Cassell's book of birds; vol. 1
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Title: Cassell's book of birds; vol. 1
Author: Alfred Edmund Brehm
Translator: Thomas Rymer Jones
Release date: April 10, 2015 [eBook #48675]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48675
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Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S BOOK OF BIRDS; VOL. 1 ***
CASSELL'S BOOK OF BIRDS.
[Illustration: THE BLUE-STRIPED LORY ____ LORIUS CYANOSTRIATUS
(_about four fifths Life size_)]
CASSELL'S
BOOK OF BIRDS.
_FROM THE TEXT OF DR. BREHM._
BY
THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.R.S.,
PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN
KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.
WITH UPWARDS OF
Four Hundred Engravings, and a Series of Coloured Plates.
_IN FOUR VOLUMES._
VOL. I.
LONDON:
CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN;
AND NEW YORK.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 1-22
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS 23
CRACKERS (_Enucleatores_).
PARROTS (_Psittacini_). The TRUE PARROT (_Psittacinæ_):--The
Jako--The Amazon Parrot--The Maitakka--The Crested Hawk Parrot
24-43
THE DWARF PARROTS (_Psittacula_):--Swinder's Love Bird--The
Sparrow Parrot--The Siskin Parrot 43-45
COCKATOOS (_Plyctolophus_):--The Lemon-crested
Cockatoo--Leadbeater's Cockatoo--The Helmet Cockatoo--The
Nose Cockatoo--The Nestor Cockatoo--The Eagle Cockatoo--The
Casmalos--Banks's Raven Cockatoo--The Kakapo, or Night Parrot of
New Zealand 45-57
THE ARARAS (_Aræ_): The Scarlet Macaw--The Soldier Arara--The
Anakan--The Ararauna--The Hyacinth-coloured Arara. The PARRAKEETS,
or CONICAL-TAILED PARROTS (_Conurus_):--The Garuba--The
Tiriba--The Carolina Parrakeet--The Choroy 58-66
THE LONG-TAILED PARROTS, OR PARRAKEETS (_Palæornithes_):--The
Collared, or Rose-ringed Parrot--The Bettet. The SUPERB
PARROTS (_Polytelis_):--The Scarlet-crested Superb Parrot--The
Black-tailed Superb Parrot. The GRASS PARROTS (_Platycerci_):--The
Rosella--The Variegated Parrot--The Waved Parrot--The Corella--The
Ground Parrakeet 66-79
THE LORIES (_Lorii_):--The Purple-capped Lory--The Dappled
Lorikeet--Swainson's Lorikeet--The Maiden Lorikeet--The Papuan
Lory--The Blue-striped Lory 79-82
PASSERINE BIRDS (_Passeres_).
THE CROSS-BILLS (_Loxiæ_):--The Large-beaked Cross-bill--The
Pine-tree Cross-bill--The Banded Cross-bill--The Parrot Greenfinch
85-92
THE BULLFINCHES (_Pyrrhulæ_):--The Parrot Bullfinch--The Pine
Grosbeak--The Carmine Grosbeak--The Rose Bullfinch--The Carmine
Bullfinch--The Siberian Bullfinch--The Vinous Grosbeak, or Desert
Trumpeter--The Bullfinch--The Girlitz--The Canary 92-114
THE FINCHES (_Fringillæ_):--The Chaffinch--The Mountain Finch--The
Snow Finch--The Winter Finch. The LINNETS (_Cannabinæ_)--The Brown
Linnet--The Mountain or Grey Linnet--The Birch-tree Siskin--The
Common Siskin--The Goldfinch--The Golden Thistle Finch 114-130
THE SPARROWS PROPER (_Passeres_):--The Common Sparrow--The Spanish
Sparrow--The Field or Tree Sparrow--The Plain Sparrow--The Golden
Sparrow--The Rock Sparrow. The HAWFINCHES (_Coccothraustæ_):--The
Green Grosbeak--The Hawfinch--The Evening Cherry Hawfinch--The
Large-beaked Hawfinch. The PARROT FINCHES (_Pityli_):--The
Rose-breasted Hawfinch--The Cardinal Grosbeak--The Dominican
Finch--The Tiny Finch--The Diadem Grosbeak--The Ashy-blue Parrot
Finch--The Masked Parrot Finch 131-148
THE HABIAS (_Saltator_):--The Capi. The PLANT CUTTERS
(_Phytotoma_): The Rarita. The TANGARAS PROPER:--The Ornate
Tangara. FIRE TANGARAS (_Pyranga_):--The Flax Bird--The Fire
Tangara. The CALLISTES (_Calliste_):--The Red-necked Calliste.
The CALLOUS-BEAKED TANGARAS (_Ramphocelus_):--The Tapiranga. The
BUTCHER-BIRD TANGARAS (_Lanio_):--The Black-headed Butcher-bird
Tangara. The ORGANIST TANGARAS (_Euphone_):--The Violet Organist.
The BRIGHT-COATED FINCHES (_Amadinæ_):--The Band Bird. The
HOODED FINCHES (_Spermestes_):--The Magpie Finch. AUSTRALIAN
FINCHES:--The REED FINCHES (_Donacola_):--The Chestnut Reed Finch.
The Double-banded Reed Finch. The GRASS FINCHES (_Poëphila_).
CHAFF-FINCHES (_Chloëbia_):--The Admirable Chaff-finch--The Rice
Bird--The Little Goldbreast--The Blood Finch--The Variegated
Finch--The Steel Finch--The Butterfly Finch. The ASTRILDS
(_Astrildæ_):--The Grey Astrild--The Pheasant Finch 148-165
WEAVER BIRDS (_Plocei_):--The Social Weaver Bird--The Golden
Weaver Bird--The Masked Weaver Bird--The Baya--The Crimson-beaked
Weaver Bird--The Taha--The Flame-coloured Fire Finch--The
Red-beaked Buffalo Weaver Bird--The Alecto Buffalo Weaver
Bird--The Dinemelli Buffalo Weaver Bird 166-178
THE WHYDAH OR WIDOW BIRDS (_Viduæ_):--The Yellow-shouldered
Mourning Widow--The Long-tailed Widow Bird--The Paradise Widow
Bird 178-181
THE AMERICAN FINCHES (_Passerella_):--The White-throated
Sparrow--The Morning Finch--The Tree Bunting Finch--The Prairie
Bunting Finch--The Sea Bunting Finch 181-184
THE BUNTINGS (_Emberizæ_):--The Crested Bunting--The Grey
Bunting--The Golden Bunting--The Ortolan--The Red Bunting--The
Black-headed Bunting--The Reed Bunting--The Lark Bunting--The Snow
Bunting 185-195
THE LARKS (_Alaudæ_):--The Calandra Lark--The Short-toed Lark
or Calandrelle--The Black or Moor Lark--The Desert Lark--The
Black-headed Bunting Lark--The Alpine Lark. The LARKS PROPER
(_Alaudæ_):--The Tufted Lark--The Wood Lark--The Sky Lark--The
Sentry Lark. The COURSER LARKS (_Alaemon_):--The Desert Courser
Lark 195-202
RAVENS (_Coracirostres_).
