An Outline of the Phonology and Morphology of Old Provençal
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Title: An Outline of the Phonology and Morphology of Old Provençal
Author: C. H. Grandgent
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Heath’s Modern Language Series
AN OUTLINE
OF THE
PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY
OF
OLD PROVENÇAL
BY
C. H. GRANDGENT
PROFESSOR OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Revised Edition
BOSTON, U. S. A.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
1909
COPYRIGHT, 1905,
BY D. C. HEATH & CO.
PREFACE.
This book, which is intended as a guide to students of Romance
Philology, represents the result of desultory labors extending through
a period of twenty years. My first introduction to the scientific
pursuit of Provençal linguistics was a course given by Paul Meyer at
the École des Chartes in the winter of 1884-85. Since then I have been
collecting material both from my own examination of texts and from the
works of those philologists who have dealt with the subject. Besides
the large Grammars of the Romance Languages by Diez and by Meyer-Lübke,
I have utilized H. Suchier’s _Die französische und provenzalische
Sprache_ (in Gröber’s _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_, I,
561), the _Introduzione grammaticale_ in V. Crescini’s _Manualetto
provenzale_, the _Abriss der Formenlehre_ in C. Appel’s _Provenzalische
Chrestomathie_, and many special treatises to which reference will be
made in the appropriate places. Conscious of many imperfections in my
work, I shall be grateful for corrections.
I have confined myself to the old literary language, believing that
to be of the greatest importance to a student of Romance Philology
or of Comparative Literature, and fearing lest an enumeration of
modern forms, in addition to the ancient, might prove too bewildering.
I should add that neither my own knowledge nor the material at my
disposal is adequate to a satisfactory presentation of the living
idioms of southern France. These dialects have, however, been
investigated for the light they throw on the geographical distribution
of phonetic variations; my chief source of information has been F.
Mistral’s monumental _Dictionnaire provençal-français_. Catalan and
Franco-Provençal have been considered only incidentally. I have not
dealt with word-formation, because one of my students is preparing a
treatise on that subject.
Readers desiring a brief description of Provençal literature are
referred to H. Suchier and A. Birch-Hirschfeld, _Geschichte der
französischen Literatur_, pp. 56-96; A. Stimming, in Gröber’s
_Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_, II, ii, pp. 1-69; and A.
Restori, _Letteratura provenzale_. For a more extended account of the
poets they should consult _Die Poesie der Troubadours_ and the _Leben
und Werke der Troubadours_ by F. Diez; and _The Troubadours at Home_ by
J. H. Smith. The poetic ideals are discussed by G. Paris in _Romania_,
XII, pp. 516-34; and with great fulness by L. F. Mott in _The System
of Courtly Love_. The beginnings of the literature are treated by
A. Jeanroy in his _Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen
âge_, reviewed by G. Paris in a series of important articles in the
_Journal des Savants_ (November and December, 1891, and March and July,
1892) reprinted separately in 1892 under the same title as Jeanroy’s
book. Contributions by A. Restori to several volumes of the _Rivista
musicale italiana_ deal with Provençal music; some tunes in modern
notation are to be found in J. H. Smith’s _Troubadours at Home_, and
in the _Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen_, CX (New Series
X), 110 (E. Bohn).[1] Aside from the editions of individual poets,
the best collections of verses are those of C. Appel, _Provenzalische
Chrestomathie_; V. Crescini, _Manualetto provenzale_; and K. Bartsch,
_Chrestomathie provençale_. Earlier and larger anthologies are M.
Raynouard’s _Choix des poésies originales des troubadours_, and C.
A. F. Mahn’s _Werke der Troubadours_ and _Gedichte der Troubadours_.
The only dictionary of importance for the old language is the
_Lexique roman_ (six volumes) of M. Raynouard, augmented by the
_Supplement-Wörterbuch_ of E. Levy (now appearing in instalments). The
poetic language of the present day can be studied to advantage in E.
Koschwitz’s _Grammaire historique de la langue des Félibres_.
C. H. GRANDGENT.
CAMBRIDGE, MASS., NOVEMBER, 1904.
ABBREVIATIONS AND TECHNICAL TERMS.
Abl.: ablative.
Acc.: accusative.
Cl.L.: Classic Latin.
Cond.: conditional.
Cons.: consonant.
Einf.: W. Meyer-Lübke, _Einführung in das Studium der
romanischen Sprachwissenschaft_, 1901.
F.: feminine.
Fr.: French.
Free (of vowels): not in position.
Fut.: future.
Gram.: W. Meyer-Lübke, _Grammaire des langues romanes_, 3
vols., 1890-1900.
Grundriss: G. Gröber, _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_, 2
vols., 1888-1902.
Imp.: imperfect.
Imper.: imperative.
Intertonic (of vowels): following the secondary and preceding
the primary accent.
Intervocalic (of consonants): standing between two vowels.
It.: Italian.
Körting: G. Körting, _Lateinisch-romanisches Wörterbuch_, 2d
ed., 1901.
Lat.: Latin.
Levy: E. Levy, _Provenzalisches Supplement-Wörterbuch_, 1894-.
Ltblt.: _Literaturblatt für germanische und romanische
Philologie_, monthly, Leipzig.
M.: masculine.
Nom.: nominative.
Obj.: objective (case).
Part.: participle.
Perf.: perfect.
Pers.: person.
Phon.: P. Marchot, _Petite phonétique du français
prélittéraire_, 1901.
Pl.: plural.
Pr.: Provençal.
Pres.: present.
Pret.: preterit.
Raynouard: M. Raynouard, _Lexique roman_, 6 vols., 1836-44.
Rom.: _Romania_, quarterly, Paris.
Sg.: singular.
V.L.: Vulgar Latin.
Voc.: H. Schuchardt, _Vocalismus des Vulgärlateins_, 3 vols.,
1866-68.
Voiced (of consonants): sonant, pronounced with vibration of
the glottis.
Voiceless (of consonants): surd, pronounced without glottal
vibration.
Vow.: vowel.
Zs.: _Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie_, 4 to 6 nos. a
year, Halle.
SIGNS AND PHONETIC SYMBOLS.
N. B.--Phonetic characters not entered in this list are to be
pronounced as in Italian. Whenever it is essential to distinguish
spelling from pronunciation, _italic_ type is used for the former,
Roman for the latter.
· (under a vowel): close quality.
¸ (under a vowel): open quality.
¯ (over a vowel): long quantity.
̆ (over a vowel): short quantity.
̑ (under a letter): semivowel, not syllabic.
´ (over a letter): stress.
´ (after a consonant): palatal pronunciation.
✱ (before a word): conjectural, not found.
＞ (between words or letters): derivation, the _source_ standing
at the _open_ end.
+: followed by.
ạ: French _â_ in _pâte_.
ą: French _a_ in _patte_.
β: bilabial _v_, as in Spanish.
c: see k.
c´: palatal _k_, as in English _key_.
ð: English _th_ in _this_.
ẹ: French _é_ in _thé_.
ę: French _ê_ in _fête_.
g: English _g_ in _go_.
g´: palatal _g_, as in English _geese_.
h: English _h_ in _hat_.
ị: French _i_ in _si_.
į: English _ĭ_ in _pit_.
k: English _k_ in _maker_.
k´: see c´.
l´: palatal _l_, as in Italian _figlio_.
n´: palatal _n_, as in Italian _ogni_.
ŋ: English _ng_ in _sing_.
ọ: German _ō_, as in _sohn_.
ǫ: German _ŏ_, as in _sonne_.
r´: palatal _r_.
š: English _sh_ in _ship_.
þ: English _th_ in _thin_.
ụ: German _ū_, as in _gut_.
ų: German _ŭ_, as in _butter_.
ü: French _u_ in _pur_.
w: English _w_ in _woo_.
χ: German _ch_ in _ach_.
y: English _y_ in _ye_.
z: English _z_ in _crazy_.
ž: French _j_ in _jour_.
[Illustration: THE PROVENÇAL TERRITORY]
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGES
INTRODUCTION 1-9
PHONOLOGY 10-84
Accent 11-13
Vowels 13-36
_Quantity_ 13-14
_Accented Vowels_ 14-24
a 14-15
ẹ 15-17
ę 17-20
ị 20
ọ 20-21
ǫ 21-23
ụ 23-24
au 24
_Unaccented Vowels_ 24-36
Initial Syllable 25-27
Intertonic Syllable 27-29
Penult 29-32
Final Syllable 32-36
Consonants 37-84
Latin Consonants 37-40
Germanic Consonants 40-41
Greek Consonants 41-42
_Initial Consonants_ 42-44
Single 43-44
Groups 44
_Medial Consonants_ 45-78
Single 47-55
Groups 55-78
_Double Consonants_ 56-57
_Groups Ending in L_ 57-58
_Groups Ending in R_ 58-61
_Groups Ending in W_ 61-62
_Groups Ending in Y_ 63-69
_Groups Beginning with L, M, N, R, or S_ 69-74
_Miscellaneous Groups_ 74-78
_Final Consonants_ 78-81
Single 78-81
Groups 81
_Sporadic Change_ 81-84
Insertion 81-82
Metathesis 82-83
Dissimilation 83-84
MORPHOLOGY 85-146
Declension 85-113
_Nouns_ 85-94
First Declension 90
Second Declension 90-91
Third Declension 91-94
_Adjectives_ 95-99
Comparison 96-97
Numerals 98-99
_Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives_ 99-113
Articles 100-101
Personal Pronouns 101-105
Possessives 105-107
Demonstratives 107-109
Interrogatives and Relatives 109-110
Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives 110-113
Conjugation 114-146
_The Four Conjugations_ 114-115
_Fundamental Changes in Inflection_ 116-118
_Infinitive, Present Participle, and Gerund_ 118-119
_Past Participle_ 119-121
_Future and New Conditional_ 121-123
Future Endings 122-123
Conditional Endings 123
_Present_ 123-132
Double Stems 125-126
Peculiar Forms 127-130
Personal Endings 130-132
_Imperfect Indicative_ 132-133
_Preterit, Old Conditional, and Imperfect Subjunctive_ 133-146
Preterit 133-144
_Weak_ 135-138
_Strong_ 138-144
Old Conditional 144-145
Imperfect Subjunctive 145-146
INDEX 147-159
AN OUTLINE OF THE PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF OLD PROVENÇAL.
I. INTRODUCTION.
1. The language here studied is, in the main, that used by the poets of
Southern France during the 12th and 13th centuries. The few works that
we have earlier than the 12th century must, of course, be utilized for
such information as they afford concerning the process of linguistic
change; and lacking words or forms must occasionally be sought in
writings later than the 13th. Prose literature, moreover, should not
be neglected, as it greatly enlarges our vocabulary and throws much
light on local divergences. The modern dialects need be cited only to
determine the geographical distribution of variations.
2. The extent of the Provençal territory is sufficiently indicated
by the map on p. viii. The upper black line separates Provençal
on the northwest and north from French, on the northeast from
Franco-Provençal; on the east are the Gallo-Italic dialects. The lower
black line divides Provençal on the southwest from Basque, on the south
from Spanish, on the southeast from Catalan. The boundary line between
French and Provençal must be determined somewhat arbitrarily, as there
is no distinct natural division; the several linguistic characteristics
of each idiom do not end at the same point, and thus one language
gradually shades into the other. The line shown on the map is based on
the development of free accented Latin a, which remains a in Provençal,
but is changed to e in French. The limits of other phonetic phenomena
may be found in Suchier’s maps at the back of Vol. I of Gröber’s
_Grundriss_. There may be seen also a large map showing the place of
Provençal among the Romance languages. Consult, furthermore, P. Meyer
in _Romania_, XXIV, 529.
3. The Spanish and Gallo-Italic frontiers are more clearly defined,
and Basque is entirely distinct. Franco-Provençal and Catalan, on
the other hand, are closely related to Provençal and not always easy
to divide from it. Catalan, in fact, is often classed as a Provençal
dialect; but it is sufficiently different to be studied separately.[2]
Franco-Provençal, rated by some philologists as an independent
language, has certain characteristics of Provençal and certain features
of French, but more of the latter; in some respects it is at variance
with both. The Gascon, or southwest, dialects of Provençal differ in
many ways from any of the others and present not a few similarities to
Spanish[3]; they will, however, be included in our study.
4. The Provençal domain embraces, then, the following old provinces:
Provence, Languedoc, Foix, part of Béarn, Gascony, Guyenne, Limousin,
most of Marche, Auvergne, the southwestern half of Lyonnais and the
southern half of Dauphiné. The native speech in this region varies
considerably from place to place, and the local dialects are, for
convenience, roughly grouped under the names of the provinces; it
should be remembered, however, that the political and the linguistic
boundaries rarely coincide. For some of the principal dialect
differences, see §§ 8 and 10-13.
5. The language of the poets was sometimes called _lemosí_; and, in
fact, the foundation of their literary idiom is the speech of the
province of Limousin and the adjacent territory on the north, west, and
southwest.[4] The supremacy of this dialect group is apparently due
to the fact that it was generally used for composition earlier than
any of the others: popular song, in all probability, had its home in
the borderland of Marche[5]; religious literature in the vulgar tongue
developed in the monasteries of this region; the artistic lyric was
cultivated, we know, at the court of Ventadour, and it must have found
favor at others. Furthermore, many of the leading troubadours belonged
by birth or residence to the Limousin district.
6. The troubadours’ verses, as we have them, seldom represent any one
dialect in its purity. The poet himself was doubtless influenced both
by literary tradition and by his particular local usage, as well as by
considerations of rhyme and metre. Moreover, his work, before reaching
us, passed through the hands of various intermediaries, who left upon
it traces of their own pronunciation. It should be said, also, that
the Limousin was not a single dialect, but a group of more or less
divergent types of speech. For these reasons we must not expect to find
in Provençal a uniform linguistic standard.
7. Neither was there a generally accepted system of orthography. When
the vulgar tongue was first written, the Roman letters were used with
approximately the same values that they had in Latin, as it was then
pronounced. As the Provençal sounds changed, there was a conflict
between the spellings first established and new notations based on
contemporary speech. Furthermore, many Provençal vowels and consonants
had no equivalents in Latin; for these we find a great variety of
representations. The signs are very often ambiguous: for instance, _c_
before _e_ or _i_ (as in _cen_, _cinc_) generally stands in the first
texts for ts, in the more recent ones for s, the pronunciation having
changed; _z_ between vowels in early times usually means dz (_plazer_),
but later z (_roza_); _i_ between vowels (_maiór_) indicates either y
or dž (English _j_), according to the dialect; a _g_ may signify “hard”
g (_gerra_), dž (“soft” _g_: _ges_), or tš (English _ch_: _mieg_). It
is probable that for a couple of centuries diphthongs were oftenest
written as simple vowels.
8. Some features of the mediæval pronunciation are still obscure. The
close ọ was transformed, either during or soon after the literary
epoch, into ụ (the sound of French _ou_); hence, when we meet in a
late text such a word as _flor_, we cannot be certain whether it is
to be sounded flọr or flụr. We do not know at what time Latin ū in
southern France took the sound ü (French _u_): some suppose that it
was during or shortly before the literary period; if this be true,
the letter _u_ (as in _tu_, _mur_) may represent in some texts ụ,
in others ü. In diphthongs and triphthongs whose first element is
written _u_ (_cuer_, _fuolha_, _nueu_, _buou_), this letter came to
be pronounced in most of the dialects like French _u_ in _huit_,
while in others it retained the sound of French _ou_ in _oui_; we
cannot tell exactly when or where, in ancient times, this development
occurred. In the diphthongs ue, uo (_luec_, _fuoc_), opinions disagree
as to which vowel originally bore the stress; subsequent changes
seem to indicate that in the 12th and 13th centuries the practice
varied in the different dialects. Old Provençal must have had in some
words a peculiar type of r, which was sufficiently palatal in its
articulation to call for an i-glide before it (_esclairar_); we do
not know precisely how it was formed; in most regions it probably was
assimilated to the more usual r as early as the 12th century. The š and
ž (palatal s and z) apparently ranged, in the several dialects, between
the sounds of French _ch_ and _j_ on the one hand, and those of German
_ch_ (in _ich_) and _j_ (in _ja_) on the other; the former types were
largely assimilated, doubtless by the 13th century, to s and z (_pois_,
_maisó_), the latter were not (_poih_, _maió_).
9. The following table comprises the Old Provençal sounds with their
usual spellings, the latter being arranged, as nearly as may be, in
the order of their frequency. Diphthongs and triphthongs are included
in the vowel list, compound consonants in the consonant table. For
an explanation of the phonetic symbols, see p. vii. The variant
pronunciations are discussed in § 8.
VOWELS.
SOUND. SPELLINGS. EXAMPLES.
ạ _a_ _pan_
ą _a_ _car_
ai _ai_, _ay_ _paire_, _cays_
au _au_ _autre_
ẹ _e_ _pena_
ę _e_ _cel_
ẹi _ei_, _ey_ _vei_, _veyre_
ęi _ei_, _ey_ _seis_, _teysser_
ẹu _eu_ _beure_
ęu _eu_ _breu_
ị _i_, _y_ _amic_, _ydola_
ię _ie_, _e_ _quier_, _velh_
ięi _iei_, _iey_, _ei_ _ieis_, _lieys_, _leit_
ięu _ieu_, _eu_ _mieu_, _deus_
ịu _iu_ _estiu_
ọ (or ụ) _o_, _u_ _corre_, _sun_
ǫ _o_ _cors_
ọi _oi_, _oy_ _conoisser_, _oyre_
ǫi _oi_, _oy_ _pois_, _poyssán_
ọu _ou_ _dous_
ǫu _ou_ _mou_
ụ: see ọ, ü
ü (or ụ?) _u_ _mut_
uę, üę _ue_, _o?_ _cuec_, _olh?_
uęi, üęi _uei_, _uey_, _oi?_ _cueissa_, _pueyssas_, _oit?_
uęu, üęu _ueu_, _ou?_ _nueu_, _bou?_
üi _ui_, _uy_ _cuit_, _duy_
uǫ, üǫ _uo_, _o_ _gruoc_, _folha_
uǫi, üǫi _uoi_, _oi_ _puoi_, _noit_
uǫu, üǫu _uou_, _ou_ _pluou_, _ou_
CONSONANTS.
SOUND. SPELLING. EXAMPLES.
b _b_, _bb_ _bel_, _abbat_
d _d_ _don_
dz _z_, _c_ _plazer_, _dicén_
dž _i_, _g_, _tg_, _gg_, _ioc_, _gen_, _paratge_, _viagge_,
_ti_, _tgi_, _ih_ _coratie_, _lotgiar_, _puihar_
ð _d_ _veder_
f _f_, _ph_ _fer_, _phizica_
g _g_, _gu_ _gras_, _guan_, _guerra_
h (Gascon) _h_, _f?_ _ham_, _fe?_[6]
k _c_, _qu_, _k_, _g_ _cais_, _quar_, _quer_, _ki_,
_longs_[7]
l _l_, _ll_ _leu_, _belleza_
l´ _lh_, _ill_, _ilh_, _fuelha_, _meillor_, _failha_,
_ll_, _l_, _il_, _vellar_, _viel_, _voil_, _fiyl_,
_yl_, _yll_, _li_ _fayllentia_, _filia_
m _m_, _mm_ _mes_, _commanda_
n _n_, _nn_ _nas_, _annat_
n´ _nh_, _gn_, _inh_, _ign_, _cenher_, _plagner_, _poinh_,
_ing_, _innh_, _ingn_, _seignor_, _soing_, _poinnher_,
_ngn_,_nn_, _n_, _in_, _fraingner_, _ongnimen_, _vinna_,
_ng_, _ynh_, _ni_, _ny_, _franén_, _soin_, _sengor_,
_nyh_ _poynh_, _lenia_, _senyoria_,
_senyhor_
ŋ _n_ _lonc_
p _p_, _pp_, _b_ _prop_, _opparer_, _obs_[8]
r _r_ _rire_
r´ _r_ _cuer_
rr _rr_ _terra_[9]
s _s_, _ss_, _c_, _ç_, _x_ _sap_, _fassa_, _cenat_, _ça_,
_locx_
š _ss_, _s_, _sh_, _h_, _faissa_, _cais_, _pueysh_,
_hs_ _Foih_, _faihs_
t _t_, _tt_, _d_ _tot_, _attenir_, _nud_[8]
ts _c_, _z_, _tz_, _ç_, _cel_, _faz_, _parlatz_, _ço_,
_gz_, _cz_, _ti_ _fagz_, _czo_, _fayllentia_[10]
tš _ch_, _g_, _ich_, _ig_, _chan_, _plag_, _ueich_, _faig_,
_h_, _gz_ _lah_, _gaugz_[11]
v _u_ (printed _v_) _ven_
y _i_, _y_ _gabia_, _preyar_
z _s_, _z_, _ç_ _pausa_, _roza_, _riçia_
(＜ _ridēbat_)
ž _s_, _z_, _i_ _raso_, _poizo_, _maio_
10. The Gascon group presents certain striking divergences from
the other dialects: (1) it shows a b corresponding to Provençal v,
as in _be_ = _ve_ ＜ _vĕnit_, _abetz_ = _avetz_ ＜ _habētis_; (2)
it substitutes r for l between vowels, as in _bera_ = _bela_ ＜
_bĕlla_; (3) it changes initial f to h, as in _he_ = _fe_ ＜ _fĭdem_.
Other Gascon peculiarities are less ancient, less general, or less
important.
11. Some distinctions may be pointed out between the speech of the
north and that of the south:--
(1) Latin ca and ga, either at the beginning of a word or after
a consonant, became respectively tša and dža in the northern
dialects[12], and remained unchanged in the southern: _canto_ ＞
_chan can_, _lŏnga_ ＞ _lonia longa_.
(2) Latin ct and gd became it and id in most of the north and
in the southwest[12], tš and dž in most of the south and in the
northwest[13]: _factum_ ＞ _fait fach_, _frig(i)da_ ＞ _freida
freia_. Nct became int, nt, n´, ntš in different regions:
_sanctum_ ＞ _saint sant sanh sanch_. Cs (Latin _x_) had various
local developments--is, itš, tš--somewhat similar to those of
ct: _exīre_ ＞ _eissir eichir ichir_.
(3) Latin d between vowels disappeared in some spots in the
north and northeast[12], and became z nearly everywhere else:
_audīre_ ＞ _auir auzir_.
(4) Latin ll became l´ in some parts of the south[13], and
usually l in other regions: _bĕlla_ ＞ _belha bela_.
(5) Provençal final ns remains in the southeast and east, and
is elsewhere generally reduced to s: _bŏnus_ ＞ _bons bos_.
Provençal final n also falls in a large region, but its history
is more intricate; the poets use indifferently forms with and
without _n_: _bĕne_ ＞ _ben be_.
12. Several Latin consonants, when combined with a following ḙ or i̭,
give results that are widely different in various localities, but the
geographical distribution of the respective forms is complicated and
not always clear: _pŏdium_ ＞ _puech poi_; _basiare_ ＞ _baisar basar
baiiar baiar_; _bassiare_ ＞ _baissar baichar bachar_; _potiōnem_ ＞
_poizon pozon poio_. The same thing may be said of intervocalic y
(Latin _j_): _major_ ＞ _mager maier_. Also of intervocalic c, sc, g,
ŋg, followed by e or i: _placēre_ ＞ _plazer plaizer plager_, _nascere_
＞ _naisser nasser naicher nacher_, _lēgem_ ＞ _lei leg_, _ŭngere_ ＞
_onher onger_.
13. In the development of unstressed vowels there are very numerous
local variations, which will be discussed later. Even among accented
vowels there are some divergences:--
(1) Provençal ą, ę, ǫ before nasals become ạ, ẹ, ọ in some
dialects, especially in those belonging to or bordering on the
Limousin group: _canem_ ＞ cąn cạn, _vĕnit_ ＞ vęn vẹn, _bŏnum_
＞ bǫn bọn. The poets nearly always use the forms with close
vowels.
(2) The breaking of ę, ǫ, under certain conditions, into
diphthongs is not common to the whole territory, and the
resulting forms show local differences: _mĕum_ ＞ męu mięu,
_fŏcum_ ＞ fǫc fuǫc fuęc füc. Breaking is least common in the
southwest.
II. PHONOLOGY.
14. Inasmuch as Provençal, like the other Romance languages, grew out
of the Latin commonly spoken under the Roman Empire, we must take
this latter language as our starting-point. The transformation was so
gradual and continuous that we cannot assign any date at which speech
ceases to be Latin and begins to be Provençal; since, however, the
various Latin dialects--destined to become later the various Romance
languages--began to diverge widely in the 6th and 7th centuries, we
may, for the sake of convenience, say that the Latin period ends at
about this time. Before this, certain changes (which affected all the
Romance tongues) had occurred in the popular language, differentiating
it considerably from the classic Latin of the Augustan writers.
Although the most important of these alterations have to do with
inflections rather than with pronunciation, the sound-changes in Vulgar
Latin are by no means insignificant.
15. It is essential at the outset to distinguish “popular” from
“learned” words. The former, having always been a part of the spoken
vocabulary, have been subject to the operation of all the phonetic
laws that have governed the development of the language. The latter
class, consisting of words borrowed by clerks, at various periods, from
Latin books and from the Latin of the Church, is naturally exempt from
sound-changes that occurred in the vulgar tongue before the time of
their adoption. The form of learned words depends, in the first place,
on the clerical pronunciation of Latin at the date of their borrowing;
then, if they came into general use, their form was subject to the
influence of any phonetic laws that were subsequently in force. The
fate of borrowed terms differs, therefore, according to the time of
their introduction and the degree of popularity which they afterwards
attained.
1. ACCENT.
16. The place of the _primary_ accent, which in Classic Latin was
determined by quantity, remained unchanged in Vulgar Latin even after
quantitative distinctions were lost. A short vowel before a mute
followed by a liquid may, in Classic Latin, be stressed or unstressed;
in Vulgar Latin it is usually stressed: _cathédra_, _tenébræ_.[14]
There are some exceptions to the rule of the persistence of the accent
in Vulgar Latin:--
1. An accented e or i immediately followed by the vowel of the
penult transfers the stress to this latter vowel, and is itself
changed to y: _filíŏlus_ ＞ _filyólus_, _mulíĕrem_ ＞ _mulyére_.
This shift is perhaps due to a tendency to stress the more
sonorous of two contiguous vowels.
2. An accented u immediately followed by the vowel of the
penult transfers the stress to the _preceding_ syllable, and
is itself changed to w: _habúĕrunt_ ＞ _ábwerunt_, _tenúĕram_ ＞
_ténwera_. This shift cannot be explained on the same principle
as the foregoing one; it is perhaps due in every case to
analogy--_hábuit_, _ténui_, for instance, being responsible for
the change in _habúerunt_, _tenúeram_.
3. Verbs compounded with a prefix, if their constituent parts
were fully recognized, were usually replaced in Vulgar Latin
by a formation in which the vowel and the accent of the
simple verb were preserved: _défĭcit_ ＞ _disfácit_, _réddĭdi_
＞ _reddédi_, _rénĕgo_ ＞ _renégo_, _réquĭrit_ ＞ _requærit_.
In _récĭpit_ ＞ _recípit_ the accent but not the vowel was
restored, speakers having ceased to associate this verb with
_capio_. In _cóllĭgo_, _érĭgo_, _éxĕo_, _ínflo_ the composite
nature of the word was apparently not recognized.
4. The adverbs _ĭllāc_, _ĭllīc_ accented their last syllable,
by the analogy of _hāc_, _hīc_.
17. In Provençal the primary accent falls on the same syllable as in
Vulgar Latin: _bonitātem_ ＞ V. L. _bonitáte_ ＞ Pr. _bontát_, _compŭtum_
＞ V. L. _cómputu_ ＞ Pr. _cónte_; _cathĕdra_ ＞ V. L. _catédra_ ＞ Pr.
_cadéira_; _filiŏlus_ ＞ V. L. _filyólus_ ＞ Pr. _filhóls_, _tenuĕram_
＞ V. L. _ténwera_ ＞ Pr. _téngra_, _requĭrit_ ＞ V. L. _requærit_ ＞ Pr.
_requér_, _illac_ ＞ V. L. _illác_ ＞ Pr. _lai_.
1. Some learned words have an irregular accentuation,
apparently due to a mispronunciation of the Latin: _cándĭdum_ ＞
_quandí_, _grammátĭca_ ＞ _gramatíca_, _láchry̆mo_ ＞ _lagrím_,
_spírĭtum_ ＞ _esprít_ (perhaps from the formula _spirítui
sancto_). Others were adopted with the correct stress, but
shifted it later: _fábrĭca_ ＞ _fábrega_ ＞ _fabréga_ (and
_fárga_), _fémĭna_ ＞ _fémena_ ＞ _feména_ (and _fémna_),
_láchry̆ma_ ＞ _lágrema_ ＞ _lagréma_, _sémĭnat_ ＞ _sémena_ ＞
_seména_ (and _sémna_), _vírgĭnem_ ＞ _vérgena_ ＞ _vergína_ (and
_vérge_).
2. _Dimércres_ ＜ _dīe Mercūrī_ (perhaps through ✱_dīe
Mércŏris_) has evidently been influenced by _divénres_ ＜ _dīe
Vĕnĕris_.
3. Some irregularities due to inflection will be discussed
under Morphology.
18. The _secondary_ accent, in Vulgar Latin, seems not to have followed
the Classic Latin quantitative rule, but to have fallen regularly on
the second syllable from the primary stress: _cṓgĭtó_, _cupĭ́dĭtā́tem_.
If this secondary accent _followed_ the tonic, its vowel probably
developed as an unstressed post-tonic vowel; if it _preceded_, its
vowel was apparently treated as a stressed vowel. This treatment was
doubtless continued in Provençal until the intertonic vowel dropped
out: _cógĭtó_ _cógĭtánt_ ＞ _cug_ _cúian_ (cf. _cánto_ _cántant_ ＞ _can_
_cántan_), ✱_comĭnĭtĭāre_ ＞ _comén’tiáre_ ＞ _coménzár_ ＞ _comensár_. As
may be seen from this last example, after the fall of the intertonic
vowel, the secondary stress, being brought next to the primary,
disappeared, and its vowel was henceforth unaccented. Cf. § 45, 1.
19. Short, unemphatic words had no accent in Vulgar Latin, and were
attached as particles to the beginning or the end of another word: _te
vídet_, _áma me_. Such words, if they were not monosyllabic, tended to
become so; a disyllabic proclitic beginning with a vowel regularly,
in Vulgar Latin, lost its first syllable: _illum vídeo_ ＞ V. L. _lu
véyo_ ＞ Pr. _lo vei_. A word which was used sometimes independently,
sometimes as a particle, naturally developed double forms.
2. VOWELS.
QUANTITY.
20. Latin had the following vowels, which might be long or short: a, e,
i, o, u. The diphthongs, æ, œ, au, eu, ui, were always long: æ and œ,
however, were simplified into monophthongs, mainly in the Republican
epoch, _æ_ being sounded ę̄, _œ_ probably ẹ̄; au retained (save in some
popular dialects) its old pronunciation; eu did not occur in any word
that survived; ui, in _cui_, _illui_, in Vulgar Latin, was accented
_úi_ (as in _fui_). The simple vowels, except a, were, doubtless from
early times, slightly different in quality according to their quantity,
the long vowels being sounded close, the short open: ẹ̄, ị̄, ọ̄, ụ̄;
ę̆, į̆, ǫ̆, ų̆.
