Higher Lessons in English: A work on English grammar and composition

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Title: Higher Lessons in English: A work on English grammar and composition

Author: Alonzo Reed
Brainerd Kellogg

Release date: December 1, 2004 [eBook #7188]
Most recently updated: December 30, 2020

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7188

Credits: Produced by Karl Hagen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH: A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION ***

Produced by Karl Hagen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.

** Transcriber's Notes **

Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface;
Vowels followed by a colon represent a long vowel (printed with a macron in
the original text).

To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are
used:

- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals
signs (==).
- Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--).
- Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\).
- Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no
horizontal line under them.
- Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..)
- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (')
- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`)
- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this:

----, helping
'---------

- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like
this:

\wai
\ ting
---------
** End Transcriber's Notes **

HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH.

A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION,

IN WHICH THE SCIENCE OF THE LANGUAGE IS MADE TRIBUTARY TO THE ART OF
EXPRESSION.

A COURSE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY-DAY
USE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM.

BY
ALONZO REED, A.M.,

FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE,
BROOKLYN,

AND
BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.,

PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN.

Revised Edition, 1896.

PREFACE.

The plan of "Higher Lessons" will perhaps be better understood if we first
speak of two classes of text-books with which this work is brought into
competition.

+Method of One Class of Text-books+.--In one class are those that aim
chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space
to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules,
declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,--work of which
a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has
little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing
his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful,
old-time method.

+Method of Another Class of Text-books.+--In another class are those that
present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling,
Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General
Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these
books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some
scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected,
and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good
text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a
clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or
its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words.+--It is the plan of
_this_ book to trace with easy steps the natural development of the
sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the
details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to
disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely
intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only
by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices
and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to
discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic
whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not
because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls
into such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Five
years' interest _are_ due." "She is older than _me_." He probably would not
say "each _have_," "interest _are_," "_me_ am." One thoroughly familiar
with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using
correctly the few inflectional forms in English.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse.+--Through the study
of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts
of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws
of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of
unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of
good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or
unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the
sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts
in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every
element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He
should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that,
when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the
difficulty and the remedy for it.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation.+--The laws of
thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the
sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a
knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign
language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own
language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be
his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of
the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation,
since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those
of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are
beginning to appreciate these facts.

+The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.--As a means of discipline
nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the
sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to
discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts
of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils
thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come
to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These
results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced
teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the
beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and
little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be
gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To
compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as
"complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional
adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is
grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for
ideas.

+Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence.+--Teachers familiar
with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight
parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following
lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is
remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the
sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of
sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of
the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to
continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The
inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a
separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable
one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent.

+Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+.--In tracing the growth of the sentence
from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is
introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen
with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil
to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand.
Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with
questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to
prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons
on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They
lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into
paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead
him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the
several models presented.

+The Use of the Diagram+.--In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram,
found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly
and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence,
of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picture
the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts
in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture,
that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole
made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various
relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing
all these things by piecemeal or in succession.

But if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they
may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of
this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams.

+The Objections to the Diagram+.--The fact that the pictorial diagram
groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations,
and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is, on
the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the
literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the
literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so
long as the logical relations are kept clear.

The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne
out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in
written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of
the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a
decision on every point.

+The Abuse of the Diagram+.--Analysis by diagram often becomes so
interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be
overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the
ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only
for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for
the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there
is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has
served its purpose, it should be dropped.

AUTHORS' NOTE TO REVISED EDITION.

During the years in which "Higher Lessons" has been in existence, we have
ourselves had an instructive experience with it in the classroom. We have
considered hundreds of suggestive letters written us by intelligent
teachers using the book. We have examined the best works on grammar that
have been published recently here and in England. And we have done more. We
have gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language--
the best writers and speakers of it. That we might ascertain what present
linguistic usage is, we chose fifty authors, now alive or living till
recently, and have carefully read three hundred pages of each. We have
minutely noted and recorded what these men by habitual use declare to be
good English. Among the fifty are such men as Ruskin, Froude, Hamerton,
Matthew Arnold, Macaulay, De Quincey, Thackeray, Bagehot, John Morley,
James Martineau, Cardinal Newman, J. R. Green, and Lecky in England; and
Hawthorne, Curtis, Prof. W. D. Whitney, George P. Marsh, Prescott, Emerson,
Motley, Prof. Austin Phelps, Holmes, Edward Everett, Irving, and Lowell in
America. When in the pages following we anywhere quote usage, it is to the
authority of such men that we appeal.

Upon these four sources of help we have drawn in the Revision of "Higher
Lessons" that we now offer to the public.

In this revised work we have given additional reasons for the opinions we
hold, and have advanced to some new positions; have explained more fully
what some teachers have thought obscure; have qualified what we think was
put too positively in former editions; have given the history of
constructions where this would deepen interest or aid in composition; have
quoted the verdicts of usage on many locutions condemned by purists; have
tried to work into the pupil's style the felicities of expression found in
the lesson sentences; have taught the pupil earlier in the work, and more
thoroughly, the structure and the function of paragraphs; and have led him
on from the composition of single sentences of all kinds to the composition
of these great groups of sentences. But the distinctive features of "Higher
Lessons" that have made the work so useful and so popular stand as they
have stood--the Study of Words from their Offices in the Sentence, Analysis
for the sake of subsequent Synthesis, Easy Gradation, the Subdivisions and
Modifications of the Parts of Speech after the treatment of these in the
Sentence, etc., etc. We confess to some surprise that so little of what was
thought good in matter and method years ago has been seriously affected by
criticism since.

The additions made to "Higher Lessons"--additions that bring the work up to
the latest requirements--are generally in foot-notes to pages, and
sometimes are incorporated into the body of the Lessons, which in number
and numbering remain as they were. The books of former editions and those
of this revised edition can, therefore, be used in the same class without
any inconvenience.

Of the teachers who have given us invaluable assistance in this Revision,
we wish specially to name Prof. Henry M. Worrell, of the Polytechnic
Institute; and in this edition of the work, as in the preceding, we take
pleasure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic, the
distinguished Prof. Francis A. March, of Lafayette College.

* * * * *

LESSON 1.

A TALK ON LANGUAGE.

Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a grammar or
from a book of any kind--a language that we come by naturally, and use
without thinking of it.

It is a universal language, and consequently needs no interpreter. People
of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it; even the brute animals
in some measure understand it.

This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones, the
language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face; the language of
gestures and postures.

The child's cry tells of its wants; its sob, of grief; its scream, of pain;
its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nose
in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fist
in anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which he
speaks.

But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate.
Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think, and then we
feel the need of a better language.

Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day; could you express
this by a tone, a look, or a gesture?

If you wish to tell me the fact that _yesterday was cloudy_, or that _the
days are shorter in winter than in summer_, you find it wholly impossible
to do this by means of Natural language.

To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures we have
called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect.

This language is made up of words.

These words you learn from your mothers, and so Word language is your
mother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and teachers, your
playmates and companions, and you learn them by reading; for words, as you
know, may be written as well as spoken.

This Word language we may, from its superiority, call +Language Proper+.

Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but gives way
as Word language comes in and takes its place; yet Natural language may be
used, and always should be used, to assist and strengthen Word language. In
earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone in which
we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and by the movements
of the different parts of the body.

The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it may
contradict it, and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception.

The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all good
reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall the
pupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, so natural to
him in childhood and in animated conversation.

+DEFINITION.--_Language Proper_ consists of the spoken and the written
words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+.

+DEFINITION.--_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms,
uses, and relations of the words of the English language.+

* * * * *

LESSON 2.

A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES.

To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the words arranged
to express a thought we call a sentence.

But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed our thought
into a single word. The child says to his father, _up_, meaning, _Take me
up into your lap_; or, _book_, meaning, _This thing in my hand is a book_.

These first words always deal with the things that can be learned by the
senses; they express the child's ideas of these things.

We have spoken of thoughts and sentences; let us see now whether we can
find out what a thought is, and what a sentence is.

A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought; it is a body of which
a thought is the soul. It is something that can be seen or heard, while a
thought cannot be. Let us see whether, in studying a sentence, we may not
learn what a thought is.

In any such sentence as this, _Spiders spin_, something is said, or
asserted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the animals,
spiders, that they spin.

The sentence, then, consists of two parts,--the name of that of which
something is said, and that which is said of it.

The first of these parts we call the +Subject+ of the sentence; the second,
the +Predicate+.

Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, there
must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there are two: viz.,
something of which we think, and that which we think of it. In the thought
expressed by _Spiders spin_, the animals, spiders, are the something of
which we think, and their spinning is what we think of them. In the
sentence expressing this thought, the word _spiders_ names that of which we
think, and the word _spin_ tells what we think of spiders.

Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may not be
the expression of a thought. _Spiders spinning_ is not a sentence. There is
nothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment, _i.e._,
that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin. The spinning is
not asserted of the spiders.

_Soft feathers_, _The shining sun_ are not sentences, and for similar
reasons. _Feathers are soft_, _The sun shines_ are sentences. Here the
asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else.

_The shines sun_ is not a sentence; for, though it contains the asserting
word _shines_, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, and no
thought is expressed.

* * * * *

LESSON 3.

A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS.

We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we use
two kinds of words, spoken words and written words.

We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before they wrote.
Not until people wished to communicate with those at a distance, or had
thought out something worth handing down to aftertimes, did they need to
write.

But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat and
mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. Sounds and noises were
heard on every side, provoking imitation, and the need of speech for the
purposes of communication was imperative.

Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds in the
English language. The different combinations of these give us all the words
of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly understand these sounds, we will
tell you something about the human voice.

In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat
muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and causes
them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. Take a thread, put
one end between your teeth, hold the other with thumb and finger, draw it
tight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made. The shorter
the string, or the tighter it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and the
higher will be the pitch of the sound. The more violent the blow, the
farther will the string vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just so
with these vocal bands or cords. The varying force with which the breath
strikes them and their different tensions and lengths at different times,
explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the
voice.

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a
class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds.

But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, teeth,
or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If the
breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts of
the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed.

The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which represent to
the eye these sounds that address the ear.

You are now prepared to understand us when we say that +vowels+ are the
+letters+ that stand for the +open sounds+ of the +voice+, and that
+consonants+ are the +letters+ that stand for the sounds made by the
+obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+.

The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A perfect
alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one.

Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways:--

1. Some of the letters are superfluous; _c_ stands for the sound of _s_ or
of _k_, as in _city_ and _can_; _q_ has the sound of _k_, as in _quit_; and
_x_ that of _ks_, _gz_, or _z_, as in _expel_, _exist_, and _Xenophon_.

2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds; as, _th_ in
thine, _th_ in _thin_, _ng_ in _sing_, and _sh_ in _shut_.

3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters represent
over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; _e_ stands for
two sounds, as in _mete_ and _met_; _i_ for two, as in _pine_ and _pin_;
_o_ for three, as in _note, not_, and _move_; _u_ for four, as in _tube,
tub, full_, and _fur_; _a_ for six, as in _fate, fat, far, fall, fast_, and
_fare_.

_W_ is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel
sound, and _y_ is a vowel when it has the sound of _i_, as in _now, by,
boy, newly_. _W_ and _y_ are consonants at the beginning of a word or
syllable.

The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are
caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes in
its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of the
compounds, _ou_, _oi_, _ew_, and in the alphabetic _i_ and _o_.

1. 2.
_Vocal Consonants_. _Aspirates_.
b..................p
d..................t
g..................k
-------------------h
j..................ch
l------------------
m------------------
n------------------
r------------------
th.................th
(in _thine_) (in _thin_)
v..................f
w------------------
y------------------
z (in _zone_)......s
z (in _azure_).....sh

The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructed
voice; those in column 2, except _h_ (which represents a mere forcible
breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath.

The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and
palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both
letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any
pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column
1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of any letter in
column 1, as _b, g, v_, and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound
of the other letter of the pair.

TO THE TEACHER.--Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the
pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill
them on the vowels also.

In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought
before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture of
the pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words naming this
idea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish clearly these four
things.

TO THE TEACHER.--In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis
on Lesson 2.