THE STARLINGS (_Sturnidæ_). The TROOPIALS (_Agelaii_):--The
Boblink or Rice Bird. The MARSH TROOPIALS (_Agelaius_):--The
Red-winged Troopial. The COW BIRDS (_Molothrus_):--The Cow
Starling. The YELLOW or GOLDEN STARLINGS (_Icteri_):--The Jamaica
Yellow Bird--The Baltimore Golden Starling. The CASSICANS
(_Cassici_):--The Japu, or Tufted Cassican. The BOAT-TAILS
(_Quiscalus_):--The Great Boat-tail. The STARLINGS PROPER
(_Sturni_):--The Common Starling--The Sardinian Starling--The
Rose Starling--The Mina Birds--The Musical Grakle. The OX-BITERS
(_Buphagæ_):--The African Ox-biter--The Red-beaked Ox-biter. The
GLOSSY STARLINGS (_Lamprotornithes_)--The Bronze-coloured Glossy
Starling--The Golden-breasted Glossy Starling--The Superb Glossy
Starling--The Scaly Glossy Starling--The Brazen Glossy Magpie. The
ROCK GLOSSY STARLINGS (_Moriones_):--The White-beaked Rock Glossy
Starling. The MOUNTAIN GLOSSY STARLINGS (_Amydrus_):--The Naburup.
The ORIOLES (_Orioli_):--The Satin Bower Bird--The Spotted Collar
Bird--The Pirol, Golden Oriole, or Cherry Bird--The Golden-crested
Oriole 210-243
THE BIRDS OF PARADISE (_Paradiseæ_):--The Footless Bird of
Paradise--The Wumbi--The Ruby, or Red Bird of Paradise--The
King of the Birds of Paradise--The Collared Bird of Paradise.
EPIMACHI:--The Resplendent Epimachus--The Collared Epimachus--The
Magpie Bird of Paradise 243-253
THE RAVENS PROPER (_Coraces_). The MOUNTAIN CROWS, or CHOUGHS
(_Fregili_):--The Chough--The Snow Crow, or Alpine Chough. The
TRUE RAVENS:--The Raven--The White-necked Vulture Raven--The
Scapulated Raven. The CROWS (_Corvus_):--The Carrion Crow--The
Hooded Crow--The Rock or Field Crow--The Jackdaw--The Glossy
Crow--The Nutcracker. The PIPING CROWS (_Phonygamæ_):--The Flute
Bird--The Bell Bird or Bell Magpie--The Bald-headed Crow. The TREE
CROWS, or JAYS (_Garruli_):--The Magpie--The Blue Magpie. The BLUE
RAVENS (_Cyanocorax_):--The Hooded Blue Raven--The Crested Blue
Jackdaw--The Common Jay--The Unlucky Jay. The LONG-TAILED CROWS
(_Glaucopes_). The TREE MAGPIES (_Dendrocitta_):--The Wandering
Magpie--The Benteot--The Long-tailed Kitta--The FEATHER-BEAKS
(_Cissa_):--The Sirgang, or Green Jackdaw 254-283
THE PLANTAIN EATERS (_Amphibolæ_). The TRUE PLANTAIN
EATERS (_Musophagæ_):--The Banana Eater. The HELMET BIRDS
(_Corythaix_):--The White-cheeked Helmet Bird--The Turako. The
SPLIT BEAKS (_Schirzorhis_):--The Alarm Bird. The COLIES, or MOUSE
BIRDS (_Colii_):--The Wiriwa--The White-cheeked Mouse-Bird 283-290
CATCHERS (_Captantes_).
BIRDS OF PREY (_Raptores_). The FALCONS (_Falconidæ_). The
NOBLE FALCONS (_Falcones_). The HUNTING FALCONS (_Hierofalco_).
The WANDERING FALCONS (_Falco_):--The Peregrine Falcon--The
Red-necked Falcon--The Tree Falcon--The Berigora. The KESTRELS
(_Tinnunculus_):--The Lark Kestrel--The Kestrel--The Red-footed,
or Evening Falcon--The Sparrow Falcon. The DWARF FALCONS
(_Hierax_):--The Muti 291-312
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATE I.--THE SCARLET MACAW.
" II.--THE GROUND PARRAKEET.
" III.--THE BLUE-STRIPED LORY.
" IV.--EGGS.
" V.--THE BULLFINCH AND GOLDFINCH.
" VI.--THE WAGLERS CASSICUS.
" VII.--THE SHARP-BILLED ORIOLE.
" VIII.--THE RUBY BIRD OF PARADISE.
" IX.--THE SPARROW HAWK.
" X.--THE IMPERIAL EAGLE.
INTRODUCTION.
FIG. PAGE
1. Respiratory Apparatus of a Fowl 2
2. Wing of a Bird, partially stripped of Feathers,
to show the insertions of the Quills 4
3. Nascent Feather of a Chicken 5
4. Head of a Swan (_Cygnus olor_) 6
5. Section of the Head of an Eagle, showing the
structure of the Eye 7
6. Eye of an Owl, showing the arrangement of
the Nictitating Membrane 8
7. Muscles of the Eye-ball and of the Nictitating Membrane 9
8. External Ear of a Young Owl 10
9. The Throat of a Fowl, showing the parts _in situ_ 11
10. Tongue of the Woodpecker, showing the mechanism
employed for its protrusion 12
11. Viscera of Small Bird (_Euphone violacea_) 13
12. Skeleton of a Goose 16
13. Ornithological Regions of the body of a Small Bird 19
14. Chicken in the Egg, newly arrived at maturity 21
15. A Young Chicken, showing the arrangement
of the Feathers 22
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.