21. Between the 1st and the 7th century of our era, the Classic Latin
quantity died out: it had apparently disappeared from unstressed
vowels as early as the 4th century, from stressed by the 6th. It left
its traces, however, as we have seen, upon accentuation (§ 16), and
also upon vowel quality, the originally long and short remaining
differentiated in sound, if they were accented. Of the unaccented
vowels, only i shows sure signs of such a differentiation, and even for
i the distinction is evident only in a final syllable: _vēnī_ _vēnĭt_ ＞
vẹnị vẹnįt.
ACCENTED VOWELS.
22. The vowels of Vulgar Latin are a, ẹ, ę, ị, į, ọ, ǫ, ụ, ų, with
the diphthongs áu and úi; the old æ and œ had become identical in sound
with ę and ẹ. As early as the 3d century of our era, į was changed, in
nearly all the Empire, to ẹ, and thus became identical with the vowel
coming from original ē. A little later, perhaps, ų, in the greater
part of the Empire, became ọ, thus coinciding with the vowel that was
originally ō. Ypsilon, in words taken from the Greek, was identified,
in early borrowings, with Latin u; in later ones, with Latin i: βύρσα
＞ Pr. _borsa_, γῠρος ＞ Pr. _girs_. Omicron, which apparently had
the close sound in Greek, generally (but not always) retained it in
recently borrowed words in Vulgar Latin: τόρνος ＞ tọrnus (cf. Pr.
tọrn), but κόλαφος ＞ _cŏlăphus_ = cọlapus or cǫlapus (cf. Pr. cǫlp).
The development of the Vulgar Latin vowels in Provençal will now be
examined in detail:--
a
23. Cl. L. ā, ă ＞ V. L. a ＞ Pr. ą: _ărbŏrem_ ＞ ąrbre, _grātum_ ＞ grąt,
_măre_ > mąr.
1. The ending _-arius_ shows an irregular development in
French and Provençal, the Provençal forms being mainly such as
would come from _-ĕrius_; as in _parlier_, _parleira_. In the
earliest stage we find apparently -ęr´ and -ęr´a; then -ęr´
and -ęir´a; next -ęr, -ięr and -ęira, -ięira; finally, with
a reciprocal influence of the two genders, -ęr, -ięr, -ęir,
and -ęra, -ięra, -ęira, -ięira: _caballarium_ ＞ _c(h)avaler_
_-ier_, _-eir_, ✱_man(u)aria_ ＞ _manera_ _-iera_ _-eira_
_-ieira_. The peculiar treatment of this suffix has not been
satisfactorily explained. See E. R. Zimmermann, _Die Geschichte
des lateinischen Suffixes -arius in den romanischen Sprachen_,
1895; E. Staaff, _Le suffixe -arius dans les langues romanes_,
Upsala, 1896, reviewed by Marchot in _Zs._, XXI, 296, by
Körting in _Zeitschrift für französische Sprache_, XXII, 55;
Meyer-Lübke, _Gram._, I, 222, § 237; Zimmermann in _Zs._,
XXVI, 591; Thomas in _Rom._, XXXI, 481 and in _Bausteine zur
romanischen Philologie_, 641. The likeliest theory is that of
Thomas: that _-arius_ was associated with the Germanic ending
_-ari_ and participated in the _umlaut_ which affected the
latter; cf. _Phon._, pp. 34-36.
2. In Gascony and Languedoc _ei_ is used for _ai_ ＜ _habeo_.
The _ei_ perhaps developed first as a future ending (_amar
-ei_) by analogy of the preterit ending _-ei_ (_amei_): see
Morphology, §§ 152, 1, 162, (4), 175, (4), where this latter
ending is discussed also. For a different explanation, see
Meyer-Lübke, _Gram._, I, 222, § 237.
3. A few apparent irregularities are to be traced to the
vocabulary of Vulgar Latin. For instance, Pr. _sereisa_
represents, not Cl. L. _cĕrăsus_, but V. L. _cĕrĕsĕa_: see
Meyer-Lübke, _Einf._, § 103. _Uebre_ is from ✱_ŏpĕrit_, or
_apĕrit_ modified by ✱_cŏpĕrit_ = _cōperit_. _Voig_ is from
✱_vŏcĭtum_ = _vacuum_: _Einf._, § 114.
4. Such forms as _fontaina_ = _fontana_ ＜ _fontāna_, etc., and
_tres_ = _tras_ ＜ _trans_, etc., are French or belong to the
borderland between French and Provençal.
24. In some dialects, particularly in Rouergue, Limousin, Auvergne, and
Dauphiné, a became ạ before a nasal, and at the end of a monosyllable
or an oxytone: _canem_ ＞ cạn, _grandem_ ＞ grạnt, _cadit_ ＞ cạ,
_stat_ ＞ estạ.
1. The conditions differ somewhat in the various dialects,
according as the nasal consonant falls or remains, and is
followed by another consonant or not. In Limousin the sound
is ą before an n that cannot fall: see § 11, (5). In Rouergue
and in Dauphiné, ạ appears before all nasals. The poets
generally follow the Limousin usage. See F. Pfützner, _Ueber
die Aussprache des provenzalischen A_, Halle, 1884.
ẹ
25. Cl. L. ē, ĭ, œ ＞ V. L. ẹ ＞ Pr. ẹ: _habēre_ ＞ avẹr, _mē_ ＞ mẹ,
_mensem_ ＞ mẹs, _plēnum_ ＞ plẹn, _rēgem_ ＞ rẹi, _vēndĕre_ ＞ vẹndre;
_ĭnter_ ＞ ẹntre, _fĭdem_ ＞ fẹ, _malĭtia_ ＞ malẹza, _mĭnus_ ＞ mẹns,
_mĭttĕre_ ＞ mẹtre, _sĭccum_ ＞ sẹc, _vĭrĭdem_ ＞ vẹrt, _pœna_ ＞ pẹna.
1. Some words have ę instead of ẹ:--
(_a_) The ending -_ētis_ in the present indicative becomes -ętz
through the analogy of ętz ＜ _ĕstis_.
(_b_) Camęl (also ẹ), candęla (also ẹ), cruzęl, fizęl (also
ẹ), maissęla have ę through the analogy of the suffix -ęl ＜
-_ĕllus_. In _camel_ the substitution probably goes back to
Vulgar Latin.
(_c_) Many learned words, including proper names, have ę for
ẹ: decręt, Elizabęt, Moysęs, pantęra, requięs, secręt (ẹ),
sencęr.
(_d_) Espęr for espẹr ＜ _spēro_, quęt for quẹt ＜
_qu_(_i_)_ētum_ are perhaps bad rhymes. Bartolomeo Zorzi, a
Venetian, rhymes -ẹs with -ęs; in Catalan these two endings
were not distinguished.
(_e_) Individual cases: adęs, ‘at once,’ probably from _ad
id ĭpsum_, seems to have been affected by pręs and apręs ＜
_ad prĕssum_; mostięr ＜ _monastērium_ shows the influence of
_ministĕrium_; nęr nięr (also nẹr nẹgre) ＜ _nĭgrum_ perhaps
shows the influence of entęr entięr and the numerous adjectives
in -ęr -ięr; nęu nięu nęy ＜ _nĭvem_ has been attracted by bręu
gręu, lęu; senęstre (cf. late Lat. _sinexter_) is evidently
influenced by dęstre.
2. Many words have i instead of ẹ:--
(_a_) _Berbitz_ = _vervēcem_, _camis_ = _camĭsia_, come from
alternative V. L. forms, _berbīcem_, ✱_camīsia_. _Planissa_
(also -_eza_), _sebissa_, etc., probably show -_īcia_ for
-_ĭtia_. For _dit_ = _dĭgĭtum_ see § 65, Y, 1.
(_b_) In many learned words Latin ĭ is represented by i in
Provençal: _albir_, _martire_, _edifici_, _iuzizi_, _servizi_,
_vici_, etc.; _iusticia_, _leticia_, _tristicia_, etc.
_Aurilha_ (also ẹ) ＜ _aurĭcula_, _cilh_, (also _cieilh_,
_sobreselhs_) ＜ _cĭlium_, _issilh_ ＜ _exĭlium_, _familha_ ＜
_famĭlia_, _maístre_ (also maẹstre maiẹstre) ＜ _magĭstrum_,
_meravilha_ (also ẹ) ＜ _mirabĭlia_, _perilh_ ＜ _perĭculum_,
etc., are probably learned forms. _Máistre_ and _mestre_ are
French.
(_c_) _Ciri_ (_cere_) = _cēreum_, _iure_ (cf. _ebriac_)
= _ēbrium_ (or ✱_ĕbrium_), _marquis_ (ẹ), _merci_ (ẹ),
_país_ (ẹ) = ✱_pagēnsem_, _plazir_ (ẹ), _pris_ (ẹ), etc.,
are French.[15] For a discussion of _iure_ and a different
explanation of _ciri_, see P. Savj-Lopez, _Dell’ “Umlaut”
provenzale_, 1902, p. 4.
(_d_) _Ins_ (also _entz_) ＜ _ĭntus_, _dins_ (also _dens_) ＜ _de
ĭntus_, _dintre_ (cf. _en_, _entre_) ＜ _de ĭnter_ have not
been satisfactorily explained. Regular forms with ẹ are found
in Béarn, Gascony, Dauphiné, and the Alps.
(_e_) Individual cases: _tapit_ ＜ ταπήτιον shows the modern
pronunciation of Greek η; _verin_ = _venēnum_ is an example of
substitution of suffix.
3. _Arnei_, _fei_, _mei_ = _me_, _palafrei_, _perquei_, _sei_ =
_se_ are French or Poitevin forms; they are common in William
of Poitiers. _Mercey_, _rey_ = _re_, used by Marcabru, seem to
be due either to an imitation of such forms as the preceding or
to the analogy of _crei_ _cre_ ＜ _crēdo_. Cf. § 65, N, 3.
4. _Contránher_ seems to be a fusion of _constrĭngere_ and
_contrahere_; _vendanha_ ＜ _vindēmia_ shows French influence.
26. An ẹ in hiatus became i: _lĭgat_ ＞ lia, _vĭa_ ＞ via.
27. When there was in the next syllable a final ī, V. L. ẹ was changed
in Provençal to i: _ecc’ĭllī_ ＞ cilh, _ecc’ĭstī_ ＞ cist, _fēcī_ ＞ fis,
✱_prēsī_ ＞ pris, ✱_vēnuī_ ＞ vinc, _vigĭntī_ ✱_vĭntī_ ＞ vint.
1. In the nominative plural of masculine nouns and adjectives
this change was regularly prevented by the analogy of the
singular and the accusative plural: _mĭssī_ ＞ _mes_, _plēnī_ ＞
_plen_. We find, however, _cabil_ ＜ _capĭllī_.
2. _Dec_ for ✱_dic_ ＜ _dēbuī_ seems to have been attracted
by the _dec_ ＜ _dēbuit_ of the third person. _Venguest_ for
_venguist_ ＜ ✱_venuĭstī_ is due both to the influence of the
plural forms _venguem_, _venguetz_ and to the analogy of the
weak preterits, such as _cantest_, _vendest_.
ę
28. Cl. L. ĕ, æ ＞ V. L. ę ＞ Pr. ę: _infĕrnum_ ＞ enfęrn, _fĕrrum_ ＞ fęr,
_pĕdem_ ＞ pę; _cælum_ ＞ cęl, _quærit_ ＞ quęr.
1. Such forms as _glisia_, _lire_, _pire_, _pis_, _profit_
are French. _Profich_ may be a cross between _profieg_ and
_profit_, or it may be due to the analogy of _dich_.
2. _Cossint_, _mint_, _sint_, used by Arnaut Daniel, are
perhaps faulty rhymes.
3. _Auzil_ ＜ _avicĕllī_, in the _Boeci_, may be due to the
analogy of such plural forms as _cabil_ ＜ _capĭllī_, _il_ ＜
_ĭllī_, etc. _Briu_, sometimes used for _breu_ ＜ _brĕvem_,
is evidently connected with _abrivar_, ‘hasten,’ the origin
of which is uncertain. _Elig_ shows the influence either
of _eligir_ (beside _elegir_) or of _dig_. _Ginh_ = _genh_
＜ _ingĕnium_ evidently follows _ginhos_ ＜ _ingeniōsus_ and
its derivatives. _Isme_ (_esme_) is a post-verbal noun from
✱_ismar_ (cf. _azismamen_), a dialect form of _esmar_ ＜
_æstimare_. _Quis_ ＜ ✱_quæsi_, _tinc_ ＜ _tĕnui_ are due to the
analogy of _pris_ ＜ ✱_prēsī_, _vinc_ ＜ ✱_vēnuī_.
4. Beside nęula ＜ _nĕbula_, we find _nebla_, _neble_,
presumably from the same source, and also _nible_, _niól_,
_nióla_, _niúl_, _niúla_, _nivól_. According to Nigra,
_Archivio glottologico italiano_, XV, 494, _nūbes_ ＞ _nūbĭlus_
＞ ✱_nĭbŭlus_ (and ✱_nĭbūlus_?), whence might be derived
✱_níŭlus_ ✱_niúlus_, which would account for _niól-a_,
_niúl-a_, and perhaps for a ✱_nívol_ ＞ _nivól_. _Nible_ might
be regarded as a cross between _neble_ and _niul_. Cf. § 38, 3.
5. In ẹs ＜ _ĕst_ the ẹ probably comes from such combinations
as mẹ’s, quẹ’s, understood as m’ẹs, qu’ẹs. Espẹlh ＜
_spĕculum_ shows the influence of cossẹlh, solẹlh. Estẹla
presupposes a Latin ✱_stēla_ or ✱_stēlla_ for stĕlla: cf. the
Fr. and It.
6. _Plais_, ‘hedge’ seems to be a cross between _plĕxus_ and
_paxillus_, ‘fence.’ _Vianda_ (＜ _vivenda_?) is probably French.
7. _Volon_ ＜ _volentem_ shows the influence of the ending
_-ŭndus_.
8. _Greuga_ ＜ _con-gregar_ has been influenced by _greu_ ＜
✱_grĕvem_ = _gravem_ influenced by _lĕvem_. Cf. _grey_ ＜
_grĕgem_.
29. Before a nasal, in most of the dialects of Limousin, Languedoc, and
Gascony, ę became ẹ: _bĕne_ ＞ bẹn, _dicĕntem_ ＞ dizẹn, _tĕmpus_ ＞
tẹms, _tĕnet_ ＞ tẹn, _vĕniam_ ＞ vẹnha, _vĕntum_ ＞ vẹnt.
30. Early in the history of Provençal, before u, i, or one of the
palatal consonants l´, r´, s´, z´, y, tš, dž, an ę broke into ię,
except in a few dialects of the west and north: _dĕus_ ＞ dięus,
_mĕum_ ＞ mięu; _amāvi_ ＞ ✱_amai_ ＞ amęi amięi,[16] ✱_fĕria_ ＞ fięira,
✱_ec(c)lĕsia_? (Cf. _Zs._, XXV, 344) ＞ glięiza, _lĕctum_ ＞ lięit,
_pĕjus_ ＞ pięis; _vĕtŭlum_ _vĕclum_ ＞ vięlh, _ministĕrium_ ＞ mestięr,
✱_ec(c)lĕsia_? ＞ glięza, _mĕdia_ ＞ mięia, _lĕctum_ ＞ lięg. There seems
to be also, at least in some dialects, a tendency to break the ę before
a g or a k: _lĕgunt_ ＞ lięgon; ✱_sĕquit_ ＞ sęc sięc, subjunctive
sięgas (sęga), but infinitive sęgre ＜ ✱_sĕquere_.[17]
The breaking was probably due to a premature lifting of the tongue
under the influence of a following high vowel or a palatal (or velar)
consonant.[18] Before u it occurred everywhere except in the extreme
west; before palatals the ę apparently remained intact both in the
extreme west and in Quercy, Rouergue, Auvergne, and Dauphiné. At first,
no doubt, the diphthong was less marked than it became in the 12th and
13th centuries. It is not indicated in our oldest text, the _Boeci_
(_breu_, _deu_, _eu_, _mei_, _meler_, _vel_)[19], and it frequently
remains unexpressed even in the writings of the literary period.
It is to be noted that ę does not break before u ＜ l nor before i ＜ ð:
_bĕllus_ ＞ bęls ＞ bęus, _pĕtra_ ＞ ✱pęðra ＞ pęira, _Pĕtrum_ ＞ ✱Pęðre ＞
Pęire, _rĕtro_ ＞ ✱ręðre ＞ ręire[20]. The breaking must, therefore, have
occurred before these developments of l and ð, both of which apparently
antedate the _Boeci_: cf. _euz_ = _els_, v. 139; _eu_ = _el_, v. 155;
_Teiric_ ＜ ✱_Teðric_ ＜ _Theodorīcum_, v. 44, etc. On the other hand,
there is no diphthong before ts, dz, s, z coming from Latin c´, cy,
pty, tty, ty: _dĕcem_ ＞ dętz, _pĕttia_ (or _pĕcia_) ＞ pęssa, _nĕptia_
＞ nęssa, ✱_prĕtiat_ ＞ pręza, _prĕtium_ ＞ prętz[21]. The breaking,
therefore, took place after these consonants had ceased to be palatal.
We may ascribe it with some confidence to the period between the
seventh and tenth centuries.
1. A number of cases of ię before r are doubtless to be
explained by analogy. _Hĕri_ ＞ ęr; _autre_ + _er_ ＞ autręr,
which, through the influence of adjectives in -ęr -ięr, became
autrięr: hence the form ięr. _Fĕrio_, _mĕreo_ ＞ fięr, mięr;
hence, by analogy, the first person forms profięr, quięr, then
the third person forms fięr, mięr, profięr, quięr, sięrf (but
sęrvon, sęrva), and the subjunctives ofięira, sofię(i)ra.
2. Ięsc (= _ĕxeo_), ięscon, ięsca receive their diphthong
either from earlier forms with s´ or from ięis ＜ _ĕxit_.
ị
31. Cl. L. ī ＞ V. L. ị: _amīcum_ ＞ amịc, _fīnem_ ＞ fịn, _trīstem_ ＞
trịst.
1. Frẹg, frẹit are from V. L. ✱_frĭgdum_ = _frīgĭdum_, the ĭ
being perhaps due to the analogy of _rĭgĭdum_.
32. In the 13th century or earlier the group iu, in most dialects,
became ieu: _captīvum_ ＞ caitiu caitieu, _æstīvum_ ＞ estiu estieu,
_revīvĕre_ ＞ reviure revieure, _sī vās_ ＞ sius sieus.
ọ
33. Cl. L. ō, ŭ ＞ V. L. ọ ＞ Pr. ọ, which developed into ụ probably
during the literary period: _dolōrem_ ＞ dolọr, _spōnsa_ ＞ espọsa,
_flōrem_ ＞ flọr; _bŭcca_ ＞ bọca, _gŭla_ ＞ gọla.
1. An irregular ǫ, which is found in some words, goes back
to Vulgar Latin: cǫbra = _re-cŭperat_, cǫsta (also ọ) =
_cōnstat_, nǫra = _nŭra_, ǫu = _ōvum_, plǫia = _plŭvia_,
redǫbla = ✱_redŭplat_, sǫbra = _sŭperat_, suefre = _sŭffero_.
V. L. ✱_cŏperat_ may be regarded as a fusion of _cŭperat_
and ✱_cŏperit_ (§ 40, 1; cf. _Rom._ XXXI, 9); ✱_cŏstat_ is
unexplained; ✱_nŏra_ shows the influence of _sŏror_ and
_sŏcĕra_; the _ŏ_ of ✱_ŏvum_ has been explained as due to
differentiation from the following _v_; ✱_plŏia_ is to be
connected with the popular _plŏvĕre_ (cf. Meyer-Lübke,
_Einf._, § 142); ✱_sŏperat_ follows the analogy of ✱_cŏperat_;
✱_sŏffero_ evidently follows _ŏffero_. Redǫbla (also ọ) is
not accounted for. If trǫba has anything to do with _tŭrbat_,
it was perhaps influenced by _prŏbat_ (cf. _Zs._, XXVIII, 50).
Engǫissa ＜ V. L. ✱_angŏstia_ = _angŭstia_. See A. Thomas,
_Nouveaux essais de philologie française_, 1904, 339.
2. Some words have ü: iüs (also iọs) ＜ _deōrsum_ shows the
influence of süs ＜ _sūrsum_; lür (usually lọr) ＜ _illōrum_
(cf. _lur_ in the dialects of Navarre and Aragon) comes through
an ✱_illūrum_ due to the analogy of _illūi_ = _illi_; melhüra
(ọ), peiüra (ọ) perhaps follow aüra ＜ ✱_a(u)gūrat_; rancüra
is a mixture of _rancōrem_ and _cūra_; üis is from V. L.
_ūstium_ = _ōstium_ (cf. _Zs._, XXV, 355); üpa ＜ _ŭpŭpa_ is due
to onomatopœia.
3. The adverbs _ar_, _ara_, _er_, _era_, _eras_, meaning ‘now,’
are hardly to be connected with _hōra_. Meyer-Lübke takes
_era_, etc., from a Latin ✱_era_ corresponding to Greek άρα;
_ara_, _ar_ may come directly from άρα, άρ: cf. _Gr._, III,
552, note.
4. _Tonleu_, ‘tariff,’ from τελώνιον, shows double metathesis.
For _adoutz_, ‘fount,’ see A. Thomas, _Essais de philologie
française_, 1897, 205.
34. Before tš, dž (and it, id), before n´, and before final i, an ọ
becomes ü in various dialects: _cōgĭtat_ ＞ cüia cüida, ✱_stŭdiat_ ＞
estüia, _fŭgit_ ＞ füg, _refŭgium_ ＞ refüg; _jŭngĕre_ ＞ iünher, _ŭngĕre_
＞ ünher, _pŭgnum_ ＞ pünh; _dŭī_ ＞ düi, _sŭm_ ＞ sọ + i ＞ süi. The ü
before tš, dž apparently occurs everywhere except in Dauphiné; before
n´ it is to be found in nearly all the dialects of the north and west;
before final i it seems to be limited to Bordeaux, Auvergne, and a part
of Languedoc.
ǫ
35. Cl. L. ŏ ＞ V. L. ǫ ＞ Pr. ǫ: _cŏr_ ＞ cǫr, _cŏrpus_ ＞ cǫrs, _mŏrtem_
＞ mǫrt, _ŏpĕra_ ＞ ǫbra, _rŏta_ ＞ rǫda.
1. For demọra (also ǫ) ＜ ✱demŏrat, see Meyer-Lübke, _Gram._,
I, 204, § 220. For prọa (also prǫa, prueva) ＜ _prŏbat_, see
_Rom._, XXXI, 10, footnote 3.
36. Before a nasal, in most of the dialects of Limousin, Languedoc,
and Gascony, ǫ became ọ: _bŏnum_ ＞ bọn, _fŏntem_ ＞ fọnt, _pŏntem_
＞ pọnt. Cf. E. Levy in _Mélanges de philologie romane dédiés à Carl
Wahlund_, 1896, p. 207.
1. If the nasal was n´, the vowel remained open in most or all
of these dialects: _cŏgnĭta_ ＞ _coinda_ _cuenda_ _cuenhda_,
_lŏnge_ ＞ _lonh_ _luenh_, _sŏmnium_ ＞ _sonh_ _suenh_.
37. Early in the history of Provençal, before u, a labial consonant, a
g or a k, an i, or one of the palatal consonants l´, n´, r´, s´, z´, y,
tš, dž, an ǫ broke, in most dialects, into a diphthong which developed
into ue, üo, üe, or ü[22]: _bŏvem_ ＞ bǫu büọu büeu, ✱_ŏvum_ ＞ ǫu üou
üeu, _nŏvus_ ＞ nǫus nüous nüeus; ✱_cŏpero_ ＞ cǫbri cüebre[23], _nŏva_
＞ nǫva nüeva, _ŏpus_ ＞ ǫps üops, _prŏbat_ ＞ prǫa prüeva, ✱_trŏpo_? ＞
trǫp trüeb; _cŏquus_ ＞ cǫcs cüocs cüex, _fŏcum_ ＞ fǫc füoc füec füc,
_crŏcus_ ＞ grǫcs grüocs grüecs, _jŏcum_ ＞ iǫc iüoc iüec iüc, _lŏcus_
＞ lǫcs lüocs lüecs, _lŏcat_ ＞ lüoga, _pŏtui_ ＞ püec, _sŏc(ĕ)rum_
＞ (sǫzer) sǫgre süegre (fem. süegra); ✱_ingrŏssiat_ ＞ engrǫissa
engrüeissa, ✱_angŏstia_ ＞ engǫissa engüeissa, _nŏctem_ ＞ nǫit nüoit
nüeit, _ŏcto_ ＞ ǫit üeit, _pŏstea_ ＞ pǫissas püeissas, _prŏximus_ ＞
prǫymes prüeymes; _fŏlia_ ＞ fǫlha füolha füelha fülha, _ŏcŭlus_ _ŏclus_
＞ ǫlhs üolhs üelhs ülhs, _lŏnge_ ＞ lǫnh lüenh, _sŏmnium_ ＞ sǫnh süenh,
_cŏrium_ ＞ cǫr cüer, _pŏstea_ ＞ pües, _prŏximum_ ＞ prǫsme prüesme,
✱_plŏia_ ＞ plǫia plüeia plüia, ✱_inŏdiat_ ＞ enǫia enüeia enüia,
✱_pŏdiat_ ＞ pǫia püeia püia, _nŏctem_ ＞ nüoch nüech nüh, _ŏcto_ ＞ üeg.
The breaking was probably due to a premature lifting of the tongue
under the influence of a following high vowel or a palatal or
velar consonant, or to a premature partial closure of the lips
in anticipation of a following labial. Before i or a palatal the
diphthong was at the start presumably üo; before u or a labial or velar
consonant, uo: from these two types, the first of which influenced the
second, came the later developments. Ü is a reduction of üo or üe; it
apparently does not occur before u.
The dialect conditions are mixed, the development in each region
depending somewhat on the following sound. In the southwest, ǫ and ue
seem to prevail; in the northwest, ü; in the west, in Limousin, and in
Auvergne, üe; in Languedoc, üo; in the east and south, üe, üo, ǫ.
The date of breaking is discussed in § 30.
1. In some words where a diphthong would be expected, none
is found, although it may have existed: mǫu ＜ _mŏvet_, nǫu ＜
_nŏvem_, plǫu ＜ ✱_plŏvit_; trǫp ＜ _þrop_; brǫcs ＜ ✱_brŏccus_,
iǫgon ＜ _jŏcunt_, lǫgui ＜ _lŏco_. The form püoc or püec ＜
_pŏtui_ is regularly reserved for the first person, _pŏtuit_
being represented by pǫc.
2. A few cases of irregular breaking are easily explained:
püosc püesc (= _pŏssum_) and püosca püesca (= _pŏssim_) owe
their diphthong either to earlier forms with s´ or to the
analogy of püec; sǫfre süefre süfre (= _sŭffert_) are from
✱_sŏfferit_, formed upon ✱_ŏfferit_ = _ŏffert_ (cf. § 33, 1);
vüelc (= _vŏlui_) follows the analogy of vüelh (＜ ✱_vŏleo_ =
_vŏlo_) and of püec.
ụ
38. Cl. L. ū ＞ V. L. ụ ＞ Pr. ü: ✱_habūtus_ ＞ avütz, _jūstum_ ＞ iüst,
_mūrum_ ＞ mür, _mūtus_ ＞ mütz, _nūdus_ ＞ nütz, _plūs_ ＞ plüs.
The date of the change of ụ into ü is not known; there is no ü in
Catalan, and there may have been none in early Gascon. It seems likely
that the Celts, when they adopted Latin, pronounced ū a little further
forward in the mouth than did the Romans; that their ụ continued to
advance gradually toward the front of the mouth until it became ü; and
that this ü spread to the parts of France that were not originally
Celtic.[24] In the literary period the sound was probably ü in most or
all of the Provençal dialects.
1. Pr. ọnze represents a V. L. ✱_ŭndĕcim_, which in Gaul and
Spain replaced _ūndĕcim_. Lọita lücha, trọcha trücha probably
go back to Latin double forms, ✱_lŭcta lūcta_, ✱_trŭcta trūcta_.
2. Nǫssas ＜ ✱_nŏptias_ = _nūptias_, by analogy of ✱_nŏvius_,
‘bridegroom,’ from _nŏvus_.
3. Before u, Pr. ü apparently became i: _nūbem_ ＞ ✱nüu ＞ niu,
_pūlĭcem_ ＞ ✱püuze ＞ piuze. See §§ 63, (4); 74, (2).
au
39. Cl. L. au ＞ V. L. au ＞ Pr. au: _aurum_ ＞ aur, _gaudium_ ＞ gaug,
_paucum_ ＞ pauc, _thesaurus_ ＞ tesaurs.
1. _Bloi_ ＜ _blauþr_, _ioi_, _ioia_, _ioios_, _lotia_ ＜
✱_laubja_, _noiza_, _onta_ ＜ _hauniþa_, _or_, _sor_, _tesor_,
etc., are French or Poitevin; _ioi_ is a good Poitevin form.
_Iai_, ‘joy,’ seems to be a fusion of _ioi_ and Pr. _iai_ =
_gai_.
2. _Anta_ ＜ _hauniþa_ is unexplained.
UNACCENTED VOWELS.
40. (1) The fate of an unaccented vowel depended largely upon the
syllable in which it stood: in general, unstressed vowels in the
initial syllable remained intact, while all vowels, except a, fell (at
different dates) in the other syllables. The fall of unaccented vowels
resulted in many new consonant groups: _collocáre_ ＞ colcár, _hóminem_
＞ ómne, _sábbatum_ ＞ sápte.
(2) The vowels e̯ and i̯, instead of falling or remaining unchanged,
became y in Vulgar Latin, early in our era: _alea_ ＞ alya, _diŭrnus_ ＞
dyųrnus, _mĕdium_ ＞ mędyu. Similarly u̯ became w: _placui_ ＞ placwi,
_tĕnuis_ ＞ tęnwis.
1. Apparently, however, e̯é, i̯é ＞ e; o̯ó, u̯ó ＞ o:
_prĕhĕndĕre_ ＞ _prĕndĕre_; _abĭĕtem_ ＞ ✱_abētem_, _facĭēbat_
＞ ✱_facēbat_, _parĭĕtem_ ＞ _parētem_, _quĭētus_ ＞ _quētus_;
_cŏhŏrtem_ ＞ _cōrtem_, _cŏŏpĕrit_ ＞ _cōpĕrit_ ✱_cŏpĕrit_;
_dŭŏdĕcim_ ＞ ✱_dōdĕcim_. The short e and o in _prĕndĕre_ and
✱_cŏpĕrit_ are not accounted for. In _mulĭĕrem_[25] ＞ Pr.
molhęr the i̯ remained long enough (perhaps under the influence
of the nominative _mŭlier_) to palatalize the l.
INITIAL SYLLABLE.
