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Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

by Frederick Arthur Ambrose Talbot · English · Gutenberg #793 · 387,358 chars · public domain (US)

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Title: Aeroplanes and Dirigibles of War

Author: Frederick Arthur Ambrose Talbot


        
Release date: January 1, 1997 [eBook #793]
                Most recently updated: July 21, 2008

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AEROPLANES AND DIRIGIBLES OF WAR ***










AEROPLANES AND DIRIGIBLES OF WAR

By Frederick A. Talbot




PREFACE

Ever since the earliest days of the great conquest of the air, first by
the dirigible balloon and then by the aeroplane, their use in time of
war has been a fruitful theme for discussion. But their arrival was
of too recent a date, their many utilities too unexplored to provide
anything other than theories, many obviously untenable, others avowedly
problematical.

Yet the part airships have played in the Greatest War has come as a
surprise even to their most convinced advocates. For every expectation
shattered, they have shown a more than compensating possibility of
usefulness.

In this volume an endeavour has been made to record their achievements,
under the stern test of trial, as an axiom of war, and to explain, in
untechnical language, the many services to which they have been and may
be applied.

In the preparation of the work I have received assistance from many
sources--British, French, Russian and German--from official reports and
from men who have played a part in the War in the Air. The information
concerning German military aircraft has been obtained from Government
documents, most of which were placed at my disposal before the outbreak
of war.

The use of aircraft has changed the whole art and science of warfare.
With its disabilities well in hand, with its strength but half revealed,
the aerial service has revolutionised strategy and shorn the unexpected
attack of half its terrors. The Fourth Arm is now an invaluable part of
the complex military machine.

F. A. TALBOT.



                     CONTENTS
CHAPTER

     I.     The introduction of aircraft into military operations
     II.    The military uses of the captive balloon
     III.   Germany's rise to military airship supremacy
     IV.    Airships of war
     V.     Germany's aerial dreadnought fleet
     VI.    The military value of Germany's aerial fleet
     VII.   Aeroplanes of war
     VIII.  Scouting from the skies
     IX.    The airman and artillery
     X.     Bomb-throwing from air-craft
     XI.    Armoured aeroplanes
     XII.   Battles in the air
     XIII.  Tricks and ruses to baffle the airman
     XIV.   Anti-aircraft guns. Mobile weapons
     XV.    Anti-aircraft guns. Immobile weapons
     XVI.   Mining the air
     XVII.  Wireless in aviation
     XVIII. Aircraft and naval operations
     XIX.   The navies of the air





CHAPTER I. THE INTRODUCTION OF AIRCRAFT INTO MILITARY OPERATIONS

It is a curious circumstance that an invention, which is hailed as
being one of the greatest achievements ever recorded in the march of
civilisation, should be devoted essentially to the maiming of humanity
and the destruction of property. In no other trend of human endeavour
is this factor so potently demonstrated as in connection with Man's
Conquest of the Air.

The dogged struggle against the blind forces of Nature was waged
tenaciously and perseveringly for centuries. But the measure of success
recorded from time to time was so disappointing as to convey the
impression, except in a limited circle, that the problem was impossible
of solution. In the meantime wondrous changes had taken place in the
methods of transportation by land and sea. The steam and electric
railway, steam propulsion of vessels, and mechanical movement along
the highroads had been evolved and advanced to a high standard of
perfection, to the untold advantage of the community. Consequently it
was argued, if only a system of travel along the aerial highways could
be established, then all other methods of mechanical transportation
would be rendered, if not entirely obsolete, at least antiquated.

At last man triumphed over Nature--at least to such a degree as to
inspire the confidence of the world at large, and to bring aerial travel
and transportation within range of realisation. But what has been the
result? The discovery is not devoted to the interests of peace and
economic development, but to extermination and destruction.

At the same time this development may be explained. The airship and
aeroplane in the present stage of evolution possess no economic value.
True, cross-country cruises by airship have been inaugurated, and, up to
a point, have proved popularly, if not commercially, successful,
while tentative efforts have been made to utilise the aeroplane as
a mail-carrier. Still, from the view-point of the community at large
aerial travel is as remote as it was centuries ago.

It is somewhat interesting to observe how history is repeating itself.
When the Montgolfiers succeeded in lifting themselves into the air by
means of a vessel inflated with hot air, the new vehicle was hailed not
so much as one possessed of commercial possibilities, but as an engine
of war! When the indomitable courage and perseverance of Count von
Zeppelin in the face of discouraging disasters and flagrant failures, at
last commanded the attention of the German Emperor, the latter regarded
the Zeppelin craft, not from the interests of peace, but as a military
weapon, and the whole of the subsequent efforts of the Imperial admirer
were devoted to the perfection of the airship in this one direction.

Other nations, when they embarked on an identical line of development,
considered the airship from a similar point of view. In fact, outside
Germany, there was very little private initiative in this field.
Experiments and developments were undertaken by the military or naval,
and in some instances by both branches, of the respective Powers.
Consequently the aerial craft, whether it be a dirigible airship, or an
aeroplane, can only be regarded from the military point of view.

Despite the achievements which have been recorded by human endeavour
in the field of aerial travel, the balloon per se has by no means been
superseded. It still remains an invaluable adjunct to the fighting
machine. In Great Britain its value in this direction has never been
ignored: of late, indeed, it has rather been developed. The captive
balloon is regarded as an indispensable unit to both field and sea
operations. This fact was emphasised very strongly in connection with
the British naval attacks upon the German forces in Flanders, and it
contributed to the discomfiture of the German hordes in a very emphatic
manner.

The captive balloon may be operated from any spot where facilities exist
for anchoring the paying out cable together with winding facilities for
the latter. Consequently, if exigencies demand, it maybe operated from
the deck of a warship so long as the latter is stationary, or even from
an automobile. It is of small cubic capacity, inasmuch as it is only
necessary for the bag to contain sufficient gas to lift one or two men
to a height of about 500 or 600 feet.

When used in the field the balloon is generally inflated at the base, to
be towed or carried forward by a squad of men while floating in the air,
perhaps at a height of 10 feet. A dozen men will suffice for this duty
as a rule, and in calm weather little difficulty is encountered in
moving from point to point. This method possesses many advantages.
The balloon can be inflated with greater ease at the base, where it is
immune from interference by hostile fire. Moreover, the facilities for
obtaining the requisite inflating agent--hydrogen or coal gas--are more
convenient at such a point. If the base be far removed from the spot at
which it is desired to operate the balloon, the latter is inflated at a
convenient point nearer the requisite position, advantage being taken of
the protective covering offered by a copse or other natural obstacle.

As is well known, balloons played an important part during the siege
of Paris in 1870-1, not only in connection with daring attempts to
communicate with the outer world, but in reconnoitring the German
positions around the beleaguered city. But this was not the first
military application of the aerial vessel; it was used by the French
against the Austrians in the battle of Fleurus, and also during the
American Civil War. These operations, however, were of a sporadic
character; they were not part and parcel of an organised military
section.

It is not generally known that the British War office virtually
pioneered the military use of balloons, and subsequently the methods
perfected in Britain became recognised as a kind of "standard" and
were adopted generally by the Powers with such modifications as local
exigencies seemed to demand.

The British military balloon department was inaugurated at Chatham under
Captain Templer in 1879. It was devoted essentially to the employment
of captive balloons in war, and in 1880 a company of the Royal Engineers
was detailed to the care of this work in the field. Six years previously
the French military department had adopted the captive balloon under
Colonel Laussedat, who was assisted among others by the well-known
Captain Renard. Germany was somewhat later in the field; the military
value of captive balloons was not appreciated and taken into serious
consideration here until 1884. But although British efforts were
preceded by the French the latter did not develop the idea upon accepted
military lines.

The British authorities were confronted with many searching problems.
One of the earliest and greatest difficulties encountered was in
connection with the gas for inflation. Coal gas was not always readily
available, so that hydrogen had to be depended upon for the most part.
But then another difficulty arose. This was the manufacture of the
requisite gas. Various methods were tested, such as the electrolytic
decomposition of water, the decomposition of sulphuric acid by means of
iron, the reaction between slaked lime and zinc, and so forth.

But the drawbacks to every process, especially upon the field of battle,
when operations have to be conducted under extreme difficulties and
at high pressure, were speedily recognised. While other
nations concentrated their energies upon the simplification of
hydrogen-manufacturing apparatus for use upon the battle-field, Great
Britain abandoned all such processes in toto. Our military organisation
preferred to carry out the production of the necessary gas at a
convenient manufacturing centre and to transport it, stored in steel
cylinders under pressure, to the actual scene of operations. The method
proved a great success, and in this way it was found possible to inflate
a military balloon in the short space of 20 minutes, whereas, under the
conditions of making gas upon the spot, a period of four hours or more
was necessary, owing to the fact that the manufacturing process is
relatively slow and intricate. The practicability of the British idea
and its perfection served to establish the captive balloon as a military
unit.

The British military ballooning department has always ranked as the
foremost of its type among the Powers, although its work has been
carried out so unostentatiously that the outside world has gleaned very
little information concerning its operations. Captain Templer was an
indefatigable worker and he brought the ballooning section to a high
degree of efficiency from the military point of view.

But the British Government was peculiarly favoured, if such a term
may be used. Our little wars in various parts of the world contributed
valuable information and experience which was fully turned to account.
Captive balloons for reconnoitring purposes were used by the British
army for the first time at Suakim in 1885, and the section established
its value very convincingly. The French military balloon department
gained its first experience in this field in the previous year, a
balloon detachment having been dispatched to Tonkin in 1884. In both
the Tonkin and Soudan campaigns, invaluable work was accomplished by the
balloon sections, with the result that this aerial vehicle has come to
be regarded as an indispensable military adjunct. Indeed the activity of
the German military ballooning section was directly attributable to the
Anglo-French achievements therewith.

In this work, however, the British force speedily displayed its
superiority and initiative. The use of compressed hydrogen was adopted,
and within the course of a few years the other Powers, realising the
advantages which the British department had thus obtained, decided to
follow its example. The gas is stored in cylinders under a pressure
varying from six to ten or more atmospheres; in other words from about
80 to 140 or more pounds per square inch. Special military wagons
have been designed for the transport of these cylinders, and they are
attached to the balloon train.

The balloon itself is light, and made of such materials as to reduce
the weight thereof to the minimum. The British balloons are probably the
smallest used by any of the Powers, but at the same time they are
the most expensive. They are made of goldbeater's skin, and range in
capacity from 7,000 to 10,000 cubic feet, the majority being of the
former capacity. The French balloon on the other hand has a capacity
exceeding 18,000 cubic feet, although a smaller vessel of 9,000 cubic
feet capacity, known as an auxiliary, and carrying a single observer, is
used.

The Germans, on the other hand, with their Teutonic love of the immense,
favour far larger vessels. At the same time the military balloon section
of the German Army eclipses that of any other nations is attached to the
Intelligence Department, and is under the direct control of the General
Staff. Balloon stations are dotted all over the country, including
Heligoland and Kiel, while regular sections are attached to the Navy
for operating captive balloons from warships. Although the Zeppelin and
aeroplane forces have come to the front in Germany, and have relegated
the captive balloon somewhat to the limbo of things that were, the
latter section has never been disbanded; in fact, during the present
campaign it has undergone a somewhat spirited revival.

The South African campaign emphasised the value of the British balloon
section of the Army, and revealed services to which it was specially
adapted, but which had previously more or less been ignored. The
British Army possessed indifferent maps of the Orange Free State and the
Transvaal. This lamentable deficiency was remedied in great measure by
recourse to topographical photographs taken from the captive balloons.
The guides thus obtained were found to be of extreme value.

During the early stages of the war the hydrogen was shipped in cylinders
from the homeland, but subsequently a manufacturing plant of such
capacity as to meet all requirements was established in South Africa.
The cylinders were charged at this point and dispatched to the scene of
action, so that it became unnecessary to transport the commodity from
Britain. The captive balloon revealed the impregnability of Spion Kop,
enabled Lord Roberts to ascertain the position of the Boer guns at the
Battle of Paardeburg, and proved of invaluable assistance to the forces
of General White during the siege of Ladysmith.



CHAPTER II. THE MILITARY USES of THE CAPTIVE BALLOON

Although the captive balloon is recognised as indispensable in military
operations, its uses are somewhat limited. It can be employed only in
comparatively still weather. The reason is obvious. It is essential that
the balloon should assume a vertical line in relation to its winding
plant upon the ground beneath, so that it may attain the maximum
elevation possible: in other words, the balloon should be directly
above the station below, so that if 100 yards of cable are paid out the
aerostat may be 100 yards above the ground. If a wind is blowing, the
helpless craft is certain to be caught thereby and driven forwards or
backwards, so that it assumes an angle to its station. If this become
acute the vessel will be tilted, rendering the position of the observers
somewhat precarious, and at the same time observing efficiency will be
impaired.

This point may be appreciated more easily by reference to the
accompanying diagram. A represents the ground station and B the position
of the captive balloon when sent aloft in calm weather, 300 feet of
cable being paid out. A wind arises and blows the vessel forward to the
position C. At this point the height of the craft in relation to the
ground has been reduced, and the reduction must increase proportionately
as the strength of the wind increases and forces the balloon still more
towards the ground. At the same time, owing to the tilt given to the
car, observation is rendered more difficult and eventually becomes
extremely dangerous.

A wind, if of appreciable strength, develops another and graver danger.
Greater strain will be imposed upon the cable, while if the wind be
gusty, there is the risk that the vessel will be torn away from
its anchoring rope and possibly lost. Thus it will be seen that the
effective utilisation of a captive balloon is completely governed by
meteorological conditions, and often it is impossible to use it
in weather which exercises but little influence upon dirigibles or
aeroplanes.

The captive balloon equipment comprises the balloon, together with the
observer's basket, the wire-cable whereby it is anchored and controlled,
and the winding apparatus. Formerly a steam engine was necessary for
the paying in and out of the cable, but nowadays this is accomplished by
means of a petrol-driven motor, an oil-engine, or even by the engine of
an automobile. The length of cable varies according to the capacity of
the balloon and the maximum operating height.

The average British balloon is able to lift about 290 or 300 pounds,
which may be taken to represent the weight of two observers. On the
other hand, the French and German balloons are able to carry four times
this weight, with the exception of the French auxiliaries, which are
designed to lift one observer only. The balloons of the two latter
Powers have also a greater maximum altitude; it is possible to ascend to
a height of some 2,000 feet in one of these.

The observing station is connected with the winding crew below either
by a telephone, or some other signalling system, the method practised
varying according to circumstances. In turn the winding station is
connected with the officer in charge of the artillery, the fire of which
the captive balloon is directing. The balloon observer is generally
equipped with various instruments, such as telescope, photographic
cameras, and so forth, so as to be able, if necessary, to prepare a
topographical survey of the country below. By this means the absence
of reliable maps may be remedied, or if not regarded, as sufficiently
correct they may be checked and counter-checked by the data gained
aloft.

Seeing that the gas has to be transported in cylinders, which are
weighty, it is incumbent that the waste of this commodity should be
reduced to the minimum. The balloon cannot be deflated at night and
re-inflated in the morning--it must be maintained in the inflated
condition the whole time it is required for operation.

There are various methods of consummating this end. One method is to
haul in the balloon and to peg it down on all sides, completing the
anchorage by the attachment of bags filled with earth to the network.
While this process is satisfactory in calm weather, it is impracticable
in heavy winds, which are likely to spring up suddenly. Consequently
a second method is practised. This is to dig a pit into the ground of
sufficient size to receive the balloon. When the latter is hauled in it
is lowered into this pit and there pegged down and anchored. Thus it
is perfectly safe during the roughest weather, as none of its bulk is
exposed above the ground level. Furthermore it is not a conspicuous
object for the concentration of hostile fire.

In some instances, and where the military department is possessed of
an elaborate equipment such as characterises the German army, when
reconnaissance is completed and the balloon is to be removed to another
point, the gas is pumped back into the cylinders for further use. Such
an economical proceeding is pretty and well adapted to manoeuvres, but
it is scarcely feasible in actual warfare, for the simple reason that
the pumping takes time. Consequently the general procedure, when the
balloon has completed its work, is to permit the gas to escape into the
air in the usual manner, and to draw a fresh supply of gas from further
cylinders when the occasion arises for re-inflation.

Although the familiar spherical balloon has proved perfectly adequate
for reconnoitring in the British and French armies, the German
authorities maintained that it was not satisfactory in anything but calm
weather. Accordingly scientific initiative was stimulated with a view to
the evolution of a superior vessel. These endeavours culminated in the
Parseval-Siegsfeld captive balloon, which has a quaint appearance. It
has the form of a bulky cylinder with hemispherical extremities. At one
end of the balloon there is a surrounding outer bag, reminiscent of a
cancerous growth. The lower end of this is open. This attachment serves
the purpose of a ballonet. The wind blowing against the opening, which
faces it, charges the ballonet with air. This action, it is claimed,
serves to steady the main vessel, somewhat in the manner of the tail of
a kite, thereby enabling observations to be made as easily and correctly
in rough as in calm weather. The appearance of the balloon while aloft
is certainly curious. It appears to be rearing up on end, as if the
extremity saddled with the ballonet were weighted.

British and French captive balloon authorities are disposed to discount
the steadying effect of this attachment, and, indeed, to maintain that
it is a distinct disadvantage. It may hold the vessel steadier for the
purpose of observation, but at the same time it renders the balloon a
steadier target for hostile fire. On the other hand, the swaying of a
spherical balloon with the wind materially contributes to its safety.
A moving object, particularly when its oscillations are irregular
and incalculable, is an extremely difficult object at which to take
effective aim.

Seeing that even a small captive balloon is of appreciable
dimensions--from 25 to 33 feet or more in diameter--one might consider
it an easy object to hit. But experience has proved otherwise. In the
first place the colour of the balloon is distinctly protective. The
golden or yellowish tinge harmonises well with the daylight, even in
gloomy weather, while at night-time it blends excellently with the
moonlight. For effective observations a high altitude is undesirable. At
a height of 600 feet the horizon is about 28 miles from the observer,
as compared with the 3 miles constituting the range of vision from
the ground over perfectly flat country. Thus it will be seen that the
"spotter" up aloft has the command of a considerable tract.

Various ways and means of finding the range of a captive balloon have
been prepared, and tables innumerable are available for committal to
memory, while those weapons especially designed for aerial targets are
fitted with excellent range-finders and other instruments. The Germans,
with characteristic thoroughness, have devoted considerable attention
to this subject, but from the results which they have achieved up to
the present this guiding knowledge appears to be more spectacular and
impressive than effective.

To put a captive balloon out of action one must either riddle the
envelope, causing it to leak like a sieve, blow the vessel to pieces, or
ignite the highly inflammable gas with which it is inflated. Individual
rifle fire will inflict no tangible damage. A bullet, if it finds
its billet, will merely pass through the envelope and leave two small
punctures. True, these vents will allow the gas to escape, but this
action will proceed so slowly as to permit the vessel to remain aloft
long enough to enable the observer to complete his work. A lucky rifle
volley, or the stream of bullets from a machine gun may riddle the
envelope, precipitating a hurried descent, owing to the greater number
of perforations through which the gas is able to escape, but as a rule
the observer will be able to land safely.