1. Cockatoos (_Cacatua_) 28
2. Collared Parrot (_Palæornis torquatus_) 29
3. The Jako (_Psittacus erithacus_) 36
4. The Amazon Parrot (_Chrysotis Amazonicus_) 40
5. The Maitakka (_Pionus menstruus_) 41
6. The Crested Hawk Parrot (_Deroptyus accipitrinus
coronatus_) 44
7. The Helmet Cockatoo (_Callicephalus galeatus_) 48
8. The Nestor Cockatoo (_Nestor productus_) 49
9. The Casmalos (_Microglossus aterrimus_) 52
10. The Raven Cockatoo (_Calyptorhynchus Banksii_) 53
11. The Scarlet Macaw (_Ara Macao_) 61
12. The Garuba (_Conurus luteus_) 64
13. The Rosella (_Platycercus eximius_) 72
14. The Waved Parrot (_Melopsittacus undulatus_) 73
15. The Corella (_Nymphicus Novæ Hollandæ_) 76
16. The Ground Parrakeet (_Pezoporinus formosus_) 77
17. The Purple-capped Lory or Lorikeet (_Lorius domicella_) 80
18. The Dappled Lorikeet (_Psitteuteles versicolor_) 81
19. Tail-piece 82
20. The Large-beaked Cross-bill (_Loxia pityopsittacus_) 85
21. The Banded Cross-bill (_Loxia tænioptera_) 88
22. Cross-bills (_Loxiæ_) 89
23. The Pine Grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_) 93
24. The Desert Trumpeter (_Bucanetes githagineus_) 96
25. Female Bullfinch and Nest 104
26. The Girlitz (_Serinus hortulanus_) 105
27. The Wild Canary 109
28. The Tame Canary 112
29. The Chaffinch (_Fringilla Coelebs_) 116
30. The Mountain Finch (_Fringilla montifringilla_) 120
31. The Brown Linnet (_Cannabina linota_) 121
32. Siskin, Bullfinch, and Goldfinch 125
33. Goldfinches and Nest 128
34. Winter Visitors to the Village 132
35. Sparrow's Nest 133
36. The Tree Sparrow (_Passer montanus_) and the
House Sparrow (_Passer domesticus_) 136
37. The Green Grosbeak (_Chloris hortensis_) 140
38. The Rose-breasted Hawfinch (_Coccoborus ludovicianus_) 144
39. The Dominican Finch (_Paroaria dominicana_) 148
40. The Rarita or Rara (_Phytotoma Rara_) 149
41. The Guttarama (_Euphone violacea_) 156
42. The Rice Bird (_Padda oryzivora_) 160
43. The Pheasant Finch (_Astrilda undulata_) 164
44. Detached Nest of Male Gold-fronted Weaver Bird
(_Oriolinus icterocephalus_) 165
45. Nest of Astrilda, from Senegal 165
46. Nest of Weaver Bird, slit open 166
47. Nest of Mahali Weaver Bird 168
48. Nest of Social Weaver Bird (_Philetaërus socius_) 168
49. The Golden Weaver Bird (_Ploceus galbula_) and
the Masked Weaver Bird (_Ploceus larvatus_) 169
50. The Java Weaver Bird (_Baya_) and Nests 172
51. Breeding Nest of the Golden-fronted Weaver Bird
(_Oriolinus icterocephalus_) 173
52. Nests of South African Weaver Birds 175
53. The Fire Finch (_Euplectes Petiti_) 176
54. Dinemelli's Buffalo Weaver Bird (_Textor Dinemellii_) 177
55. The Paradise Widow Bird (_Vidua paradisea_) 180
56. The White-throated or Song Sparrow (_Zonotrichia
albicollis_) 181
57. The Ortolan, or Garden Bunting (_Emberiza-Glycyspina
hortulana_) 188
58. The Black-headed Bunting (_Euspiza melanocephala_) 189
59. The Reed Bunting (_Cynchramus schoeniclus_) 192
60. The Lark Bunting (_Centrophanes lapponicus_) 193
61. The Snow Bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_) 194
62. The Calandra Lark (_Melanocorypha Calandra_) 197
63. The Moor Lark (_Saxilauda Tatarica_) 200
64. The Desert Lark (_Ammomanes deserti_) 201
65. The Alpine Lark (_Phileremos alpestris_) 202
66. The Tufted Lark (_Galerita cristata_) 204
67. The Skylark (_Alauda arvensis_) 205
68. The Sentry Lark (_Macronyx capensis_) 208
69. Tail-piece 209
70. The Boblink (_Dolichonyx oryzivorus_) 212
71. The Red-Winged Troopial (_Agelaius Phoeniceus_) 216
72. The Cow Starling (_Molothrus pecoris_) 217
73. The Baltimore Bird 220
74. The Great Boat-tail (_Quiscalus major_) 221
75. The Common Starling (_Sturnus vulgaris_) 224
76. The Rose Starling (_Pastor roseus_) 228
77. The Musical Grakle (_Gracula musica_) 229
78. The Red-beaked Ox-biter (_Buphaga erythrorhyncha_) 232
79. The Superb Glossy Starling (_Notauges superbus_) 233
80. The Scaly Glossy Starling (_Pholidauges leucogaster_) 236
81. The Satin Bower Bird (_Philonorhynchus holosericus_) 237
82. The Spotted Collar Bird (_Chlamydera maculata_) 240
83. The Pirol, or Golden Oriole (_Oriolus galbula_) 241
84. Birds of Paradise 244
85. The Red Bird of Paradise (_Paradisea rubra_) 245
86. The Resplendent Epimachus (_Seleucides resplendens_) 249
87. The Collared Epimachus (_Epimachus magnus_) 252
88. The Magpie Bird of Paradise (_Astrapia gularis_) 253
89. The Chough (_Fregilus graculus_) 256
90. The White-necked Vulture Raven (_Corvultur albicollis_) 259
91. The Scapulated Raven (_Pterocorax scapulatus_) 260
92. The Raven (_Corax nobilis_) 261
93. The Carrion Crow (_Corvus corona_) 262
94. The Rook (_Corvus frugilegus_) 264
95. The Jackdaw (_Monedula turrium_) 265
96. The Nutcracker (_Nucifraga caryocatactes_) 268
97. The Flute Bird (_Gymnorhina tibicen_) 269
98. The Magpie (_Pica caudata_) 273
99. The Crested Blue Jackdaw (_Cyanocitta cristata_) 276
100. The Common Jay (_Garrulus glandarius_) 277
101. The Wandering Magpie (_Dendrocitta vagabunda_) 281
102. The Banana Eater (_Musophaga violacea_) 284
103. The White-cheeked Helmet Bird (_Corythaix leucotis_) 285
104. The Alarm Bird (_Schizorhis zonurus_) 288
105. The Wiriwa (_Colius Senegalensis_) 289
106. Oriental Falconry 297
107. The Peregrine Falcon (_Falco peregrinus_) 301
108. The Falconer 304
109. The Tree Falcon (_Hypotriorchis subbuteo_) 305
110. The Lark Kestrel (_Tinnunculus alaudarius_) 308
111. The Red-footed or Evening Falcon (_Erythropus
vespertinus_) 309
_CASSELL'S_ BOOK OF BIRDS.
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION.