41. Usually, in the literary language, Latin a ＞ Pr. a; Latin æ, œ, and
e, i (without regard to quantity) ＞ Pr. e; Latin o, u (long or short)
＞ Pr. o; Lat. au ＞ Pr. au, unless the next syllable contained an ú, in
which case the au was reduced (in the Vulgar Latin time) to a. Ex.:
_amīcum_ ＞ amic, _caballus_ ＞ cavals; _æquālem_ ＞ egal, ✱_pœnĭtĕre_
＞ penẹdre, _dēbēre_ ＞ devẹr, _mĕliōrem_ ＞ melhọr, _dīlĕctum_ ＞
delęit, _dīvīnum_ ＞ devin, _dīvīdĕre_ ＞ devire, _fīnīre_ ＞ fenir,
_mĭnōrem_ ＞ menọr; _plōrāre_ ＞ plorar, _sōlātium_ ＞ solatz, _cŏlōrem_
＞ colọr, ✱_vŏlēre_ ＞ volẹr, _mūstēla_ ＞ mostẹla, _sŭbĭnde_ ＞ sovẹn;
_aucĕllum_ ＞ auzęl, _audīre_ ＞ auzir, _augŭstum_ ＞ aọst, ✱_augūrium_ ＞
aür.
1. An initial vowel is occasionally lost, either through
elision with the article (✱_eclĕsia_ ＞ ✱eglęisa, la eglęisa ＞
la glęisa) or through the dropping of a prefix (_ingĕnium_ ＞
engẹnh gẹnh): _epĭscŏpus_ ＞ _bisbes_, _alauda_ ＞ _lauzeta_,
_occasiōnem_ ＞ _ocaiso_ _caiso_.
2. In a few words the vowel of the initial syllable
disappeared, for some unknown reason, before r in Vulgar
Latin: ✱_cŏrrŏtŭlāre_ ＞ ✱_crŏtŭlāre_ ＞ _crollar_, _dīrēctus_ ＞
_drēctus_[26] ＞ _dreitz_, _quĭrītāre_ ＞ ✱_crītāre_ ＞ _cridar_.
3. _Domne_, used familiarly as a proclitic (§ 19), lost its
first syllable, and, before a vowel, was reduced to _n_. The
combinations _de n_, _que n_ (followed by a proper name) were
understood as _d’en_, _qu’en_; hence the title _en_, ‘Sir.’
See Schultz-Gora in _Zs._, XXVI, 588; Elise Richter in _Zs._,
XXVII, 193; V. Cescini, _Manualetto provenzale_, 2d ed., 1905,
168 ff.
4. The proclitic ọ probably comes from a V. L. _ot_, not from
_aut_.
42. The vowel of the initial syllable, especially in verbs, was
extremely subject to the influence of analogy: cülhir (ǫ) through
cülh (ǫ) ＜ _cŏllĭgit_, dizẹn ＜ _dīcĕntem_ through dire ＜ _dīcĕre_,
dürar through dür ＜ _dūrum_ and düra ＜ _dūrat_, finir through fin ＜
_fīnem_, fivęla through fibla ＜ _fībula_, puęiar (ǫ) through puęia (ǫ)
＜ ✱_pŏdiat_.
1. Avangęli (e) is perhaps influenced by _avan_; blisọ (e) ＜
_blas_ may possibly have been influenced by _tiso_; gazardọ
＜ _wiðarlôn_ shows the influence of _gazanhar_; in piucęla
(pülcęla) ＜ ✱_pūellicĕlla_ (_Zs._, XXV, 343) the püu of the
first syllable was changed to piu just as _pūlĭcem_ became
_piuze_ (see § 38, 3); in _vas_ = _ves_ ＜ _ve(r)sus_ the a
is due to the analogy of _az_ ＜ _ad_; _vais_ is unexplained,
_vaus_ follows _daus_ (§ 44, 6). If dessẹ is from _de exín_,
the first syllable is irregular. Beside _maniar_ ＜ _manducare_
are unexplained forms _meniar miniar_. In _duptar_ (_o_),
_suritz_ (_o_) the _u_ doubtless represents ụ or ọ, not ü.
_Girofle_ ＜ Καρυόφυλλον and _olifan orifan_ ＜ _elephantem_ are
French.
43. Sometimes the initial syllable was altered by a change of prefix
or a false idea of etymology: aucire ＜ _occīdĕre_ (cf. the Italian and
Rumanian forms), diman (e) ＜ _de máne_ (cf. di ＜ _dīem_), dementre
＜ _dum ĭntĕrim_ (cf. de ＜ _de_), engǫissa ＜ ✱_angŭstia_ (cf. en ＜
_in_), envanezir ＜ _evanēscĕre_, escür ＜ _obscūrum_ (cf. es- ＜ _ex_-),
preọn prefọn (o) ＜ _profŭndum_, redọn ＜ _rotŭndum_ (_re-_ in V.
L.: Schuchardt, _Vokalismus des Vulgärlateins_, II, 213), trabalh ＜
_trepalium_ (cf. tra- ＜ _tra-_ = _trans-_). _Dimenge_ (also _ditmenge_)
is from _dīe domĭnĭco_.
1. On the same principle are doubtless to be explained such
double forms as _evori_ (_a_), _saboros_ (_e_), _socors_ (_e_),
_somondre_ (_e_), _soror_ (_e_). _Serori_ occurs in a Latin
inscription.
2. The prefix _eccu-_, under the influence of _ac_ and _atque_,
became ✱_accu-_ in southern Gaul and elsewhere: _aco_ ＜
✱_accu’hoc_, _aquel_ ＜ ✱_accu’ĭllum_, _aquest_ ＜ ✱_accu’ĭstum_,
_aqui_ ＜ ✱_accu’hīc_. _Eissi_ ＜ _ecce hīc_ sometimes becomes
_aissi_ through the analogy of _aissi_ ＜ _ac sīc_.
3. In such forms as _tresanar_, the prefix _tres-_ is French.
44. Local or partial phonetic changes affected the initial syllable
of many words: demandar (do-) ＜ _demandāre_, emplir (üm-) ＜ _implēre_;
ciutat cieutat ＜ _cīvĭtātem_; eissir issir ＜ _exīre_, getar gitar ＜
✱_jĕctāre_; crear criar ＜ _creāre_; mercẹ (mar-) ＜ _mercēdem_; delgat
(dal-) ＜ _delicātum_.
1. Nearly everywhere there is a tendency to change e to o, u,
or ü before a labial, especially before m: _premier_ _promier_
_prumier_, _remas_ _romas_, _semblar_ _somblar_, _trebalh_
_trubalh_. So _de ves_ ＞ ✱_do ves_ ＞ _dous_.
2. In the 13th century, nearly everywhere, iu ＞ ieu: _piucela_
_pieucela_.
3. Many dialects of the north and west change ei and e to i:
_deissendre_ _dissendre_, _eissam_ _issam_, _eissi_ _issi_,
_eissilh_ _issilh_, _leisso_ _lisso_, _meitat_ _mitat_;
_degerir_ (_i_), _denhar_ (_i_), _disnar_, _en_ _in_, _enfern_
(_i_), _entrar_ (_i_), _envers_ (_i_), _escien_ _icient_,
proclitic _est_ _ist_, _estar_ (_i_), _estiers_ (_i_), _Felip_
(_i_), _gelos_ (_i_), _genhos_ (_i_), _genolh_ (_i_), _gequir_
(_i_), _guereiar_ (_i_), _guerensa_ (_i_), _i(n)vern_, _isnel_
_irnel_, _peior_ _pigor_, proclitic _per_ _pir_, _premier_
(_i_), _semblar_ (_i_), _serven_ (_i_), _serventes_ (_i_),
_sevals_ (_i_), _trebalhar_ (_i_), _tremblar_ (_i_). In
_disnar_, _ivern_, _isnel_ only i is found. In some dialects
there is an alternation of e and i, e being used when there
is an í in the next syllable, i when there is none, _fenít_,
_sirvén_. In _vezí_ ＜ _vīcīnum_ the e probably goes back to V.
L.: cf. Fr.
4. In a few dialects e in hiatus with a following vowel becomes
i: _crear_ _criar_, _leal_ _lial_, _prear_ _priar_, _preon_
_prion_, _real_ _rial_.
5. In many dialects of the north and west e has a tendency to
become a before r: _guerentia_ _garensa_, _merce_ _marce_,
_pergamen_ _pargamen_.
6. In some dialects there is a tendency to assimilate e to an
á in the next syllable: _delgat_ _dalgat_, _gigant_ _iaian_,
_deman_ (_a_), _semblar_ (_a_), _serrar_ (_a_), _tremblar_
(_a_). So _de vás_ (§ 42, 1) ＞ _da vás_ ＞ _dávas_; hence
_daus_, under the influence of _deus_ ＞ _de ves_.
INTERTONIC SYLLABLE.
45. The term _intertonic_ is applied to the syllable that follows
the secondary (§ 18) and precedes the primary accent. In this
position all vowels, except a, regularly disappeared in popular
words, probably between the 5th and the 8th century[27]; a apparently
remained: ✱_bŭllĭcāre_ ＞ boiar (bollegar), _bŏnĭtātem_ ＞ bontat,
✱_carrĭcāre_ ＞ carcar cargar, _caballĭcāre_ ＞ cavalcar cavalgar,
_cĕrĕbĕllum_ ＞ cervęl, _cīvĭtātem_ ＞ ciutat, _cŏllŏcāre_ ＞ colcar
colgar, _dēlĭcātum_ ＞ delcat delgat, _excommūnĭcāre_ ✱_excommĭnĭcāre_
＞ escomeniar, _vĕrēcŭndia_ ＞ vergọnha; _calamĕllum_ ＞ calamęl,
_invadĕre_ ✱_invadīre_ ＞ envazir, _margarīta_ ＞ margarida, _mīrabĭlia_
＞ miravilha, _parav(e)rēdus_ ＞ palafrẹs.
1. The vowel is preserved in a number of words in which it
originally bore the secondary accent (§ 18): _abbréviáre_ ＞
_abreuiar_, _calúmniáre_ ＞ _caloniar_, ✱_eríciónem_ ＞ _erisso_;
on the other hand, ✱_cominítiáre_ (through ✱_comín’tiáre_) ＞
_comensar_, _partítiónem_ (through ✱_pártiónem_) ＞ _parso_.
Cf. _Zs._, XXVII, 576, 684, 693, 698, 701, 704. When kept,
the vowel is sometimes altered: ✱_carōnea_ ✱_caróneáta_
＞ _caraunhada_, ✱_cupídietósus_ ＞ _cobeitos_ _cobitos_,
_papíliónem_ ＞ _pabalho_.
2. The prefix _mĭnus-_ was reduced to _mis-_ (or _mes-_)
in Gaul, perhaps at the close of the Vulgar Latin period:
✱_mínus-prétiat_ ＞ _mespreza_. _Menes-_ was used also. Cf. P.
Marchot, _Phon._, pp. 43, 44.
3. _Mostier_ is from ✱_monistĕrium_, altered, by the influence
of _ministĕrium_, from _monastērium_. _Comprar_ is from V. L.
_comperare_. _Calmelh_ _calmelha_ (cf. _calamel_ above) are
Provençal formations from _calm_. _Caresma_ or _caresme_ seems
to be from V. L. ✱_quarrēsĭma_ = _quadragēsĭma_. _Anedier_ ＜
_anatarium_ shows the influence of _anét_ _ánet_ ＜ _anătem_ (§
48, 1).
4. In learned words the vowel is generally preserved:
_irregulár_, _irritár_, _pelicán_, _philozophía_. The vowel
is, however, often altered, the exchange of e and i being
particularly frequent: _esperít_, _femeníl_, _orifán_,
_peligrí_ (_e_), _soteirán_ (_sotrán_) ＜ _subterraneum_
influenced by _dereirán_ and _primeirán_.
46. Very often the intertonic vowel was preserved by the analogy
of some cognate word or form in which that vowel was stressed:
dev_i_nár through _devín_, fin_i_mén through _finír_, guerr_e_iár
through _guerréia_, noir_i_dúra through _noirír_, obl_i_dár through
_oblít_, pert_u_sár through _pertúsa_, re_u_sar through _reúsa_,
serv_i_dór through _servíre_.
1. In such cases the preserved vowel is sometimes altered, the exchange
of e and i being especially common: _avinén_, _covinén_, _sovinénsa_,
cf. _venír_, _ven_; _enginhár_, _enginhós_, cf. _genh_; _envelzír_,
cf. _vil_; _gememén_, cf. _gemír_; _issarnít_ (_eissernít_), from
_excĕrnĕre_; _randóla_, from _hirŭndŭla_, perhaps influenced by
_randón_; _temerós_ (_o_), from ✱_timorōsus_, influenced by _temér_;
_traazó_ (_i_), from _traditiōnem_, with a substitution of suffix;
_volentiérs_, from _voluntarius_, under the influence of _volén_ ＜
_volentem_.
PENULT.[28]
47. (1) The vowel of the penult of proparoxytones fell in many words in
Vulgar Latin, especially between a labial and another consonant, and
between two consonants one of which was a liquid: ✱_avĭca_ ＞ ✱_auca_,
_cŏm(i)tem_, _cŏmp(u)tum_, _dēb(i)tum_, _dŏm(i)nus_[29]; _alt(e)ra_,
_vĭg(i)lat_, _cal(i)dus_, _vĭr(i)dem_; _frig(i)dus_, _nĭtĭdus_ ＞
✱_nĭttus_, _pŏs(i)tus_, _pūtĭdus_ ＞ ✱_pūttus_.
(2) The classic Latin _-culus_ comprises an original _-clus_ (_sæclum_)
and an original _-culus_ (_aurĭcŭla_). In popular Latin both were
_-clus_ (✱_macla_, _ŏclus_, etc.), to which was assimilated _-tŭlus_ in
current words (_vĕtŭlus_ ＞ _vĕclus_, etc.).
(3) Many popular words which in Vulgar Latin had very generally lost
the vowel were for some reason introduced into southern Gaul in their
classical forms, and not a few were adopted both in the uncontracted
and in the syncopated state: _fragĭlem_ ＞ frágel (cf. Fr. _fraile_, It.
_frale_), _jŭvĕnem_ ＞ iọve (cf. Fr. _iuevne_); _clĕrĭcum_ ＞ clęrgue
_clĕr’cum_ ＞ clęrc, _dēbĭtum_ ＞ dẹute _dēb’tum_ ＞ dẹpte, _flēbĭlem_ ＞
frẹvol _flēb’lem_ ＞ frẹble, _mal’habĭtum_ ＞ malaute _mal’hab’tum_ ＞
malapte, _nĭtĭdum_ ＞ nẹde ✱_nĭttum_ ＞ nẹt, _hŏmĭnem_ ＞ ome _hŏm’nem_
＞ omne, _pŏpŭlum_ ＞ pǫbol _pŏp’lum_ ＞ pǫble.
1. _Cŏgnĭtum_ seems to have become ✱_cónhede_, whence _coinde_
_cuende_ _conge_. Cf. § 79, Gnd, Gnt.
48. The unaccented penult vowels that had not already fallen
disappeared, in most cases, in the transition from Latin to Provençal:
✱_carrĭcat_ ＞ carca, _cŏllŏcat_ ＞ cǫlca, _cŭrrĕre_ ＞ cọrre, _spathŭla_
＞ espatla, ✱_ĕssĕre_ (= _ĕsse_) ＞ ęstre, _ī(n)sŭla_ isla, _pĕssĭmum_ ＞
pęsme, _pōnĕre_ ＞ pọnre, ✱_rīdĕre_ ＞ rire, _tabŭla_ ＞ taula, _tŏllĕre_
＞ tǫlre.
1. A apparently was more tenacious than other vowels, and
frequently remained as an indistinct e: _anătem_ ＞ ánet,
which, being associated with the diminutive ending _-ét_,
became anét (cf. modern Pr. _anèdo_); _cannăbim_ ＞ cánebe
(learned?); _cŏlăphum_ ＞ ✱cólebe ＞ cǫlbe, but _cŏl’phum_ ＞
cǫlp; _Stĕphănum_ ＞ Estęve; _lampăda_ ＞ lámpeza; _ŏrgănum_ ＞
órguene (later orguéne) órgue; _ŏrphănum_ ＞ ǫrfe; _raphănum_ ＞
ráfe; _Rhŏdănum_ ＞ Rǫzer; ✱_sēcăle_ (= _sĕcāle_) ＞ séguel (but
cf. modern _segle_ _selho_). Cf. A. Thomas in the _Journal des
savants_, June, 1901, p. 370. See also P. Marchot, _Phon._,
pp. 90-94. Cf. § 45, footnote. It is noteworthy that ✱cólebe
ultimately lost its penult, while the other words lost the
final syllable or none.
49. Under certain conditions, however, a vowel which had not fallen
in the Latin of southern Gaul was often kept in Provençal. It was
then probably indistinct in sound, and was written usually _e_, but
occasionally _o_.
(1) After c´, g´, or y the vowel was apparently retained in some
dialects and lost in others. When the c´, g´, or y was intervocalic,
forms with and without the vowel are about equally common; when the c´,
g´, or y was preceded by a consonant, forms with the vowel predominate,
and after cons. + c´ the vowel was apparently never lost. After
intervocalic c´: _cŏcĕre_ (= _cŏquĕre_) ＞ cǫire cǫzer, _dīcĕre_ ＞ dire
dízer, _dūcĕre_ ＞ düire ✱düzer (condücir dedüzir), _facĕre_ ＞ faire
✱fázer (fazedọr, etc.), _gracĭlem_ ＞ graile, ✱_nŏcĕre_ (= _nŏcēre_)
＞ nǫire nǫzer, _placĭtum_ ＞ plach, _sŏcĕrum_ ＞ sǫzer (sǫgre is from
_sŏcrum_), ✱_vŏcĭtum_ (= _vacuum_) ＞ vuech. After intervocalic g´ or y:
_bajŭlus_ ＞ bailes, _fragĭlem_ ＞ frágel, _imagĭnem_ ＞ imáge, _lĕgĕre_
＞ lęire legír (through ✱lęger?), _rĭgĭdum_ ＞ rẹide rẹge, _rĭgĭda_ ＞
rẹgeza, ✱_tragĕre_ (= _trahĕre_) ＞ traire tragír (through ✱tráger?).
After cons. + c´: _carcer_ ＞ cárcer, _crēscĕre_ ＞ crẹisser, _nascĕre_
＞ náisser, _pascĕre_ ＞ páisser, _parcĕre_ ＞ párcer, ✱_tŏrcĕre_ (=
_tŏrquēre_) ＞ tǫrzer. After cons. + g´ or y: _angĕlum_ ＞ ángel
(learned?), ✱_cŏll’gĕre_ (= _cŏllĭgĕre_, through _cŏllĭgo_ etc.) ＞
cǫlre cuelher colhír, ✱_dē-ēr’gĕre_ (= _ērĭgĕre_) ＞ dẹrdre dẹrzer,
✱_fŭlgĕrem_ (from _fŭlger_ = _fŭlgur_) ＞ fọuzer, _jŭngĕre_ ＞ iọnher,
_margĭnem_ ＞ marge, _plangĕre_> planher, _vĭrgĭnem_ ＞ vẹrgena vẹrge.
(2) After ks, s, ss, and sy the vowel was apparently retained in some
dialects and lost in others: _dīxĕrunt_ ＞ diron dissęron (through
✱dísseron)[30], _dūxĕrunt_ ＞ düystrent düissęron (✱dúisseron),
_fraxĭnum_ ＞ fraisne fraisse, _traxĕrunt_ ＞ traissęron (✱tráisseron),
_tŏxĭcum_ ＞ tuęissec; _asĭnum_ ＞ asne ase, _mĭsĕrum_ ＞ miser (learned),
✱_prē(n)sĕrunt_ ＞ prẹson prezęron (✱prẹzeron), _rema(n)sĕrunt_ ＞
remastrent remasęron (✱remáseron); ✱_ĕssĕre_ (= _ĕsse_) ＞ ęstre ęsser
(used in Rouergue, Limousin, Marche, and Dauphiné), ✱_mĭssĕrunt_ (=
_mīsĕrunt_) ＞ mestrunt (mẹsdren) mesęron (✱mẹsseron), _passĕrem_
＞ pásser; ✱_cō(n)sĕre_ (= _consuĕre_) ＞ coser (cozír is from V. L.
✱_cosīre_).
(3) Between a labial and a dental the vowel was apparently kept:
_cŭpĭdum_ ＞ cọbe,[31] _fēmĭna_ ＞ fẹmena fẹme (but _fēm’na_ ＞
fẹmna), _jŭvĕnem_ ＞ iọve, ✱_lūmĭnem_ ＞ lüme (_lūmen_ ＞ lüm),
_hŏmĭnem_ ＞ ómen óme (but _hŏm’nĕm_ ＞ omne), _tĕpĭdum_ ＞ tębe,[31]
_tĕrmĭnum_ ＞ tęrme. Cf. § 48, 1.
(4) Between a dental and a guttural the vowel remained long enough for
the guttural to become y (§ 52; § 65, G): _mĕdĭcum_ ＞ ✱mędegu ＞ ✱mędeye
＞ mędže (= _mege_). If the first consonant was a liquid or a nasal, the
vowel apparently allowed the guttural to become y in some dialects, but
not in others: ✱_carrĭcat_ ＞ caria carga, _clĕrĭcum_ ＞ clęrie clęrgue,
_mŏnăchum_ ＞ monie mongue. _Caballĭcat_ ＞ cavalga, _cŏllŏcat_ ＞ cǫlca
cǫlga show an earlier fall. In _clĕr´cum_ ＞ clęrc the fall goes back to
Latin times.
(5) Between lv and r the vowel was kept in some dialects and lost
in others: _sŏlvĕre_ ＞ sǫlver sǫlvre, _vŏlvĕre_ ＞ vǫlver vǫlvre,
_pŭlvĕrem_ ＞ polvęra.
50. Some learned proparoxytones kept for a while both post-tonic vowels
(usually written _e_), but most of them ultimately either shifted
their accent to the penult (§ 17, 1) or dropped their final syllable:
_domĕstĭcum_ ＞ domęstegue, _lacrĭma_ ＞ lágrema, _mĕrĭtum_ ＞ męrite,
_hŏrrĭda_ ＞ ǫreza, _rēgĭmen_ ＞ régeme; _fĭstŭla_ ＞ festóla, _fragĭlem_
＞ fragíl, _mĕrĭtum_ ＞ merít, _tĕrmĭnum_ ＞ termíni; _diacŏnum_ ＞ diágue,
_flēbĭlem_ ＞ frẹvol (cf. _flēb´lem_ ＞ frẹble), _nĭtĭdum_ ＞ nẹde (cf.
✱_nĭttum_ ＞ nẹt), _ōrdĭnem_ ＞ órde, _pŏpŭlum_ ＞ pǫbol (cf. _pŏp´lum_ ＞
pǫble), _prīncĭpem_ ＞ príncep prínce. Cf. § 47, (3).
FINAL SYLLABLE.
51. As early as the 8th century, in popular words, the vowels of final
syllables fell, the fall occurring first, perhaps, after liquids:
_hĕrĭ_ ＞ ęr, _malĕ_ ＞ mal; _bŏnŭs_ ＞ bos, _cŏlăphŭm_ ＞ cǫlp, _cōgĭto_ ＞
cüg, _panĕm_ ＞ pan, _prĕtiŭm_ ＞ prętz.
(1) Latin a, however, remained, being generally pronounced ạ: _audiăm_
＞ auiạ, _bŏnă_ ＞ bonạ, _fīliās_ ＞ filhạs.[32]
(2) Latin final ī probably remained in all dialects later than the
8th century, and in some until the beginning of the literary period:
_hábuī_ ＞ águi ＞ aguí. Before it fell, it changed an accented ẹ in the
preceding syllable to ị: see § 27.
(3) Latin i and u remained if they were immediately preceded by an
accented vowel: _fuī_ ＞ füi, _mĕī_ ＞ męi, _sŭī_ ＞ sọi; _cavum_ ✱_caum_
＞ chau, _dĕus_ ＞ dęus, _ĕgo_ ✱_ĕo_ ✱_ĕu_ ＞ ęu, _rīvum_ _rīum_ ＞ riu. In
such cases the two vowels formed a diphthong.
(4) Before final nt Latin e, u remained as e, o: _cantent_ ＞ canten,
_vēndunt_ ＞ vẹndon.
1. In Aude, Tarn, Aveyron, Corrèze, and a part of
Haute-Garonne, final ī was preserved as late as the 12th
century: _pagadi_, _salvi_, _soli_. See _Rom._, XIV, 291-2 and
XXXIV, 362. Such forms occur also in Vaud and Dauphiné. Cf.
_Gram._, II, p. 82.--In the dialect of some texts, _-ī_, before
falling, palatalized a preceding l (or ll), n (or nn), nd, nt,
or t: _annī_ ＞ _anh_, _bellī_ ＞ _beill_, ✱_infantī_ ＞ _efanh_,
✱_spiritī_ ＞ _esperih_, _mundī_ ＞ _monh_. See _Rom._, XXXIV,
353.
2. In the extreme east there are traces of final _-ōs_:
_aquestos_, _ellos_, _tantos_.
3. _Grau_ for _gra_ ＜ _gradum_, _niu_ for _ni_ ＜ _nīdum_ are
Catalan. _Amiu_ for _amic_ ＜ _amīcum_, _chastiu_ for _chastic_
＜ _castīgo_ belong to the dialect of Forez, and point to a very
early fall of the guttural in that dialect. Cf. § 65, D, G.
4. _Aire_, _vaire_, beside _air_ ＜ _aĕrem_, _vair_ ＜ _varium_,
probably show the influence of the numerous nouns in _-aire_
(_amaire_, etc.); cf. § 52, (1). _Fores_ beside _fors_ ＜
_fŏris_, _nemes_ beside _nems_ ＜ _nĭmis_, _senes_ beside _sens_
＜ _sĭne_ probably developed the _e_ when the next word began
with a consonant: see § 62, (3). For _colbe_, see § 48, 1.
_Reide_ _rede_ perhaps owes its -e to _rege_: § 49, (1). Beside
_volp_ ＜ _vŭlpem_ there is a _volpe_.
5. _Coma_, beside _com_, _con_, _co_ ＜ _quōmŏ(do)_, apparently
owes its -a to the analogy of the adverbs _bona_ and _mala_ and
other adverbs of manner. For a different explanation, see J.
Vising in the _Tobler Festschrift_ (_Abhandlungen Herrn Prof.
Dr. Tobler… dargebracht_, 1895), p. 113.
6. E seems to have been inserted in the second person singular
of some verbs, to distinguish it from the third person:
co(g)nōscis ＞ conọisses, _co(g)nōscit_ ＞ conọis.
52. When the fall of the vowel would have resulted in an undesirable
consonant group at the end of a word, the vowel was retained as an
indistinct e: _dŭbĭto_ ＞ dọpte, _lŭcrum_ ＞ lọgre.
The principal groups that call for a supporting vowel are: (1)
a consonant and a liquid; (2) a labial and a dental; (3) in
proparoxytones, a consonant and a c´ or c originally separated by the
vowel of the penult; (4) in proparoxytones, a consonant and an m or n
originally separated by the vowel of the penult. Ex.: _ĭnter_ ＞ ẹntre;
_aptum_ ＞ apte; ✱_dōdĕcim_ ＞ dọtze, _jūdĭco_ ＞ iütge; ✱Jacŏmus ＞
Iacmes, _asĭnum_ ＞ asne.
If the word was a paroxytone, and the first consonant was a palatal and
the second an r, the supporting vowel stood between the two: _major_ ＞
maier, _mĕlior_ ＞ męlher, _mŭlier_ ＞ mọlher, _pĕjor_ ＞ pęier, _sĕnior_
＞ sęnher. Otherwise the supporting vowel followed the consonant group.
The four classes of groups (aside from the palatal + r just mentioned)
will now be examined in detail:--
(1) Examples: _alter_ ＞ autre, _Carŏlus_ ＞ Carles, _dŭplus_ ＞ dọbles,
✱_ĕssĕre_ ＞ ęstre, _fabrum_ ＞ fabre, ✱_mĕr(ŭ)lum_ ＞ męrle, _nŏster_
＞ nǫstre, _pauper_ ＞ paubre, _pŏp(ŭ)lum_ ＞ pǫble, _pōnĕre_ ＞ pọnre,
_recĭpĕre_ ＞ recẹbre, _rŭmpĕre_ ＞ rọmpre, _tŏllĕre_ ＞ tǫlre,
_vŏlvĕre_ ＞ vǫlvre; _mascŭlum_ ＞ mascle, etc.; _flēb(ĭ)lem_ ＞ frẹble,
etc. Under this head is included r-r (_cŭrrere_ ＞ cọrre, _quærĕre_
＞ quęrre), but not ll and rr (_bĕllum_ ＞ bęl, _fĕrrum_ ＞ fęr). In
Provençal the first element was often changed, later than the 8th
century, into a vowel, original b and v becoming u, and d, t, c, g,
and y being turned to i: _bĭbĕre_ ＞ bẹure, _scrībĕre_ ＞ escriure,
✱_mŏvĕre_ ＞ mǫure, _plŏvĕre_ ＞ plǫure, _vīvĕre_ ＞ viure; _latro_ ＞
laire, _matrem_ ＞ maire, _radĕre_ ＞ raire, ✱_rīdĕre_ ＞ rire, _vĭtrum_
＞ vẹire; _desīdĕro_ ＞ desire, etc.; _amātor_ ＞ amaire, _servītor_ ＞
servire, etc.; _dīcĕre_ ＞ dire, _dūcĕre_ ＞ düire, _facĕre_ ＞ faire,
_gracĭlem_ ＞ graile, ✱_tacĕre_ ＞ taire; _frīgĕre_ ＞ frire, _weigăro_
gaire, _lĕgĕre_ ＞ lęire; _bajŭlum_ ＞ baile. Apparent exceptions to the
rule are intervocalic cl, gl, which were probably reduced to single
consonants before the 8th century: _ŏc(ŭ)lum_ ＞ ǫlh, _vĭg(ĭ)lo_ ＞
vẹlh.
1. The rare forms _frair_, _mair_, _pair_, _Peir_ (still
used in Gascony), beside regular _fraire_, _maire_, _paire_,
_Peire_, are probably due to proclitic use; so _sor_ beside
_sorre_ ＜ _sŏror_, and possibly _faur_ beside _faure_ ＜
_faber_. The learned _albir_ = _albire_ ＜ _arbĭtrium_ may
be due to the analogy of other double forms. _Dimerc_ for
_dimercre_ (§ 17, 2) perhaps follows _dimenc_.
2. Rr requires a vowel in a few dialects: _corre_ = _cor_
＜ _cŭrrit_, _ferre_ = _fer_ ＜ _fĕrrum_, _torre_ = _tor_ ＜
_tŭrrem_.
(2) Examples: _cŭbĭtum_ ＞ cọde; _cŏmĭtem_ ＞ comte; _dēbĭtum_ ＞ dẹpte
dẹute, § 47, (3); _dŏmnum_ ＞ domne; _dŭbĭto_ ＞ dọpte; _hŏspĭtem_ ＞
ǫste; _sabbătum_ ＞ sapte.
1. _Azaut_ seems to be post-verbal from _azautar_ ＜ _adaptāre_.
_Escrit_ ＜ _scrīptum_ shows the influence of _dit_ ＜ _dīctum_.
_Malaut_, beside _malaute_ _malapte_ ＜ _mal´habĭtum_, is
reconstructed from the feminine _malauta_ on the model of
_aut_, _auta_. _Set_ ＜ _sĕptem_ must have developed as a
proclitic.