* * * * *

LESSON 4.

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.

TO THE TEACHER.--If the pupils have been through "Graded Lessons" or its
equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly.

+DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+.

+Direction+.--_Analyze the following sentences_:--

+Model+.--_Spiders spin_. Why is this a sentence? Ans.--Because it
expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Spiders. Which
word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Spin_. [Footnote: The word _spiders_,
standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; _spin_, used merely as
a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will
please note here and elsewhere.]

1. Tides ebb.
2. Liquids flow.
3. Steam expands.
4. Carbon burns.
5. Iron melts.
6. Powder explodes.
7. Leaves tremble.
8. Worms crawl.
9. Hares leap.

In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts--the
+Subject+ and the +Predicate+.

+DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is
thought.+

+DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought.+

+DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its
parts.+

+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:--

+Model+.--_Beavers build_. This is a sentence because it expresses a
thought. _Beavers_ is the subject because it names that of which something
is thought; _build_ is the predicate because it tells what is thought.
[Footnote: When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of
analysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here and
elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition.]

1. Squirrels climb.
2. Blood circulates.
3. Muscles tire.
4. Heralds proclaim.
5. Apes chatter.
6. Branches wave.
7. Corn ripens.
8. Birds twitter.
9. Hearts throb.

+Explanation+.--Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let the
first part represent the subject of a sentence; the second, the predicate.

If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word
is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you
will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence.

Love | conquers
========|============
|

You see, by looking at this figure, that _Love conquers_ is a sentence;
that _love_ is the subject, and _conquers_ the predicate.

Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call _Diagrams_.

+DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and the relations of
the different parts of a sentence.+

+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:--

1. Frogs croak.
2. Hens sit.
3. Sheep bleat.
4. Cows low.
5. Flies buzz.
6. Sap ascends.
7. Study pays.
8. Buds swell.
9. Books aid.
10. Noise disturbs.
11. Hope strengthens.
12. Cocks crow.

* * * * *

LESSON 5.

COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a
_capital letter_+.

+PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply
affirms, denies, or commands.+

+Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the
following predicates_:--

Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes? Who sailed, conquered, etc.?

1. ----- tarnishes.
2. ----- capsize.
3. ----- radiates.
4. ----- sentence.
5. ----- careen.
6. ----- sailed.
7. ----- descends.
8. ----- glisten.
9. ----- absorb.
10. ----- corrode.
11. ----- conquered.
12. ----- surrendered.
13. ----- refines.
14. ----- gurgle.
15. ----- murmur.

+Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the
following subjects_:--

Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what?

1. Glycerine -----.
2. Yankees -----.
3. Tyrants -----.
4. Pendulums -----.
5. Caesar -----.
6. Labor -----.
7. Chalk -----.
8. Nature -----.
9. Tempests -----.
10. Seeds -----.
11. Heat -----.
12. Philosophers -----.
13. Bubbles -----.
14. Darkness -----.
15. Wax -----.
16. Reptiles -----.
17. Merchants -----.
18. Meteors -----.
19. Conscience -----.
20. Congress -----.
21. Life -----.
22. Vapors -----.
23. Music -----.
24. Pitch -----.

TO THE TEACHER.--This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying
several subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject.

* * * * *

LESSON 6.

ANALYSIS.

The predicate sometimes contains more than one word.

+Direction+.--_Analyze as in Lesson 4_.

1. Moisture is exhaled.
2. Conclusions are drawn.
3. Industry will enrich.
4. Stars have disappeared.
5. Twilight is falling.
6. Leaves are turning.
7. Sirius has appeared.
8. Constantinople had been captured.
9. Electricity has been harnessed.
10. Tempests have been raging.
11. Nuisances should be abated.
12. Jerusalem was destroyed.
13. Light can be reflected.
14. Rain must have fallen.
15. Planets have been discovered.
16. Palaces shall crumble.
17. Storms may be gathering.
18. Essex might have been saved.
19. Caesar could have been crowned,
20. Inventors may be encouraged.

+Direction+.--_Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in
Lessons 12 and 17_.

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_
before this predicate, the subject may easily be found.

TO THE TEACHER.--Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily
point out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences.

When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in
analysis will have been taken.

* * * * *

LESSON 7.

COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

+Direction+.--_Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the
three columns following_:--

The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 in
order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences.

1 2 3
Arts is progressing.
Allen was tested.
Life are command.
Theories will prolonged.
Science would released.
Truth were falling.
Shadows may be burned.
Moscow has been measured.
Raleigh have been prevail.
Quantity should have been lost.

Review Questions.

What is language proper? What is English grammar? What is a sentence? What
are its two parts? What is the subject of a sentence? The predicate of a
sentence? The analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule has been
given for the use of capital letters? For the period? May the predicate
contain more than one word? Illustrate.

TO THE TEACHER.--Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the
close of this recitation. See "Introductory Hints" below.

* * * * *

LESSON 8.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

NOUNS.

+Introductory Hints+.--We have now reached the point where we must classify
the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must
learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by
studying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar.

But may we not deal with words as we do with plants? If we had to study and
name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master
the botany even of our garden-plants.

But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one
another; and, as he has given us the power to detect resemblances and
differences, we are able to group things that have like qualities.

From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowers
together and call them roses; from other likenesses, we get another class
called lilies; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and
get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc.

The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying
each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it.

From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group them
according to their similarities in use, or office, in the sentence. Sorting
them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call
Parts of Speech.

We find that many words name things--are the names of things of which we
can think and speak. These we place in one class and call them +Nouns+
(Latin _nomen_, a name, a noun).

PRONOUNS.

Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be difficult
for one stranger to ask another, "Can _you_ tell _me who_ is the postmaster
at B?" The one would not know what name to use instead of _you_, the other
would not recognize the name in the place of _me_, and both would be
puzzled to find a substitute for _who_.

_I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them,_ and other words
are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called +Pronouns+ (Lat.
_pro_, for, and _nomen_, a noun).

By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object
in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so
frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition.

+DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun.+

The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say, or
assert, something in the sentence.

+Direction+.---_Write, according to the model, the names of things that can
burn, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve._

+Remark.+--Notice that, when the subject adds _s_ or _es_ to denote more
than one, the predicate does not take _s_. Note how it would sound if both
should add _s_.

+Every subject+ of a sentence is a +noun+, or some word or words used as a
noun. But not every noun in a sentence is a subject.

+Direction.+--_Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether
subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson_ 18.

_In writing them observe the following rules_:--

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Proper,_ or _individual, names_ and _words derived
from them_ begin with capital letters.+

+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with
capital letters and are always followed by the period.+

* * * * *

LESSON 9.

CAPITAL LETTERS.

+Direction.+--_From the following words select and write in one column
those names that distinguish individual things from others of the same
class, and in another column those words that are derived from individual
names_:--

Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8.

ohio, state, chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton,
river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman,
messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, christian,
broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god.

+Direction.+--_Write the names of the days of the week and the months of
the year, beginning each with a capital letter; and write the names of the
seasons without capital letters._

+Remember+ that, when a class name and a distinguishing word combine to
make one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter; as,
_Jersey City_. [Footnote: _Dead Sea_ is composed of the class name _sea_,
which applies to all seas, and the word _Dead_, which distinguishes one sea
from all others.]

But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete
name, the class name begins with a small letter; as, _river Rhine_.

+Examples+.--Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New
York city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie,
General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew,
North Pole.

+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--

ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, clinton
county, westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george,
green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united
states, rhode island.

+Remember+ that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, the
word _of_, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishing
word should each begin with a capital letter; as, _Gulf of Mexico_. But,
when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name,
the class name should begin with a small letter; as, _city of London_.
[Footnote: The need of some definite instruction to save the young writer
from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the
following variety of forms now in use: _City_ of New York, _city_ of New
York, New York _City_, New York _city_, New York _State_, New York _state_,
Fourth _Avenue_, Fourth _avenue_, Grand _Street_, Grand _street_, Grand
_st._, Atlantic _Ocean_, Atlantic _ocean_, Mediterranean _Sea_,
Mediterranean _sea_, Kings _County_, Kings _county_, etc.

The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor
the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals;
but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency
to favor small letters in such cases.

In the superscription of letters, such words as _street_, _city_, and
_county_ begin with capitals.

Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words:
_river_ Rhine, Catskill _village_, the Ohio and Mississippi _rivers_. If
_river_ and _village_, in the preceding examples, are not essential parts
of the individual names, why should _river_, _ocean_, and _county_, in
Hudson _river_, Pacific _ocean_, Queens _county_, be treated differently?
We often say the _Hudson_, the _Pacific_, _Queens_, without adding the
explanatory class name.

The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage; but it is in
the line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an
improved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began with
a capital letter.

The American Cyclopedia takes a position still further in advance, as
illustrated in the following: Bed _river_, Black _sea_, _gulf_ of Mexico,
Rocky _mountains_. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co.,
9th ed.) we find Connecticut _river_, Madison _county_, etc., quite
uniformly; but we find _Gulf_ of Mexico, Pacific _Ocean_, etc.]

+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed:_--

city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isthmus
of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire of
china.

+Remember+ that, when a compound name is made up of two or more
distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word begins
with a capital letter.

+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--

great britain, lower california, south carolina, daniel webster, new
england, oliver wendell holmes, north america, new orleans, james russell
lowell, british america.

+Remember+ that, in writing the titles of books, essays, poems, plays,
etc., and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capital
letters; as, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise
Lost, the Holy One of Israel.

+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--

declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebellion,
webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, johnson's lives of the poets,
son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft's
history of the united states.

+Direction+.--_Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters when
needed_:--

erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope's
essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of
america, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn on
the nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history
of the united states, mount washington, english channel, the holy spirit,
new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village.

* * * * *

LESSON 10.

ABBREVIATIONS.

+Direction+.--_Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may he
abbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words
by writing the first five letters_:--

Thursday and lieutenant.

_These by writing the first four letters_:--

Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota,
Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Tennessee, and
Tuesday.

_These by writing the first three letters_:--

Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire,
Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major,
Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday,
Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July.

_These by writing the first two letters_:--

Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same).

_These by writing the first letter_:--

East, north, south, and west. [Footnote: When these words refer to sections
of the country, they should begin with capitals.]

_These by writing the first and the last letter_:--

Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland,
Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and
Virginia.

_These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a
period after each letter_:--

Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our
Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon),
before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divinitatis
doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinae doctor (doctor
of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, New
Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon),
post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States.

+Direction.+--_The following abbreviations and those you have made should
be committed to memory_:--

Acct. _or_ acct., account.
Bbl. _or_ bbl., barrel.
Chas., Charles.
Fla., Florida.
LL. D., legum doctor (doctor of laws).[Footnote: The doubling of the
_l_ to _ll_ and in _LL. D.,_ and of _p_ in _pp.,_
with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns
_line, lean_, and _page_.]
Messrs., messieurs (gentlemen).
Mme., madame.
Mo., Missouri.
Mrs., (pronounced missis) mistress.
Mts., mountains.
Ph.D., philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy).
Recd., received.
Robt., Robert.
Supt., superintendent.
Thos., Thomas.
bu., bushel.
do., ditto (the same)
doz., dozen.
e.g., exempli gratia (for example)
etc., et caetera (and others).
ft., foot, feet.
hhd., hogshead.
hdkf., handkerchief.
i.e., id est (that is).
l., line.
ll., lines.
lb., libra (pound).
oz., ounce.
p., page.
pp., pages.
qt., quart.
vs., versus (against).
viz., videlicet (namely).
yd., yard.

+Remark.+--In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as
now regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide." In the "Guide" _Iowa_
and _Ohio_ are not abbreviated. They are, however, frequently abbreviated
thus: _Iowa, Ia._ or _Io.; Ohio, 0._

The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations _Cal., Col.;
Ia., Io.; Neb., Nev.; Penn., Tenn.,_ etc., has led to much confusion.

* * * * *

LESSON 11.

VERBS.

+Introductory Hints+.--We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing the
essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could
throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes.

We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the
sentence; we found one class of words that name things, and we called them
_nouns_.

But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class of
words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that
they are, or exist.

When we say _Clocks tick_, _tick_ is not the name of anything; it tells
what clocks do: it asserts action.