Consequently the general practice is to shatter the aerostat, and to
this end either shrapnel, high explosive, or incendiary shells will be
used. The former must explode quite close to the balloon in order to
achieve the desired end, while the incendiary shell must actually
strike it, so as to fire the gas. The high explosive shell may explode
effectually some feet away from the vessel, inasmuch as in this instance
dependence is placed upon the terrific concussion produced by the
explosion which, acting upon the fragile fabric of the balloon, brings
about a complete collapse of the envelope. If a shrapnel is well placed
and explodes immediately above the balloon, the envelope will be torn to
shreds and a violent explosion of the gas will be precipitated. But as
a matter of fact, it is extremely difficult to place a shrapnel shell so
as to consummate this end. The range is not picked up easily, while
the timing of the fuse to bring about the explosion of the shell at the
critical moment is invariably a complex problem.

One favourite method of finding the range of a balloon is shown in the
accompanying diagrams. The artillery battery is at B and the captive
balloon, C, is anchored at A. On either side of B and at a specified
distance, observers O1 and O2 respectively are stationed. First a shell
is fired at "long" range, possibly the maximum range of the gun. It
bursts at D. As it has burst immediately in the line of sight of B, but
with the smoke obscured by the figure of the balloon C, it is obvious
to B that the explosion has occurred behind the objective, but at what
distance he cannot tell. To O1 and O2, however, it is seen to have burst
at a considerable distance behind C though to the former it appears to
have burst to the left and to the second observer to the right of the
target.

Another shell, at "short" range, is now fired, and it bursts at E. The
explosion takes place in the line of sight of B, who knows that he has
fired short of the balloon because the latter is eclipsed by the smoke.
But the two observers see that it is very short, and here again the
explosion appears to O1 to have occurred to the right of the target,
while to O2 it has evidently burst to the left of the aerostat, as
revealed by the relation of the position of the balloon to the bursting
of the shell shown in Fig. 3.

A third round is fired, and the shell explodes at F. In this instance
the explosion takes place below the balloon. Both the observers and the
artillery man concur in their deductions upon the point at which
the shell burst. But the shell must explode above the balloon, and
accordingly a fourth round is discharged and the shell bursts at G.

This appears to be above the balloon, inasmuch as the lines of sight
of the two observers and B converge at this point. But whether the
explosion occurs immediately above the vessel as is desired, it is
impossible to say definitely, because it may explode too far behind to
be effective. Consequently, if this shell should prove abortive, the
practice is to decrease the range gradually with each succeeding round
until the explosion occurs at the critical point, when, of course, the
balloon is destroyed. An interesting idea of the difficulty of picking
up the range of a captive balloon may be gathered from the fact that
some ten minutes are required to complete the operation.

But success is due more to luck than judgment. In the foregoing
explanation it is premised that the aerial vessel remains stationary,
which is an extremely unlikely contingency. While those upon the ground
are striving to pick up the range, the observer is equally active in his
efforts to baffle his opponents. The observer follows each successive,
round with keen interest, and when the shells appear to be bursting at
uncomfortably close quarters naturally he intimates to his colleagues
below that he desires his position to be changed, either by ascending to
a higher point or descending. In fact, he may be content to come to the
ground. Nor must the fact be overlooked that while the enemy is trying
to place the observer hors de combat, he is revealing the position of
his artillery, and the observer is equally industrious in picking up the
range of the hostile guns for the benefit of his friends below.

When the captive balloon is aloft in a wind the chances of the enemy
picking up the range thereof are extremely slender, as it is continually
swinging to and fro. While there is always the possibility of a shell
bursting at such a lucky moment as to demolish the aerial target, it is
generally conceded to be impossible to induce a shell to burst within
100 yards of a balloon, no matter how skilfully the hostile battery may
be operated.

The value of the captive balloon has been demonstrated very strikingly
throughout the attack upon the entrenched German positions in Flanders.
Owing to the undulating character of the dunes the "spotters" upon the
British monitors and battle ships are unable to obtain a sweeping view
of the country. Accordingly captive balloons are sent aloft in some
cases from the deck of the monitors, and in others from a suitable point
upon the beach itself. The aerial observer from his point of vantage is
able to pick up the positions of the German forces and artillery with
ease and to communicate the data thus gained to the British vessels,
although subjected to heavy and continuous hostile fire. The difficulty
of hitting a captive balloon has been graphically emphasised, inasmuch
as the German artillerists have failed to bring down a solitary balloon.
On the other hand the observer in the air is able to signal the results
of each salvo fired from the British battleships as they manoeuvre at
full speed up and down the coastline, while he keeps the fire of the
monitors concentrated upon the German positions until the latter have
been rendered untenable or demolished. The accuracy of the British
gun-fire has astonished even the Germans, but it has been directly
attributable to the rangefinder perched in the car of the captive
balloon and his rapid transmission of information to the vessels below.

The enthusiastic supporters of aerial navigation maintained that
the dirigible and the aeroplane would supersede the captive balloon
completely. But as a matter of fact the present conflict has established
the value of this factor more firmly than ever. There is not the
slightest possibility that the captive balloon sections of the
belligerents will be disbanded, especially those which have the
fruits of experience to guide them. The airship and the aeroplane have
accomplished wonders, but despite their achievements the captive balloon
has fully substantiated its value as a military unit in its particular
field of operations.



CHAPTER III. GERMANY'S RISE TO MILITARY AIRSHIP SUPREMACY

Two incidents in the history of aviation stand out with exceptional
prominence. The one is the evolution of the Zeppelin airship--a story
teeming with romance and affording striking and illuminating glimpses
of dogged perseverance, grim determination in the face of repeated
disasters, and the blind courageous faith of the inventor in the
creation of his own brain. The second is the remarkable growth of
Germany's military airship organisation, which has been so rapid and
complete as to enable her to assume supremacy in this field, and that
within the short span of a single decade.

The Zeppelin has always aroused the world's attention, although this
interest has fluctuated. Regarded at first as a wonderful achievement
of genius, afterwards as a freak, then as the ready butt for universal
ridicule, and finally with awe, if not with absolute terror--such in
brief is the history of this craft of the air.

Count von Zeppelin can scarcely be regarded as an ordinary man. He took
up the subject of flight at an age which the majority of individuals
regard as the opportune moment for retirement from activity, and,
knowing nothing about mechanical engineering, he concentrated his
energies upon the study of this science to enable him to master the
difficulties of a mechanical character incidental to the realisation of
his grand idea. His energy and indomitable perseverance are equalled by
his ardent patriotism, because, although the Fatherland discounted his
idea when other Powers were ready to consider it, and indeed made
him tempting offers for the acquisition of his handiwork, he stoutly
declined all such solicitations, declaring that his invention, if such
it may be termed, was for his own country and none other.

Count von Zeppelin developed his line of study and thought for one
reason only. As an old campaigner and a student of military affairs
he realised the shortcomings of the existing methods of scouting
and reconnoitring. He appreciated more than any other man of the day
perhaps, that if the commander-in-chief of an army were provided with
facilities for gazing down upon the scene of operations, and were able
to take advantage of all the information accruing to the man above who
sees all, he would hold a superior position, and be able to dispose
his forces and to arrange his plan of campaign to the most decisive
advantage. In other words, Zeppelin conceived and developed his airship
for one field of application and that alone-military operations.
Although it has achieved certain successes in other directions these
have been subsidiary to the primary intention, and have merely served to
emphasise its military value.

Von Zeppelin was handicapped in his line of thought and investigation
from the very first. He dreamed big things upon a big scale. The
colossal always makes a peculiar and irresistible appeal to the Teutonic
nature. So he contemplated the perfection of a big dirigible, eclipsing
in every respect anything ever attempted or likely to be attempted
by rival countries. Unfortunately, the realisation of the "colossal"
entails an equally colossal financial reserve, and the creator of this
form of airship for years suffered from financial cramp in its worst
manifestation.  Probably it was to the benefit of the world at large
that Fortune played him such sorry tricks. It retarded the growth of
German ambitions in one direction very effectively.

As is well known Zeppelin evolved what may be termed an individual line
of thought in connection with his airship activities. He adopted what is
known as the indeformable airship: that is to say the rigid, as opposed
to the semi-rigid and flexible craft. As a result of patient experiment
and continued researches he came to the conclusion that a huge outer
envelope taking the form of a polygonal cylinder with hemispherical
ends, constructed upon substantial lines with a metallic skeleton
encased within an impermeable skin, and charged with a number of smaller
balloon-shaped vessels containing the lifting agent--hydrogen gas--would
fulfil his requirements to the greatest advantage. Model after model was
built upon these lines. Each was subjected to searching tests with the
invariable result attending such work with models. Some fulfilled the
expectations of the inventor, others resolutely declined to illustrate
his reasonings in any direction.

The inevitable happened. When a promising model was completed finally
the inventor learned to his sorrow what every inventor realises in time.
His fortune and the resources of others had been poured down the sink
of experiment. To carry the idea from the model to the practical stage
required more money, and it was not forthcoming. The inventor sought
to enlist the practical sympathy of his country, only to learn that in
Germany, as in other lands, the axiom concerning the prophet, honour,
and country prevails. No exuberant inventor received such a cold douche
from a Government as did Count Zeppelin from the Prussian authorities.
For two years further work was brought practically to a standstill:
nothing could be done unless the sinews of war were forthcoming. His
friends, who had assisted him financially with his models, now concluded
that their aid had been misplaced.

The inventor, though disappointed, was by no means cast down. He clung
tenaciously to his pet scheme and to such effect that in 1896 a German
Engineering Society advanced him some funds to continue his researches.
This support sufficed to keep things going for another two years,
during which time a full-sized vessel was built. The grand idea began
to crystallise rapidly, with the result that when a public company was
formed in 1898, sufficient funds were rendered available to enable the
first craft to be constructed. It aroused considerable attention, as
well it might, seeing that it eclipsed anything which had previously
been attempted in connection with dirigibles. It was no less than 420
feet in length, by 38 feet in diameter, and was fitted with two cars,
each of which carried a sixteen horse-power motor driving independent
propellers rigidly attached to the body of the vessel. The propellers
were both vertical and horizontal, for the purpose of driving the ship
in the two planes--vertical and horizontal respectively.

The vessel was of great scientific interest, owing to the ingenuity of
its design and construction. The metallic skeleton was built up from
aluminium and over this was stretched the fabric of the envelope,
care being observed to reduce skin friction, as well as to achieve
impermeability. But it was the internal arrangement of the gas-lifting
balloons which provoked the greatest concern. The hull was divided
into compartments, each complete in itself, and each containing a small
balloon inflated with hydrogen. It was sub-division as practised in
connection with vessels ploughing the water applied to aerial craft, the
purpose being somewhat the same. As a ship of the seas will keep afloat
so long as a certain number of its subdivisions remain watertight,
so would the Zeppelin keep aloft if a certain number of the gas
compartments retained their charges of hydrogen. There were no fewer
than seventeen of these gas-balloons arranged in a single line within
the envelope. Beneath the hull and extending the full length of
the latter was a passage which not only served as a corridor for
communication between the cars, but also to receive a weight attached
to a cable worked by a winch. By the movement of this weight the bow or
stem of the vessel could be tilted to assist ascent and descent.

The construction of the vessel subsequently proved to be the easiest and
most straightforward part of the whole undertaking. There were other and
more serious problems to be solved. How would such a monster craft come
to earth? How could she be manipulated upon the ground? How could she
be docked? Upon these three points previous experience was silent. One
German inventor who likewise had dreamed big things, and had carried
them into execution, paid for his temerity and ambitions with his life,
while his craft was reduced to a mass of twisted and torn metal. Under
these circumstances Count Zeppelin decided to carry out his flights
over the waters of the Bodensee and to house his craft within a
floating dock. In this manner two uncertain factors might be effectively
subjugated.

Another problem had been ingeniously overcome. The outer envelope
presented an immense surface to the atmosphere, while temperature was
certain to play an uncertain part in the behaviour of the craft. The
question was to reduce to the minimum the radiation of heat and cold to
the bags containing the gas. This end was achieved by leaving a slight
air space between the inflated gas balloons and the inner surface of the
hull.

The first ascent was made on July 2nd, 1900, but was disappointing,
several breakdowns of the mechanism occurring while the vessel was in
mid-air, which rendered it unmanageable, although a short flight was
made which sufficed to show that an independent speed of 13 feet per
second could be attained. The vessel descended and was made fast in her
dock, the descent being effected safely, while manoeuvring into dock was
successful. At least three points about which the inventor had been in
doubt appeared to be solved--his airship could be driven through the air
and could be steered; it could be brought to earth safely; and it could
be docked.

The repairs to the mechanism were carried out and on October 17th and
21st of the same year further flights were made. By this time certain
influential Teuton aeronautical experts who had previously ridiculed
Zeppelin's idea had made a perfect volte-face. They became staunch
admirers of the system, while other meteorological savants participated
in the trials for the express purpose of ascertaining just what the ship
could do. As a result of elaborate trigonometrical calculations it was
ascertained that the airship attained an independent speed of 30 feet
per second, which exceeded anything previously achieved. The craft
proved to be perfectly manageable in the air, and answered her helm,
thus complying with the terms of dirigibility. The creator was flushed
with his triumph, but at the same time was doomed to experience
misfortune. In its descent the airship came to "earth" with such a shock
that it was extensively damaged. The cost of repairing the vessel was
so heavy that the company declined to shoulder the liability, and as the
Count was unable to defray the expense the wreck was abandoned.

Although a certain meed of success had been achieved the outlook seemed
very black for the inventor. No one had any faith in his idea. He made
imploring appeals for further money, embarked upon lecturing campaigns,
wrote aviation articles for the Press, and canvassed possible supporters
in the effort to raise funds for his next enterprise. Two years passed,
but the fruits of the propaganda were meagre. It was at this juncture,
when everything appeared to be impossible, that Count Zeppelin
discovered his greatest friend. The German Emperor, with an eye ever
fixed upon new developments, had followed Zeppelin's uphill struggle,
and at last, in 1902, came to his aid by writing a letter which ran:--

"Since your varied flights have been reported to me it is a great
pleasure to me to express my acknowledgment of your patience and your
labours, and the endurance with which you have pressed on through
manifold hindrances till success was near. The advantages of your system
have given your ship the greatest attainable speed and dirigibility, and
the important results you have obtained have produced an epoch-making
step forward in the construction of airships and leave laid down a
valuable basis for future experiments."

This Imperial appreciation of what had been accomplished proved to be
the turning point in the inventor's fortunes. It stimulated financial
support, and the second airship was taken in hand. But misfortune still
pursued him. Accidents were of almost daily occurrence. Defects were
revealed here and weaknesses somewhere else. So soon as one trouble was
overcome another made itself manifest. The result was that the whole of
the money collected by his hard work was expended before the ship
could take to the air. A further crash and blasting of cherished hopes
appeared imminent, but at this moment another Royal personage came to
the inventor's aid.

The King of Wurtemberg took a personal interest in his subject's uphill
struggle, and the Wurtemberg Government granted him the proceeds of a
lottery. With this money, and with what he succeeded in raising by hook
and by crook, and by mortgaging his remaining property, a round L20,000
was obtained. With this capital a third ship was taken in hand, and
in 1905 it was launched. It was a distinct improvement upon its
predecessors. The airship was 414 feet in length by 38 feet in diameter,
was equipped with 17 gas balloons having an aggregate capacity of
367,000 cubic feet of hydrogen, was equipped with two 85 horse-power
motors driving four propellers, and displaced 9 tons. All the
imperfections incidental to the previous craft had been eliminated,
while the ship followed improved lines in its mechanical and structural
details.

The trials with this vessel commenced on November 30th, 1905, but
ill-luck had not been eluded. The airship was moored upon a raft which
was to be towed out into the lake to enable the dirigible to ascend.
But something went wrong with the arrangements. A strong wind caught the
ungainly airship, she dipped her nose into the water, and as the motor
was set going she was driven deeper into the lake, the vessel only being
saved by hurried deflation.

Six weeks were occupied in repairs, but another ascent was made
on January 17th, 1906. The trials were fairly satisfactory, but
inconclusive. One of the motors went wrong, and the longitudinal
stability was found to be indifferent. The vessel was brought down, and
was to be anchored, but the Fates ruled otherwise. A strong wind caught
her during the night and she was speedily reduced to indistinguishable
scrap.

Despite catastrophe the inventor wrestled gamely with his project. The
lessons taught by one disaster were taken to heart, and arrangements
to prevent the recurrence thereof incorporated in the succeeding craft.
Unfortunately, however, as soon as one defect was remedied another
asserted itself. It was this persistent revelation of the unexpected
which caused another period of indifference towards his invention.
Probably nothing more would have been heard of the Zeppelin after this
last accident had it not been for the intervention of the Prussian
Government at the direct instigation of the Kaiser, who had now taken
Count Zeppelin under his wing. A State lottery was inaugurated, the
proceeds of which were handed over to the indefatigable inventor,
together with an assurance that if he could keep aloft 24 hours without
coming to earth in the meantime, and could cover 450 miles within
this period, the Government would repay the whole of the money he had
lavished upon his idea, and liquidate all the debts he had incurred in
connection therewith.

Another craft was built, larger than its predecessors, and equipped with
two motors developing 170 horse-power. Upon completion it was submitted
to several preliminary flights, which were so eminently successful
that the inventor decided to make a trial trip under conditions closely
analogous to those imposed for the Government test. On June 20th, 1908,
at 8:26 a.m. the craft ascended and remained aloft for 12 hours, during
which time it made an encouraging circular tour. Flushed with this
success, the Count considered that the official award was within reach,
and that all his previous disasters and misfortunes were on the eve of
redemption.

The crucial test was essayed on August 5th, 1908. Accompanied by twelve
observers the vessel ascended and travelled without incident for
eight hours. Then a slight mishap demanded attention, but was speedily
repaired, and was ignored officially as being too trivial to influence
the main issue. Victory appeared within measurable distance: the arduous
toil of many patient years was about to be rewarded. The airship was
within sight of home when it had to descend owing to the development
of another motor fault. But as it approached the ground, Nature, as if
infuriated at the conquest, rose up in rebellion. A sudden squall struck
the unwieldy monster. Within a few moments it became unmanageable, and
through some inscrutable cause, it caught fire, with the result that
within a few moments it was reduced to a tangled mass of metallic
framework.

It was a catastrophe that would have completely vanquished many an
inventor, but the Count was saved the gall of defeat. His flight, which
was remarkable, inasmuch as he had covered 380 miles within 24 hours,
including two unavoidable descents, struck the Teuton imagination. The
seeds so carefully planted by the "Most High of Prussia" now bore fruit.
The German nation sympathised with the indomitable inventor, appreciated
his genius, and promptly poured forth a stream of subscriptions to
enable him to build another vessel. The intimation that other Powers had
approached the Count for the acquisition of his idea became known far
and wide, together with the circumstance that he had unequivocally
refused all offers. He was striving for the Fatherland, and his
unselfish patriotism appealed to one and all. Such an attitude deserved
hearty national appreciation, and the members of the great German public
emptied their pockets to such a degree that within a few weeks a sum of
L300,000 or $1,500,000 was voluntarily subscribed.

All financial embarrassments and distresses were now completely removed
from the Count's mind. He could forge ahead untrammelled by anxiety and
worry. Another Zeppelin was built and it created a world's record. It
remained aloft for 38 hours, during which time it covered 690 miles,
and, although it came to grief upon alighting, by colliding with a
tree, the final incident passed unnoticed. Germany was in advance of
the world. It had an airship which could go anywhere, irrespective of
climatic conditions, and in true Teuton perspective the craft was viewed
from the military standpoint. Here was a means of obtaining the mastery
of the air: a formidable engine of invasion and aerial attack had been
perfected. Consequently the Grand Idea must be supported with unbounded
enthusiasm. The Count was hailed by his august master as "The greatest
German of the twentieth century," and in this appreciation the populace
wholeheartedly concurred. Whether such a panegyric from such an
auspicious quarter is praise indeed or the equivalent of complete
condemnation, history alone will be able to judge, but when one
reflects, at this moment, upon the achievements of this aircraft during
the present conflagration, the unprejudiced will be rather inclined
to hazard the opinion that Imperial Teuton praise is a synonym for
damnation.