(3) Examples: _jūdicem_ ＞ iütge[33]; _pŏllĭcem_ ＞ pǫuze; _quīndĕcim_ ＞
quinze; _salĭcem_ ＞ sauze; _sēdĕcim_ ＞ sẹdze;--_canŏnĭcum_ ＞ canonge
canọrgue,[34] § 49, (4); _clĕrĭcum_ ＞ clęrge clęrgue (§ 48, 2);
_mĕdĭcum_ ＞ mętge; _mŏnăchum_ ＞ monge mongue mǫrgue,[34] § 49, (4);
_vĭndĭco_ ＞ vẹnie; _viatĭcum_ ＞ viatge, etc.
1. The forms _poutz_, _sautz_, beside _pouse_, _sauze_, would
seem to indicate that lc´ did not require a supporting vowel in
all dialects.
2. ✱_Ficotum_ (= _jēcur_), a fusion of συκωτόν (‘fig-fattened’)
and _fīcus_, combined with ✱_hēpăte_ (= _hēpar_), became
✱fẹ́catu ✱fẹcitu ✱fẹgidu, and then, through the influence of
the familiar ending -igu (= _ĭcum_), ✱fẹdigu ＞ fẹtge. See G.
Paris in _Miscellanea linguistica in onore di G. Ascoli_, 1901,
p. 41; H. Schuchardt in _Zs._, XXV, 615, and XXVIII, 435; L.
Clédat in _Revue de philologie française et de littérature_,
XV, 235. _Pege_, for _peich_ ＜ _pĕctus_, seems to be due to the
analogy of _fetge_.
(4) Examples: _æstĭmo_ ＞ esme; _dĕcĭmum_ ＞ dęsme; _fraxĭnum_ ＞ fraisne;
_incūdĭnem_ ＞ enclütge (cf. § 80, Dn); ✱_metĭpsĭmum_ ＞ medẹsme;
_pĕssĭmum_ ＞ pęsme; _prŏxĭmus_ ＞ prǫsmes.
1. Faim ＜ _facĭmu(s)_ doubtless lost its -e through the analogy
of the alternative form fazẹm ＜ ✱_facímu(s)_ and of the usual
endings -ám, -ẹm.
(5) In some dialects, at least, by, mby, mny, py, rny required a
supporting vowel: _rŭbeum_ ＞ rọtge, _cambio_ ＞ camie, _sŏmnium_ ＞
songe suenh, _apium_ ＞ ache api, ✱_Arvĕrnium_[35] ＞ Alvęrnhe; ratge (=
_rabiem_) is probably French. Original lm, rm, sm required a supporting
vowel in some dialects but not in others: _hëlm_ ＞ ęlme ęlm, _ŭlmum_ ＞
ọlme ọlm, _palmum_ ＞ palm; ✱_ĕrmum_ ἔρημον ＞ erm, _fĭrmum_ ＞ fẹrm,
_gĕrmen_ ＞ gęrme; _spasmum_ ＞ espasme.
(6) Many verbs regularly have an -e in the first person singular of
the present indicative: desire, dọpte, iütge, etc. By the analogy of
these, -e often appears in the first person singular of verbs which
need no supporting vowel: _remīro_ ＞ remir remire. By the analogy of
the preterit (águi, füi, etc.), -i is very often substituted for this
-e: azọr azọri, cant canti, prętz pręzi, etc.
53. Many late words preserve the final vowel as _-e_: benigne, bisbe ＜
_epĭscŏpum_, digne (cf. denhar), mixte (cf. mẹst), regne (cf. reing),
signe (cf. sẹnh). Cf. § 50; (for cǫlbe) § 48, 1; and (for cǫinde,
etc.) § 47, 1. Learned formations from nouns in _-ium_ usually end in
_-i_, simply dropping the _-um_: capitǫli, edifici, empęri, iüzízi,
martíri (martíre), negǫci, ofíci, periüri, remęzi, servízi, vici.
Similar forms in _-i_ were sometimes taken from the accusative of
nouns and adjectives in _-ius_: Boęci ＜ _Boëthium_, prǫpri (prǫpre) ＜
_prŏprium_, savi ＜ _sabium_.
1. It should be remembered that the Latin words, at the time
of their adoption, had undergone various phonetic changes
in the clerical pronunciation: cf. § 15. A form _remezi_,
for instance, presupposes a pronunciation of _remĕdium_ as
remęðiu(m).
3. CONSONANTS.
54. The Latin consonants which we have to consider are: b, c (= k), d,
f, g, h, j (= y), l, m, n, p, qu (= kw), r, s, t, v (= w), x (= ks). To
these we must add the Vulgar Latin w coming from u̯, and y coming from
e̯, i̯: see § 40, (2). Furthermore, in words borrowed from Germanic
dialects we find b, ð, h, k, þ, w, which call for special notice; and,
in words borrowed from Greek, ch, k, ph, th, z.
The Latin d, f, j, l, p, t call for no remark at present. Latin h,
in popular speech, became silent very early (_hŏc_ ＞ _ŏc_, _hŏmo_ ＞
_ŏmo_), and, although an attempt was made to restore it in polite
speech, it left no trace in the Romance languages: cf. _Rom._, XI, 399.
Double consonants were pronounced distinctly longer than single ones:
_annus_, _ĭlle_, _ŏssum_, _tĕrra_.
55. Latin b, c, g, m, n, qu, r, s, v, w, x, y show the following
developments in popular Latin speech:--
B between vowels became, through failure to close the lips tightly, β
(bilabial v), from the 1st to the 3d century of our era: _habēre_ ＞
aβẹre. The same change took place, to a certain extent, when the b was
not intervocalic, but we have few, if any, traces of it in Provençal.
Between vowels, even in learned words, the clerical pronunciation was
probably β or v until the 7th century. Cf. V.
C before a front vowel (e, i), as early as the 3d century, doubtless
had, in nearly all the Empire, a front or palatal articulation;
that is, it was formed as close as possible to the following
vowel[36]: _cĕntum_ ＞ c´ĕntu, _dūcĕre_ ＞ dūc´ĕre. The next step was
the introduction of an audible glide, a brief y, between the c´ and
the vowel[37]: c´yęntu, dục´yere. By the 5th century this c´y had
developed into a kind of ty, the c´ having been drawn still further
forward: t´yęntu dụt´yere. Through a modification of the y-glide,
the group then became, in the 6th or 7th century, tš or ts: tšęntu
tsęntu. See H. Schuchardt, _Voc._, I, 151, and _Ltblt._, XIV, 360; P.
E. Guarnerio, in _Supplementi all’ Archivio glottologico italiano_, IV
(1897), pp. 21-51 (cf. _Rom._, XXX, 617); G. Paris, in the _Journal
des savants_, 1900, 359, in the _Annuaire de l’École pratique des
Hautes-Études_, 1893, 7, in the _Comptes rendus des séances de
l’Académie des Inscriptions_, 1893, 81, and in _Rom._, XXXIII, 322;
W. Meyer-Lübke, _Einf._, pp. 123-126; F. G. Mohl, _Zs._, XXVI, 595;
P. Marchot, _Phon._, pp. 51-53; W. Meyer-Lübke, in _Bausteine zur
romanischen Philologie_, 313. Cf. G and X.[38]
G between vowels, before the accent, disappeared in some words in at
least a part of the Empire: _le(g)ālis_, _li(g)āmen_, _re(g)ālis_,
(_realis_ is attested for the 8th century); _ĕgo_, generally used as
a proclitic, everywhere lost its g; on the other hand, g was kept in
_castigāre_, _fatigāre_, _ligāre_, _negāre_, _pagānus_. G before a
front vowel (e, i), by the 1st or 2d century, was pronounced g´ (cf.
C): _gĕntem_ ＞ g´ĕnte, _fragĭlis_ ＞ frag´ĭlis. As early as the 4th
century this g´, through failure to form a close articulation, opened
into y[39]: yęnte, fráyilis. Before an accented e or i an intervocalic
y disappeared, in the greater part of the Empire, being fused with
the vowel: _magĭster_ ＞ mayįster ＞ maẹster, ✱_pagēnsis_ ＞ payẹsis ＞
paẹsis, _regīna_ ＞ reyịna ＞ reịna.[38]
M and n, when final, were weak and indistinct from the earliest times,
except in monosyllables; by the 3d or 4th century they had probably
disappeared altogether from the end of polysyllables: damnu, nọme; but
jam, non.
N before spirants (f, j, s, v), except in the prefixes _con-_ and
_in-_, became silent during the Republican period, the preceding vowel,
if it was short, being lengthened by compensation[40]: _mē(n)sis_,
_pē(n)sare_. If the syllable _con-_ or _in-_ was not recognized as a
prefix, the n fell: _co(n)sul_, _co(n)ventum_, _i(n)fas_. In learned
and newly constructed words the _n_ was pronounced. Cf. M.
Qu, gu before o or u were reduced to c, g in the 1st or 2d century: see
W.
R before s, in a number of words, became s in the Republican period:
_deōrsum_ ＞ deōssum, _dŏrsum_ ＞ dŏssum, _sūrsum_ ＞ sūssum; so, in a
part of the Empire, _pĕrsĭca_ ＞ pĕssĭca, _vĕrsus_ (preposition) ＞
vĕssus. Early in our era ss after a long vowel was reduced to s: deōsu,
sūsu.
S was probably always voiceless, or surd, in classic Latin, but became
voiced between vowels, in Gaul, at the end of the Vulgar Latin period:
_casa_. To initial s + consonant an i or e was prefixed, at first, no
doubt, after a word ending in a consonant: _in schŏla_ ＞ in iscŏla;
this process began in the 2d century and had become general by the 4th.
V, originally pronounced w, became β probably in the 1st century:
_vīvĕre_ ＞ βīβĕre. Before u, _v_ regularly disappeared, but it was
restored by analogy in many words: _flavus_ ＞ flaus, _ōvum_ ＞ ŏum,
_rīvus_ ＞ rīus; but also _ŏvum_, _rīvus_, by the analogy of _ova_,
_rivi_. In the greater part of the Empire v apparently fell also before
an accented o: _pavōnem_ ＞ paōne, _pavōrem_ ＞ paōre. Cf. W. When a
β, representing either b or v, became contiguous to a following
consonant, it changed to u: ✱_avĭca_ ＞ aβĭca ＞ auca, _gabăta_ ＞ gaβata
＞ gauta, ✱_flavĭtat_ ＞ flaβĭtat ＞ flautat. In several words rv became
rb in Latin: _vervēcem_ ＞ berbēce berbīce, _cŏrvus_ ＞ cŏrbus, _cŭrvus_
＞ cŭrbus.
W coming, in the 2d or 3d century, from u̯ (§ 40) differed from Latin
_v_, then pronounced β, but was probably identical with Germanic _w_:
_dēbuī_ ＞ dẹbwị, _placuī_ ＞ placwị, _sapuit_ ＞ sapwit, _tĕnuis_ ＞
tęnwis. W fell between a consonant and o or u: _antīquus_ ＞ antịcus,
_battuo_ ＞ batto, _carduus_ ＞ cardus, _cŏquus_ ＞ cǫcus, _distĭnguo_ ＞
distįngo, _mŏrtuus_ ＞ mǫrtus; so _eccu’hŏc_ ＞ Pr. acǫ. Cf. Qu.
X (= ks) was reduced to s, in the 2d or 3d century, before a consonant
or at the end of a word of more than one syllable: _sĕstus_, _sĕnes_;
but _sĕx_. So the prefix _ex-_ ＞ es- before any consonant but s:
✱_exgaudēre_ ＞ Pr. esiauzir, ✱_exlucēre_ ＜ Pr. esluzir, ✱_exmĭttĕre_
＞ Pr. esmẹtre; _excernĕre_ ＞ ✱_escernīre_ ＞ Pr. _eissernir_. Ex-
+ s apparently became either ex- or ess-: ✱_exsanguinātum_ ＞ Pr.
eissancnat, ✱_exsaritāre_ ＞ Pr. eissartar, ✱_exsĕquĕre_ ＞ Pr. essęgre,
✱_exsŭrgĕre_ ＞ Pr. essọrger, ✱_exsūcāre_ ＞ Pr. eissügar essügar.
Y coming, in the 2d or 3d century, from e̯ or i̯, (§ 40) coincided with
Latin _j_: _habeam_ ＞ abya, _eāmus_ ＞ yamus, _tĕneat_ ＞ tęnyat; _audio_
＞ audyo, _fīlia_ ＞ fịlya, _vĕniat_ ＞ vęnyat. As early as the 4th
century the groups dy, gy were reduced to y; and ly, ny probably became
l´, n´: _mĕdius_ ＞ mędyus ＞ męyus, _corrĭgia_ ＞ corrįgya ＞ corrẹya;
_mĕlior_ ＞ męlyor ＞ męl´or, _tĕneo_ ＞ tęnyo ＞ tęn´o.
56. Germanic b, ð, h, k, þ, w call for special mention:--
B did not participate in the change of Latin intervocalic b to β:
_roubôn_ ＞ Pr. raubar. The words containing it were evidently adopted
after this phonetic law had ceased to operate.
ð, þ were pronounced by the Latins as d, t: ✱_waiðanjan_ ＞ ✱_wadanyāre_
＞ Pr. gazanhar (It. guadagnare), _þrëscan_ ＞ ✱trescāre ＞ Pr. trescar.
H, at the beginning of a word, was lost in the greater part of the
Empire, including southern Gaul: _hapja_ ＞ ✱apya ＞ Pr. apcha. H between
vowels was lost in some words and replaced by kk in others: _spëhôn_
＞ Pr. espiar, _fëhu_ ＞ Pr. fęu, _jëhan_ ＞ ✱yekkīre ＞ Pr. gequir. Ht
was regularly replaced by tt: _slahta_ ＞ ✱sclatta ＞ Pr. esclata; but
_wahta_, perhaps borrowed at a different period, became Pr. gaita.
K, in southern Gaul, did not take the palatal pronunciation
before front vowels: _skërnon_ ＞ Pr. esquernir, _skina_ ＞ Pr.
esquina, _skiuhan_ ＞ Pr. esquivar, ✱_rîk-ĭtia_ ＞ Pr. riquẹza;
only the derivatives of _Franko_ (doubtless Latinized early) show
palatalization, as ✱_Francia_ ＞ Pr. Fransa. G, however, seems to have
been palatalized: _gîga_ ＞ Pr. giga, _geisla_ ＞ Pr. giscle. Before a,
in words introduced early, k and g were treated like Latin c and g:
_kausjan_ ＞ Pr. cauzir chauzir, _gâhi_ ＞ Pr. gai iai; see § 11, (1).
W was vigorously pronounced, and, through reinforcement of its velar
element, came to be sounded gw: _warjan_ ＞ ✱warīre gwarīre ＞ Pr. garir,
_wërra_ ＞ ✱węrra gwęrra ＞ Pr. guęrra.
57. Greek ζ, θ, κ, φ, χ did not exactly correspond to any Latin
consonants:--
Z, whatever may have been its original pronunciation, received in
Vulgar Latin the value dy, which then, like any other dy, became
y: ✱_zelōsus_ (from ζῆλος) = dyelọsus yelọsus ＞ Pr. gelọs. The
infinitive ending -ίζειν, introduced in such words as βαπτίζειν, ＞
_baptizāre_ = bapti(d)yāre, became very common in the form -įdyāre
-įyāre, and was used to make new verbs: _wërra_ + ίζειν ＞ ✱werrįdyāre
gwerrįyāre ＞ Pr. guerrẹiar.
θ, in the popular speech of Rome, was replaced by t: similarly χ was
replaced by c: σπαθή ＞ _spatha_ = spata; χορδή ＞ _chŏrda_ = cǫrda.
κ was apparently intermediate in sound between Latin c and g; it was
generally replaced by the former, but sometimes by the latter: κατά ＞
_cata_, κυβερνᾰν ＞ _gubernare_.
φ, in Greek, was in early times (perhaps until the 4th century of
our era) a strongly explosive p; it then developed into f. In words
borrowed by the Romans in the early period it was replaced by p; in
later words it was sounded f: κόλαφος ＞ _cŏlăphus_ = cǫlapus, φασίολος
＞ _phaseŏlus_ _faseŏlus_.
58. The fate of all these consonants in Provençal depended largely on
their position in the word: we must therefore distinguish _initial_,
_medial_, and _final_ consonants. In a general way, the first tended
to remain unchanged, the second to weaken, the third to disappear.
Furthermore we must separate single consonants from consonant groups:
the latter resisted change better than the former; but a group
consisting of dissimilar elements tended to assimilate them.
INITIAL CONSONANTS.
59. A consonant preceded by a prefix was treated as an initial
consonant as long as the character of this preceding syllable was
recognized: _de-cadĕre_ ＞ decazẹr, _de-pĭngĕre_ ＞ depẹnher,
_præ-parāre_ ＞ preparar, _re-cordāre_ ＞ recordar, _re-patriāre_ ＞
repairar, _re-pausāre_ ＞ repausar, _se-dūcĕre_ ＞ sedüire. If, however,
the initial syllable ceased to be recognized as a prefix, the following
consonant was treated as a medial consonant: _præpŏsĭtum_ ＞ prebǫst,
_retŏrta_ ＞ redǫrta; so, perhaps, _profŭndum_ ＞ preọn. The rare
rebọnre (beside repọnre) ＜ _re-pōnĕre_ has the special sense ‘to
bury’.
SINGLE INITIAL CONSONANTS.
60. B, d, l, m, n, p, r, s, t underwent no change: ben, dọn, lǫc, mẹ,
nau, pauc, rius, si, tü.
1. For _cremetar_ ＜ ✱_tremitāre_, see Meyer-Lübke, _Einf._, §
194. For _granolha_ ＜ ✱_ranŭcŭla_, see Körting, _ranuculus_.
61. C, c´, f, g, g´, β, y suffered some change. C, g must be
distinguished from c´, g´: § 55, C, G.
C, g before o, u remained unchanged: _colōrem_ ＞ colọr, _cūra_ ＞ cüra;
_gŭla_ ＞ gọla, _gŭtta_ ＞ gọta. Before a they changed only in the
north and northeast, where they became (perhaps from the 7th to the 9th
century) respectively tš and dž: _campus_ ＞ camps champs; _gaudēre_ ＞
gauzir iauzir.
C´ ＞ ts, which just before and during the literary period was reduced
to s: cælum ＞ cęl sęl, _cīvitātem_ ＞ ciutat ciptat siptat. For g´, see
Y.
Y, comprising Latin dy, g´, gy, j, and z, became dž (except in Béarn,
where it remained y): _diurnālem_ ＞ iornal (yornal), _deō(r)sum_ ＞
iọs; _gĕlus_ ＞ gęls, _gentīlem_ ＞ gentil (yentil), _gȳrāre_ ＞ girar;
_jam_ ＞ ia, _jŏcum_ ＞ iǫc (yǫc), _jŭvĕnem_ ＞ iọve; ✱_zelōsus_ ＞ gelọs.
F remained unchanged, except in Béarn and a part of Gascony, where it
became h: _famem_ ＞ fam ham, _fĭdem_ ＞ fẹ hẹ, _fŏcum_ ＞ fǫc hüc,
_fŏlia_ ＞ fuelha huelha.
β ＞ v (the dentilabial spirant), except in Béarn, Gascony, and parts of
Languedoc, where it became b: _vĕnit_ ＞ ven be, _vĕntum_ ＞ vent bent,
_vĕrsus_ (§ 55, R) ＞ vęs bęs, _vōs_ ＞ vọs bọs.
1. In a few words β, owing to Germanic influence, was replaced
by w ＞ gw: _vadum_ + _watan_ ＞ _gua_, _vastare_ + _wôst_ ＞
_guastar_. So _vagīna_ ＞ _guaína_, _Vascŏnia_ ＞ _Gasconha_. Cf.
gw below.
INITIAL GROUPS.
62. There are three classes of groups: those ending in l or r, those
ending in w, and those beginning with s:--
(1) Bl, br, cl, cr, dr, gl, gr, pl, pr, tr underwent no change:
_blasphemāre_ ＞ blasmar, _brĕvem_ ＞ bręu, _clarus_ ＞ clars, _crŭcem_ ＞
crọtz, _drappus_ ＞ draps, _glaciem_ ＞ glatz, _gradum_ ＞ gra, _plēnum_
＞ plẹn, _precāre_ ＞ pregar, _trans_ ＞ tras. Gras is from _grassus_, a
fusion of _crassus_ and _grossus_. For grǫcs ＜ κρόκος see § 57, κ.
(2) Gw (Germanic w) and kw (Latin qu) were reduced, perhaps in the 10th
century, to g and k, except in the west, where the w was retained:
_wahta_ ＞ gaita guaita, _warjan_ ＞ garir guarir, _wërra_ ＞ gęrra
guęrra, _wīsa_ ＞ gisa guisa; _quando_ ＞ can quan, _quare_ ＞ car quar.
It should be noted that the _u_ was commonly kept in the spelling
(especially before e and i) after it had ceased to be pronounced, _gu_
and _qu_ being regarded merely as symbols for “hard” g and c. For cinc
＜ _quīnque_, see § 87, kw. Sw remained in _suavem_ ＞ suau.
(3) To groups beginning with s a vowel had been prefixed in Vulgar
Latin (§ 55, S); this vowel appears in Provençal as e. Sc´ apparently
did not occur in any popular word; sl early became scl; the other
groups (sc, scl, scr, sp, st, str) remained unchanged, except that in
the north and northeast sc ＞ stš before a: _scala_ ＞ escala eschala,
_schŏa_ ＞ escǫla, _slahta_ ＞ ✱_sclatta_ ＞ esclata, _scrībĕre_ ＞
escriure, _spīna_ ＞ espina, _stare_ ＞ estar, _strĭngĕre_ ＞ estrẹnher.
MEDIAL CONSONANTS.
63. (1) It is well to note at the outset that when, through the fall
of an unaccented vowel (§ 51), an early Provençal b, d, dz, dž, g, z,
or ž was made final or contiguous to a final s, it became voiceless:
_ŏpus_ ＞ ǫbus ＞ ǫbs ǫps, _ŏrbum_ ＞ ǫrbu ＞ ǫrb ǫrp: _datum_ ＞ dadu ＞ dad
dat, _vĭrĭdem_ _vĭrdem_ ＞ vẹrde ＞ vẹrd vẹrt; _prĕtium_ ＞ prędzu ＞
prędz pręts (written _pretz_), _vōcem_ ＞ vọdze ＞ vọdz vọts (written
_votz_); _mĕdium_ ＞ męyu mędžu ＞ mędž mętš (written _meg_ or _mech_);
_amīcus_ ＞ amigus ＞ amigs amics, _largum_ ＞ largu ＞ larg larc; _rīsum_
＞ rizu ＞ riz ris; _basium_ ＞ bažu ＞ baiž baiš (bais). The combination
tšs, however, loses either its second or its third element: ✱_gaudios_
＞ gautšs ＞ gautš or gauts (both of them often written _gaugz_); so
_nŏctes_ ＞ nuetšs ＞ nuetš or nuets (_nuegz_). For local variations of
g, see (6). For _apud_ ＞ _ab_ _ap_ _am_ _an_, see § 65, P. 2.
(2) Under the same conditions, y became i: _vĭdeo_ ＞ vẹyo ＞ vẹy vẹi,
_pĕjus_ ＞ pęyus ＞ pęys pięis.
(3) Under the same conditions, ð, coming from intervocalic d, fell
when final, but became t before s: _audit_ ＞ auði ＞ auð au; _crūdus_
＞ cruðus ＞ cruds crüts. So _crūdum_ ＞ crü, _fĭdem_ ＞ fẹ, _fraudem_
＞ frau, _gradum_ ＞ gra, _nīdum_ ＞ ni, _nōdum_ ＞ nọ, _pĕdem_ ＞ pę,
_sapidum_ ＞ sabe, _tĕpidum_ ＞ tębe; _grados_ ＞ grats, _nōdus_ ＞ nọts,
_nūdus_ ＞ nüts, _pĕdes_ ＞ pęts. The two sets of forms influenced each
other: hence _degras_, _fes_,[41] _nis_, _pes_, etc.; _crut_, _grat_,
_not_, _nut_,[41] etc.
(4) Under the same conditions, β, coming from v or from intervocalic b,
became u if preceded by a vowel, but fell if preceded by a consonant:
_bĭbit_ ＞ bẹβi ＞ bẹβ bẹu, _vīvit_ ＞ βịβi ＞ βịβ vịu, _claves_ ＞
claβes ＞ claβs claus, _vīvus_ ＞ βīβus ＞ βịβs vịus; _salvet_ ＞ sal,
_salvum_ ＞ sal, _sĕrvit_ ＞ siẹr, _nĕrvos_ ＞ nęrs, _salvus_ ＞ sals,
_sĕrvus_ ＞ sęrs. Sometimes, however, final β preceded by a consonant,
instead of falling, became f: _salvet_ ＞ salf, _salvum_ ＞ salf,
_sĕrvit_ ＞ sięrf, _vŏlvit_ ＞ vǫlf; it may be that these are the only
regular forms for cons. + β _when final_, and that _sal_, _sier_ are
due to the analogy of _sals_, _siers_.
(5) Under the same conditions, final n, if preceded by a vowel, was
kept in the extreme west, parts of the north, and all the southeast and
east, but fell everywhere else; n before s was generally kept only in
the southeast and east: _bĕne_ ＞ be ben, _canem_ ＞ ca can, _sŏnum_ ＞ so
son[42]; _bŏnus_ ＞ bos bons, _mansiōnes_ ＞ maisọs maisọns. In _mĭnus_
＞ mẹns the n was kept, perhaps through the analogy of menọr. If the
n was preceded by a consonant (r), the fall seems to have been even
commoner: _cŏrnu_ ＞ cǫr cǫrn, _tŏrno_ ＞ tọr tọrn; _diŭrnus_ ＞ iọrs
iọrns. For iọrnh ＜ _diŭrnī_, see § 51, 1. Provençal n coming from nn
never falls: _annus_ ＞ ans.
(6) Under the same conditions, g, representing original c or g, became
c after o or u, and after other vowels either became c or was changed
to i (which fused with a preceding i): _fŏcum_ ＞ fǫc, _lŏcus_ ＞ lǫcs,
_paucum_ ＞ pauc, _Hūgo_ ＞ Uc; _Aureliācum_ ＞ Aurelhac, _dīco_ ＞ dic di,
_Henrīcum_ ＞ Enric Enri, ✱_trago_ ＞ trac trai. The forms with c are the
commoner; they have been most persistent in the west.
(7) The vocalization of l before s (_malus_ ＞ maus) is a different
phenomenon from the foregoing. See § 65, L.
(8) An m or an n that becomes contiguous to final s often develops into
mp or nt, but oftener (judging from the spellings) does not: _nĭmis_ ＞
_nems_ _nemps_; _annos_ ＞ _ans_ _anz_.
(9) Between a liquid or a nasal and a final s, a b or a p generally
fell, unless supported by the analogy of a form in which the b or p was
final: _ambos_ ＞ _ams_ _ambs_, _cŏrpus_ ＞ _cors_, _tĕmpus_ ＞ _tems_
_temps_; cf. _balbs_ (_balb_), _orbs_ (_orb_).
1. The d, n, t of the proclitics _ad_, _quid_, _in_, _aut_,
_et_ will be treated under Final Consonants.
64. Final ts from any source, in Provence, Limousin, and a part of
Languedoc and Gascony, was reduced, during the literary period, to s:
_amātis_ ＞ amatz amas, _habētis_ ＞ avętz avęs, _dīcit_ ＞ ditz dis,
_grandes_ ＞ granz grans, _latus_ ＞ latz las, _prĕtium_ ＞ prętz pręs.
On the other hand, in a part of Limousin (especially in Limoges), and
also in Dauphiné, -ts, in the second person plural of verbs, became t:
habētis ＞ avęt.
SINGLE MEDIAL CONSONANTS.
65. The single medial consonants will now be considered separately, in
alphabetical order:--
β, coming from b or v, became v; except in the west and a part of the
centre, where, if it remained intervocalic, it changed to b: _habētis_
＞ avętz abętz, _debēre_ ＞ devẹr debẹr, _faba_ ＞ fava faba; _avārum_
＞ avar, _æstīva_ ＞ estiva, _brĕvem_ ＞ bręu,[43] _clavem_ ＞ clau, _dīe
Jŏvis_ ＞ diiǫus, _lĕvat_ ＞ lęva, _novĕlla_ ＞ novęla nabęra (Gascon),
_vīvus_ ＞ vius. When the preceding or following vowel was o or u, a β
before the accent fell in most dialects, being fused with the vowel:
_abŭndare_ ＞ aondar abondar, _gŭbĕrnare_ ＞ goernar governar, proclitic
_ŭbĭ_ ＞ ọ, _prŏbare_ ＞ proar, _sŭbĭnde_ ＞ soẹn sovẹn sobẹn,
_trĭbūtum_ ＞ treüt; _Lŭdovīcus_ ＞ Lozoics, _Provĭncia_ ＞ Proẹnsa
Provẹnsa, _novĕllum_ ＞ noęl novęl, _novĕmbrem_ ＞ noembre novembre,
_pavōnem_ ＞ paọn, _pavōrem_ ＞ paọr (cf. § 55, V).
1. The perfect endings _-avi_ etc., _-ivi_ etc. had lost their
v in Latin. For avia, etc., see § 87, β.
2. _Abans_, beside _avanz_, _avan_ ＜ _ab_ _ante_, apparently
shows the influence of Pr. _ab_ = _apud_. _Abet_ ＜ _abiĕtem_
(§ 40, 1) is unexplained: cf. Italian _abete_. _Abora_ is a
Provençal compound of _ab_ and _ora_. _Trap_, beside _trau_ ＜
_trabem_, is doubtless from the nominative _traps_ ＜ _trabs_,
which seems to have been differentiated in meaning from the V.
L. nominative _trabis_.
3. _Brey_, _grey_, _ney_, beside _breu_ ＜ _brĕvem,_ _greu_
＜ ✱_grĕvem_, _neu_ ＜ _nĭvem_ (cf. § 25, 1, e), have been
subjected to the attraction of _grey_ ＜ _grĕgem_, _ley_ ＜
_lēgem_. _Greug_ is a post-verbal noun from _greuiar_ ＜
✱_grĕviare_.
4. _Natiz_ = _natius_ ＜ _natīvus_ seems to have been influenced
by _mestis_ ＜ _mixtīcius_. _Massis_ is from ✱_massīcius_.
5. _Paziment_ = _pavamen_ owes its z perhaps to the analogy of
_aizimen_.
6. In purely learned words, _b_ and _v_ were written as in
Latin: _diabol_, _diluvi_.
C, from the 4th to the 6th century, was voiced to g, and then developed
like any other g. See G.
1. After au, apparently, c did not change: ✱_auca_ (＜ ✱_avĭca_
＜ _avis_) ＞ _auca_, _pauca_ ＞ _pauca_, _rauca_ ＞ _rauca_,
✱_traucare_ (? ＜ ✱_trabucare_) ＞ traucar. Cf. § 65, P, 3.
2. In purely learned words, c remained unchanged: _vocal_.
_Alucar_ _aluchar_, _aluc_ seem to be learned formations
patterned after _antelucānus_ and Low Latin _lucānus_.
