevertheless, it is important that every person who prepares food
for the table be familiar with the fact that the body, as well as food,
is made up of a certain number of chemical elements, of which nitrogen,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen form a large part. Protein owes its
importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone
contains the element nitrogen, which is absolutely essential to the
formation of any plant or animal tissue. The other three elements,
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, go to make up the carbohydrates; in fact,
it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate
is derived. The carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are
used and eaten in so many forms, and these contain the three elements
mentioned, the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the
proportion that produces water. Thus, as will readily be seen, by
separating the name into its parts--_carbo_ (carbon) and _hydrate_
(hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one
of oxygen, that is, in the form of water)--carbohydrate is simply carbon
united with water. While the facts just brought out have much to do with
food economy, they are of interest here chiefly because they help to
make clear the term carbohydrate, which, as will be admitted, is the
only correct name for the food substance it represents.

18. STARCH, one of the chief forms of carbohydrates, is found in only
the vegetable kingdom. It is present in large quantities in the grains
and in potatoes; in fact, nearly all vegetables contain large or small
amounts of it. It is stored in the plant in the form of granules that
lie within the plant cells.

Cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible.
Moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus
thicken the mass. Dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and
finally into what is called _dextrine_, this being the intermediate step
in the changing of starch into sugar.

19. SUGAR, another important form of carbohydrate, is mainly of
vegetable origin, except that which is found in milk and called
_lactose_. This, together with the fat found in milk, supplies the child
with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods. The sap of
various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be
crystalized out and secured in dry form. The liquid that remains is
valuable as food, for, by boiling it down, it forms molasses. Sugar is
also present in considerable amounts in all fruits, and much of it is in
a form that can be assimilated, or taken up by the body, quickly. A
sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch
of corn and is called _glucose_. Much of the carbohydrate found in
vegetables, especially young, tender vegetables, is in the form of
sugar, which, as the vegetables grow older, changes to starch.

Sugar melts upon the application of heat or, if it is in a melted
condition, as sirup or molasses, it boils down and gives off water. When
all the water has boiled away, the sugar begins to caramelize or become
brown, and develops a characteristic flavor. If the cooking is continued
too long, a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed. Because
the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution, some of it is lost
when they are boiled, unless, of course, the water in which they are
cooked is utilized.

20. CELLULOSE is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch. It
helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables. Very little
cellulose is digested, but it should not be ignored, because it gives
the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict
attention must be paid to the cooking of it. As cellulose usually
surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin, it must be softened
and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to
be dissolved by the digestive juices. Then, too, in old vegetables,
there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher, just as an
old tree is much harder than a sapling. This, then, accounts for the
fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking
for others, the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence
and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food.

21. IMPORTANCE OF A VARIETY OF FOODS.--Every one of the five food
substances just considered must be included in a person's diet; yet,
with the exception of milk, no single food yields the right amounts of
material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and
energy. Even milk is in the right proportion, as far as its food
substances are concerned, only for babies and very young children. It
will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods, the
diet must be such as to include all the food substances. In food
selection, therefore, the characteristics of the various food substances
must be considered well. Fats yield the most heat, but are the most
slowly digested. Proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested
than fats, but, in equal amounts, have less than half as much food
value. Water and mineral salts do not yield heat, but are required to
build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition. In addition,
it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of
the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the
individual needs them to build up the body, repair it, and supply it
with energy. What this proportion should be, however, cannot be stated
offhand, because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily
vary with the size, age, and activity of each person.


FOOD VALUE

22. Nearly all foods are complex substances, and they differ from one
another in what is known as their _value_, which is measured by the work
the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of
energy. However, in considering food value, the person who prepares food
must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be
appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods. There would be
neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those
who are to eat it.

While all foods supply the body with energy, they differ very much in
the quantity they yield. If certain ones were chosen solely for that
purpose, it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a
larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time. For
instance, green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of
energy, but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things,
because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give
the body all the energy it would need for that day's work. On the other
hand, certain foods produce principally building material, and if they
were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy, they would be much
too expensive. Meats, for example, build up the body, but a person's
diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the
body with all the energy it requires. Many foods, too, contain mineral
salts, which, as has been pointed out, are needed for building tissue
and keeping the body in a healthy condition.

23. To come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods,
it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of
work that foods do in the body. This unit is the CALORIE, or _calory_,
and it is used to measure foods just as the inch, the yard, the pound,
the pint, and the quart are the units used to measure materials and
liquids; however, instead of measuring the food itself, it determines
its food value, or fuel value. To illustrate what is meant, consider,
for instance, 1/2 ounce of sugar and 1/2 ounce of butter. As far as the
actual weight of these two foods is concerned, they are equal; but with
regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably. Their
relative value in the body, however, can be determined if they are
measured by some unit that can be applied to both. It is definitely
known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized, that is,
when they are combined with oxygen; thus, the logical way of measuring
them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when
they are eaten and united with oxygen, a process that causes the
liberation of heat. The calorie is the unit by which this heat can be
measured, it being the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pint of water 4 degrees Fahrenheit, which is the name
of the thermometer commonly used in the home. When burned as fuel, a
square of butter weighing 1/2 ounce produces enough heat to raise 1 pint
of water 400 degrees Fahrenheit, and it will yield the same amount of
heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in
the body. On the other hand, 1/2 ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will
produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of 1 pint of water
about 230 degrees Fahrenheit. Thus, as will be seen, 1/2 ounce of butter
has a value of approximately 100 calories, whereas 1/2 ounce of sugar
contains only about 57-1/2 calories.

Other foods yield heat in varying degrees, and their food value is
determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar. To give
an idea of the composition of various food materials, as well as the
number of calories that 1 pound of these food materials will yield, food
charts published by the United States Department of Agriculture are here
presented. As an understanding of these charts will prove extremely
profitable in the selection of food, a careful study of them at this
time is urged. In addition, reference to them should be made from time
to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up, as the charts will
then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value.


DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOOD

24. The third requirement in the selection of food, namely, its
digestion and absorption, depends considerably on the persons who are to
be fed. Food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as
that intended for both young persons and adults; neither would food that
is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that
which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work.
No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of
food selection, but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn,
the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired.

[Illustration: Composition of food materials]

[Illustration: Composition of food materials]

       *       *       *       *       *

PREPARATION OF FOOD

REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD

25. The term cookery, as has been explained, means the preparation of
both hot and cold dishes for use as food, as well as the selection of
the materials or substances that are to be cooked. The importance of
cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been
recognized for ages; and while it is true that there are many foods that
appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be
eaten either raw or cooked, there are several reasons why it is
desirable to cook food, as will be seen from the following:

1. Cooking makes foods more palatable. This is true of such foods as
meat, cereals, and many vegetables, which would be very unappetizing if
they were eaten raw.

2. Cooking renders foods more digestible. For instance, the hard grains,
such as wheat, and the dried vegetables, such as beans, cannot be
readily digested unless they are softened by cooking. But while cooking
makes such foods more digestible, it renders others more difficult of
digestion, as in the case of eggs, the degree of digestibility depending
somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook. An egg in
an almost liquid form, or when only slightly cooked, as a soft-boiled
egg, is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking.
Then, too, a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than
an improperly cooked one, although the degree of hardness may be
the same.

3. Cooking gives foods greater variety. The same food may be cooked by
various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances; on
the other hand, it may be combined with a large number of other foods,
so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used. The
large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have
been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of
different foods.

4. Cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely. Many foods
need partial or complete sterilization for safety. They must be
completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or
putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed. This is done
when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping. Foods that are
exposed to dust, flies, and improper handling should be thoroughly
cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present.
By such germs are meant disease-bearing germs. They differ from germs
that produce fermentation and putrefaction, or spoiling, and that must
in general be considered as a help, for these play an important part in
the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods, as is pointed
out later.

5. Cooking develops flavor in many foods. In the case of some
vegetables, the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain
methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed.

       *       *       *       *       *

METHODS OF COOKING

COOKING PROCESSES

26. Food is cooked by the application of heat, which may be either moist
or dry. While it is true that the art of cooking includes the
preparation of material that is served or eaten raw, cooking itself is
impossible without heat; indeed, the part of cooking that requires the
most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved. Explicit
directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the
kind of stove, the cooking utensils, and even the atmospheric
conditions. In truth, the results of some processes depend so much on
the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on
which it is damp and heavy; also, as is well known, the stove acts
perfectly on some days, whereas on other days it seems to have a
stubborn will of its own. Besides the difficulties mentioned, the heat
itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods, to regulate
it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter. Thus,
a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense, by
cooking it too long, or by not cooking it rapidly enough. All these
points must be learned, and the best way to master them is to put into
constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery.

27. Without doubt, the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to
become familiar with the different methods and processes, the ways in
which they are applied, and the reasons for applying them. There are
numerous ways of cooking food, but the principal processes are boiling,
stewing, steaming, dry steaming, braizing, fricasseeing, roasting,
baking, broiling, pan broiling, frying, and sautéing. Which one of these
to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result
desired. If the wrong method is employed, there will be a waste of food
material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or
tenderness. For example, it would be both wasteful and undesirable to
roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler.

The various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide
themselves into three groups; namely, those involving dry heat, those
requiring moist heat, and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium.


COOKING WITH DRY HEAT

28. Cooking with dry heat includes broiling, pan broiling, roasting, and
baking; but, whichever of these processes is used, the principle is
practically the same. In these processes the food is cooked by being
exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and
subjected to heated air. When dry heat is applied, the food to be cooked
is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used.

29. BROILING.--The cooking process known as broiling consists in
exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked;
that is, in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas
flame. The aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop
flavor. As it is a quick method, foods that are not tender, as, for
example, tough meats, should not be broiled, because broiling does not
help to render their fibers more tender. In applying this cooking
process, which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and
for young fowl, the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in
order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices. At the
beginning of the cooking, the article that is being broiled should be
turned often; then, as soon as the outside is browned, the heat should
be reduced if possible, as with a gas stove, and the article allowed to
cook until done. If the broiling is done over coals, it is necessary to
continue the turning during the entire process. While broiling produces
an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied, provided
they are not tough, it is not the most economical way of cooking.

30. PAN BROILING.--Pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method.
It consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove
without the use of fat. In this process the surfaces of the steak, chop,
or whatever the food may be, are quickly seared, after which the article
is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done. The object of
pan broiling is the same as that of broiling, and it is resorted to, as
a rule, when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling.

31. ROASTING.--Originally, the term _to roast_ meant to cook before a
fire, because, before the time of stoves, practically all food was
cooked in the fireplace. Food that was to be roasted was placed before
the fire in a device that reflected heat, this device being open on the
side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room. The roast was
suspended in this device, slowly turned, and thus cooked by radiant
heat--that is, heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle
being the same as that of broiling, but the application different.
Nowadays, the term _roasting_ is almost universally applied to the
action of both hot air and radiant heat. However, much of what is called
roasting is in reality baking. Foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary
coal or gas range are really baked, although they are said to be
roasted, and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer. Food must be exposed
to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the
true sense.

