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School and Home Cooking

by Carlotta C. Greer · English · Gutenberg #6912 · 844,635 chars · public domain (US)

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Title: School and Home Cooking

Author: Carlotta C. Greer


        
Release date: November 1, 2004 [eBook #6912]
                Most recently updated: December 30, 2020

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING ***




Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.




[Illustration: _By permission of Harrison H Dodge, Superintendent_ A
CORNER OF WASHINGTON'S KITCHEN AT MOUNT VERNON]

SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING

BY

CARLOTTA C. GREER HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT, EAST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL CLEVELAND, OHIO




PREFACE

_School and Home Cooking_ is a text which can be placed in the hands
of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Its
use eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus saves
much time.

The _psychological_ method of education, which treats first of
material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis
develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind in
preparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff
may be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of the
content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is
psychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are
sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil.

Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any
subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving
technical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason a
classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the
text; they are classified after each is considered.

At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of
lessons called _Related Work_, which includes table service lessons,
home projects, and meal cooking. _Table service_ lessons are
introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should
be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative
processes are performed. The _cost_ and _food value_ of meals
are considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wise
_selection_ and thrifty _buying_ of foods are also treated in
these lessons.

_Home projects_ which progressive teachers have found effective in
making home economics function in the home--one of the goals to be
attained in democratic education--contain suggestive material which may
be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes.

An adaptation of the "meal method," _i.e., meal cooking_, is used
both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also for
gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same
time.

_Experiments_ regarding food preparation and composition and
processes of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been taken
to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil
and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow
directions, make observations, and draw helpful deductions.

The _recipes_ have been adapted from various sources. Where it is
possible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensive
food materials are used. The more expensive materials are used as
sparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foods
follow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory in
the home kitchen.

Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor of
Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portions
of the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of the
Department of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, for
valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the
preparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking reading
of the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrative
material: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood and
Company, _The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journal
of Home Economics_, and the United States Department of Agriculture.

CLEVELAND, July, 1920.




TABLE OF CONTENTS


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

FOREWORD


DIVISION ONE

INTRODUCTION

I. Baked Apples--Dishwashing

II. Measurements--Stuffed and Scalloped Tomatoes

III. Fuels and Combustion--Sauted and Baked Squash

IV. Coal Ranges--Corn Dishes

V. Gas Ranges--Scalloped Fruit

VI. Stoves and Heating Devices--Stuffed Peppers, Butterscotch Apples


DIVISION TWO

BODY-REGULATING FOOD--WATER

VII. Water and Beverages (A)

VIII. Water and Beverages (B)

RELATED WORK

IX. Home Projects

X. Afternoon Tea


DIVISION THREE

BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS,--RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)

XI. Fresh Vegetables (A)

XII. Fresh Vegetables (B)

XIII. Fresh Fruits

RELATED WORK

LESSON

XIV. Review: Meal Cooking

XV. Home Projects


DIVISION FOUR

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES

XVI. Sugar: Digestion of Sugar

XVII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (A)

XVIII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (B)

XIX. Cereals: Starch and Cellulose

XX. Cereals: Rice (A)

XXI. Cereals: Rice (B)

XXII. Cereals and the Fireless Cooker

XXIII. Cereals for Frying or Baking

XXIV. Powdered Cereals Used for Thickening

XXV. Toast: Digestion of Starch

XXVI. Root Vegetables (A)

XXVII. Root Vegetables (B)

XXVIII. Root Vegetables (C)

XXIX. Starchy Foods Cooked at High Temperature

RELATED WORK

XXX. Dining Room Service

XXXI. Cooking and Serving Breakfast

XXXII. Review: Meal Cooking

XXXIII. Home Projects


DIVISION FIVE

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AN OILS

XXXIV. Fat as a Frying Medium

XXXV. Fat as a Frying Medium--Food Fats

XXXVI. Fat as a Frying Medium--Digestion of Fat

XXXVII. Fat Saving

RELATED WORK

XXXVIII. Dining Room Courtesy

XXXIX. Cooking and Serving Breakfast

XL. Review: Meal Cooking

XLI. Home Projects


DIVISION SIX

ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN

XLII. Eggs

XLIII. Eggs: Digestion of Protein

XLIV. Eggs: Omelets (A)

XLV. Eggs: Omelets (B)

XLVI. Milk

XLVII. Milk with Cocoa and Chocolate

XLVIII. Milk and Cream

XLIX. Cream Soups (A)

L. Cream Soups (B)

LI. Milk Thickened with Egg (A)

LII. Milk Thickened with Egg (B)

LIII. Milk Thickened with Egg (C)

LIV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (A)

LV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (B)

LVI. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (C)

LVII. Cheese (A)

LVIII. Cheese (B)

LIX. Structure of Beef--Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts

LX. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (A)

LXI. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (B)

LXIL. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (A)

LXIII. Beef; Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (B)

LXIV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (C)

LXV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (D)

LXVI. Beef: Uses of Cooked Beef

LXVII. Gelatine (A)

LXVIIL. Gelatine (B)

LXIX. Fish (A)

LXX. Fish (B)

LXXI. Fish (C)

LXXII. Legumes (A)

LXXIII. Legumes (B)

LXXIV. Legumes (C)

RELATED WORK

LXXV. Cost of Food

LXXVI. Cooking and Serving a Breakfast

LXXVII. Review: Meal Cooking

LXXVIII. Home Projects


DIVISION SEVEN

HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES

LXXIX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Delicate Flavor

LXXX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Strong Flavor

LXXXI. Salads (A)

LXXXII. Salads (B)

LXXXIII. Classification of Foodstuffs

RELATED WORK

LXXXIV. Selecting Food

LXXXV. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper

LXXXVL. Review: Meal Cooking

LXXXVII. Home Projects


DIVISION EIGHT

FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS

LXXXVIII. Food Adjuncts--Dishes Containing Food Adjuncts

RELATED WORK

LXXXIX. Spending for Food

XC. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper

XCI. Review: Meal Cooking

XCII. Home Projects


DIVISION NINE

FOOD COMBINATIONS

XCIII. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (A)

XCIV. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (B)

XCV. Fish Salad and Salad Rolls

XCVI. Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws

XCVII. Veal and Potatoes

XCVIII. Mutton and Lamb Dishes

XCIX. Pork, Vegetables, and Apple Sauce

C. Chicken and Rice

CI. Chicken and Peas

CII. Oyster Dishes

CIII. Meat-substitute Dishes

CIV. Meat Extenders and One-dish Meals

RELATED WORK

CV. Menu-making

CVI. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Luncheon or Supper

CVII. Review: Meal Cooking

CVIII. Home Projects


DIVISION TEN

QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS

CIX. Leavening with Steam and Air: Popovers

CX. Leavening with Baking Soda and Sour Milk: Spider Corn Bread

CXI. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Molasses: Gingerbread

CXII. Leavening with Baking Powder: Griddle Cakes

CXIII. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Baking Powder: Sour Milk
Griddle Cakes

CXIV. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Cream of Tartar: Steamed
Brown Breads

CXV. Formulating Recipes--Waffles

RELATED WORK

CXVI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Foods

CXVII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner

CXVIII. Review: Meal Cooking

CXIX. Home Projects


DIVISION ELEVEN

QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS

CXX. Fine and Coarse Flours--Muffins

CXXI. Comparison of Wheat and Other Grains--Muffins

CXXII. Baking Powder Loaf Breads

CXXIII. Eggs for Quick Breads--Cream Puffs

RELATED WORK

CXXIV. Food Requirement

CXXV. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner

CXXVI. Review: Meal Cooking

CXXVII. Home Projects


DIVISION TWELVE

QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS

CXXVIII. Method of Mixing Fat in Quick Breads--Drop Biscuit

CXXIX. Quantity of Fat in Quick Breads--Short Cake

CXXX. "Cut" Biscuit

RELATED WORK

CXXXI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Food Applied to the Daily Food
Requirement.

CXXXII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner.

CXXXIII. Review: Meal Cooking.

CXXXIV. Home Projects.


DIVISION THIRTEEN

YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS

CXXXV. Yeast--Loaf Bread.

CXXXVI. Wheat Flour--Bread Sponge.

CXXXVII. Modifications of Plain White Bread.

CXXXVIII. Rolls and Buns.

RELATED WORK

CXXXIX. Food for Girls and Boys.

CXL. Planning a Day's Diet--Cooking and Serving a Meal.

CXLI. Review: Meal Cooking.

CXLII. Home Projects.


DIVISION FOURTEEN

CAKE

CXLIII. Cake without Fat--Sponge Cake.

CXLIV. Cake Containing Fat--One-egg Cake.

CXLV. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (A)

CXLVI. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (B)

CXLVII. Cake Containing Fat--Cookies

CXLVIII. Cakes without Eggs

RELATED WORK

CXLIX. The Luncheon Box

CL. Planning and Preparing Box Luncheons

CLI. Review--Meal Cooking

CLII. Home Projects


DIVISION FIFTEEN

PASTRY

CLIII. Pies with Under Crust

CLIV. Pies with Upper Crust

CLV. Two-crust Pies

RELATED WORK

CLVI. Infant Feeding

CLVII. Modifying Milk

CLVIII. Review--Meal Cooking

CLIX. Home Projects


DIVISION SIXTEEN

FROZEN DESSERTS

CLX. Method of Freezing--Water Ice

CLXI. Frozen Creams

RELATED WORK

CLXII. Diet for Young Children

CLXIII. Planning and Preparing Menus for Children

CLXIV. Review--Meal Cooking

CLXV. Home Projects


DIVISION SEVENTEEN

FOOD PRESERVATION

CLXVI.   The Principles of Preserving Food

CLXVII.  Processing with Little or No Sugar--Canned Fruit

CLXVIII. Processing with Much Sugar--Preserves, Jams, and Conserves

CLXIX.   Processing with Much Sugar--Jellies

CLXX.    Processing with Vinegar and Spices--Relishes

CLXXI.   Canned Vegetables

CLXXII.  Dried Vegetables

RELATED WORK

CLXXIII. The Sick-room Tray

CLXXIV.  Preparing Trays for the Sick and Convalescent

CLXXV.   Review--Meal Cooking

CLXXVI.  Home Projects


DIVISION EIGHTEEN

SUPPLEMENTARY

I. Thanksgiving Sauce

II. Thanksgiving Desserts

III. Christmas Sweets

IV. Christmas Candy


APPENDIX

Suggestions for Teaching

Books for Reference


INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

A corner in Washington's kitchen at Mt. Vernon [_Frontispiece_]