We were some time ago both delighted and astonished by the performances
of a German artist, who imitated with wonderful exactness the notes of
a variety of birds. The song of the nightingale and the warblings of
the skylark, the whistling of the throstle and the out-poured melody
of the canary, were gone through with such perfect execution, that the
birds themselves, we thought, could scarcely have detected a flaw in the
performance. This gifted individual introduced himself to his audience
by a somewhat humorous account of the manner in which he had acquired
his extraordinary powers. He told us that his father, who was a breeder
of birds, had upon one occasion gone from home, leaving a bag of rice
as provision for his children, and a quantity of bird-seed for his
feathered protégés. By some mistake the rice had been given to the birds,
and the bird-seed to the children, the consequence being, that on the
gentleman's return he found his birds all dead, and his children singing
like piping bullfinches. How far this explanation was satisfactory we
will not stop to inquire; but we have sometimes been almost tempted to
suppose that some similar accident must be of frequent occurrence in
Germany. The deep acquaintance of the ornithologists of that country with
the objects of their study, and the fidelity with which they note down
the minutest incidents connected with the history of their favourites,
surpassing anything achieved by other naturalists, not even excepting
such enthusiastic labourers as Wilson and Audubon, demands our warmest
praise; while the patient industry, so conspicuous in their writings, at
once calls for and excites our admiration.
Among the foremost of his countrymen in the cultivation of ornithological
research stands the author of the magnificent work whose pages it is our
wish to lay before English readers. Not content with studying the natural
history of his favourites from books, or even in the rich scientifically
arranged collections contained in so many Continental museums, his zeal
led him to follow them even into their own wild retreats, and, gun
in hand, to penetrate the burning deserts of Eastern Africa, and the
equally inhospitable, and then but little known, regions of Abyssinia.
By thus familiarising himself with the habits of birds in their native
haunts, and amid the scenery whereby they are surrounded in a state of
nature, he has been enabled to impart a freshness to his descriptions as
characteristic of the real naturalist as the smell of new-made hay is
redolent of fields and hedgerows, and no more to be imitated by the mere
compiler than the voice of an orator by the reporter of his speeches.
Before, however, we permit our author to speak for himself, it may
perhaps be desirable to preface his remarks by a few general observations
concerning the structure of the beautiful creatures that form the
subjects of his teaching, inasmuch as it is obviously desirable to have
clear notions concerning the machinery employed before its adaptation to
its intended uses can be made manifest; and further, because in the study
of ornithology, as in every other branch of natural history, there are
certain conventional terms that may require explanation before the words
used in describing an object are intelligible to the uninitiated.
The Bird is an inhabitant of the air in the fullest sense of the
expression. The atmosphere is emphatically the sphere of its activity; it
mounts it as it would a ladder; it sails through it in triumph, and rides
upon the winds as upon a fleet steed. Moreover, it is the atmosphere
itself which endows the feathered Ariel with such capabilities, and
it is in the perfection of his respiration that we must search for an
explanation of his wonderful achievements.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.--RESPIRATORY APPARATUS OF A FOWL.
_a_, the Lungs, immovably fixed; _c_, _d_, the Breast-bone, moving as
upon a hinge at _b_, so that it can be raised to the position indicated
by dotted lines at _h_. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Cells, with membranous walls,
into which the air is freely admitted during the act of inspiration.]
The muscular activity of every animal is intimately dependent upon the
efficiency of its breathing apparatus, upon the freedom with which
the vital element finds admission to the blood which it is destined
to renovate, and upon which it confers those qualities so inseparably
connected with the elimination of increased temperature, and the vigour
of muscular action. In this respect, as we shall see immediately, the
feathered races surpass all living creatures, with the exception,
perhaps, of the members of the insect creation.
The lungs of a bird are not suspended, like those of a quadruped, within
a circumscribed chest or thoracic cavity, in such a manner as to become
inflated by each inspiration; they are rather to be described as soft,
porous, and highly vascular organs, through which the air passes as
through the interior of a sponge. The movements of the chest, upon which
depend the inspiration and expiration of the atmospheric fluid, may be
compared to those of a bellows continually employed in taking in and
expelling the surrounding element by a mechanism represented in the
accompanying figure (Fig. 1). The framework of the chest, consisting
of the ribs and of the breast-bone, is so put together that at each
inspiration it can be raised, as shown in the drawing, from the position
_d_ to the position _h_, thus materially enlarging the thoracic chamber,
just as the upper board of an ordinary bellows is raised for the purpose
of taking in the air; but, in this case, the surrounding element, instead
of entering through a valve-defended orifice, rushes down the windpipe,
and through the immovable, sponge-like lungs, permeating the wide
passages with which they are perforated, and not only filling the entire
thorax, but penetrating into the interior of the very bones, which are
left marrowless for its reception.
The mechanism whereby expiration is effected is equally simple; just as,
when the upper board of the bellows is depressed, the air is forced out
through the nozzle, so, by the return of the breast-bone to its former
position, the inspired air is again forced to pass through the lungs and
make its escape by means of the windpipe. By this process it is obvious
that the vital element--the oxygen of the atmosphere--being admitted to
every part of the system, the blood is vitalised to the greatest possible
extent, its temperature is raised until the heat of the body of a bird
is far greater than that of an ordinary quadruped, and its vitality is
proportionately exalted. Consequently, as the blood circulates through
the system, it carries with it heat and life in superabundance; the
energies of the entire system are roused to the uttermost; the fibres of
every muscle quiver with intense life, like a steam-engine working under
high pressure, thus enabling the falcon to cleave the skies with the
velocity of a falling thunderbolt, and not only qualifying the swallow
for its rapid flight, but enabling it to achieve its wonderful migrations.
This admission of air into every part of the system serves not only
to fan the vital flame, and rouse the energies of the bird to an
extraordinary degree of tension; it likewise assists in giving buoyancy
to its movements, bearing it upward, as the gas does a balloon; for it is
evident that the air received into the body being raised to a temperature
corresponding to the heat of its blood, the specific gravity of the
bird is proportionately diminished, and it rises into the air almost
without an effort, and even hovers in the sky with scarcely a perceptible
movement of its wings.