Although the Zeppelin was accepted as a perfect machine it has never
been possible to disperse the atmosphere of disaster with which it has
been enveloped from the first. Vessel after vessel has gone up in smoke
and flame: few craft of this type have enjoyed more than an evanescent
existence; and each successive catastrophe has proved more terrible than
its predecessor. But the Teutonic nation has been induced to pin its
whole faith on this airship, notwithstanding that the more levelheaded
engineers of other countries have always maintained the craft to be a
"mechanical monstrosity" condemned from its design and principles of
construction to disaster. Unshaken by this adverse criticism, Germany
rests assured that by means of its Zeppelins it will achieve that
universal supremacy which it is convinced is its Destiny.

This blind child-like faith has been responsible for the establishment
and development of the Zeppelin factories. At Friedrichshafen the
facilities are adequate to produce two of these vessels per month, while
another factory of a similar capacity has been established at Berlin.
Unfortunately such big craft demand large docks to accommodate them, and
in turn a large structure of this character constitutes an easy mark
for hostile attack, as the raiding airmen of the Allies have proved very
convincingly.

But the Zeppelin must not be under-rated. Magnificent performances have
been recorded by these vessels, such as the round 1,000 miles' trip in
1909, and several other equally brilliant feats since that date. It
is quite true that each astounding achievement has been attended by an
equally stupendous accident, but that is accepted as a mere incidental
detail by the faithful Teutonic nation. Many vivid prophecies of the
forthcoming flights by Zeppelin have been uttered, and it is quite
probable that more than one will be fulfilled, but success will be
attributable rather to accident than design.

Although the Zeppelin is the main stake of the German people in matters
pertaining to aerial conquest, other types of airships have not been
ignored, as related in another chapter. They have been fostered upon a
smaller but equally effective scale. The semi-rigid Parseval and Gross
craft have met with whole-hearted support, since they have established
their value as vessels of the air, which is tantamount to the acceptance
of their military value.

The Parseval is pronounced by experts to be the finest expression of
aeronautical engineering so far as Teuton effort is concerned. Certainly
it has placed many notable flights to its credit. The Gross airship
is an equally serviceable craft, its lines of design and construction
closely following those of the early French supple airships. There are
several other craft which have become more or less recognised by the
German nation as substantial units of war, such as the Ruthemberg,
Siemens-Schukert, and so forth, all of which have proved their
serviceability more or less conclusively. But in the somewhat
constricted Teuton mind the Zeppelin and the Zeppelin only represents
the ultima Thule of aerial navigation and the means for asserting the
universal character of Pan-Germanism as well as "Kultur."



CHAPTER IV. AIRSHIPS OF WAR

So much has been said and written concerning the Zeppelin airship,
particularly in its military aspect, that all other developments in
this field have sunk into insignificance so far as the general public is
concerned. The Zeppelin dirigible has come to be generally regarded as
the one and only form of practical lighter-than-air type of aircraft.
Moreover, the name has been driven home with such effect that it is
regarded as the generic term for all German airships.

These are grievous fallacies. The Zeppelin is merely one of a variety of
types, even in Germany, although at the moment it probably ranks as
the solitary survivor of the rigid system of construction. At one time,
owing to the earnestness with which the advantages of this form of
design were discussed, and in view of the fact that the Zeppelin
certainly appeared to triumph when all other designs failed, Great
Britain was tempted to embrace the rigid form of construction. The
building of an immense vessel of this class was actively supported
and it was aptly christened the "May-fly." Opponents of the movement
tempered their emphatic condemnatory criticism so far as to remark that
it MAY FLY, but as events proved it never did. The colossal craft
broke its back before it ever ventured into the air, and this solitary
experience proving so disastrous, the rigid form of construction was
abandoned once and for all. The venture was not in vain; it brought home
to the British authorities more convincingly than anything else that
the Zeppelin was a mechanical monstrosity. The French never even
contemplated the construction of such a craft at that time, estimating
it at its true value, and the British failure certainly served to
support French antagonism to the idea. Subsequently, however, an attempt
at rigid construction was made in France with the "Spiess" airship,
mainly as a concession to public clamour.

Even in Germany itself the defects of the Zeppelin were recognised and
a decided effort to eliminate them was made by Professor Schutte in
co-operation with a manufacturer of Mannheim named Lanz. The joint
product of their ambitions, the Schutte-Lanz, is declared to be superior
to the Zeppelin, but so far it has failed to justify any of the claims
of its designers. This vessel, which also favours the colossal, is
likewise of the rigid type, but realising the inherent dangers accruing
from the employment of metal for the framework, its constructors have
used wood, reinforced and strengthened where necessary by metallic
angle-iron, plates, and bracing; this utilisation of metal is, however,
carried out very sparingly. The first vessel of this class was a huge
failure, while subsequent craft have not proved much more successful.

In fact, one of the largest German airships ever designed, L4, is, or
rather was, a Schutte-Lanz, with a capacity of 918,000 cubic feet, but
over 6,000 pounds lighter than a Zeppelin of almost similar dimensions.
I say "was" since L4 is no more. The pride of its creators evinced a
stronger preference for Davy Jones' Locker than its designed realm. Yet
several craft of this type have been built and have been mistaken for
Zeppelins owing to the similarity of the broad principles of design and
their huge dimensions. In one vital respect they are decidedly inferior
to their contemporary--they are not so speedy.

The most successful of the German lighter-than-air machines are those
known respectively as the semi rigid and non-rigid types, the best
examples of which are the Gross and Parseval craft. Virtually they are
Teutonic editions of the successful French craft of identical design by
which they were anticipated. The Lebaudy is possibly the most famous of
the French efforts in this direction. The gas-bag has an asymmetrical
shape, and is pointed at both ends, although the prow is blunter or
rounder than the stem. The gas-bag comprises a single chamber for the
inflating agent, the distended shape of the envelope being sustained by
means of an air-ballonet. By varying the contents of the latter through
the agency of a pump the tension of the gas in the lifting envelope can
be maintained, and the shape of the inflated balloon preserved under all
conditions.

Beneath the gas-bag is a long strengthened girder, and from this in turn
the car is suspended. It is the introduction of this rigid girder which
is responsible for the descriptive generic term of "semi-rigid." On the
other hand the "non-rigid" type may be roughly described as a pisciform
balloon fitted with propelling machinery, inasmuch as the car containing
the driving machinery is suspended from the balloon in the manner of
the car in the ordinary drifting vessel. So far as the French effort is
concerned the Bayard-Clement type is the best example of the non-rigid
system; it is represented in Germany by the Parseval class.

The Gross airship has been definitely adopted as a military machine
by the German authorities, and figures in the "M" class. The "M-IV"
completed in 1913 is the largest of this type, and differs from its
prototypes in that it carries two cars, each fitted with motors, whereas
the earlier machines were equipped with a single gondola after the
French pattern. This vessel measures 320 feet in length, has a maximum
diameter of 44 1/2 feet, displaces 13 tons, and is fitted with motors
developing 450 horse-power, which is sufficient to give it a speed of
47 miles per hour. This vessel represents a huge advance upon its
predecessors of this design, inasmuch as the latter were about 245 feet
in length by 36 1/4 feet in diameter, and displaced only six tons,
while the single car was provided with a motor developing only 150
horse-power, the speed being 28 miles per hour. Thus it will be seen
that a huge development has suddenly taken place, a result due no doubt
to the co-operation of the well-known engineer Basenach. The "M-IV"
is essentially an experiment and great secrecy has been maintained
in regard to the trials which have been carried out therewith, the
authorities merely vouchsafing the fact that the airship has proved
completely successful in every respect; conclusive testimony of this
is offered by the inclusion of the vessel in the active aerial fleet of
Germany.

But it is the Parseval which is regarded as the finest type of airship
flying the German flag. This vessel is the product of slow evolution,
for it is admitted to be a power-driven balloon. Even the broad lines
of the latter are preserved, the shape being that of a cylinder with
rounded ends. It is the direct outcome of the "Drachen-Balloon,"
perfected by Parseval and Siegsfeld, the captive balloon which is an
indispensable part of the German military equipment.

The complete success of the suspension system in this captive balloon
prompted Parseval to continue his researches and experiments in regard
to the application of power to the vessel, so as to induce it to move
independently of the wind. The suspension system and the car are the
outstanding features of the craft. It is non-rigid in the strictest
interpretation of the term, although, owing to the incorporation of
the steadying hollow "mattress" (as it is called by its inventor), the
strength of the suspension system, and the substantial character of the
car, it conveys an impression of great solidity. The thinnest rope,
both manilla and steel, in the suspension system is as thick as a man's
finger, while the car, measuring 30 feet in length by 6 feet in width,
carried out in wood, is a striking example of the maximum of strength
with the minimum of weight, being as steady and as solid as a boat's
deck. The propellers are collapsible, although in the latest craft of
this class they are semi-rigid.

The mechanical equipment is also interesting. There are two propellers,
and two motors, each nominally driving one propeller. But should one
motor break down, or motives of economy, such as husbanding of fuel,
render it advisable to run upon one engine, then the two propellers may
be driven by either of the motors.

The inventor has perfected an ingenious, simple, and highly efficient
coupling device to attain this end, but to ensure that the propeller
output is of the maximum efficiency in relation to the engine, the pitch
of the propellers may be altered and even reversed while the engine is
running. When one motor only is being used, the pitch is lowered until
the propellers revolve at the speed which they would attain if both
engines were in operation. This adjustment of the propeller pitch to the
most economical engine revolutions is a distinctive characteristic, and
contributes to the efficiency and reliability of the Parseval dirigible
to a very pronounced degree.

Steering in the vertical plane is also carried out upon distinctive
lines. There are no planes for vertical steering, but movement is
accomplished by tilting the craft and thus driving the gas from one end
of the balloon to the other. This is effected by the manipulation of the
air-ballonets, one of which is placed at the prow and stem of the gas
bag respectively. If it is desired to descend the gas is driven from the
forward to the after end of the envelope, merely by inflating the bow
ballonet with air by means of a pump placed in the car. If ascent is
required, the after-ballonet is inflated, thereby driving the gas to the
forward end of the balloon, the buoyancy of which is thus increased.
The outstanding feature of the "Drachen-Balloon" is incorporated in
the airship. This is the automatic operation of the safety valve on the
gas-bag directly by the air ballonets. If these ballonets empty owing
to the pressure of the gas within the envelope, a rope system disposed
within the balloon and connecting the ballonets and the gas-valve at the
top is stretched taut, thereby opening the gas-valve. In this manner the
gas-pressure becomes reduced until the ballonets are enabled to exercise
their intended function. This is a safety precaution of inestimable
value.

The Parseval is probably the easiest dirigible to handle, inasmuch as it
involves no more skill or knowledge than that required for an ordinary
free balloon. Its movements in the vertical plane are not dissimilar
to those of the aeroplane, inasmuch as ascent and descent are normally
conducted in a "screwing" manner, the only exception being of course
in abrupt descent caused by the ripping of the emergency-valve. On one
occasion, it is stated, one of the latest machines of this type,
when conducting experimental flights, absolutely refused to descend,
producing infinite amusement both among the crowd and those on board.

The development of the Parseval is directly attributable to the
influence and intimate interest of the Kaiser, and undoubtedly this
represents the wisest step he ever made in the realm of aeronautics. It
certainly has enabled the German military machine to become possessed of
a significant fleet of what may be described as a really efficient and
reliable type of dirigible. The exact number of military Parsevals in
commission is unknown, but there are several classes thereof, in the
nature of aerial cruisers and vedettes.

The largest and most powerful class are those known as the B type,
measuring about 240 feet in length by 40 feet maximum diameter,
of 223,000 cubic feet capacity, and fitted with two motorsand two
propellers. This vessel carries about 10 passengers, can climb to a
maximum height of approximately 8,500 feet, and is capable of remaining
in the air for twenty hours upon a single fuel charge. While this is
the largest and most serviceable type of Parseval designed for
military duties, there is another, the A class, 200 feet in length with
accommodation for six passengers in addition to the crew of three, which
is capable of attaining a maximum altitude of 6,700 feet, and has an
endurance capacity of 15 hours. This class also is fitted with twin
propellers and motors. In addition there are the C and E classes,
carrying from four to eight passengers, while the vedettes are
represented by the D and F classes, which have a maximum altitude of
2,000 feet and can remain aloft for only five hours upon a single fuel
charge. These smaller vessels, however, have the advantage of requiring
only one or two men to handle them. The present military Parseval
dirigible is made in one of these five standardised classes, experience
having established their efficiency for the specified military services
for which they are built. In point of speed they compare favourably with
the latest types of Zeppelin, the speeds of the larger types ranging
from 32 to 48 miles per hour with a motor effort of 360 to 400
horse-power.

So far as the French airships of war are concerned, the fleet is
somewhat heterogeneous, although the non-rigid type prevails. The French
aerial navy is represented by the Bayard-Clement, Astra, Zodiac, and the
Government-built machines. Although the rigid type never has met with
favour in France, there is yet a solitary example of this system of
construction--the Spiess, which is 460 feet in length by 47 feet in
diameter and has a displacement of 20 tons. The semi-rigid craft are
represented by the Lebaudy type, the largest of which measures 293 feet
in length by 51 feet in diameter, and has a displacement of 10 tons.

One may feel disposed to wonder why the French should be apparently
backward in this form of aerial craft, but this may be explained by the
fact that the era of experiment had not been concluded at the time war
was declared, with the result that it has been somewhat difficult to
determine which type would meet the military requirements of the country
to the best advantage. Moreover, the French military authorities evinced
a certain disposition to relegate the dirigible to a minor position,
convinced that it had been superseded by the heavier-than-air machine.
Taken on the whole, the French airship fleet is inferior to the German
in point of speed, if not numerically, but this deficiency is more than
counterbalanced by the skill and ability of the men manning their craft,
who certainly are superior to their contemporaries in Germany, combined
with the proved character of such craft as are in service.

The same criticism may be said to apply to Great Britain. That
country was backward in matters pertaining to the airship, because its
experiments were carried out spasmodically while dependence was reposed
somewhat too much upon foreign effort. The British airships are small
and of low speed comparatively speaking. Here again it was the advance
of the aeroplane which was responsible for the manifestation of a
somewhat indifferent if not lethargic feeling towards the airship.
Undoubtedly the experiments carried out in Great Britain were somewhat
disappointing. The one and only attempt to out-Zeppelin the Zeppelin
resulted in disaster to the craft before she took to the air, while
the smaller craft carried out upon far less ambitious lines were
not inspiritingly successful. Latterly the non-rigid system has been
embraced exclusively, the craft being virtually mechanically driven
balloons. They have proved efficient and reliable so far as they go, but
it is the personal element in this instance also which has contributed
so materially to any successes achieved with them.

But although Great Britain and France apparently lagged behind the
Germans, appreciable enterprise was manifested in another direction.
The airship was not absolutely abandoned: vigilance was maintained for
a superior type of craft. It was an instance of weighing the advantages
against the disadvantages of the existing types and then evolving for a
design which should possess the former without any of the latter. This
end appears to be achieved with the Astra type of dirigible, the story
of the development of which offers an interesting chapter in the annals
of aeronautics.

In all lighter-than-air machines the resistance to the air offered
by the suspension ropes is considerable, and the reduction of this
resistance has proved one of the most perplexing problems in the
evolution of the dirigible. The air is broken up in such a manner by
the ropes that it is converted into a brake or drag with the inevitable
result that the speed undergoes a severe diminution. A full-rigged
airship such as the Parseval, for instance, may present a picturesque
appearance, but it is severely unscientific, inasmuch as if it were
possible to eliminateor to reduce the air-resistance offered by the
ropes, the speed efficiency might be raised by some sixty per cent and
that without any augmentation of the propelling effort. As a matter
of fact Zeppelin solved this vexatious problem unconsciously. In his
monster craft the resistance to the air is reduced to a remarkable
degree, which explains why these vessels, despite all their other
defects are able to show such a turn of speed.

It was this feature of the Zeppelin which induced Great Britain to
build the May-fly and which likewise induced the French Government to
stimulate dirigible design and construction among native manufacturers,
at the same time, however, insisting that such craft should be equal at
least in speed to the Zeppelins. The response to this invitation was the
Spiess, which with its speed of 45 miles per hour ranked, until 1914, as
one of the fastest dirigibles in the French service.

In the meantime a Spanish engineer, Senor Torres, had been quietly
working out a new idea. He realised the shortcomings of the prevailing
types of airships some eleven years ago, and unostentatiously and
painstakingly set out to eliminate them by the perfection of a new type
of craft. He perfected his idea, which was certainly novel, and then
sought the assistance of the Spanish Government. But his fatherland was
not adapted to the prosecution of the project. He strove to induce the
authorities to permit even a small vessel to be built, but in vain. He
then approached the French Astra Company. His ambition was to build a
vessel as large as the current Zeppelin, merely to emphasise the value
of his improvement upon a sufficiently large scale, and to enable
comparative data concerning the two designs to be obtained. But the
bogey of expense at first proved insuperable. However, the French
company, decided to give the invention a trial, and to this end a small
"vedette" of about 53,000 cubic feet displacement was built.

Although an unpretentious little vessel, it certainly served to
emphasise the importance of the Torres idea. It was pitted against the
"Colonel Renard," the finest ship at that time in the French aerial
service, which had proved the fastest airship in commission, and
which also was a product of the Astra Company. But this fine craft was
completely outclassed by the puny Astra-Torres.

The builders and the inventor were now additionally anxious to
illustrate more emphatically the features of this design and to build
a far larger vessel. The opportunity was offered by the British
Government, which had been following the experiments with the small
Astra-Torres in France. An order was given for a vessel of 282,500
cubic feet displacement; in this instance it was ranged against another
formidable rival--the Parseval. But the latter also failed to hold its
own against the Spanish invention, inasmuch as the Astra-Torres built
for the British authorities exceeded a speed of 50 miles per hour in the
official tests. This vessel is still doing valuable duty, being attached
to the British air-service in France.

The achievements of the British vessel were not lost upon the French
Government, which forthwith placed an order for a huge vessel of 812,200
cubic feet capacity, equipped with motors developing 1,000 horse-power,
which it was confidently expected would enable a speed of 60 miles per
hour to be attained. Thus France would be able to meet the Germans upon
fairly level terms, inasmuch as the speed of the latest Zeppelins does
not exceed 60 miles per hour. So confident were the authorities that a
second order for an even larger vessel was placed before the first large
craft was completed.

This latter vessel is larger than any Zeppelin yet built, seeing that
it displaces 38 tons, and is fitted with motors developing 1,000
horse-power. It has recently been completed, and although the results
of the trials, as well as the dimensions of the craft have not been
published, it is well known that the speed has exceeded 60 miles per
hour, so that France now possesses the speediest dirigible in the world.