It may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more
on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight.
For this reason, thick, compact cuts of meat are usually selected for
roasting and thin cuts for broiling. Good results also depend very much
on the pan selected for the roasting process. One of the great aims in
cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible; that is, if
by one process less waste in cooking results, it should be chosen rather
than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process.

32. BAKING.--By baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures
ranging from 300 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. As the term baking is
frequently used in a wrong sense, the actual conditions of the process
should be thoroughly understood. In both broiling and the original
method of roasting, the heat is applied directly; that is, the food is
exposed directly to the source of heat. Actual baking differs from these
processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air.
Starchy foods, such as bread, cakes, and pastry, are nearly always
baked, and gradually other foods, such as meats, fish, and vegetables
are being subjected to this method of cooking. In fact, persons who are
skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they
formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways. But the name that is
applied to the process depends somewhat on custom, for while meat that
is cooked in the oven is really baked, it is usually termed roasted
meat. It seems strange, but it is nevertheless true, that ham cooked in
the oven has always been termed baked, while turkey cooked in exactly
the same way is said to be roasted.


COOKING WITH MOIST HEAT

33. The methods of cooking with moist heat, that is, through the medium
of water, are boiling, simmering, steaming, dry steaming, and braizing.
In every one of these processes, the effect of moist heat on food is
entirely different from that of dry heat. However, the method to be
selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food
contains. To some foods much water must be added in the cooking process;
to others, only a little or none at all. If food is not placed directly
in large or small quantities of water, it is cooked by contact with
steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another
containing boiling water, as, for example, a double boiler.

As water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat,
something concerning its nature and use should be understood. Therefore,
before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail, the
function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water
are discussed.

34. FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE BODY.--Water supplies no energy to the body,
but it plays a very important part in nutrition. In fact, its particular
function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive
material and waste. In doing this work, it keeps the liquids of the body
properly diluted, increases the flow of the digestive juices, and helps
to carry off waste material. However, its ability to perform these
necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and
its safety.

35. KINDS OF WATER.--Water is either hard or soft. As it falls from the
clouds, it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and
solids, which are dissolved by it and change its character. It is
definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is
much better than the first, as the first cleanses not only the air, but
the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact. In passing
through certain kinds of soil or over rocks, water dissolves some of the
minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard
water. If sewage drains into a well or water supply, the water is liable
to contain bacteria, which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking
until it is sterilized by boiling. Besides rain water and distilled
water, there is none that is entirely soft; all other waters hold
certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree.

The quality of hardness, which is present in nearly all water, is either
temporary or permanent. Water is temporarily hard when it contains
soluble lime, which is precipitated, that is, separated from it, upon
boiling. Every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this
condition. The lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of
the vessel in which the water is boiled, and in time they become very
thickly coated. Permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime
that are not precipitated by boiling the water. The only way in which to
soften such water is to add to it an alkali, such as borax, washing
soda, or bicarbonate of soda.

36. USES OF WATER IN COOKING.--It is the solvent, or dissolving, power
of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking, but of the two
kinds, soft water is preferable to hard, because it possesses greater
solvent power. This is due to the fact that hard water has already
dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less
of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes
than soft water, which has dissolved nothing. It is known, too, that the
flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by
the use of hard water. Dried beans and peas, cereals, and tough cuts of
meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft, but the
addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods
will assist in softening them.

Water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors, as in the
making of coffee, tea, and soups; as a medium for carrying flavors and
foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa; for softening both
vegetable and animal fiber; and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar,
salt, gelatine, etc. In accomplishing much of this work, water acts as a
medium for conveying heat.

37. BOILING.--As applied to cooking, boiling means cooking foods in
boiling water. Water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to
what is commonly termed its _boiling point_. This varies with the
atmospheric pressure, but at sea level, under ordinary conditions, it is
always 212 degrees Fahrenheit. When the atmospheric pressure on the
surface of the water is lessened, boiling takes place at a lower
temperature than that mentioned, and in extremely high altitudes the
boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of
boiling water is difficult. As the water heats in the process of
boiling, tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is
contained and rise to the surface. Then, gradually, the bubbles increase
in size until large ones form, rise rapidly, and break, thus producing
constant agitation of the water.

38. Boiling has various effects on foods. It toughens the albumin in
eggs, toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat,
softens the cellulose in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, and dissolves
other substances in many foods. A good point to bear in mind in
preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same
temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly
the same work. Keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire
hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary;
besides, it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes
not so well. However, there are several factors that influence the
rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point; namely,
the kind of utensil used, the amount of surface exposed, and the
quantity of heat applied. A cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in
which food is to be boiled retains the heat, and thus causes the
temperature to rise more quickly; besides, a cover so used prevents a
loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover. As
water boils, some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam, and
for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are
cooked. The evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water;
consequently, the greater the surface exposed, the more quickly is the
quantity of water decreased during boiling. Another point to observe in
the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a
tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed
to boil long enough.

Besides serving to cook foods, boiling also renders water safe, as it
destroys any germs that may be present. This explains why water must
sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking. Boiled water, as is
known, loses its good taste. However, as this change is brought about by
the loss of air during boiling, the flavor can be restored and air again
introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle, or
beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater.

39. SIMMERING, OR STEWING.--The cooking process known as simmering, or
stewing, is a modification of boiling. By this method, food is cooked in
water at a temperature below the boiling point, or anywhere from 185 to
200 degrees Fahrenheit. Water at the simmering point always moves
gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling. Less heat and consequently
less fuel are required to cook foods in this way, unless, of course, the
time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater
than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly.

Aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel, simmering, or stewing,
cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more
rapid methods. For example, tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made
tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature, for this method
tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor. Tough
vegetables, too, can be cooked tender by the simmering process without
using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled, for whatever
method is used they require long cooking. Beets, turnips, and other
winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled, as it is somewhat
difficult to cook them tender, especially in the late winter and early
spring. If dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and
then allowed to cook, they can be prepared for the table in practically
the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled
continuously.

40. STEAMING.--As its name implies, steaming is the cooking of food by
the application of steam. In this cooking process, the food is put into
a _steamer_, which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a
perforated bottom placed over one containing water. As the water boils,
steam rises and cooks the food in the upper, or perforated, vessel.
Steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels, one
on top of the other. Such a steamer permits of the cooking of several
foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel, because a
different food may be placed in each vessel.

Steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases, because by it there is
no loss of mineral salts nor food substances; besides, the flavor is not
so likely to be lost as when food is boiled. Vegetables prepared in this
way prove very palatable, and very often variety is added to the diet by
steaming bread, cake, and pudding mixtures and then, provided a crisp
outside is desired, placing them in a hot oven to dry out the
moist surface.

41. DRY STEAMING.--Cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in
another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method
known as dry steaming. The double boiler is a cooking utensil devised
especially for carrying on this process. The food placed in the
suspended, or inner, vessel does not reach the boiling point, but is
cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside, or lower,
vessel. A decided advantage of this method is that no watching is
required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil
away completely, for as long as there is water between the food and the
fire, the food will neither boil nor burn.

Because of the nature of certain foods, cooking them by this process is
especially desirable. The flavor and consistency of cereals and foods
containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way.
Likewise, custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently
cooked in a double boiler, because they do not require a high
temperature; in fact, their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the
boiling point. To heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it
is a difficult matter, and, on the other hand, boiled milk is hard to
digest. Because of these facts, food containing milk should not be
boiled, but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler.

42. BRAIZING.--Cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small
quantity of water constitutes braizing. This cooking process might be
called a combination of stewing and baking, but when it is properly
carried out, the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the
water, in which may be placed sliced vegetables. In this process the
meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot
pan. The so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when
they are properly used. A pot roast is the result of a modification of
the braizing method.


COOKING WITH HOT FAT

43. Of the three mediums of conveying heat to food, namely, hot air, hot
water, and hot fat, that of hot fat renders food the least digestible.
Much of this difficulty, however, can be overcome if an effort is made
to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible. If the
ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and
if the fat is at the right temperature, good results can be obtained by
the various methods of cooking with hot fat, which are frying, sautéing,
and fricasseeing.

44. FRYING.--By frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a
temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit. Any kind of fat that will
not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying, but the vegetable
oils, such as cottonseed oils, combinations of coconut and cottonseed
oils, and nut oils, are preferable to lards and other animal fats,
because they do not burn so easily. Foods cooked in deep fat will not
absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared, quickly
fried, and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat.

45. SAUTÉING.--Browning food first on one side and then on the other in
a small quantity of fat is termed sautéing. In this cooking process, the
fat is placed in a shallow pan, and when it is sufficiently hot, the
food is put into it. Foods that are to be sautéd are usually sliced thin
or cut into small pieces, and they are turned frequently during the
process of cooking. All foods prepared in this way are difficult to
digest, because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat. Chops
and thin cuts of meat, which are intended to be pan-broiled, are really
sautéd if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them.

46. FRICASSEEING.--A combination of sautéing and stewing results in the
cooking process known as fricasseeing. This process is used in preparing
such foods as chicken, veal, or game, but it is more frequently employed
for cooking fowl, which, in cookery, is the term used to distinguish the
old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets. In fricasseeing, the
meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sautéd either before or after
stewing; then it is served with a white or a brown sauce. Ordinarily,
the meat should be browned first, unless it is very tough, in order to
retain the juices and improve the flavor. However, very old fowl or
tough meat should be stewed first and then browned.

       *       *       *       *       *

HEAT FOR COOKING

GENERAL DISCUSSION

47. Inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods,
it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be
thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced. The
production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in
which to burn them, as well as electricity, which serves the purpose of
a fuel, and apparatus for using electricity. In order, therefore, that
the best results may be obtained in cookery, these subjects are here
taken up in detail.

48. Probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for
cooking was wood, but later such fuels as peat, coal, charcoal, coke,
and kerosene came into use. Of these fuels, coal, gas, and kerosene are
used to the greatest extent in the United States. Wood, of course, is
used considerably for kindling fires, and it serves as fuel in
localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other
fuels. However, it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to
burn. If it must be burned for cooking purposes, those who use it should
remember that dry, hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than
soft wood, which is usually selected for kindling. Electricity is coming
into favor for supplying heat for cooking, but only when it can be sold
as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general.