1. Skewer and knitting needle for testing foods

2. A sink arranged for efficiency in dish-washing

3. Utensils for dish-washing

4. Dish-drainer

5. Dish-drainer

6. Dish-rack

7. Dish-rack

8. A rack for drying dishes

9. Utensils for measuring and weighing foods

10. Coal range, showing course of direct draft

11. Coal range, showing course of indirect draft

12. Gas burner, showing mixer

13. Gas burners

14. Gas range, showing direction of draft

15. Cross-section of wickless kerosene stove

16. Electric range

17. Pressure cooker

18. Steam cooker, containing various foods

19. Scene on a tea plantation

20. Tea-ball teapot

21. Coffee berries

22. Coffee percolator

23. Grains of starch

24. A cupful of rice before and after boiling

25. Insulated wall of a refrigerator

26. Fireless cooker, having excelsior packing

27. Fireless cooker, with stone disks

28. Electric fireless cooker

29. Gas range, having fireless cooker attachment, insulated oven and hoods

30. Method of folding filter paper

31. Utensil for steaming,--a "steamer"

32. "Steam" without pressure, and "steam" which has been under pressure

33. Table laid for an informal luncheon

34. Wheel tray

35. How to hold the knife and fork

36. Keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth

37. The teaspoon should rest on the saucer

38. How to hold the soup spoon

39. Apparatus to determine the temperature at which eggs coagulate

40. Method of holding pan to turn an omelet on to a platter

41. Cocoa pods

42. Dried bread crumbs

43. Structure of meat

44. Club or Delmonico steak

45. Porterhouse

46. Sirloin,--hip steak

47. Sirloin,--flat bone

48. Sirloin,--round bone

49. First cut prime rib roast

50. Second cut prime rib roast

51. Blade rib roast

52. Chuck rib roast

53. Colonial fireplace, showing a "roasting kitchen"

54. Round

55. Chuck

56. Cuts of beef

57. Rump

58. Cross rib, Boston cut, or English cut

59. Skirt steak; flank steak

60. Fish kettle, showing rack

61. A suggestion for the division of each dollar spent for food

62. The composition of roots and succulent vegetables

63. The composition of butter and other fat-yielding foods

64. The composition of milk and milk products

65. Cuts of veal

66. Cuts of lamb or mutton

67. Lamb chops

68. The composition of fresh and cured meats

69. Cuts of pork

70. The composition of fresh and dried fruits

71. Removing tendons from the leg of a fowl

72. Fowl trussed for roasting,--breast view

73. Fowl trussed for roasting,--back view

74. Composition of fish, fish products, and oysters

75. The composition of eggs and cheese

76. The composition of legumes and corn

77. The composition of bread and other cereal foods

78. Foods containing calcium

79. Foods containing phosphorus

80. Foods containing iron

81. Oven heat regulator

82. Illustrating the amount of heat represented by one Calorie

83. Comparative weights of 100-Calorie portions of food

84. 100-Calorie portions of food

85. Longitudinal section of wheat grain, showing bran, floury part, and
germ

86. Growing yeast plants

87. Graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modified
milk

88. Some species of molds

89. The four types of bacteria

90. Canning foods

91. Rack for holding jars

92. The composition of fruits and fruit products

93. Drier for vegetables or fruits

94. The composition of sugar and similar foods

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Measurement equivalents.

2. Use of the wooden spoon.

3. Lack of draft.

4. Presence of draft.

5. The regulation and purpose of a gas mixer.

6. The dissolving power of water.

7. Presence of gases in water.  8. Simmering and boiling of water.

9. Tannin in tea.

10. The solubility of granulated sugar in cold water.

11. The solubility of granulated sugar in hot water.

12. The solubility of powdered sugar.

13. The solubility of caramel.

14. The starch test.

15. The effect of cold water on starch.

16. The effect of heat on starch.

17. Stiffening of cooked starch.

18. The structure of starch.

19. Separation of cellulose and starch.

20. The difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cooked
over boiling water.

21. Retention of heat.

22. Starch grains and boiling water.

23. Separation of starch grains with cold water.

24. Separation of starch grains with sugar.

25. Separation of starch grains with fat.

26. The change of starch into dextrin.

27. The solubility of dextrin.

28. Starch in cracker.

29. Action of saliva upon starch.

30. The effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water.

31. Temperature at which fats and oils decompose or "burn".

32. Bread fried in "cool" fat.

33. The temperature of fat for frying

34. Saponification of fat

35. Action of oil and water

36. Emulsion of fat

37. The coagulation of egg-white

38. The solubility of albumin

39. Temperature at which eggs coagulate

40. Comparison of cooked and boiled eggs

41. Effect of beating a whole egg

42. Comparison of eggs beaten with a Dover egg beater and with a wire
spoon

43. Effect of beating egg yolk and white separately

44. Separation of milk into foodstuffs

45. Scalding milk

46. Comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware

47. Effect of rennet on milk

48. Separation of curd and whey

49. Effect of acid on milk

50. Division of muscle

51. Effect of dry heat on (_a_) connective tissue, (_b_) muscle
fiber

52. Effect of moisture and heat on (_a_) connective tissue,
(_b_) muscle fiber

53. Comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening

54. Effect of cold water on meat

55. Effect of boiling water on meat

56. Effect of salt on meat

57. Effect of cold water on gelatine

58. Effect of hot water on gelatine

59. Effect of soaking fish in water

60. Effect of boiling fish rapidly

61. Effect of acid on milk

62. Neutralization of acid by means of soda

63. Protein in oyster liquor

64. Leavening with steam and air

65. Comparison of thick and thin quick breads

66. Preparation of flour for quick breads

67. Action of baking soda on sour milk

68. Chemical change

69. Quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk

70. Action of baking soda on molasses.

71. Quantity of baking soda to use with molasses.

72. Effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.

73. Effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.

74. Effect of hot water on baking powder.

75. Starch in baking powder.

76. Comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders.

77. Conditions for growth of the yeast plant.

78. Protein in flour.

79. Mixtures for freezing.

80. Effect of air, light, and drying upon the growth of molds.

81. Effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds.

82. Effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds.

83. Effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds.

84. Growth of molds on cut fruit.

85. Growth of molds upon whole fruits.

86. Growth of molds on other foods.

87. Growth of molds upon wood.

88. Growth of molds upon cloth.

89. Contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food.

90. Growth of bacteria.

91. Effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria.

92. Effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria.

93. Use of sugar as a preservative.

94. Pectin in fruit juice.

95. Pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel.




[Illustration: BLEST BE THE FEAST WITH SIMPLE PLENTY CROWNED]

FOREWORD

One of the slogans of the World War,--"Food will win the War,"--showed
that food was much more important than many persons had believed. It
confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, or
relieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor in
achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time.

The subject of food is a broad one,--one that is growing in interest. Many
present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me what
you eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. The
most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an
individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. If
you would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your food
carefully.

A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foods
one should know what foods to _select_ at market, whence they come,
how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, and
how they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety of
foods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; others
contain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said that
for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is a
pity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchased
at the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods to
choose to meet best the needs of the body.

Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter of
_combining_ foods that are varied in composition or that supplement
one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not only
nutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important to
combine foods that "taste well."

In learning to _prepare_ foods, the experience of those who have
cooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told to
follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Following
a direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result in
rapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you
would become skilful in food preparation.

One class of food or one principle of cooking may be _related_ to
another or _associated_ with another. For example, the method of
cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general.
There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle of
cooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupil
has learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply the
principle to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, the
pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledge
gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of
a cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipes
appearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved.
The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker
and acquires skill in a much shorter time.

The _results_ of every process should be observed. Careful
observations should be made when work is not successful. There is no such
thing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. The
cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The same
mistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to result
from such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result of
one's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a great
satisfaction, to the home-keeper.

A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Graceful
_serving_ of food at such a table is an art. The ability to serve
food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to
acquire.

Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as
follows:

(_a_) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy,
nutriment, and flavor.

(_b_) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one class
of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another.

(_c_) Note the results of your work; know why the results are
successful or why they are unsuccessful.

Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all important
factors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realize
that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil,
broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. All
this demands much earnest thought and effort.




SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING

DIVISION ONE



INTRODUCTION

LESSON I


BAKED APPLES--DISH-WASHING

BAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins)

6 apples
Seeded raisins
6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar
6 tablespoonfuls water

Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core from
each. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish.
Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugar
in each core. Pour the water around the apples.

Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient baking
with a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking,
occasionally "baste" the apples, _i.e._ take spoonfuls of the water
from around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for baking
apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From
20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required.

DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.--There is almost invariably a waste of effort
in both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to:

(_a_) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments.

(_b_) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing.

(_c_) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too
many motions in washing and drying them.

Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping,
efficiency methods, _i.e._ methods which accomplish satisfactory
results with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be applied
to it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, may
become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study.

[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS.
Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which serves
as a handle.]

For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable:

A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing
dishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a
sink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on
an inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for this
purpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of the
sink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans;
dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish-
mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish-
cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap-
holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and a
large cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size
for use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slats
for drying brushes (see Figure 2).

PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.--If possible, as soon as _serving dishes,
i.e._ dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits of
food from them. The scraping may be done with: (_a_) a piece of soft
paper, (_b_) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (_c_) a knife or
spoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping,
but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible to
wash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can be
washed.

[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING.

Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in the
upper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.]

_Cooking utensils_ need special care before washing, especially if
they have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease from
dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the
drainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills and
great inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting a
utensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefully
with a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan or
kettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil
with hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a few
minutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectiveness
of this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied to
aluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark
stain on aluminum)

[Illustration: FIGURE 3--UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING

A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths G
plate scraper]

Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency
if they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, using
cold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, or
starch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup.

ARRANGING DISHES.--Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing
utensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind of
dishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at the _right_ of
the dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at the _left_ of
the pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her
left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may be
no unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washing
at the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the left
hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed
at the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining board
at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure
2).

WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--Fill the dish-pan about two
thirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes in
the pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latter
is used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan about
two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may be
placed in the rinsing pan.

Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanest
dishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups,
saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap-
dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do not
wash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bits
of blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or
vinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover egg
beater should not soak in water.

If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth.
Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold or
greasy.

[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--DISH-DRAINER.]

Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to
scour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to
the steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there are
any stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Apply
the latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible,
rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry or
bread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold water
and scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which
is free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, or
bread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side to
prevent warping.

[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--DISH-DRAINER.]

RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.--Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (see
Figures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the former
has been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of the
water to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish-
racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again.

[Illustration: FIGURE 6--DISH-RACK.]

DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--If such dishes as plates, platters, and
saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, no
towel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a soft
towel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for
this purpose.

Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting,
dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel on
these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the
warming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open
air. Stand boards on end until dry.

[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--DISH-RACK.]

CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.--Use dish-towels and cloths for no other
purpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importance
to keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soak
them in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well.
Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. At
least once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them as
directed above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until it
boils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry.

[Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.--A RACK
FOR DRYING DISHES.]

CARE OF THE SINK.--If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may be
cleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wears
away the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult
to clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used in
cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water
standing in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth and
wash the sink. _Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning
the sink._ If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, apply
a small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by opening
the hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down the
drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap.

The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. This
is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. If
this is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much
hot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. If
the latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop the
drain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of
the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To use
this, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water.
Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remain
in the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon of
water. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away.

SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.--For
both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen
or the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to cover
the hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn in
the kitchen. The hands should be washed _before_ preparing or cooking
food, and _after_ touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirable
to have a hand towel conveniently placed.

_Clean cooking_ means _clean tasting_. This can be done by
taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from
the cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon.

QUESTIONS

Are apples sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck?

What is the price per pound or per peck of apples?

Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch be
rinsed with _cold_ water?

Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in _hot_
water?

Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed
with hot water before washing?

Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water?

Why not _fill_ the dish-pan with soiled dishes?

Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water?

Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover egg
beater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with a
soft towel?

Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly?

Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment
87.)

Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering?

Why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain or
enamel sink?

What is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no water
run from the faucet while cleaning a sink?




LESSON II


MEASUREMENTS--STUFFED AND SCALLOPED TOMATOES

EXPERIMENT 1: [Footnote 2: The pupil should record each experiment in a
notebook in a methodical way, giving (_a_) the aim of the experiment,
(_b_) the process, (_c_) the result, and (_d_) the
conclusion or practical application.] MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS.--In
measuring solid materials with teaspoon, tablespoon, or standard measuring
cup (see Figure 9), fill the measuring utensil with the material and then
"level" it with a knife.

Use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements:

(_a_) Find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful

(_b_) Find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup

(_c_) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint

Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise

A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise

[Illustration: FIGURE 9--UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS]

An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally

A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise

A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuring
fractional teaspoonfuls

NEED OF ACCURACY--When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure all
ingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredients
for certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result is
satisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her own
standards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives are
not _sure_ of success. For certain foods the ingredients should
always be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far as
possible, the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text. When the
quantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merely
the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated.
When large quantities of materials are to be measured, a quart measure on
which the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves more
convenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are more
conveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipment
for cooking (see Figure 9).

The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements.
She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking
utensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity of
several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of
measurement.

Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food to
buy at market, and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated number
of persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough
rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. She
might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts
concerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of a
little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thrifty
housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when
there were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note the
quantity of the materials used, and then observe the quantity of the
finished product.

EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.--Place a tin and a wooden spoon in
a saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5
minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which would
be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind of
spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods? Why? (See
_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)

Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, knobs on covers for
saucepans, etc., are of wood.

STUFFED TOMATOES

6 ripe tomatoes
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
3/4 teaspoonful mixed herbs
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of the
seed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, then
add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with the
prepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about
20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbs
brown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1)
rather than with a fork.

For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme.

_Soft bread crumbs_ are prepared from stale bread, _i.e._ bread
that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours.

Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of bread
crumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and butter with these
vegetables.

Use a granite, glass, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (See
_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)

SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Recipes for both
fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon
the season can be made.]

1 can or 1 quart tomatoes
1 tablespoonful salt
Dash pepper
3 cupfuls bread crumbs
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain and
peel and cut into pieces.

Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking-
dish. Cover with buttered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at
400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking to
prevent  the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scalloped
dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked.

Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes.

Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1
cupful of the dried crumbs.

TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.--Heat slightly the pan or dish to
be oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub the
heated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory method
because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not
have to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be
wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It is
well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen
for this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory
means of applying melted butter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings to
the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful
cleaning.

Butter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used for
oiling pans or baking-dishes.

QUESTIONS

In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs
before they are buttered. Why?

Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a
fork?

What kind of baking-pan--tin, granite, or earthenware--is best to use for
Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking
Fruits_, p.65)

Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or
peck?

What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck?

How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs?

How many slices in one loaf of bread?




LESSON III

FUELS AND COMBUSTION--SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH


FUEL.--In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This
heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first
requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn, _i.e._ a fuel. The
fuels commonly used in households are,--wood, coal, kerosene, and gas.
Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well
established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat.

HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.--There are fuel substances everywhere,--paper,
cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does
not burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper is
placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it
is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood
and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by
the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood.
All fuels must be heated before they will burn.

When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the
difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some
substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn,
while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require
different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on
the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing
the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The
burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the
temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to
paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The
temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and
continue to burn is called the _kindling temperature_ of that
substance.

DRAFT; OXYGEN.--

EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.--(_a_) Place a short candle on a pan.
Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the
candle continue to burn? Why?

(_b_) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time
support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so
that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of
cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn?
Why?

EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.--Remove the cover from the top of the
chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What
substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why
the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this
experiment.

If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases
to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded
from it. _The act of burning,_ i.e. _combustion, is the union of
any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are
produced._ We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until
heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel
will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third
requisite for combustion.

The necessity for a draft, _i.e._ a continuous supply of fresh air
which furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4.

SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.]
SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.]

Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove the
skin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fat
and heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden
brown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over the
frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve at
once.

BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3]

Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for
serving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (at
right angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell.
Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (at
moderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter,
salt, and pepper.

QUESTIONS

Name the three requisites for combustion.

Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain your
answer.

What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind of
squash is required to serve 6 persons?




LESSON IV

COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The principles of building
a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and
heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cooking
or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the
pupils, this lesson may be omitted]--CORN DISHES

EXAMINATION OF A COAL RANGE.--Remove the lids from the coal range. Note
the location of the fire box. What is its purpose? How is the floor of the
fire box constructed? Where is the check damper? What is its purpose?
Where is the ash pan? Where is the front damper? What is its purpose? Note
the place where the stovepipe joins the range. What is the purpose of the
stovepipe? Note the damper in the stovepipe. What is its purpose? Note the
location of the oven. By what is the oven surrounded? Find the oven
damper. Open it. In what direction do the hot gases pass out when the oven
damper is open? What part of the range is heated when the oven damper is
open?

_An open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range_
(see Figure 10).

Close the oven damper. Trace the direction of the hot gases when the
damper is closed. What parts of the range are heated when the oven damper
is closed?

_A closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through the
range_ (see Figure 11).

How should the front, oven, check, and chimney dampers be arranged when
the fire is kindled?

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.--What is found deposited on the inside of the
stovepipe of a coal range? To what is the upper end of the stovepipe
joined? What does one often see coming from the top of a chimney?

[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF DIRECT DRAFT.]

In the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned, it united
with oxygen. It is a matter of common observation that when all solid
fuels--coal, wood, paper--burn, they decrease in size, and that fuel gas
is consumed. Apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels have
been burned, and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has been
burned. Yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from the
chimney. Both solid and gaseous materials, such as ashes, soot, and smoke,
are formed when fuels burn. Such materials are called _products of
combustion_.

FIRE BUILDING IN A COAL RANGE.--It is necessary to have the fire box, ash
pan, and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire. After
cleaning, place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottom
of the fire box, then about four layers of kindling wood, placed so that
there are air passages between the pieces, and on top of the wood put two
shovelfuls of coal. Regulate the dampers for a direct draft, replace the
stove-lids, and brush the surface of the stove.

[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF INDIRECT DRAFT.]

Before lighting the fuels, polish the range in the following manner: To
the nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactory
metal cleanser.

To the iron of the stove apply oil rather than "blacking." Light paraffin
oil may be used for this purpose. Apply the oil with cotton waste, or a
soft cloth. (Care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil.) Polish
with soft cotton or woolen cloth. One should remember, however, that oil
must be used with caution. _It should never be applied to a stove
containing burning fuels._ If the stove cloth, saturated with oil, is
not destroyed after using, it is well to keep it in a covered tin can or
stone jar. After polishing the stove, light the fuels. When the wood is
reduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning, add more coal. If this
burns well, change the dampers to make an indirect draft.

GREEN CORN In selecting corn for cooking, choose those ears that are
filled with well-developed kernels, from which milky juice flows when
pressed with the thumb. Cook as soon as possible after gathering.

_To boil green corn_ remove silk and husk from the corn, place the
ears in boiling water. Cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernels
when pressed (usually from 12 to 20 minutes). Serve whole on a platter.
The platter may be covered with a folded napkin.

_To bake green corn_ select 12 ears. Remove the corn from the cob as
follows: Cut through the center of each row of grains, slice off the tops
of the kernels, and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob. Put in a
baking-dish, add:

3/4 cupful milk
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Pepper

Bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. Serve hot.

Green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top of
the range. To the corn cut from 12 ears, add the same ingredients, using
less milk. Cook at simmering temperature until tender.

SCALLOPED CORN

1 can corn
2/3 cupful milk
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs

Mix the corn, milk, and seasonings. Mix the crumbs and fat, and place one
fourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, add one half of
the corn mixture, then another fourth of the crumbs, the remainder of the
corn mixture, and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs. Bake at
400 degrees F., for 45 minutes.

QUESTIONS

Explain why it is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts
of a coal range clean before building a fire.

If both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire, which should be
placed next to the paper? Explain your answer.

What is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning a
range?

Explain why a stove cloth, saturated with oil, should be kept in a covered
tin can or stone jar.

Compare the method of mixing the crumbs in Scalloped Tomatoes and in
Scalloped Corn. Which contains the more moisture,--corn or tomatoes? From
this explain the difference in mixing.