C´, when it became contiguous to a consonant, through the fall of the
unaccented vowel of the penult, was reduced to i: _cŏcĕre_ ＞ cǫire,
_dīcĕre_ ＞ diire dire, _dīcĭtis_ ＞ ditz, _facĕre_ ＞ faire, _facĭmu(s)_
＞ faim, _facĭtis_ ＞ faitz, _fēcĕram_ ＞ fẹira, _fēcĕrunt_ ＞ fẹiron,
_gracĭlem_ ＞ graile. When it remained intervocalic, it was assibilated
during the transition period (§ 55, C); in most of the Provençal
territory it became dz, which during the literary period was simplified
to z; but in some dialects of the south and the northwest it resulted
in idz (later iz), an i-glide having developed before the consonant
while it was still palatal: _aucĕllum_ ＞ auzęl, _jacēre_ ＞ iazẹr,
_lĭcēre_ ＞ lezẹr, _lūcēre_ ＞ lüzẹr lüzir lüisir, _placēre_ ＞ plazẹr
plaizẹr; _crŭcem_ ＞ crọz crọiz crọis (see §§ 63, 64), _dīcere_ ＞
dízer, _dīcit_ ＞ ditz dis, _dūcit_ ＞ dütz düs, _facit_ ＞ fatz fas,
_jacet_ ＞ iatz ias iays, _pacem_ ＞ patz pas pais, _placet_ ＞ platz plas
plais, _verācem_? ＞ verais, _vōcem_ ＞ vọtz vọiz.
1. _Aucel_, beside _auzel_, perhaps belongs to a dialect in
which c´ was not voiced after au: cf. C, 1. See § 80, Bc´.
2. _Iasser_, beside _iazer_, seems to be due to _ias_ ＜ _jacet_
and _iassa_ ＜ _jaceat_.
3. For _desma_ _deima_, see S, 1.
4. In purely learned words, c´ ＞ ts: _acĭdum_ ＞ aci.
D, in a part of the west, remained unchanged; elsewhere, during the
Vulgar Latin period, it opened into ð, which fell in the 11th century
and earlier in parts of the north and east, and in the rest of the
Provençal territory became z as early as the first part of the 12th
century: _audīre_ ＞ auzir auir audir,[44] _audit_ ＞ au,[45] _cadit_ ＞
ca, _crudēlem_ ＞ cruzęl cruęl crudęl, _fīdat_ ＞ fia, ✱_gaudo_ ＞ gau,
_hŏrrĭda_ ＞ ǫreza, _hŏrrĭdum_ ＞ ǫre, _laudo_ ＞ lau, _alauda_ ＞ lauzẹta
laudẹta, _rīdat_ ＞ ria, _tradĕre_ ＞ trazir trair tradir, _vidēre_
＞ vezẹr vẹr vedẹr, _vĭdet_ ＞ vẹ. When ð became contiguous to a
following consonant (except final s), it changed to i: _divīdĕre_ ＞
divire,[46] _traditōrem_ ＞ traidọr (which, influenced by _traïr_, was
pronounced traïdọr).[47]
1. _Crey_, beside _cre_ ＜ _crēdo_, follows _dei_ ＜ _dēbeo_,
_vei_ ＜ _vĭdeo_. _Mercey_, beside _merce_ ＜ _mercēdem_, shows
the influence of _grey_ ＜ _grĕgem_, _lei_ ＜ _lēgem_, and
perhaps French _fei_ ＜ _fĭdem_. Cf. β, (3).
2. _Grau_ = _gra_ ＜ _gradum_, _niu_ = _ni_ ＜ _nīdum_ belong to
the Catalan dialect, in which ð fell before the 8th century:
_gradum_ ＞ _graðu_ ＞ _gra-u_ ＞ _grau_, the u being preserved
through combining into a diphthong with the a.
3. In purely learned words, d remained: _odi_ ＜ _ŏdium_.
F is very rare (cf. § 59). The few examples appear to show that f
(presumably in the 6th century or earlier) became β, and then developed
like any other β (see β): _Stĕphănum_ ＞ Estęve, _co(n)fortāre_? ＞
✱coβortar ＞ ✱coortar ＞ conortar (through the common use of the double
forms, _con-_, _co-_), _gryphum_ ＞ griu, _raphănum_ ＞ rave rafe,
✱_refusāre_ ＞ rehusar refusar, ✱_prefŭndum_ (= _pro-_) ＞ preọn.
Nevertheless, cofịn ＜ _cŏphĭnum_, defǫrs ＜ _de fŏris_, grifọ, profięg
＜ _profĕctum_, rafe, would seem to indicate that in some words,
possibly less popular at the outset, f was retained.
1. In purely learned words, f was kept: _antifona_, _Caifas_,
_philozophia_.
G, representing original c and g, had a varied development.[48] For the
fall of g in some words in Vulgar Latin, see § 55, G.
(1) Before a, g remained in the greater part of the territory, but in
the north and east it early became y; and this y was generally retained
in the eastern dialects (often fusing with a preceding i), while in
most of the northern it developed into dž (cf. Y): _amīca_ ＞ amiga
amiia amia, _dīcam_ ＞ diga dia, _mīca_ ＞ miga miia mia,[49] _pacāre_ ＞
pagar paiar, _precāre_ ＞ pregar preiar; _castigāre_ ＞ castigar castiar,
_legālem_ ＞ leial leyal lial, _ligāmen_ ＞ liam, _lĭgātum_ ＞ legat liat,
_plaga_ ＞ plaga plaia, _regālem_ ＞ reial, _rūga_ ＞ rüa.[50]
(2) Before o and u (ü), g was preserved, except in a few words which
(doubtless in Vulgar Latin times) lost it either in all or in many
dialects: _acūtum_ ＞ agüt, _secŭndum_ ＞ segọn, _secūrus_ ＞ segürs;
✱_a(u)gūrium_ ＞ agür aür, _a(u)gŭstum_ ＞ agọst[51] ahọst, proclitic
_ĕgo_ ＞ ęu, ✱_fagŏttum_ ＞ fagǫt, _figūra_ ＞ figüra, _Hugōnem_ ＞ Ugọ.
For a g that becomes final or contiguous to final s, see § 63, (6):
_amīcus_ ＞ amics amis, _Auriācum_ ＞ Auriac, _cŏcum_ (= _cŏquum_) ＞ cǫc,
_jŏcus_ ＞ iǫcs, _Ludovīcum_ ＞ Lozoic Lozoi, _prĕco_ ＞ pręc; _castīgo_ ＞
chastic chasti.
(3) Between the last two vowels of a proparoxytone, g, early in the
Provençal period, became y, which developed into dž before the literary
epoch; cf. § 49, (4): _clĕrĭcum_ ＞ clęrge, ✱_coratĭcum_ ＞ coratge,
_domĭnĭcum_ ＞ dimẹnge, _manĭca_ ＞ mania, _mĕdĭcum_ ＞ męge, _mŏnăchum_
＞ monge, ✱_paratĭcum_ ＞ paratge, _viatĭcum_ ＞ viatie. In some dialects,
however, the vowel of the penult, after liquids and nasals, fell too
early for the g to become y: clęrgue,[52] esta(t)ga, mętgue, mongue.
1. _Amiu_, _chastiu_ belong to the dialect of Forez; so perhaps
_fau_ ＜ _fagum_, _preu_ ＜ _prĕco_. These forms indicate a very
early fall of the g in the dialect to which they belong. Cf. §
51, 3.
2. In purely learned words, Latin g remains unchanged:
_paganōrum_ ＞ _paganor_.
G´ became y during the Vulgar Latin period (§ 55, G). See Y.
1. In purely learned words the letter _g_ was retained, but it
was doubtless pronounced dž: _astrologia_.
L remained: _colōrem_ ＞ colọr, _male_ ＞ mal, ✱_volēre_ (= _velle_) ＞
volẹr. Before final s, l became u in most dialects, in some as early
as the 10th century: _malos_ ＞ maus, _talis_ ＞ taus; _l_ was written,
however, long after l had been vocalized. Under the influence of forms
in which -ls ＞ -us, final l became u in the southwest and in some
other regions: _Aprīlem_ ＞ abriu. Cf. § 74, (2). Au ＜ -al is common in
William of Poitiers.
1. For Gascon l ＞ r, see § 10.
2. _Orifan_, beside _olifan_ ＜ _elephantem_, is probably French.
L´ will be considered, as ly, under Groups, § 73, Ly.
M remained: _amāre_ ＞ amar, _hŏmo_ ＞ om, _timōrem_ ＞ temọr.
1. Occasionally _-am_ rhymes with _-an_ (_afan_: _fam_,
_portam_: _avan_); this seems to show an indistinct
pronunciation of the final nasal in some dialects. Cf. _aven_ =
_avem_ ＜ _habēmu(s)_ in the _Nobla Leyczon_. Cf. § 167, 2.
N remained: _bŏnas_ ＞ bonas, _donāre_ ＞ donar, _lūna_ ＞ lüna. For n
final or contiguous to final s, see § 63, (5): _fīnis_ ＞ fis fins,
_panem_ ＞ pa pan.
1. In _canorgue_, _dimergue_, _morgue_, etc., beside _canonge_,
_dimenge_, _monge_, etc., the r may be explained partly by
dissimilation, partly by the analogy of _clergue_ and of words
with double forms (§ 87).
2. _Menhs_ _meins_, beside regular _mens_ ＜ _mĭnus_, show the
influence of the alternative forms _genhs_ _geins_ and _gens_
from _ingĕnium_ (see § 73, Ny).
3. _Iassey_ (= _iasse_, the latter part of which may be
from _exín_ = _exĭnde_), _tey_ (= _te_ ＜ _tĕnet_), used by
Marcabru, are doubtless due either to a mistaken imitation of
conventional borderland forms (see § 25, 3) or to the analogy
of _crei_ = _cre_ ＜ _crēdo_ (_crei_ itself being due to the
analogy of _dei_ ＜ _dēbeo_, _vei_ ＜ _vĭdeo_).
N´ will be considered, as ny, under Groups, § 73, Ny.
P, from the 4th to the 6th century, was voiced to b: _capĭllum_ ＞
cabẹl, _rīpa_ ＞ riba, ✱_sapēre_ (= _sapĕre_) ＞ sabẹr, _trepalium_ ＞
trebalh; _capit_ ＞ cap (§ 63), _sapis_ ＞ saps.
1. In some borderland dialects p ＞ v, as in French: _saver_.
_Evescat_, _evesque_, beside _bisbat_, _bisbe_, are French.
2. _Apud_, used as a proclitic, became for some reason in
Vulgar Latin ✱_apu_, which developed regularly into ✱_abu_
and, after the fall of intertonic vowels, _ab_. This _ab_
assimilated its b more or less to a following consonant,
becoming _ap_ before voiceless consonants, _am_ before nasals;
_am_, used before dentals, became _an_: hence we have four
forms, _ab_, _ap_, _am_, _an_. _Amb_ perhaps developed first
from _am_ before l, as in _am l’autre_; when used before a
consonant with which mb did not readily combine, it expanded
into _ambe_. See Elise Richter, _Zs._, XXVI, 532; J. Huber,
_Zs._, XXX, 583.
3. In some dialects, apparently, p was not voiced after au:
_sapuĕrunt_ ✱_sapwĕrunt_ ✱_saupĕrunt_ ＞ _saubron_ _saupron_.
Cf. § 65, C, 1.
4. In purely learned words, p remains: _epifania_.
R remained: _amāra_ ＞ amara, _durāre_ ＞ dürar, _ĕrat_ ＞ ęra. Final
rs was reduced to s, in most dialects, during and after the literary
period: _priōres_ ＞ priọrs priọs (_Girart_); the reduction apparently
began in Limousin as early as the 12th century (Bertran de Born rhymes
iọs and flọrs).
1. Final r began to fall in many dialects in the 14th century.
At present it has disappeared all through the south and west:
_amōrem_ ＞ _amou_, _flōrem_ ＞ _flou_.
2. In some dialects (especially those of Gard and Hérault)
intervocalic r and z were confused, probably during the
literary period: _gyrāre_ ＞ _girar_ _gisar_; conversely
_audīre_ ＞ _auzir_ _aurir_. Cf. _Revue des langues romanes_,
XL, 49, 121.
S was voiced to z, probably from the 4th to the 6th century: _pausa_ ＞
pausa, _presĕntem_ ＞ presen; _rīsum_ ＞ ris (§ 63).
1. An s that became contiguous to n was changed, in a few
dialects, to r: _almosna_ _almorna_, _disnar_ _dirnar_.
In modern Limousin and some of the dialects of Dauphiné,
Languedoc, and Gascony, s has disappeared before nasals: _asne_
_ane_, _caresma_ _carema_, _disnar_ _dinar_ (so _blasmar_
_blamar_, _desma_ _dema_); the fall began during the literary
period. S before a consonant in many of the modern dialects,
and final s in some, has become i: _asne_ _aine_, _caresma_
_careima_ (so perhaps _desma_ _deima_, _pruesme_ _prueime_);
some traces of this change occur in texts of the literary
period. Cf. _Zs._, XXIII, 413. _Isla_, in Limousin, became
_ilha_ (perhaps through _iyla_): cf. _Zs._, XXIII, 414. Cf. §
78.
2. In some southeastern dialects intervocalic z after au has
changed to v: _causa_ _cauva_ (so _auzir_ _auvir_); possibly
the _auvent_ of the _Boeci_, v. 23, is to be connected with
this.
T, from the 4th to the 6th century, was voiced to d: _amāta_ ＞ amada,
_natālis_ ＞ nadals, _servitōrem_ ＞ servidọr; _habētis_ ＞ avętz avęs
avęt (§§ 63, 64), _latus_ ＞ latz las, _natum_ ＞ nat. For a t which
became contiguous to r (_amātor_ ＞ amaire), see § 52, (1), and § 70,
Tr.
1. In some dialects of the south and southeast, final t
fell shortly after the literary period: _amātum_ ＞ _amat_
_ama_.--_Appoestat_ is French.
2. _Tōtus_, in Gaul, became _tōttus_ as early as the 4th
century: hence Pr. _tota_ _totas_. For _meteis_ ＜ _met-ĭpse_
see § 131, (2).
3. _Espaza_ (beside _espada_) ＜ _spatha_, was perhaps
influenced in its pronunciation by the spelling of the Latin
word.[53] _Ez_, coming from _et_ before a vowel, shows the
influence of _az_ (＜ _ad_ + vowel) and _quez_ (＜ _quĭd_
+ vowel). _Grazal_, ‘grail’, is perhaps a cross between
✱_cratella_ ＜ _crater_ and _gradale_, ‘service-book’; so
_grazalet_. _Grazir_ _grazire_ (cf. _agradar_) is perhaps
altered from an earlier ✱_grazar_ ＜ ✱_gratiare_. _Mezeis_
＜ _met-ĭpse_, _mezesmes_, _meesmes_ (beside _medesmes_) ＜
✱_met-ĭpsĭmus_ have been subjected to the analogy of _ez_ ＜
_et_ and _quez_ ＜ _quĭd_ or of _ĭd ĭpsum_: § 131, (2).
4. In some dialects _tī_ became a sound written _h_: _peccatī_
＞ _peccah_. See § 51, 1.
5. In purely learned words, t remains: _eternal_.
W will be considered, as gw, under Groups, § 72, βw.
X is a symbol for ks: see Groups, § 79, Ks.
Y, representing Latin dy, g´, gy, j, and z (cf. § 55, G, Y; § 57, Z)
had a varied development.
(1) When it became contiguous to a following consonant (§§ 45, 49) it
changed to i: _adjutāre_ ＞ _ayudāre_ ＞ ay’dar ＞ aidar, _medietātem_
＞ meitat; _cōgitāre_ ＞ cüidar, _frīgĕre_ ＞ frire, _lĕgĕre_ ＞ lęyre,
_propagĭnem_ ＞ probaina, _rĭgĭda_ ＞ rẹida, ✱_tragĕre_ ＞ traire;
_bajŭlus_ ＞ bailes.
(2) When it remained intervocalic, it became dž in most of the
territory, but in the northeast and parts of the north it was not
changed:[54] _audiam_ ＞ auia, _in-ŏdiare_ ＞ enoiar, _invĭdia_ ＞
envẹia, _invĭdiōsus_ ＞ enveiọs enveyọs, ✱_gladia_ ＞ glaya,
_mediānum_ ＞ meian, ✱_pŏdiāre_ ＞ poiar, _radiāre_ ＞ raiar, _sordĭdior_
＞ sordẹier, _vĭdeat_ ＞ vẹia; _fragĭlem_ ＞ fragel; ✱_exagiāre_ ＞
assatiar essaiar essayar, _corrĭgia_ ＞ corrẹia corrẹya, _fagea_ ＞
faia faya, _regiōnem_ ＞ reiọ; _dīe Jŏvís_ ＞ diiǫus, _major_ ＞ maier,
_pĕjor_ ＞ pięier, _pejōrem_ ＞ peiọr, _trŏja_ ＞ trǫia; _baptizāre_ ＞
bateiar. For a dž or a y that became final or contiguous to final s,
see § 63, (1), (2): _audio_ ＞ auch, _in ŏdio_ ＞ enuęg (plural enuętz
enuęg) enǫi, _gaudium_ ＞ gauch, _gladium_ ＞ glai, _mĕdium_ ＞ męg męi,
_hŏdie_ ＞ ǫi, _pŏdium_ ＞ puęg pǫi, _radium_ ＞ rai; _fŭgit_ ＞ füg füi,
_grĕgem_ ＞ gręy, _lēgem_ ＞ lẹg (pl. lẹitz) lẹi, _lĕgit_ ＞ lięg,
_magis_ mais,[55] _rēgem_ ＞ rẹi, _exagium_ ＞ essai; _pĕjus_ ＞ pięis.
(3) Before accented e or i, y disappeared (doubtless in Vulgar Latin: §
55, G), except in some western dialects, where it became dž: _vagīna_
＞ guaīna, ✱_legīre_ (= _lĕgĕre_) ＞ legir,[56] _magĭster_ ＞ maẹstre
maiẹstre magẹstre, ✱_pagē(n)sis_ ＞ paẹs pagẹs, _regīna_ ＞ reïna,
_sagĭtta_ ＞ saẹta saiẹta sagẹta.
1. _Detz_ _ditz_ ＞ _dĭgĭtus_ are irregular and unexplained. The
word is irregular in some other Romance languages, notably in
Italian. Cf. Gröber’s _Grundriss_, I, p. 507.
2. _Glavi_, beside _glai_ (and learned _glazi_) ＜ _gladium_, is
supposed by some to show the influence of Celtic _cládibo_. Cf.
Körting; also H. Schuchardt, _Zs._, XXV, 345.
3. _Messér_ seems to be a contraction (due to proclitic
use) of ✱_messeyer_ = _mes_, ‘my’, + ✱_seyer_? ＜ ✱_sĕyor_ =
_sĕnior_ (cf. A. Lindström, _L’analogie dans la déclinaison des
substantifs latins en Gaule_, 1897-8, pp. 292-3).
4. In purely learned words, _di_, _g_, _gi_, _z_ are retained,
the _g_ being pronounced presumably as dž, the _z_ as z: _odi_,
_fragil_, _regio_, _canonizar_.
MEDIAL GROUPS.
66. Medial groups may be conveniently classified as follows:--A.
_Double Consonants_ (1); B. _Groups of Dissimilar Consonants_: groups
ending in l (2), groups ending in r (3), groups ending in w (4), groups
ending in y (5), groups beginning with l, m, n, r, or s and not
ending in l, r, w, or y (6), all other groups (7). This order will be
followed.[57]
1. It should be noted that the prefixes _ad-_, _sub-_
regularly assimilate their d or b to the following consonant:
✱_ad-rīpāre_ ＞ _arribar_, _sub-venīre_ ＞ _sovenir_. _Sosrire_,
_sosterrar_, _sostraire_ show a substitution of prefix, due, no
doubt, to the analogy of _sospirar_, _sostener_.
1. DOUBLE CONSONANTS.
67. In general, the double consonants became single, in the 9th or 10th
century (perhaps earlier before the accent), but underwent no other
change save those described in §§ 63, 64: _abbātem_ ＞ abat, _sĭccum_
＞ sẹc, _rĕddo_ ＞ ręt, _affībulāre_ ＞ afiblar, _aggregāre_ ＞ agregar,
_flamma_ ＞ flama, _pĭnna_ ＞ pẹna, _cappa_ ＞ capa, _passum_ ＞ pas,[58]
_mŭttum_ ＞ mọt, _advenīre_ ✱_avvenīre_ ＞ avenir.
(1) Cc before a, in the east and northeast, became tš; elsewhere, c;
_bŭcca_ ＞ bọca bọcha, _vacca_ ＞ vaca vacha.
(2) Ll, in some southern dialects, became l´; elsewhere, l: _capĭllum_
＞ cabẹl cabẹlh, _grȳllum_ ＞ gril grilh, _mantĕllum_ ＞ mantęl
mantęlh, _villānus_ ＞ vilas vilhas. It is possible, however, that -llī
regularly became l´ in Limousin, while ll before other vowels was not
palatalized: _caballum_ ＞ caval, _caballī_ ＞ cavalh; _ĭllī_ ＞ ilh,
_ĭllōs_ ＞ ẹls; this would account in part for the frequent occurrence
of _lh_ in the poems. So in some dialects -nnī ＞ n´: _annī_ ＞ anh. Cf.
§ 51, 1. For final ls and l, see § 65, L: _ĭllos_ ＞ ẹls ẹus, _vallem_
＞ val vau. For Gascon l ＞ r, see § 10: _appĕllat_ ＞ apęla apęra.
(3) Rr, when intervocalic, seems generally to have been distinguished
from r during the literary period and later: _cŭrrĕre_ ＞ cọrre,
✱_corrŭptiāre_ ＞ corrossar, _errāre_ ＞ errar, _tĕrra_ ＞ tęrra.
Occasionally, however, rr is found in rhyme with r.
2. GROUPS ENDING IN L.
68. The groups of two consonants will be treated in alphabetical order.
It will be seen that bl, rl, sl remained unchanged; ml developed a
glide consonant between its two members; pl, tl, βl and yl respectively
voiced, assimilated, and vocalized their first element; while cl, gl
were fused into l´. For an explanation of this last phenomenon, see §
79.
Bl ＞ bl: _nĕbŭla_ ＞ nębla, ✱_oblītāre_ ＞ oblidar, _sabulōnem_ ＞
sablọn.[59]
βl ＞ ul: _fabŭla_ ✱_faβla_ ＞ faula, _sibilāre_ ✱_siβlāre_ ＞ siular,
_tabŭla_ ✱_taβla_ ＞ taula.
Cl ＞ l´: _genŭcŭlum_ ＞ genọlh, _ŏcŭlum_ ＞ ǫlh, _sĭtŭla_ ✱_sĭcla_[60] ＞
sẹlha, _vĕtŭla_ _vĕcla_[60] ＞ vęlha. In learned words we find gl, cl:
✱_e(c)clĕsia_ ＞ glęiza, _joculārem_ ＞ ioglar, _sæcŭlum_ ＞ sęgle sęcle.
C´l ＞ il: _gracĭlem_ ＞ graile.
Dl ＞ dl, which during the literary period became ll and then l:
_mŏdŭlum_ ＞ ✱mǫdle mǫlle.
Gl ＞ l´: _rēgŭla_ ＞ rẹlha, ✱_strĭgŭla_ ＞ estrẹlha, _vĭg(ĭ)lat_
＞ vẹlha. Lẹula ＜ _lĕgŭla_, tẹula ＜ _tēgŭla_ are irregular: cf.
_Archivio glottologico italiano_, XIII, 439, 459.
Ml ＞ mbl: _sĭmĭlāre_ ＞ semblar, _trĕmŭlat_ ＞ trẹmbla. In _sembrar_ we
find an r ＜ l due perhaps to the analogy of membrar ＜ _memorāre_. _In
semel_ gives ensẹmble essẹms.
Pl ＞ bl: _cōpŭla_ ＞ cọbla, _dŭplum_ ＞ dọble. Learned words have pl:
_duplicar_.
Rl ＞ rl: _Carŏlus_ ＞ Carles, _hōrolŏgium_ ＞ orlǫi, ✱_paraulare_ ＞
parlar.
Sl ＞ sl: _ī(n)sŭla_ ＞ isla. For _ilha_, see § 65, S, 1.
Tl ＞ tl, which during the literary period became ll and then l:
_rŏtŭlum_ ＞ rǫtle rǫlle, _spathūla_ ＞ espatla espalla espala. In really
popular words tl had become cl in Vulgar Latin.[61]
Yl ＞ il: _bajŭlus_ ＞ bailes. Cf. § 65, Y, (1).
69. A group of three consonants remained unchanged, except that double
consonants became single: _ambulāre_ ＞ amblar, _implēre_ ＞ emplir,
_avŭncŭlus_ ＞ avọncles, _cĭrcŭlus_ ＞ cẹrcles, _mascŭlus_ ＞ mascles,
✱_afflammāre ＞ aflamar_, _inflāre_ ＞ enflar, _ŭngŭla_ ＞ ọngla,
_emplastrum_ ＞ emplastre.
1. _Selcle_, beside _cercle_, seems to show an assimilation
of the r to the l of the next syllable. _Empastre_, beside
_emplastre_, has been influenced by _pasta_. _Emblar_ is
probably from V. L. ✱_imbolare_ = _involare_.
3. GROUPS ENDING IN R.
70. The groups of two consonants will be treated in alphabetical order.
It will be seen that br, gr, lr, nr generally remained unchanged; mr,
sr, zr (and sometimes lr, nr) developed a glide consonant; cr, pr
voiced, and βr, c´r, dr, tr, yr vocalized their first element.
Br ＞ br, also ur, occasionally ir (through ür): _fabrum_ ＞ fabre
faure[62], _fĕbrem_ ＞ fębre fęure, _lībra_ ＞ liura; _Octōbrem_ ＞
ochọyre. For brg, see § 80.
βr ＞ ur, occasionally ir: _bĭbĕre_ ＞ bęure, débēr’ hábḙo ＞ deβr’áyo ＞
deurái, ✱_rōbŏrem_ ＞ rọure rọire; ✱_mŏvĕre_ (= _mŏvēre_) ＞ mǫure,
_plŏvĕre_ ＞ plǫure.
Cr ＞ gr: _acrem_ ＞ agre, _lacrĭma_ ＞ lagrema, _lŭcrum_ ＞ lọgre,
_macrum_ ＞ magre, _sacrāre_ ＞ sagrar, _sŏcrum_ ＞ sǫgre.[63] In late
learned words we find cr: _secret_.
C´r ＞ ir: _cŏcĕre_ ＞ cǫire, _dīcĕre_ ＞ dire, _dūcere_ ＞ düire, _facĕre_
＞ faire. Cf. § 49, (1).
Dr ＞ ðr ＞ ir: _divīdĕre_ ＞ devire, _quadrum_ ＞ caire, vídēr’ hábe̯o
＞ veð’r-áyo ＞ veirái. After au, apparently, ð simply disappeared:
_claudĕre_ ＞ claure. Late learned words have dr: _quadrupedi_.
Gr, in popular words, was reduced to r in Vulgar Latin in parts of
the Empire _fra(g)rāre_ ＞ ✱frarar ✱flarar flazar, _intĕ(g)rum_ ＞
entęr entięr, _nĭ(g)rum_ ＞ nęr nięr,[64] _pere(g)rīnum_ ＞ peleri,
_pĭ(g)rĭtia_ ＞ perẹza; these forms occur in Gascony, Rouergue, and
Limousin, but forms with gr are found in the same region. Elsewhere, in
these same words, and everywhere, in more bookish words, gr remained
in Vulgar Latin; this gr was kept in most of the Provençal territory,
but was changed to ir in Dauphiné, Auvergne, and Languedoc: _fragrāre_
＞ flairar, _integrāre_ ＞ enteirar, _intĕ́grum_ ＞ entęgre entęir,[65]
_nĭgrēscĕre_ ＞ negrezir, _nĭgrum_ ＞ nẹgre nẹir,[65] _peregrīnum_ ＞
pelegri, _pĭgrĭtia_ ＞ pigręza. Purely learned words have gr everywhere:
_agricultura_.
G´r: see Yr.
Lr usually remained unaltered, but in some dialects became ldr[66]:
vălēr’ hábe̯o ＞ valrai valdrai, ✱vólēr’ hábe̯o ＞ volrai voldrai.
Mr ＞ mbr: _camĕra_ ＞ cambra, _memorāre_ ＞ membrar, _nŭmĕrum_ ＞ nọmbre.
Nr usually remained unaltered, but in some dialects became ndr[66]
_cĭnĕrem_ ＞ cẹnre cẹndre, _dīe Vĕnĕris_ ＞ divenres divendres,
_in-gĕnerāre_ ＞ engenrar, _Henrīcum_ ＞ Enric, _expōnĕre_ ＞ espọnre
espọndre, ✱_gĕnĕrem_ (= _gĕnus_) ＞ genre, _gĕnĕrum_ ＞ genre gendre,
_honorāre_ ＞ onrar ondrar, _tenēr’ habeo_ ＞ tenrai tendrai, _venīr’
habeo_ ＞ venrai vendrai.
Pr ＞ br: _capra_ ＞ cabra, _cŭperāre_ ＞ cobrar, _erĭpĕre_ ＞ erẹbre,
_ŏpĕra_ ＞ ǫbra, _pauper_ ＞ paubre, ✱_pĭperāta_ ＞ pebrada, _recĭpĕre_
＞ recẹbre, _sŭperāre_ ＞ sobrar, _sŭper_ ＞ sọbre. Purely learned
words have pr: _caprin_. It is uncertain whether _paupre_ (beside the
usual _paubre_) is a Latinism or represents some dialect in which au
prevented voicing.
Sr ＞ str: ✱_ĕssĕre_ (= _ĕsse_) ＞ ęstre. For ęsser, see § 49, (2).
Tr ＞ dr ＞ ðr ＞ ir: _amātor_ ＞ amaire, _fratrem_ ＞ fraire, _latro_ ＞
laire, _mater_ ＞ maire, _ŭtĕrem_ ＞ ọire, _pĕtra_ ＞ pęira, _Pĕtrus_ ＞
Pęires, _petrōnem_ ＞ peirọ, _petrōsus_ ＞ peirọs, _pre(s)by̆tĕrum_
(_Einf._, § 140) ＞ prevẹire, _servītor_ ＞ servire, _vĭtrum_ ＞ vẹire.
Learned words have dr and tr: ✱_poenĭtĕre_ ＞ _penedre_ (_penedir_),
_impetrāre_ ＞ _impetrar_.
Yr ＞ ir: _frīgĕre_ ＞ frire, _lĕgĕre_ ＞ lęyre.
Zr ＞ zdr: _mīsĕrunt_ + ✱_mĭssĕrunt_ ＞ ✱mẹzron mẹsdron.
1. _Redebre_ (beside _rezemér_) ＜ _redĭmere_ has apparently
been influenced by _recebre_. The Burgundian _sor_ for _sobre_
comes from the prefix _sŭr-_ (_sŭr-rīdēre_, etc.). _Perri_ ＜
✱_pētrīnum_ is probably French.
71. A group of three consonants nearly always remained unchanged,
except that double consonants became single: _ŭmbra_ ＞ ọmbra,
_arbŏrem_ ＞ arbre, _sepŭlcrum_ ＞ sepulcre, ✱_canc(e)rōsus_ ＞ cancrọs,
✱_addīrēctum_ ＞ adrẹit, _fŭndĕre_ ＞ fọndre, _ardĕre_ ＞ ardre,
✱_offerīre_ ＞ offrir, ✱_Hungaría_ ＞ Ongria, _rŭmpĕre_ ＞ rọmpre,
_apprĕssum_ ＞ apręs, _asprum_ ＞ aspre, _ŭltra_ ＞ ọltra, _intrāre_ ＞
entrar, _mo(n)strāre_ ＞ mostrar, _mĭttĕre_ ＞ mẹtre. Lβr and rg´r,
however, regularly became ldr and rdr, and llr became ldr to the same
extent as lr (q. v.): _absŏlvĕre_ ＞ absǫldre (_absolvre_ is probably a
Latinism), _pŭlvĕrem_ ＞ pọldre; ✱_dē-ēr’ gĕre_ ＞ dẹrdre; _tollĕre_
＞ tǫlre tǫldre. Rmr became rbr in _marmor_ ＞ marbre (also marme).