When we say _Clocks are_, or _There are clocks_, _are_ is not the name of.
anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, or
being.

When we say _Clocks hang, stand, last, lie_, or _remain_, these words
_hang, stand, last_, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that
clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in which
clocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being.

All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call +Verbs+
(+Lat+. _verbum_, a word). The name was given to this class because it was
thought that they were the most important words in the sentence.

Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and
some that assert state of being.

+DEFINITION+.--+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being-, or state of
being+.

There are, however, two forms of the verb, the participle and the
infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state of
being, without asserting it.

+Direction.+--_Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate
verbs as you can think of_:--

Let some express being and some express state of being.

+Remark.+--Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, _burn, melt,
scorch_, adds _s_ or _es_ when its subject noun names but one thing.

Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind.

A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, _is learning, may
be learned, could have been learned_. [Footnote: Such groups of words are
sometimes called _verb-phrases_. For definition of _phrase_, see Lesson
17.]

+Direction.+--_Unite the words in columns_ 2 _and_ 3 _below, and append the
verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column_ 1 _so as to make
good sentences_:--

+Remark.+--Notice that _is, was_, and _has_ are used with nouns naming one
thing, and with the pronouns _he, she_, and _it_; and that _are, were_, and
_have_ are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with the
pronouns _we, you_, and _they_. _I_ may be used with _am, was_, and _have_.

1 2 3
Words am confused.
Cotton is exported.
Sugar are refined.
Air coined.
Teas was delivered.
Speeches were weighed.
I, we, you has been imported.
He, she, it, they have been transferred.

As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a verb,
or must contain a verb.

+Naming the class+ to which a word belongs is the +first step in parsing.+

+Direction+.--_Parse five of the sentences you have written_.

+Model+.--_Poland was dismembered_.

+Parsing+.--_Poland_ is a noun because ----; _was dismembered_ is a verb
because it asserts action.

* * * * *

LESSON 12.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

ADJECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--The subject noun and the predicate verb are not
always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sentence,
though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal
bridge. Other words may be built upon them.

We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one
another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities.
Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two oranges having the
same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple,
whose qualities are different.

It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them.

_Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful._ In these two
sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of
things; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities
in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds--the ripe ones and the
unripe ones.

These prefixed words _ripe_ and _unripe_, then, limit the word _apples_ in
its scope; _ripe apples_ or _unripe apples_ applies to fewer things than
_apples_ alone applies to.

If we say _the, this, that_ apple, or _an, no_ apple, or _some, many,
eight_ apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit; but _the, this,_ or
_that_ points out a particular apple, and limits the word _apple_ to the
one pointed out; and _an, no, some, many_, or _eight_ limits the word in
respect to the number of apples that it denotes.

These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or by
specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of the
noun, +modify+ it, and are called +Modifiers+.

In the sentence above, _apples_ is the +Simple Subject+ and _ripe apples_
is the +Modified Subject+.

Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called +Adjectives+ (Lat. _ad_,
to, and _jacere_, to throw).

+DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or a group of words joined to some
part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.

The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+, or
_Logical Subject_.

+DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.

Analysis and Parsing.

1. The cold November rain is falling.

rain | is falling
=========================|==============
\The \cold \November |

+Explanation.+--The two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand for
the subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank,
and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed
under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts,
the modifiers, and show what is modified. [Footnote: TO THE TEACHER.--When
several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not always
modify the unlimited noun. _That old wooden house was burned._ Here
_wooden_ modifies _house_, _old_ modifies _house_ limited by _wooden_, and
_that_ modifies _house_ limited by _old_ and _wooden_. This may be
illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their
rank, thus:--

|
==================|=======
\3 \2 \1 |

Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the
same way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well
to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation
and the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21.]

+TO THE TEACHER.+--While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that
diagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say that
the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these
figures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred,
our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion.

When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be
required in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their
aid altogether.

+Oral Analysis.+--(Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis
and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) _The,
cold,_ and _November_ are modifiers of the subject. _The cold November
rain_ is the modified subject.

TO THE TEACHER.--While in these "models" we wish to avoid repetition, we
should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some
of the sentences in every Lesson.

+Parsing.+--_The, cold,_ and _November_ are adjectives modifying
_rain_--_cold_ and _November_ expressing quality, and _the_ pointing out.

2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed.
3. A free people should be educated.
4. The old Liberty Bell was rung.
5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned.
6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed.
7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote.
8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed.
9. I alone should suffer.
10. All nature rejoices.
11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked.
12. The melancholy autumn days have come.
13. A poor old wounded soldier returned.
14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed.
15. Immense suspension bridges have been built.

* * * * *

LESSON 13.

COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVES.

+Caution.+--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be
taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun
the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where
they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first.

+Explanation.+--_Two honest young men were chosen, A tall, straight,
dignified person entered._ _Young_ tells the kind of men, _honest_ tells
the kind of young men, and _two_ tells the number of honest young men;
hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. _Tall_, _straight_, and
_dignified_ modify _person_ independently--the person is tall and straight
and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same rank.

Notice the comma after _tall_ and _straight_; _and_ may be supplied; in the
first sentence _and_ cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21.

+Direction.+--_Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons:_--

1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog.
2. Level low five the fields.
3. A wooden rickety large building.
4. Blind white beautiful three mice.
5. An energetic restless brave people.
6. An enlightened civilized nation.

+Direction.+--_Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these
predicates:_--

1. ------ have been invented.
2. ------ were destroyed.
3. ------ are cultivated.
4. ------ may be abused.
5. ------ was mutilated.
6. ------ were carved.
7. ------ have been discovered.
8. ------ have fallen.
9. ------ will be respected.
10. ------ have been built.

+Direction.+--_Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a
subject modified by three adjectives--one from each of these columns:_--

Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21.

The dark sunny
That bright wearisome
This dingy commercial
Those short blue
These soft adventurous
Five brave fleecy
Some tiny parallel
Several important cheerless
Many long golden
A warm turbid

+Direction+.--_Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate
adjectives:_--

River, frost, grain, ships, air, men.

+Direction+.--_Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most
appropriately go together:_--

Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited,
violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly,
waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow,
blackbird, cow, hen, cackling.

* * * * *

LESSON 14.

MODIFIED PREDICATE.

ADVERBS.

+Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that the subject may be modified;
let us see whether the predicate may be.

If we say, _The leaves fall_, we express a fact in a general way. But, if
we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say,
The leaves fall _early_; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall
_here_; of the manner, The leaves fall _quietly_; of the cause, _Why_ do
the leaves fall?

We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall
_very_ quietly. Here _very_ modifies _quietly_ by telling the degree.

_Very quietly_ is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate
with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+. Such words as _very,
here_, and _quietly_ form another part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+
(Lat. _ad_, to, and _verbum_, a word, or verb).

Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, _Very ripe_ apples are healthful.
Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns--by limiting them. The
horse has a _proud step_ = The horse _steps proudly_.

The +Predicate+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified +Predicate, or
_Logical Predicate_.

+DEFINITION.--An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb.+ [Footnote: See Lesson 92 and foot-note.]

Analysis and Parsing.

1. The leaves fall very quietly.

leaves | fall
========|======
\The | \quietly
\very

+Oral Analysis+.--_Very quietly_ is a modifier of the predicate; _quietly_
is the principal word of the group; _very_ modifies _quietly_; _the leaves_
is the modified subject; _fall very quietly_ is the modified predicate.

+Parsing+.--_Quietly_ is an adverb modifying _fall_, telling the manner;
_very_ is an adverb modifying _quietly_, telling the degree.

2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down.
3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there.
4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere.
5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted.
6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received.
7. We turned rather abruptly.
8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided.
9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed.
10. Why will people exaggerate so!
11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly.
12. We now travel still more rapidly.
13. Therefore he spoke excitedly.
14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed.
15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by.
16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away.

* * * * *

LESSON 15.

COMPOSITION--ADVERBS.

+Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you
intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also.

+Direction+.--_Place the, italicized words below in different positions,
and note the effect on the sound and the sense_:--

1. I _immediately_ ran out.
2. _Only_ one was left there.
3. She looked down _proudly_.
4. _Unfortunately_, this assistance came too late.

+Direction+.--_Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having
modified subjects and modified predicates_:---

For punctuation, see Lesson 21.

+Model+. ---- _clouds_ ----.
1. _Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above_.
2. _Those, brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve_.
3. _Thin, fleecy clouds are scudding over_.

l. ---- ocean ----.
2. ---- breeze ----.
3. ---- shadows ----.
4. ---- rock ----.
5. ---- leaves ----.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify
verbs_:--

Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, evasively,
everywhere, aloof, forth.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall
modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs_:--

Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too,
rather.

* * * * *

LESSON 16.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--In all school work, but especially here, where the
philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed
in progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of the
reviews.

Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines of
the work passed over, especially of what is taught in the "Introductory
Hints." The language, except that of Rules and Definitions, should be the
pupil's own, and the illustrative sentences should be original.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive_.

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what
three things such words as _tick, are,_ and _remain_ do in the sentence,
what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why; what
common office such words as _ripe, the,_ and _eight_ have, in what three
ways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat
and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate what is taught of the
capitalization and the abbreviation of names, and of the position of
adjectives and adverbs.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 150-153.)

TO THE TEACHER.--After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis
and construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude
everything unfamiliar, he may be led to recognize these same principles in
longer related sentences grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphs
selected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparation
for what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of the
text-book.

These "Exercises" are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, of
course, determine where and how often this composition should be
introduced.

We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph.

* * * * *

LESSON 17.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS.

+Introductory Hints+.--To express our thoughts with greater exactness we
may need to expand a word modifier into several words; as, A _long_ ride
brought us _there_ = A ride _of one hundred miles_ brought us _to Chicago_.
These groups of words, _of one hundred miles_ and _to Chicago_--the one
substituted for the adjective _long_, the other for the adverb _there_--we
call +Phrases+. A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an
+Adjective Phrase+. A phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an
+Adverb Phrase+.

As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent
phrases; as, The train stops _only at the station_. They sometimes modify
only the introductory word of the phrase--this introductory word being
adverbial in its nature; as, He sailed _nearly around_ the globe.

That we may learn the office of such words as _of, to_, and _at_, used to
introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another
may be expressed. _Wealthy men_. These two words express two ideas as
related. We have learned to know this relation by the form and position of
the words. Change these, and the relation is lost--_men wealth_. But by
using _of_ before _wealth_ the relation is restored---_men of wealth_. The
word _of_, then, shows the relation between the ideas expressed by the
words _men_ and _wealth_.

All such relation words are called +Prepositions+ (Lat. _prae_, before, and
_positus_, placed--their usual position being before the noun with which
they form a phrase).

A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a +Prepositional Phrase+.
This, however, is not the only kind of phrase.

+DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas, and
having a distinct office, but not expressing a thought+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier,
and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word
modified.+

Analysis and Parsing.

1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use of
diagrams.

pitch depends
==========|=================
\The \of \upon
\ \
\ note \ rapidity
\-------- \------------
\the \musical \the \of
\
\vibration
\---------

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line
standing for the introductory word, and a horizontal line representing the
principal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the
modifiers of the principal word.

+Oral Analysis+.---_The_ and the adjective phrase _of the musical note_ are
modifiers of the subject; the adverb phrase _upon the rapidity of
vibration_ is a modifier of the predicate. _Of_ introduces the first
phrase, and _note_ is the principal word; _the_ and _musical_ are modifiers
of _note_; _upon_ introduces the second phrase, and _rapidity_ is the
principal word; _the_ and the adjective phrase _of vibration_ are modifiers
of _rapidity_; _of_ introduces this phrase, and _vibration_ is the
principal word.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis.

+Parsing+.--_Of_ is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of _note_
to _pitch_; etc., etc.

TO THE TEACHER.--Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific
reasons instead of general definitions.

2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by
the blueness of the water.
3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal directions.
4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole.
[Footnote: "1607" may be treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one
adjective.]
5. The breezy morning died into silent noon.
6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis.
7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants.
8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom.

\in \
\ _____\below
\atmosphere \just \
\___________ \Falls
\ \______
\only \
\the

+Explanation+.----_Only_ modifies the whole phrase, and _just_ modifies the
preposition.