The Torres invention has been described as wonderful, scientifically
perfect and extremely simple. The vessel belongs to the non-rigid class,
but the whole of the suspension system is placed within the gas-bag, so
that the air-resistance offered by ropes is virtually eliminated in its
entirety, for the simple reason that practically no ropes are placed
outside the envelope. The general principle of design may be gathered
from the accompanying diagram. It is as if three sausage-shaped
balloons were disposed pyramidally--two lying side by side with one
super-imposed, with the bags connected at the points where the circular
sections come into contact. Thus the external appearance of the envelope
is decidedly unusual, comprising three symmetrical ridges. At the points
where the three bags come into contact cloth bands are stretched across
the arcs, thereby forming a cord. The suspension system is attached to
the upper corners of the inverted triangle thus formed, and converges
in straight lines through the gas space. The bracing terminates in
collecting rings from which a short vertical cable extends downwards
through a special accordion sleeve to pass through the lower wall of the
envelope. These sleeves are of special design, the idea being to permit
the gas to escape under pressure arising from expansion and at the
same time to provide ample play for the cable which is necessary in a
flexible airship.

This cable emerges from the envelope only at the point or points where
the car or cars is or are placed. In the British airship of this type
there is only one car, but the larger French vessels are equipped
with two cars placed tandem-wise. The vertical cable, after extending
downwards a certain distance, is divided, one rope being attached
to one, and the second to the other side of the car. The two-bladed
propellers are disposed on either side of the car, in each of which a
500 horse-power motor is placed.

The Astra-Torres type of dirigible may be said to represent the latest
expression in airship design and construction. The invention has given
complete satisfaction, and has proved strikingly successful. The French
Government has completed arrangements for the acquisition of larger
and more powerful vessels of this design, being now in the position to
contest every step that is made by Germany in this field. The type has
also been embraced by the Russian military authorities. The Astra-Torres
airship has a rakish appearance, and although the lines of the gas-bag
are admitted to increase frictional resistance, this is regarded as a
minor defect, especially when the many advantages of the invention are
taken into consideration.



CHAPTER V. GERMANY'S AERIAL DREADNOUGHT FLEET

Although Germany, as compared with France, was relatively slow
to recognise the immense possibilities of aircraft, particularly
dirigibles, in the military sense, once the Zeppelin had received the
well-wishes of the Emperor William, Teuton activities were so pronounced
as to enable the leeway to be made up within a very short while. While
the Zeppelin commanded the greatest attention owing to the interesting
co-operation of the German Emperor, the other types met with official
and royal recognition and encouragement as already mentioned. France,
which had held premier position in regard to the aerial fleet of
dirigibles for so long, was completely out-classed, not only in
dimensions but also in speed, as well as radius of action and
strategical distribution of the aerial forces.

The German nation forged ahead at a great pace and was able to establish
a distinct supremacy, at least on paper. In the light of recent events
it is apparent that the German military authorities realised that the
dawn of "The Day" was approaching rapidly, and that it behoved them to
be as fully prepared in the air as upon the land. It was immaterial that
the Zeppelin was the synonym for disaster. By standardisation its cost
could be reduced while construction could be expedited. Furthermore,
when the matter was regarded in its broadest aspect, the fact was
appreciated that forty Zeppelins could be built at the cost of one
super-Dreadnought, so that adequate allowance could be made for
accidents now and then, since a Zeppelin catastrophe, no matter how
complete it may be, is regarded by the Teuton as a mere incident
inseparable from progressive development.

At the beginning of the year 1914 France relied upon being strengthened
by a round dozen new dirigibles. Seven of these were to be of 20,000
cubic metres' capacity and possessed of a speed of 47 miles per hour.
While the existing fleet was numerically strong, this strength was more
apparent than real, for the simple reason that a large number of craft
were in dry-dock undergoing repair or overhaul while many of the units
were merely under test and could not be regarded therefore as in the
effective fleet. True, there were a certain number of private craft
which were liable to be commandeered when the occasion arose, but they
could not be considered as decided acquisitions for the simple reason
that many were purely experimental units.

Aerial vessels, like their consorts upon the water, have been divided
into distinctive classes. Thus there are the aerial cruisers comprising
vessels exceeding 282,000 cubic feet in capacity; scouts which include
those varying between 176,600 and 282,000 cubic feet capacity; and
vedettes, which take in all the small or mosquito craft. At the end
of 1913, France possessed only four of the first-named craft in actual
commission and thus immediately available for war, these being the
Adjutant Vincenot, Adjutant Reau, Dupuy de Lome, and the Transaerien.
The first three are of 197,800 cubic feet. All, however, were privately
owned.

On the other hand, Germany had no fewer than ten huge vessels, ranging
from 353,000 to 776,900 cubic feet capacity, three of which, the
Victoria Luise, Suchard, and Hansa, though owned privately, were
immediately available for war. Of these the largest was the Zeppelin
naval vessel "L-1" 525 feet in length, by 50 feet diameter, of 776,900
cubic feet capacity, equipped with engines developing 510 horse-power,
and with a speed of 51.8 miles per hour.

At the end of 1913 the effective aerial fleet of Germany comprised
twenty large craft, so far in advance of the French aerial cruisers as
to be worthy of the name bestowed upon them--"Aerial Dreadnoughts." This
merely represented the fleet available for immediate use and did not
include the four gigantic Suchard-Schutte craft, each of 847,500 cubic
feet, which were under construction, and which were being hurried
forward to come into commission early in 1914.

But the most interesting factor, apart from the possession of such a
huge fleet of dirigible air-craft, was their distribution at strategical
points throughout the Empire as if in readiness for the coming combat.
They were literally dotted about the country. Adequate harbouring
facilities had been provided at Konigsberg, Berlin, Posen, Breslau,
Kiel, Hamburg, Wilhelmshaven, Dusseldorf, Cologne, Frankfort, Metz,
Mannheim, Strasburg, and other places, with elaborate headquarters, of
course, at Friedrichshafen upon Lake Constance. The Zeppelin workshops,
harbouring facilities, and testing grounds at the latter point had
undergone complete remodelling, while tools of the latest type had
been provided to facilitate the rapid construction and overhaul of the
monster Zeppelin dirigibles. Nothing had been left to chance; not an
item was perfunctorily completed. The whole organisation was perfect,
both in equipment and operation. Each of the above stations possessed
provision for an aerial Dreadnought as well as one or more aerial
cruisers, in addition to scouts or vedettes.

Upon the outbreak of hostilities Germany's dirigible fleet was in a
condition of complete preparedness, was better organised, and better
equipped than that of any of her rivals. At the same time it constituted
more of a paper than a fighting array for reasons which I will
explain later. But there was another point which had escaped general
observation. Standardisation of parts and the installation of the
desired machinery had accomplished one greatly desired end--the
construction of new craft had been accelerated. Before the war an
interesting experiment was carried out to determine how speedily a
vessel could be built. The result proved that a dirigible of the most
powerful type could be completed within eight weeks and forthwith the
various constructional establishments were brought into line so as to
maintain this rate of building.

The growth of the Zeppelin, although built upon disaster, has been
amazing. The craft of 1906 had a capacity of 430,000 cubic feet and a
speed of 36 miles per hour. In 1911 the creator of this type launched
a huge craft having a capacity of 627,000 cubic feet. In the meantime
speed had likewise been augmented by the use of more powerful motors
until 52 miles an hour was attained. But this by no means represented
the limit. The foregoing vessels had been designed for land service
purely and simply, but now the German authorities demanded similar craft
for naval use, possessed of high speed and greater radius of action.
Count Zeppelin rose to the occasion, and on October 7th, 1912, launched
at Friedrichshafen the monster craft "L-I," 525 feet in length, 50 feet
in diameter, of 776,900 cubic feet capacity, a displacement of 22
tons and equipped with three sets of motors aggregating more than 500
horse-power, and capable of imparting a speed of 52 miles per hour.

The appearance of this craft was hailed with intense delight by the
German nation, while the naval department considered her to be a
wonderful acquisition, especially after the searching reliability trial.
In charge of Count Zeppelin and manned by a crew of 22 officers and men
together with nearly three tons of fuel--the fuel capacity conveys
some idea of her possible radius of action--she travelled from
Friedrichshafen to Johannisthal in 32 hours. On this remarkable journey
another point was established which was of far-reaching significance.
The vessel was equipped with wireless telegraphy and therewith she
kept in touch with the earth below throughout the journey, dropping and
picking up wireless stations as she progressed with complete facility.
This was a distinct achievement, inasmuch as the vessel having been
constructed especially for naval operations she would be able to keep
in touch with the warships below, guiding them unerringly during their
movement.

The cross-country trip having proved so completely successful the
authorities were induced to believe that travelling over water would be
equally satisfactory. Accordingly the "L-I" was dispatched to the island
of Heligoland, the intention being to participate in naval manoeuvres
in order to provide some reliable data as to the value of these craft
operating in conjunction with warships. But in these tests German
ambition and pride received a check. The huge Zeppelin was manoeuvring
over the North Sea within easy reach of Heligoland, when she was caught
by one of those sudden storms peculiar to that stretch of salt water. In
a moment she was stricken helpless; her motive power was overwhelmed
by the blind forces of Nature. The wind caught her as it would a
soap-bubble and hurled her into the sea, precipitating the most
disastrous calamity in the annals of aeronautics, since not only was the
ship lost, but fifteen of her crew of 22 officers and men were drowned.

The catastrophe created consternation in German aeronautical circles.
A searching inquiry was held to explain the disaster, but as usual it
failed to yield much material information. It is a curious circumstance,
but every successive Zeppelin disaster, and their number is legion,
has been attributable to a new cause. In this instance the accident was
additionally disturbing, inasmuch as the ship had been flying across
country continuously for about twelve months and had covered more miles
than any preceding craft of her type. No scientific explanation for the
disaster was forthcoming, but the commander of the vessel, who sank with
his ship, had previously ventured his personal opinion that the
vessel was over-loaded to meet the calls of ambition, was by no means
seaworthy, and that sooner or later she would be caught by a heavy
broadside wind and rendered helpless, or that she would make a headlong
dive to destruction. It is a significant fact that he never had any
faith in the airship, at least for sea duty, though in response to
official command he carried out his duties faithfully and with a blind
resignation to Fate.

Meantime, owing to the success of the "L-I" in cross-country operations,
another and more powerful craft, the "L-II" had been taken in hand, and
this was constructed also for naval use. While shorter than her consort,
being only 487 feet over all, this vessel had a greater beam--55 feet.
This latter increase was decided because it was conceded to be an easier
matter to provide for greater beam than enhanced length in the existing
air-ship harbours. The "L-II" displaced 27 tons--five tons in excess of
her predecessor. In this vessel many innovations were introduced, such
as the provision of the passage-way connecting the cars within the hull,
instead of outside the latter as had hitherto been the practice, while
the three cars were placed more closely together than formerly. The
motors were of an improved type, giving an aggregate output of 900
horse-power, and were divided into four separate units, housed in two
engine-rooms, the front car being a replica in every detail of the
navigating bridge of a warship.

This vessel was regarded as a distinct improvement upon the "L-I,"
although the latter could boast some great achievements. But her glory
was short-lived. In the course of the Government trials, while some 900
feet aloft, the huge vessel suddenly exploded and was burned in the air,
a mass of broken and twisted metal-work falling to the ground. Of the
28 officers and men, including members of the Admiralty Board who were
conducting the official trials, all but one were killed outright, and
the solitary exception was so terribly burned as to survive the fall for
only a few hours.

The accident was remarkable and demonstrated very convincingly that
although Count Zeppelin apparently had made huge strides in aerial
navigation through the passage of years, yet in reality he had made no
progress at all. He committed the identical error that characterised the
effort of Severo Pax ten years previously, and the disaster was directly
attributable to the self-same cause as that which overwhelmed the
Severo airship. The gas, escaping from the balloons housed in the hull,
collected in the confined passage-way communicating with the cars, came
into contact with a naked light, possibly the exhaust from the motors,
and instantly detonated with terrific force, blowing the airship to
fragments and setting fire to all the inflammable materials.

In this airship Zeppelin committed an unpardonable blunder. He had
ignored the factor of "internal safety," and had deliberately flown in
the face of the official rule which had been laid down in France after
the Severo disaster, which absolutely forbade the inclusion of such
confined spaces as Zeppelin had incorporated. This catastrophe coming so
closely as it did upon the preceding disaster to the pride of the German
aerial fleet somewhat shook public confidence in these craft, while
aeronautical authorities of other countries described the Zeppelin more
vehemently than ever as a "mechanical monstrosity" and a "scientific
curiosity."

The Zeppelin has come to be feared in a general manner, but this result
is due rather to stories sedulously circulated, and which may be easily
traced to Teutonic sources. Very few data of a reliable character have
been allowed to filter through official circles. We have been told
somewhat verbosely of what it can accomplish and of its high degree of
efficiency and speed. But can credence be placed in these statements?

When Zeppelin IV made its unexpected descent at Luneville, and was
promptly seized by the French authorities, the German War office evinced
distinct signs of uneasiness. The reason was speedily forth coming. The
captain of the craft which had been captured forgot to destroy his
log and other records of data concerning the vessel which had been
scientifically collected during the journey. All this information
fell into the hands of the French military department, and it proved a
wondrous revelation. It enabled the French to value the Zeppelin at its
true worth, which was by no means comparable to the estimate based on
reports skilfully circulated for the benefit of the world at large.

Recently the French military department permitted the results of their
expert official examination to be made public. From close investigation
of the log-book and the diagrams which had been prepared, it was found
that the maximum speed attained by Zeppelin IV during this momentous
flight was only 45 miles per hour! It was ascertained, moreover, that
the load was 10,560 pounds, and the ascensional effort 45,100 pounds.
The fuel consumption had averaged 297 pounds per hour, while the fuel
tanks carried sufficient for a flight of about seven hours. The airship
had attained a maximum height of about 6,230 feet, to reach which 6,600
pounds of ballast had to be discarded. Moreover, it was proved that a
Zeppelin, if travelling under military conditions with full armament and
ammunition aboard, could carry sufficient fuel for only ten hours at the
utmost, during which, if the slightest head-wind prevailed, it could not
cover more than 340 miles on the one fuel charge.

This information has certainly proved a revelation and has contributed
to the indifference with which the Parisians regard a Zeppelin raid. At
the outbreak of war the Zeppelin station nearest to Paris was at Metz,
but to make the raid from that point the airship was forced to cover
a round 500 miles. It is scarcely to be supposed that perfectly calm
weather would prevail during the whole period of the flight, so that
a raid would be attended by considerable risk. That this handicap was
recognised in German military circles is borne out by the fact that a
temporary Zeppelin hangar was established at a point considerably nearer
the French capital, for the purpose of enabling a raid to be carried out
with a greater possibility of success.

The capture of Zeppelin IV revealed another important fact. The critical
flying height of the airship is between 3,300 and 4,000 feet. To attempt
a raid at such an altitude would be to court certain disaster, inasmuch
as the vessel would have to run the gauntlet of the whole of the French
artillery, which it is admitted has a maximum range exceeding the flying
altitude of the Zeppelin. That the above calculation is within reason is
supported by the statements of Count Zeppelin himself, who has declared
that his airships are useless at a height exceeding 5,000 feet.
Confirmatory evidence upon this point is offered by the raid upon the
British East Coast towns, when it is stated that the aircraft were
manoeuvring at a height not exceeding 2,000 feet.



CHAPTER VI. THE MILITARY VALUE OF GERMANY'S AERIAL FLEET

Although the Zeppelin undoubtedly has been over-rated by the forces to
which it is attached, at the same time it must not be under-estimated by
its detractors. Larger and more powerful vessels of this type have been,
and still are being, constructed, culminating, so far as is known, in
the "L-5," which is stated to have a capacity of about 1,000,000 cubic
feet, and to possess an average speed of 65 miles per hour.

While it is generally maintained that the Zeppelins will prove
formidable in attack, greater reliance is being placed upon the
demoralising or terrifying effect which they are able to exercise. Owing
to the fact that from 3 to 5 tons of fuel--say 900 to 1,500 gallons of
gasoline or petrol--can be carried aboard, giving them a wide radius of
action, it is doubtful whether they could travel from Cologne to London
and back upon a single fuel charge, since such a raid would entail a
journey of about 600 miles. The latest types of this craft are said to
possess a high ascensional speed, which offers a distinct protection
against aeroplane attack. According to such official information as
has been vouchsafed, a Zeppelin, when hard pressed, is able to rise
vertically 3,500 feet in about three minutes. This is far in excess of
the ascensional speed of even the speediest aeroplane, of course, the
penalty for such a factor has to be paid: the loss of gas is appreciable
and may lead to the craft's ultimate undoing. At the same time, however,
it is able to maintain the superior position as compared with the
aeroplane for a considerable period: the upper reaches of the air are
its sanctuary.

Nor must the nocturnal activities of the Zeppelin be overlooked. So far
as night operations by these vessels are concerned, little has leaked
out, so that the possibilities of the airship in this direction are
still somewhat hypothetical. The fact remains, however, that it is
night movements which perhaps are the most to be dreaded by the enemy.
According to official German sources of information the latest types of
Zeppelins are engined by "noiseless" motors. There is nothing remarkable
in this feature, since the modern motor-car virtually answers to this
description, although in this instance quietness is obtained for the
most part by recourse to the sleeve-valve engine. Still, the ordinary
Otto-cycle internal combustion engine can be rendered almost silent by
the utilisation of adequate muffling devices, which, in the Zeppelin,
are more possible of incorporation than in the aeroplane, because the
extra weight imposed by this acquisition is a minor consideration in
comparison with the lifting power of the vessel.

Night operations, however, have not proved eminently successful. The
very darkness which protects the aerial prowler also serves a similar
purpose in connection with its prey. But aerial operations under the
cover of darkness are guided not so much by the glare of lights from
below as betrayal by sound. The difference between villages and cities
may be distinguished from aloft, say at 1,500 to 3,000 feet, by the hum
which life and movement emit, and this is the best guide to the aerial
scout or battleship. The German authorities have made a special study
of this peculiar problem, and have conducted innumerable tests upon the
darkest nights, when even the sheen of the moon has been unavailable,
for the express purpose of training the aerial navigators to discover
their position from the different sounds reaching them from below. In
other words, the corsair in the skies depends more upon compass and
sound than upon compass and vision when operating after dark. The
searchlights with which the Zeppelins are equipped are provided merely
for illuminating a supposed position. They are not brought into service
until the navigator concludes that he has arrived above the desired
point: the ray of light which is then projected is merely to assist the
crew in the discharge of the missiles of destruction.

The Zeppelin, however, owing to its speed, both in the horizontal and
vertical planes, is essentially a unit for daylight operations. The
other airships which Germany possesses, and which for the most part are
of the non-rigid type, are condemned to daylight operations from
the character of their design. Owing to their low speeds they may be
dismissed as impossible aerial vessels for hazardous work and are not
regarded by the German authorities as all-round airships of war.

Craft of the air are judged in Germany from the one standard only. This
may be a Teutonic failing, but it is quite in keeping with the Teutonic
spirit of militarism. Commercialism is a secondary factor. To the German
Emperor an airship is much what a new manufacturing process or machine
is to the American. Whereas the latter asks, "How much will it save
me on the dollar?" to the War Lord of Germany--and an airship
notwithstanding its other recommendatory features is judged solely from
this standpoint--the question is "What are its military qualifications?"

When the semi-rigid airship "V-I" was brought before the notice of the
German military department the pressing point concerning its military
recommendations arose at once. The inventor had foreseen this issue and
was optimistic. Thereupon the authorities asked if the inventor were
prepared to justify his claims. The retort was positive. Forthwith the
Junkers decided to submit it to the test.