Prendre often became penre (perhaps to distinguish it from pendre ＜
_pĕndĕre_) through the analogy of genre gendre, etc.; the first r
having been lost by dissimilation.
1. The four-consonant group sbtr is reduced to str in _prestre_
＜ _prĕsby̆ter_. _Prever_ is perhaps a proclitic syncopation of
a V. L. ✱_preβiter_. Cf. § 78, 1.
4. GROUPS ENDING IN W.
72. This class includes not only Latin gu̯, qu̯, but all combinations
of consonant + u̯, cf. § 40, (2). A w thus evolved seems to have
developed like Germanic w (cf. § 56, W): it became gw (assimilating the
preceding consonant, unless that consonant was a liquid or a nasal),
and then was reduced, before the literary period, to g, cf. § 62, (2).
Pw, however, had a quite different history, owing, on the one hand,
to the affinity of its two labial elements, and, on the other, to the
stability of the voiceless stop, which prevented the assimilation that
we find in βw ＞ ww.
1. G. Körting (_Zs._, XXII, 258) would explain through the
analogy of the perfects in _-cui_ all other perfect forms which
in Provençal have g and c corresponding to Latin _-ui_ etc.
ßw ＞ ww ＞ gw ＞ g: _habuĭssem_ ＞ aguẹs, _dēbuit_ ＞ dẹc (§ 63);
✱_co(g)nōvuit_ (cf. Meyer-Lübke, _Gram._, II, p. 357) ＞ conọc,
✱_crevuĭstī_ ＞ creguist, ✱_movuĭsset_ ＞ mogues, ✱_plŏvuit_ ＞ plǫc. We
seem to have the same combination in Germanic _treuwa_ ＞ tręgua tręga
(_treva_ is probably French).
1. The diphthong of _aic_ = _habuī_ is probably not a phonetic
development. The first and third persons of the preterit, _aic_
and _ac_ (＜ _habuit_), have been differentiated after the
pattern of the present--_ai_ and _a_.
Dw ＞ gw ＞ g: ✱_sĕduit_ ＞ sęc.
1. _Vezoa_ ＜ _vĭdua_ must be an early learned word: _veuva_ is
perhaps from _veua_ ＜ _veuða_ ＜ _veðua_.
Kw ＞ gw ＞ g: _antīqua_ ＞ antiga, _ĕqua_ ＞ ęga, _æquālem_ ＞ egal
(_engal_ has received through a mistake in etymology the prefix _en-_
or _e-_ ＜ _in-_), _nŏcuit_ ＞ nǫc, _placuĭstī_ ＞ plaguist, ✱_sĕquĕre_ (=
_sĕqui_) ＞ sęgre, ✱_sequīre_ ＞ seguir, _tacuĭssem_ ＞ taguẹs.
1. Several words show a different development: cf. _Ltblt._,
XXIV, 335; _Zs._, XXVIII, 381. In _aqua_ (or _acqua_) and
_aquĭla_ (or ✱_acquĭla_) the first consonant became, for some
reason, a spirant, which later changed to i: aχwa ＞ aiwa ＞
aigua aiga, áχwila ＞ áiwila ＞ áigwila ＞ aigla. So _aiglentina_.
These same words show irregularities in other languages.
Perhaps the dialect form _eigal_ (Auvergne, Arles) for _egal_
is to be explained in the same way; but the _ei_ here may be
analogical.
2. In several words kw was reduced to c (or c´) in Vulgar
Latin: _coquĕre_ (+ _cŏcus_) ＞ _cŏcĕre_ ＞ cǫzer, _tŏrquēre_
✱_tŏrquĕre_ (+ ✱_tŏrco_ ✱_tŏrcunt_) ＞ ✱_tŏrcĕre_ ＞ tǫrser. Cf.
§ 55, W.
Lw ＞ lgw ＞ lg: _caluit_ ＞ calc, ✱_toluĭstī_ ＞ tolguist, _valuĭssem_ ＞
valguẹs, _vŏluĕrunt_ (§ 16, 2) ＞ vǫlgron.
Nw, ngw, nkw ＞ ngw ＞ ng: _tĕnuit_ ＞ tẹnc, ✱_venuĭsset_ ＞ venguẹs;
_sanguem_ ＞ sanc; _cīnque_ (= _quinque_) ＞ cinc.
1. Tęuns ＜ _tĕnuis_ is probably a learned word; the
transposition of u and n may have been due originally to
a misreading of the letters. _Ianuer_, _manual_, etc.
are learned. _Maneira_ is apparently from a Vulgar Latin
✱_man(u)aria_ from _manuarius_. For _enquerre_ ＜ _inquærĕre_,
see § 59.
2. _Exstĭnguĕre_ (+ ✱_exstĭngo_ ✱_exstĭngunt_) ＞ ✱_estĭngĕre_ ＞
estẹnher.
Pw ＞ upw ＞ up ＞ ub: _sapuĭsset_ ＞ saubẹs, _recĭpuit_ ＞ recẹup.
1. _Saupes_ apparently belongs to a dialect in which au
prevented voicing. Cf. § 65, P, 3.
Rw ＞ rgw ＞ rg: _mĕruit_ ＞ męrc.
Sw seems to have been reduced early to s in _consuetūdĭnem_ ✱_costūmen_
＞ costüm (costüma). _Cōnsŭo_ apparently became ✱_cōsio_, whence an
infinitive ✱_cōsĕre_ or ✱_cosīre_ (Pr. cǫzer, cosir).
Tw ＞ dw ＞ gw ＞ g: _pŏtuit_ ＞ pǫc.
1. _Ba(t)tuo_, _qua(t)tuor_ were reduced to _batto_, ✱_quattor_
in Vulgar Latin: Pr. _bat_, _quatre_.
5. GROUPS ENDING IN Y.
73. This class contains: 1st, combinations of consonant + y ＜ e̯ or
i̯, cf. § 40, (2); 2d, consonant + g´ ＞ y (§ 55, G), the g´ having
been in some cases always contiguous to the preceding consonant, in
others originally separated from it by a vowel; 3d, consonant + g ＞
y, the g representing an original c or g between the last two vowels
of a proparoxytone, cf. § 65, G, (3). It does not include dy and gy,
which early became y: see § 65, Y. See § 63, (1). The groups will be
considered in alphabetical order:--
Bry ＞ bry in _ebriācum_ ＞ ebriac (_iure_ is probably French).
βy was early reduced to y in _habeo_ _habeam_ etc. and _dēbeo_ _dēbeam_
etc., partly, no doubt, through the proclitic use of these words,
partly under the influence of _audio_ ＞ ✱_auyo_ _audiam_ ＞ ✱_auya_ and
_video_ ＞ ✱_veyo_ _vĭdeam_ ＞ ✱_veya_; this y, like any other medial
y (§ 65, Y), became džy̆ or remained y: ai (for some reason there
seems to have been no form ✱_ach_), aia; dẹi dẹch, dẹia. Aside from
these words, βy ＞ udž and uy apparently in the north; elsewhere uy,
by, vy--uy prevailing in the west, by and vy in the south and east.
When the y became final, it changed to i, which, after a consonant,
was syllabic. Ex.: _abbrĕviat_ ＞ abręuia, ✱_aggrĕviat_ ＞ agrẹuia,
_allĕviat_ ＞ alęuia, _avĭŏ́lum_ ＞ aviǫl aiǫl, _cavĕa_ ＞ gabia cauia,
_labia_ ＞ lavia-s, ✱_leviarius_ ＞ leugięrs, ✱_rabiam_ (= _rabiem_) ＞
rabia rauia,[67] ✱_rabiāre_ ＞ rabiar, _rabiōsus_ ＞ rabiọs rauiọs,
_rŭbeum_ ＞ rọg rọi,[68] ✱_sabium_ ＞ savi sabi, _atavia_ ＞ tavia,
_vidŭvium_ ＞ vezọig bedọi.[68] In purely learned words, Latin _bi_,
_vi_, etc., are kept: _abiurament_, _fluvial_. _Brĕvio_ ＞ bręy: cf. §
65, β, 3.
Cc´y: see C´y.
Cly ＞ l´: _coclearium_ ＞ cuilhięr.
Cty ＞ is: _factiōnem_ ＞ faissọ, _lectiōnem_ ＞ leissọ, _suspectiōnem_
＞ sospeissọ. In purely learned words we find the spellings _cti_,
_cci_, which doubtless indicate ktsy or ksy: _electio_, _accio_. Cf.
Ssy.
C´y, cc´y, kwy ＞ ts; this ts, when it remained medial, was reduced,
before and during the literary period, to s: _bracchia_ ＞ brassa,
_bracchium_ ＞ bratz bras (§ 64), _faciam_ ＞ faza fassa, _faciem_ ＞ fatz
fas, _glaciem_ ＞ glatz glas[69], _laqueāre_ ＞ lassar, _laqueum_ ＞ latz
las, ✱_pĕcia_ ＞ pęssa, _placeam_ ＞ plassa. Learned words have _zi_ and
_ci_, doubtless pronounced at first dzi, tsi, later zi, si (cf. A.
Horning, _Zs._, XXIV, 545; XXV, 736): _iuzizi iudici, edifici, Grecia_.
Cf. Pty.
D-g ＞ dž: _jūdĭco_ ＞ iütge, _mĕdĭcum_ ＞ męge, ✱_sĕdĭcum_ ＞ sęie[70].
Dy: see § 55, Y and § 65, Y.
Gdy: see § 80, Gd.
Gy: see § 55, Y and § 65, Y.
Kwy: see Cy.
Lc´y ＞ lts ＞ uts ＞ us: _calceāre_ ＞ caussar. Cf. Lty. See § 74, (2).
Lg´ apparently became ldz ＞ udz ＞ uz in ✱_fŭlgĕrem_ (= _fŭlgur_) ＞
fọuzer.
Ll-g´ ＞ l´ in _cŏllĭgit_ ＞ cuęlh. Cf. Ly.
Lly: see Ly.
Lny ＞ n´: _balneum_ ＞ banh.
Lty ＞ lts >uts ＞ us: ✱_altiāre_ ＞ auçar aussar. Cf. Lc´y. See § 74, (2).
Lvy ＞ lby ＞ uby in _salvia_ ＞ saubia (Gascon).
Ly, lly ＞ l´: _consĭlium_ ＞ cossẹlh, _fīlium_ ＞ filh, _fīlia_ ＞ filha,
_nūllī_ + vowel ＞ nülh. Learned words have _li_: _familiarmens_. _Lili_
_liri_ _lire_ ＜ _līlium_ are doubtless learned; _lis_ is French.
Mby ＞ mby, mdž, and ndž; mdž being the usual form in the literary
language: _cambiāre_ ＞ camiar caniar cambiar.
Mmy ＞ my, mdž, and ndž: _commeātus_ ＞ comiatz coniatz.
Mny ＞ n´ in Limousin and in the extreme east and southwest, elsewhere
ndž: _somniāre_ ＞ sonhar soniar. _Somni_, beside _suenh_ _songe_, is
learned.
Mply ＞ mply in _ampliāre_ ＞ ampliar, probably learned.
My ＞ my and n´: _sīmia_ ＞ simia, _vindēmia_ ＞ vendẹmia vendanha.
Nc´y ＞ nts ＞ ns: ✱_Francia_ ＞ Fransa. Cf. Nty.
Nd-g ＞ ndž: ✱_pĕndĭcat_ ＞ penia, _vĭndĭco_ ＞ vẹnie. Similarly
_mandūcāre_ ＞ ✱_mandugare_ _manduyare_ _mandyare_ ＞ maniar[71].
Ndy ＞ n´: ✱_Burgŭndia_ ＞ Borgọnha, _verecŭndia_ ＞ vergọnha.
N-g ＞ ndž: ✱_excommĭnĭco_ (= _excommūnĭco_) ＞ escomẹnie[71],
_mŏnăchum_ ＞ monie.
Ng´ ＞ n´ and ndž: _jŭngĕre_ ＞ iọnher iọnger, _ŭngĕre_ ＞ ọnher
ọnger, _plangĕre_ ＞ planher planger, _pŭngĕre_ ＞ pọnher pọnger.
_Angel_ is probably learned.
Ng´y ＞ ndž: _spŏngia_ ＞ esponia.
Nny ＞ n´: _stanneum_ ＞ estanh.
Nty ＞ nts ＞ us: _cantiōnem_ ＞ cansọ, _comĭn(i)tiāre_ ＞ comensar,
_sperantia_ ＞ esperansa. Purely learned words have _nti_: _essentia_.
Cf. Nc´y.
Ny ＞ n´: _extraneum_ ＞ estranh, _tĕneo_ ＞ tenh, _vĕniat_ ＞ venha.
Before or during the literary period final n´ or n´s lost its palatal
quality in many dialects: _ingĕnium_ ＞ genh gen. If _estraniar_ comes
from _extraneāre_ (and not from ✱_extranicāre_), it must be a word of
later adoption; so _estrangier_. In _sotran_ ＜ _subterraneum_ there is
probably a change of suffix.
Pry probably became regularly bry: _capreŏlum_ ＞ ✱cabriǫl cabirǫl
(cabrǫl seems to be a new formation from _cabra_). _Coyre_ ＜? _cŭpreum_
is unexplained.
Pty ＞ ts, which, when it remained medial, was reduced, before and
during the literary period, to s: ✱_captiāre_ ＞ cassar, ✱_corrŭptiāre_
＞ corrossar, _nĕptia_ ＞ nęssa, ✱_nŏptias_ (§ 38, 2) ＞ nǫssas. Cf. C´y.
Py remained py in the west and a part of the south, and elsewhere
became ptš, later tš: _apium_ ＞ ache api, ✱_apprŏpiat_ (＜ _prŏpe_) ＞
aprǫpcha aprǫcha aprǫpia, _sapiam_ ＞ sapcha sacha sapia, _sapiĕntem_
＞ sachent sapient, _sēpia_ ＞ sẹpia. _Asabentar_ is from sabẹn.
_Piion_ ＜ _pipiōnem_ is French. Learned words have _pi_: _copia_; but
_mancĭpium_ ＞ _mancip massip_.
Rc´y ＞ rts (＞ rs?): _urceŏ́lum_ (_Zs._, XXVI, 668) ＞ orzǫl.
Rdy ＞ rdz: ✱_dis-tardiat_ ＞ destarza. Ordi = _hŏrdeum_ is perhaps from
the genitive _hŏrdeī_, as in _tres modii hordei_, etc.
R-g ＞ rdž: _clĕrĭcus_ ＞ clęries.
Rg´ ＞ rdž and rdz (＞ rz): _argĕntum_ ＞ argen, ✱_burgē(n)sis_ ＞ borgẹs
borzẹs (also _borgues_, under the influence of _borc_), ✱_dē-ērĭgit_
＞ dẹrs, ✱_dē-ē(i)gĕre_ ＞ dẹrzer (also _derdre_: § 71), _sŭrgĕre_ ＞
sọrger sọrzer, _sŭrgit_ ＞ sọrtz.
Rny ＞ rn´: ✱_Arvĕrnium_ ＞ Alvęrnhe.
Rr-g ＞ rdž: ✱_carrĭcat_ ＞ caria.
Rry ＞ ir: _porrum_ ＞ ✱_porreum_ ＞ poyre; but ✱_horrearium_? ＞ orgięr
(cf. Körting).
Rt-g ＞ rdž and rts (＞ rs): ✱_excŏrtĭcat_ ＞ escǫria escǫrsa.
Rty ＞ rts ＞ rs ✱_fortiāre_ ＞ forsar, _tĕrtium_ ＞ tęrz tęrs. _Convercio_
is learned.
Rvy ＞ rvy rby: ✱_cĕrvia_ ＞ cervia cerbia.
Ry ＞ r´, which developed into ir when it remained medial, but became
r at the end of a word[72]: ✱_exclariāre_ ＞ esclairar, ✱_donatōria_
＞ donadọira, ✱_fĕria_ ＞ fęira fięira, _fĕriat_ ＞ fęira, _matĕria_
＞ madęira, ✱_mŏriat_ ＞ mǫira, _primaria_ ＞ premęira premięira (§
23, 1), ✱_punitōria_ ＞ punidọira, _varia_ ＞ vaira, _variāre_ ＞
vairar; ✱_a(u)gūrium_ ＞ aür, _cŏrium_ ＞ cuęr, ✱_donatōrium_ ＞
donadọr, _impĕrium_ ＞ empięr, _mĭnistĕrium_ ＞ mestięr, ✱_mŏrio_ ＞
mǫr muęr, _monastĕrium_ ＞ mostięr (§ 45, 3), _primarius_ ＞ premięrs,
✱_punitōrius_ ＞ punidọrs. If the ry is preceded by au, it apparently
remains unchanged: _Auriācum_ ＞ Auriac (_Zs._, XXVII, 559). Learned
words have _ri_: _bori_ ＜ _ebŏreum_, _contrari_.
1. Adjectives in _-er_ (_-ier_) and _-or_, coming from _-arium_
and _-ōrium_, regularly have feminines in _-eira_ (_-ieira_)
and _-oira_. By the analogy of the masculine, there is a
feminine in _-era_ in parts of the west; by the analogy of the
feminine, there is a masculine in _-eir_ in Auvergne. The i of
_vair_ probably comes from the feminine _vaira_ and from the
verb _vairar_. The noun _feira_ sometimes becomes _fiera_ like
a feminine adjective.
Sc´y: see Ssy.
Ssy, sc´y, sty ＞ s´, which in most of the territory became is, but
in the west and the extreme east developed into i(t)š and (t)š:
✱_bassiāre_ ＞ baissar baichar bachar, ✱_angŭstia_ ＞ engọissa,
✱_ingrŏssiat_ ＞ engruęissa, _fascia_ ＞ faissa, ✱_grassiāre_ ＞ graissar,
_pŏstea_ ＞ puęissas pueih püch, _ūstium_ ＞ üis.
Sty: see Ssy.
Sy ＞ z´, which in most of the territory became iz, but in parts of the
northeast, north, and west developed into i(d)ž and (d)ž, and in some
scattered dialects gave y and z: _basium_ ＞ bais bai (§ 63), _basiare_
＞ baisar baiiar baiar bayar basar, _quasi_ + vowel ＞ cais quaish,
_camisia_ (cf. _Archiv für lateinische Lexikographie_, XII, 265) ＞
camiza, _cerĕsea_ (_Einf._, § 103) ＞ ciręiza cirięiia cerięya cerięza,
_ma(n)siōnem_ ＞ maisọn maiiọn maiọn mayọ, _occasiōnem_ ＞ ochaizọ,
_pre(hen)siōnem_ ＞ preisọ (cf. enpreyọna, ‘imprisons’), _quĭd se_ +
vowel ＞ quẹis, Ger. _sazjan_ ＞ saisir, _to(n)siōnem_ ＞ toisọ.
T-g ＞ dž: ✱_coratĭcum_ ＞ corage, ✱_paratĭcum_ ＞ parage, _viaticum_ ＞
viatie. For _messatgue_, etc., see § 65, (3).
Try apparently became ir: _atrium_? ＞ aire, _arbĭtrium_ ＞ albire.
Tty ＞ ts ＞ s: ✱_plattĕa_ ＞ plassa.
Ty ＞ apparently t´ ＞ d´ ＞ generally d´z´,[73] which in most of the west
and north became dz, but in the south and east developed into idz; dz
and idz, when they remained medial, were reduced, before and during
the literary period, to z and iz: ✱_altĭtia_ ＞ altẹza, ✱_bellĭtia_
＞ belẹza, _malĭtia_ ＞ malẹza, _pigrĭtia_ ＞ perẹza, ✱_prĕtiat_ ＞
pręza, ✱_rikĭtia_ ＞ riquẹza; _palatium_ ＞ palatz palaitz palais (§
64), _pŭteum_ ＞ pọtz püis, _prĕtium_ ＞ prętz pręs, _solatium_ ＞ solatz
solas; _potiōnem_ ＞ pozọn poizọn, ✱_pretiāre_ ＞ prezar, _ratiōnem_
＞ razọ raizọn, _s(t)atiōnem_ ＞ sazọ saizọn. The forms without i
prevail in the literary language, and in words in which the dz comes
after the accent (especially in the ending -ẹza) they seem to have
encroached largely upon the ground of the others.[74] According to
some philologists, the development of ty differed according to its
position before or after the accent: for a brief bibliography of the
discussion, see _Zs._, XXVII, 689. In learned words we find _zi_,
_ci_, _çi_, _ti_: _estimatio_, _iustizia_ _-icia_ _-ecia_ _-eçia_,
_natio_ _nacio_, _negoci_, _servizi_ _-ici_ (cf. A. Horning, Zs., XXIV,
545, XXV, 736, XXXI, 200).
1. _Palai_ (beside _palatz_ _-aitz_ _-ais_) may have been made
from _palais_ (used by Bertran de Born and in _Flamenca_) by
dropping the s which was regarded as an inflectional ending.
It was perhaps influenced by such words as _bais_ _bai_: cf.
Sy. A clerical Latin ✱_palasium_, however, would account, not
only for _palai_ _palais_, but also for French _palais_ and for
Italian _palagio_.
2. Modern _poijon_ (Alps) and _rajo_ (Limousin) have perhaps
followed the analogy of such words as _maison_ _maijon_
_majon_: cf. Sy.
3. _Escoisson_ ＜ _excŭtiunt_ seems to follow ✱_escois_
＜ _excŭtio_. It was perhaps influenced by _conoisson_ ＜
_co(g)nōscunt_.
4. Some of the modern western dialects have d in _radon_,
_sadon_, etc. = _razo_, _sazo_, etc.
6. GROUPS BEGINNING WITH L, M, N, R, OR S.
74. (1) Of the groups beginning with l (and not ending in l, r, w, or
y), the following remained unchanged (except that c before a became
tš in the north and northwest).-- lb, lc (and llc), lg (llg), lm,
lp, lv: _alba_ ＞ alba; _calcāre_ ＞ calcar, _collocāre_ ✱_colcāre_ ＞
colcar (-char); _collocare_ ✱_collogare_ ✱_colgare_ ＞ colgar; _hëlm_ ＞
ęlm, _ŭlmum_ ＞ ọlm; _cŏlăphum_ ✱_cŏlpum_ ＞ cǫlp (κόλπος ＞ gọlfe is
unexplained); _calvum_ ＞ _calv_ (= calf?), _salvāre_ ＞ salvar. Ld, ls
(lls), lt (llt) were regularly unchanged except for the vocalization of
the l: see below. Lc´ (llc´) became lts, and then the l was vocalized:
see below. Lc´p became lp in _calce pīsāre_ ＞ calpisar. Lg´, llg´,
have been treated in § 73. Lvs, lvt became ls, lt, and then the l was
vocalized: see below.
(2) L became u before the dental consonants d, s, t in most of the
dialects. The vocalization seems to have begun in the 8th century
and to have progressed through the literary period and later. It
is difficult to trace it, as _l_ long continued to be written for
u. In modern Provençal, ls remains in Languedoc, lt in Rouergue.
_Auça_ occurs in the _Boeci_. The l was probably first retracted, to
differentiate it from the following dental; and then this velar l was
opened into u. Ex.: _cal(ĭ)daria_ ＞ caudiera, _cal(ĭ)dum_ ＞ caut,
_sŏl(ĭ)dum_ ＞ sǫlt sǫut; _falsum_ ＞ fals faus, _malos_ ＞ mals maus,
_valles_ ＞ vals vaus; ✱_fallĭta_ ＞ fauta, _mŭltum_ ＞ mọlt mọut,
✱_tŏllĭtum_ ＞ tǫlt tǫut; _dŭlcem_ ＞ dọlz dọutz dọus, _pŏllĭcem_ ＞
pǫutz, _salĭcem_ ＞ sautz; _calvus_ ＞ ✱cals caus, ✱_vŏlvĭta_ ＞ vǫlta
vǫuta. So ✱_altiat_ ＞ auça aussa, ✱_calceare_ ＞ cauçar caussar: cf. §
73, Lc´y, Lty. In dọs (= dọus) and mọt (= mọut) the ọ seems to
have absorbed the u. Cf. § 65, L.
1. The final t of _molt_ seems to have been lost sometimes
before a consonant: hence _mul_, which, influenced by _man_,
‘many’, became _mon_.
2. _Altretal_ (also _autretal_) became _atretal_ by
dissimilation; hence we have also _atressi_ for _altressi_
(_autressi_). _Aital_, _aitan_ seem to be made up of _tal_,
_tan_ with the first syllable of _aissi_ (＜ _ac sīc_), regarded
as a prefix meaning ‘just’.
3. _Pallĭdus_ ＞ _palles_ (through the feminine ✱_páleza_).
4. _Fouzer_ is from _fŭlger_ or ✱_fŭlgerem_ = _fŭlgur_.
75. Of the groups beginning with m (and not ending in l, r, w, or
y), the following usually remained unchanged--mb, md, mf, mp, ms,
mt: _gamba_ ＞ gamba (if _bobansa_ is from βόμβος, it is irregular);
✱_semitarium_ ✱_semidarium_ ＞ semdięr; _triumphāre_ ＞ triomfar;
_lampas_ ✱_lampa_ ＞ lampa; ✱_camisīle_? ＞ camsil (dialectically cansil;
so Samson, Sanso); _cŏmĭtem_ ＞ comte (dialectically conte). For mbd
in _ambo dŭos_ see § 111, 2. Mn in the literary language generally
remained unchanged (often spelled _mpn_), but in some dialects it was
assimilated into nn, which was locally simplified into n: _dŏmĭna_
_dŏmna_ ＞ dompna domna donna dona, _damnāre_ ＞ dampnar damnar dannar
danar, _fēmĭna_ ✱_fēmna_ ＞ fẹmna fẹnna (_feme_ is from _fémena_ ＜
_fēmĭna_),[75] _hŏmĭnem_ ✱_hŏmnem_ ＞ omne (_ome_ is from ✱_ómene_ ＜
_hŏmĭnem_).[75] When final, it regularly became n, occasionally m:
_damnum_ ＞ dan, _somnum_ ＞ son som.[76] Mnc´ ＞ ndz nz in ✱_domnicĭlla_
＞ donzẹla. Mpt mt ＞ mt, dialectically nt: _computāre_ ＞ comtar contar,
_temptāre_ ＞ temptar tentar; _domitāre_ ＞ domptar.[77]
76. (1) Of the groups beginning with n (and not ending in l, r, w,
or y), the following generally remained unchanged (except that c, g
before a became tš, dž in the north and northeast)--nc, nd, ng, nm,
nt: _hanka_ ＞ anca, _blank-_ ＞ blanc (-ca -cha), _franko_ ＞ franc
(-ca -cha); _mandāre_ ＞ mandar, _ŭnda_ ＞ ọnda; _lŏngum_ ＞ lonc (-ga
-ia), _plango_ ＞ planc, _rĭng_ ＞ rẹnc; _anĭma_ ＞ anma (also, by
dissimilation, arma); _sentīre_ ＞ sentir. For _final_ nd, nt, see
(2) below. Nc´ ＞ nts ns: ✱_francē(n)sis_ ＞ francẹs, _mancĭpium_ ＞
mansip (also massip: cf. ns below), _vĭncere_ ＞ vẹncer vẹnser. Nct
became in different dialects n´ int nt ntš: _jŭnctum_ ＞ iọnh ioint
iọnt iọnch, _ŭnctūra_ ＞ onchüra, ✱_pĭnctūra_ ＞ peintüra penchüra,
_planctum_ ＞ planh planch, _sanctum_ ＞ sanh saint sant. Ndc´ became,
in different dialects, ndz (later nz), nts, ndž: _quīndĕcim_ ＞ quinze
quintze quinge. Ndt ＞ nd nt: ✱_rendĭta_ ＞ renda renta. Nf remained in
some dialects, while in others it became ff, then f: _confŭndit_ ＞
confọn cofọn, _infantem_ ＞ enfant effant efant, _infĕrnum_ ＞ enfęrn
efęrn. Ng ＞ ng: _mŏnăchum_ ✱_mon’gu_ ＞ mongue (_manĭcum_ ＞ margue by
dissimilation). Ns, in learned words and new formations (see § 55, N),
remained in most dialects, while in others (especially those of the
centre) it became ss, then s; _consĭlium_ ＞ consẹlh cossẹlh, _in
sĭml_ ＞ ensẹm essẹm, ✱_insignāre_ ＞ ensenhar essenhar, _pensāre_ ＞
pensar pessar, _sensus_ ＞ sens; for _final_ ns, see § 63, (5). Ntc´ ＞
nts ns in _pantĭcem_ ＞ pansa. Nv remained in some dialects, while in
others it became vv, then v: _convenīre_ ＞ convenir covenir. Ndc, ndg,
n-g, ng´ have been treated under § 73.
(2) Final nd remained as nt in the eastern and central part of the
territory, became n in the west and a part of Limousin, and disappeared
altogether in a part of Languedoc and Gascony: _amando_ ＞ aman,
_descĕndit_ ＞ deissẹn, _grandem_ ＞ grant gran gra, _mŭndum_ ＞ mọnt
mọn, _vēndit_ ＞ vẹnt bẹn, _profŭndum_ ＞ preọn, _quando_ ＞ quant
quan. Final nt remained in most of the territory, but in a part of
Languedoc and Gascony became n or disappeared: _fŏntem_ ＞ font fon fo,
_mŏntem_ ＞ mont mon, _quantum_ ＞ quant quan, _vĕntum_ ＞ vent bent be.
For _efanh_, _parenh_, _monh_ ＜ _mŭndi_, etc., see § 51, 1.
77. Of the groups beginning with r (and not ending in l, r, w, or y),
the following remained unchanged (except that c, g before a became
tš, dž in the north and northeast)--rb, rc, rd, rf, rg, rm, rn,
rp, rs, rt, rv: _barba_ ＞ barba, _cŏrbum_ ＞ corp; _barca_ ＞ barca,
_cĭrcāre_ ＞ cercar, _clĕrĭcum_ ✱_clĕrcum_ ＞ clęrc, _fŭrca_ ＞ fọrca
fọrcha, _mercātum_ ＞ mercat; _ardĕntem_ ＞ arden, ✱_perdūtum_ ＞ perdüt,
_vĭr(ĭ)dem_ ＞ vẹrt; _ŏrphănum_ ＞ ǫrfe; ✱_carricāre_ ✱_carrigāre_
✱_cargāre_ ＞ cargar cariar, _largum_ ＞ larc (-ga -ia), _sērĭca_
✱_sēr’ga_ ＞ sẹrga; _ĕ́rēmum_ ＞ ęrm, _fōrma_ ＞ fọrma; _hibĕrnum_ ＞
ivęrn, _tabĕrna_ ＞ tavęrna, _tornāre_ ＞ tornar; _wërpan_ ＞ guerpir;
_arsum_ ＞ ars, _cŭrsum_ ＞ cọrs (for _vĕrsus_ ＞ vęs, see § 55, R);
_artem_ ＞ art, _fŏrtem_ ＞ fǫrt; _servīre_ ＞ servir. For _final_ rn,
rs, see § 63, (5); § 65, R. Rc´> rts rs: _parcĕre_ ＞ parcer, _parcit_
＞ partz, ✱_tŏrcĕre_ ＞ tǫrser. Rdc´ became, in different dialects,
rdz (later rz), rts, rdž: _quatuŏrdĕcim_ ✱_quattōrdĕcim_ ＞ quatọrze
quatọrtze quatọrge. Rdg before a ＞ rg, rdž: _vĭridicantem_
✱_vĭrdigantem_ ＞ verguan verian. Rdt ＞ rd: _perdĭta_ ＞ pęrda. Rps ＞ rs:
✱_escarpsus_ (= _excerptus_) ＞ escars. Rtm ＞ rtm or rm: _fŏrti mĕnte_ ＞
fortmen formen. For rg´ see § 73.