9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below
the Falls.
10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon.
11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth
century.
12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by
the Saracens.
13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 miles.
14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to
France.

* * * * *

LESSON 18.

COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

+COMMA-RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their usual order [Footnote:
For the usual order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51.] and made
emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence,
should be set off by the comma.+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a
sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one
comma.]

+Remark.+--This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is desired to
make the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the thought, the
growing usage among writers is not to set it off.

+Direction.+--_Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these
sentences_:--

1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley.
2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with enthusiasm.
3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor.
4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday.
5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he
approached.

+Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation_:--

1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans.
2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died.
3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its
natural order.
4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with
wit.
5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth.
6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to
the present day.

+Direction+.--_See in how many places the phrases in the sentences above
may stand without obscuring the thought._

+Caution+.--So place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to what
yon intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when
needed_:--

1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the
president.
2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers.
3. A message was read from the President in the Senate.
4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning.
5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at the old brick
church was delivered.

+Direction+.--_Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words_:--

(Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.)

1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty.
2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen
smile.
3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the
earth over the face.
4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep
roads we after much fatigue came.
5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths
of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth.

+Direction+.--_See into how many good, clear sentences you can convert
these by transposing the phrases_:--

1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood.
2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of
May in 1775.

* * * * *

LESSON 19.

COMPOSITION--PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

+Direction+.--_Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into
equivalent phrases_:--

+Model+.--The sentence was _carefully_ written. The sentence was written
_with_ care.

1. A _brazen_ image was _then_ set up.
2. Those _homeless_ children were _kindly_ treated.
3. Much has been said about the _Swiss_ scenery.
4. An _aerial_ trip to Europe was _rashly_ planned.
5. The _American_ Continent was _probably_ discovered by Cabot.

+Direction+.--_Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases;
and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases in
sentences of your own_:--

1. Bostonian
2. why
3. incautiously
4. nowhere
5. there
6. hence
7. northerly
8. national
9. whence
10. here
11. Arabian
12. lengthy
13. historical
14. lucidly
15. earthward

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers_:--

Of copper; in Pennsylvania; from the West Indies; around the world; between
the tropics; toward the Pacific; on the 22d of February; during the reign
of Elizabeth; before the application of steam to machinery; at the
Centennial Exposition of 1876.

* * * * *

LESSON 20.

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

+Introductory Hints.+--_Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England._
The three words _Edward, Mary,_ and _Elizabeth_ have the same
predicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens.
_Edward, Mary_, and _Elizabeth_ are connected by _and_, _and_ being
understood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the same
predicate form a +Compound Subject+.

_Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded._ The three predicates
_was seized, was tried_, and _was beheaded_ have the same subject--the
three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the
same subject form a +Compound Predicate.+

A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as,
_Mary_ and _Elizabeth lived_ and _reigned_ in England.

The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compound
predicate are called +Conjunctions+ (Lat. _con_, or _cum_, together, and
_jungere_, to join).

A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word
modifiers--A dark _and_ rainy night follows; Some men sin deliberately
_and_ presumptuously.

It may connect two phrases; as, The equinox occurs in March _and_ in
September.

It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone,
would be sentences; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, _but_ the
leaves of the maple drop in autumn.

+Interjections+ (Lat. _inter_, between, and _jacere_, to throw) are the
eighth and last part of speech.

_Oh! ah! pooh! pshaw!_ etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and
violent for deliberate sentences.

_Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! _etc., express condensed thought as well as
feeling.

Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words,
and may lapse into an interjection; _as, behold! shame! what!_

Professor Sweet calls interjections _sentence-words_.

Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound
Subject+.

Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound
Predicate+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or
clauses.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden
feeling.+

Analysis and Parsing.

1. Ah! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news.

Ah
----
wives
========\
'\
' \ | wait
sisters 'x \=====|===========
========' \ \anxious \for
'and/ \
' / \news
mothers ' / -----
========'/ \the

+Explanation+.--The three short horizontal lines represent each a part of
the compound subject. They are connected by dotted lines, which stand for
the connecting word. The x shows that a conjunction is understood. The line
standing for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject line
which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the
connected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound
predicate.

+Oral Analysis+.---_Wives, sisters_, and _mothers_ form the compound
subject; _anxious_ is a modifier of the compound subject; _and_ connects
_sisters_ and _mothers_.

+Parsing+.--_And_ is a conjunction connecting _sisters_ and _mothers_; _ah_
is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling.

2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss.

(For diagram see the last sentence of the "Explanation" above.)

3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use.

powers came
================= =========
\The \ X \ and \ \ and \of
\...\.....\ \.......\ parentage
\ \ \muscular \ \-----------
\ \moral \from
\mental \ land
\---------

4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange
parentage.
5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and
there spreads out.
6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of
the human body.
7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found
in the body.
8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the
faculties.
9. Ugh! I look forward with dread to to-morrow.
10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is
seen.
11. Tush! tush! 't will not again appear.
12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other
parts of Asia.
13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously.
14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century.
15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port and in
every capital.
16. Both friend and foe applauded.

friend
-------------------\
' \
' \ | applauded
'and.... Both >===|===========
' /
foe ' /
--------'----------/

+Explanation+.--The conjunction _both_ is used to strengthen the real
connective _and_. _Either_ and _neither_ do the same for _or_ and _nor_ in
_either--or_, _neither--nor_.

+Remark.+--A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a
+Complex Phrase+. Two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a
+Compound Phrase+.

+Direction.+--_Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound phrases
in the sentences above._

* * * * *

LESSON 21.

COMPOSITION---CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS.

+COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated
from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed.+

+Remark+.--When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated
according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not.

When one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma might be
referred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates and of other
phrases are long or differently modified, these terms or parts are
separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted.

When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second is
logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, _i. e._,
when it occurs in the body of a sentence, a comma is placed after the
explanatory word, as well as before the _or_.

+Direction.+--_Justify the punctuation of these sentences:_--

1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca.
2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay.
3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States.
4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium.
5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute.
6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs.
7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well.

+Explanation.+--No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. _Oaken_
limits _bucket_, _old_ limits _bucket_ modified by _oaken_, and _the_
limits _bucket_ modified by _old_ and _oaken_. See Lesson 13.

8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female,
friend or foe.
9. We climbed up a mountain for a view.

+Explanation+.--No comma. _Up a mountain_ tells where we climbed, and _for
a view_ tells why we climbed up a mountain.

10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of business or
of pleasure.
11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm,
and the brothers and sons of the king.

+Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and
give your reasons_:--

1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run.
2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton.
3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life.

(Where is the conjunction omitted?)

4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England.
5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex.
6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and
the Chaldee.
7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet.
8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed
with abundance of hay and grain.
9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick succession.
10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village.

+EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _Exclamatory Expressions_ must be followed
by the exclamation point.+

+Remark+.--Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjection
and the words following it form the exclamatory expression; as, _Oh! it
hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow!_

_O_ is used in direct address; as, _O father, listen to me. Oh_ is used as
a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction,
however desirable, is not strictly observed, _O_ being frequently used in
place of _Oh_.

+CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital
letters.+

+Direction.+--_Correct these violations of the two rules given above:_--

1. o noble judge o excellent young man.
2. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee.
3. Hurrah the field is won.
4. Pshaw how foolish.
5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed.
6. o life how uncertain o death how inevitable.

* * * * *

LESSON 22.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

+Direction+.--_Beginning with the 8th sentence of the first group of
exercises in Lesson_ 21, _analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the_ 4_th of
the second group._

+Model+.--_A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or
female, friend or foe._

spirit |should be shown / Jew
===============|================ __/'--------
\A \Christian | \ /' \' Greek
\ / ' \--------
\ / '
\to / x ' / male
\--/ '_/'--------
\ ' \' female
\ x ' \--------
\ '
\ ' / friend
\__/'---------
\' foe
\---------

* * * * *

LESSON 23.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTED TERMS.

Direction.+--_Using the nouns below, compose sentences with compound
subjects; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates;
and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phrases shall form
compound modifiers:_--

In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson
21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something.

NOUNS.

Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lincoln,
electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily.

VERBS.

Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream, loathe,
approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove.

ADJECTIVES.

+Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson_ 13.

Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy,
short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous.

ADVERBS.

+Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson 15._ Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly,
now, here, never, hereafter.

PHRASES.

On sea; in the city; by day; on land; by night; in the country; by hook;
across the ocean; by crook; over the lands; along the level road; up the
mountains.

* * * * *

LESSON 24.

REVIEW.

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION.

Direction.+--_Give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark
of punctuation used below:_--

1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin.
2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred by the colleges
and the universities of the country.
3. Oh, I am so happy!
4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news.
5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the air.
6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe.
7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly
and steadily to the zenith.
8. He retired to private life on half pay, and on the income of a large
estate in the South.

+Direction.+--_Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks of
punctuation where they belong:_--

1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied
2. maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl,
st
3. o father o father i cannot breathe here
4. ha ha that sounds well
5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france
6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr
7. hurrah good news good news
8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars
9. the baltic sea lies between sweden and russia
10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico
11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz
12. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790

+Direction.+--_Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation,
and give your reasons:_--

1 Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People,
2. halloo. I must speak to You!
3. john Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with
the Scholars of Italy,
4. Most Fuel consists of Coal and Wood from the Forests
5. books are read for Pleasure and the Instruction and improvement of the
Intellect,
6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches
7. hark they are coming!
8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us.
9. alas poor thing alas,
10. i fished on a, dark, and cool, and mossy, trout stream.

* * * * *

LESSON 25.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

ANALYSIS.

1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of
Never.--_Spanish Proverb_ [Footnote: By-and-by has no real streets, the
London journals do not actually thunder, nor were the cheeks of William
the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. _Streets, house,
colored, thunder_, and _scorched_ are not, then, used here in their
first and ordinary meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense.
These words we call +Metaphors+. By what they denote and by what they
only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, and force to the thought
they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression.

For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see
pages 87, 136, 155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150.]

2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest
navigators.--_Gibbon_.
3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and
every town or city.--_Holmes_.
4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever
of little Thermopylae.--_De Quincey_.
5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of
pleasure or pain.--_Hamilton_.
6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every
clime.--_Marsh_.
7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two
fiery little gray eyes.--_Irving_.
8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand with the culture of the
imagination.--_Tyndall_. [Footnote: _Hand in hand_ may be treated as one
adverb, or _with_ may be supplied.]
9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and
winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the
sea.--_Swain_.
10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese Wall, and
from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian
Ocean.--_Draper_.
11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen.--_Cooke_.
12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down
on the plain of Memphis.--_Stanley_.

* * * * *

LESSON 26.

WRITTEN PARSING.

+Direction+.--_Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this +Model
for Written Parsing_.

| Nouns. | Pron. | Verbs. | Adj. | Adv. | Prep. | Conj.| Int.|
|--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----|
1st |streets,| | |the,the.| |By,of, | | |
sentence|By-and- | one. |arrives.| | |at,of | | |
| by, | | | | | | | |
|house, | | | | | | | |
|Never. | | | | | | | |
--------|--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----|
| | | | | | | | |
2d | | | | | | | | |
sentence| | | | | | | | |

TO THE TEACHER.--Until the +Subdivisions+ and +Modifications+ of parts of
speech are reached, +Oral and Written Parsing+ can be only a classification
of the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like
this is needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In
their +Oral Analysis+ let the pupils give at first the reasons for every
statement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set
terms; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask
now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing,
for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken.

Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which
any word belongs is determined by the use of the word, and not from its
form. Such exercises as the following are suggested:--

Use _right_ words.
Act _right_.
_Right_ the wrong.
You are in the _right_.

Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the
different uses of the same word. It is hardly necessary for us to make
lists of words that have different uses. Any dictionary will furnish
abundant examples. It is an excellent practice to point out such words in
the regular exercises for analysis.

* * * * *

LESSON 27.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 17 _to Lesson_ 21, _inclusive_.

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what
such words as _long_ and _there_ may be expanded into, how these expanded
forms may be modified, how introduced, what the introductory words are
called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules;
illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of the
punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and exclamatory expressions. How
many parts of speech are there?