49. The selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel
that is to be used, and the fuel, in turn, depends on the locality in
which a person lives. However, as the fuel that is the most convenient
and easily obtained is usually the cheapest, it is the one to be
selected, for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by
the use of fuel that is too expensive. In cooking, every fuel should be
made to do its maximum amount of work, because waste of fuel also adds
materially to the cost of cooking and, besides, it often causes great
inconvenience. For example, cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that,
instead of being held in the oven and the lids, overheats the kitchen
and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material, but also
taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work. From what has just
been said, it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and
apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical
production of food, provided, of course, it is applied to the best
advantage.


COAL AND COKE

50. VARIETIES OF COAL.--Possibly the most common fuel used for cooking
is coal. This fuel comes in two varieties, namely, _anthracite_, or
_hard coal_, and _bituminous_, or _soft coal_. Their relative cost
depends on the locality, the kind of stove, and an intelligent use of
both stove and fuel. Hard coal costs much more in some places than soft
coal, but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little
smoke. Soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal, but it produces
considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long. Unless a
stove is especially constructed for soft coal, it should not be used for
this purpose, because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a
short time. The best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove
especially constructed for it, but if a housewife finds that she must at
times do otherwise, she should realize that a different method of
management and care of the stove is demanded.

51. SIZES OF COAL.--As the effect of coal on the stove must be taken
into consideration in the buying of fuel, so the different sizes of hard
coal must be known before the right kind can be selected. The sizes
known as _stove_ and _egg coal_, which range from about 1-3/8 to 2-3/4
inches in diameter, are intended for a furnace and should not be used in
the kitchen stove for cooking purposes. Some persons who know how to
use the size of coal known as _pea_, which is about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in
diameter, like that kind, whereas others prefer the size called
_chestnut_, which is about 3/4 inch to 1-3/8 inches in diameter. In
reality, a mixture of these two, if properly used, makes the best and
most easily regulated kitchen coal fire.

52. QUALITY OF COAL.--In addition to knowing the names, prices, and uses
of the different kinds of coal, the housewife should be able to
distinguish poor coal from good coal. In fact, proper care should be
exercised in all purchasing, for the person who understands the quality
of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for
the money paid than the one who does not. About coal, it should be
understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright
surface, whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces. The quality of coal
can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned.
Large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal,
and fine, powdery ash a good quality. Of course, even if the coal is of
the right kind, poor results are often brought about by the bad
management of a fire, whether in a furnace or a stove. Large
manufacturing companies, whose business depends considerably on the
proper kind of fuel, buy coal by the heat units--that is, according to
the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan
may have to be followed in the private home, unless some other fuel is
provided in the meantime.

Mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and
stick together as it burns and form what are known as _clinkers_.
Clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove
grate or the lining of the firebox. They generally form during the
burning of an extremely hot fire, but the usual temperature of a kitchen
fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor
quality. Mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to
prevent their formation.

53. COKE.--Another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke.
Formerly, coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas,
but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel. Because of the
nature of its composition, coke produces a very hot fire and is
therefore favorable for rapid cooking, such as broiling. However, it is
used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where
cooking is done on a small scale.


GAS

54. VALUE OF GAS AS FUEL.--As a fuel for cooking purposes, gas, both
_artificial_ and _natural_, is very effective, and in localities where
the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively. Of the
two kinds, artificial gas produces the least heat; also, it is the most
expensive, usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas.
Both are very cheap, however, considering their convenience as a kitchen
fuel. Heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it,
as with a lighted match. Its consumption can be stopped at once by
closing off the supply, or it can be regulated as desired and in this
way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of
cookery adopted. Neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if
the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of
air, and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been
burned. Because gas is so easily handled, good results can be obtained
by those who have had very little experience in using it, and with study
and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an
economical fuel.

55. MEASUREMENT OF GAS.--Gas is measured by the cubic foot, and a
definite price is charged for each 1,000 cubic feet. To determine the
quantity used, it is passed through what is called a meter, which
measures as the gas burns. It is important that each housewife be able
to read the amount registered by the meter, so that she can compare her
gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges
are correct. If only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the
bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been
previously, the matter should be reported to the proper authorities, for
the meter may be out of order and in need of repair.

[Illustration: Fig. 1 Gas Meter Dials]

56. READING A GAS METER.--To register the quantity of gas that is
consumed, a gas meter, as is shown in Fig. 1, is provided with three
large dials, each of which has ten spaces over which the hand, or
indicator, passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed, and with one
small dial, around which the hand makes one revolution every time 2
cubic feet of gas is consumed. This small dial serves to tell whether
gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on. Above each
large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read,
the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward
the left; also, above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that
each dial registers, that at the right registering 1,000 cubic feet,
that in the center 10,000 cubic feet, and that at the left 100,000 cubic
feet. To read the dials, begin at the left, or the 100,000 dial, and
read toward the right. In each instance, read the number over which the
hand has passed last. For instance, when, as in Fig. 1, the hand lies
between 5 and 6 on the left dial, 5 is read; on the center dial, when
the hand lies between 5 and 6, 5 is read also; and on the right dial,
when the hand lies between 2 and 3, the 2, which is really 200, is read.

57. To compute the quantity of gas used, the dials are read from left to
right and the three readings are added. Then, in order to determine the
quantity burned since the previous reading, the amount registered at
that time, which is always stated on the gas bill, must be subtracted
from the new reading.

To illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be
determined, assume that gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, that
the previous reading of the gas meter, say on May 15, was 52,600 cubic
feet, and that on June 15 the meter registered as shown in Fig. 1. As
was just explained, the left dial of the meter reads 5, the center dial
5, and the right dial 200. Therefore, put these figures down so that
they follow one another, as 5-5-200. This means then that the reading on
June 15 is 55,200 cubic feet. With this amount ascertained, subtract
from it the previous reading, or 52,600 cubic feet, which will give
2,600 cubic feet, or the quantity of gas burned from May 15 to June 15.
Since gas costs 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, the cost of the amount
burned, or 2,600 cubic feet, may be estimated by dividing 2,600 cubic
feet by 1,000 and multiplying the result by 90; thus 2,600 ÷ 1,000 =
2.6, and 2.6 x .90 = 2.34

58. PREPAYMENT METERS.--In many places, gas concerns install what are
called prepayment meters; that is, meters in which the money is
deposited before the gas is burned. Such meters register the
consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned, but
they contain a receptacle for money. A coin, generally a quarter, is
dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle, and the amount of gas
sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed.
When this amount of gas has been burned, another coin must be inserted
in the meter before more gas will be liberated.


KEROSENE

59. In communities where gas is not available, kerosene, which is
produced by the refinement of petroleum, is used extensively as a fuel
for cooking, especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood
stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the
cooking. Kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use,
and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality. It
contains water at all times, but sometimes the proportion of water is
greater than at others. The greater the amount of water, the less fuel
will be contained in each gallon of kerosene. The quality of kerosene
can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn
on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it.

Another product of the refinement of petroleum is _gasoline_. However,
it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene, because it is more
dangerous and more expensive.


ELECTRICITY

60. The use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very
popular in some homes, especially those which are properly wired,
because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it
produces can be applied direct. The first electrical cooking apparatus
was introduced at the time of the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1892, and
since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of
suitable apparatus for cooking electrically. Electricity would
undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it
in the same way as artificial gas, but as yet no such method has been
devised and its cost is therefore greater. Electricity is generated in
large power plants, and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and
cooking it passes through a meter, which indicates the quantity used in
much the same manner as a gas meter. It will be well, therefore, to
understand the way in which an electric meter is read, so that the bills
for electricity can be checked.

61. READING AN ELECTRIC METER.--An electric meter, which is similar in
appearance to a gas meter, consists of three or four dials, which are
placed side by side or in the shape of an arc. In the usual type, which
is shown in Fig. 2 and which consists of four dials placed side by side,
each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand, or indicator, that
passes over numbers ranging from to 9 to show the amount of
electricity used.

[Illustration: Fig 2.]

The numbers on the dials represent _kilowatt-hours_, a term meaning the
energy resulting from the activity of 1 kilowatt for 1 hour, or 1 watt,
which is the practical unit of electrical power, for 1,000 hours. Since
1,000 hours equal 1 kilowatt, 1,000 watt-hours equal 1 kilowatt-hour. It
will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the
extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction, that is,
from right to left, the second one in a counter-clockwise direction, or
from left to right, the third one in a clockwise direction, and the
fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction; also that above each dial
is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete
revolution of the hand of that dial registers.

To read the meter, begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left
until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are
read; that is, from right to left. In case the indicator does not point
directly to a number, but is somewhere between two numbers, read the
number that it is leaving. For example, in Fig. 2, the indicator in the
right-hand dial points to figure 4; therefore, this number should be put
down first. In the second dial, the hand lies between and 1, and as it
is leaving 0, this number should be read and placed to the left of the
first one read, which gives 04. The hand on the third dial points
exactly to 6; so 6 should be read for this dial and placed directly
before the numbers read for the first and second dials, thus, 604. On
the fourth and last dial, the indicator is between 4 and 5; therefore 4,
which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first
figure in the entire reading, which is 4,604.

After the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained, it is a
simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last
reading and the amount of the bill. For instance, assume that a meter
registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in Fig. 2, or 4,604, and
that at the previous reading it registered 4,559. Merely subtract the
previous reading from the last one, which will give 45, or the number of
kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed. If
electricity costs 3 cents a kilowatt-hour, which is the price charged in
some localities, the bill should come to 45 X .03 or $1.35.


PRINCIPLE OF STOVES

62. Before stoves for cooking came into use in the home, food was cooked
in open fireplaces. Even when wood was the only fuel known, a stove for
burning it, called the Franklin stove, was invented by Benjamin
Franklin, but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves
made. For a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes, as
many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace. However, this
method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind
is in use for cooking in every home.

63. For each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed
stoves, each having some advantageous feature; yet all stoves
constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle. In
order that fuel will burn and produce heat, it must have air, because
fuel, whether it is wood, coal, or gas, is composed largely of _carbon_
and air largely of _oxygen_, and it is the rapid union of these two
chemical elements that produces heat. Therefore, in order that each
stove may work properly, some way in which to furnish air for the fire
in the firebox must be provided. For this reason, every stove for
cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney,
which contains a flue, or passage, that leads to the outer air. When the
air in a stove becomes heated, it rises, and as it ascends cold air
rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place. It is the
flue, however, that permits of the necessary draft and carries off
unburned gases. At times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air
that enters, and in order that this may be done each stove is provided
with _dampers_. These devices are located in the air passages and they
are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to
enter. By means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat
around the stove oven, against the top of the stove, or up the chimney
flue. A knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is
absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove.
The flue, however, should receive due consideration. If a stove is to
give its best service, the flue, in addition to being well constructed,
should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition. Indeed, the
stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is
really with the flue.