What is the price of 12 ears of green corn or of 1 can of corn?




LESSON V

GAS RANGES--SCALLOPED FRUIT


EXAMINATION OF A GAS BURNER.--Inspect a gas burner and find the following
parts: (_a_) Supply pipe. (_b_) Stopcock. (_c_) Burner.
(_d_) Mixer (see Figure 12).

To light a gas burner, observe the following directions, and in the order
named: (_a_) Strike the match. (_b_) Turn the stopcock.
(_c_) Apply the match to the open burner. (_d_) If necessary,
regulate the stopcock and mixer, so that the flame is blue in color.

[Illustration: Courtesy of _Clark Stove Co_ FIGURE 12.--GAS BURNER
SHOWING MIXER]

EXPERIMENT 6: THE REGULATION AND PURPOSE OF A GAS MIXER.--Light a gas
burner and then completely close the mixer of the burner. If the mixer is
stationary, it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it. What
is the color of the flame? Now open the mixer. What is the color of the
flame? What substance has been "mixed" with the gas by opening the burner?
What is the purpose of the mixer?

EXAMINATION OF A GAS RANGE.--Inspect a gas range and find the following
parts: (_a_) Top burners--regular, giant and simmering (see Figure
13). (_b_) Stopcocks of top burners. (_c_) Oven burners.
(_d_) Stopcocks of oven burners. (_e_) Pilot (if there is one).
(_f_) Baking oven. (_g_) Broiling oven. (_h_) Warming oven
and its burner (if there is one). (_i_) Supply pipe. (_j_)
Stovepipe.

The method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges, and for
this reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which will
apply to all oven burners. There is, however, one important direction that
should always be borne in mind. _Always open the oven door before
lighting the oven burners._ If such caution is not observed, the gas
may escape into the oven and cause an explosion. In case there is a pilot-
lighter, open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned off
before lighting the pilot.

[Illustration: Courtesy of Clark Stove Co FIGURE 13--GAS BURNERS A,
giant, B, regular, C, simmering]

ADJUSTING A GAS BURNER.--The products of combustion of fuel gas that most
interest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
not a poisonous gas, but it does not support animal life. Air containing
much carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfect
respiration, hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion of
a gas stove; good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas range
as for a coal range (see Figure 14).

When gas burns with a yellow flame, it deposits soot on cooking utensils
and does not give as much heat as it should. This is caused by incomplete
combustion. Moreover, _carbon monoxide_, which is present in some
gas, may escape without burning. This is an exceedingly poisonous gas and
when inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects. Hence it
is specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner is
clean, well regulated, and properly constructed, so that sufficient air
can mix with the gas to produce a blue flame.

CONSERVING GAS.--According to authoritative information, [Footnote
8: United States Fuel Administration Bulletin, "Use and Conservation of
Natural Gas"] "the demands for natural gas are now greater than the
available supply. Food and trees can be grown. Water supplies are
constantly replenished by nature, but there is no regeneration in natural
gas." It is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions of
years will be required to make the present concentrated supply. As far as
we are concerned, when the present supply is used up, it is gone forever.
Since natural gas is a most efficient fuel, every housekeeper and
householder should feel obligated to waste none of it. Suggestions for
conserving gas follow:

(1) See that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is light
blue in color.

(2) In selecting a gas stove, see that the burner is so located that the
cooking surface is the correct distance above the burner. The tip of the
flame should touch the bottom of the utensil. If it is necessary to have a
long flame in order to bring this about, there is considerable waste of
gas.

(3) If the flame is long, the gas pressure is greater than necessary.
Regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe. A
short flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results, provided the
cooking surface is the proper distance above the burner.

(4) After the contents of a cooking utensil boils, turn the gas cock so
that only "gentle" boiling takes place. A food becomes no hotter in
rapidly boiling than in gently boiling water.

(5) When possible, use the simmering burner rather than the regular or
giant burner.

(6) Let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil. There is a
wastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cooking
utensil.

(7) Turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed. Matches are
cheaper than fuel gas.

CARE OF THE GAS RANGE.--_Daily Care_.--If any substance on the stove
cannot be removed easily, loosen it with a knife, and then wipe the stove
with a newspaper. Clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a little
light paraffin oil on it. Polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth. Remove
the tray that is beneath the top burners, and wash.

_Weekly Care_.--Wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray with
water to which washing soda solution has been added. It is well to light
the oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens. Polish the
nickel, if necessary. Clean the stove with oil as directed for a coal
range. (_Since oils ignite most readily, care should be taken not to
apply the oil when the stove is lighted!_) Wipe the burner with the
oil. Clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle or
wire kept for this purpose; or, if the openings in the burners are slots,
use a knife to clean them.

SCALLOPED APPLES

2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
3 cupfuls apples
1/2 cupful sugar
1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon
1/2 teaspoonful nutmeg
1/2 lemon,--juice and grated rind
1/4 cupful water

Mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes.

Chop or cut the apples in small pieces, and add the remaining ingredients
to the apples. Arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish as
directed for Scalloped Corn. Bake 40 to 60 minutes (until the apples are
tender and the crumbs brown), in a moderate oven. Cover during first 20
minutes of baking. Serve hot with sugar and cream or Hard Sauce. Care
should be taken in grating _lemon rind_. Only the thin yellow portion
should be used as flavoring.

HARD SAUCE

1 cupful butter
1 cupful powdered sugar
1 teaspoonful vanilla

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Chill and
serve over hot puddings.

SCALLOPED BANANAS

In the Scalloped Apple recipe substitute bananas for apples, omit the
water, and use 1/2 teaspoonful of cinnamon and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves
for the spices. Bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbs
browned. (It will take about 15 minutes.) Serve as Scalloped Apples.

QUESTIONS

Explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while the
oven burners are being lighted.

If a gas stove has no pipe for waste products, what special caution must
be observed in ventilating the kitchen?

What are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range?

What disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams up
the sides of a cooking utensil?

What causes pared apples to become discolored?

Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Apples so that
discoloration of the apples will be avoided.

How many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of chopped
apples?

What is the purpose of covering the Scalloped Apples during the first half
of the time for baking?

What is the effect of the air on peeled bananas?

Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Bananas.

Why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the apple
mixture?

What is the effect of too long baking on bananas?

What is the most practical method of cleaning a grater? Why should not the
dish-cloth be used in cleaning it?




LESSON VI

STOVES AND HEATING DEVICES--STUFFED PEPPERS, BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES


KEROSENE STOVES. [Footnote 9: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--In case no kerosene,
gasoline, or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils, the
portion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted.]--Where gas
is not available for cooking, kerosene may serve as a fuel. In case a
house is equipped with a coal range, a kerosene stove may also be
desirable for use in summer time.

There are two types of kerosene stoves, viz., wick and wickless stoves.
The burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which become
saturated with kerosene. When a match is applied to the wick, the
kerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns. The burning kerosene vapor
vaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues.

[Illustration: Courtesy of _Detroit Vapor Stove Co_ FIGURE 15.--
CROSS-SECTION OF WICKLESS KEROSENE STOVE.]

In one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so that
the kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it (see Figure
15). Such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasoline
into it. A lighter is then applied to the burner. When the latter is
sufficiently heated, the kerosene is turned on. The kerosene then
vaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns.

In other types of so-called wickless stoves, the burners are equipped with
asbestos or other incombustible material. This material becomes saturated
with kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat as
does a cloth wick.

It is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean. Bits of carbon
collect in them and prevent perfect combustion. This results in "smoke" or
soot issuing from the burner. It is well to keep the burners and wicks
free from charred material, and to renew the latter when they become
short.

Most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel.
These should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning. A wick
burner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the
container is exhausted.

GASOLINE STOVES [Footnote 10: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]--
Since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene, it
requires a different type of burner and stove. As a usual thing gasoline
cannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves. (In
the stove shown in Figure 15, however, either fuel may be burned.)

When gasoline is used in a stove, it is necessary to vaporize the gasoline
before lighting the burner. This is accomplished in most stoves by letting
the gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner, turning off
the supply of gasoline, and then applying a match to the cup. By the time
the gasoline is burned the burner is heated. Then the stopcock is turned
on, a match applied to the burner, and the gasoline vaporizes and burns.

Gasoline burners, like those in which kerosene is burned, should be kept
clean. When a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated, an explosion
may result. It is for this reason that _the tank or gasoline container
of a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove are
lighted or even hot._

[Illustration: Courtesy of _Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing
Co_ FIGURE 16.--ELECTRIC RANGE.]

ELECTRIC STOVES. [Footnote 11: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]--It
was mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel. Hence electric
stoves are not provided with burners. They have heaters which contain
coils of wires through which an electric current passes. Electricity is
the cleanest source of heat for cooking. But in order to operate an
electric stove economically, it is necessary to utilize the current
required for a heating element to its greatest extent. For example, if the
current is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should be
cooked in the oven (see Figure 16).

[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--PRESSURE COOKER.]

DEVICES AND UTENSILS FOR SAVING FUEL.--The _pressure cooker_ (see
Figure 17) in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water is
maintained is a great saver of fuel. A food can be cooked in from one
third to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices.
Moreover, pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitude
cooking, where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level.

The _steam cooker_ (see Figure 18) is a fuel saver, when several
foods are cooked at one time in it. Sufficient fuel for only one burner is
required to operate it. The so-called _clover leaf pans_ or
utensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner or
heater save much fuel or current (see Figures 16 and 27.).

The _fireless cookers_ described in Lesson XXII are practical fuel
and heat savers.

STUFFED PEPPERS [Footnote 12: A choice of either Stuffed Peppers or
Butterscotch Apples may be made for this lesson.]

6 green peppers
1 cupful cooked meat, chopped
1 tablespoonful scraped onion
1 teaspoonful salt
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute

[Illustration: Courtesy of _Toledo Cooker Co_ FIGURE 18.--STEAM
COOKER CONTAINING VARIOUS FOODS.]

Cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwise
in halves. Remove the seeds.

Mix the chopped meat, onion, and salt. Mix the bread crumbs and fat as
directed in Stuffed Tomatoes. Combine the ingredients and stuff the
peppers with the mixture. Place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan, and
pour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it.
Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 45 minutes or until the
peppers are tender. Serve hot in place of meat.