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 153-156.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 28.

NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS.

Introductory Hints.+--In saying _Washington captured_, we do not fully
express the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say,
_Washington captured Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming that
which receives the act.

Whatever fills out, or completes, is a +Complement+. As _Cornwallis_
completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon--the
object--we call it the +Object Complement+. Connected objects completing
the same verb form a +Compound Object Complement+; as, Washington captured
_Cornwallis_ and his _army_.

+DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a Sentence_ completes the
predicate, and names that which receives the act.+

The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified Complement.+

+Analysis.+

1. Clear thinking makes clear writing.

thinking | makes | writing
============|=====================
\ clear | \clear

+Oral Analysis+.---_Writing_ is the object complement; _clear writing_ is
the modified complement, and _makes clear writing_ is the entire predicate.

2. Austerlitz killed Pitt.
3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism.
4. Liars should have good memories.
5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century.
6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.
7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod.
8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with
the greatest schools of Europe.

took
/---------\
Oxford | / ' \ | rank
========|=and' ==========
| \ ' /
\ ' held /
\-------/

revolves
/------------
moon | / '
======|== and'
| \ '
\ ' keeps | side
\---------------

9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us.
10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and
butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings.
11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and
forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity.
12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a
harmony, beyond the reach of art.
13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with
the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm.
14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother,
and banished the confessor, of the king.
15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic.

James study grammar
=========\ /===========\ /===============
' \ | / ' \ | / '
'and ==|== and' ===== and'
John ' / | \ ' recite / \ ' arithmetic
=========/ \===========/ \===============

* * * * *

LESSON 29.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS.

+Introductory Hints+.--The subject presents one idea; the predicate
presents another, and asserts it of the first. _Corn is growing_ presents
the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and asserts
the act of the thing. _Corn growing_ lacks the asserting word, and _Corn_
is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted.

In logic, the asserting word is called the _copula_--it shows that the two
ideas are coupled into a thought--and the word expressing the idea asserted
is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e.
g., Corn _grows_, and, as it is disputed whether any word can assert
without expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction
by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and that
which expresses the idea asserted, by one name--the predicate. [Footnote:
We may call the verb the predicate; but, when it is followed by a
complement, it is an incomplete predicate.]

The _maple leaves become_. The verb become does not make a complete
predicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may
be completely expressed by adding the adjective _red_, denoting the quality
we wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them--_The maple leaves become
red_.

_Lizards are reptiles_. The noun _reptiles_, naming the class of the
animals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are.
_Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas_. _Pocahontas_ completes the predicate by
presenting a second idea, which _was_ asserts to be identical with that of
the subject.

When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not
unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as
the +Attribute Complement.+ [Footnote: _Subjective Complement_ may, if
preferred, be used instead of Attribute Complement.] Connected attribute
complements of the same verb form a +Compound Attribute Complement+.

Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the
+Predicate Adjective+ and the +Predicate Noun+.

+DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a Sentence completes the
predicate and belongs to the subject.+

Analysis.

1. Slang is vulgar.

Slang | is \ vulgar
==========|=================
|

+Explanation+.--The line standing for the attribute complement is, like the
object line, a continuation of the predicate line; but notice that the line
which separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward
the subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it.

+Oral Analysis+.--_Vulgar_ is the attribute complement, completing the
predicate and expressing a quality of slang; _is vulgar_ is the entire
predicate.

2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous.
3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable.
4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial.
5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dignified, and
artificial. [Footnote: The assertion in this sentence is true only in
the main.]
6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul.
7. The verb is the life of the sentence.
8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity.
9. A dainty plant is the ivy green.

+Explanation+.--The subject names that of which the speaker says something.
The terms in which he says it,--the predicate,--he, of course, assumes that
the hearer already understands. Settle, then, which--plant or ivy--Dickens
supposed the reader to know least about, and which, therefore, Dickens was
telling him about; and you settle which word--_plant_ or _ivy_--is the
subject. (Is it not the writer's poetical conception of "the green ivy"
that the reader is supposed not to possess?)

10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity.
11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of
good-breeding.
12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of endurance
into a man.
13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it.
14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grumbling, and
curls one up in the chimney-corner.
15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions
of luxurious ease.

* * * * *

LESSON 30.

ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

1. He went out as mate and came back captain.

as
---
'
went \ ' mate
/=======================
He | / ' \out
====|=and '
| \ ' came \ captain
\=======================
\back

+Explanation+.--_Mate_, like _captain_, is an attribute complement. Some
would say that the conjunction _as_ connects _mate_ to _he_; but we think
this connection is made through the verb _went_, and that _as_ is simply
introductory. This is indicated in the diagram.

2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday.
3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy.
4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful.
5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head-springs of all philosophy.
6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave.
7. He came a foe and returned a friend.
8. I am here. I am present.

+Explanation+.--The office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into that
of an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished from it. _Here_,
like an adjective, seems to complete _am_, and, like an adverb to modify
it. From their form and usual function, _here,_ in this example, should be
called an adverb, and _present_ an adjective.

9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude.
10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse.
11. The apple tastes and smells delicious.
12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband.
13. In the fable of the Discontented Pendulum, the weights hung speechless.
14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incarnate in the
young and scholarly Sir Thomas More.
15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the
gentleman and idol of the time.

* * * * *

LESSON 31.

OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He made the wall white._ Here _made_ does not fully
express the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, He _made_
the white _wall_, but, He _made-white_ (_whitened_) the wall. _White_ helps
_made_ to express the act, and at the same time it denotes the quality
attributed to the wall as the result of the act.

_They made Victoria queen_. Here _made_ does not fully express the act
performed upon Victoria. They did not _make_ Victoria, but _made-queen_
(_crowned_) Victoria. _Queen_ helps _made_ to express the act, and at the
same time denotes the office to which the act raised Victoria.

A word that, like the adjective _white_ or the noun _queen_, helps to
complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object
complement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the
subject but to the object complement, and so is called an +Objective
Complement+.

As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the act
is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the _factitive
complement_ or the _factitive object_ (Lat. _facere_, to make). [Footnote:
See Lesson 37, last foot-note.]

Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are _call_, _think_,
_choose_, and _name_.

+DEFINITION.--The _Objective Complement_ completes the predicate and
belongs to the object complement.+

Analysis.

1. They made Victoria queen.

They | made / queen | Victoria
======|=========================
|

+Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward
the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object.

+Oral Analysis+.--_Queen_ is an objective complement completing _made_ and
belonging to _Victoria_; _made Victoria queen_ is the complete predicate.

2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul.
3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster.
4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State.
5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility,
James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham.
6. We should consider time as a sacred trust.

+Explanation+.--_As_ may be used simply to introduce an objective
complement.

7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane.
8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign
courts.
9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him.
10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous.
11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny.
12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music.
13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York.
14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the
constitution.

* * * * *

LESSON 32.

COMPOSITION--COMPLEMENTS.

+Caution.+--Be careful to distinguish an adjective complement from an
adverb modifier.

+Explanation.+--Mary arrived _safe_. We here wish to tell the condition of
Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels
_bad_ (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The
sun shines _bright_ (is bright, as perceived by its shining).

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above,
you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.

+Direction.+--_Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs_:--

1. The boy is running wild.
2. The boy is running wildly about.
3. They all arrived safe and sound.
4. The day opened bright.
5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies.
6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair.
7. The sun shines bright.
8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops.
9. He appeared prompt and willing.
10. He appeared promptly and willingly.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors and give your reasons_:--

1. My head pains me very bad.
2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter.
3. Don't speak harsh.
4. It can be bought very cheaply.
5. I feel tolerable well.
6. She looks beautifully.

+Direction+.--_Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives
expressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences by
asserting these qualities_:--

+Model.+
Hard |
brittle + glass.
transparent |

Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent.

Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute
complements_:--

Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and
these pronouns as attribute complements_:--

Is, was, might have been; I, we, he, she, they.

+Remark+.--Notice that these forms of the pronouns--_I, we, thou, he, she,
ye, they_, and _who_--are never used as object complements or as principal
words in prepositional phrases; and that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_,
and _whom_ are never used as subjects or as attribute complements of
sentences.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall
have two complements--the one an object complement, the other an objective
complement:_--

Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements
be introduced by _as_.

+Model+.--They call _me chief_. We regard composition _as_ very
_important_.

Make, appoint, consider, choose, call.

* * * * *

LESSON 33.

NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS.

+Introductory Hints+.--_Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's_ limits
_temple_ by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is therefore a
modifier of _temple_.

The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and
_s_ ('_s_) added to the noun _Solomon_. When _s_ has been added to the noun
to denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by the
apostrophe alone ('); as, _boys'_ hats. This same relation of possession
may be expressed by the preposition _of_; _Solomon's_ temple = the temple
_of Solomon_.

_Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans_. The noun _emperor_
modifies _Dom Pedro_ by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name
the same person.

_Solomon's_ and _emperor_, like adjectives, modify nouns; but they are
names of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs; as,
_the wise_ Solomon's temple; Dom Pedro, _the Brazilian_ emperor. These are
conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns.

They represent two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the
+Explanatory+.

The Explanatory Modifier is often called an +Appositive+. It identifies or
explains by adding another name of the same thing.

Analysis.

1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I.

favorite (Raleigh) | was beheaded
====================|==============
\Elizabeth's | \by
\ James I
\-----------

+Oral Analysts+.--_Elizabeth's_ and _Raleigh_ are modifiers of the subject;
the first word telling whose favorite is meant, the second what favorite.
_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh_ is the modified subject.

2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived
from Tyndale's version.
3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero.
4. A fool's bolt is soon shot.
5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog.
6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop.
7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 632.
8. They scaled Mount Blanc--a daring feat.

They | scaled | Mount Blanc ( feat )
======|===================== =======
| \a \daring

+Explanation+.--_Feat_ is explanatory of the sentence, _They scaled Mount
Blanc_, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line
placed after the sentence line.

9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid
interlacing of the antennae. [Footnote: For uses of _each other_ and
_one another_, see Lesson 124.]

+Explanation+.--_Each other_ may be treated as one term, or _each_ may be
made explanatory of _bees_.

10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks--brain, blood, and breath.

+Explanation.+--Several words may together be explanatory of one.

11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone--its shell and coat of
armor--are on the outside of its body.

back-bone shell
=============\ ========\
'\ /' \ | are
and' \==========(======/ 'and \=)=|=======
' / \turtle's \its \ ' / |
breast-bone '/ \The \' coat /
=============/ ========/

12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended in 1658.

+Explanation+.--_As, namely, to wit, viz., i.e., e.g.,_ and _that is_ may
introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to
the words modified. In the diagram they stand like _as_ in Lesson 30.
_Protector_ is explanatory of _Cromwell's_.

13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful nations,
namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismemberment of
Poland.
14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast.
15. The petals of the daisy, _day's-eye_, close at night and in rainy
weather.

* * * * *

LESSON 34.

COMPOSITION--NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS.

+COMMA--RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the
modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma.+
[Footnote: See foot-note, Lesson 18]

+Explanation+.--_The words I and O should be written in capital_ _letters_.
The phrase _I and O_ restricts _words_, that is, limits its application,
and no comma is needed.

_Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel's children_. The
phrase _Joseph and Benjamin_ explains sons without restricting, and
therefore should be set off by the comma.

In each of these expressions, _I myself, we boys, William the Conqueror_,
the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no comma
is needed.

+Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas
in these sentences_:--

1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club.
2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a tinker.
3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary
reputation.
4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of
Montezuma.
5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard.
6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a
raft at Tilsit.

+Direction+.--_Insert commas below, where they are needed, and give your
reasons_:--

1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to France.
2. My son Joseph has entered college.
3. You blocks! You stones! 0 you hard hearts!
4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans.
5. He himself could not go.
6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth.
7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603.

+Direction.+--_Compose sentences containing these expressions as
explanatory modifiers_:--

The most useful metal; the capital of Turkey; the Imperial City; the great
English poets; the hermit; a distinguished American statesman.

+Direction.+--_Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in a
sentence_:--

See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit _or_, and note the effect.