64. Probably one of the most important things considered in the
construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel, for ever since the
days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save
fuel for cooking, and as the various kinds grow scarcer, and
consequently more expensive, the economical use of fuel becomes a
necessity. While most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as
to save fuel, many of them do not, especially if the method of caring
for them is not understood. Any housewife, however, can economize in the
use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated;
and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with
the stove when it is purchased. Such directions are the best to follow,
because they have been worked out by the manufacturer, who understands
the right way in which his product should be operated.


COAL, STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION

65. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.--In Fig. 3 is illustrated the general
construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking. The principal
parts of such a stove, which is commonly referred to as a _cook stove_,
or range, are the firebox _a_; the grate _b_; the ash pit _c_, which
usually contains an ash-pan _d_; the oven _e_; the dampers _f_, _g_,
_h_, and _i_; the flue opening _j_ and flue _k_; openings in the top and
suitable lids, not shown, for kettles and pans; and the air space
extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven, as shown by
the arrows. To prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly, the firebox,
in which the fuel is burned, is lined with a material, such as fireclay,
that will withstand great heat. The fire in the firebox is supported by
the grate, which is in the form of metal teeth or bars, so as to permit
air to pass through the fuel from underneath. The grate is usually so
constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes
to fall into the ash-pan, by means of which they can be readily removed
from the stove. The oven, which lies directly back of the firebox and is
really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked, receives its
heat from the hot air that passes around it. The dampers are devices
that control the flow of air in and out of the stove. Those shown at _f_
and _g_ serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out, and
those shown at _h_ and _i_ serve to keep heated air in the stove or to
permit it to pass out through the flue.

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

66. Building a Coal Fire.--To build a coal fire is a simple matter. So
that the draft will be right for rapid combustion, it is first necessary
to close the dampers _f_ and _h _and to open the bottom damper _g_ and
the chimney damper _i_. With these dampers arranged, place crushed paper
or shavings on the grate; then on top of the paper or shavings place
kindling, and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal. Be
careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents
of air to pass through it, because it will not burn readily if it is
closely packed. Light the fire by inserting a flame from below. When
this is done, the flame will rise and ignite the kindling, and this, in
turn, will cause the coal to take fire. When the fire is burning well,
close the dampers _g_ and _i_ so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly
and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney;
also, before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out, add a
new supply, but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the
new supply is added so as not to smother the fire. If only a thin layer
is added each time, this danger will be removed. Experience has proved
that the best results are secured if the fire is built only 4 inches
high. When hot coals come near the top of the stove, the lids are
likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done
any more effectively. Another thing to avoid in connection with a fire
is the accumulation of ashes. The ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty
as possible, for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate
in the firebox to burn out.

67. ADJUSTING THE DAMPERS.--To get the best results from a cook stove,
and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel, the ways in which to
adjust the dampers should be fully known. If it is desired to heat the
oven for baking, close dampers _f_ and _i_ and open dampers _g_ and _h_.
With the dampers so arranged, the heated air above the fire is forced
around the oven and up the flue, as is clearly shown by the arrows in
Fig. 3. A study of this diagram will readily show that the lower
left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part, since the heated air
does not reach this place directly, and that the top center is the
hottest part, because the hottest air passes directly over this portion
of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it.

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

If it is desired to heat the surface of the stove, so that cooking may
be done on top of it, close dampers _f_, _h_, and _i_ and open damper
_g_. With the dampers so arranged, the heated air does not pass around
the oven, but is confined in the space above it and the firebox, as
shown in Fig. 4. While the damper _i_ in the flue is closed in order to
confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of
the stove, it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up
the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion. When the
dampers are arranged as mentioned, the hottest place on the surface of
the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe, and the coolest
place is behind the damper _h_.

68. BANKING A COAL FIRE.--To economize in the use of fuel, as well as to
save the labor involved in building a new fire, it is advisable to keep
a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the
next. As the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a
long time, this can be done by what is called _banking_ the fire. To
achieve this, after the fire has served to cook a meal, shake the ashes
out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left. Then put fresh coal
on this bed of coals, and, with the dampers arranged as for building a
new fire, allow the coal to burn well for a short time. Finally, cover
the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly; that
is, close dampers _g_ and _h_ and open dampers _f_ and _i_. If the
banking is carefully done the fire should last 8 or 10 hours without
further attention. Care should be taken, however, to use sufficient coal
in banking the fire, so that when it is to be used again the coal will
not be completely burned, but enough burning coals will remain to ignite
a fresh supply. When the fire is to be used again, rake it slightly, put
a thin layer of coal over the top, and arrange the dampers as for
starting a fire. As soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn, add
more until the fire is in good condition.


GAS STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION

69. GAS RANGES.--A gas stove for cooking, or _gas range_, as it is
frequently called, consists of an oven, a broiler, and several burners
over which are plates to hold pans, pots, and kettles in which food is
to be cooked. As is true of a coal range, a gas range also requires a
flue to carry off the products of unburned gas. Gas stoves, or ranges,
are of many makes, but in principle all of them are practically the
same; in fact, the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement
of the oven, broiler, and burners. In Fig. 5 is illustrated a simple
type of gas range. The oven _a_ of this stove is located above the top
of the stove, instead of below it, as in some stoves. An oven so located
is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over. The door of
this oven contains a glass, which makes it possible to observe the food
baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat. The
broiler _b_, which may also be used as a toaster, is located directly
beneath the oven, and to the right are the burners _c_ for cooking. The
gas for these parts is contained in the pipe _d_, which is connected to
a pipe joined to the gas main in the street. To get heat for cooking it
is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas. The
four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks _e_, and the oven and the
broiler by the stop-cock _f_. The stove is also equipped with a
simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove,
gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock _g_. To catch
anything that may be spilled in cooking, there is a removable metal or
enamel sheet _h_. Such a sheet is a great advantage, as it aids
considerably in keeping the stove clean.

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

70. Some gas stoves are provided with a _pilot_, which is a tiny flame
of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the
stop-cocks are attached. The pilot is kept lighted, and when it is
desired to light a burner, pressing the button causes the flame to shoot
near enough to each burner to ignite the gas. However, whether the
burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match, they
should never be lighted until heat is required; likewise, in order to
save gas, they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed.

[Illustration: Fig. 6]

To produce the best results, the flame given off by gas should be blue.
A flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted,
indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe, and to remedy this
the gas must be turned out and relighted. When the gas flame coming from
a new burner is yellow, it may be taken for granted that not enough air
is being admitted to make the proper mixture. To permit of the proper
mixture, each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in
the burner is provided with what is called a _mixer_. This device, as
shown in Fig. 6, consists of several slots that may be opened or closed
by turning part _a_, thus making it a simple matter to admit the right
amount of air to produce the desired blue flame. If burners that have
been in use for some time give off a yellow flame, it is probable that
the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material. Such
burners should be removed, boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye
until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned, and then replaced and
adjusted. As long as the flame remains yellow, the gas is not giving off
as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking
utensils black. Therefore, to get the best results the burners should be
thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned. Likewise,
the pan beneath the burners, which may be removed, should be cleaned
very frequently, and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is
used, for the better such a stove is taken care of, the better will it
continue to do its work.

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

71. FIRELESS-COOKING GAS STOVES.--A style of gas stove that meets with
favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove, one
style of which is shown in Fig. 7. Such a stove has the combined
advantages of a fireless cooker, which is explained later, and a gas
stove, for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat, as well as slow
cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber, that is, one
that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping. In
construction, this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove,
except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more
compartments for fireless cooking, as at _a_ and _b_. Each of these
compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an
upright rod, near the base of which, resting on a solid plate _c_, is a
gas burner _d_, over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits.
When it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments, the hood
is raised, as at _b_, and the gas burner is lighted. The food in the
cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat
has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to
permit the cooking to continue without fire. Then the insulated hood is
lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at
_a_. It is not necessary to turn off the gas, as this is done
automatically when the hood is lowered.


KEROSENE STOVES AND THEIR OPERATION

[Illustration: Fig. 8]

72. As has been mentioned, kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in
localities where gas cannot be obtained. Kerosene stoves are not unlike
gas stoves, but, as a rule, instead of having built-in ovens, they are
provided with portable ovens, which are heated by placing them on top of
the stove, over the burners. Such stoves are of two types, those in
which cotton wicks are used, as in oil lamps, and those which are
wickless, the former being generally considered more convenient and
satisfactory than the latter. In Fig. 8 is shown a three-burner kerosene
stove of the first type mentioned. Oil for the burners, or lamps, _a_ is
stored in the container _b_, which may be of glass or metal, and it is
supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe _c_. Each burner is
provided with a door _d_, which is opened when it is desired to light
the wick. The flame of each burner is controlled by the screw _e_, which
serves to raise or lower the wick, and the heat passes up to the opening
_f_ in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the
burner. The arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as
the one just described, but it is so constructed that the oil, which is
also stored in a tank at the side, flows into what is called a burner
bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney, the
quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl.

73. The burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match, just
as the burners of a gas stove are lighted. In some stoves, especially
those of the wickless type, the burners are so constructed that the
flame can rise to only a certain height. This is a good feature, as it
prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking, a common
occurrence in an oil stove. The kerosene-stove flame that gives the most
heat, consumes the least fuel, and produces the least soot and odor is
blue in color. A yellow flame, which is given off in some stoves,
produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the
stove clean. Glass containers are better than metal containers, because
the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt
to rust the metal container and cause it to leak. To prevent the
accumulation of dirt, as well as the disagreeable odor usually present
when an oil stove is used, the burners should be removed frequently and
boiled in a solution of washing soda; also, if a wick is used, the
charred portion should be rubbed from it, but not cut, as cutting is
liable to make it give off an uneven flame.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]


ELECTRIC STOVES AND UTENSILS

74. ELECTRIC STOVES. Electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to
such an extent that they are a great convenience, and in places where
the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are
used considerably. In appearance, electric stoves are very similar to
gas stoves, as is shown in Fig. 9, which illustrates an electric stove
of the usual type. The oven _a_ is located at one side and contains a
broiler pan _b_. On top of this stove are openings for cooking, into
which fit lids _c_ that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids, but
are in reality electrical heating units, called hotplates. Heat for
cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the
hotplates, as well as through similar devices in the oven, the stove
being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box _d_,
which is here shown with the cover removed. The heat of the different
hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches _e_ at the
front of the stove. Each of these switches provides three degrees of
heat--high, medium, and low--and just the amount of heat required for
cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point. Below
the switches are several fuse plugs _f_ that contain the fuses, which
are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case
the current of electricity becomes too great.

[Illustration: Fig. 10]

It is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric
stove, as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no
products of combustion to be carried away. In fact, one of the favorable
points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no
inconvenience. When the cooking is done, the electricity can be turned
off, after which the stove quickly cools. When electricity is used for
cooking, cooking utensils, methods, and recipes can be applied in the
same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed.