78. Of the groups beginning with s (and not ending in l, r, w, or y),
the following usually remained unchanged through the literary period
(except that c before a became tš in the north and northeast)--sc,
sm (ssm), sn, sp, st: ✱_bŭscum_ (? = _bŭxum_)? ＞ bọsc, ✱_lŭscum_
＞ lọsc, _pascha_ ＞ pasca pascha, _pĕrsĭca_ _pĕssĭca_ ✱_pĕsca_ ＞
pęsca, _piscātor_ ＞ pescaire, _piscarium_ ＞ pesquier peschier,
_þrëscan_ ✱_trescāre_ ＞ trescar; _ex-mĭttĕre_ ✱_esmĭttĕre_ (§ 55, X)
＞ esmẹtre, _pĕssĭmus_ ＞ pęsmes; _eleemŏsy̆na_ ＞ almǫsna, _asĭnum_ ＞
asne; _expōnĕre_ ✱_espōnĕre_ ＞ espọnre, _gaspildjan_? ＞ guespilhar;
_præpŏsĭtum_ ＞ prebǫst, _trīstem_ ＞ trist. For _final_ scs, sts, see 2
below. Sc´ became, in most of the territory, is; in parts of the north
and northeast, s; in the west and the extreme east, i(t)š and (t)š
(cf. § 73, Ssy): _co(g)nōscĕre_ ＞ conọisser, _crēscĕre_ ＞ crẹisser,
_ex-cĕrnĕre_ ✱_escĕrnīre_ ＞ eissernir, ✱_ex-cerebellāre_ ✱_es-_ ＞
esservelar, _fascem_ ＞ fais, _nascĕre_ ＞ naisser nasser naicher
nacher, _pĭscem_ ＞ pẹis pẹich pẹch. Scb became sb in _epĭscŏpus_
✱_ebíscobus_ ＞ bisbes (also bispes and ebesques). Spm became sm in
_blasphemāre_ ＞ blasmar. Spt ＞ st: _hŏspĭtem_ ＞ ǫste (also ǫsde). Stg
became sg and sdž in _domesticāre_ ✱_-gāre_ ＞ domesgar domesiar. Stm
became sm in _asthma_ ＞ asma. For the later history of the s in all
these groups, see § 65, S, 1.
1. _Prĕsby̆ter_ became regularly pręstre: § 71, 1. But beside
_prĕsby̆ter_ there existed in Vulgar Latin _prebĭter_ (_Einf._,
§ 140), the syllable _pres-_ being replaced by the Latin
prefx _præ-_ or _pre-_, through the analogy of such words as
_præbĭtor_, _præposĭtus_. From the accusative _prebĭtĕrum_ we
have regularly prevẹire. Pręire is a cross between pręstre and
prevẹire.
2. Final sts, in nearly all the territory, was reduced to ts:
_finïstis_ ＞ finitz, _hŏstis_ ＞ ǫz (accusative ǫst), _trīstes_
＞ tritz (sg. trist); but sts was kept in ẹstz ＜ _ĭstos_ and
in its derivative aquẹstz. Similarly final scs was generally
reduced to cs: ✱_bŭscus_? ＞ (bǫcs) bǫcs (accusative bǫsc),
_quĭsquis_ ＞ quẹcs.
3. _Conois_ etc. ＜ _co(g)nōsco_ etc. (beside _conosc_ etc.)
are doubtless due to the second and third persons (_conoisses_
_conois_ etc.). Some of the modern eastern dialects have
_-isso_ corresponding to _-sca_ (_freisso_ etc.): this seems to
indicate an old metathesis of sc in that region.
7. MISCELLANEOUS GROUPS.
79. Of the groups not yet discussed, the most important are ct, gd, gn,
ks, which show palatalization. It is now generally assumed that the
Celts, who had turned their native ct into χt, pronounced Latin ct in
the same way when they learned Latin (Meyer-Lübke, _Einf._, § 186), and
likewise substituted χs for ks (Meyer-Lübke, _Gram._, I, § 650), and
probably χd, χn for gd, gn. The χ was attracted into a palatal spirant
by the following dental, and the dental itself was then palatalized.
Most philologists explain the development of cl, gl into l´ (cf. § 68)
in a similar way. Inasmuch as Indo-European pt had also been changed to
χt in Celtic, it is not unlikely that the Celts substituted χt, χs for
Latin pt, ps in a few words; the χ replacing p may sometimes have been
rounded.
1. To account for palatalization in the non-Celtic parts
of southern Gaul, we may assume either that the spirant
pronunciation spread from the Celtic to the other regions, or
that in the latter the palatalization came about simply through
the mutual attraction of the guttural and the dental.
80. The groups will now be discussed in alphabetical order:--
Bc ＞ (✱pc), ptš (before a): ✱_reprŏb(ĭ)cat_ ＞ reprǫpcha.
Brg ＞ rg or urg in _fabrĭca_ ✱_fabrĭga_ ＞ farga faurga. Cf. § 70, Br.
Bs ＞ bs in the learned words _absens_, _absensa_.
Bsc ＞ sc: _obscūrus_ ＞ escürs.
Bst ＞ st: _sŭbstat_ ＞ sọsta.
Bt ＞ bt, t: _subtīlem_ ＞ sobtil sotil. See also βt below.
Bts ＞ ts: _sŭbtus_ ＞ sọtz.
βc ＞ uc: ✱_avĭca_ ✱_aβca_ ＞ auca.
βc´ ＞ udz or uts, later uz, us: _avicĕllum_ ✱_aβcĕllu_ ＞ auzęl aucęl.
Cf. § 65, C´, 1.
βd ＞ ud, in the west bd: _dēbĭtum_ ✱_dēβĭdu_ ✱_deβdu_ ＞ dẹude,
_mal’habĭtum_ ✱_malaβĭdu_ ✱_malaβdu_ ＞ malaude; _cīvitātem_ ✱_cīβidāde_
✱_ciβdad_ ＞ cibdat. Cf. βt below.
βt ＞ ut, in the west pt: _dēbĭtum_ ✱_dēβtu_ ＞ dẹute dẹpte, _dŭbĭto_
✱_dŭβto_ ＞ dọute dọpte, _mal’habĭtum_ ✱_malaβtu_ ＞ malaute malapte;
_cīvitātem_ ✱_cīβtate_ ＞ ciutat (later cieutat: § 44, 2) ciptat,
✱_mŏvĭta_ ✱_mŏβta_ ＞ mǫuta, ✱_remōvĭtum_? ＞ remọute (_Girart_).
_Depte_, _malapte_ are not confined to the west (modern Limousin
_dete_, Dauphiné _malate_); they come also from Latin _dēb’tum_,
_mal’hab’tum_: cf. § 47, (3).
Cc´ ＞ its ＞ is; in the west and the extreme east itš or tš: _ecc’hīc_ ＞
eici eissi eichi achi.
Cm ＞ cm, m: ✱_Jácomus_ ＞ Iacmes Iames (also, perhaps borrowed, Iaimes,
Iaumes).
C´m ＞ im or sm: _dĕcĭmum_ ＞ dęime dęsme, _facĭmu(s)_ ＞ faim. Cf. § 52,
(4).
Ct ＞ tš in most of the territory; but in the north and northeast, and
in the southwest, it became, as in French, it: _coctāre_ ＞ cochar
coitar, _dīctum_ ＞ dig dit, _factum_ ＞ fag fait, _lacte_ ＞ lag
lait, _lĕctum_ ＞ lięg lęit, _lūcta_ ＞ lücha, _nŏctem_ ＞ nuęg nuęit,
_pactum-a_ ＞ pacha, _pĕctus_ ＞ pięg pęitz, _ŏcto_ ＞ uęich[78] uęit. The
ct of _(e-)jectāre_ ＞ getar does not show popular treatment; the word
is similarly irregular in most of the other languages.
C´t seems to give the same results as ct, namely tš and it: _dīcĭtis_
＞ ditz, ✱_explĭcitāre_ ＞ esplechar espleitar, _facĭtis_ ＞ faitz,
_placĭtum_ ＞ plach plait, (hence _plaieiamen_, _plaideiar_), ✱_vŏcĭtum_
(= _vacuum_) ＞ vuęch vǫig[79] vǫh (hence _voiar_; _voidar_ would appear
to presuppose a form ✱vǫit).
DC, dg: see § 73, D-g.
DC´, in the greater part of the territory, became dz, later z; but
in Auvergne and some western dialects it became ts, and in parts of
the southeast and southwest it gave dž: _duŏdĕcim_ ✱_dōdĕcim_ ＞ dọze
dọtze dọge, _jūdĭcem_ ＞ iütge, _radicīna_ ＞ razina, _sēdĕcim_ ＞ sẹze
sẹtze sẹtge. _Iütge_ may have been influenced by iütiar.
Dn developed peculiarly in _consuetūdĭnem_ ✱_costūmen_ ＞ costüm,
_incūdĭnem_ ✱_inclūd-_? ＞ enclütge.
Gd ＞ dž and id, corresponding to the tš and it from ct: ✱_frĭgdum_ (=
_frīgdum_) ＞ frẹg frẹit (fem. frẹia frẹida).[80] The irregularity
in _amy̆gdăla_ ＞ amandola goes back to Vulgar Latin. _Frezir_ _freizir_
is perhaps from ✱_fre(i)zar_ (cf. Italian _frizzare_) ＜ ✱_frigdiare_.
G’d: see Yd.
Gm ＞ m: _pigmĕntum_ ＞ pimen. _Fragment_ is learned. Greek γμ became um:
_phlĕgma_ ＞ flęuma, _sagma_ ＞ sauma.
Gn ＞ n´: _agnĕllum_ ＞ anhęl, _pŭgnum_ ＞ pọnh. According to the rhymes,
final n´ would seem to have become n in many dialects. _Stagnum_ ＞
estanc, _rēgnum_ ＞ rẹnc (also _reing_) show an early metathesis. When
_gnōsco_ lost its _g_, _cognōsco_ became ✱_conōsco_ in popular Latin.
Gnd ＞ n´d, later, in different dialects, ind, n´d, nd, ndž: _cŏgnĭtum_
✱_cŏn´ĭdu_ ＞ ✱cǫnhede ✱cǫnhde, then cǫinde, cuęnde, cǫnge. Cf. Gnt
below. See § 47, 1.
Gnt ＞ n´t, later, in different dialects, int, n´t, nt: _cŏgnĭtum_ ＞
✱_cŏn´ĭtu_ ＞ ✱cǫnhete (the t being due to clerical influence) ＞ cǫinte
cǫnte; _dĭgnitātem_ ✱_dĭn´tāte_ ＞ denhtat. Cf. Gnd above.
Ks ＞ is, in most of the territory; in Auvergne and in the extreme east
it became itš or tš: _ac sīc_ ＞ aissi, _exāmen_ ＞ eissam eicham echam,
_exĭlium_ ＞ eissilh, _exīre_ ＞ eissir eichir ichir, ✱_exorbāre_ ＞
eissorbar, _laxat_ ＞ laissa, _uxōrem_ ＞ oissọr, _tŏxĭcum_ ＞ tuęissec.
In _essaiar_, _essemple_, _essilh_, the prefix became es- through the
analogy of ex- before consonants: cf. § 55, X.
Ksc ＞ sc; before a, in the north and northeast, stš: ✱_laxicāre_ ＞
laschar, _toxicāre_ ＞ toscar.
Ksm ＞ s´m, later sm: _prŏxĭmum_ ＞ prǫsme pruęsme. For the later history
of the s (pruęime), see § 65, S, 1.
Kss ＞ is: ✱_exsanguinātum_ ＞ eissancnat, ✱_exsūcāre_ ＞ eissügar
(_essugar_ presupposes a Vulgar Latin es-: see § 55, X).
Pf ＞ f: _sapphīrum_ ＞ safir.
Ppc ＞ (✱pc), ptš (before a): ✱_cloppicāre_ ＞ clopchar.
Ps, in some dialects, remained unaltered; but in most of the territory
it changed (through χs: § 79) to is, iš, š, s, and us; iš and š
belonging especially to the west, us to the east: _capsa_ ＞ capsa
caissa caisha casha, _ĭpse_ ＞ ẹps ẹis, _ĭpsa mĕnte_ ＞ epsament
eissamen ichamens, _met-ĭpse_ ＞ medẹis mezẹish medẹs mezẹus,
_ne-ĭpse_ ＞ neẹps nẹis nẹus. The ps forms seem to have been crowded
out by the others, especially by those with is.
Pt ＞ pt, later t (except in parts of Languedoc and Gascony); in a few
words, ut, it: ✱_accaptāre_ (or ✱_accapitāre_?) ＞ acaptar achatar,
_aptum_ ＞ apte, _adaptāre_ ＞ azautar (hence _azaut_) through ✱aðaχtāre
(§ 79), _baptizāre_ ＞ baptegar (_g_ = dž) bateiar, _capitāle_ ＞ captal
catal chatal, _captīvum_ ＞ captiu catiu and more commonly caitiu
chaitiu (through ✱caχtīβu: § 79), _rŭpta_ ＞ rọta, _septimāna_ ＞
septmana setmana, _sĕptem_ ＞ sęt. _Escrich_ _escrit_ (= _scrīptum_) are
based on _dich_ _dit_.
Td ＞ t (through V. L. tt): _nĭtĭdum_ ＞ nẹt, _pūtĭdum_ ＞ püt. Cf. § 47,
(1).
Tm: _marĭtĭma_ ＞ marẹdma.
Tn: if _renha_, ‘rein’, is connected with _rĕtĭne_ (see Körting), it
must have been influenced by _renhar_ ＜ _regnāre_.
Ts: _et sīc_, under the influence of _ac sīc_, became ✱_ec sīc_ ＞ eissi
eichi ichi.
Yd ＞ dž and id: _cōgĭto_ ✱_cōyĭdo_ ＞ cüg cüit, _cōgitāre_ ✱_cōyidare_
＞ cüiar cüidar, _rĭgĭdum_ ✱_rĭyĭdu_ ＞ rẹide (§ 50, 1). _Rede_ and the
feminine _reza_ are peculiar. Cf. § 49, (1).
FINAL CONSONANTS.
81. The only single consonants that occur in Latin at the end of a word
are b, c, d, l, m, n, r, s, t. The only groups (in words preserved) are
ks, nt, st.
SINGLE FINAL CONSONANTS.
82. D, n, r, t at the end of proclitics (_ad_, _in_, _per_, _et_) are
really medial consonants and must be distinguished from final n, r, t
in independent words (_nōmen_, _frater_, _amat_); final d occurs only
in proclitics. The consonants will be treated in alphabetical order:--
B appears as b in Iacǫb, p in Iǫp, both learned.
C apparently fell after all vowels in some dialects; in others it
fell only after back vowels, and became i after a and front vowels:
_eccu’hŏc_ (§ 55, W) ＞ acǫ (§ 43, 2), _ecce hŏc_ ＞ aissǫ çǫ sǫ, _hŏc_ ＞
ǫ meaning ‘it’ (while ǫc, ‘yes’ probably comes from ✱_hocque_: cf. A.
Thomas in _Rom._, XXXVII, 322); _fac_ ＞ fai, _illác_ (§ 16, 4) ＞ lai
la, _ecce hac_ ＞ sai sa; _dīc_ ＞ di, _ecce hīc_ ＞ eici, _sīc_ ＞ si.
Düi ＜ _dūc_ may perhaps be explained as due to the analogy of _düire_
and of _fai_. Cf. § 63, (6).
D in _apud_ fell early: see § 65, P, 2. In the proclitics _ad_, _quĭd_,
the d disappeared before a consonant, and before a vowel became in most
dialects ð ＞ z (cf. § 65, D): a, quẹ; að az, quẹð quẹz.
L fell in _in sĭmul_ ＞ essẹm. It remained in the learned Abęl,
tribunal. It is believed by some that _sivals_, ‘at least’, comes from
_sī vel_.
M fell in Vulgar Latin at the end of a word of more than one syllable
(§ 55, M): _crēdam_ _crēda_ ＞ crẹza, _dōnum_ _dōnu_ ＞ dọn, _fŏrtem_
_fŏrte_ ＞ fǫrt; _Adam_ is learned. At the end of an independent
monosyllable, it fell in some dialects and in others became n (cf.
§ 65, N): _jam_ ＞ ia, _rĕm_ ＞ rẹ rẹn (Marcabru uses rẹy for the
rhyme), _sŭm_ (verb) ＞ sọ sọn. At the end of proclitics, m was
probably kept at first before vowels and labials, while it became n
before dentals, ŋ before gutturals, and disappeared before spirants;
but the n forms (helped by the analogy of _en_, _non_) and those
without a final consonant replaced m before vowels and partly before
labials, and probably took the place of ŋ before gutturals; we find,
then, sometimes m before labials, but either no consonant or n before
all other sounds: _quĕm_ ＞ que, _sŭm_ (verb) ＞ sọ sọn, _sŭm_ (=
_sŭum_) ＞ sọ sọn sọm, ✱_tŭm_ (= _tŭum_) ＞ tọ tọn tọm.
N fell in Vulgar Latin at the end of a word of more than one syllable
(§ 55, M): _nōmen_ _nōme_ ＞ nọm. At the end of proclitics we generally
find n before a vowel, a form without n before spirants, both forms
before other consonants, but often m before a labial: _ĭn_ ＞ en (_en
amar_, _en cant_), e (_e Fransa_, _e ls_), em (_em breu_); _nōn_ ＞ non
(_non es_, _non ges_), no (_no falh_, _no tol_), nom (_nom plagues_).
R remained: _amātor_ ＞ amaire, _cŏr_ ＞ cǫr, _marmor_ ＞ marbre (_marme_
shows dissimilation), _sŏror_ ＞ sǫrre (_sor_ through proclitic use). So
in proclitics: _per_ ＞ per, _sŭper_ ＞ sọbre.
1. A Provençal final r began to fall in the west and south in
the 14th century: cf. § 65, R, 1.
S remained: _amīcus_ ＞ amics, _cŏrpus_ ＞ cǫrs, _facias_ ＞ fassas,
_fŏrtes_ ＞ fǫrtz, _ŏpĕras_ ＞ ǫbras, _sŭbtus_ ＞ sọtz. Between a
palatal, or an n that did not fall, and an s, a t developed in some
dialects: _annos_ ＞ anz, _fīlios_ ＞ filz; cf. § 63, (1), (8).
1. Final s began to fall or to become i in many dialects as
early as the 14th century: cf. § 65, S, 1. In _mai_, beside
_mais_, the fall was earlier.
2. Final ts ＞ t, in the second person plural of verbs, in parts
of Limousin and Dauphiné: _habētis_ ＞ avęt. Cf. § 64. In all
first person plural forms (except esmes) final s fell very
early: _amāmus_ _amāmu’_ ＞ amám. Cf. § 167.
3. Through the influence of such common adverbs as _entz_ ＜
_ĭntus_, _fors_ ＜ _fŏris_, _ios_ ＜ _deōrsum_, _mais_ ＜ _magis_,
_mens_ ＜ _mĭnus_, _nemps_ ＜ _nĭmis_, _plus_ ＜ _plūs_, _sotz_
＜ _sŭbtus_, _sus_ ＜ _sūrsum_, s, coming to be regarded as
an adverbial ending, was often added to the suffix _-men_
(_belamens_), to many other adverbs, as _ensem-s_, _era-s_,
_onca-s_, _poissa-s_, and to some prepositions, as _sen-s_ (cf.
_tras_, _vers_, etc.). By the analogy of such double forms, we
have _for_, _men_ beside _fors_, _mens_.
4. _Magis_, used as a proclitic, probably became in Vulgar
Latin ✱_mais_ and ✱_mas_, whence Provençal _mais_ and _mas_.
For _mai_, see 1 above.
T, in independent words, fell very early, except in the preterit of
verbs; there it was retained in most dialects in weak preterits of the
first and third conjugations, in many dialects in weak preterits of the
fourth, but disappeared in strong preterits: _amat_ ＞ ama, _cantābat_
＞ cantava, _dar_’ ✱_hat_ ＞ darạ, _dōnet_ ＞ dọn, _stat_ ＞ estạ,
_partībat_ ＞ partia, _placet_ ＞ platz, _tenēr_’ + _-ē_(_b_)_at_ ＞
tenria, _vĕnit_ ＞ ven; _donāvit_ ＞ donęt donę, _vēndĭdit_ ✱_vendĕ́dit_
＞ vendęt vendę, _partīvit_ _partīt_ ＞ partị partịt, _placuit_ ＞
plac, _vīdit_ ＞ vi. In the proclitics _et_ and ✱_ot_ (= _aut_), the t
fell before consonants; before vowels it became d, which, under the
influence of _ad_ and _quĭd_, developed like an original d: _et_ ＞ e,
eð ez; ✱_ot_ ＞ o, oð oz; later, e and o came to be used often before
vowels also.
FINAL GROUPS.
83. Ks remained in Vulgar Latin at the end of monosyllables only (§ 55,
X); there it became, in Provençal, is: _rēx_ ＞ rẹis, _sĕx_ ＞ sęis.
_Grecx_, _nicx_ are Latinisms.
Nt was generally reduced to n; but in the extreme north and some parts
of the south the t was retained in _-ant_: _amant_ ＞ aman, _habē(b)ant_
＞ avian aviant; _cantent_ ＞ canten; _vēndunt_ ＞ vẹndon. In some
dialects the n fell after o, u (vẹndo, au); _-on_ and _-o_ were used
concurrently by the poets.
St ＞ s in _ĕst_ ＞ ęs. Cf. § 28, 5.
SPORADIC CHANGE.
84. For certain consonant changes no laws have been established.[81]
Some of them doubtless originate in the language of children, which is
governed by principles different from those which regulate the speech
of adults. Others are due to vague associations of sound or sense.
Borrowed and learned words are especially exposed to such whimsical
alteration.
INSERTION.
85. The insertion (or addition) of a consonant, in such cases as those
mentioned below, is probably always due to some false association or
wrong etymology, but the specific cause often cannot be ascertained;
the added consonant seems to be generally a liquid or a nasal:--
alhọnd_r_e -s ＜ _aliŭnde_: V. L. ✱_aliŭnder_?
co_n_si = _cossi_ ＜ _eccu’ sīc_: analogy of the prefix _co-_
_con-_. Cf. § 76, (1), nf, ns.
enc_l_utge ＜ _incūdĭnem_: cf. French _enclume_.
e_n_gal = _egal_ ＜ _æquālem_: analogy of the prefix _e-_ _en-_.
Cf. § 76, (1), nf, ns.
i_n_vęrn = _ivern_ ＜ _hibĕrnum_: _hi-_ mistaken for the prefix
_in-_; cf. Italian _inverno_, etc.
par_v_en (hence _parvensa_) ＜ _parĕntem_ (_parēre_): analogy of
_ferven_, _serven_, or of _espaven_, _espavensa_, or influence
of _parui_, etc.?
pe_n_chenar ＜ _pectināre_: analogy of _pencheire_, _penchura_?
perd_r_is = _perditz_ ＜ _perdīcem_: progressive assimilation?
Cf. French _perdrix_.
pǫuze_r_ = _pouze_ ＜ _pŏllĭcem_: confusion with _polgar_ ＜
_pollicāre_.
ref_r_eitọr = _refeitor_ ＜ _refectōrium_: association with
_refreidar_ (_freit_).
re_n_linquir = _relinquir_ ＜ _relĭnquĕre_: analogy of _e-_
_en-_; cf. _reforsar_ and French _renforcer_.
METATHESIS.
86. Metathesis is not very common in Provençal, although a few texts
offer many examples; it is apparently restricted to liquids and
nasals:--
cabi_r_ǫl = ✱_cabriol_ ＜ _capreŏ́lum_.
cocod_r_illa ＜ _crocodīlum_: cf. Italian _coccodrillo_.
c_r_aba = _cabra_ ＜ _capra_.
enf_r_ondar = ✱_enfondrar_ ＜ French _effondrer_
＜?✱_infŭndulāre_.
esc_r_emir ＜ _skirmôn_: cf. French _escrimer_.
esta_n_c ＜ _stagnum_: cf. French _étang_.
estu_r_men = _estrument_ ＜ _instrumĕntum_: cf. Italian
_stormento_.
fo_r_mir = _fromir_ ＜ _frumjan_: cf. French _formir_, etc.
f_r_eïr = _ferir_ ＜ _ferīre_.
g_r_ada = _garda_ ＜ ✱_warda_.
g_r_epir = _guerpir_ ＜ _wërpan_.
lhu_n_ = _nulh_ ＜ _nūllum_: analogy of _negun_. Cf. Fr. _nune
part_ (Balzac).
p_r_esseguier (also _pess-_) ＜ ✱_préssega_ ＜ _pĕrsĭca_.
rẹ_n_c (also _regne_) ＜ _rēgnum_.
t_r_ida ＜ τίγριδα.
t_r_onar ＜ _tonitruāre_ + _thrŏnus_.
t_r_uǫill ＜ _tŏrculum_.
t_r_obar ＜?_tŭrbāre_: see Körting.
1. In _ginhol_ = _genolh_ ＜ _genŭcŭlum_ the palatalization is
shifted from the liquid to the nasal. In _lunh_ = _nulh_ ＜
_nullum_, on the other hand, the palatalization remains at the
end of the word, but the liquid and the nasal change places.
DISSIMILATION.
87. Dissimilation, like the other irregular phenomena, affects mainly
liquids and nasals, particularly r; it is not, however, entirely
confined to these classes. The two nasals, m and n, are similar enough
to undergo dissimilation. Some of the cases go back to Vulgar Latin,
while others are peculiar to Provençal or to Provençal and French.
In the table below, a dash indicates the total disappearance of the
consonant in question.
β + β ＞ β + -- (v + --): _habēbam_ ＞ ✱_aβēa_ ＞ avia, ✱_vivāciārium_ ＞
viacier, _vivācius_ ＞ viatz. _Vianda_, whatever its ultimate origin may
be, was probably borrowed from French.
kw + kw ＞ k + kw: _quīnque_ ＞ _cīnque_ ＞ cinc.
l + l ＞ r + l, -- + l, d + l: _calamĕllum_ ＞ calamęl caramęl,
✱_umbilīcŭlum_ ＞ emborígol, _flēbĭlem_ ＞ flẹble frẹble fẹble,
_ŭlulāre_ ＞ ulular udolar. Perhaps püs = plüs ＜ _plūs_ is to be
explained by dissimilation, occurring in such phrases as _plus larc_,
_plus lonc_.
m + m ＞ n + m: _memorāre_ ＞ membrar nembrar (renembransa).
m + n ＞ m + r: ✱_comĭnicāre_ ＞ comenegar comergar, ✱_indomĭnicātum_ ＞
endomeniat endomergat, _mancĭpium_ ＞ mansip massip marsip, _manĭcum_ ＞
margue, _mŏnăchum_ ＞ mongue morgue.
n + m ＞ r + m: _anĭma_ ＞ anma arma, ✱_mĭnimāre_ ＞ mermar.
n + n ＞ n + r, r + n; ? d + n: _canŏnĭcum_ ＞ canónegue canorgue,
_venēnum_ ＞ verin; _nec ūnum_ ＞ negün degün? (cf. Andalusian and
Asturian _dengun_, Catalan _dingu_, apparently from _nec ūnum_ +
_nĭngŭlum_).
r + r ＞ r + --, -- + r, l + r: ✱_Bernhardum_ ＞ Bernart Bernat,
_marmor_ ＞ marbre marme, _prŏprium_ ＞ prǫpri prǫpi; _dīe Mércūrī_
(influenced by _dīe Vénĕris_) ＞ dimęrcres dimęcres, _grandem_ _rem_ ＞
granrẹ ganrẹ, _pr(eh)ĕndĕre_ ＞ prenre penre, _prĕsby̆ter_ ＞ pręstre
pęstre; _arbĭtrium_ ＞ albire, ✱_Arvĕrnium_ ＞ Alvęrnhe, _peregrīnus_ ＞
_pele(g)rīnus_ ＞ peleris, _pŭrpŭra_ ＞ pọlpra.
s + s ＞ -- + s: ✱_spasmāre_ ＞ (espasme) pasmar (cf. French _pâmer_),
perhaps through confusion of the initial es- with the prefix ex-.
t + t? ＞ -- + t: _statiōnem_? ＞ sazọ (cf. French _saison_, Spanish
_sazon_).
y + y ＞ y + --: ✱_disjejūnāre_ ＞ ✱_disjeunāre_ ＞ ✱_disy’nāre_ ＞ dis´nar
disnar.
III. MORPHOLOGY.
88. The most important morphological developments are common to all, or
nearly all, the Romance languages. They may therefore be ascribed, in
their early stages, to Vulgar Latin, although direct evidence of their
beginnings is scanty.
1. DECLENSION.
NOUNS.
89. (1) During the late Vulgar Latin and early Romance period neuter
nouns gradually became masculine; this change was doubtless due in
part to phonetic developments which obliterated distinctive endings:
_dōnum_ ＞ dọn, m.; _nōmen_ ＞ nọm, m. _Mare_, however, became almost
always feminine in Gaul: la mar. Some neuter plurals in _-a_, used
mainly in a collective sense, were preserved and eventually became
feminine singulars: _fŏlium_ _fŏlia_ ＞ fǫlha, f. sg.; _lĭgnum_ _lĭgna_
＞ lẹnha, f. sg.; so luǫgua, pọma, prada, beside lǫc, pọm, prat (and,
by analogy, grasa, beside gras ＜ _gradus_); similarly _labia_ ＞ lavias,
f. pl.
(2) Masculine and feminine nouns usually kept their original gender.
Abstract nouns in _-or_, however, regularly became feminine in Gaul,
other abstract nouns being mostly feminine in Latin: _honōrem_ ＞
onọr, f.; _sapōrem_ ＞ sabọr, f. With the exception of _manus_,
which generally retained its gender, feminine nouns of the second and
fourth declensions, unless they passed into the first declension
(_pĭrus_ ＞ pẹra), became masculine, to conform to the usual _-us_
type: _fraxĭnus_ ＞ fraisnes, m.; _pīnus_ ＞ pins, m. Attracted by such
words as these, _arbor_ became masculine. There were some other less
important shifts.
1. _Juventus_, passing into the second declension, became
masculine (_ioven_); but we find also _ioventut_, f. _Laus_
became masculine in Provençal; _fin_, on the other hand, is
always feminine. _Mĕrŭla_ ＞ _merle_, m. _Correitz_, _linh_,
both m., occur beside _correia_ ＜ _corrĭgia_, _linha_ ＜
_līnea_. Other similar changes might be noted. Pr. _dia_ (also
_di_), like Latin _dīes_, is usually masculine.