A knowledge of the mechanism of their mode of respiration will likewise
enable us to explain another remarkable feature in the history of the
feathered tribes, namely, their power of song. Who that has listened to
the prolonged warblings of a linnet, the flood of melody poured forth
from the little throat of the canary, the "lengthened sweetness long
drawn out" which almost pains the enraptured ear as we listen to the
song of the nightingale, but has wondered how such tiny birds can ever
find sufficient breath for the utterance of such long-sustained, such
interminable notes? What would our prima-donnas at the opera give for but
the tithe of the capacity of these favoured little songsters? No human
breast could ever hold sufficient breath for such performances. We now
see, however, that the vocal organs of a bird are exactly adapted to
the nature of their music. Their whole body is a bellows, as large in
proportion to their size as the bellows of an organ is in relation to the
pipes into which it has to pour the sound. The little bird is, in fact,
a living harmonium--its singing apparatus is not situated at the top of
its throat, but is implanted in the inferior termination of its windpipe;
and just as the tongue of the harmonium is thrown into vibration by the
issuing current of air caused by pressure upon the bellows, so are the
vocal chords of the feathered songster rendered sonorous as the air
passes over them. In proportion to the capacity of the bellows must be
the duration of the note, and we have already seen that the air-cells of
the bird are capable of furnishing a supply not easily exhausted. There
is, however, this remarkable difference between the two instruments:
the tongue of each key of the harmonium can give utterance but to one
sound--one never-varying tone--while the corresponding part of the
bird, rendered more or less tense by muscles provided for the purpose,
contains within itself a whole gamut, and there is not a note in the
scale that is not instantly at the command of the inimitable little
musician. In the perching birds, among which are found by far the most
accomplished singers, five pairs of muscles are connected with this
exquisitely-contrived apparatus, and are so disposed as to influence
both the diameter and the length of the air-passages. In the parrots
three pairs are met with; some of the swimming birds have two, while
others have only one; and in a few--as the king of the vultures and the
condor--vocal muscles are quite wanting.
Seeing that the temperature of birds is raised so much above the usual
standard by the arrangements described above, some clothing is requisite,
adequate to retain the vital heat. Another indispensable provision is
therefore met with in the FEATHERS with which all birds are so warmly
clad. Indeed, so peculiar is the texture of these admirable fabrics,
that no better distinctive appellation could be devised for the entire
class than that of the "feathered tribes," by which they are frequently
designated. A feather realises in its structure more qualities than
imagination could have conceived it possible to combine--lightness,
thickness, warmth, durability, elasticity, softness, strength, and
beauty. It is one of the master-works of creation. Whoever has examined a
feather under the microscope will testify to the incomparable perfection
of the contrivance. Every feather is a mechanical wonder. If we look at
the quill-portion, or barrel, we find it possessed of attributes not
easily brought together--strength and lightness. If we cast our eye upon
the upper part of the stem, we see a material made for the purpose,
which is used in no other class of animals, and in no other part of
birds--tough, light, pliant, elastic--the pith. This is also a substance
_sui generis_; it is neither bone, flesh, membrane, nor horn.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.--WING OF A BIRD PARTIALLY STRIPPED OF FEATHERS, TO
SHOW THE INSERTIONS OF THE QUILLS.
_a_, the Arm; _d_, the Fore-arm; _g_, the Thumb; _c_, the Secondary
Quills, implanted into the Fore-arm; _f_, the Primary Quills, implanted
into that portion of the Wing which represents the hand; _e_, the
Spurious or Bastard Quills, derived from the Thumb.]
But the most wonderfully constructed part of a feather is the _plume_,
or, as it is sometimes called, the _web_. This is affixed to each side of
the stem, and constitutes the broad expansion of the feather, that part
which we usually strip off when making a pen. One of the first things to
be remarked is that the web is much stronger when pressed in a direction
perpendicular to the flat plane of the plume than when rubbed either up
or down in the direction of the stem; the reason of this is that the
web is composed of numerous flat, thin, and broad laminæ, arranged with
their flat sides together, so that, although they easily bend towards
each other, they offer great resistance in the direction in which they
have to encounter the impulse and pressure of the air; and it is in this
direction only that their strength is wanted and put to the test.
Another particularity is still more admirable. Whoever examines a feather
cannot help noticing that the laminæ of which we have been speaking,
in their natural state seem to be fastened together. Their adhesion to
each other is manifestly something more than mere apposition; they are
not to be separated without a certain degree of force, and, as there is
evidently no glutinous cohesion between them, it is plain that by some
mechanical means or other they catch or clasp among themselves, thereby
giving to the web its closeness and compactness of texture. Nor is this
all. When two laminæ which have been separated by accident or design
are brought together again, they immediately reclasp; the connection,
whatever it was, is perfectly restored, and the web of the feather
becomes as smooth and firm as if nothing had happened to it. Draw your
finger down the feather, which is, so to speak, against the grain, and
you will probably destroy the junction between some of the contiguous
laminæ; draw your finger up the feather in the opposite direction, and
you restore all to their former state of coherence. This is no common
contrivance. Let us now inquire concerning the mechanism whereby it
is effected. The laminæ above mentioned, examined individually, are
found to be provided with vast numbers of long fibres, or teeth, which
project from their edges in such a manner that, when placed in contact,
those of contiguous laminæ hook and grapple together. The fibres are
extremely minute; indeed, fifty of them have been counted by means of
the microscope in the space of the 1/20th of an inch. Every fibre is
crooked, but bent after a definite manner; those that proceed from one
edge of a lamina are long, flexible, and bent downwards, whereas those
that proceed from the opposite edge are shorter, firmer, and turned
upwards. The manner in which they are united is, therefore, as follows:
When two contiguous laminæ are pressed together, so that the long fibres
are forced far enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall into
the angles formed by the crooked parts of the others, just as the latch
of a door falls into the cavity of the catch fixed to the door-post, and
there hooking itself, fastens the door. This admirable structure, which
may be readily seen with a very ordinary microscope, ensures not only
the union of the laminæ, but renders it possible that when any two of
them have been separated by violence they will become re-connected with
facility and expedition. In the ostrich, this apparatus of crotchets and
fibres, of hooks and eyes, is wanting; the filamentary laminæ hang loose
and separate, forming a kind of down; but such a plan of construction,
however it may fit the plumes for the flowing honours of a lady's
head-dress, must be considered as detrimental to the bird, inasmuch as
wings composed of such feathers, although they may assist in running,
will not serve for flight.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.--NASCENT FEATHER OF A CHICKEN.
_c_, the External Horny Sheath, slit open; _d_, _d_, Web of the Feather
produced in successive layers from the central stem, _e_.]
The power of inflating their whole body with air, and the possession
of feathers, are therefore the most distinctive endowments of a bird,
inasmuch as these attributes are quite peculiar to the class.
To creatures thus gifted with strength and activity so extraordinary,
it is manifest that perceptions of great acuteness are requisite,
corresponding with the rapidity of their movements and the intelligence
necessary for the performance of the important duties entrusted to their
charge; and in this respect, as will be made manifest by a perusal of
their history, they occupy a position in the economy of nature fully
equal or even superior to that enjoyed by the most favoured quadrupeds.