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

75. SMALL ELECTRIC UTENSILS.--In addition to electric stoves, there are
a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to
an electric-light socket or a wall socket. Among these are percolators,
toasters, hotplates, or grills, chafing dishes, egg poachers, and
similar devices. An idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by
referring to Fig. 10, which shows an electric toaster, and Fig. 11,
which shows a hotplate, or grill. The toaster is arranged so that bread
to be toasted may be placed on each side, as well as on top, of an
upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is
turned on. The grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be
placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat.

       *       *       *       *       *

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 1)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) Give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery.

(2) How may the housewife control the cost of her foods?

(3) (_a_) Explain the difference between waste and refuse. (_b_) To what is
leakage in the household due?

(4) What three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing
food?

(5) (_a_) Name the five substances that are found in food, (_b_) Of what
value is a knowledge of these food substances?

(6) (_a_) What is the function of protein in the body? (_b_) Mention the
principal sources of protein, (_c_) Explain the effect of heat on foods
that contain protein.

(7) (_a_) With what do carbohydrates supply the body? (_b_) Mention the two
forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may
be found.

(8) What is a calorie?

(9) Give five reasons for cooking food.

(10) Mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of
food.

(11) Describe one method of cooking with: (_a_) dry heat; (_b_) moist heat;
(_c_) hot fat.

(12) (_a_) At what temperature does water boil? (_b_) How is hard water
affected by boiling? (_c_) Explain the uses of water in cooking.

(13) (_a_) What generally controls the kind of stove to be used for
cooking? (_b_) Explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking
in using fuel.

(14) Mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation
of a stove.

(15) (_a_) Of what value is gas as a fuel? (_b_) What kind of gas flame is
best for cooking?

(16) Suppose that a gas meter registers 72,500 cubic feet on March 1,
and that on April 1 the hand of the left dial is between 7 and 8, that
of the middle dial is between 5 and 6, and that of the right dial is at
5. At 90 cents a 1,000 cubic feet, what is the cost of the gas consumed?

(17) (_a_) How is heat produced in a stove? (_b_) What is the purpose of
the dampers of a stove?

(18) (_a_) How should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to
heat the oven for baking? (_b_) How should they be adjusted for cooking on
top of the stove?

(19) (_a_) What is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove? (_b_) How may a
gas stove be kept in good condition?

(20) How may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean?

       *       *       *       *       *



ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)

       *       *       *       *       *

PREPARATION OF FOOD--(Continued)

UTENSILS FOR COOKING

IMPORTANCE OF UTENSILS

1. While success in cooking, as has been pointed out, depends to a
considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking
methods, as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed,
the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be
overlooked. As is well known, each cooking utensil is fitted to its
particular use; in fact, the wrong kind of pan, dish, or other utensil
will not bring about the same result as the right one. This does not
mean, however, that the housewife must possess a large supply of every
kind of utensil, for, really, the expert cook is known by the small
number of utensils she uses. Of course, the proper handling of utensils,
as well as the right selection of them, will come with experience, but
before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan
definitely what must be provided. She should likewise remember that the
use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the
labor involved in preparing a dish, but will affect considerably the
amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the
cooking is done.

2. The materials of which cooking utensils are made, as well as their
shape and size, have also a great bearing on the success with which
cooking may be done. As no one material is suitable for all utensils,
they are made of various materials, such as wood, tin, glass, enamel,
aluminum, sheet iron, and earthenware. In the purchase of a utensil,
therefore, it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will
be put, and then to select one that is made of durable material, that
can be easily cleaned, and that will not affect the food that is cooked
in it. Likewise, the shape of the utensil should receive consideration,
for much depends on it. To be satisfactory, a utensil should be without
seams or curved edges, because it is difficult to remove particles of
food that collect in such places. A vessel that is hard to wash should
be avoided, and one that will tip easily is not desirable, either.

The size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for
whom food is to be cooked, for the amount of food to be prepared
indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected. On the
other hand, the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a
large extent on the size and shape of the utensil. When food is to be
cooked a long time, a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface
exposed for evaporation should be chosen; but for quick cooking, use
should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of
surface to be exposed, as the evaporation will be accomplished
more rapidly.

In furnishing a kitchen, it is well to begin with a few essential
utensils of the best quality that can be obtained, and then, as needed,
to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment.


MATERIALS USED FOR UTENSILS

3. ALUMINUM.--Because of the properties of aluminum, this metal is used
extensively for cooking utensils. It is more costly than most of the
materials employed for this purpose, but while the first cost of
aluminum pans and kettles may seem large, the extra expense is justified
by the durability of the utensils. They last much longer than utensils
made of many other materials, for when aluminum is hammered and rolled
it becomes extremely hard. Some aluminum utensils are very thin, and
since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light,
careful handling. Although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive
than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the
manufacturing process involved, they are harder and more durable. Cast
aluminum is used for large vessels, such as those required in
institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots
and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear, but this is the most
expensive kind, for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for
casting some harder metal must be mixed with it. One of the
disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean, but
this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in
aluminum utensils as in other kinds, since the heat is evenly
distributed by this metal.

4. ENAMEL.--Good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes
and are only moderately expensive. Utensils made of enamel are not so
durable as those made of metal, because excessive heat or a sharp blow
will cause the enamel to chip. Enamel utensils come in various colors,
and all can be kept clean easily, but the gray enamel is considered to
be the best for wear.

5. IRON AND STEEL.--Utensils made of iron and steel are usually
inexpensive, but some, especially those of iron, are heavy. These metals
are used principally for such utensils as frying pans, or skillets,
griddles, waffle irons, and kettles for deep-fat frying. Sheet iron
makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes, very
satisfactory bread pans, and the best kind of pans for omelet and
other frying.

6. EARTHENWARE.--A certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils
are necessary in a kitchen equipment. Mixing bowls are usually made of
earthenware, as are also casseroles, which are covered dishes used for
the baking of foods that require long cooking, and other baking
utensils. Meat, fowl, and some vegetables, such as dried beans, are
delicious when prepared in a casserole, as very little flavor or food is
lost in such a dish.

7. TIN.--The cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin,
but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked,
because it melts at too low a temperature. Tin is used, however, for
such small articles as measures, cutters, apple corers, sieves,
strainers, and other things of this kind, and it is especially
desirable for them.

8. COPPER.--Before iron was known copper was the principal material for
cooking utensils. The chief point in favor of copper is its durability,
but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary
kitchen because they are expensive, heavy, and very difficult to
keep clean.

9. GLASS.--Utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking.
Glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes
that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in
the baking dish. Glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of
retaining the heat well.

10. WOOD.--Certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking
outfit, a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board
being particularly necessary in every kitchen. Bowls in which to chop
foods, rolling pins, and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood, and
when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory.


LABOR-SAVING DEVICES

11. A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE is any apparatus that will permit a certain
piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be
necessary to do the same thing without it. A sink and a dustpan are
labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum
cleaner, but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well, they
are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices. The newer
appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite
unnecessary, and indeed some of them are. It is only when such apparatus
will, with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process,
secure results as good as or better than will another device, and when
the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is
saved by using it, that it may be considered a true labor-saving device.
Each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a
so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and
strength she would use without such a device.

[Illustration: Fig. 1 (_a_) (_b_)]

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

12. COMMON LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. Every housewife does not have occasion
to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor, but a
number of these are in such common use, produce such good results, and
save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen.
Among them is the _rotary egg beater_ shown in Fig. 1 (_a_). This is so
made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached
does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an
_egg whip_, which is shown in (_b_). Another inexpensive device that is
a real help is the _potato ricer_. This device, one style of which is
shown in Fig. 2, is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable
can be put to make a purée. It is used considerably for mashing
potatoes, as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time
and labor. Still another useful device is the _meat chopper_, or
_grinder_, which is shown in Fig. 3. Such a device clamped to the edge
of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife, and in addition
to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time
and with less effort. Besides the devices mentioned, there are many
small labor-saving devices, such as the _apple corer_, the _berry
huller_, the _mayonnaise mixer_, etc., the merits of which every busy
housewife will do well to consider.

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

13. BREAD AND CAKE MIXERS. Where baking is done for only a small number
of persons, bread and cake mixers are not indispensable, but they save
much labor where baking is done on a large scale. It is comparatively
easy, for instance, to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread,
but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to
sixteen loaves must be handled. For large quantities of bread and cake,
mixers, when properly used, are labor-saving. In addition, such devices
are sanitary, and for this reason they are used in many homes where the
bakings are comparatively small.

14. The type of bread mixer in common use is shown in Fig. 4. It
consists of a covered tin pail _a_ that may be fastened to the edge of a
table by the clamp _b_. Inside of the pail is a kneading prong _c_, in
the shape of a gooseneck, that is revolved by turning the handle _d_.
The flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail, and
they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle.

15. A cake mixer, the usual type of which is shown in Fig. 5, is similar
in construction to a bread mixer. Instead of a pail, however, for the
dough ingredients, it has a deep pan _a_, and instead of one kneading
prong it has several prongs, which are attached to two arms _b_, as
shown. These arms are revolved by gear-wheels _c_ that fit in a large
gearwheel _d_ attached to a shaft _e_, which is turned by means of a
handle _f_. The large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are
necessary, because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten,
whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass.

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

16. DISH-WASHING MACHINES.--Although machines for washing dishes are to
be had, they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served
and, consequently, where great quantities of dishes are to be washed.
Such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than
the ordinary kitchen can afford. Likewise the care and cleaning of them
require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family
entails. Large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical
dish washers, and even where they are installed, the glassware, silver,
and cooking utensils must, as a rule, be washed by hand.

17. FIRELESS COOKER.--A device that has proved to be really labor-saving
is the fireless cooker, one type of which is shown in Fig. 6. It
consists of an insulated box _a_ lined with metal and divided into
compartments _b_, with pans _c_ that fit into them. Hotplates, or
stones, as they are sometimes called, are frequently used if the article
to be cooked requires them. These stones, which are shown at _d_, are
supported in the compartments by metal racks _e_, and they are lifted in
and out by means of wire handles _f_.

[Illustration: Fig 6.]

To use a fireless cooker properly, the food must be cooked for a short
time on the stove; then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of
the insulated compartments. If hotplates are to be used they must be
heated in the same manner. The food loses its heat so gradually in the
fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually. When
the previous heating has been sufficient, the food will be cooked and
still warm when the cooker is opened hours later. Some articles of food
occasionally need reheating during the process. By this method of
cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value, and the food usually
requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker. It also
permits of economy in both fuel and time.


UTENSILS FOR FURNISHING A KITCHEN

18. As a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen, a list of utensils
is here presented. This list is divided into utensils that are necessary
and those that are convenient and only at times necessary. In any case,
however, the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the
quantity of food that is to be prepared.