This ship is of quite a distinctive type. It is an aerial cruiser, and
the inventor claims that it combines all the essential qualifications
of the Zeppelin and of the competitors of the latter, in addition to the
advantage of being capable of dissection, transportation in parts, and
rapid re-erection at any desired spot. The length of the vessel is about
270 feet; maximum diameter approximately 42 feet, and capacity about
300,000 cubic feet. The outstanding feature is a rigid keel-frame
forming a covered passage way below the envelope or gas-bag, combined
with easy access to all parts of the craft while under way, together
with an artificial stiffening which dispenses with the necessity of
attaching any additional cars. The frame is so designed that the load,
as well as the ballast and fuel tanks, may be distributed as desired,
and at the same time it ensures an advantageous disposition of the
steering mechanism, far removed from the centre of rotation at the
stern, without any overloading of the latter.

The lifting part of the airship comprises a single gas bag fitted with
two ballonets provided to ensure the requisite gas-tension in the main
envelope, while at the same time permitting, in times of emergency,
a rapid change of altitude. Self-contained blowers contribute to the
preservation of the shape of the envelope, the blowers and the ballonets
being under the control of the pilot. Planes resembling Venetian blinds
facilitate vertical steering, while the suspension of the keel is
carried out in such a manner as to secure uniformity of weight upon the
gas bag. The propelling power comprises two sets of internal combustion
engines, each developing 130 horse-power, the transmission being through
rubber belting. The propellers, built of wood, make 350 revolutions per
minute, and are set as closely as possible to the centre of resistance.

But the most salient characteristic of this machine is its portability.
It can be dismantled and transported by wagons to any desired spot,
the suspension frame being constructed in units, each of which is
sufficiently small to be accommodated in an ordinary vehicle. Upon
arrival the parts may be put together speedily and easily. The
authorities submitted the airship to exacting trials and were so
impressed by its characteristics and the claims of the inventor that
undoubtedly it will be brought into service during the present crisis.

At the same time the whole faith of the German military staff so far
as airship operations are concerned, is pinned to the Zeppelin.
Notwithstanding its many drawbacks it is the vessel which will be used
for the invasion of Great Britain. Even the harbour question, which is
admitted to be somewhat acute, has been solved to a certain degree.
At strategical points permanent harbours or airship sheds have been
established. Seeing that the airships demand considerable skill in
docking and undocking, and that it is impossible to achieve these
operations against the wind, swinging sheds have been adopted.

On water the practice is to anchor a floating harbour at one end,
leaving the structure to swing round with the wind. But on dry land such
a dock is impossible. Accordingly turntable sheds have been adopted.
The shed is mounted upon a double turn-table, there being two circular
tracks the one near the centre of the shed and the other towards its
extremities. The shed is mounted upon a centre pivot and wheels engaged
with these inner and outer tracks. In this manner the shed may be swung
round to the most favourable point of the compass according to the wind.

In the field, however, such practices are impossible, and the issue
in this connection has been overcome by recourse to what may be termed
portable harbours. They resemble the tents of peripatetic circuses and
travelling exhibitions. There is a network of vertical steel members
which may be set with facility and speed and which are stayed by
means of wire guys. At the top of the outer vertical posts pulleys
are provided whereby the outer skin or canvas forming the walls may
be hauled into position, while at the apex of the roof further pulleys
ensure the proper placing of the roofing. The airship is able to enter
or leave from either end according to conditions. The material is
fireproofed as a precautionary measure, but at the same time the modern
aerial bomb is able to penetrate the roofing without any difficulty and
to explode against the airship anchored within.

The one great objection to the Zeppelin harbour is the huge target it
offers to hostile attack, which, in the event of a vessel being moored
within, is inevitably serious. Thus, for instance, upon the occasion of
the air raids conducted by Lieutenant Collet and of Squadron
Commander Briggs and his colleagues at Dusseldorf and Friedrichshafen
respectively, little difficulty was experienced in destroying the
airships riding at anchor. The target offered by the shed is so
extensive that it would be scarcely possible for a flying enemy to miss
it. A bomb dropped from a reasonable height, say 500 feet, would be
almost certain to strike some part of the building, and a Zeppelin is
an easy vessel to destroy. The firing of one balloon is sufficient
to detonate the whole, for the simple reason that hydrogen gas is
continuously oozing through the bags in which it is contained. According
to a recent statement the Germans are said to be utilising an inert
or non-inflammable gas, equal in lifting power to hydrogen, for the
inflation of military craft, but scientific thought does not entertain
this statement with any degree of seriousness. No gas as light as
hydrogen and non-explosive is known to commerce.

Will Germany invade Great Britain by air? This is the absorbing topic of
the moment--one which has created intense interest and a certain feeling
of alarm among the timorous. Although sporadic raids are considered
to be possible and likely to be carried out with a varying measure
of success--such as that made upon the British East Coast--eminent
authorities ridicule an invasion in force. The risk would be enormous,
although there is no doubt that Germany, which has always maintained
that an invasion of this character will be made, will be compelled to
essay such a task, in order to satisfy public opinion, and to justify
official statements. It is a moot point, however, whether the invaders
ever will succeed in making good their escape, unless Nature proves
exceptionally kind.

The situation is best summed up in the unbiassed report of General
George P. Scriven, Chief Signal officer of the United States Army to the
U.S. Secretary of War. In this report, which deals exhaustively with the
history, construction and achievements of airships, such an invasion
is described as fantastic and impracticable. Writing on November 10th,
1914, the officer declares that "he is not prepared to recommend
the American Army to take up seriously the question of constructing
dirigibles, as they are not worth their cost as offensive machines,
while for reconnaissance or defence they are of far less value than
aeroplanes." In his words, "Dirigibles are seemingly useless in defence
against the aeroplane or gun-fire."

In order to be able to make an invasion in force upon Great Britain's
cities extremely favourable weather must prevail, and the treacherous
nature of the weather conditions of the North Sea are known fully well
both to British and Teuton navigators. Seeing that the majority of the
Zeppelin pilots are drawn from the Navy and mercantile marine, and
thus are conversant with the peculiarities and characteristics of
this stretch of salt water, it is only logical to suppose that their
knowledge will exert a powerful influence in any such decision, the
recommendations of the meteorological savants not withstanding.

When the Zeppelin pride of the German Navy "L-1" was hurled to
destruction by a typical North Sea squall, Captain Blew of the Victoria
Luise, a Zeppelin with many great achievements to her credit, whose
navigator was formerly in the Navy, and thus is familiar with the whole
issue, explained that this atmospheric liveliness of the North Sea
prevails for the most part in the latitude of Norway, but that it
frequently extends as far south as the gate of the Channel. He related
furthermore that the rain squalls are of tropical violence, while the
vertical thrusts of air are such that no dirigible as yet constructed
could ever hope to live in them. Under such conditions, he continued,
the gas is certain to cool intensely, and the hull must then become
waterlogged, not to mention the downward thrust of the rain. Under such
conditions buoyancy must be imperilled to such a degree as to demand the
jettisoning of every piece of ballast, fuel and other removable weight,
including even the steadying and vertical planes. When this has been
done, he pointed out, nothing is left with which to combat the upward
vertical thrusts of the air. To attempt to run before the wind is to
court positive disaster, as the wind is certain to gain the mastery.
Once the airship loses steering way and is rendered uncontrollable it
becomes the sport of the forces of Nature, with the result that
destruction is merely a matter of minutes, or even seconds.

Every navigator who knows the North Sea will support these conclusions.
Squalls and blizzards in winter, and thunderstorms in summer, rise
with startling suddenness and rage with terrific destructive fury.
Such conditions must react against the attempt of an aerial invasion
in force, unless it be made in the character of the last throw by a
desperate gambler, with good fortune favouring the dash to a certain
degree. But lesser and more insignificant Zeppelin raids are likely
to be somewhat frequent, and to be made at every favourable climatic
opportunity.



CHAPTER VII. AEROPLANES OF WAR

Owing to the fertility of inventors and the resultant multiplicity of
designs it is impossible to describe every type of heavier-than-air
machine which has been submitted to the exacting requirements of
military duty. The variety is infinite and the salient fact has already
been established that many of the models which have proved reliable and
efficient under normal conditions are unsuited to military operations.
The early days of the war enabled those of doubtful value to be
eliminated, the result being that those machines which are now in
use represent the survival of the fittest. Experience has furthermore
emphasised the necessity of reducing the number of types to the absolute
minimum. This weeding-out process is being continued and there is no
doubt that by the time the war is concluded the number of approved types
of aeroplanes of military value will have been reduced to a score or
less. The inconveniences and disadvantages arising from the utilisation
of a wide variety of different types are manifold, the greatest being
the necessity of carrying a varied assortment of spare parts, and
confusion in the repair and overhauling shops.

The methodical Teuton was the first to grasp the significance of these
drawbacks; he has accordingly carried standardisation to a high degree
of efficiency, as is shown in another chapter. At a later date France
appreciated the wisdom of the German practice, and within a short time
after the outbreak of hostilities promptly ruled out certain types of
machines which were regarded as unsuitable. In this instance the process
of elimination created considerable surprise, inasmuch as it involved an
embargo on the use of certain machines, which under peace conditions
had achieved an international reputation, and were held to represent the
finest expression of aeronautical science in France as far as aeroplane
developments are concerned.

Possibly the German machine which is most familiar, by name, to the
general public is the Taube, or, as it is sometimes called, the Etrich
monoplane, from the circumstance that it was evolved by the Austrian
engineer Igo Etrich in collaboration with his colleague Wels. These two
experimenters embarked on the study of dynamic flight contemporaneously
with Maxim, Langley, Kress, and many other well-known pioneers, but it
was not until 1908 that their first practical machine was completed.
Its success was instantaneous, many notable flights being placed to its
credit, while some idea of the perfection of its design may be gathered
from the fact that the machine of to-day is substantially identical
with that used seven years ago, the alterations which have been effected
meanwhile being merely modifications in minor details.

The design of this machine follows very closely the lines of a bird in
flight--hence its colloquial description, "Taube," or "dove." Indeed the
analogy to the bird is so close that the ribs of the frame resemble the
feathers of a bird. The supporting plane is shaped in the manner of
a bird's distended wing, and is tipped up at the rear ends to ensure
stability. The tail also resembles that of a bird very closely.

This aeroplane, especially the latest type, is very speedy, and it has
proved extremely reliable. It is very sharp in turning and extremely
sensitive to its rudder, which renders it a first-class craft for
reconnoitring duty. The latest machines are fitted with motors
developing from 120 to 150 horse-power.

The "Taube" commanded attention in Germany for the reason that it
indicated the first departure from the adherence to the French designs
which up to that time had been followed somewhat slavishly, owing to the
absence of native initiative.

The individuality of character revealed in the "Taube" appealed to the
German instinct, with the result that the machine achieved a greater
reputation than might have been the case had it been pitted against
other types of essentially Teutonic origin. The Taube was subsequently
tested both in France and Great Britain, but failed to raise an equal
degree of enthusiasm, owing to the manifestation of certain defects
which marred its utility. This practical experience tended to prove that
the Taube, like the Zeppelin, possessed a local reputation somewhat of
the paper type. The Germans, however, were by no means disappointed by
such adverse criticism, but promptly set to work to eliminate defects
with a view to securing an all-round improvement.

The most successful of these endeavours is represented in the
Taube-Rumpler aeroplane, which may be described as an improved edition
of Etrich's original idea. As a matter of fact the modifications were of
so slight, though important, a character that many machines generically
described as Taubes are in reality Rumplers, but the difference is
beyond detection by the ordinary and unpractised observer.

In the Rumpler machine the wings, like those of the Taube, assume
broadly the form and shape of those of the pigeon or dove in flight. The
early Rumpler machines suffered from sluggish control, but in the later
types this defect has been overcome. In the early models the wings were
flexible, but in the present craft they are rigid, although fitted with
tips or ailerons. The supporting truss beneath the wings, which was such
an outstanding feature of its prototype, has been dispensed with, the
usual I-beam longitudinals being used in its stead. The latest machines
fitted with 100-120 horse-power Mercedes motors have a fine turn of
speed, possess an enhanced ascensional effort, and are far simpler to
control.

Other German machines which are used in the military service are the
Gotha and the Albatross. The former is a monoplane, and here again
the influence of Etrich upon German aeroplane developments is strongly
manifested, the shape of the bird's wing being retained. In the Gotha
the truss which Etrich introduced is a prominent characteristic. The
Albatross is a biplane, but this craft has proved to be somewhat slow
and may be said to be confined to what might be described as the heavier
aerial military duties, where great endurance and reliability are
essential. As the war proceeds, doubtless Teuton ingenuity will
be responsible for the appearance of new types, as well as certain
modifications in the detail construction of the existing machines, but
there is every indication that the broad lines of Etrich's conception
will be retained in all monoplanes.

There is one point in which Germany has excelled. Wood is not employed
in the construction of these heavier-than-air craft. Steel and the
lighter tough alloys are exclusively used. In this way the minimum of
weight consistent with the maximum of strength policy is carried
out. Moreover the manufacture of component parts is facilitated and
accelerated to a remarkable degree by the use of metal, while the
tasks of fitting and repairing are notably expedited by the practice of
standardisation. Germany is also manifesting commendable enterprise in
the perfection of light powerful motors for these dynamic machines. The
latest types of explosion-motors range from 100 to 150 horse-power; the
advantages of these are obvious.

Upon the outbreak of hostilities the French possessed an enormous number
and variety of aeroplanes and this aerial fleet had been brought to
a high standard of organisation. The aerial fleet is sub-divided into
squadrons called "escadrilles," each of which comprises six machines and
pilots. These units are kept up to strength, wastage being made up from
reserves, so as to maintain the requisite homogeneity.

But ere the war had been in progress many weeks an official order was
issued forbidding the employment of the Bleriot, Deperdussin, Nieuport,
and R.E.P. monoplanes. Those which received official approval included
the Caudron, Henry, and Maurice Farman, Morane-Saulnier, and Voisin
machines.

This drastic order came somewhat as a thunderbolt, and the reason for
the decree has not been satisfactorily revealed. Suffice to say that in
one stroke the efficiency and numerical strength of the French aerial
navy were reduced very appreciably. For instance, it is stated that
there were thirty escadrilles of Bleriot monoplanes together with pilots
at the front, in addition to thirty mixed escadrilles of the other
prohibited types with their fliers. Moreover a round 33 escadrilles of
all the various types were in reserve. The effect of the military order
was to reduce the effective strength by no fewer than 558 aeroplanes.

Seeing that the French aerial force was placed at a great disadvantage
numerically by this action, there seems to be ample justification for
the hostile criticism which the decree of prohibition aroused in certain
circles, especially when it is remembered that there was not an equal
number of the accepted machines available to take the place of those
which had been ruled out of court. One effect of this decree was to
throw some 400 expert aviators upon the waiting list for the simple
reason that machines were unavailable. Some of the best aviation skill
and knowledge which France possesses were affected by the order. It
is stated that accomplished aviators, such as Vedrines, were unable to
obtain machines.

It will be seen that the ultimate effect of the French military decree
was to reduce the number of types to about four, each of which was
allotted a specific duty. But whereas three different bi-planes are on
the approved list there is only one monoplane--the Morane-Saulaier.
This machine, however, has a great turn of speed, and it is also able to
climb at a very fast pace. In these respects it is superior to the crack
craft of Germany, so that time after time the latter have refused battle
in the skies, and have hurried back to their lines.

The Morane-Saulnier is the French mosquito craft of the air and like the
insect, it is avowedly aggressive. In fact, its duties are confined to
the work of chasing and bringing down the enemy, for which work its high
manoeuvring capacity is excellently adapted. Its aggressive armament
comprises a mitrailleuse. Unfortunately, however, the factory
responsible for the production of this machine is at present handicapped
by the limitations of its manufacturing plant, which when pushed to the
utmost extent cannot turn out more than about ten machines per week. No
doubt this deficiency will be remedied as the war proceeds by extension
of the works or by allotting orders to other establishments, but at the
time of the decree the manufacturing capacity was scarcely sufficient to
make good the wastage, which was somewhat heavy.

As far as biplanes are concerned the Caudron is the fastest in flight
and is likewise extremely quick in manoeuvring. It is a very small
machine and is extremely light, but the fact that it can climb at the
rate of over 330 feet per minute is a distinct advantage in its favour.
It supplements the Morane-Saulnier monoplane in the specific duty of the
latter, while it is also employed for discovering the enemy's artillery
and communicating the range of the latter to the French and British
artillery. In this latter work it has played a very prominent part and
to it is due in no small measure that deadly accuracy of the artillery
of the Allies which has now become so famous. This applies especially
to those tactics, where the field artillery dashes up to a position,
discharges a number of rounds in rapid succession, or indulges in rafale
firing, and then limbering up, rushes away before the enemy can reply.

As is well known the Farman biplanes possess high endurance qualities.
They can remain aloft for many hours at a stretch and are remarkably
reliable. Owing to these qualities they are utilised for prolonged and
searching reconnoitring duties such as strategical reconnaissances as
distinct from the hurried and tactical reconnaissances carried out by
fleeter machines. While they are not so speedy as the monoplanes of the
German military establishment, endurance in this instance is preferable
to pace. A thorough survey of the enemy's position over the whole of
his military zone, which stretches back for a distance of 30 miles or so
from the outer line of trenches, is of incalculable value to a commander
who is contemplating any decisive movement or who is somewhat in doubt
as to the precise character of his antagonist's tactics.

The French aerial fleet has been particularly active in its work of
raiding hostile positions and submitting them to a fusillade of bombs
from the clouds. The machine which is allotted this specific task is
the Voisin biplane. This is due to the fact that this machine is able to
carry a great weight. It was speedily discovered that in bomb-raids
it is essential for an aeroplane to be able to carry a somewhat large
supply of missiles, owing to the high percentage of misses which attends
these operations. A raid by a machine capable of carrying only,
say, half-a-dozen projectiles, is virtually a waste of fuel, and
the endurance limitations of the fast machines reacts against their
profitable use in this work. On the other hand, the fact that the Voisin
machine is able to carry a large supply of bombs renders it an ideal
craft for this purpose; hence the official decision to confine it to
this work.

So far as the British efforts in aerial work are concerned there is no
such display of rigid selection as characterises the practice of the
French and German military authorities. Britain's position in the air
has been extensively due to private enterprise, and this is still being
encouraged. Moreover at the beginning of the war Britain was numerically
far inferior both to her antagonist and to her ally. Consequently it was
a wise move to encourage the private manufacture of machines which had
already established their value. The consequence is that a variety
of machines figure in the British aerial navy. Private initiative is
excellently seconded by the Government manufacturing aeroplane factory,
while the training of pilots is likewise being carried out upon a
comprehensive scale. British manufacture may be divided into two broad
classes--the production of aeroplanes and of waterplanes respectively.
Although there is a diversity of types there is a conspicuous
homogeneity for the most part, as was evidenced by the British raid
carried out on February 11-12, when a fleet of 34 machines raided the
various German military centres established along the coast of Flanders.

Considerable secrecy has been displayed by the British Government
concerning the types of machines that are being utilised, although
ample evidence exists from the producing activity of the various
establishments that all available types which have demonstrated their
reliability and efficiency are being turned to useful purpose. The Avro
and Sopwith warplanes with their very high speeds have proved remarkably
successful.

So far as manufacturing is concerned the Royal Aerial Factory may be
said to constitute the back bone of the British aerial fleet. This
factory fulfils various purposes. It is not only engaged in the
manufacture of machines, and the development of aeroplanes for specific
duties, but also carries out the inspection and testing of machines
built by private firms. Every machine is submitted to an exacting test
before it is passed into the service.