The mental faculties of the parrots correspond with those of the monkeys,
whom in their habits and capabilities these birds closely resemble; in
cunning they are quite upon a par with their four-handed neighbours,
with which, in the forests of tropical countries, they are so generally
associated; and when removed from their native woods, and made, as they
often are, the companions of mankind, the facility with which they can
be taught to imitate human actions--nay, to mimic our very speech--bears
ample testimony to the exalted character of their mental capacities.
On examining the brain of a bird, the anatomist is therefore by no means
surprised to find that, both in its development and in the perfection of
its structure, it surpasses that of many quadrupeds. The proportionate
volume of the brain of some of our singing birds, as compared with the
dimensions of their body, is astonishing, and reveals to us at a glance
the reason why these little favourites are so sagacious and so eminently
susceptible of education. (See Fig. 4.)
[Illustration: Fig. 4.--HEAD OF A SWAN (_Cygnus olor_).
The upper part of the skull has been removed to show the brain and eyes
_in situ_. _a_, _a_, the Cerebral Hemispheres; _b_, the Cerebellum; _c_,
the Spinal Cord. All the above parts are represented covered by their
investing membranes. _e_, Sinuses of the Dura Mater; _g_, _g_, Walls of
the Skull; _h_, _h_, Base of the Beak; _m_, Optic Nerve of the Left Eye;
_p_, _p_, Large sentient Nerves supplying the Bill; _v_, Bony Ring in
front of the Eye-ball; _x_, _x_, Transparent Cornea; 1, 3, 5, 7, Muscles
moving the Eye-ball.]
In strict correspondence with this exalted condition of their cerebral
organisation are the senses whereby they hold intercourse with
surrounding nature. Their power of vision is beyond our comprehension,
and the elaborate contrivances whereby the eye of a bird is adapted
to its peculiar mode of life, might furnish materials for a lengthy
treatise, imperfect as is our knowledge of the numerous delicate
arrangements demonstrable by anatomical skill in every part of its
structure. At present we can but briefly allude to a few of the more
conspicuous peculiarities wherein the visual apparatus of a bird differs
from that of other creatures.
The distances from which the vulture and the hawk can see their prey
are almost incredible. To have the "eye of a hawk," to see with "eagle
glance," are expressions which, though common enough, give but a very
feeble idea of the extent to which those birds are gifted in this
respect, or of the vast expanse bounded by their horizon. The falcon sees
its diminutive prey from an altitude at which it is itself invisible,
and from the very sky swoops down upon its quarry with the velocity of a
shot, rarely missing its victim, and thus proving at once the perfection
of its sight and the steadiness of its aim. The eye of these birds must
therefore be constructed after the plan of a telescope, and its focus
adapted to long-sightedness. Its axis must be lengthened to an extent
greater than is compatible with a spherical form of the eye-ball. To
meet this requirement a circlet of bony plates, constituting a firm but
at the same time somewhat flexible ring or hoop, is introduced into
the composition of the outer coat of the eye, whereby the requisite
elongation is effected, and the organ is thus adapted for perfect vision
at a great distance. (See Fig. 4.)
The above beautiful arrangement, however, constitutes but a part of the
mechanism required. A telescope adjusted for distant vision is quite
useless when brought to bear upon an object close at hand, and its focus
must necessarily be altered in accordance with the changed conditions.
In the case of the telescope, the needful adjustment would be effected
by shortening or lengthening the sliding tube; but in the bird some
other plan is evidently indispensable, and few contrivances in animal
mechanics are more admirable than that which is adopted. Embedded in the
transparent vitreous humour of the eye is a peculiar apparatus called
the "marsupium," the texture of which resembles that of the human iris.
Now the iris, as we all know, being eminently sensitive to the intensity
of light, by its spontaneous contractions and dilatations is enabled to
alter the diameter of the pupil of the eye, and thus exactly control
the quantity of light admitted. The marsupium, equally sensitive, and
equally spontaneous in its action, swells or contracts its dimensions,
filling or emptying itself like a sponge, and thus adjusting the lenses
of the eye so as to secure perfect vision at whatever distance the object
to be seen may be placed. The quickness of sight with which birds are
gifted is equally remarkable. The swallow is proverbially one of the
swiftest flyers in the feathered creation, and yet in the full career
of its flight it is looking on the right hand and on the left, upwards
and downwards, for its food. The insects upon which it preys are often
exceedingly minute, sometimes flying above and sometimes below the level
of the swallow's course, and yet they are seen and captured without any
diminution of the prodigious rate at which the bird is flying. Nay,
more, any one who attentively watches one of these birds skimming over a
meadow, may perceive that it will capture two or even three insects in
such quick succession as to convince him that the swallow must have "had
an eye upon them" all at once, and yet they are caught, as it were, in a
moment.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.--SECTION OF THE HEAD OF AN EAGLE, SHOWING THE
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE.]
Another admirable contrivance peculiar to the feathered race, is the
existence of a thin, semi-transparent veil, which, when requisite, can
be instantaneously drawn over the front of the eye. This apparatus,
generally known as the "nictitating membrane," is useful for a variety of
purposes; it sweeps over the eye to cleanse it from dust, it diffuses the
tears which keep it bright and polished, it will act as a screen to shut
out the too great intensity of light, so that with its assistance the
eagle can confront the sun even at noon-day; it will likewise defend the
eye from sudden injuries, and yet, even when drawn like a curtain over
the pupil, not shut out the light. The commodious manner in which this
membrane lies folded up in the inner corner of the eye, and the quickness
with which it executes its purpose, are known to every observer; but what
is equally admirable, though not quite so obvious, is the employment
of two kinds of material, and the combination of two kinds of force,
by which the movements of this membrane are effected. It is not, as
in ordinary cases, by the action of two antagonist muscles, the one
pulling it forward and the other backward, but the membrane itself, being
elastic, is capable of being drawn out like a thin sheet of india-rubber,
and of returning to its former position when the force acting upon it
is removed. Such being its nature, in order to adapt it for its office
it is connected by a tendon with a muscle situated at the back part of
the eye. This tendon, though strong, is so fine as not to obstruct the
sight, even when it passes across the pupil, and the muscle which moves
it being situated deeply within the orbit, derives from its situation
the advantage of not only being secure from injury, but of being out of
the way, which it hardly would have been in any position that could be
assigned to it in the front of the eye, where its function really lies.
When this muscle contracts, the membrane, by means of the communicating
tendon, is instantly drawn, as it were, by a thread, over the transparent
cornea, and when the muscle ceases to act, the elasticity of the membrane
is sufficient to bring it back into its former position. (See Fig. 6.)
[Illustration: Fig. 6.--EYE OF AN OWL, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE
NICTITATING MEMBRANE.
Both eyelids are divided through their middle, and everted, so as to
display the Nictitating Membrane, _a_, and the passage for the tears
(_puncta lacrymalia_), _b_.]