NECESSARY EQUIPMENT

Baking dish with cover
Bread box
Bread knife
Bread pans
Can opener
Cake knife
Chopping bowl and knife or food chopper
Coffee mill
Coffee pot
Colander
Cookie cutter
Corer, Apple
Cutting board
Dishpan
Double boiler
Egg beater
Flour sifter
Forks
Frying pan, large
Frying pan, small
Garbage can
Grater
Kettle covers
Kettles, two or more
Knife sharpener
Knives
Lemon squeezer
Long-handled fork
Measuring cup
Meat board
Meat knife
Mixing bowls
Mixing spoons
Molding board
Muffin pan
Paring knife
Pepper shaker
Pie pans
Potato masher
Rinsing, or draining, pan
Roasting pan
Rolling pin
Salt box
Saucepans
Spatula
Tablespoons
Teakettle
Teapot
Teaspoons
Toaster
Wire strainer
Wooden spoon


CONVENIENT EQUIPMENT

Bread mixer
Cake coolers
Cake mixer
Cake turner
Casseroles
Clock
Coffee percolator
Containers for spices and dry groceries
Cookie sheets
Cream whip Egg whip
Fireless cooker
Frying kettle and basket
Funnel Glass jars for canning
Griddle
Ice-cream freezer
Ice pick
Jelly molds
Nest of bowls
Pan for baking fish
Potato knife
Potato ricer
Ramekins
Quart measure
Scales
Scissors
Set of skewers
Steamer
Waffle iron
Wheel cart

       *       *       *       *       *

GETTING FOODS READY FOR COOKING

PRELIMINARY PREPARATION

19. Before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that
are to be eaten raw are served, they must be properly prepared, for
their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the
way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating. Of course,
the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be
served, but in any event all foods, for the sake of cleanliness, must
first be washed with water or wiped with a clean, damp cloth.

20. The ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking
vary. Sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on, and sometimes
certain vegetables, such as new potatoes, young carrots and parsnips,
vegetable oysters, etc., are made ready in an economical way by scraping
off their skins with a knife. Vegetables are also peeled, and when this
is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as
little of the food removed as possible. Still another way of removing
the skins of such foods as tomatoes, nuts, and some fruits is by
_blanching_. In this process, the skins are loosened so that they may be
removed easily, either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by
pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water
for a few minutes, but not long enough to soften them. Blanching used in
this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means "to
take color out" and has reference to a process of bleaching. Only when
the word means "to remove the covering of" can it be applied to the
peeling of tomatoes, fruits, and nuts. Vegetables and fruits may be
cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks, or pieces, or into slices.

21. In order to get meats ready for cooking, it is necessary to wipe
them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone, fat, and skin.
Meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be
ground, depending on the cooking process to be used. Before cooking
poultry and fish, they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and
cut to suit the cooking process chosen. If desired, the bones may be
removed from poultry or fish before cooking, and sometimes it is
advantageous to do so. Cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light
before they are served or cooked, and after such foods as fruits,
vegetables, meats, and fish have been cooked, they may be sliced,
chopped, ground, mashed, or cut into dice, or small pieces.


MIXING OF FOOD INGREDIENTS

22. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MIXING.--In cookery, the mixing of ingredients
is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture, to give a
smoothness or creaminess to a mixture, or to impart lightness. Various
processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients, and the results
that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected.
The most important of these processes with brief explanations of what
they mean follow.

BEATING is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and
mixes it with that nearer the surface. It is done with a spoon, a fork,
an egg whip, or, if the mixture is thin, with a rotary egg beater.
Sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus
making the mixture light.

STIRRING is usually done with a spoon, and is accomplished by moving the
spoon in circles, around and around, through ingredients contained in a
pan or a bowl. This is the method that is generally applied to the
simple mixing of ingredients.

FOLDING is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is
added to a mixture without destroying its lightness. It is accomplished
by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan, and
then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the
mixture and placing it on top. This motion is repeated until the two are
well blended, but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes
as possible.

RUBBING is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with
the back of a spoon. This is the process that is applied when butter and
other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour.

CREAMING consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture
becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency.

CUTTING-IN is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is
desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces. It is done by
chopping the butter into the flour with a knife.

SIFTING is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine
wire mesh. It is done to remove foreign or coarse material, to impart
lightness, or to mix dry ingredients together.

RICING is a process whereby certain cooked foods, such as fruits,
vegetables, meats, and fish, may be reduced to the form of a purée. This
result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer.

23. APPLICATION OF MIXING PROCESSES.--In applying the various mixing
processes, it is well to bear in mind that good results depend
considerably on the order of mixing, as well as on the deftness and
thoroughness with which each process is performed. This fact is clearly
demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been
actually creamed, for such a cake will not have the same texture as one
in which the creaming has been done properly. It is also shown in angel
food or sunshine cake, for the success of such a cake depends largely on
the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the
yolks. On the other hand, the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of
cookies depend on how each is rolled out, and the kneading of bread is a
process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually
doing them.

As progress is made with these cookery lessons, therefore, the
application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked. Beginners
in cookery, owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle
soft material skilfully, are liable to make the mistake of getting the
ingredients too stiff. Yet no beginner need feel the least bit
discouraged, for ability in this direction comes with experience;
indeed, just as skill in sewing, embroidering, and other processes comes
about by practice and persistent effort, so will come skill in cooking.


MEASURING

24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of
course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do
not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience,
developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the
same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks
cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after
time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method.
Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied
with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup,
and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a
standard teaspoon.

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in
the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the
platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a
pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in
which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a
correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the
weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To
use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly,
and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight
of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that
holds the food.

[Illustration: Fig. 8]

26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is
often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the
preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing.
As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is
necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For
measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made
of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to
hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and
quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid
is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but
if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped
up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the
manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be
measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled
evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.

27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials
with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16
tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8
tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring
cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level
tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply
of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring
a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to
use a spoon.

[Illustration: Fig. 9]

As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups
of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for
measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one,
the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and
the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed,
however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the
definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate,
cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.

28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of
measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen.
However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a
tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three
level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used,
it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the
manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled
first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a
knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths
and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11
(_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as
in (_b_).

[Illustration: Fig. 10]

29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the
materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning
them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials,
such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon
sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will
measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those
which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before
measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured,
because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose
material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the
measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe,
it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup
should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by
dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by
measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it
is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and
preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and
measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and
practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will
be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to
be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.

31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy
weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious
metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however,
because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound
contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the
abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz.
16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb.
100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt.
20 hundredweight \
                 }....... = 1 ton............... T.
2,000 pounds     /

Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds
make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some
localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more
general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.

32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and
is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the
abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:

LIQUID MEASURE
4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt.
2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt.
4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal.
31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl.
2 barrels \
          }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd.
63 gallons/

33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as
potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its
abbreviations, follows:

DRY MEASURE
2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt.
8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk.
4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu.

34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the
housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an
understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and
measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the
pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the
approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another
measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought
to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has
been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a
pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly
true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of
others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and
measures of most of the common foods:

APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD

Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS
Butter........................ 2
Coffee, whole................. 4
Corn meal..................... 3
Flour......................... 4
Milk.......................... 2
Molasses...................... 1-1/2
Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2
Nuts, shelled................. 3
Oats, rolled.................. 4
Olive oil..................... 2-1/2
Peas, split................... 2
Raisins....................... 3
Rice.......................... 2
Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3
Sugar, granulated............. 2
Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD

Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE
Corn starch................... 3/8
Flour......................... 1/4
Milk.......................... 1/2
Sugar......................... 1/2

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD

Butter........................ 8 OUNCES
Corn meal..................... 5
Corn starch................... 6
Flour......................... 4
Milk.......................... 8
Molasses..................... 10
Nuts, shelled................. 4
Raisins....................... 5
Sugar......................... 8

In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of
great assistance:

3 tsp. = 1 Tb.
16 Tb. = 1 c.

35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and
recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the
abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most
frequently in cook books are the following:

tsp. for teaspoonful
pt. for pint
Tb. for tablespoonful
qt. for quart
c. for cupful
oz. for ounce
lb. for pound


ORDER OF WORK

36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be
planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By
following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented
and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for
mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make
clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out
satisfactorily.

First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe,
and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and
combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and
whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for
the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully
divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply
them to make them enough.

The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should
receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or
wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is
needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.

Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked,
regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light
it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and
mixing of the ingredients.

Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the
utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various
operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place
the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a
teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon
for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and
separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the
mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the
process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to
be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none
are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.

If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next
step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the
ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step,
the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an
otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.


TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS

37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the
length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here
what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be
remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many
factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely
determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require
longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do
with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of
baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great
help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or
not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the
proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods
rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the
length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and
hours (abbreviated hr.)

COOKERY TIME TABLE

MEATS AND FISH

_Broiled_
Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min.
Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min.
Fish....................... 15 to 20 min.
Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min.
Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min.
Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min.
Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min.
Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min.
Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min.
Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min.

_Boiled_
Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr.
Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr.
Fish, bluefish, cod, or
  bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min.
Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min.
Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min.
Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr.
Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr.
Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr.
Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr.

_Roasted_
Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min.
Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb.,
well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min.
Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min.
Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb.,
well done.................. 2 hr.
Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min.
Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr.
Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr.
Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min.
Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min.
Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr.
Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr.
Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr.

VEGETABLES

_Boiled_
Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min.
Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min.
Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min.
Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr.
Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min.
Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min.
Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min.
Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr.
Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min.
Green corn............... 8 to 12 min.
Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min.
Onions.................. 45 to 60 min.
Peas.................... 25 to 60 min.
Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min.
Rice.................... 20 to 30 min.
Spinach................. 20 to 30 min.
Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr.
Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.

BAKED FOODS
Beans.....................  6 to 8 hr.
Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min.
Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min.
Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min.
Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min.
Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min.
Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr.
Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min.
Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min.
Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr.
Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min.
Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min.
Custard................... 20 to 45 min.
Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min.
Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min.
Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min.
Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr.
Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr.

       *       *       *       *       *

CARE OF FOOD

REASONS FOR CARE

38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of
foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get
good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give
attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the
care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked,
as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable
loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked
and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these
are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With
these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better
appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will
be more satisfactory.

39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note
that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as
to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to
science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria,
yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance
to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what
ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the
scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is
felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of
foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they
are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while
some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.

40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of
micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that
these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack
articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation,
putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause
fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they
are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned
or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making
of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make
cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for
foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that
even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are
constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for
unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to
sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.

Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for
longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are
protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for
long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective
covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins
decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective
covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most
micro-organisms thrive.

41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to
prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this
if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this
reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or
not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils
and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery,
as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that
makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all
parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes,
and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise
the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific
principles.

       *       *       *       *       *

METHODS OF CARE

CLASSIFICATION

42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of
micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant
growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread
from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary
to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms.
Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept
very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to
others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been
raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives,
but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In
this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food
to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all
preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of
preserving it as for seasoning it.


CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS

43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at
a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully
in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans
or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms,
and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the
destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is
resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in
former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich
preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be
used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling.
While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that
sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for
sweetening need be used.

44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its
success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow
unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds
grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain
only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per
cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why
in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without
artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned
housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is
accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote
of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a
preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods
of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the
air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers,
are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture
is present.


KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE

45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the
growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary
for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding,
putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in
winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time
without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less
likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit
for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that
keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and
convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention
of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold
storage of foods.

46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most
convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known,
it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in
some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point.
All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or
more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such
as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with
tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is
usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and
unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of
preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber
kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange
the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.

The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known
scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This
can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no
matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The
same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the
ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air
is kept in constant motion, or circulation.

[Illustration: Fig 12.]

47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side,
as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators,
there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice
chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should
be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and
flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at
this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the
arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to
taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator,
through which the current of air passes last before being freed from
odors by passing over the ice.

48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber,
or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as
to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice
at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by
the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this
kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being
placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those
which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A
careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best
arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.

[Illustration: Fig. 13]

49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a
refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be
taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be
placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the
steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold
air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by
warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and
carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to
keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to
become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be
properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to
keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter
carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and
other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should
be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not
escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is,
vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should
be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No
food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the
ice to melt unnecessarily.

50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the
refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To
accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything
spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods
that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything
not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least
once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks
taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed,
rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator
should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain
pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the
food replaced.

The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently,
the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be
lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it
is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old
blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in
the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator.
Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly,
the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice
gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of
course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting.
Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place,
it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be
kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods
should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must
be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and
dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.


KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE

51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and
those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is
not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to
adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally
quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that
cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly.
In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on
conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be
stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the
majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized
for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the
more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.

[Illustration: Fig. 14]

52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe
place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If
it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty
and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by
mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many
winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the
remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement
that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied;
otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the
cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus
secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows.
These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the
cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are
desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention
should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are
beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that
is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping
other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.

[Illustration: Fig. 15]

53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar
must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with
brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose,
because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If
canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig.
15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if
possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables,
and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air
to pass through them.

[Illustration: Fig. 16]

54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no
cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through
the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep
food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar,
but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen
or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the
opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated
in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the
window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or
galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its
capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top,
and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is
lined with table oilcloth.

[Illustration: Fig. 17]


STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS

55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of
foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such
foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to
prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the
absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the
growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The
best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly
closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and
cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be
very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.

56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought
in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the
original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that
they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For
convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and
salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they,
too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for
sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is
not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper
bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and
are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food
whenever it is not well protected.

Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is
sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from
rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are
not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored
unless they are stored in dark places.

Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they
are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden
bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.


STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS

57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as
semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some
foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept
from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a
cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means
for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large
quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit
them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a
small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable
quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces
of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.

Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in
very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however,
if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country
districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors,
being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of
frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but
for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash
thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a
dry place.

Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine
varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All
fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of
spoiling should be removed.


MENUS AND RECIPES

58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_,
consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they
are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a
menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the
list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be
used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good
recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed,
so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this
manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the
ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are
given in the proper order.

59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty
in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not
follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than
she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will
reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not
provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how
to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only
with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is
never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of
course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other
hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal
later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and
labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the
directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they
will be given so that success will result from carrying them out
in detail.

60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of
the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be
prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at
meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the
recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they
should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach
methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to
prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able
to report on the success she has had with each dish.

MENU

Pan-Broiled Chops
Mashed Potatoes
Creamed Peas
Cabbage Salad
Orange Fluff with Sauce

       *       *       *       *       *

RECIPES

PAN-BROILED CHOPS

Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to
cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling.
Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.

MASHED POTATOES

Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount
of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are
tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and
drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato
masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in
order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently
mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece
of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy
consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a
spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they
are light and fluffy.

CREAMED PEAS

Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water
to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and
then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in
their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh
peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an
equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may
be used.

SAUCE FOR PEAS

1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and  1/2 c. milk
1 Tb. butter
1/2 tsp. salt
1 Tb. flour

Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and
salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been
heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.

CABBAGE SALAD

1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage
1/2 tsp. salt
1 small red or green sweet pepper
Dash of pepper
1 small onion
Salad dressing

Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife
or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces
and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.

CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING

3/4 c. vinegar
1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired
1/4 c. water
1/2 tsp. salt
2 Tb. butter
3 Tb. sugar
1 Tb. flour

Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it
the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then
pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to
prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow
it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.

ORANGE FLUFF

1/2 c. sugar
1/4 c. orange juice
5 Tb. corn starch
1 Tb. lemon juice
Pinch of salt
2 egg whites
1 pt. boiling water

Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and
cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to
cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler
and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.

When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly
with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly
until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or
molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.

SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF

1 Tb. corn starch
3/4 c. boiling water
2 Tb. butter
3/4 c. sugar
2 egg yolks
1/4 c. orange juice
1 Tb. lemon juice

Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful
of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add
the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the
remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch
and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add
the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.

61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order
of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time
required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu
here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in
which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe
for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily
changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if
there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should
be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be
served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has
been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may
be provided for.

62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which
is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be
allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a
half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to
mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to
put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After
the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are
to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should
be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after
the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated
and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage
salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be
served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that
they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.


TERMS USED IN COOKERY

63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation
of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in
cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because
they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other
occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books,
menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and
to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.

In view of these facts, a table of terms that are made use of in cookery
is here given, together with definitions of the words and, wherever it
has been deemed necessary, with as accurate pronunciations as can be
obtained. The terms are given in bold-faced type, and for easy reference
are arranged alphabetically. It is recommended that constant use be made
of this table, for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a
clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to
this science.

À la; au; aux (ah lah; o; o).--With; dressed in a certain style; as,
smelts à la tartare, which means smelts with tartare sauce.

Au gratin (o gra-tang).--Literally, dressed with brown crumbs. In actual
practice, also flavored with grated cheese.

Au naturel (o nat-ü-rayl).--A term applied to uncooked vegetables, to
indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or
dressing applied. Potatoes au naturel are served cooked; but unpeeled.

Béchamel (bay-sham-ayl).--A sauce made with white stock and cream or
milk-named from a celebrated cook.

Biscuit Glacé (bis-kü-ee glah-say).--Ice cream served in glacéd shells,
sometimes in paper cases.

Bisque.--A thick soup usually made from shellfish or game; also, an ice
cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added.

Bouchées (boosh-ay).--Small patties; literally, a mouthful.

Boudin (boo-dang).--A delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat.

Bouquet of Herbs.--A bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley, thyme,
and sweet marjoram, a bay leaf, and perhaps a stalk of celery, tied
firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew. Arranged in
this way, the herbs are more easily removed when cooked.

Café au Lait (ka-fay o lay).--Coffee with milk.

Café Noir (ka-fay nooar).--Black coffee.

Canapés (kan-ap-ay).--Small slices of bread toasted or sautéd in butter
and spread with a savory paste of meats, fish, or vegetables. They are
served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch
or dinner.

Canard (kan-ar).--Duck.

Capers.--Small pickled buds of a European shrub, used in sauces and in
seasoning.

Capon.--A male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality
of the flesh.

Caramel.--A sirup of browned sugar.

Casserole.--A covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked.

Champignons (shang-pe-nyong).--The French name for mushrooms.

Chartreuse (shar-truhz).--A preparation of game, meat, fish, etc.,
molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables. The name was given to the
dish by the monks of the monastery of Chartreuse.

Chiffonade (shif-fong-ad).--Salad herbs finely shredded and then sautéd
or used in salads.

Chillies.--Small red peppers used in seasoning.

Chives.--An herb allied to the onion family.

Chutney.--An East Indian sweet pickle.

Citron.--The rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar.

Collops.--Meat cut in small pieces.

Compote.--Fruit stewed in sirup.

Coquilles (ko-ke-yuh).--Scallop shells in which fish or oysters are
sometimes served.

Créole, à la (kray-ol, ah lah).--With tomatoes.

Croustade (kroos-tad).--A thick piece of bread that has been hollowed
out and then toasted or fried crisp. The depression is filled with food.

Croutons (kroo-tong).--Bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with
or in soup.

Curry.--An East Indian preparation made of hot seeds, spices, and dried
herbs.

Demi-Tasse (duh-mee tass).--Literally, a half cup. As commonly used, it
refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served.

Deviled.--Highly seasoned.

Dill.--A plant used for flavoring pickles.

En coquille (ang ko-ke-yuh).--Served in shells.

Entrées (ang-tray).--Small made dishes served with lunch or dinner. They
are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal.

Escarole (ays-kar-ol).--A broad-leaved kind of endive.

Farce or Forcemeat.--A mixture of meat, bread, etc., used as stuffing.

Fillets (fe-lay).--Long, thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled
and tied.

Fillet Mignons (fe-lay me-nyong).--Small slices from fillet of beef,
served with steak.

Fondant.--Sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste. It is
used for the icing of cake or the making of French candies.

Fondue.--A dish made usually with melted or grated cheese. There are
several varieties of this preparation.

Frappé (frap-pay).--Semifrozen.

Fromage (fro-magh).--Cheese.

Glacé (glah-say).-Covered with icing; literally, a shining surface.

Glaze.--The juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a
foundation for soups and gravies.

Goulash (gool-ash).--A Hungarian beef stew, highly seasoned.

Gumbo.--A dish of food made of young capsules of okra, seasoned with
salt and pepper, stewed and then served with melted butter.

Haricot (har-e-ko).--A small bean; a bit; also, a stew in which the meat
and vegetables are finely divided.

Homard (ho-mar).--Lobster.

Hors d'oeuvres (or-d'uhvr').--Relishes.

Italiene, à la (e-tal-yang, ah lah).--In Italian style.

Jardinière (zhar-de-nyayr).--A mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in
their own sauce; also, a garnish of various vegetables.

Julienne (zhü-lyayn).--A clear soup with shredded vegetables.

Junket.--Milk jellied by means of rennet.

Kippered.--Dried or smoked.

Larding.--The insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat. The fat is
inserted before cooking.

Lardon.--A piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding.

Legumes.--The vegetables belonging to the bean family; namely, beans,
peas, and lentils.

Lentils.--A variety of the class of vegetables called legumes.

Macédoine (mah-say-dooan).--A mixture of green vegetables.

Marinade (mar-e-nad).--A pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before
cooking.

Marinate.--To pickle in vinegar or French dressing, as meat or fish is
seasoned.