1. Palestine or the Holy Land ----.
2. New York or the Empire State ----.
3. New Orleans or the Crescent City ----.
4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch ----.

+Remember+ that (_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs--(_'_) being used
when _s_ has been added to denote more than one, and (_'s_) in other cases.

+Direction.+--_Copy the following, and note the use of the possessive
sign_:--

The lady's fan; the girl's bonnet; a dollar's worth; Burns's poems; Brown &
Co.'s business; a day's work; men's clothing; children's toys; those girls'
dresses; ladies' calls; three years' interest; five dollars' worth.

+Direction.+--_Make possessive modifiers of the following words, and join
them to appropriate nouns_:--

Woman, women; mouse, mice; buffalo, buffaloes; fairy, fairies; hero,
heroes; baby, babies; calf, calves.

+Caution.+--Do not use (_'s_) or (_'_) with the pronouns _its, his, ours,
yours, hers, theirs_.

* * * * *

LESSON 35.

NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.

+Introductory Hints.+--_He gave me a book_. Here we have what many
grammarians call a _double object_. _Book_, naming the thing acted upon,
they call the _direct_ object; and _me_, naming the person toward whom the
act is directed, they call the +indirect+, or _dative_, +object+.

You see that _me_ and _book_ do not, like _Cornwallis_ and _army_, in
_Washington captured Cornwallis and his army_, form a compound object
complement; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not
stand in the same relation to the verb _gave_. The meaning is not, He gave
me _and_ the book.

We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person to or
for whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. If we change
the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; as, He gave a book
_to me_. He bought _me_ a _book_; He bought a book _for me_. He asked _me_
a _question_; He asked a _question of me_. When the indirect object
precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood.

_Teach, tell, send, promise, permit_, and _lend_ are other examples of
verbs that take indirect objects.

Besides these indirect objects, +nouns denoting measure+, quantity, weight,
time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbially, being
equivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_; It weighs
one _pound_; It is worth a _dollar_ a _yard_; I went _home_ that _way_; The
wall is ten _feet_ six _inches_ high.

The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns
denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one.

+Analysis.+

1. They offered Caesar the crown three times.

They | offered | crown
========|==========================
| \ \ times \the
\ -------
\ \three
\
\ Caesar
-----------

+Oral Analysis.+--_Caesar_ and _times_ are nouns used adverbially, being
equivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate _offered_.

2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year.
3. He sent his daughter home that way.
4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for
his sugar.
5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death.
6. Serpents cast their skin once a year.
7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856.
8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre.
9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought
the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water.
10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water.
11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills.
12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor.
13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy.
14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce.
15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night.

* * * * *

LESSON 36.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction.+--_Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive_.

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show clearly
what two things are essential to a complete predicate; explain what is
meant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements;
show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general
idea--action, quality, class, or identity--is expressed by each attribute
complement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and
illustrate definitions and rules; explain and illustrate fully the
distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier;
illustrate what is taught of the forms _I, we,_ etc., _me, us,_ etc.;
explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 156-159.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 37.

VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS--PARTICIPLES.

+Introductory Hints.+--_Corn grows; Corn growing._ Here _growing_ differs
from _grows_ in lacking the power to assert. _Growing_ is a form of the
verb that cannot, like _grows_, make a complete predicate because it only
assumes or implies that the corn does the act. _Corn_ may be called the
assumed subject of _growing_.

_Birds, singing, delight us._ Here _singing_ does duty (1) as an adjective,
describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb by
expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us.

_By singing their songs birds delight us._ Here _singing_ has the nature of
a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, _songs_;
and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in a
prepositional phrase.

_Their singing so sweetly delights us_. Here, also, _singing_ has the
nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier,
_sweetly_, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier.

This form of the verb is called the +Participle+ (Lat. _pars_, a part, and
_capere_, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs two
offices--those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun.
(For definition see Lesson 131.)

_Singing birds delight us_. Here _singing_ has lost its verbal nature, and
expresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds,--and
consequently is a mere adjective. _The singing of the birds delights us_.
Here _singing_ is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective
modifiers.

There are two kinds of participles; [Footnote: Grammarians are not agreed
as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the
noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms _doing_, _writing_,
and _injuring_, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, _Infinitives_.
They would also call by the same name such compound forms as _being
accepted_, _having been shown_, and _having said_ in these expressions:
"for the purpose of being accepted;" "is the having been shown over a
place;" "I recollect his having said that." But does it not tax even
credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in _-an_, only
one form of which followed a preposition, and that always _to_, could have
developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost
any preposition, and modified by _the_ and by nouns and pronouns in the
possessive? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, "An infinitive in _-ing_,
set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in _-an_ or
_-en_, is a perfectly unwarranted invention."

Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon _Verbal Nouns_
in _-ung_, _-ing_. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact
that those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could be
followed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have
seen, and have objects. That they are from nouns in _-ung_ is otherwise,
and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are from
infinitives in _-an_.

Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of
the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in
the accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a
simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the
infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by
the preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch
the term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it
cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) are
used in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than
_to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) are
objects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) are
modified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the
possessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the
extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations
that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent
except that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or of
the term _verbal noun_!

Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _Verbal
Nouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_.

The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_,
and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb in
precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when
partaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but the
forms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If the
uses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carry
over the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology when
applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival
use. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms
_participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still call
them, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to
the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name
_participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounal
and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply.]
one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other,
the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in
_ing_, _ed_, or _en_.

The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object
complement or an attribute complement.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+.

1. Hearing a step, I turned.

I | turned
===|=========
\ |
\ hea
\ ring | step
--------|------
\a

+Explanation+.--The line standing for the participle is broken; one part
slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the other
is horizontal to represent its verbal nature.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject;
[Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicate
also. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79.] the
principal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_
is modified by _a_.

+Parsing+.--_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because the
act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an
adjective and that of a verb.

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use.

+Explanation+.--The complement is here modified by a participle phrase.

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through
the back-bone.
4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated
forest of the Hague.

+Explanation+.--The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here
modified by a participle phrase.

5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace
with the sports of the amphitheater.

The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+.

6. The natives came crowding around.

+Explanation+.--_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongs
to the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the act
of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the
predicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Some
grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as
adverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and
_trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?]

7. The city lies sleeping.
8. They stood terrified.
9. The philosopher sat buried in thought.

\and \and \
\....\....\
\ \ \star
\ \ \ ving
\ \sav \-------
\ \ ing
\gru \----------
\ bbing
\-------------
|
miser | kept \ / \
======|======================
|

10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving.

The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+.

11. He kept me waiting.

+Explanation+.--_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the object
complement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed upon
me. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to
_me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was kept
waiting_. See Lesson 31.

12. I found my book growing dull. [Footnote: It will be seen by this and
following examples that we extend the application of the term _objective
complement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man
_dead_," the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the act
expressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_," the condition is not
the result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example
_dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying
_man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result of
the act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of the
verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_
to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done to
the man.

If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_," it
will be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_
through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an
"appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man,
who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are not
equal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he was
asleep."

If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement,
_quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in the
following sentences are objective complements:--

I saw the leaves quiet.
I saw the leaves stirring.
I saw the leaves stir.

The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to
differ essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78.]

\grow
\ wing \ dull
\---------------
|
I | found / / \ | book
=====|==============================
| \my

+Explanation+.--The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn
above the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of a
support. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as the
complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the
object complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to
_book_, the assumed subject of _growing_.

13. He owned himself defeated.
14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent
mobs.
15. I felt my heart beating faster.
16. You may imagine me sitting there.
17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a
king.

* * * * *

LESSON 38.

PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositional
phrase+.

1. We receive good by doing good.

+Explanation+.--The line representing the participle here is broken; the
first part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of the
predicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, which
is completed by the noun _good_.

+Passing+.--_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows the
preposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement.

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain.
3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons.
4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously.
5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered.
(_Suffering_ is here a noun.)

The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a
+subject+ or as an +object complement+.

6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position.

---, writing | letter
'------------------------
\Your | \neatly \that
| \so
|
/ \ | secured | position
=========|========='===========
| \the

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the
subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the
subject.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is the
subject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by
_letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by the
adverb phrase _so neatly_.

7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others.
8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent.
9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment.

The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+.

10. The cackling of geese saved Rome.

11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten
song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German
_mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth
century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution
before indicated by the singular number."--_Prof. F. A. March._]

+Explanation+.--_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_
and _long-forgotten_.

12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility.
13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner.

The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+.

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river.

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a
noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44.

15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's
"constitutionals."

* * * * *

LESSON 39.

COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES.

+COMMA--RULE.--The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words
belonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a
sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one
comma.] +by the comma unless restrictive+.

+Explanation+.--_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song.
The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes without
restricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to a
particular bird.

+Direction+.--_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_
37.

+Caution+.--In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what
you intend it to modify.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving
your reasons:--_

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small
family containing all the improvements.
2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of
brick.
3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely
trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap.
4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an
acorn we espied a squirrel.
5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent
gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.

+Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the
participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:--

+Model+.--_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._
Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing.

_Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_.

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo.
2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well.
3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles
shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a
prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject
or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an
absolute phrase_:--

Buzzing, leaping, waving.

* * * * *

LESSON 40.

VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like the
participle, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_,
following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ with
the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by _you_,
and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second
kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has
received the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others calling
both _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and in
following only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_.

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as
a subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ is
profitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ is
equivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ is
profitable.

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without
limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_,
without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the
participle, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumed
subject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the
participle or the infinitive belongs.

Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example
given above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs its
full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as
subject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It serves
only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the
verb.

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the
different complements.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an
+adverb modifier+.

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams.

hot-house | is \ trap
============|================
\The | \a \to
\ catch | sunbeams
\-------'----------

+Oral Analysis+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principal
word, and _sunbeams_ completes it.

+Parsing+.--_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the
relation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of the
verb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ and
names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_.

2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and
decision of character.
3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated.
4. We will strive to please you.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify
the predicate.

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race.
6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.

+Explanation+.--_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_.

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify
the adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_.

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new
lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and
again to sell off and wander.
9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify
the adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+

10. To be good is to be great.

\To \to
\ be \good \ be \ great
\-----------------------
| |
/ \ | is \ / \
========|==================
|

Explanation.--_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it serves
merely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives used
abstractly, having no noun to relate to.

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it.
12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible.
13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive.
14. He seemed to be innocent.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an
adjective. _To be innocent = innocent_.

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him.
16. We should learn to govern ourselves.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement.

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.

* * * * *

LESSON 41.

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal
term+ of another phrase.

1. My friend is about to leave me.

\to
\ leave | me
\-------'----
\ about |
\ / \
\-----------------
|
friend | is \ / \
========|=====================
\My |

+Explanation+.--The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used as
attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leave
me_.

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth.
3. No way remains but to go on.

+Explanation+.--_But_ is here a preposition.

The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in
a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+.

4. For us to know our faults is profitable.

us
-------
| \to
\ | \ know | faults
\For | \------'--------
\ / \ \our
\-------
|
/ \ | is \ profitable
=============|======================
|

+Explanation+.--_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of
the entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_,
which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_.

5. God never made his work for man to mend.

+Explanation+.---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not
_man_, but _man to mend_.

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+

7. It is easy to find fault.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject
_it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature of
the phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a very
common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the
verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts.

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it.
9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope.
10. It is not all of life to live.
11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+

12. He made me wait.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes
_made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_.

See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as objective
complements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doing
it_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(=
bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _He
made-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_.

The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ may
be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _to
wait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made
_to bend_; The stick was made _straight_.

13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the
report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the
clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically
equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I
desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he
should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and
_to be promoted_ the predicate, of a
clause would certainly be confusing.]

14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference
in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded
him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command
is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last
sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare
_He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me
to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading._ In such sentences as (13)
and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall
trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding
noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the
infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase
object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the
Latin "accusative with the infinitive."]

15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note.]

+Explanation+.--_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_.

16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be
assassinated.

* * * * *

LESSON 42.

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These
infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79.

For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and
infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have
_walked_, shall _walk_.]