But this is not all. In the arrangement of the muscle which, though
placed behind the eye, draws the nictitating membrane in front of
it, there is what justly deserves to be called a marvellous piece of
mechanical contrivance. The extent of contraction necessary to draw
the membrane over the whole front of the visual organ would require a
much longer muscle than could have been placed in such a situation;
in order to meet this difficulty, the tendon which draws forth the
nictitating membrane is made to pass through a loop in another muscle, as
represented in the next wood-cut (Fig. 7), where it is evident that, by
the simultaneous contraction of both these muscles, the extent of their
action when drawing the nictitating membrane over the eye is considerably
increased. Neither is this the only advantage derived from so ingenious a
contrivance; were it not for the plan adopted, the tendon of the muscle
_u_ _x_ would press upon the optic nerve, and thus materially interfere
with vision--an inconvenience that by the existing arrangement is totally
prevented. Devices like these, whereby special machinery is introduced
for special purposes, speak for themselves; we acknowledge their beauty,
and in them we recognise at once the wisdom and the goodness of the
CREATOR.
[Illustration: Fig. 7.--MUSCLES OF THE EYE-BALL AND OF THE NICTITATING
MEMBRANE.
The Muscles of the Eye-ball, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, are separated from their
origins, and turned aside, to show the "trochlearis" or "quadratus," _t_,
and the "pyramidalis," _u_, _x_; the latter of which passes through a
loop in the former, so as to gain a double extent of effect with a given
length of fibre.]
The SENSE OF SMELL in birds has afforded subject-matter for much
discussion, and great obscurity still exists with reference to the
extent to which they make use of their olfactory organs. It has been
generally asserted that birds of prey are gifted with an acute perception
of odours, and are thus enabled to discover their food at a distance;
but the rapidity with which vultures are known to assemble round the
carcase of an animal too recently killed to attract them by putrefactive
exhalations, has induced many observers to consider them as being
directed entirely by sight. That this latter is the preferable theory
appears to be sufficiently established by the experiments of Audubon,
which go to show that these birds possess a sense of smell very far
inferior to that conferred upon carnivorous quadrupeds, and that, so
far from guiding them to their prey from a distance, it affords them no
indication of its presence even when close at hand.
Having procured the skin of a deer, M. Audubon stuffed it full of
hay, and after the whole had become perfectly dry and hard, he placed
it in the middle of an open field, laying it down on its back in the
attitude of a dead animal. In the course of a few minutes he perceived
a vulture flying towards and alighting near it. Quite unsuspicious of
the deception, the bird immediately proceeded to attack the carcase, as
usual, in the most vulnerable points. Failing in this, he next, with much
exertion, tore open the seams with which the skin had been stitched, and
appeared earnestly intent upon getting at the flesh which he expected to
find within, and of the absence of which not one of his senses was able
to inform him. Finding that his efforts, which were long reiterated, led
to no other result than the pulling out of sundry quantities of hay, he
at length, though with evident reluctance, gave up the attempt, and took
flight in pursuit of other game.
Another experiment, the converse of the preceding, was then tried:--A
large dead hog was concealed in a narrow and winding ravine, about twenty
feet deeper than the level of the ground around it, and filled with
briars and high cane. This was done in the month of July, in a tropical
climate, where putrefaction takes place with great rapidity; yet,
although many vultures were seen sailing in all directions over the spot
where the putrid carcase was lying covered only with twigs of cane and
light underwood, none of them appeared at all to suspect its presence.
Nevertheless, notwithstanding the apparently decisive result of the above
experiments, anatomy teaches us that the olfactory apparatus in this
class of animals is largely developed, and indicates by its extent that
it is well adapted to investigate the odorous properties of the air taken
in for respiration.
The SENSE OF HEARING in birds is remarkably acute, as might be readily
inferred from the vocal capabilities conferred upon many of these
gifted songsters. Their music is certainly not less appreciated by
the performers than it is by their auditors. "Nobody can doubt,"
observes Bishop Stanley, "who sees a bird singing, clapping its little
wings, turning from side to side, and glancing its bright eyes in all
directions, as if courting attention and admiration, that it feels
delight and satisfaction. Did we require further proof, we have but
to recollect that the song-bird is most alert with the music of its
voice when its affections and interests are awakened by its mate during
the time of rearing its young." It is, indeed, principally during the
breeding-season that the singing power of birds is in full activity; and
seeing that in general it is only the male that possesses the musical
faculty, we may naturally suppose that its exercise is intended for the
solace and amusement of his mate during her confinement to her nest. The
nightingale himself becomes voiceless so soon as the appearance of his
nestlings calls him to more profitable employment.
[Illustration: Fig. 8.--EXTERNAL EAR OF A YOUNG OWL.
_a_, the Upper Part of the Head, partially denuded of feathers; _b_, the
Beak; _d_, the Eye; _c_, _e_, _f_, Marginal Fold of Skin surrounding a
cavity, the interior of which somewhat resembles the folds of the human
ear; _g_, Auditory Passage leading to _h_, the Drum of the Ear (_membrana
tympani_).]
It is, however, among the nocturnal birds that the faculty of hearing
is more specially developed. In the generality of birds there is no
provision made externally for catching or concentrating sonorous
impressions; but in the owls, the bustards, and a few others that venture
forth at night, we find a different arrangement. In the owls, more
especially, an external auditory apparatus is very conspicuous; not only
does the integument exhibit a variety of folds, the disposition of which
forcibly reminds us of the human ear, but the feathers upon the sides of
the head are so disposed as to fulfil in some degree the purposes of a
hearing trumpet. (See Fig. 8.) In such species the sense of hearing is
exquisitely developed.
In the generality of birds the SENSE OF TASTE can scarcely be said to
exist. The manner in which they obtain and swallow their food precludes
the possibility of enjoyment from this source, so that their tongue is
in many cases appropriated to some totally different use. In by far
the greater number the tongue is small, thin, and cartilaginous; the
extremity is flat, and incapable of being protruded beyond the bill. (See
Fig. 9.) There are, however, great varieties in the construction of this
organ, a few of which will require our notice.
The tongue of the parrot, although its substance is not so fleshy, has
some resemblance to that of man, and it is probable that this is one of
the circumstances enabling these birds to imitate the human voice with so
much facility.
In the family of the toucans and some others, the tongue, without being
extensible, is fully as long as the largely developed bill, and,
moreover, its sides are fringed like those of a feather. A tongue of this
description may probably be endowed with some delicacy of taste, enabling
these birds to appreciate the flavour of the fruits on which they feed.
Birds of the duck family have the largest tongues. Owing to its fleshy
appearance it more nearly resembles the human tongue than even that of
the parrot. Birds of this family discriminate their food not by sight,
but by the delicate sense of touch with which their tongue is endowed.