90. Some nouns passed from the fourth to the second declension in the
classic Latin period (_dŏmus_, _fīcus_); the rest doubtless followed in
Vulgar Latin (_frūctus_,[82] _gradus_, _manus_). Fifth declension nouns
in _-ies_ went over, for the most part, to the first declension:[83]
_dīes_ ＞ dia, _facies_ ＞ fassa, _glacies_ ＞ glassa, _rabies_ ＞ rabia;
but we find also di, fatz, glatz (ratge is probably French), following
the third declension type. Fifth declension nouns which did not
shift to the first came to be declined after the model of the third
(_fides_, _res_, _spes_). The five declensions were therefore reduced
to three, presumably in Vulgar Latin times. Among these there were some
exchanges: polvera, vergena; cf. § 89, (1), (2), 1.
91. The use of cases became more and more restricted in Vulgar Latin,
prepositional constructions taking the place of pure case distinction.
At the beginning of the Romance period, nouns probably had, in
unstudied speech, only two cases in constant use: a nominative and
an accusative or accusative-ablative. These two cases were generally
retained in Provençal, for the second and third declensions, until the
literary period: we may call them _nominative_ and _objective_.
(1) The locative, which had almost vanished in classic Latin, lingered
in Vulgar Latin only in names of places. It has left no sure traces in
Provençal.
(2) The vocative, in classic Latin, was like the nominative for most
words; in Vulgar Latin it probably disappeared, except in Church
phrases, such as _mī dŏmĭne_. In Provençal we find the nominative
regularly used in address (chanzọs, companh, emperaire, ioglars,
Papiols), although the objective occasionally occurs in its stead
(barọns pl., ioglar malastrüc, trachọr).
(3) The genitive, in the popular language, was little by little
replaced by other constructions--commonly by the ablative with _de_ or
by the dative; the beginnings of this substitution may be observed as
early as Plautus. Among Provençal nouns--aside from such learned forms
as ancianọr, christianọr, companhọr, paianọr, parentọr--we find
remnants of the genitive only in a few compound words, as diiǫus ＜ _dīe
Jŏvis_, and in the standing phrase ẹs mestięr ＜ _est ministĕrii_.
(4) The dative, which in most words had the same ending as the
ablative, came to be replaced, in the greater part of the Empire, by
the accusative with _ad_; this construction, too, goes back as far as
Plautus. Provençal nouns retain no traces of the dative.
(5) The ablative, after the fall of final m (§ 55, M) and the loss
of quantitive distinctions in unstressed syllables (§ 21), differed
little or not at all from the accusative in the singular of nearly all
nouns: _causăm_ _causā_, _dōnŭm_ _dōnō_, _patrĕm_ _patrĕ_, _frūctŭm_
_frūctū_, _dīĕm_ _dīē_. Furthermore, some prepositions (especially
_in_) were used both with the accusative and with the ablative. It
was inevitable, then, that the two cases should be confounded in the
singular, and we have evidence of such confusion as early as the
first century of our era; this led gradually to a substitution of the
accusative for the ablative in the plural, the accusative plural being
somewhat commoner and frequently simpler than the ablative. We may,
therefore, take the accusative as the basis of the Provençal objective,
remembering, however, that this accusative has been more or less
blended with the ablative.
(6) The two-case declension remained theoretically in use in Provençal
literature through the 14th century; but in texts later than the 12th,
cases are often confused. From the spoken language the declension
disappeared, in the west (as in Catalan), before the literary period;
in the centre and east, probably in the 12th century; in the north, in
the 13th. The case preserved was usually the objective, but sometimes
the nominative. Some nouns in _-aire_ _-adọr_ kept both forms, with a
differentiation of meaning.
92. In the discussion of declensions some phonetic peculiarities must
not be overlooked:--
(1) In the nom. pl. of the 2d declension, a stressed ẹ, followed in
the next syllable by final -ị, would regularly give ị (cf. § 27, 1);
but the ẹ is preserved by the analogy of the nom. and obj. sg. and the
obj. pl.: _capĭllī_ ＞ cabẹl, _mĭssī_ ＞ mẹs, _quētī_ ＞ quẹt, _sērī_
＞ sẹr. We do, however, find cabil, and (perhaps by analogy) auzil ＜
_aucĕllī_.
(2) In the nom. pl. of the 2d declension, a c or g before the final -ị
would regularly be palatalized (cf. § 55, C, G); but it is preserved
from palatalization by the analogy of the other three forms: _amīcī_ ＞
amic, _lŏngī_ ＞ lonc.
(3) For the development of a t between a palatal or an n and a final s,
see § 82, S: _annos_ ＞ anz, _fīlios_ ＞ filz.
(4) For the simplification of final scs, sts to cs, ts, see § 78, 2:
✱_bŭscus?_ ＞ bǫcs, _trīstes_ ＞ tritz.
(5) For the history of _-arius_ and _-tōrius_, see § 23, 1 and § 73,
Ry, 1.
93. (1) Nouns whose objective singular ended in s were invariable in
the earlier part of the literary period; _bracchium_ ＞ bratz, _cŏrpus_
＞ cǫrs, _imperatrīcem_ ＞ emperairitz, _fascem_ ＞ fais, _latus_ ＞ latz,
_lūcem_ ＞ lütz, _mĭssum_ ＞ mẹs, _nasum_ ＞ nas, _ŏpus_ ＞ ǫps, _ŭrsum_ ＞
ọrs, _pĭscem_ ＞ pẹis, _pĕctus_ ＞ pęitz, _prĕtium_ ＞ prętz, _tĕmpus_ ＞
tems, _vĕrsum_ ＞ vęrs, _vīsum_ ＞ vis, _vōcem_ ＞ vọtz. Later, however,
a plural (originally obj. pl.) was made for such words by adding
-es, generally at a time when final ts had been reduced to s (§ 64):
brasses, cǫrses, mẹsses, pẹisses, vęrses; examples occur as early as
the end of the 12th century.
(2) Other invariable nouns are midons, sidons, and often laus and rẹs;
the last two sometimes have an objective lau, rẹ. Midons comes from
the Church Latin _mī dŏmĭne_, which was popularized by the substitution
of the Provençal don for _dŏmĭne_ and the addition of the nom. -s; the
term was transferred from religious to feudal, and thence to amatory
use, and came to mean ‘my lady.’ _Mi domina_ was common in Church
Latin. Sidons is formed on the model of midons.
(3) For nouns in tš, see § 63, (1): ✱_disdūctum_ ＞ desdüg, _frūctum_
＞ früch, _gaudium_ ＞ gaug, _nŏctem_ ＞ nuech. Such words were very
often written in the plural with _-gz_, which was pronounced either ts
or tš. The pronunciation ts is attested by such rhymes as _malfagz_:
_alumenatz_.
94. Infinitives used substantively conformed to the 2d declension
type: lauzars lauzar (like fǫcs fǫc), rire-s rire (like fabre-s fabre):
see § 96. The same thing is true of masculine post-verbal nouns:
(getar) gętz gęt, (guidar) guitz guit, (lansar) lans (invariable).
FIRST DECLENSION.
95. This declension came to include a part of the fifth and also some
neuter plurals of the second and third. With the exception of dia
(nearly always masculine) and of a few learned words, it contained only
feminine nouns. As the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular
early became identical, leaving only one form in the singular, the
plural forms were reduced to one, the accusative crowding out the
nominative; this substitution, which must have been begun before the
Provençal period, was doubtless helped by the identity of nominative
and accusative plural in feminine nouns of the third declension.
_Causa_ will serve as a model:--
_causa_ ＞ causa
_causam_ ＞ causa
_causæ_ ✱_causas_ ＞ causas
_causas_ ＞ causas
1. _Dia_ sometimes has a nom. sg. _dias_, following the example
of other masculine nouns.
2. Many feminine proper names, in Gaul and elsewhere, developed
a Low Latin declension _-a_ _-āne(m)_ or _-a_ _-ēne(m)_, as
_Anna_ _Annāne_. Provençal has few traces of this inflection.
The word _putana_ ＜?_pūtĭda_ + _ānem_ + _a_ may be a remnant
of it. Cf. Meyer-Lübke, _Gram._, II, p. 27; E. Philipon, _Les
accusatifs en_ -on _et en_ -ain, _Rom._, XXXI, 201.
SECOND DECLENSION.
96. This declension came to include the fourth. With the exception of
mas, ‘hand’ (generally feminine), it contained only masculine nouns.
The different types may be illustrated by _fŏcus_, _dōnum_, _faber_:--
_fŏcus_ ＞ fǫcs _dōnum_ ✱_dōnus_ ＞ dọns _faber_ ＞ faure fabre fabres
_fŏcum_ ＞ fǫc _dōnum_ ＞ dọn _fabrum_ ＞ fabre
_fŏcī_ ＞ fǫc _dōna_ ✱_dōnī_ ＞ dọn _fabrī_ ＞ fabre
_fŏcos_ ＞ fǫcs _dōna_ ✱_dōnos_ ＞ dọns _fabros_ ＞ fabres
For the c of _fŏcī_, see § 92, (2). For ✱_dŏnus_, etc., see § 89 (1).
Nom. fabre is due to the analogy of the other three cases; the s of
fabres is borrowed from the prevailing fǫcs type.
1. Neuters which long preserved their gender often have no
_-s_ in the nom. sg.: _segle_ or _segles_. Nouns in _-age_
from _-aticum_ commonly have no _-s_: _corage_, _damnage_,
_message_, _senhorage_; but forms with _-s_ occur also. Learned
nouns in _-i_ from _-ium_ regularly have no _-s_: _breviari_,
_emperi_, _iuzizi_, _testimoni_. Post-verbal nouns, on the
other hand, usually take the nom. -s: _albires_, _blasme-s_,
_consires_, _desires_ (cf. § 94). By the analogy of the
_fabre-s_, _segle-s_, _blasme-s_ types, many masculines in _-e_
sometimes drop the _-s_: _clergue-s_, _diable-s_, _morgue-s_,
_oncle-s_, _poble-s_. _Maestre_, _prestre_ regularly have no
_-s_.
2. Most proper names are declined like common nouns: _Arnautz_
_Arnaut_, _Boecis_ _Boeci_, _Enrics_ _Enric_, _Lozoics_
_Lozoic_, _Peire-s_ _Peire_. Many proper names, however,
developed in Gaul and elsewhere, from the 9th century on, a Low
Latin declension _-us_ _-ōne(m)_, as _Petrus_ _Petrōnis_ (cf.
§ 95, 2): hence _Carle-s_ _Carló_, _Peire-s_ _Peiró_, etc.; so
_Bergonhs_ _Bergonhó_, etc.
3. _Mas_, being usually feminine, has a nom. pl. _mas_.
4. For _pagadi_, _salvi_, _soli_, etc., and _beill_, _peccah_,
_efanh_, etc., see § 51, 1.
THIRD DECLENSION.
97. This declension absorbed a part of the fifth: cf. § 90.
98. Nouns whose stem was different in the nominative and the accusative
singular, reconstructed the nominative to correspond to the accusative,
the new form being similar to the original genitive: _papĭlio_
_papiliōnem_ ＞ _papiliōnis_ _papiliōnem_, _pēs_ _pĕdem_ ＞ _pĕdis_
_pĕdem_. The change began in the Vulgar Latin period. Exceptions to
the rule are names of persons, unless they ended in _-ans_ or _-ens_:
_nĕpos_ _nepōtem_ ＞ nęps nebọt; but _amans_ _amantem_ ＞ ✱_amantis_
_amantem_ ＞ amáns amán.
1. _Carnis_ for _caro_ is used by classic writers. _Grūis_ for
_grūs_ occurs in the _Appendix Probi_ III, belonging perhaps
to the 3d century. _Papiliōnis_, _pĕdis_, _travis_ = _trabs_,
and some others are found in the 8th century _Glossary of
Reichenau_.
99. Masculine nouns of the third declension, early in the Provençal
period, made their nominative plural conform to the second declension
type, thus distinguishing it from the objective plural: _pater_
_patrem_ _patres_ _patres_ ＞ paire paire paire paires (cf. Old French
and Italian). Feminines, on the other hand, kept the nominative plural
in -s: _mater_ _matrem_ _matres_ _matres_ ＞ maire maire maires maires.
100. A few neuter nouns, becoming masculine in Vulgar Latin, developed
distinctively masculine forms in the singular: _gĕnus_ _gĕnus_ ＞
✱_gĕneris_ ✱_gĕnĕrem_ ＞ genres genre; so _fŭlgur_ (＞ _fŭlger_) ＞
✱_fŭlgĕrem_ ＞ fọuzer. Most neuters, however, kept in the singular
their original stem: _sēmen_ ＞ sẹm, _tĕmpus_ ＞ tems. But those
in _-men_ regularly, and those in _-r_ sometimes, took an -s in
the nominative singular: _flūmen_ _flūmen_ ＞ flüms flüm, _marmor_
_marmor_ ＞ marme-s marme; cǫr, in the literary language, usually has
no nominative -s. In the plural most neuters brought their forms
into harmony with the masculine type, but those in _-us_ kept the -s
throughout: (_caput_ >) _capus_ ✱_capum_ _capĭta_ _capĭta_ ＞ caps cap
cap caps, _cŏr_ _cŏr_ _cŏrda_ _cŏrda_ ＞ cǫr cǫr cǫr cǫrs, _nōmen_
_nōmen_ _nōmĭna_ _nōmĭna_ ＞ nọms nọm nọm nọms; but _cŏrpus_
_cŏrpus_ _cŏrpŏra_ _cŏrpŏra_ ＞ cǫrs cǫrs cǫrs cǫrs. _Mare_, becoming
feminine, was declined thus: mars mar mars mars.
1. _Gĕnus_ also became _ges_, which was used as an adverb.
101. The third declension comprises three principal types: (1) nouns
which in Latin had no difference of stem or of accent between
the nominative and the accusative singular; (2) those which had a
difference of stem but not of accent; (3) those which had a difference
of accent.
(1) Nouns with no difference of stem or of accent:--
MASCULINE
_canis_ ＞ cas _pater_ ＞ paire-s _sōl_ ＞ sọ-s
_canem_ ＞ ca _patrem_ ＞ paire _sōlem_ ＞ sọ
_canes_ ＞ ca _patres_ ＞ paire _sōles_ ＞ sọl
_canes_ ＞ cas _patres_ ＞ paires _sōles_ ＞ sọls
FEMININE
_fīnis_[84] ＞ fis _mater_ ＞ maire _fĭdes_ ＞ fẹs
_fīnem_ ＞ fi _matrem_ ＞ maire _fĭdem_ ＞ fẹ
_fīnes_ ＞ fis _matres_ ＞ maires _fĭdes_ ＞ fẹs
_fīnes_ ＞ fis _matres_ ＞ maires _fĭdes_ ＞ fẹs
1. Masculine nouns of this type which etymologically had no -s
in the nom. sg., often took one, even in the earliest times.
2. _Laus_ and _res_ were often invariable, but were sometimes
declined like _sols_ and _fes_.
(2) Nouns with a difference of stem but not of accent:--
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
_pōns_ ✱_pŏntis_ ＞ ponz _pars_ ✱_partis_ ＞ partz _lūmen_ ＞ lüm-s
_pŏntem_ ＞ pon _partem_ ＞ part _lūmen_ ＞ lüm
_pŏntes_ ＞ pon _partes_ ＞ partz _lūmĭna_ ＞ lüm
_pŏntes_ ＞ ponz _partes_ ＞ partz _lūmĭna_ ＞ lüms
NAMES OF PERSONS
_cŏmes_ ＞ coms _hŏmo_ ＞ om
_cŏmĭtem_ ＞ comte _hŏmĭnem_ ＞ ome omne[85]
_cŏmĭtes_ ＞ comte _hŏmĭnes_ ＞ ome omne
_cŏmĭtes_ ＞ comtes _hŏmĭnes_ ＞ omes omnes
1. For other neuter types, see § 100.
2. _Om_ later developed an inflection _oms_ _om_ _om_ _oms_.
3. _Lex_, _rex_ became _leis_ _lei_ _leis_ _leis_, _reis_ _rei_
_rei_ _reis_.
(3) Nouns with a difference of accent:--
MASCULINE FEMININE
_sĕrmo_ ✱_sermōnis_ ＞ sermọs _ratio_ ✱_ratiōnis_ ＞ razǫs
_sermōnem_ ＞ sermọ _ratiōnem_ ＞ razọ
_sermōnes_ ＞ sermọ _ratiōnes_ ＞ razọs
_sermōnes_ ＞ sermọs _ratiōnes_ ＞ razọs
NAMES OF PERSONS IN -ANS, -ENS
_amans_ ✱_amantis_ ＞ amáns _parens_ ✱_parĕntis_ ＞ paréns
_amantem_ ＞ amán _parĕntem_ ＞ parén
_amantes_ ＞ amán (f. amáns) _parĕntes_ ＞ parén
(f. paréns)
_amantes_ ＞ amáns _parĕntes_ ＞ paréns
NAMES OF PERSONS NOT IN -ANS, -ENS
_amātor_ ＞ amaire _sĕnior_ ＞ sęnher _mŭlier_ ＞ mọler
_amatōrem_ ＞ amadọr _seniōrem_ ＞ senhọr _muliĕ́rem_[86]＞ molhęr
_amatōres_ ＞ amadọr _seniōres_ ＞ senhọr _muliĕ́res_ ＞ molhęrs
_amatōres_ ＞ amadọrs _seniōres_ ＞ senhọrs _muliĕ́res_ ＞ molhęrs
_servītor_ ＞ servire _baro_ ＞ bar _sŏror_ ＞ sǫrre sǫr[87]
_servitōrem_ ＞ servidọr _barōnem_ ＞ barọ _sorōrem_ ＞ sorọr
_servitōres_ ＞ servidọr _barōnes_ ＞ barọ _sorōres_ ＞ sorọrs
_servitōres_ ＞ servidọrs _barōnes_ ＞ barọs _sorōres_ ＞ sorọrs
1. After the same pattern as _senher_, we have pastor
_pastōrem_ ＞ _pastre_ _pastór_, etc.; after the _bar_ pattern,
✱_companio_ (_Einf._, § 43) ✱_companiōnem_ ＞ _companh_
_companhó_, ✱_fĭllo_ (Körting) ✱_fillōnem_? ＞ _fel_ _feló_,
_glŭtto_ (= _glūto_) _gluttōnem_ ＞ _glot_ _glotó_, _latro_
_latrōnem_ ＞ _laire_ _lairó_, _lĕo_ (treated like the name of a
person) _leōnem_ ＞ _leu_ _leó_, etc. On the model of _amaire_,
_servire_, we find _trobaire_ _trobadór_, etc., _iauzire_
_iauzidór_, etc.; and, for the second and third conjugations,
_teneire_ _tenedór_, etc., _beveire_ _bevedór_, etc. The
inflection of such words became much confused, and some of them
eventually developed double declensions: _bars_ _bar_ _bar_
_bars_, _barós_ _baró_ _baró_ _barós_; _emperaires_ _emperaire_
_emperaire_ _emperaires_, _emperadórs_ _emperadór_ _emperadór_
_emperadórs_. Some proper names follow the _bar_ model: _Bret_
_Bretó_, _Folc-s_ (_Folques_) _Folcó_ (later _Folcós_ _Folcó_),
_Gasc_ _Gascó_, _Uc_ _Ugó_, (later _Ucs_ _Uc_); cf. § 96, 2.
ADJECTIVES.
102. What has been said concerning the inflection of nouns applies also
to adjectives: see §§ 91-101. For pronominal adjectives see §§ 114 ff.
1. The operation of phonetic laws sometimes results in a
difference in stem between the m. and the f.: _bos_ _bona_,
_larcs_ _larga_, _nutz_ _nuda_, _preon_ _preonda_; _mut_
_muda_, _prezat_ _prezada_. For _pauc_ _pauca_, _rauc_ _rauca_,
see § 65, C, 1. For _-arius_ _-aria_, _-tōrius_ _-tōria_, see §
23, 1; § 73, Ry, 1.
2. Adjectives in -s or -š are undeclinable in the m.
sg.: _glorios_, _perfieg_. Those in -s originally had no
inflectional ending in the m. pl., but later they sometimes
added -es: _divers_ _diverses_, _frances_ _franceses_. For the
pl. of those in š, see § 93, (3).
103. We must recognize two classes of adjectives: (1) those which in
Latin distinguish the feminine from the masculine; (2) those which do
not.
1. Adjectives like _acer_, which, though inflected after the 3d
declension type, could distinguish the m. from the f. in the
nom. sg., fell into one or the other--usually the first--of
the following classes (_agre_ _agra_, _alegre_ _alegra_;
_terrestre_ _terrestre_).
(1) Masculine and feminine different:--
MASCULINE FEMININE
_bĕllus_ ＞ bęls _bĕlla_ ＞ bęlla
_bĕllum_ ＞ bęl _bĕllam_ ＞ bęla
_bĕlli_ ＞ bęl _bĕllæ_ ✱_beĕllas_ ＞ bęlas
_bĕllos_ ＞ bęls _bĕllas_ ＞ bęlas
_pauper_ ＞ paubre-s _paupĕra_ ＞ paubra
_paupĕrum_ ＞ paubre _paupĕram_ ＞ paubra
_paupĕi_ ＞ paubre _paupĕræas_ ＞ paubras
_paupĕros_ ＞ paubres _paupĕras_ ＞ paubras
(2) Masculine and feminine alike:--
MASCULINE FEMININE
_gentīlis_ ＞ gentils _gentīlis_ ＞ gentils
_gentīlem_ ＞ gentil _gentīlem_ ＞ gentil
_gentīles_ ＞ gentil _gentīles_ ＞ gentils
_gentīles_ ＞ gentils _gentīles_ ＞ gentils
1. Some adjectives of the second class were attracted into the
first either in Vulgar Latin or in Provençal; this happened
to all adjectives in _-és_, _-able_, _-ible_, and also to
_comun_, _dous_, _fol_, _freble_, _graile_, _len_, _mol_,
_noble_, _paubre_ (early), _rude_, _trist_: _cortes_ _cortesa_,
_durable_ _durabla_; _comuna_, _doussa_, etc. Some kept both
inflections: _dolens_, _dolens_ or _dolenta_; _grans_, _grans_
or _granda_, etc.
104. In impersonal constructions we frequently find a nominative
singular without -s, which is apparently a survival of the Latin
neuter: _m’es bel_ (_greu_, _parven_, _semblan_, etc.) _que_.… But the
form with -s sometimes occurs in the same constructions: _m’es greus
que_.…
1. For _es mestier_, see § 91, (3).
105. Most adverbs of manner were formed by adding -men (-ment, -mens,
or -menz) to the feminine singular of the adjective: belamen. These
adverbs were originally ablative phrases: _serēna mĕnte_, etc. In
Provençal the specific meaning of the -men was forgotten, but the two
parts might still be separated by an intervening word: ẹpsa… ment.
When two adverbs in -men were used together, the ending was generally
affixed to only one, oftener the first. Bona and mala could be used as
adverbs without the suffix.
1. For the adverbial ending -s, see § 82, S, 3.
COMPARISON.
106. Adjectives and adverbs regularly formed their comparative by
prefixing plüs to the positive, and their superlative by prefixing the
definite article to the comparative: cara, plüs cara, la plüs cara.
This method of comparison goes back to Vulgar Latin times.
1. ‘Than’ is expressed by _que_ and _de_.
107. Some adjectives preserved their old comparative in _-ior_. These
comparatives had an inflection similar to that of sęnher: cf. § 101,
(3) and § 101, (3), 1.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE
_altus_: aut ---- aussọr
✱_bellātus_ = _bĕllus_: ---- bellaire bellázer-s bellazọr
_gĕnĭtus_: gen génser-s gensọr
✱_grĕvis_ = _gravis_: gręu gręuger ----
_grŏssus_: grǫs gruęysser ----
_laið_: lai láiger ----
_largus_: larc ---- largọr
_lĕvis_: lęu lęuger ----
_lŏngus_: lonc ---- lonhọr
(_grandis_): (gran) máier maiọr
(_bŏnus_): (bon) męlher melhọr
(_paucus_): (pauc) mẹnre-s menọr
_nūgālis_: ---- ---- nüalhọr
(_malus_): (mal) pęier peiọr
(_mŭltus_): (mọlt) ---- plüsọr[88]
_sŏrdĭdus_: sorde sordẹier sordeiọr
108. The following neuter comparatives were used as adverbs: gensẹis
gensẹs gensẹtz (＜ génser influenced by longẹis, sordẹis); longẹis
longẹitz ＜?✱longĭtius (＜ longĭter + lŏngius); mais ＜ _magis_; męlhs
＜ _mĕlius_; mẹns ＜ _mĭnus_; pęitz ＜ _pĕjus_; sordẹis ＜ _sordĭdius_;
viatz ＜ _vivacius_. Mais, męlhs, mẹns, pęitz were used also as neuter
pronouns. Viatz lost its comparative sense.
109. A few adjectives, most or all of them learned, preserved the old
superlative form with an intensive sense: altisme, carisme, pęsme,
prǫsme, santisme.
NUMERALS.
110. The cardinal numerals are:--
ün
dọs
trẹs
quatre
cinc
sęis
sęt
uęg
nǫu
dętz
ọnze
dọtze
trẹtze
quatọrze
quinze
sętze, sędze
dętz e sęt
dętz e uęg
dętz e nǫu
vint, vin
vint e ün
vint e dọs
trẹnta
quaranta
cinquanta
sessanta
setanta
quatre vint
nonanta
cent, cen
dozent
tresent
quatre cen
cinc cens (de)
mil
dọs milia
trẹs melia
quatre mila
cinc millięrs (de)
cent miria
111. The first two numbers were inflected as follows:--
ü(n)s üna düi dọi dọas dọs
ü(n) üna dọs (düi) dọas dọs
Düi dọi are from Vulgar Latin _dŭī_ = _dŭo_; dọs is from _dŭos_,
dọas from _dŭas_. Trẹs has a form trẹi (originally nom. m.),
patterned after düi, and a form trẹis, which seems to be a cross
between trẹs and trẹi. For the dialect forms of ọnze--sętze, see
§ 76, (1), Ndc´, and § 80, Dc´. Cen, multiplied by another number,
took a plural form when used substantively; when used adjectively, it
generally did not, but we find dozentas with a feminine noun. Mil had
four plurals, milia miria melia mila; millięrs is a noun.
1. As an example of a longer compound numeral, we have _cen e
quatre vint e ueg_.
2. From _ambo_ we have the obj. forms, m. and f., _ams_,
_ambas_. _Ambo_ combined with _dŭī_ (_dŭos_ _dŭas_), and
perhaps influenced by Pr. _ab_ (§ 65, P, 2), had this
inflection:
_amdui_ _andui_ _abdui_ _ambedui_ _amdoas_
_amdos_ _andos_ _abdos_ _ambedos_ _amdoas_
112. The ordinal numerals had separate forms for the two genders; the
masculine forms followed the second declension type, the feminine
forms, the first declension. After 5th, they were made by adding to the
cardinal numeral the originally distributive ending _-ēnus_ _-ēna_.
primięr, primięra
segọn(t), segọnda
tęrz, tęrza
quart, quarta
quint, quinta
seizẹ(n), seizẹna
setẹ(n), setẹna
ochẹ(n), ochẹna
novẹ(n), novẹna
dezẹ(n), dezẹna
onzẹ(n), onzẹna
dozẹ(n), dozẹna
vintẹ(n), vintẹna
centẹ(n), centẹna
milẹ(n), milẹna
113. Beside primięr we find premięr prümier promięr (§ 44, 1, 3), and
also prim and primeiran; for the developments of the ending -ięr, see §
23, 1 and § 73, Ry, 1. Tęrz, tęrza regularly became tęrs, tęrsa (§ 73,
Rty). Such forms as secọnda, tęrcia, sęxta, octava, nọna, dęcima are
learned.
1. As an example of a compound ordinal numeral, we have
_vintena tersa_.
PRONOUNS.
114. Under this head will be treated not only pronouns and pronominal
adjectives, but also articles.
115. In popular Latin the personal, possessive, and demonstrative
pronouns and adjectives had two sets of forms, according as they
were accented or unaccented (§ 19). _Ille_, when stressed and used
pronominally, became a disjunctive personal pronoun of the third
person; when unstressed and used pronominally, it furnished the
conjunctive forms of the third person; when unstressed and used
adjectively, it developed into a definite article. _Ipse_ had similar
uses. These differentiations must have begun in Vulgar Latin times.
116. The declension of _ĭlle_ was considerably altered in Vulgar Latin.
The neuter _ĭllud_ disappeared, being replaced by _ĭlium_. Through the
influence of _quī_ _cūjus_ _cūī_, ✱_ĭllī_ _illūjus_[89] _illūī_[89]
came to be used beside _ĭlle_ _illīus_ _ĭllī_. The feminine had, beside
_illīus_ _ĭllī_, a genitive and dative _ĭllæ_; through the analogy of
_illūjus_ _illūī_, _ĭllæ_ was expanded into _illæjus_[89] _illæi_.[89]
_Illīus_ then went out of use. In the plural, _illōrum_ (which in some
regions, by the analogy of _illūjus_ _illūī_, had a form ✱_illūrum_)
crowded out _illārum_; this _illōrum_ came to be used also as a dative.
_Ipse_ and _ĭste_ followed in the main the same course as _ĭlle_.
ARTICLES.
117. The indefinite article comes from _ūnus_, which seems to have been
occasionally so used even in classic Latin:--
ü(n)s üna
ü(n) üna
118. (1) The definite article comes from unaccented _ĭlle_, which,
being used as a proclitic, regularly lost its first syllable (§ 19).
_Ille_ (✱_ĭllī_), _ĭllum_, _ĭllī_, _ĭllos_, _ĭlla_, _ĭllas_ became
respectively le (li), lo, li or lhi,[90] los, la, las. Le, lo, li, lhi,
la frequently elided their vowel before another vowel (l’an, l’arma),
becoming l or lh. Furthermore, le, lo, li, lhi, los, in the intertonic
position after a vowel (vé lo páire), regularly lost their vowel (vẹl
páire)[91]; and, by analogy, la and las were sometimes reduced to l
and ls. We have, then, beside the full forms, the proclitics l, lh,
and the enclitics l, lh, ls. Inasmuch as l might be vocalized before
a dental,[92] the enclitics l and ls sometimes became u and us (a͡u
portęr, e͡uz dias antix).
(2) The particles e and que, with the enclitic l, formed combinations
ẹl and quẹl. Quẹl, being understood as _qu’el_, gave rise to a form
ẹl.
(3) In the f. nom. sg. there is a form li or lhi, which is hard to
explain. The most likely theory is that when the masculine _quī_ took
the place of the feminine _quæ_ (see § 133), the masculine ✱_ĭllī_ came
to be used beside _ĭlla_,[93] for the feminine. The Provençal feminine
li (lhi) which resulted was strongly supported by the analogy of a
feminine possessive mi, beside ma (see § 127).[94]
(4) The regular forms are, therefore, the following:--
MASCULINE FEMININE
Sg. {_nom._: lẹ li l ẹl la li lhi l lh
{_obj._: lọ l u ẹl la l
Pl. {_nom._: li lhi l lh las
{_obj._: lọs ls us las ls
In many texts the objective forms lo, los, ls are used in the
nominative.
1. The m. obj. sg. _le_, obj. pl. _les_, which occur in a few
texts, are doubtless French. So is the encl
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