Three broad types of Government machines are manufactured at this
establishment. There is that designed essentially for scouting
operations, in which speed is the all-important factor and which is
of the tractor type. Another is the "Reconnoitring" machine
known officially as the "R.E." to-day, but formerly as the "B.E"
(Bleriot-Experimental), a considerable number of which are in
commission.

This machine is also of the tractor type, carrying a pilot and an
observer, and has a maximum speed of 40-50 miles per hour. If required
it can further be fitted with an automatic gun for defence and attack.
The third craft is essentially a fighting machine. Owing to the
introduction of the machine-gun which is fixed in the prow, with the
marksman immediately behind it, the screw is placed at the rear. The
pilot has his seat behind the gunner. The outstanding feature of these
machines is the high factor of safety, which attribute has astonished
some of the foremost aviation experts in the world.

Great Britain lagged behind her Continental rivals in the development
of the Fourth Arm, especially in matters pertaining to motive power.
For some time reliance was placed upon foreign light highspeed explosion
motors, but private enterprise was encouraged, with the result that
British Motors comparing favourably in every respect with the best
productions upon the Continent are now available. Development is still
proceeding, and there is every evidence that in the near future entire
reliance will be placed upon the native motor.

Undoubtedly, as the war progresses, many valuable lessons will be
learned which will exercise an important bearing upon the design
and construction of warplanes. The ordeals to which the machines are
submitted in military duties are far more severe than any imposed by the
conditions of commerce. Accordingly there is every indication that
the conflict upon the Continent will represent a distinctive epoch in
aeroplane design and construction. Many problems still await solution,
such as the capacity to hover over a position, and it is quite possible
that these complex and baffling questions will be settled definitely
as the result of operations in the field. The aeroplane has reached a
certain stage of evolution: further progress is virtually impossible
unless something revolutionary is revealed, perfected, and brought to
the practical stage.



CHAPTER VIII. SCOUTING FROM THE SKIES

From the moment when human flight was lifted from the rut of experiment
to the field of practical application, many theories, interesting and
illuminating, concerning the utility of the Fourth Arm as a military
unit were advanced. The general consensus of expert opinion was that
the flying machine would be useful to glean information concerning the
movements of an enemy, rather than as a weapon of offence.

The war is substantiating this argument very completely. Although
bomb-dropping is practised somewhat extensively, the results achieved
are rather moral than material in their effects. Here and there
startling successes have been recorded especially upon the British side,
but these triumphs are outnumbered by the failures in this direction,
and merely serve to emphasise the views of the theorists.

The argument was also advanced that, in this particular work, the
aeroplane would prove more valuable than the dirigible, but actual
campaigning has proved conclusively that the dirigible and the
heavier-than-air machines have their respective fields of utility in the
capacity of scouts. In fact in the very earliest days of the war,
the British airships, though small and slow in movement, proved more
serviceable for this duty than their dynamic consorts. This result
was probably due to the fact that military strategy and tactics were
somewhat nonplussed by the appearance of this new factor. At the time
it was an entirely unknown quantity. It is true that aircraft had been
employed in the Balkan and the Italo-Ottoman campaigns, but upon such a
limited scale as to afford no comprehensive idea of their military value
and possibilities.

The belligerents, therefore, were caught somewhat at a disadvantage,
and an appreciable period of time elapsed before the significance of
the aerial force could be appreciated, while means of counter acting
or nullifying its influences had to be evolved simultaneously,
and according to the exigencies of the moment. At all events, the
protagonists were somewhat loth to utilise the dirigible upon an
elaborate scale or in an aggressive manner. It was employed more after
the fashion of a captive balloon, being sent aloft from a point well
behind the front lines of the force to which it was attached, and
well out of the range of hostile guns. Its manoeuvres were somewhat
circumscribed, and were carried out at a safe distance from the enemy,
dependence being placed upon the advantages of an elevated position for
the gathering of information.

But as the campaign progressed, the airships became more daring. Their
ability to soar to a great height offered them complete protection
against gun-fire, and accordingly sallies over the hostile lines were
carried out. But even here a certain hesitancy became manifest. This
was perfectly excusable, for the simple reason that the dirigible, above
all, is a fair-weather craft, and disasters, which had overtaken these
vessels time after time, rendered prudence imperative. Moreover, but
little was known of the range and destructiveness of anti-aircraft guns.

In the duty of reconnoitring the dirigible possesses one great advantage
over its heavier-than-air rival. It can remain virtually stationary in
the air, the propellers revolving at just sufficient speed to off-set
the wind and tendencies to drift. In other words, it has the power of
hovering over a position, thereby enabling the observers to complete
their task carefully and with deliberation.

On the other hand, the means of enabling an aeroplane to hover still
remain to be discovered. It must travel at a certain speed through the
air to maintain its dynamic equilibrium, and this speed is often too
high to enable the airman to complete his reconnaissance with sufficient
accuracy to be of value to the forces below. All that the aeroplane can
do is to circle above a certain position until the observer is satisfied
with the data he has collected.

But hovering on the part of the dirigible is not without conspicuous
drawbacks. The work of observation cannot be conducted with any degree
of accuracy at an excessive altitude. Experience has proved that the
range of the latest types of anti-aircraft weapons is in excess of
anticipations. The result is that the airship is useless when hovering
beyond the zone of fire. The atmospheric haze, even in the clearest
weather, obstructs the observer's vision. The caprices of this obstacle
are extraordinary, as anyone who has indulged in ballooning knows fully
well. On a clear summer's day I have been able to see the ground beneath
with perfect distinctness from a height of 4,500 feet, yet when the
craft had ascended a further two or three hundred feet, the panorama was
blurred. A film of haze lies between the balloon and the ground beneath.
And the character of this haze is continually changing, so that the
aerial observer's task is rendered additionally difficult. Its effects
are particularly notice able when one attempts to photograph the view
unfolded below. Plate after plate may be exposed and nothing will be
revealed. Yet at a slightly lower altitude the plates may be exposed and
perfectly sharp and well-defined images will be obtained.

Seeing that the photographic eye is keener and more searching than the
human organ of sight, it is obvious that this haze constitutes a very
formidable obstacle. German military observers, who have accompanied
the Zeppelins and Parsevals on numerous aerial journeys under varying
conditions of weather, have repeatedly drawn attention to this factor
and its caprices, and have not hesitated to venture the opinion that it
would interfere seriously with military aerial reconnaissances, and also
that it would tend to render such work extremely hazardous at times.

When these conditions prevail the dirigible must carry out its work upon
the broad lines of the aeroplane. It must descend to the level where a
clear view of the ground may be obtained, and in the interests of safety
it has to keep on the move. To attempt to hover within 4,000 feet of
the ground is to court certain disaster, inasmuch as the vessel offers
a magnificent and steady target which the average gunner, equipped with
the latest sighting devices and the most recent types of guns, scarcely
could fail to hit.

But the airman in the aeroplane is able to descend to a comparatively
low level in safety. The speed and mobility of his machine constitute
his protection. He can vary his altitude, perhaps only thirty or forty
feet, with ease and rapidity, and this erratic movement is more than
sufficient to perplex the marksmen below, although the airman is
endangered if a rafale is fired in such a manner as to cover a wide
zone.

Although the aeroplane may travel rapidly it is not too fleet for a keen
observer who is skilled in his peculiar task. He may only gather a
rough idea of the disposition of troops, their movements, the lines
of communication, and other details which are indispensable to his
commander, but in the main the intelligence will be fairly accurate.
Undulating flight enables him to determine speedily the altitude at
which he is able to obtain the clearest views of the country beneath.
Moreover, owing to his speed he is able to complete his task in far less
time than his colleague operating in the dirigible, the result being
that the information placed at the disposal of his superior officers is
more to the moment, and accordingly of greater value.

Reconnoitring by aeroplane may be divided into two broad categories,
which, though correlated to a certain degree, are distinctive, because
each constitutes a specific phase in military operations. They are known
respectively as "tactical" and "strategical" movements. The first is
somewhat limited in its scope as compared with the latter, and
has invariably to be carried out rapidly, whereas the strategical
reconnaissance may occupy several hours.

The tactical reconnaissance concerns the corps or divisional commander
to which the warplane is attached, and consequently its task is confined
to the observation of the line immediately facing the particular corps
or division. The aviator does not necessarily penetrate beyond the lines
of the enemy, but, as a rule limits his flight to some distance from
his outermost defences. The airman must possess a quick eye, because
his especial duty is to note the disposition of the troops immediately
facing him, the placing of the artillery, and any local movements of the
forces that may be in progress. Consequently the aviator engaged on
this service may be absent from his lines for only a few minutes,
comparatively speaking; the intelligence he acquires must be speedily
communicated to the force to which he is attached, because it may
influence a local movement.

The strategical reconnaissance, on the other hand, affects the whole
plan of campaign. The aviators told off for this duty are attached to
the staff of the Commander-in-Chief, and the work has to be carried out
upon a far more comprehensive and elaborate scale, while the airmen
are called upon to penetrate well into the hostile territory to a point
thirty, forty, or more miles beyond the outposts.

The procedure is to instruct the flier either to carry out his
observations of the territory generally, or to report at length upon a
specified stretch of country. In the latter event he may fly to and
fro over the area in question until he has acquired all the data it is
possible to collect. His work not only comprises the general disposition
of troops, defences, placing of artillery, points where reserves are
being held, high-roads, railways, base camps, and so forth, but he is
also instructed to bring back as correct an idea as possible of what
the enemy proposes to do, so that his Commander-in-Chief may adjust
his moves accordingly. In order to perform this task with the requisite
degree of thoroughness it is often necessary for the airman to remain in
the air for several hours continuously, not returning, in fact, until he
has completed the allotted duty.

The airman engaged in strategical aerial reconnaissance must possess,
above all things, what is known as a "military" eye concerning the
country he traverses. He must form tolerably correct estimates of the
forces beneath and their character. He must possess the ability to
read a map rapidly as he moves through the air and to note upon it all
information which is likely to be of service to the General Staff.
The ability to prepare military sketches rapidly and intelligibly is
a valuable attribute, and skill in aerial photography is a decidedly
useful acquisition.

Such men must be of considerable stamina, inasmuch as great demands
are made upon their powers of endurance. Being aloft for several hours
imposes a severe tax upon the nervous system, while it must also be
borne in mind that all sorts and conditions of weather are likely to
be encountered, more particularly during the winter. Hail, rain, and
blizzards may be experienced in turn, while the extreme cold which often
prevails in the higher altitudes during the winter season is a
fearful enemy to combat. Often an airman upon his return from such a
reconnaissance has been discovered to be so numbed and dazed as a result
of the prolonged exposure, that considerable time has elapsed before
he has been sufficiently restored to set forth the results of his
observations in a coherent, intelligible manner for the benefit of the
General Staff. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that the
most skilful and experienced aviators are generally reserved for this
particular work. In addition to the natural accidents to which the
strategical aerial observer is exposed, the dangers arising from hostile
gun-fire must not be overlooked. He is manoeuvring the whole time
over the enemy's firing zone, where anti-aircraft weapons are disposed
strategically, and where every effort is made by artillery to bring him
down, or compel him to repair to such a height as to render observation
with any degree of accuracy well-nigh impossible.

The methods practised by the German aerial scout vary widely, and are
governed in no small measure by the intrepidity and skill of the airman
himself. One practice is to proceed alone upon long flights over the
enemy's lines, penetrating just as far into hostile territory as the
pilot considers advisable, and keeping, of course, within the limits of
the radius of action of the machine, as represented by the fuel supply,
the while carefully taking mental stock of all that he observes below.
It is a kind of roving commission without any definite aim in view
beyond the collection of general intelligence.

This work, while productive and valuable to a certain degree, is
attended with grave danger, as the German airmen have repeatedly found
to their cost. Success is influenced very materially by the accuracy
of the airman's judgment. A slight miscalculation of the velocity
and direction of the wind, or failure to detect any variations in the
climatic conditions, is sufficient to prove his undoing. German airmen
who essayed journeys of discovery in this manner, often failed to regain
their lines because they ventured too far, misjudged the speed of the
wind which was following them on the outward run, and ultimately were
forced to earth owing to the exhaustion of the fuel supply during the
homeward trip; the increased task imposed upon the motor, which had to
battle hard to make headway, caused the fuel consumption per mile to
exceed calculations.

Then the venturesome airman cannot neglect another factor which is
adverse to his success. Hostile airmen lie in wait, and a fleet of
aeroplanes is kept ready for instant service. They permit the invader
to penetrate well into their territory and then ascend behind him to
cut off his retreat. True, the invader has the advantage of being on the
wing, while the ether is wide and deep, without any defined channels
of communication. But nine times out of ten the adventurous scout is
trapped. His chances of escape are slender, because his antagonists
dispose themselves strategically in the air. The invader outpaces one,
but in so doing comes within range of another. He is so harassed that he
either has to give fight, or, finding his retreat hopelessly cut off,
he makes a determined dash, trusting to his high speed to carry him
to safety. In these driving tactics the French and British airmen have
proved themselves adepts, more particularly the latter, as the chase
appeals to their sporting instincts. There is nothing so exhilarating as
a quarry who displays a determination to run the gauntlet.

The roving Teuton scout was considerably in evidence in the early days
of the war, but two or three weeks' experience emphasised the sad fact
that, in aerial strategy, he was hopelessly outmatched by his opponents.
His advantage of speed was nullified by the superior tactical and
strategical acumen of his antagonists, the result being that the German
airman, who has merely been trained along certain lines, who is in
many cases nothing more than a cog-wheel in a machine, and who is
proverbially slow-witted, has concluded that he is no match for the
airmen of the Allies. He found from bitter experience that nothing
afforded the Anglo-French military aviators such keen delight as to lie
in wait for a "rover," and then to swoop into the air to round him up.

The proportion of these individual scouts who were either brought down,
or only just succeeded in reaching safety within their own lines, and
who were able to exhibit serious wounds as evidence of the severity of
the aerial tussle, or the narrowness of the escape, has unnerved the
Teuton airmen as a body to a very considerable extent. Often, even when
an aeroplane descended within the German lines, it was found that the
roving airman had paid the penalty for his rashness with his life, so
that his journey had proved in vain, because all the intelligence he
had gained had died with him, or, if committed to paper, was so
unintelligible as to prove useless.

It was the success of the British airmen in this particular field
of duty which was responsible for the momentous declaration in
Field-Marshal Sir John French's famous despatch:--"The British Flying
Corps has succeeded in establishing an individual ascendancy, which is
as serviceable to us as it is damaging to the enemy.... The enemy have
been less enterprising in their flights. Something in the direction of
the mastery of the air has already been gained."

The methods of the British airmen are in vivid contrast to the
practice of the venturesome Teuton aerial rovers described above. While
individual flights are undertaken they are not of unknown duration or
mileage. The man is given a definite duty to perform and he ascends
merely to fulfil it, returning with the information at the earliest
possible moment. It is aerial scouting with a method. The intelligence
is required and obtained for a specific purpose, to govern a
contemplated move in the grim game of war.

Even then the flight is often undertaken by two or more airmen for the
purpose of checking and counterchecking information gained, or to ensure
such data being brought back to headquarters, since it is quite possible
that one of the party may fall a victim to hostile fire. By operating
upon these lines there is very little likelihood of the mission
proving a complete failure. Even when raids upon certain places such as
Dusseldorf, Friedrichshafen or Cuxhaven are planned, complete dependence
is not placed on one individual. The machine is accompanied, so that
the possibility of the appointed task being consummated is transformed
almost into a certainty.

The French flying men work upon broadly similar lines. Their fleet is
divided into small squadrons each numbering four, six, or more machines,
according to the nature of the contemplated task. Each airman is given
an area of territory which is to be reconnoitred thoroughly. In this way
perhaps one hundred or more miles of the enemy's front are searched for
information at one and the same time. The units of the squadron start
out, each taking the appointed direction according to the preconceived
plan, and each steering by the aid of compass and map. They are urged to
complete the work with all speed and to return to a secret rendezvous.

Later the air is alive with the whirring of motors. The machines are
coming back and all converging to one point. They vol-plane to the earth
and gracefully settle down within a short distance of each other at the
rendezvous. The pilots collect and each relates the intelligence he has
gained. The data are collated and in this manner the General Staff is
able to learn exactly what is transpiring over a long stretch of the
hostile lines, and a considerable distance to the rear of his advance
works. Possibly five hundred square miles have been reconnoitred in
this manner. Troops have been massed here, lines of communication extend
somewhere else, while convoys are moving at a third place. But all has
been observed, and the commanding officer is in a position to re-arrange
his forces accordingly. It is a remarkable example of method in military
tactics and strategy, and conveys a striking idea of the degree to which
aerial operations have been organised.

After due deliberation it is decided that the convoys shall be raided,
or that massed troops shall be thrown into confusion, if not dispersed.
The squadron is ordered to prepare for another aerial journey. The roads
along which the convoys are moving are indicated upon the map, or the
position of the massed troops in bivouac is similarly shown. The airmen
load their machines with a full charge of bombs. When all is ready the
leader ascends, followed in rapid succession by the other units, and
they whirr through the air in single file. It now becomes a grim game of
follow-my-leader.

The leader detects the convoy, swoops down, suddenly launches his
missiles, and re-ascends. He does not deviate a foot from his path to
observe the effects of his discharge, as the succeeding aeroplane is
close behind him. If the leader has missed then the next airman may
correct his error. One after another the machines repeat the manoeuvre,
in precisely the same manner as the units of a battleship squadron
emulate the leading vessel when attacking the foe. The tactical
evolutions have been laid down, and there is rigid adherence thereto,
because only thereby may success be achieved. When the last war-plane
has completed its work, the leader swings round and repeats the dash
upon the foe. A hail of bullets may scream around the men in the air,
but one and all follow faithfully in the leader's trail. One or more
machines may fail in the attack, and may even meet with disaster, but
nothing interferes with the movements of the squadron as a whole. It is
the homogeneity of the attacking fleet which tells, and which undermines
the moral of the enemy, even if it does not wreak decisive material
devastation. The work accomplished to the best of their ability, the
airmen speed back to their lines in the same formation.

At first sight reconnoitring from aloft may appear a simple operation,
but a little reflection will reveal the difficulties and arduousness of
the work. The observer, whether he be specially deputed, or whether
the work be placed in the hand of the pilot himself--in this event the
operation is rendered additionally trying, as he also has to attend to
his machine must keep his eyes glued to the ground beneath and at the
same time be able to read the configuration of the panorama revealed to
him. He must also keep in touch with his map and compass, so as to be
positive of his position and direction. He must be a first-class judge
of distances and heights.

When flying rapidly at a height of 4,000 feet or more, the country below
appears as a perfect plane, or flat stretch, although as a matter of
fact it may be extremely undulating. Consequently, it is by no means a
simple matter to distinguish eminences and depressions, or to determine
the respective and relative heights of hills.

If a rough sketch is required, the observer must be rapid in thought,
quick in determination, and facile with his pencil, as the machine, no
matter how it may be slowed down, is moving at a relatively high speed.
He must consult his map and compass frequently, since an airman who
loses his bearings is useless to his commander-in-chief. He must have
an eagle eye, so as to be able to search the country unfolded below, in
order to gather all the information which is likely to be of value to
his superior officers. He must be able to judge accurately the numbers
of troops arrayed beneath him, the lines of the defensive works, to
distinguish the defended from the dummy lines which are thrown up to
baffle him, and to detect instantly the movement of the troops and
the direction, as well as the roads, along which they are proceeding.
Reserves and their complement, artillery, railway-lines, roads, and
bridges, if any, over streams and railways must be noted--in short
he must obtain an eye photograph of the country he observes and grasp
exactly what is happening there. In winter, with the thermometer well
down, a blood-freezing wind blowing, wreaths of clouds drifting below
and obscuring vision for minutes at a time, the rain possibly pelting
down as if presaging a second deluge, the plight of the vigilant human
eye aloft is far from enviable.