+Explanation+.--In the diagram the independent element must stand by
itself.

1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000.
2. Every object has several faces, so to speak.
3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were
executed.

Infinitives and Participles.

MISCELLANEOUS.

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord.
5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of
the sun.
6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so.
7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze.
8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole,
9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies.
10. To be, or not to be,--that is the question.
11. I supposed him to be a gentleman.
12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its
waste, is a necessity.
13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time.
14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the
window, to drown herself.
15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and
watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling.

* * * * *

LESSON 43.

COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE.

+Direction+.--_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles,
and the participles into infinitives_:--

Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed
to _toward, for, of, at, in,_ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to a
participle.

1. I am inclined to believe it.
2. I am ashamed to be seen there.
3. She will be grieved to hear it.
4. They trembled to hear such words.
5. It will serve for amusing the children.
6. There is a time to laugh.
7. I rejoice to hear it.
8. You are prompt to obey.
9. They delight to do it.
10. I am surprised at seeing you.
11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels.

+Direction+.--_Improve these sentences by changing the participles into
infinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:--

1. We began ascending the mountain.
2. He did not recollect to have paid it.
3. I commenced to write a letter.
4. It is inconvenient being poor.
5. It is not wise complaining.

+Direction+.--_Vary these sentences as in the model_:--

+Model+.--_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_
is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful.

(Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by the
comma.)

1. Reading good books is profitable.
2. Equivocating is disgraceful.
3. Slandering is base.
4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous.
5. Swearing is sinful.

+Direction.+--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive
phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three
as a noun_.

+Direction.+--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed
by an infinitive without the to_:--

+Model.+--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain.

Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see.

* * * * *

LESSON 44.

WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY.

+Introductory Hints.+--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases
that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the
sentence.

_The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only to
arrest attention, and is independent by address.

_Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent by
exclamation.

_Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply call
attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are
independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical
effect, but out of place in ordinary speech.

_His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being
absent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause,
but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore
grammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An
_absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a
modifying participle.

_His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participle
without connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independent
phrase.

_To confess the truth, I was wrong._ The infinitive phrase is independent.

The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_,
life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon;
_There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees.

Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and
hence are independent.

Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the
rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, my
hope, my soul, upon this cast.

+Analysis+.

1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows.

+Explanation.+--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjective
modifying _shadows_.

2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story
intellects with skylights.

+Explanation+.--Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically,
merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded
out of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow the
predicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_.

3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro.
4. Hope lost, all is lost.
5. The smith, a mighty man is he.
6. Why, this is not revenge.
7. Well, this is the forest of Arden.
8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool.
9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies.
10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow.
11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday.
12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts.
13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs.
14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold.
15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely
well.

retreat | began
=========|=======
\later
\---\
\ day
\-------
\A

16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army,
from Moscow.

See Lesson 35.

* * * * *

LESSON 45.

COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES.

+COMMA--RULE.--Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by
the comma.+

+Remark+.--Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the
exclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set off
by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in
(5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14),
the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without
affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in
(15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see
Lesson 148.)

Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, of
course, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, do
not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole;
as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders.

+Direction.+--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of
independent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_.

+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used
in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them
properly_:--

In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover,
however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too,
of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore.

+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify same
particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:--

Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+

(SEE PAGES 160-162.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30,150.

* * * * *

LESSON 46.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+Introductory Hints+.--In the previous Lessons we have considered the
sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now
look at it as a whole.

_The mountains lift up their heads_. This sentence is used simply to
affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a +Declarative Sentence.+

_Do the mountains lift up their heads?_ This sentence expresses a question,
and is called an +Interrogative Sentence.+

_Lift up your heads_. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an
+Imperative Sentence+. Such expressions as _You must go_, _You shall go_
are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative
form.

_How the mountains lift up their heads!_ In this sentence the thought is
expressed with strong emotion. It is called an +Exclamatory Sentence+.
_How_ and _what_ usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an
interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the
speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings; as, _It is impossible!
How can I endure it! Talk of hypocrisy after this!_

+DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to
deny.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a
question.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or
an entreaty.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden
thought or strong feeling.+ [Footnote: For punctuation, see page 42.]

+INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be
followed by an interrogation point.+

+Remark.+--When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another
sentence, it may be direct; as, He asked, "_What is the trouble?_" or
indirect; as, He asked _what the trouble was_. (See Lesson 74.)

Analysis.

+Direction.+--_Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justify
the terminal marks of punctuation:_--

1. There are no accidents in the providence of God.
2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his
glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal
part?
3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.

(The subject is _you_ understood.)

4. How wonderful is the advent of spring!
5. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green!
6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work.
7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age.
8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself!
9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
10. Lend me your ears.
11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has!
12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character?
13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God.
14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on
the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead!
15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the
very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and
woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and
the shouts of his triumph?

* * * * *

LESSON 47.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW

Analysis.

1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion.--_Wordsworth_.
2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would
permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence.
--_Stephen_.
3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag,
floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry
to-day.--_Conway_.
4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming
phrase.--_Lowell_.
5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong
eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature,
Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art.--_De Quincey_.
6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words--
health, peace, and competence.--_Pope_.
7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye.--_Tyler_. [Footnote:
Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this
Lesson, are called Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to
one's style?]
8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.--
_Longfellow_.
9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantagenets,
become noble by association.--_F. W. Robertson_.
10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night.--
_Beecher_.
11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning
the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still
golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair.--_Curtis_. [Footnote:
In _Ruth_ of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called
+Personification+--a figure in which things are raised above their
proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on
dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being.

Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an
+Allusion+. All the interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us
this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory.]

* * * * *

LESSON 48.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of Aeolus's bag, and carries
the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat.--_Emerson_.
2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the
case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of
Resurrection.--_Holmes_.
3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the
Old.--_Canning_.
4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant
linguistic exercise of that organ.--_Warner_.
5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed
upon it.--_Earle_.
6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of
despotism.--_Phillips_.
7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so.--_Gail Hamilton_.
8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds.--_Lamb_.
9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and
composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual
calm.--_Addison_.
10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the
power of science.

+Explanation+.--_Beyond the power of science = impossible_, and is
therefore an attribute complement. The preposition _beyond_ shows the
relation, in sense, of _power_ to the subject phrase.

11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by
turning somersets in the air.--_Longfellow_.

* * * * *

LESSON 49.

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION.

+Direction+.--_Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for the
marks of punctuation used in Lessons_ 44, 46, 47, _and_ 48.

* * * * *

LESSON 50.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 37 _to Lesson_ 46, _inclusive_.

Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the
substance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and illustrate definitions
and rules; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the
infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the use of the participle;
illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be
grammatically independent, and the punctuation of these independent
elements.

* * * * *

LESSON 51.

ARRANGEMENT--USUAL ORDER.

TO THE TEACHER.--If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming
to a prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge these
Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be
omitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the
different parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then to
read the examples given, making the required changes orally.

The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three.

Let us recall the +Usual Order+ of words and phrases in a simple
declarative sentence.

The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb.

+Example+.--_Drake circumnavigated the globe_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences each with an
object complement._

An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory
modifier follows it.

+Examples+.--_Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver_, came down
from the Mount.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences, two with
possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an
adjective._

The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the
objective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect object
precedes the direct.

+Examples+.--Egypt _is the valley_ of the Nile. Eastern life _is dreamy_.
They made _Bonaparte consul_. They offered _Caesar a crown_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the
positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these
offices_.

If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun
stands nearest to it; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of their
length--the shortest first.

+Examples+.--_Two honest young_ men enlisted. Cassino has a _lean_ and
_hungry_ look. A rock, _huge_ and _precipitous_, stood in our path.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the
relative position of adjectives before and after the noun_.

An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which it
modifies; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb or
the verb with its complement; and follows one or more words of the verb if
the verb is compound.

+Examples+.--The light _far in the distance_ is _so very bright_. I _soon
found him_. I _hurt him badly_. He _had often been there_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these
several positions of the adverb_.

Phrases follow the words they modify; if a word has two or more phrases,
those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it.

+Examples+.--_Facts once established_ are facts forever. He _sailed for
Liverpool on Monday_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the
positions of participle and prepositional phrases_.

* * * * *

LESSON 52.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Introductory Hints+.--The usual order of words, spoken of in the preceding
Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence; on the
contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes
allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently,
the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech
of any kind, one may deviate widely from this order.

A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words; more of it
lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling,
one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting
attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer.

When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place,
appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have what
we may call the +Transposed Order+. _I dare not venture to go down into the
cabin--Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die--Die you
shall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people--Their names
will, on the lips of the people, forever live_.

When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the
principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of
the transposed order; as, _A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a
turban._ The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a
declarative sentence except in poetry; as, _Flashed all their sabers bare_.

TO THE TEACHER.----Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement
and Contraction, we say _change, transpose_, or _restore_, the pupils need
not write the sentences. They should study them and be able to read them.
Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change.

+Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the usual to the transposed
order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect_:--

1. He could not avoid it.
2. They were pretty lads.
3. The great Queen died in the year 1603.
4. He would not escape.
5. I must go.
6. She seemed young and sad.
7. He cried, "My son, my son!"
8. He ended his tale here.
9. The moon shone bright.
10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea.
11. He was a contentious man.
12. It was quoted so.
13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice.

+Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the transposed order to the
usual, and explain the effect_:--

1. Him, the Almighty Power hurled headlong.
2. Volatile he was.
3. Victories, indeed, they were.
4. Of noble race the lady came.
5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
6. Once again we'll sleep secure.
7. This double office the participle performs.
8. That gale I well remember.
9. Churlish he often seemed.
10. One strong thing I find here below.
11. Overhead I heard a murmur.
12. To their will we must succumb.
13. Him they hanged.
14. Freely ye have received.

+Direction+.--_Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns
or adjectives as a complement; and five, each with one of the adverbs or
phrases as predicate modifier; then transpose the ten with these same words
moved to the front, and explain the effect_:--

Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and
deeply, then, under foot.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words
last, and note the effect_:--

1. The clouds lowering upon our house are _buried_ in the deep bosom of the
ocean.
2. Aeneas did _bear_ from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old
Anchises.
3. Such a heart _beats_ in the breast of my people.
4. The great fire _roared_ up the deep and wide chimney.

+Direction+.--_Change these to the usual order_:--

1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won.
2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper
price, displayed.
3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the
family, suddenly stopped.
4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth,
concealed.
5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school,
the most difficult and valuable.

+Direction+.--_Write three sentences, each with the following noun or
adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then
transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go_:--

Mountains, glad, by and by.

* * * * *

LESSON 53.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the
object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what is
lost by the change_:--

1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth.
2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum.
3. Me restored he to mine office.
4. A changed France have we.
5. These evils hath sin wrought.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement
and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!"
2. The maiden has such charms.
3. The English character has faults and plenty of them.
4. I will make one effort more to save you.
5. The king does possess great power.
6. You have learned much in this short journey.

+Direction+.--_Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object
complements, and then restore them to their usual order_:--

Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the
attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is
lost by the change_:--

1. A dainty plant is the ivy green.
2. Feet was I to the lame.
3. A mighty man is he.
4. As a mark of respect was the present given.
5. A giant towered he among men.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement
and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. We are merry brides.
2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country."
3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot.
4. The man seemed an incarnate demon.
5. Henry VIII. had become a despot.

+Direction+.--_Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three
sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them_:--

Rock, desert, fortress.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the
adjective complement and the verb to their customary places_:--

1. Happy are we to-night, boys.
2. Good and upright is the Lord.
3. Hotter grew the air.
4. Pale looks your Grace.
5. Dark rolled the waves.
6. Louder waxed the applause.
7. Blood-red became the sun.
8. Doubtful seemed the battle.
9. Wise are all his ways.
10. Wide open stood the doors.
11. Weary had he grown.
12. Faithful proved he to the last.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement
and the verb_:--

1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
2. The anger of the righteous is weighty.
3. The air seemed deep and dark.
4. She had grown tall and queenly.
5. The peacemakers are blessed.
6. I came into the world helpless.
7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless.
8. The fall of that house was great.
9. The uproar became intolerable.
10. The secretary stood alone.