If desired, 1/4 cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to the
stuffing mixture. Cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs. A
mixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce (see p 87) also makes a tasty
stuffing for peppers.

If a slice is cut from the top of the pepper, it may be used as a lid to
cover the pepper after stuffing.

BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES [Footnote 13: See footnote 12.]

5 apples
2/3 cupful brown sugar
1/2 cupful water
3/4 cupful milk
1/2 tablespoonful corn-starch
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Wash the apples, and cut them into quarters, pare and core them. Into a
saucepan put the sugar and water, and heat. When the sirup boils, add the
apples. Cover and boil gently until the apples are tender. Remove the
apples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater, placing the
fruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving.

In another pan, mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly. Stir and cook
until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then add it to the sirup in
which the apples were cooked. Boil for a few minutes. Add the salt,
butter, and vanilla. Stir these into the mixture, then pour the sauce over
the apples. Serve Butterscotch Apples hot or cold for a dessert.

QUESTIONS

State at least two reasons why gas, kerosene, and gasoline are more
popular fuels in summer time than coal.

Mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner.

Why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene
in the container is exhausted?

Carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filled
while the stove is lighted or hot.

Why are electric stoves not provided with burners?

Why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver?

How should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel?

Explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans.

Note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers Give the
reason for this.

What is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in which
peppers are baked?

Did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit?
From this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during the
cooking.

NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the course in food study is begun in the fall,
when fruits are in season, the lessons of Division Seventeen--_The
Preservation of Food_--may follow this lesson. The plan of canning
fruit in the autumn is desirable, especially if the course in foods covers
but one year. If more than one year is devoted to food study, the teacher
may find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the second
year, or at the close of the spring semester of the first year. The pupils
at these times will have become more skilful, so that the canning of foods
can be accomplished with greater satisfaction. The high cost of fruits and
sugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result from
food preservation. (Also see the note at the end of lesson XIII.)




DIVISION TWO

BODY-REGULATING FOOD: WATER

LESSON VII


WATER AND BEVERAGES (A)

EXPERIMENT 6: THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER.--Put 1/2 teaspoonful of salt
in a test tube, half fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the test tube
with the thumb, then shake the tube. Do the contents become clear? Set the
tube aside for a few minutes. Does the salt separate from the water?

When a solid substance, by mixing with water, disappears in the water and
does not separate on standing, the solid substance is _dissolved_.
The salt was therefore dissolved in cold water, or it may be said that
salt is _soluble_ in cold water, or that water is a _solvent_ of
salt.

SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.--The change of foods in the body from insoluble to
a soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in the
digestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such as
salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergo
changes before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does not
dissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easily
dissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an important
step in the process of digesting.

USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.--A person might live for a number of weeks
without eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinking
water. Water has many uses in the body.

(_a_) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property,
water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (See
_Solution and Digestion_.)

(_b_) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to all
parts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body.

(_c_) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Because
water is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of the
body to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat of
the body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed of
water, also aids in regulating body temperature.

It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the
body working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in the
statement: _Water aids in regulating body processes_.

FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.--Since water is such a ready solvent, it
contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing
through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances
are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well
water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking
purposes unless boiled.

EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.--Fill a beaker half full of
water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes
which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What
does water contain which is driven off by heat?

EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.--Continue to heat the water
of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface
of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until
bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is
indicated by the larger bubbles?

HEATING WATER.--When bubbling occurs below the surface, water is
_simmering_. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off,
water is _boiling_.

[Illustration: FIGURE 19--SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.]

The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness
can be overcome somewhat by _aerating_ the water after boiling,
_i.e._ by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air
with it.

TEA AND ITS SELECTION.--Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan
(see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and
sold as tea.

In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest
leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence
are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves
make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are
choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves.

Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are
either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is
that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not.
Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance
called _tannin_ (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with
digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown
by the following:

EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.--(_a_) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea
in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes,
then strain the infusion.

(_b_) Repeat (_a_) substituting green tea for black.

(_c_) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage.
To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the
tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present.
Which kind of beverage,--black or green tea,--shows the greater quantity
of tannin?

By fermentation, tannin is changed into a _less soluble form_, so the
beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from
green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more
stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not
dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture
of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor
of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in
various countries have different flavors.

Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by
adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not
reach this country.

MAKING THE BEVERAGE.--Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen,
enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never
be used. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) The ingredient in
tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea
leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans.

Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and
stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially
draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are
allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is
drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water
over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves.

TEA (proportion for one cupful)

1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves
1 cupful freshly boiled water

Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and
add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the
teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea
leaves.

Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20)
for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the
leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the
surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots
may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other.

The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If
the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are
loosely folded.

Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The
latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry.

In warm weather _Iced Tea_ may be served. "Left over" tea may be
utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to
it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a
finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar
does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments
10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea.

[Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.--TEA-BALL
TEAPOT.]

Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some
tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating
material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons,
and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea.

TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE

Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the
cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the
oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve.

If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface
spread with cheese.

QUESTIONS

By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves?

How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea?

Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7
and 8.)

Which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green? Explain.

Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes?

From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black
teas. From what countries do they come?

How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a
pound?

Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the
quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers.




LESSON VIII

WATER AND BEVERAGES (B)

WATER AS A BEVERAGE.--Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such
as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain
water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the
needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage.

When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of
water. From one to two quarts of water,--either as plain water or in
beverages,--should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water
drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown
that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it
has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are
not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used.

WATER, A FOODSTUFF.--The body is nourished by food and there are many
different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one
substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which
foods are composed are called _nutrients_ or _foodstuffs_
[Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of
the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a
scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly called _food
principles.)_ A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain
several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs.

[Illustration: Figure 21--Coffee Berries.]

Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall
study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body.
As explained in the previous lesson, water is a _body-regulating
foodstuff._

USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.--Water is a cleansing
agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most
important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium
for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling.
Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as
in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can
be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for
example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during
cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking.

COFFEE.--Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in
tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or
berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed
from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans,
are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due
to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and
the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a
port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee
grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of
coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not
used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of
coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil.

Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and
therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be
extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through
it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid
is extracted by long boiling.

Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased
ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly
covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In
this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma.

BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful)

1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee
2 tablespoonfuls cold water
Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white
1 cup boiling water
(1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls
of
ground coffee.)

Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the
cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more
than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful
of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the
spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second
tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper
may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a
warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear.

Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee

CARE OF COFFEEPOT.--The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the
coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear
coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other
desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary.
The spout needs special care in cleaning.

FILTERED COFFEE

2/3 cupful finely ground coffee
5 cupfuls freshly boiled water

(For the following method of preparing coffee, a _drip coffeepot_ is
used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a
muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is
poured through the ground coffee.)

Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the
bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or
perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot.
Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly
boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage
may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken,
however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear
cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "_Black_"
or _After Dinner Coffee_ may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1
cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water.

[Illustration: Courtesy of _Manning, Bowman Co_ FIGURE 22.--COFFEE
PERCOLATOR.]

Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure
22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot
and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee.
The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the
percolator. Follow the directions that come with it.

OATMEAL COOKIES

1 egg
1/2 cupful sugar
3/8 cupful fat _or_ 1/4 cupful vegetable oil
2 tablespoonfuls sour milk
1 cupful rolled oats
1 cupful flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful baking soda
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 cupful raisins

Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat
is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the
sour milk and rolled oats.

Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt,
baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first
mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little
flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the
mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate
oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.

These cookies may be served with coffee.

QUESTIONS

How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?

When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then
explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.

Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after
the coffee is boiled?

Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?

In what form,--ground or whole,--should coffee be purchased? Why?

In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.

How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping
tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.

What is the average price per pound of coffee?




RELATED WORK

LESSON IX

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--One of the most
insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely
to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is
thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best
training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she
is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her
share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school
activities can be measured by the way they function in the home.

Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function
in the home than by the educative process called the _project_.
Stevenson defines a project _as a problematic act carried to completion
in its_ natural setting, while Kilpatrick says _a project is a whole-
hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment_.

In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the
needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils'
mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon
tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to
become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of
the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in
the home.

In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary
to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can
doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can
contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which
will be performed in a "hearty" manner.

Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For
successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a
project is an act which involves _mental effort_, and that the
activity must be _carried_ to _completion_. The fact that the
project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of
the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in
a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work
should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the
teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory
results.

The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:

Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project
Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X,
Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W.
Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The
Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]


WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.--Each member of a home has certain obligations to
fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an
unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home
duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy
home membership."

APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.--There is no more effective way
of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods
learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies
or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert
in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will
be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your
achievements will bring to the entire household.

Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will
doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad
to have your cooperation in housekeeping.

Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a
determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects."
To secure successful results, your home work must be done
_thoughtfully_, and _earnestly_, and in a _whole-hearted_
way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home
project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also
instructs you to keep in mind the following aims:

(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining
table.

(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other
things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or
other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal
is being served.

In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a
_determination_ to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your
mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your
work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a
week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have
given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you
will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have
made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future.
You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought
as you worked.

You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of
home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes,
it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if
possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their
cost.

Suggestions for Home Projects:

Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the
evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in
Lessons I to V once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as
possible.

(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note
the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency
methods strive to lessen the time.

(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped
dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the
members of your home will find them most palatable.




LESSON X

AFTERNOON TEA


PLANNING THE TEA.--To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or
having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged
that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit
with your teacher and classmates.

In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the
day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a
number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to
entertain your guests,--what you will have them do to have a pleasant
time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to
serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of
serving them must also be considered.

The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small
portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and
accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu.
Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.

The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or
Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut
Sweetmeats

From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream),
sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats
follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.

COCONUT SWEETMEATS

1/4 cupful powdered sugar
l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 egg white

Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff.
Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.

Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture
by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375
degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan,
place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.

SERVING THE TEA.--For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the
kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the
guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the
presence of the guests.

When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and
napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the
pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of
guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household
usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest
and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and
places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is
then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes
and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a
small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers,
sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty
baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take
them from the plates with their fingers.

Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests
have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also
replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the
materials and dishes needed.




DIVISION THREE

BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)

LESSON XI

FRESH VEGETABLES (A)


ASH.--In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not
consist of one material, but of several substances. _Ash_ or mineral
matter is a common constituent of food. It is a _foodstuff_. The term
"ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of
substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and
cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the
same kind of ash.