Upon the return of the machine to its base, the report must be prepared
without delay. The picture recorded by the eye has to be set down
clearly and intelligibly with the utmost speed. The requisite
indications must be made accurately upon the map. Nothing of importance
must be omitted: the most trivial detail is often of vital importance.

A facile pencil is of inestimable value in such operations. While
aloft the observer does not trust to his memory or his eye picture, but
commits the essential factors to paper in the form of a code, or what
may perhaps be described more accurately as a shorthand pictorial
interpretation of the things he has witnessed. To the man in the street
such a record would be unintelligible, but it is pregnant with meaning,
and when worked out for the guidance of the superior officers is a mass
of invaluable detail.

At times it so happens that the airman has not been able to complete
his duty within the time anticipated by those below. But he has gathered
certain information which he wishes to communicate without coming to
earth. Such data may be dropped from the clouds in the form of maps or
messages. Although wireless telegraphy is available for this purpose,
it suffers from certain drawbacks. If the enemy possesses an equipment
which is within range of that of the air-craft and the force to which
it belongs, communications may be nullified by the enemy throwing out
a continuous stream of useless signals which "jamb" the intelligence of
their opponents.

If a message--written in code--or a map is to be dropped from aloft it
is enclosed within a special metallic cylinder, fitted with a vane tail
to ensure direction of flight when launched, and with a detonating head.
This is dropped overboard. When it strikes the ground the detonator
fires a charge which emits a report without damaging the message
container, and at the same time fires a combustible charge emitting
considerable smoke. The noise attracts anyone in the vicinity of the
spot where the message has fallen, while at the same time the clouds of
smoke guide one to the point and enable the cylinder to be recovered.
This device is extensively used by the German aviators, and has proved
highly serviceable; a similar contrivance is adopted by French airmen.

There is one phase of aerial activity which remains to be demonstrated.
This is the utilisation of aerial craft by the defenders of a besieged
position such as a ring of fortifications or fortified city. The utility
of the Fourth Arm in this province has been the subject of considerable
speculation. Expert opinion maintains that the advantage in this
particular connection would rest with the besiegers. The latter would
be able to ascertain the character of the defences and the defending
gun-force, by means of the aerial scout, who would prove of inestimable
value in directing the fire of the besieging forces.

On the other hand it is maintained that an aerial fleet would be useless
to the beleaguered. In the first place the latter would experience
grave difficulties in ascertaining the positions of the attacking
and fortress-reducing artillery, inasmuch as this could be masked
effectively, and it is thought that the aerial force of the besieged
would be speedily reduced to impotence, since it would be subjected to
an effective concentrated fire from the ring of besieging anti-aircraft
guns and other weapons. In other words, the theory prevails that an
aerial fleet, no matter how efficient, would be rendered ineffective for
the simple reason that it would be the initial object of the besieger's
attack. Possibly the stem test of experience will reveal the fallacy of
these contentions as emphatically as it has disproved others. But there
is one point upon which authorities are unanimous. If the artillery of
the investing forces is exposed and readily distinguishable, the aerial
forces of the beleaguered will bring about its speedy annihilation, as
the defensive artillery will be concentrated upon that of the besiegers.



CHAPTER IX. THE AIRMAN AND ARTILLERY

There is one field in which the airman has achieved distinctive
triumphs. This is in the guidance of artillery fire. The modern battle
depends first and foremost upon the fierce effectiveness of big-gun
assault, but to ensure this reliable direction is imperative. No force
has proved so invaluable for this purpose as the man of-the-air, and
consequently this is the province in which he has been exceptionally and
successfully active.

It will be recalled that in the Japanese investiture of Port Arthur
during the Russo-Japanese war, thousands of lives were expended upon the
retention and assault of 203 Metre Hill. It was the most blood-stained
spot upon the whole of the Eastern Asiatic battlefield. General Nogi
threw thousands after thousands of his warriors against this rampart
while the Russians defended it no less resolutely. It was captured and
re-captured; in fact, the fighting round this eminence was so intense
that it appeared to the outsider to be more important to both sides than
even Port Arthur itself.

Yet if General Nogi had been in the possession of a single aeroplane
or dirigible it is safe to assert that scarcely one hundred Japanese or
Russian soldiers would have met their fate upon this hill. Its value to
the Japanese lay in one sole factor. The Japanese heavy guns shelling
the harbour and the fleet it contained were posted upon the further
side of this eminence and the fire of these weapons was more or less
haphazard. No means of directing the artillery upon the vital points
were available; 203 Metre Hill interrupted the line of sight. The
Japanese thereupon resolved to capture the hill, while the Russians,
equally appreciative of the obstruction it offered to their enemy, as
valiantly strove to hold it. Once the hill was captured and the fire
of the Japanese guns could be directed, the fate of the fortress was
sealed.

Similar conditions have prevailed during the present campaign,
especially in the western theatre of war, where the ruggedness of the
country has tended to render artillery fire ineffective and expensive
unless efficiently controlled. When the German Army attacked the line of
the British forces so vehemently and compelled the retreat at Mons,
the devastating fire of the enemy's artillery was directed almost
exclusively by their airmen, who hovered over the British lines,
indicating exactly the point where gun-fire could work the maximum
of havoc. The instant concentration of massed artillery fire upon
the indicated positions speedily rendered one position after another
untenable.

The Germans maintained the upper hand until at last the aerial forces of
the British Expeditionary Army came into action. These airmen attacked
the Teuton aerial craft without the slightest hesitation, and in a
short while rendered cloudland absolutely unhealthy. The sequel
was interesting. As if suddenly blinded, the German artillery fire
immediately deteriorated. On the other hand, the British artillery,
now having the benefit of aerial guidance, was able to repay the
German onslaughts with interest, and speedily compelled that elaborate
digging-in of the infantry lines which has now become so characteristic
of the opposing forces.

So far as the British lines are concerned the men in the trenches keep a
sharp look-out for hostile aeroplanes. The moment one is observed to
be advancing, all the men seclude themselves and maintain their
concealment. To do otherwise is to court a raking artillery outburst.
The German aeroplane, detecting the tendency of the trenches describes
in the air the location of the vulnerable spot and the precise
disposition by flying immediately above the line. Twice the manoeuvre
is repeated, the second movement evidently being in the character of a
check upon the first observation, and in accordance with instructions,
whereupon the Tommies, to quote their own words, "know they are in for
it!" Ere the aeroplane has completed the second manoeuvre the German
guns ring out.

The facility with which artillery fire can be concentrated through the
medium of the aeroplane is amazing. In one instance, according to the
story related to me by an officer, "a number of our men were resting in
an open field immediately behind the second line of trenches, being in
fact the reserves intended for the relief of the front lines during the
following night. An aeroplane hove in sight. The men dropped their kits
and got under cover in an adjacent wood. The aeroplane was flying at a
great height and evidently laboured under the impression that the kits
were men. Twice it flew over the field in the usual manner, and then
the storm of shrapnel, 'Jack Johnsons' and other tokens from the Kaiser
rained upon the confined space. A round four hundred shells were dropped
into that field in the short period of ten minutes, and the range was
so accurate that no single shell fell outside the space. Had the men not
hurried to cover not one would have been left alive to tell the tale,
because every square foot of the land was searched through and through.
We laughed at the short-sightedness of the airman who had contributed
to such a waste of valuable shot and shell, but at the same time
appreciated the narrowness of our own escape."

The above instance is by no means isolated. It has happened time after
time. The slightest sign of activity in a trench when a "Taube" is
overhead suffices to cause the trench to be blown to fragments, and time
after time the British soldiers have had to lie prone in their trenches
and suffer partial burial as an alternative to being riddled by
shrapnel.

The method of ascertaining the range of the target from the indications
given by the aeroplane are of the simplest character. The German method
is for the aerial craft to fly over the position, and when in vertical
line therewith to discharge a handful of tinsel, which, in falling,
glitters in the sunlight, or to launch a smoking missile which answers
the same purpose as a projectile provided with a tracer. This smoke-ball
being dropped over the position leaves a trail of black or whitish smoke
according to the climatic conditions which prevail, the object being to
enable the signal to be picked up with the greatest facility. The height
at which the aerial craft is flying being known, a little triangulation
upon the part of the observer at the firing point enables him to
calculate the range and to have the guns laid accordingly.

When the aerial craft has been entrusted with the especial duty of
directing artillery-fire, a system of communication between the aerial
observer and the officer in charge of the artillery is established,
conducted, of course, by code. In the British Army, signalling is both
visual and audible. In daylight visual signalling is carried out by
means of coloured flags or streamers and smoke-signals, while audible
communication is effected by means of a powerful horn working upon the
siren principle and similar to those used by automobiles. Both flags and
sound-signals, however, are restricted owing to the comparatively short
distances over which they can be read with any degree of accuracy. The
smoke-signal therefore appears to be the most satisfactory and reliable,
as the German airmen have proved conclusively, for the simple reason
that the trail of smoke may be picked up with comparative ease, even
at a distance, by means of field glasses. The tinsel too, is readily
distinguishable, particularly in bright weather, for the glittering
surface, catching the sun-light, acts some what in the manner of a
heliograph.

The progress of the airman is followed by two officers at the base from
which he started. One is equipped with the director, while the
second takes the range. Directly this has been found as a result of
calculation, the guns are laid ready for firing. In those cases where
the enemy's artillery is concealed perhaps behind a hill, the airman is
of incalculable value, inasmuch as he is able to reveal a position which
otherwise would have to be found by considerable haphazard firing, and
which, even if followed by a captive balloon anchored above the firing
point, might resist correction.

The accuracy of the airman's work in communicating the range has been
responsible for the high efficiency of the British and French artillery.
The latter, with the 75 millimetre quick-firing gun, is particularly
adapted to following up the results of the aeroplane's reconnaissance,
especially with the system of rafale fire, because the whole position
can be searched through and through within a minute or two. According
to information which has been given to me by our artillery officers, the
British system also has proved disastrous to the enemy. The practice
is to get the range as communicated by the aeroplane, to bring the
artillery into position speedily, to discharge salvo after salvo with
all speed for a few minutes, and then to wheel the artillery away before
any hostile fire can be returned. The celerity with which the British
artillery comes into, and goes out of, action has astonished even
our own authorities. This mobility is of unique value: it is taking
advantage of a somewhat slow-witted enemy with interest. By the time
the Germans have opened fire upon the point whence the British guns were
discharged, the latter have disappeared and are ready to let fly from
another point, some distance away, so that the hostile fire is abortive.
Mobility of such a character is decidedly unnerving and baffling even to
a quick-witted opponent.

In his search for hostile artillery the airman runs grave risks and
displays remarkable resource. It is invariably decided, before he sets
out, that he shall always return to a certain altitude to communicate
signals. Time after time the guns of the enemy have been concealed
so cunningly from aerial observation as to pass unnoticed. This trait
became more pronounced as the campaigns of the Aisne progressed.
Accordingly the airman adopts a daring procedure. He swoops down over
suspicious places, where he thinks guns may be lurking, hoping that the
enemy will betray its presence. The ruse is invariably successful. The
airman makes a sudden dive towards the earth. The soldiers in hiding
below, who have become somewhat demoralised by the accuracy of the
British aerial bomb-throwers, have an attack of nerves. They open a
spirited fusillade in the hope of bringing the airman to earth. But
their very excitement contributes to his safety. The shots are fired
without careful aim and expend themselves harmlessly. Sweeping once more
upwards, the airman regains the pre-determined level, performs a certain
evolution in the air which warns the observer at his base that he has
made a discovery, and promptly drops his guiding signal directly over
the point from which he has drawn fire.

Operations at night are conducted by means of coloured lights or an
electrical searchlight system. In the former instance three lights
are generally carried--white, red, and green--each of which has a
distinctive meaning. If reliance is placed upon the electric light
signalling lamp, then communications are in code. But night operations
are somewhat difficult and extremely dangerous, except when the elements
are propitious. There is the ground mist which blots everything from
sight, rendering reconnaissance purely speculative. But on a clear night
the airman is more likely to prove successful. He keeps a vigilant eye
upon all ground-lights and by close observation is able to determine
their significance. It is for this reason that no lights of any
description are permitted in the advance trenches. The striking of a
match may easily betray a position to the alert eye above.

So far as the British Army is concerned a complete code is in operation
for communicating between aeroplanes and the ground at night. Very's
lights are used for this purpose, it being possible to distinguish the
respective colours at a distance of six miles and from an altitude of
2,000 feet. The lights are used both by the aeroplane and the battery of
artillery.

The code is varied frequently, but the following conveys a rough idea of
how communication is carried out by this means under cover of darkness.
The aeroplane has located its objective and has returned to the
pre-arranged altitude. A red light is thrown by the airman. It indicates
that he is directly over the enemy's position. A similarly coloured
light is shown by the artillery officer, which intimates to the airman
that his signal has been observed and that the range has been taken.

In observing the effects of artillery fire a code of signals is employed
between the airman and the artillery officer to indicate whether the
shot is "long" or "short," to the right or to the left of the mark,
while others intimate whether the fuse is correctly timed or otherwise.
It is necessary to change the code fairly frequently, not only lest
it should fall into the enemy's hands, but also to baffle the hostile
forces; otherwise, after a little experience, the latter would be able
to divine the significance of the signals, and, in anticipation of being
greeted with a warm fusillade, would complete hurried arrangements
to mitigate its effects, if not to vacate the position until the
bombardment had ceased.

Sufficient experience has already been gathered, however, to prove the
salient fact that the airman is destined to play an important part
in the direction and control of artillery-fire. Already he has been
responsible for a re-arrangement of strategy and tactics. The man aloft
holds such a superior position as to defy subjugation; the alternative
is to render his work more difficult, if not absolutely impossible.



CHAPTER X. BOMB-THROWING FROM AIR-CRAFT

During the piping times of peace the utility of aircraft as weapons of
offence was discussed freely in an academic manner. It was urged
that the usefulness of such vessels in this particular field would
be restricted to bomb-throwing. So far these contentions have been
substantiated during the present campaign. At the same time it was
averred that even as a bomb-thrower the ship of the air would prove
an uncertain quantity, and that the results achieved would be quite
contrary to expectations. Here again theory has been supported by
practice, inasmuch as the damage wrought by bombs has been comparatively
insignificant.

The Zeppelin raids upon Antwerp and Britain were a fiasco in the
military sense. The damage inflicted by the bombs was not at all in
proportion to the quantity of explosive used. True, in the case of
Antwerp, it demoralised the civilian population somewhat effectively,
which perhaps was the desired end, but the military results were nil.

The Zeppelin, and indeed all dirigibles of large size, have one
advantage over aeroplanes. They are able to throw bombs of larger size
and charged with greater quantities of high explosive and shrapnel than
those which can be hurled from heavier-than-air machines. Thus it has
been stated that the largest Zeppelins can drop single charges exceeding
one ton in weight, but such a statement is not to be credited.

The shell generally used by the Zeppelin measures about 47 inches in
length by 8 1/2 inches in diameter, and varies in weight from 200 to
242 pounds. Where destruction pure and simple is desired, the shell
is charged with a high explosive such as picric acid or T.N.T., the
colloquial abbreviation for the devastating agent scientifically known
as "Trinitrotoluene," the base of which, in common with all the high
explosives used by the different powers and variously known as lyddite,
melinite, cheddite, and so forth, is picric acid. Such a bomb, if it
strikes the objective, a building, for instance, fairly and squarely,
may inflict widespread material damage.

On the other hand, where it is desired to scatter death, as well as
destruction, far and wide, an elaborate form of shrapnel shell is
utilised. The shell in addition to a bursting charge, contains bullets,
pieces of iron, and other metallic fragments. When the shell bursts,
their contents, together with the pieces of the shell which is likewise
broken up by the explosion, are hurled in all directions over a radius
of some 50 yards or more, according to the bursting charge.

These shells are fired upon impact, a detonator exploding the main
charge. The detonator, comprising fulminate of mercury, is placed in
the head or tail of the missile. To secure perfect detonation and to
distribute the death-dealing contents evenly in all directions, it is
essential that the bomb should strike the ground almost at right
angles: otherwise the contents are hurled irregularly and perhaps in
one direction only. One great objection to the percussion system, as
the method of impact detonation is called, is that the damage may be
localised. A bomb launched from a height of say 1,000 feet attains
terrific velocity, due to the force of gravity in conjunction with its
own weight, in consonance with the law concerning a falling body, by the
time it reaches the ground. It buries itself to a certain depth before
bursting so that the forces of the explosion become somewhat muffled as
it were. A huge deep hole--a miniature volcano crater--is formed,
while all the glass in the immediate vicinity of the explosion may be
shattered by the concussion, and the walls of adjacent buildings be
bespattered with shrapnel.

Although it is stated that an airship is able to drop a single missile
weighing one ton in weight, there has been no attempt to prove the
contention by practice. In all probability the heaviest shell launched
from a Zeppelin has not exceeded 300 pounds. There is one cogent reason
for such a belief. A bomb weighing one ton is equivalent to a similar
weight of ballast. If this were discarded suddenly the equilibrium of
the dirigible would be seriously disturbed--it would exert a tendency
to fly upwards at a rapid speed. It is doubtful whether the planes
controlling movement in the vertical plane would ever be able to
counteract this enormous vertical thrust. Something would have to submit
to the strain. Even if the dirigible displaced say 20 tons, and a bomb
weighing one ton were discharged, the weight of the balloon would be
decreased suddenly by approximately five per cent, so that it would
shoot upwards at an alarming speed, and some seconds would elapse before
control was regained.

The method of launching bombs from airships varies considerably. Some
are released from a cradle, being tilted into position ready for firing,
while others are discharged from a tube somewhat reminiscent of that
used for firing torpedoes, with the exception that little or no
initial impetus is imparted to the missile; the velocity it attains is
essentially gravitational.

The French favour the tube-launching method since thereby it is stated
to be possible to take more accurate aim. The objective is sighted and
the bomb launched at the critical moment. In some instances the French
employ an automatic detonator which corresponds in a certain measure to
the time-fuse of a shrapnel shell fired from a gun.

The bomb-thrower reads the altitude of his airship as indicated by his
barometer or other recording instrument, and by means of a table at his
command ascertains in a moment the time which will elapse before the
bomb strikes the ground. The automatic detonator is set in motion and
the bomb released to explode approximately at the height to which it
is set. When it bursts the full force of the explosion is distributed
downwards and laterally. Owing to the difficulty of ensuring the
explosion of the bomb at the exact height desired, it is also made to
explode upon impact so as to make doubly sure of its efficacy.

Firing timed bombs from aloft, however, is not free from excitement and
danger, as the experience of a French airman demonstrates. His dirigible
had been commanded to make a night-raid upon a railway station which was
a strategical junction for the movement of the enemy's troops. Although
the hostile searchlights were active, the airship contrived to slip
between the spokes of light without being observed. By descending to a
comparatively low altitude the pilot was able to pick up the objective.

Three projectiles were discharged in rapid succession and then the
searchlights, being concentrated, struck the airship, revealing its
presence to the troops below. Instantly a spirited fusillade broke out.
The airmen, by throwing ballast and other portable articles overboard
pell-mell, rose rapidly, pursued by the hostile shells.

In the upward travel the bomb-thrower decided to have a parting shot.
The airship was steadied momentarily to enable the range to be taken,
the automatic detonator was set going and the bomb slipped into the
launching tube. But for some reason or other the missile jambed.