+Direction+.--_Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these
adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to the
usual order_:--

Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce.

* * * * *

LESSON 54.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the
adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Then burst his mighty heart.
2. Here stands the man.
3. Crack! went the ropes.
4. Down came the masts.
5. So died the great Columbus of the skies.
6. Tictac! tictac! go the wheels of thought.
7. Away went Gilpin.
8. Off went his bonnet.
9. Well have ye judged.
10. On swept the lines.
11. There dozed the donkeys.
12. Boom! boom! went the guns.
13. Thus waned the afternoon.
14. There thunders the cataract age after age.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the
verb_:--

1. I will never desert Mr. Micawber.
2. The great event occurred soon after.
3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain.
4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whing!
5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
6. A sincere word was never utterly lost.
7. It stands written so.
8. Venus was yet the morning star.
9. You must speak thus.
10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid.
11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here.

+Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these
adverbs_:--

Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the
phrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh.
2. Seven years after the Restoration appeared Paradise Lost.
3. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred.
4. To such straits is a kaiser driven.
5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life.
6. Between them lay a mountain ridge.
7. In purple was she robed.
8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze.
9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys.
10. In those days came John the Baptist.
11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the battle of Bunker Hill.
12. Three times were the Romans driven back.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the
verb_:--

1. The disciples came at the same time.
2. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads.
3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village.
4. His trusty sword lay by his side.
5. Pepin eventually succeeded to Charles Martel.
6. The house stands somewhat back from the street.
7. Our sphere turns on its axis.
8. The bridle is red with the sign of despair.
9. I have served in twenty campaigns.
10. Touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips.

+Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the usual order, using these
prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, and
compare the two orders_:--

Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to.

+Direction+.--_Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them
with these words_:--

There (independent), nor, neither.

* * * * *

LESSON 55.

ARRANGEMENT--INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order is
usual.

+Examples+.--_Who_ came last evening? _What star_ shines brightest?

+Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word
below as a subject; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the
subject; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject_:--

Who, which, what.

If the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or a
modifier of either, the order is transposed.

+Examples+.--_Whom_ did you see? _What_ are personal consequences? _Which
course_ will you choose?

+Direction+.--_Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as
object complement, and another with the second word as attribute
complement. Write four with the third and the fourth as_ _complements, and
four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement_:--

Whom, who, which, what.

If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed.

+Examples+.--_Why_ is the forum crowded? _Where_ are the flowers, the fair
young flowers?

+Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs_:--

How, when, where, whither, why.

If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when
this is simple; after the first word of it when it is compound.

+Examples+.--_Have you_ your lesson? _Has the gentleman_ finished?

+Direction+.--_Write six interrogative sentences, using these words_:--

Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see.

+Direction+.--_Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into
declarative sentences_.

* * * * *

LESSON 56.

ARRANGEMENT--IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.

The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence; but, when it is
expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order.

+Examples+.--_Praise ye_ the Lord. _Give_ (_thou_) me three grains of corn.

+Direction+.--_Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the
subject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed_:--

Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote.

Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory
(Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with _how_ or
_what_, and are usually in the transposed order.

+Examples+.--_How quietly_ the child sleeps! _How excellent_ is thy
loving-kindness! _What visions_ have I seen! _What a life_ his was!

+Direction+.--_Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying
(1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb--in three sentences let the
verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with
the word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute
complement--in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two precede, the
subject_.

* * * * *

LESSON 57.

CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES.

+Direction+.--_Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers
and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last_:--

1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a
great writer.
2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances,
they became powerful.
3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious.
4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental!
5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy.
6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and
resolutions and defiance.
7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations.

+Direction+.--_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the
preposition, and the conjunction_:--

1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend.
2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine.
3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous.
4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart.

+Direction+.--_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four
times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the
repetition and of the omission_:--

Poor, how, with, through, or, and.

+Direction+.--Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:--

1. Give us this day our daily bread.
2. Why dost stare so?
3. Thank you, sir.
4. Hear me for my cause.
5. Where hast been these six months?
6. Bless me!
7. Save us.

+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:--

1. Nobody there.
2. Death to the tyrant.
3. All aboard!
4. All hands to the pumps!
5. What to me fame?
6. Short, indeed, his career.
7. When Adam thus to Eve.
8. I must after him.
9. Thou shalt back to France.
10. Whose footsteps these?

+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note
the loss in vivacity_:--

1. Upon them with the lance.
2. At your service, sir.
3. Why so unkind?
4. Forward, the light brigade!
5. Half-past nine.
6. Off with you.
7. My kingdom for a horse!
8. Hence, you idle creatures!
9. Coffee for two.
10. Shine, sir?
11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive.
12. On with the dance.
13. Strange, strange!
14. Once more unto the breach.
15. Away, away!
16. Impossible!

+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:--

1. Art thou gone?
2. Will you take your chance?
3. His career was ably run.
4. Are you a captain?
5. May long life be to the republic.
6. How great is the mystery!
7. Canst thou wonder?
8. May a prosperous voyage be to you.
9. Are you here?

+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note
the gain in force and animation_:--

1. I offer a world for sale.
2. Now, then, go you to breakfast.
3. Sit you down, soothless insulter.
4. I want a word with you, wife.
5. Those are my sentiments, madam.
6. Bring ye lights there.
7. It is true, sir.
8. We will drink a health to Preciosa.
9. I offer a penny for your thoughts.
10. Whither are you going so early?

+Direction+.--_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of these
adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting
both subject and verb_:--

Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the
guns, water.

* * * * *

LESSON 58.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_.

Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the words
and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different
positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an
exclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contracting
sentences.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 162-165.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.--The sentences given for analysis in the preceding
Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called
+Simple Sentences+.

_A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could
expand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth of
discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into
an expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makes
friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makes
friends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+.

The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a single
word, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performing
such office, we call an +Independent Clause+.

The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we
call a +Complex Sentence+.

A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an
+Adjective Clause+.

Analysis.

1. They that touch pitch will be defiled.

They | will be defiled
=======|=====================
` |
`
`
that ` | touch | pitch
--------|--------'-------
|

+Explanation+.--The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by
their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading
of the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of the
dependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. This
office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting
lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _that
touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence because it consists of an
independent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is the
independent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touch
pitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; the
dependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_.

TO THE TEACHER.--Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and
_that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting
the loss of connection.

2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press.
3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause does not always modify the subject.

4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like
genius.
5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of
Nantes.
6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel
Adams framed.

+Explanation+.--The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a
subject.

7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note.]
which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins.
8. I found the place to which you referred.

I | found | place
====|==================
| \the `
`
you | referred `
------|---------- `
| \to `
\ which `
\-------

9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter.
10. It was the same book that I referred to.

+Explanation+.--The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connects
the adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause,
the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8).

11. She that I spoke to was blind.
12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him.

+Explanation+.--A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you find
a word that would here sound better than _that_?)

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of.
14. It is to you that I speak.

+Explanation+.--Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the
sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In
analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak
_to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject.

15. It was from me that he received the information.

(_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usual
position.)

16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the
ocean.

mountains
-----------
`
` base | is
` ------|-----
` \
`.....\whose

+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of
_base_.

17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting.

* * * * *

LESSON 60.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time
you take to breathe.

+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_,
_which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are often
omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never
omits them.] is omitted.

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on.
3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw.
4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of
_whom_. Supply _him_.

5. He did what was right.

He | did | x
====|======================
| `
`
what ` | was \ right
---------|-------------

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, or
some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many
grammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson
71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clauses
introduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_.

"_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses.
Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect
interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as
substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be
expressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the full
construction of a relative."--_Prof. F. A. March_.]

6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show.
7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived.
8. What men he had were true.

The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective.
Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_
were true.

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or
_he_) of the independent clause.

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest.
11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism.
12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited.

depot | is \ place
=======|==============
\A | \a `
\where
stores | ` are deposited
-------|---------------------
|

+Explanation+.--The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. The
upper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjective
clause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying
_are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a
_conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _in
which_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of
the conjunctive adverb will be seen.

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_
before _where_.)
14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown.
15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit
against Antonio.
16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of
the universe are conducted.

* * * * *

LESSON 61.

COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+COMMA--RULE.--The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off by
the comma.+

+Explanation+.--I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple,
_which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or
limits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective
clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being
nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. This
difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are
other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _and
he_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it to
you_.

Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical
relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence
compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its
antecedent clause.

Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for
instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the
letter to my friend, _who can be trusted_.

But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of
phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the
following sentences:--

John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he
did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the
law_.

No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses
as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student
should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form
and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)]

+Caution+.--The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to
the word it modifies.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the
comma when needed_:--

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur
who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits.
2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple.
3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we
had for breakfast.
4. I have no right to decide who am interested.

+Direction+.--_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an
adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:--
Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable.

+Direction+.--_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences
by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish.
2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our
liberties.
3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night.
4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their
native land.
5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt
at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber.

+Direction+.--_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by
expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. I have many things to tell you.
2. There were none to deliver.
3. He had an ax to grind.
4. It was a sight to gladden the heart.
5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear.

+Direction+.--_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and
conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:--

Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever.

When, where, and why.

+Direction+.--_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what",
and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to
"anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "in
which"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:--

1. _That which_ is seen is temporal.
2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder.
3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race.
4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence.
5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the
very spot _where_ brave men died.
6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain.
7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king.
8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live.

+Direction+.--_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into
adjective clauses_:--

1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way.
2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three
words--_health, peace_, and _competence_.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

+Direction+.--_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson,
and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:--

Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a
complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying
some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective
is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase;
one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is
omitted; one whose connective is an adverb.

* * * * *

LESSON 63.

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can
expand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_.
You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and
say, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_.

_He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+,
and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_.

_This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introduced
by _as ... as_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the quality
expressed by it.

A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +time+.

1. When pleasure calls, we listen.

we | listen
===|=========
| \
`When
`
pleasure | \ calls
---------|---\-------
|

+Explanation+.--_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting that
the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasure
calls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctive
adverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases
thus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_
modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects.

The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture these
three offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is,
for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it.

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war.
3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up.

Lord | will take | me
======|=====================
\The | \up \
..\ then
` \
`
`When
father \
------------'\ \
\my ' \ \
' \ \
' \ | \ forsake | me
'and \----|---------------------
' / |
' /
mother ' /
------------'/
\my

+Explanation+.--By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _at
which_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For
explanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above.

4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in
reading Plato's "Immortality." [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions
like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and
_since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses.]
5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave.
[Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note.]

+Explanation+.--_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modified
by _a_.

6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting
the last onslaught of Napoleon.

Blucher | arrived
===========|===========
| \
\------\
\ `as
\ just `
\ `
\
Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught
--------------|-----\------------------------
|

+Explanation+.--_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependent
clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Just
as_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _At
the time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_
line.

The +adverb clause+ may express +place+.

7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom.
8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could
find it.
9. The wind bloweth where it listeth.

The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+.

10. Washington was as good as he was great.

+Explanation+.--The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first
_as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by the
adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The
second _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, and
is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as ... as_
into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ he
was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20).

11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is
not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative
pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first
_the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so
much_, and modifies _humbler_.]

+Explanation+.--The words _the ... the_ are similar in office to _as ...
as_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser.

12. Gold is heavier than iron.

Gold | is \ heavier
=======|==============
| \
` than
`
iron | x \ \ x
-------|---------------

+Explanation+.--_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _in
which_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is
heavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after
_than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects the
clause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctive
adverb.

13. To be right is better than to be president.

+Explanation+.--To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be
president (would be good).

14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence,
also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a
clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different
logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.]

+Explanation+.--The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it
produced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercury
froze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was
cold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see,
modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive
adverb.

15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.

+Explanation+.--It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or
require).

16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for
it.
17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded.
18. To preach is easier than to practice.
19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion.
[Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_
repeated, see Lesson 124.]
20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it.

I | like | it
=====|===========
| \
\----\ better
\the \
...\
` \
`
I | ` see | it
----|--`--------------
` \
`The \
`.....\oftener

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