The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The
substance that remains after burning, _i.e._ the "ashes," is mineral
matter or ash.

Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a
few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral
substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes
forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been
heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment
salt--ordinary table salt--(see _Condiments_) must not be confused
with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances
besides common salt.

USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.--Ash as well as water does not burn in the body.
It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and
many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps
to build the body.

Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in
perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also
contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the
body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the
regulation of body processes.

Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (_a_) _it aids in building
the body_; and (_b_) _it aids in regulating body processes_.
Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.

FRESH VEGETABLES.--It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of
the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots
of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may
be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels
sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes,
cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.

Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed
most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.

In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain _cellulose_.
The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins
and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and
celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much
cellulose.

Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the
value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be
too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved
vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body
grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).

Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.--If ash is such a valuable
constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all
the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that
the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many
of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water
in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off
water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss
of nutriment.

Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables.
Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.

A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the
saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:

1. Cooking in water with their skins.

2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after
cooking for sauces and soups.

3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained
away after cooking.

4. Cooking in steam.

5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.

COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.--Water in which vegetables are cooked should
be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water
should be _boiling_ when the vegetables are added and should be kept
boiling _gently_ during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water
wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.

The water in which vegetables are cooked is called _vegetable stock_.
When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock
should be utilized in making vegetable sauces.

Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.

BEETS

Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as
not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the
beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see _Cooking
Vegetables in Water_). Test only the largest beet for sufficient
cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover
with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into
slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter.
A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.

Beets may also be served with a _sauce_. Prepare the sauce like White
Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.

Beets may be _pickled_ by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and
placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.

SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS

2 cupfuls sliced onions
2 cupfuls tomatoes
1 tablespoonful fat
Salt and pepper
1 cupful bread crumbs

Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is
drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions,
however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the
sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish
put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and
pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.

Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle
these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400
degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.

BROILED TOMATOES

Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them
(with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the
range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until
the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of
tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.

QUESTIONS

Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain
considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11,
explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.

State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces
before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on
beets during cooking.

Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why
it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with
a fork.

What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?

Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and
tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.

What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after
parboiling them?




LESSON XII

FRESH VEGETABLES (B)

FOOD PREJUDICES.--Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain
foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste
of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may
be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food.

There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to
prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate
their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by
a thorough knowledge of the subject.

Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why
certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully,
you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously
considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing
experience.

TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.--It is not possible to state
just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time
varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a
vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables,
especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long
cooking.

For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a
food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking
a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time
table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the
most reliable test.

TABLE

Asparagus          15-20 minutes
Beets (young)      45-60 minutes
Beets (old)         3-4 hours
Cabbage            15-30 minutes
Carrots            30-60 minutes
Cauliflower        20-30 minutes
Celery             20-45 minutes
Green  Corn        12-20 minutes
Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes
Onions             30-45 minutes
Parsnips           30-45 minutes
Peas (fresh)       20-30 minutes
Potatoes           25-30 minutes
Spinach            15-30 minutes
Squash (summer)    20-30 minutes
String Beans        1-3 hours
Sweet Potatoes     15-25 minutes
Turnips            30-45 minutes

PARING VEGETABLES.--If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it
should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new
potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the
valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin.

Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material
covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a
turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.)

MASHED TURNIPS

6 medium turnips
Salt and pepper
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of
a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or
knitting needle.

Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough
salt and pepper to season. Serve hot.

BUTTERED CARROTS

4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper

Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and
add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a
small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and
seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining
water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot.

Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may
be cooked in the same way.

(Adapted from a _United States Department of Agriculture_ recipe.)

QUESTIONS

Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible?
What is the exception to this rule?

How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why?

Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is
moisture not added to mashed turnips?

What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in
water?

Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large
amount?

What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of
these vegetables in a pound?




LESSON XIII

FRESH FRUITS

FRUIT, A NECESSITY.--An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family"
(p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much
money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should
no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet.

Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,--
the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits,
especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges,
and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in
constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,--they
are constipating.

A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and
fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy.
Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation
and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral
matter.

KINDS OF FRUITS.--In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This
classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered
vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are
termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but
because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as
such.

Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This
distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits
contain,--those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried
fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less
sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This
classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be
considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in
ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value.

WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a
practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most
cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable.

The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is
desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a
less desirable flavor results--the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh
flavor"--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is
cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a
mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to
fruit _after cooking_, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of
the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup
if it is desired to preserve its shape.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.--Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces,
and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking.
For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining.

We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for
paring fruit or certain vegetables. _This black substance is formed by
the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal._ It is
disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all
fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils.

The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This
can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a _low_ (simmering)
_temperature_ in a _covered_ utensil. The _casserole_ used
on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits.
Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces.

FRUIT SAUCES

Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is
tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press
through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the
sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of
cooked fruit.

If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding
spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding
cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice.

STEWED FRUITS

Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1
cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook
_gently_ until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the
fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of
proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit.

Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe
fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened.

COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.--Use the same kind of fruit
and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of
Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and
appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor?

At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit?
Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should
sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool?
Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.)

What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after
cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two
precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means,
other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked
fruit?

RHUBARB SAUCE

Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top
of a _double boiler_. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring
occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful
of cooked rhubarb.

The _casserole_ may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in
a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb.
Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add
sugar as directed above.

QUESTIONS

How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a
pound?

What is the price per pound of fresh peaches?

For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions
for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list
of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season.

NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen,
_The Preservation of Food_, may follow this lesson. Also see the note
at the end of Lesson VI.




RELATED WORK

LESSON XIV

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING


MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is
to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that
its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods
are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product
is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in
individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal"
lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook
enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory
period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch
room.]

Scalloped Corn
Baked Apple
Tea

Outside Preparation of Lesson.

(_a_) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text.

(_b_) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make.

(_c_) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions
regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class.

(_d_) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food.

(_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in
the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be
ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_.

Preparation of Lesson in Class.

(_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work
independently.

(_b_) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more
persons as the time permits.

(_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible.

(_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.

(_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary.

(_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.

(_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be
ready for serving.

(_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and
serving without a maid.

(_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of
the failure and its remedy.




LESSON XV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]


SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal
daily.

Cook fruit at least once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.

(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as
possible.




DIVISION FOUR

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES

LESSON XVI


SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR

ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this
machine gives it energy or the power to move.

The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human
machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power
to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary
and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind
of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood
are examples of the latter kind.

At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not
only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the
body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel
foods.

There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the
first one to be considered.

EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold
water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does
the sugar separate from the water?

EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with
Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If
you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you
have the water?

EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a
teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in
Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar?
Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar
quickly, how would you prepare it?

THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since
dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see
_Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar
would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a
chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too
concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is
slightly more complex.

Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude
that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to
other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much
dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the
stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true
when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty.
Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce
digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and
either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other
foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.

SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a
number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two
groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or
_glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or
_cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar.

The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade
names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A
discussion of these follows:

(_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or
sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then
purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by
crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely
ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar.
Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.

_Brown sugar_ is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as
much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.

(_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid
and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its
sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per
cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as
granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency
is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for
sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is
needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn
sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.

(_c_) _Molasses and Sorghum_.--Molasses is a by-product of cane
sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as
lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain
lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for
children.

One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for
children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar
refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It
also differs in flavor.

Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and
has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too
strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses
or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under
various trade names may be purchased.

(_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited
supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral
matter as is molasses.

(_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are
prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a
distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains
approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71
per cent.

PEANUT CANDY

2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_
1 cupful granulated sugar _and_
1 cupful corn sirup (dark)
3/4 cupful chopped peanuts
1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar
is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and
stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup.

If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and
cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.

Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in
as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, _unbuttered_
pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.

_Puffed cereals_ or _shredded coconut_ may be used instead of
peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are
used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.

CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to
granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This
brown liquid is called _caramel_ The process of making it is called
_caramelization_.

When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting
point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of
granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of
temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature,
hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.

NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of
an injurious substance called _furfural_ is formed. (See Journal of
Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated,
the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields
more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn
sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural
is expelled.

In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water,
hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn
sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.

EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the
candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand
for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it
dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical
application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan
in which sugar has been caramelized?

QUESTIONS

Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?

Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?

What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?

What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?

Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and
that made with granulated sugar and sirup.

Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled
peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?

Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?

What is the advantage of heating the pan?

Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after
adding the peanuts?

Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of
peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.)

From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion,
absorption, and assimilation of foods.




LESSON XVII

SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)


DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has
been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they
are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh
fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and
ash.

Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They
are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most
dried fruit is sugar.

Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets
for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than
candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as
explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the
concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the _Digestion of
Sugar_.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is
another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits
contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its
laxative effect.

The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were
formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served
in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining
them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts
containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked
without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured
by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as
apricots, apples, and rhubarb.

Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long
distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their
high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver).
Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This
is an advantageous factor in carrying them.

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place
it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water
over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak
for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering
temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender,
remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir
carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.

PRUNES

Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add
about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar
may be omitted and only the lemon juice added.

APRICOTS

Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2
cupful of sugar.

TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need
only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined
for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is
desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.

Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins
in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins
are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.

If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are
soft, drain and press out the seeds.

TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little
washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before
using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer,
shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands.
Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If
the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or
in a "cool" oven.

MIXED FRUIT SAUCE

1/2 pound dried apricots
1 pint water
1 cupful raisins
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 lemon,--juice
1 orange,--juice and grated rind
5/8 cupful sugar

Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the
other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the
apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until
dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.

QUESTIONS

Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.

Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight
and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due?
What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What
does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)

What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?

What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?

Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that
obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the
difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.

State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked
Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.




LESSON XVIII

SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)


DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as
accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often
with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs.
These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be
added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and
nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are
unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.

PRUNE PUDDING

1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped
1/2 cupful sugar
1 cupful chopped nuts
1/2 cupful milk or prune water
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 tablespoonful butter _or_ substitute, melted
3 crackers (rolled fine) _or_ 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt

Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the
baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes,
or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped
cream.

DATE PUDDING

1/2 cupful sugar
1 egg
2 tablespoonfuls milk
1/3 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces
1 cupful California walnuts, chopped

Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to
the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in
a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or
cold with plain or whipped cream.