The situation was desperate. In a few seconds the bomb would burst and
shatter the airship. The bomb-thrower grabbed a tool and climbing into
the rigging below hacked away at the bomb-throwing tube until the whole
equipment was cut adrift and fell clear of the vessel. Almost instantly
there was a terrific explosion in mid-air. The blast of air caused the
vessel to roll and pitch in a disconcerting manner, but as the airman
permitted the craft to continue its upward course unchecked, she soon
steadied herself and was brought under control once more.

The bomb carried by aeroplanes differs consider ably from that used by
dirigibles, is smaller and more convenient to handle, though considering
its weight and size it is remarkably destructive. In this instance
complete reliance is placed upon detonation by impact. The latest types
of British war-plane bombs have been made particularly formidable, those
employed in the "raids in force" ranging up to 95 pounds in weight.

The type of bomb which has proved to be the most successful is
pear-shaped. The tail spindle is given an arrow-head shape, the vanes
being utilised to steady the downward flight of the missile. In falling
the bomb spins round, the rotating speed increasing as the projectile
gathers velocity. The vanes act as a guide, keeping the projectile in as
vertical a plane as possible, and ensuring that the rounded head shall
strike the ground. The earlier types of bombs were not fitted with these
vanes, the result being that sometimes they turned over and over as they
fell through the air, while more often than not they failed to explode
upon striking the ground.

The method of launching the bomb also varies considerably, experience
not having indicated the most efficient method of consummating this
end. In some cases the bombs are carried in a cradle placed beneath the
aeroplane and launched merely by tilting them in a kind of sling, one by
one, to enable them to drop to the ground, this action being controlled
by means of a lever. In another instance they are dropped over the side
of the car by the pilot, the tail of the bomb being fitted with a swivel
and ring to facilitate the operation. Some of the French aviators favour
a still simpler method. The bomb is attached to a thread and lowered
over the side. At the critical moment it is released simply by severing
the thread. Such aeroplane bombs, however, constitute a menace to the
machine and to the pilot. Should the bomb be struck by hostile rifle or
shell fire while the machine is aloft, an explosion is probable; while
should the aero plane make an abrupt descent the missiles are likely to
be detonated.

A bomb which circumvents this menace and which in fact will explode
only when it strikes the ground is that devised by Mr. Marten-Hale.
This projectile follows the usual pear-shape, and has a rotating tail to
preserve direction when in flight. The detonator is held away from the
main charge by a collar and ball-bearing which are held in place by the
projecting end of a screw-releasing spindle. When the bomb is dropped
the rotating tail causes the spindle to screw upwards until the
projection moves away from the steel balls, thereby allowing them to
fall inward when the collar and the detonator are released. In order to
bring about this action the bomb must have a fall of at least 200 feet.

When the bomb strikes the ground the detonator falls down on the charge,
fires the latter, and thus brings about the bursting of the bomb. The
projectile is of the shrapnel type. It weighs 20 pounds complete, is
charged with some four pounds of T.N.T., and carries 340 steel balls,
which represent a weight of 5 3/4 pounds.

The firing mechanism is extremely sensitive and the bomb will burst
upon impact with the hull of an airship, water, or soft soil. This
projectile, when discharged, speedily assumes the vertical position, so
that there is every probability that it will strike the ground
fairly and squarely, although at the same time such an impact is not
imperative, because it will explode even if the angle of incidence be
only 5 degrees. It is remarkably steady in its flight, the balancing and
the design of the tail frustrating completely any tendency to wobble or
to turn turtle while falling.

Other types of missile may be used. For instance, incendiary bombs have
been thrown with success in certain instances. These bombs are similar
in shape to the shrapnel projectile, but are charged with petrol or some
other equally highly inflammable mixture, and fitted with a detonator.
When they strike the objective the bursting charge breaks up the shell,
releasing the contents, and simultaneously ignites the combustible.

Another shell is the smoke-bomb, which, up to the present, has been used
only upon a restricted scale. This missile is charged with a certain
quantity of explosive to burst the shell, and a substance which, when
ignited, emits copious clouds of dense smoke. The scope of such a shell
is somewhat restricted, it is used only for the purpose of obstructing
hostile artillery fire. The shells are dropped in front of the artillery
position and the clouds of smoke which are emitted naturally inter fere
with the operations of the gunners. These bombs have also been used
with advantage to denote the position of concealed hostile artillery,
although their utility in this connection is somewhat uncertain, owing
to the difficulty of dropping the bomb so accurately as to enable the
range-finders to pick up the range.

Dropping bombs from aloft appears to be a very simple operation, but
as a matter of fact it is an extremely difficult matter to strike the
target, especially from a high altitude. So far as the aeroplane is
concerned it is somewhat at a disadvantage as compared with the airship,
as the latter is able to hover over a position, and, if a spring-gun
is employed to impart an initial velocity to the missile, there is a
greater probability of the projectile striking the target provided it
has been well-aimed. But even then other conditions are likely to arise,
such as air-currents, which may swing the missile to one side of the
objective. Consequently adequate allowance has to be made for windage,
which is a very difficult factor to calculate from aloft.

Bomb-dropping from an aeroplane is even more difficult. If for instance
the aeroplane is speeding along at 60 miles an hour, the bomb when
released will have a speed in the horizontal plane of 60 miles an hour,
because momentarily it is travelling at the speed of the aeroplane.
Consequently the shell will describe a curved trajectory, somewhat
similar to that shown in Fig. 7.

On the other hand, if the aeroplane is travelling slowly, say at 20
miles an hour, the curve of the trajectory will be flatter, and if a
head wind be prevailing it may even be swept backwards somewhat after it
has lost its forward momentum, and describe a trajectory similar to that
in Fig. 8.

A bomb released from an altitude of 1000 feet seldom, if ever, makes
a bee-line for the earth, even if dropped from a stationary airship.
Accordingly, the airman has to release the bomb before he reaches the
target below. The determination of the critical moment for the release
is not easy, inasmuch as the airman has to take into his calculations
the speed of his machine, his altitude, and the direction and velocity
of the air-currents.

The difficulty of aiming has been demonstrated upon several occasions at
aviation meetings and other similar gatherings. Monsieur Michelin,
who has done so much for aviation in France, offered a prize of
L1,00--$5,000--in 1912 for bomb-dropping from an aeroplane. The target
was a rectangular space marked out upon the ground, measuring 170 feet
long by 40 feet broad, and the missiles had to be dropped from a height
of 2,400 feet. The prize was won by the well-known American airman,
Lieutenant Riley E. Scott, formerly of the United States Army. He
dropped his bombs in groups of three. The first round fell clear of the
target, but eight of the remaining missiles fell within the area.

In the German competition which was held at Gotha in September of the
same year the results were somewhat disappointing. Two targets were
provided. The one represented a military bivouac occupying a superficies
of 330 square feet, and the other a captive balloon resembling a
Zeppelin. The prizes offered were L500, L200, and L80--$2,500, $1,000
and $400--respectively, and were awarded to those who made the greatest
number of hits. The conditions were by no means so onerous as those
imposed in the Michelin contest, inasmuch as the altitude limit was set
at 660 feet, while no machine was to descend within 165 feet. The first
competitor completely failed to hit the balloon. The second competitor
flying at 800 feet landed seven bombs within the square, but only one
other competitor succeeded in placing one bomb within the space.

Bomb-dropping under the above conditions, however, is vastly dissimilar
from such work under the grim realities of war. The airman has to act
quickly, take his enemy by surprise, avail himself of any protective
covering which may exist, and incur great risks. The opposing forces are
overwhelmingly against him. The modern rifle, if fired vertically into
the air, will hurl the bullet to a height of about 5,000 feet, while
the weapons which have been designed to combat aircraft have a range of
10,000 feet or more.

At the latter altitude aggressive tactics are useless. The airman is
unable to obtain a clear sharp view of the country beneath owing to the
interference offered to vision by atmospheric haze, even in the dearest
of weather. In order to obtain reasonable accuracy of aim the corsair
of the sky must fly at about 400 feet. In this respect, however, the
aeroplane is at a decided advantage, as compared with the dirigible. The
machine offers a considerably smaller target and moves with much greater
speed. Experience of the war has shown that to attempt to hurl bombs
from an extreme height is merely a waste of ammunition. True, they do a
certain amount of damage, but this is due to luck, not judgment.

For success in aerial bomb operations the human element is mainly
responsible. The daring airman is likely to achieve the greatest
results, as events have proved, especially when his raid is sudden and
takes the enemy by surprise. The raids carried out by Marix, Collet,
Briggs, Babington, Sippe and many others have established this fact
incontrovertibly. In all these operations the airmen succeeded because
of their intrepidity and their decision to take advantage of cover,
otherwise a prevailing mist or low-lying clouds. Flight-Lieutenant
Collet approached the Zeppelin shed at Dusseldorf at an altitude of
6,000 feet. There was a bank of mist below, which he encountered at
1,500 feet. He traversed the depth of this layer and emerged therefrom
at a height of only 400 feet above the ground. His objective was barely
a quarter of a mile ahead. Travelling at high speed he launched his
bombs with what proved to be deadly precision, and disappeared
into cover almost before the enemy had grasped his intentions.
Lieutenant-Commander, now Flight-Commander, Marix was even more daring.
Apparently he had no mist in which to conceal himself but trusted almost
entirely to the speed of his machine, which probably at times notched 90
miles per hour. Although his advent was detected and he was greeted with
a spirited fusillade he clung to his determined idea. He headed straight
for the Zeppelin shed, launched two bombs and swung into the higher
reaches of the air without a moment's hesitation. His aim was deadly,
since both bombs found their mark, and the Zeppelin docked within was
blown up. The intrepid airman experienced several narrow escapes, for
his aeroplane was struck twenty times, and one or two of the control
wires were cut by passing bullets.

The raid carried out by Commanders Briggs and Babington in company with
Lieutenant Sippe upon the Zeppelin workshops at Friedrichshafen was even
more daring. Leaving the Allies' lines they ascended to an altitude of
4,500 feet, and at this height held to the pre-arranged course until
they encountered a mist, which while protecting them from the alert eyes
of the enemy below, was responsible for the separation of the raiders,
so that each was forced to act independently and to trust to the compass
to bring him out of the ordeal successfully. Lieutenant Sippe sighted
Lake Constance, and taking advantage of the mist lying low upon the
water, descended to such an extent that he found himself only a few feet
above the roofs of the houses. Swinging round to the Lake he descended
still lower until at last he was practically skimming the surface of the
Lake, since he flew at the amazingly low height of barely seven feet
off the water. There is no doubt that the noise of his motor was heard
plainly by the enemy, but the mist completely enveloped him, and
owing to the strange pranks that fog plays with sound deceived his
antagonists.

At last, climbing above the bank of vapour, he found that he had
overshot the mark, so he turned quickly and sped backwards. At the same
time he discovered that he had been preceded by Commander Briggs, who
was bombarding the shed furiously, and who himself was the object of
a concentrated fire. Swooping down once more, Lieutenant Sippe turned,
rained his bombs upon the objective beneath, drawing fire upon himself,
but co-operating with Commander Babington, who had now reached the
scene, he manoeuvred above the works and continued the bombardment until
their ammunition was expended, when they sped home-wards under the
cover of the mist. Considering the intensity of the hostile fire, it
is surprising that the aeroplanes were not smashed to fragments.
Undoubtedly the high speed of the machines and the zigzagging courses
which were followed nonplussed the enemy. Commander Briggs was not
so fortunate as his colleagues; a bullet pierced his petrol tank,
compelling a hurried descent.

The most amazing feature of these aerial raids has been the remarkably
low height at which the airmen have ventured to fly. While such a
procedure facilitates marksmanship it increases the hazards. The airmen
have to trust implicitly to the fleetness of their craft and to their
own nerve. Bearing in mind the vulnerability of the average aeroplane,
and the general absence of protective armouring against rifle fire at
almost point-blank range, it shows the important part which the human
element is compelled to play in bomb-dropping operations.

Another missile which has been introduced by the French airmen, and
which is extremely deadly when hurled against dense masses of men,
is the steel arrow, or "flechette" as it is called. It is a fiendish
projectile consisting in reality of a pencil of solid polished steel, 4
3/4 inches in length. The lower end has a sharp tapering point, 5/8ths
of an inch in length. For a distance of 1 1/8th of an inch above this
point the cylindrical form of the pencil is preserved, but for the
succeeding three inches to the upper end, the pencil is provided with
four equally spaced angle flanges or vanes. This flanging of the upper
end or tail ensures the arrow spinning rapidly as it falls through the
air, and at the same times preserves its vertical position during its
descent. The weight of the arrow is two-thirds of an ounce.

The method of launching this fearsome projectile is ingenious. A hundred
or even more are packed in a vertical position in a special receptacle,
placed upon the floor of the aeroplane, preferably near the foot of the
pilot or observer. This receptacle is fitted with a bottom moving in the
manner of a trap-door, and is opened by pressing a lever. The aviator
has merely to depress this pedal with his foot, when the box is opened
and the whole of the contents are released. The fall at first is
somewhat erratic, but this is an advantage, as it enables the darts to
scatter and to cover a wide area. As the rotary motion of the arrows
increases during the fall, the direct line of flight becomes more
pronounced until at last they assume a vertical direction free from all
wobbling, so that when they alight upon the target they are quite plumb.

When launched from a height they strike the objective with terrific
force, and will readily penetrate a soldier's helmet and skull. Indeed,
when released at a height of 4,000 feet they have been known to pierce a
mounted soldier's head, and pass vertically through his body and that
of his horse also. Time after time German soldiers have found themselves
pinned to the ground through the arrow striking and penetrating their
feet. Owing to the extremely light weight of the darts they can be
launched in batches of hundreds at a time, and in a promiscuous manner
when the objective is a massed body of infantry or cavalry, or a
transport convoy. They are extremely effective when thrown among horses
even from a comparatively low altitude, not so much from the fatalities
they produce, as from the fact that they precipitate a stampede among
the animals, which is generally sufficiently serious and frantic to
throw cavalry or a transport-train into wild confusion.

Although aerial craft, when skilfully handled, have proved highly
successful as weapons of offence, the possibilities of such aggression
as yet are scarcely realised; aerial tactics are in their infancy.
Developments are moving rapidly. Great efforts are being centred upon
the evolution of more formidable missiles to be launched from the
clouds. The airman is destined to inspire far greater awe than at
present, to exercise a still more demoralising influence, and to work
infinitely more destruction.



CHAPTER XI. ARMOURED AEROPLANES

The stern test of war has served to reveal conclusively the fact that
aerial craft can be put out of action readily and effectively, when once
the marksman has picked up the range, whether the gunner be conducting
his operations with an anti-aircraft gun stationed upon the ground,
or from a hostile machine. It will be remembered that Flight-Commander
Briggs, on the occasion of the daring British raid upon the Zeppelin
sheds at Friedrichshafen, was brought to the ground by a bullet which
penetrated his fuel tank. Several other vessels, British, German,
French, and Russian alike, have been thrown out of action in a similar
manner, and invariably the craft which has been disabled suddenly in
this way has fallen precipitately to earth in the fatal headlong dive.

Previous to the outbreak of hostilities there was considerable
divergence of opinion upon this subject. The general opinion was that
the outspread wings and the stays which constituted the weakest parts of
the structure were most susceptible to gun-fire, and thus were likely to
fail. But practice has proved that it is the driving mechanism which is
the most vulnerable part of the aeroplane.

This vulnerability of the essential feature of the flying machine is a
decisive weakness, and exposes the aviator to a constant menace. It
may be quite true that less than one bullet in a thousand may hit the
machine, but when the lucky missile does find its billet its effect is
complete. The fact must not be overlooked that the gunners who work the
batteries of anti-aircraft guns are becoming more and more expert as a
result of practice, so that as time progresses and improved guns for
such duty are rendered available, the work of the aviator is likely to
become more dangerous and difficult. Experience has proved that the high
velocity gun of to-day is able to hurl its projectile or shell to an
extreme height--far greater than was previously considered possible--so
that considerable discretion has to be exercised by the airman, who
literally bears his life in his hands.

Although elaborate trials were carried out upon the testing ranges with
the weapons devised especially for firing upon flying machines, captive
balloons being employed as targets, the data thus obtained were neither
conclusive nor illuminating. The actual experiences of airmen have given
us some very instructive facts upon this point for the first time.

It was formerly held that the zone of fire that is to be considered as
a serious danger was within a height of about 4,500 feet. But this
estimate was well within the mark. Airmen have found that the modern
projectiles devised for this phase of operations are able to inflict
distinctly serious damage at an altitude of 9,000 feet. The shell itself
may have but little of its imparted velocity remaining at this altitude,
but it must be remembered that when the missile bursts, the contents
thereof are given an independent velocity, and a wide cone of
dispersion, which is quite sufficient to achieve the desired end,
inasmuch as the mechanism of the modern aeroplane and dirigible is
somewhat delicate.

It was for this reason that the possibility of armouring the airship was
discussed seriously, and many interesting experiments in this field were
carried out. At the same time it was decided that the armouring
should be effected upon lines analogous to that prevailing in warship
engineering. The craft should not only be provided with defensive but
also with aggressive armament. This decision was not viewed with general
approbation. It was pointed out that questions of weight would arise,
especially in relation to the speed of the machine. Increased weight,
unless it were accompanied by a proportionate augmentation of power
in the motor, would react against the efficiency and utility of the
machine, would appreciably reduce its speed, and would affect its
climbing powers very adversely. In some quarters it was maintained
that as a result the machine would even prove unsuited to military
operations, inasmuch as high speed is the primary factor in these.

Consequently it was decided by the foremost aviating experts that
machines would have to be classified and allotted to particular spheres
of work, just as warships are built in accordance with the special
duty which they are expected to perform. In reconnaissance, speed is
imperative, because such work in the air coincides with that of
the torpedo-boat or scout upon the seas. It is designed to acquire
information respecting the movements of the enemy, so as to assist the
heavier arms in the plan of campaign. On the other hand, the fighting
corsair of the skies might be likened to the cruiser or battleship. It
need not possess such a high turn of speed, but must be equipped with
hard-hitting powers and be protected against attacking fire.

One attempt to secure the adequate protection against gun-fire from the
ground assumed the installation of bullet-proof steel plating, about one
fifth of an inch thick, below the tank and the motor respectively.
The disposition of the plating was such as to offer the minimum of
resistance to the air and yet to present a plane surface to the ground
below. So far as it went this protection was completely effective, but
it failed to armour the vital parts against lateral, cross and downward
fire while aloft. As the latter is more to be feared than the fire from
the ground, seeing that it may be directed at point blank range, this
was a decided defect and the armour was subsequently abandoned as
useless.

The only effective method of achieving the desired end is to armour the
whole of the carriage or fuselage of the adroplane, and this was the
principle adopted by the Vickers Company. The Vickers military aeroplane
is essentially a military machine. It is built of steel throughout.
The skeleton of the machine is formed of an alloy which combines the
qualities of aluminium and steel to ensure toughness, strength, and
lightness. In fact, metal is employed liberally throughout, except in
connection with the wings, which follow the usual lines of construction.
The body of the car is sheathed with steel plating which is bullet proof
against rifle or even shrapnel fire. The car is designed to carry two
persons; the seats are therefore disposed tandem-wise, with the observer
or gunner occupying the front seat.

The defensive armament is adequate for ordinary purposes. Being fitted
with a 100 horse-power motor, fairly high speeds are attainable,
although the velocity is not equal to that of machines constructed upon
conventional

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