Marrons (ma-rong).--Chestnuts.

Menu.--A bill of fare.

Meringue (muh-rang).--A kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar
well beaten.

Mousse (moos).--Ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and
frozen without turning.

Nougat (noo-gah).--A mixture of almonds and sugar.

Paprika.--Hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning. It
is less stinging than red or Cayenne pepper.

Pâté (pa-tay).--A little pie; a pastry or patty.

Pimiento.--Sweet red peppers used as a vegetable, a salad, or a relish.

Pistachio (pis-ta-shioh).--A pale greenish nut resembling an almond.

Potage (pot-azh).--Soup.

Purée (pü-ray).-A thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have
been rubbed through a sieve.

Ragoût (ra-goo).--A stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served
with a sauce.

Ramekin.--A preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast, which is
baked or browned. This word is sometimes used to designate the dish in
which such a mixture is cooked.

Réchauffé (ray-sho-fay).--A warmed-over dish.

Rissoles.--Small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried
or baked. It also refers to balls of minced meat, egged, crumbed, and
fried until crisp.

Roux (roo).--Thickening made with butter and flour.

Salmi (sal-mee).--A stew or hash of game.

Salpicon (sal-pee-kong).--Minced poultry, ham, or other meats mixed with
a thick sauce.

Sauce Piquante (sos-pe-kangt).--An acid sauce.

Shallot.--A variety of onion.

Sorbet (sor-bay).--A sherbet, frozen punch, or water ice; the same as
sherbet.

Soufflé (soo-flay).--Literally, puffed up. As generally understood, it
is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked, the foundation of
which may be meat, fish, cheese, vegetables, or fruit.

Soy.--A Japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean. It has an
agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups
and sauces.

Stock.--The foundation for soup made by cooking meat, bones, and
vegetables.

Sultanas.--White or yellow seedless grapes, grown in Corinth.

Tarragon (tar-ra-gonk).--An herb used in seasoning certain dressing and
sauces; it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar.

Tartare Sauce (tar-tar sos).--A mayonnaise dressing to which have been
added chopped pickle, capers, and parsley in order to make a tart
sauce for fish.

Timbale.--A pie raised in a mold; also, a shell filled with forcemeat or
ragoût.

Truffles.--A species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the
soil, and having an agreeable perfume, which is easily scented by pigs,
who are fond of them, and by dogs trained to find them. They are found
abundantly in France, but are not subject to cultivation. They are used
chiefly for seasoning and garnishing.

Vanilla.--The bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from
this fruit. Used in flavoring desserts, etc.

Vinaigrette Sauce (ve-nay-grayt sos).--A sauce made with oil and
vinegar, to which are added finely minced chives, peppers, or other
highly flavored green vegetables and spices.

Vol au Vent (vol o vang).--A crust of light puff paste. Also, a large
pâté or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters,
fish, or meat and a cream sauce.

Zwieback (tsouee-bak).--Bread toasted twice.

       *       *       *       *       *

ESSENTIALS OF COOKERY (PART 2)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) What points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking
utensils?

(2) Mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their
advantages.

(3) (_a_) What is a labor-saving device? (_b_) Describe one of the
labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor.

(4) What kind of utensil should be used for: (_a_) the rapid boiling of
spaghetti; (_b_) the slow cooking of cereals?

(5) Tell how the following are prepared for cooking: (_a_) vegetables;
(_b_) meats; (_c_) fish.

(6) Describe: (_a_) sifting; (_b_) stirring; (_c_) beating; (_d_)
creaming; (_e_) folding.

(7) Why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking?

(8) Describe the measuring of: (_a_) cupful of flour; (_b_) one-half
teaspoonful of butter; (_c_) 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.

(9) (_a_) Why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to
carry out a recipe? (_b_) Give briefly the order of work that should
be followed.

(10) What factors influence the length of time required to cook foods?

(11) Tell why foods spoil.

(12) (_a_) Mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling.
(_b_) What is meant by the term preservative?

(13) (_a_) What is the aim in canning foods? (_b_) On what principle does
success in drying foods depend?

(14) Explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on
which it is based.

(15) Describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator
and tell which should be covered and why: (_a_) milk; (_b_) butter; (_c_)
cooked fish; (_d_) cooked tomatoes; (_e_) melons; (f) cheese.

(16) Explain how a refrigerator should be cared for.

(17) Name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without
ice.

(18) How should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and
cared for?

(19) (_a_) Why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods? (_b_) Tell
the best ways in which to preserve such foods.

(20) (_a_) What is a menu? (_b_) Explain the meaning of the term recipe. (_c_) In what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared?

       *       *       *       *       *

REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text, send with
your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In
making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe
its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list.
Thus, if the chops were tender and well done, write, "Pan-broiled chops,
tender, well done"; if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy,
write "Mashed potatoes, sufficiently cooked, creamy"; and so on.

Pan-Broiled Chops: tough? tender? underdone? overdone?

Mashed Potatoes: sufficiently cooked? creamy? lumpy? too soft?

Creamed Peas: tender? tough? properly seasoned? improperly seasoned?

Sauce for Peas: smooth? lumpy? thin? of correct thickness? too thick?

Cabbage Salad: properly seasoned? improperly seasoned? crisp?

Orange Fluff: stiff enough? too soft? flavor agreeable? flavor
disagreeable?

Sauce for Orange Fluff: smooth? lumpy?

       *       *       *       *       *



CEREALS

       *       *       *       *       *

PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION, AND SELECTION

PRODUCTION OF CEREALS

1. ORIGIN OF CEREALS.--_Cereals,_ which is the term applied to the
edible seeds of certain grains, originated with the civilization of man.
When man lived in a savage state, he wandered about from place to place
and depended for his food on hunting and fishing; but as he ceased his
roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive, it was
not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about
him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of
procuring food. Indeed, the cultivation of the soil for the production
of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization.
Among the foods he cultivated were grains, and from the earliest times
to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the
chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them.

The grains belong to the family of grasses, and through cultivation
their seeds, which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants,
have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man
to collect and use it as food. The name cereals was derived from the
goddess Ceres, whom the Romans believed to be the protector of their
crops and harvests. Numerous grains are produced, but only eight of
these cereals are used extensively as food, namely, wheat, corn, oats,
rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and millet.

2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.--With the exception of the desert lands and
the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire
world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in
the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short
warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is
practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety
of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals
and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food
supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the
inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up
of cereals.

3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.--The abundance of the world's grain supply
makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in
various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost
entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low
cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all
classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They
require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time.
Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large
quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a
price that is fairly uniform.

Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large
proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's
income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals,
of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of
food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require
an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market
are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require
practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must
be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of
fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought
is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of
cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly
increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or
energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one
of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.

4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.--Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of
products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them
being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife
should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in
them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the
study of grains--whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or
meal--and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat
cereals, which are commonly referred to as _breakfast foods._ The only
additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni,
spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from
wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the
table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a
large measure to them.


COMPOSITION OF CEREALS

5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its
distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances--water,
mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate--are to be found in
cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some
contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and
while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively
small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they
contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It
is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals
are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit
a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of
food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a
certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself;
that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought
about by the addition of other substances.

6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest
proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing
less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside,
and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts
scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the
_germ,_ which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant
sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the
bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in
the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter
is generally lost.

7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.--The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food,
but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they
differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of
protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not
yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat,
and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called
_gluten,_ a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The
gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes
gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of
bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread
successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest
amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most
expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals
is one of the cheaper varieties.

8. FAT IN CEREALS.--The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their
heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the
cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals,
used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing
material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently
used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The
fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully
stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed,
and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps
much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in
the milling process.

9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.--The food substance found in the greatest
proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals
contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances,
rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and
oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is
distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the
microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is
almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ
from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general
structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked
thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals
explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch
is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact
that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high
energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that
cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building
material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient
quantity to place them with the protein foods.

10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain seven or eight of the
minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be
valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number
required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been
explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse
outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For
this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that
contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of
minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a
sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from
vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole
cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select
those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.

11. WATER IN CEREALS.--Cereals contain very little water in their
composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes
their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping
quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition
of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a
large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals
could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil
grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also
permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large
amounts it would add materially to their bulk.

12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.--In addition to the five food substances that
are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known
as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible
material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering,
and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In
fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As
long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being
digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering
for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact
that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to
include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in
the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.

13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.--Not all grains, or cereals,
contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while
one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food
substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with
regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in
Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose,
the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of
their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the
food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest
in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is
lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in
protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth
in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In
this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way
they are of value as a food.


TABLE I

COMPOSITION OF CEREALS

Protein   Fat       Carbohydrate   Cellulose  Mineral Matter
                                              or Ash

Wheat     Oats      Rice           Oats       Oats

Rye       Corn      Rye            Buckwheat  Barley

Oats      Barley    Corn           Barley     Buckwheat

Barley    Buckwheat Wheat          Wheat      Rye

Corn      Rice      Barley         Rye        Wheat

Buckwheat Wheat     Buckwheat      Corn       Corn

Rice      Rye       Oats           Rice       Rice

       *       *       *       *       *

CEREALS AS A FOOD

USES OF CEREALS

14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food
problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and
the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is
evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food
consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread
consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom
served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some
description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry
cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this
constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily
digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially
desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first
solid foods fed to them.

15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a
breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose,
they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are
used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have
an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as
dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to
advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in
certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take
the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often
used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with
eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with
a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sautéd
and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are
also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and
because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the
evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children.
When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast,
or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served,
whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an
economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course,
the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But,
to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they
are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the
ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable
to those which are poorly cooked in the home.


SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS

16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.--So that the housewife may go
about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well
for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are
harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing,
which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing
is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of
a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is
applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive
further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without
the bran covering, and in this form they are known as _grits._ At other
times they are ground finer and called _meal,_ and still finer and
called _flour,_ being used mostly in these two forms for the making of
various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as,
for example, _cracked wheat_ and _rolled oats._

Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared
in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are
used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their
preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such
as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then
rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are
malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is
generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work
of digestion.

17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.--Besides knowing about the
ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be
familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food.
In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and
tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given
to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in
sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has
its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those
sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the
chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper.
Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do
not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high
temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the
standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and
similar raw cereals in packages.

18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost.
They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in
food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the
cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to
their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for
market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked
ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most
expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the
expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest
cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.

Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the
housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for
her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which
the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The
other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a
hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for
breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the
fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is
usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the
cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least
expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.

19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.--As a further aid in coming to an
understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in
Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which
they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the
grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is
made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.

20. CARE OF CEREALS.--As carriers of disease, cereals are a less
dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to
the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their
preparation destroys any disease germs tha

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