QUESTIONS

How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked
prunes? (See _Questions_, Lesson XVII.)

What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?

How many will the above recipes serve?

What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding
surrounded with hot water during baking?




LESSON XIX

CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE


STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the
body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition
and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs
from sugar.

EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,--
corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca,
potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?

If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture
of iodine is added to it.

From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the
starchy foods belong.

EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful
of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What
happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set
the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch
soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar
does this experiment show?

EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch
and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn
the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the
test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by
heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and
water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble,
like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term
indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?

EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube
containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten
minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked
starch change when cooled?

EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the
microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a
drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.

CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As
previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and
their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material
found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.

EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping
teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it.
Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese-
cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a
saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by
holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the
cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common
material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this
substance?

The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23)
contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of
the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose:
(_a_) in the outside covering; (_b_) in the interior framework;
(_c_) in the covering of the starch grains.

[Illustration: From _Household Chemistry_, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure
23.--Grains of Starch. _a_, potato starch; _b_, corn-starch.
(Much magnified.)]

Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain
fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in
the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food.
Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it
softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose
are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in
contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food
and separate cellulose fibers.

Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:

(_a_) They soften the food; (_b_) they change the starch to a
paste or make it semisoluble; (_c_) they improve the flavor.

Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an
energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and
furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the
digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract,
and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste
material.

CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have
somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are
grouped into one class, viz. _carbohydrate_. Sugar, starch, and
cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. _Carbohydrate is
one of the foodstuffs_. Sugar is a food containing only the
carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other
foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than
any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as
carbohydrate-rich foods.

CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for
food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye,
and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and
breakfast foods are prepared.

Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per
cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the
body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have
an important place in man's diet.

At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1)
the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The
ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that
require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an
accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in
cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.

Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are
doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are
steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home
kitchen than the uncooked grains.

All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable,
the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the
method of preparing the cereal for market.

Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is
usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a
rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2
hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked
cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are
also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure
greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that
require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and
need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling
salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then
place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually _one
teaspoonful of salt_ is used for _each cupful of cereal_. The
quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is
particularly good for cooking cereals. The _fireless cooker_ also is
a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and
economically.

Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods
require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the
water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done,
the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of
water is evaporated.

Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the
top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be
prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.

Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.

ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT

3 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt

Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler
at least 1 1/2 hours.

CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA

3 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt

Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at
least 1/2 hour.

A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned,
stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be
used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals.

QUESTIONS

How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of
cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals
should be added _slowly_ to the boiling water.

Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance
and quantity?

Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame?

What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or
Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena?

What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above?

Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and
uncooked cereals.




LESSON XX

CEREALS: RICE (A)


POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.--At market one finds two kinds of rice,--one
white and pearly in appearance called _polished_ rice, and the other,
gray or brown and lusterless called _unpolished_ rice. In preparing
rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is
cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further
treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is
subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of
purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the
unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a
certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those
inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of
polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by
giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired
by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It
requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water
before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking.

TO CLEAN RICE.--To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water
from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands.

RICE (cooked over boiling water)

3 cupfuls boiling water
1 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful rice

Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to
the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot
water, _i.e._ in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually
about 45 minutes).

The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and
cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called
_Steamed Rice_.

Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits.

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS

[Illustration: FIGURE 24--A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING The
large utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in the
jar]

BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson
for the following lesson.]

3 quarts boiling water
1 cupful rice
2 teaspoonfuls salt

Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the
rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil _rapidly_
for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or
strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with
salt.

Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for
preparing Cheese Sauce for class work.

When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be covered
tightly.

EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICE
COOKED OVER BOILING WATER--Pour a little of the water from the boiled rice
into a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch.
Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Which
method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product?

CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water)

1 pint rice water
1 tablespoonful corn-starch
1 teaspoonful salt
1/4 teaspoonful mustard
1/6 teaspoonful paprika
1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces

Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heat
the remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice
water. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings and
cheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the
other ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice.

One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces)
may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, the
paprika should be omitted.

QUESTIONS

How is rice tested for sufficient cooking?

Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat
foods? (See _Cereals_.)

Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for
rice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cooking
one and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain the
reason for the difference in the quantity of water used.

Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in the
length of time of cooking.

Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If one
desired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used?

Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice
cooked over boiling water,--are the grains separated or pasted together?
Explain the difference in appearance.

What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them
(see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,--boiled rice or
rice cooked over boiling water? Why?

What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to
prepare Cheese Sauce?

What other use could be made of rice water?




LESSON XXI

CEREALS: RICE (B)


RICE PUDDING

Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and
water. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2
cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice until
the water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water.
Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce.

RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the rice
cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.]

2 cupfuls cooked rice
3/4 - 1 cupful milk
1/2 cupful raisins
1/3 cupful sugar
Grated rind 1/2 lemon

These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing the
flavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing variety
may be made from the materials above.

The pudding may be _baked_ in the following manner: Mix the
ingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow oven
until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, or
both, may be substituted for the lemon rind.

This dessert may be _cooked over water_ by mixing the ingredients in
the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Then
butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turn
out at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce.

Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes a
tasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, the
raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg.

CARAMEL SAUCE

1/3 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful milk
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Salt

Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture to
caramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a double
boiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat the
mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt and
vanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well to
allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (see
_Flavoring Extracts_).] Serve hot or cold over puddings.

QUESTIONS

Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson
XX)

If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should
not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water?
(See statement regarding the scorching of milk in _Questions_, Lesson
XXIV)

Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding--baking or cooking over water--
requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definite
quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe.

See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed in
caramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce?




LESSON XXII

CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER


THE FIRELESS COOKER.--The fact that fuels are expensive and that the
supply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat.
This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless
cooker.

It has been said that future historians in summing up the great
achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably
name as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and fireless
cookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking,
but its possibilities are many.

[Illustration: Courtesy of _McCray Refrigerator Co_ FIGURE 25.
--INSULATED WALL OF A REFRIGERATOR.]

THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.--In Experiment 2 it was found that wood
did not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiar
illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in
transmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day,
because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while a
wooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor of
heat. Metals are good conductors of heat.

Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many other
materials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surrounded
by any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance is
retained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by a
poor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpet
or newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting,
one makes use of the latter principle.

[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--FIRELESS COOKER HAVING EXCELSIOR PACKING.]

The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of
non-conducting materials (see Figure 25).

To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try the
following:

EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.--Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full of
boiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap
paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and
paper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each of
the cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotter
water?

The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are
surrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, the
heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the
fireless cooker.

[Illustration: FIGURE 27--FIRELESS COOKER WITH STONE DISKS Note the
kettles of various shapes]

In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can
be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water,
_i. e._ simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has a
metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks.
Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into
the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of
food. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperature
than in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27).

There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers are
equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the
insulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food before
placing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and the
current turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut
off when the desired length of time of heating has passed.

[Illustration: Courtesy of the _Standard Electric Stove Co_ FIGURE
28.--ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER. Has a heating element in the bottom of the
cooker.]

The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and
electric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by
insulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desired
temperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperature
is retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have a
fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food is
first heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, and
the gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retained
heat (see Figure 29).

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.--One should keep the following in
mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker:

[Illustration: Courtesy of the _Chambers Manufacturing Co._ FIGURE
29.--GAS RANGE HAVING FIRELESS COOKER ATTACHMENT, INSULATED OVEN AND
HOODS.]

1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker.
(This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as
shown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes'
boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as a
piece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through.

2. After heating, place the _covered_ kettle containing the food into
the cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so as
to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker.

3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should not
be placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the large
kettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim of
the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (see
Figure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim,
such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as to
rest on the rim.

4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If the
box is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, be
reheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to follow
this plan, where food requires very long cooking.

5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies
with the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes,
the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some,
for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, they
should be removed and reheated as mentioned above. _Food should never be
allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker_.

6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide open
for 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly.

Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As has
been mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeating
all parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burning
and scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. A
fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure
of effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford
considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a
fireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are
given in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771,
"Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books.

CORN-MEAL MUSH

4 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful corn-meal
1 teaspoonful salt

Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook
directly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirring
occasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker
which contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10
hours.

NOTE.--If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler,
prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling
water for at least 3 hours.

CORN-MEAL MUSH FOR "FRYING"

2 cupfuls corn-meal
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 teaspoonfuls salt
2 cupfuls cold water
1 quart boiling water

Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place the
boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-meal
mixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over the
flame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling
water. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mush
from the water and allow the mush to cool.

NOTE.--Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double
boiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours.

RICE AND TOMATOES

1/2 cupful rice
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful celery salt
l-1/4 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful tomatoes
1 slice onion
1 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper

In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice,
onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Add
boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add the
tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover and
place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless
cooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be served
as a border around meat.

QUESTIONS

In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire."

What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn-
meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mush
for "Frying"? (See _Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.)

How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ from
the usual method of cooking cereals?

How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What is
the price per pound of corn-meal and rice?




LESSON XXIII

CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING


"FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH

Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice
in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice
of salt pork fat may be used).

The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted
fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven.

Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in
cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture--1 egg
beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water--and again dipped into
cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put
fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the
crumbs are brown.

Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup.

In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other
breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked.

FRENCH TOAST

1 or 2 eggs
1 cupful milk
1/4 teaspoonful salt
6 or 8 slices of stale bread

Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the
mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or
substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan.
Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top
of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of
powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French
Toast.

SIRUP

1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark)
1/4 cupful boiling water
2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point
is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the
sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of
butter.

QUESTIONS

In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale
bread in the milk and egg mixture?

Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the
better for French Toast,--large or small pieces of bread?

What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just
before turning it?

Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to
be served hot?

What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (See _Corn
Sirup_.)




LESSON XXIV

POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING


EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.--Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of
boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame.
Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare
with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble?

EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.--Mix 1
teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of
boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the
use of cold water in this mixture.

EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.--Mix 1 teaspoonful
of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling
water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of
sugar in the mixture.

EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of
flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water,
stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this
mixture.

To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of
starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must
be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the
cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly
cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered
starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes
necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture
can penetrate every grain at the same time.

BLANC MANGE

2 cupfuls milk
1/4 cupful corn-starch
1/2 cupful sugar
2 teaspoonfuls vanilla
Nutmeg
1/8 teaspoonful salt

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the
hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly.
Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the
mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which
has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve
with sugar and cream.

If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be
reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the
cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable
dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold.

NOTE.--While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is
required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in
the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time
after it thickens? (See _Cereals_.)

CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING

Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4
cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (_i.e._ 1 ounce) of Baker's
chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until
smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just
before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and
serve as Blanc Mange.

Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to
the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to
make them tasty.

3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this
is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to
it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange.

QUESTIONS

Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered
cereals used for thickening.

Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc
Mange as directed.

For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to
stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?

Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see
_Scalding Milk_). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked
entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double
boiler, as cereals.

Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see
_Flavoring Extracts_)?

What is the price per package of corn-starch?

How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?

Which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for
thickening?

How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?




LESSON XXV


TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH

EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.--Place a teaspoonful of
flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes _very dark
brown_ and _uniform_ in color. Put a little of the browned flour
into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What
indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?

The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish
blue) color when treated with iodine.

EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.--Pour the remainder of the
browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake.
Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper,
but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon
filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the
paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the
liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered
liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration:
Figure 30.--Method of Folding Filter Paper.]

From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch
into a soluble substance called _dextrin_. Dextrin is found in small
amounts in the crust of bread and in toast.

DIGESTION OF STARCH.--It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that
sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are
closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found
to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the
process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the
starch to make it soluble. Such a change _does_ take place; starch is
changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.

Substances called _enzymes_ which are in the saliva of the mouth
[Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth
and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the
intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in
the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that
this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following
experiments:

EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.--Test a bit of cracker with iodine for
starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain
starch?

EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.--Thoroughly chew a bit of
cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor.
Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with
iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate
(see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain?
Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.

TOAST.--Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then
browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus
made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.

Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the
moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast
is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh
bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in
a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.

Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the
desired kind of toast.

CREAM TOAST

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls milk or cream
6 to 8 slices of toast

Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly.
Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it
thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue
until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when
it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been
added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.

_Moist toast_ is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot,
salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for
toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.

The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter
flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild
flavored fat or oil may be used.

QUESTIONS

Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see
Experiment 25).

What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour
and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one
cupful of liquid?

What is the use of flour in White Sauce?

Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of
comparison for the thickness of other sauces.

What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly
digested? Give reasons for your answer.




LESSON XXVI

ROOT VEGETABLES (A)


Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in
the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of
the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse
for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in
so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are
potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and
tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and
beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much
cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.

All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.

Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or
in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted
most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having
each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and
carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and
unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared
potatoes and scraped carrots.

Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in _gently
boiling_ water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when
cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water.
When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle),
drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by
shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.

Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked
vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.

Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an
evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely
evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred
material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so,
it is mineral matter.

Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,--
lose the more starch and ash?

Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked
in steam,--lose the more starch and ash?

As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is
better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better
for vegetables without the skins?

Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice.
Prepare about half as much _White Sauce_ as you have of the
vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following
proportion:

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful liquid

For the _liquid_ of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water
without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk
for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for
steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see _Cream
Toast_) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the
vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six
vegetables.

Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing color?

Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing flavor?

As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation
is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?

As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking
is better for both vegetables?

Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath
the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a
vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any
length of time before cooking.

The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should
not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the
nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and
pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their
skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired
than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in
color when cooked without their skins.

The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water
consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable
materials. [Footnote 30: _Vitamines_, see Division Seven]

Satisfactory results may be obtained by _baking_ or _steaming_
vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut
into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been
pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May,
1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.]
however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed
vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of
steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a
steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the
perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from
the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the
steamer.

An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the
manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the
water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer
can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting
the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should,
of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using
the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan
(see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated
vegetable broth is used.

[Illustration: Courtesy of _Geo H Bowman Co_ FIGURE 31.--UTENSIL FOR
STEAMING--A "STEAMER"]

Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a
very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker.
This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.

If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain
away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in
a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes
starchy vegetables soggy.

BOILED POTATOES

If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as
possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green
portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers
growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains
an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If
the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain
some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious
material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an
injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by
storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around
the sprouts.

In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59,
Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water
immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the
saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the
moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put
through a ricer before serving.

CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by
cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the
cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce
with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling
point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break
the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken
to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is
desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts
of diced vegetables.

Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled
baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.

WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
  _or_
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
White pepper
1/2 cupful milk
1/2 cupful vegetable stock

Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). The thickness
of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The
thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.

CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES

1 cupful soft bread crumbs
1/8 teaspoonful salt
White pepper or cayenne
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute

Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place
the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.

QUESTIONS

How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?

Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?

Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or
bushel?

Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain
their nutriment.




LESSON XXVII

ROOT VEGETABLES (B)


EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,--Over
several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable
to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a
test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does
the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of
vegetables in water before cooking?

SWEET POTATOES

Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see _Cooking Vegetables
in Water_). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot
milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.

Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with
butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in
the oven.

SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)

3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
6 sweet potatoes
Salt and pepper
Boiling water

Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put
the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes.
Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to
cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the
potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the
potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes
as a sauce for serving.

Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the
casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.

MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)

4 parsnips
2 eggs
1 cupful nuts, chopped
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use
  the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.]
4 tablespoonfuls flour
1 teaspoonful salt

Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve
or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the
ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a
little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake
until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery
Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from _Ninety
Tested Recipes_, Teachers College.)

TOMATO SAUCE

1/2 can tomatoes
1 cupful water
2 cloves
3 allspice berries
3 peppercorns
2 sprays of parsley
3 tablespoonfuls fat
2 slices onion
1/4 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful salt

Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown
the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow
the method of making White Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Strain and
serve.

QUESTIONS

From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed
in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.

Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after
cooking?

From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually
purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with
white potatoes?

What is the price per pound of parsnips?

In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and
spices together for 15 or 20 minutes?

Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?




LESSON XXVIII

ROOT VEGETABLES (C)


Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant
grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of
plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation,
tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is
prepared for the market in two forms,--pearl tapioca, and minute or
granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If
granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the
quantity is required.

APPLE TAPIOCA

3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or
3/4 cupful granulated tapioca
2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 teaspoonful salt
6 apples
1/2 cupful sugar

If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it
to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If
any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,--use less than the given
quantity of boiling water.

If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either
granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca
and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of
breakfast cereal (see _General Rules for Cooking Cereals_). Cook in
the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples;
place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour
tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft.
Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.

Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used,
substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is
cooked.

RHUBARB TAPIOCA

Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca,
substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and
using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.

LEMON SAUCE

3/4 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls boiling water
1 lemon,--juice and rind
1 tablespoonful butter

Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10
minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the
butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.

For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.

SWEET SAUCES.--Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are
thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of
the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains
of the flour or corn-starch.

The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a
little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch
grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of
flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of
sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the
starchy material (see _Blanc Mange_). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce
above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the
flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the
sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in
Lemon Sauce.

PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES

                          Flour              Fat           Liquid

Thin White Sauce    1 tablespoonful,  3/4 tablespoonful,    1 cup  (Toast,
sweet sauce,  certain cream soups, etc.)

Medium White Sauce  2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup

(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)

Thick White Sauce   3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls,     1 cup
(Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)

Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls,  1 cup
(Croquettes, etc.)


(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be
used.)

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give
the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it
necessary to cook it in a double boiler?

What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the
sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does
it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for
cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a
time?

What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?

If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick
enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?

For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise
a method of preparing _smooth_ sauce.




LESSON XXIX

STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE


STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.--Which is hotter,--the "steam" (_i.e._ water
vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or
the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan
or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held
under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.--Pop corn contains
water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose
holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a
temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the
covering and the starch swells at once.

[Illustration: FIGURE 32.--"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HAS
BEEN UNDER PRESSURE.]

In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized
water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The
steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is
cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are
lost.

POP CORN

Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with
the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then
gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn
from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half
minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there
is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn
will become tough.

BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I

4 quarts freshly popped corn
1/4 cupful butter
Salt

Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle
at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring.

BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II

1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oil _or_
2 tablespoonfuls oil
1/2 cupful shelled pop corn
Salt

Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir
until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat
gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time.

BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a _hot_
oven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in a _hot_ oven, to
prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested
with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin
at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of
each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so
that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming
potatoes on a folded napkin for serving.

STUFFED POTATOES

2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 teaspoonful salt
3 tablespoonfuls milk
Pepper
6 baked potatoes

Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking
care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and
seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture
to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in a
_hot_ oven (500 degrees F.) until brown.

Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over
them.

QUESTIONS

Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while
rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking.

Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is
the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully
why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see
Experiment 26 and _Solution and Digestion_).

Which contains more nutriment,--baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain
(see _Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in
Water or in Steam_).

What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes _at once_ after
baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be
used to cover them?




RELATED WORK

LESSON XXX


DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.--See Suggestions for Teaching,
Appendix.]

BASIC PRINCIPLES.--Practically all rules for laying the table and all
methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness,
convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.--See
Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining
room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into
consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must
be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general
suggestions.

THE TABLE

TABLE LINEN.--Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on
the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth.

[Illustration: FIGURE 33.--TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note the
position of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers.
Also note that a _low_ bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.]

Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A
dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to
form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong.

If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon.
Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table
runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two
latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly
laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than
that of a table-cloth.

Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on
plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and
hot breads may be served in a folded napkin.

CHINA AND GLASSWARE.--The term "cover" means the space, with its china,
silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches
of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33).

The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style
of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be
placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a
hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated.
For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and-
butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses
are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher,
salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper
shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes
containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the
guests are seated.

For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers,
spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle
about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right,
and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot
and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table
service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service.

If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all
the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table
or on the serving table.

SILVER.--Convenience and order have determined the customary way of
placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the
knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as
for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to
be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except
the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses,
except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is
permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver
for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it
may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving
the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course.

While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each
cover in the order of its use, _the knives are usually all grouped
together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the
right of the knives._ It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and
knives in the order of their use, _i.e._ place the spoon that is to
be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used
first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are
placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their
use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure
33).

All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the
table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned
towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls
and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread-
and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the
oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be
used i

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