They thrust their bill into the mud, and from the mouthful thus obtained
select, by means of their tongue alone, whatever is fit for food,
rejecting the rest.
The smallest tongues are found in the night-jars and swallows, two groups
which at the same time are distinguished by having the largest mouths in
proportion to the size of their bodies; and in this case the design is
equally apparent. These birds feed upon living insects captured during
their rapid flight, and immediately swallowed whole; taste is out of the
question. A large tongue would only be in the way, and it is therefore
reduced to a mere rudiment.
[Illustration: Fig. 9.--THE THROAT OF A FOWL, SHOWING THE PARTS _in situ_.
_a_, the Lower Mandible; _c_, the Tongue; _h_, _m_, interior of the
Gullet; _i_, the Upper Larynx.]
In the preceding examples the length of the tongue never exceeds that
of the bill; but in the case of the woodpeckers it is protrusible to a
wonderful extent. On opening the bill of a woodpecker immediately after
it has been killed, the tongue seems of ordinary length, or indeed
rather short, and shaped somewhat like the spears used by the Caffres in
South Africa, called _assagais_, pointed at the end and furnished with
numerous barbs. (See Fig. 10.) This, however, is only the tip of a very
remarkable instrument. If the barbed portion be drawn out of the mouth, a
person unacquainted with its nature would think that he had got hold of
a very long earthworm that the bird had incautiously tried to swallow,
but which had stuck in its throat; hence a tongue of this description
is called _vermiform_. The point in its usual position reposes in the
ordinary manner between the mandibles; the rest is concealed, but is
susceptible of extension, at the pleasure of the bird, to four or five
times the length of the bill. The act of protrusion is effected by the
remarkable structure of the root of the tongue, or more properly of the
_os hyoides_, or bony apparatus whereby it is attached. The posterior
prolongations derived from the _os hyoides_ are compactly curved around
the back of the skull; and occasionally they are prolonged forwards
to such an extent as actually to reach the nostrils. By means of this
somewhat complex arrangement the woodpecker, having broken away the bark
of a tree by the powerful strokes of its bill, and thus laid open the
retreat of the insects beneath, suddenly darts out its tongue, spears
its prey, and instantly brings the transfixed insect into its mouth.
The SENSE OF TOUCH must be of very limited utility; indeed, there seems
to be no part of the body of a bird so constructed as to be capable of
tactile impressions. The wings, the representatives of hands and arms,
are obviously entirely unfit for the exercise of such a function; neither
do the legs and feet seem to be better suited to this purpose. The only
organ of touch about which there can be no doubt is the bill, yet even
this is generally covered with a hard sheath of horn. Nevertheless, in
some races the extremity of the bill is soft and largely supplied with
nerves. In snipes and wood-cocks, for example, the sensitive extremity of
the beak materially assists in procuring their food.
For the systematic arrangement of the class of birds, the conformation
of their feet has been found to afford characters of great importance to
the ornithologist, inasmuch as the organisation of these members must
obviously be in strict relation with the localities they inhabit. To
account for the distribution of the feathered tribes, and to explain the
relationships that exist between them and other animals, a great variety
of ingenious theories have been broached, all of them more or less
fanciful. The different families, sub-families, and minor groups into
which they have been divided have been again and again sorted, like a
pack of cards, frequently more in accordance with the whim of the player
than with the established rules of the game. And yet a little reflection
will show that the great principles of zoological classification are so
simple, and at the same time so immutable, that we sometimes cannot but
admire the ingenuity displayed in going wrong.
[Illustration: Fig. 10.--TONGUE OF THE WOODPECKER,
SHOWING THE MECHANISM EMPLOYED FOR ITS PROTRUSION.
_a_, harpoon-like Tip of the Tongue; _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, Framework
of the Throat; _i_, _k_, Glands furnishing adhesive secretion.]
Few things are more manifest to the student of nature than that, in the
distribution of the animal creation, it has been ordained that every
locality shall be peopled by forms of life pre-eminently adapted for
its occupation. If, therefore, we are asked whether birds ought to be
arranged in circles or in squares, in hexagons or in pentagons, in groups
of five or in groups of seven, our simple reply would be by inquiring how
many localities could be pointed out as requiring appropriate occupants,
and to this question it is not difficult to find a satisfactory answer.
The earth, the water, and the air, throughout their broad domains, must
each of them be provided with inhabitants peculiarly constructed to
live in their diversified regions. Upon the earth, we find the level
ground, the mountain, and the glen; we find the pathless forests, and
the solitary trees and shrubs, and bushy underwood. We cast our eyes
upon the waters, and we see the world of ocean covering two-third parts
of this great globe, stretching from pole to pole, rolling its mighty
waves through every zone; we see the creeks and shallow bays that margin
it all round, and watch the waves as they approach the shore and lay
them down to sleep upon the beach. There are the rivers, too, and lakes,
and swamps and marshes which are neither land nor water, sometimes
overspread with floating vegetation, sometimes a broad expanse of ooze
and rushes far too soft to bear the weight of creatures that might try
to walk upon the treacherous surface. We look into the air, and there we
find between the earth and sky abundant room for birds of every wing.
If, therefore, with this little map of the world before us, we reply to
the question propounded above, we should be tempted to say that there
must necessarily be as many different types of organisation as there
are districts therein enumerated; and doubtless a reference to any
system of ornithology, however much the classification may be confused
by preconceived theories, will convince us that such is essentially the
foundation of any natural arrangement.
In taking, therefore, a brief survey of the principal groups, or ORDERS,
under which the feathered races have been distributed, we will begin
with those appointed to live on trees, inasmuch as these are regarded
by the author of the following pages as being entitled to the highest
rank in the class to which they belong, rivalling in intelligence, as
some of them do, the apes and monkeys of which they are in general the
inseparable companions.
Few people in this country have any adequate conception of a tropical
forest, and, consequently, are scarcely prepared to see whole races
of animals constructed specially for a residence in the umbrageous
wilderness within its pathless precincts. The great forest of the Amazon,
in all its primeval grandeur, stretches for a thousand miles from north
to south, and probably three or four hundred from east to west, and
over all this vast extent of territory, so closely are the branches
interwoven that, as we are told, a monkey might make his way passing
from tree to tree without ever coming to the ground except at those
points where the rivers hold their course through the tangled yet sublime
scenery. "In these untrodden vastnesses the trees, rising frequently
to a height of sixty or eighty feet, with stems perfectly straight and
without a branch, give support to the huge creepers that climb around
their trunks like immense serpents waiting for their prey, or sometimes
stretching obliquely from their summits like the stays of a lofty mast,
here twisting round each other till they form living cables, as if to
bind securely the patriarchs of the forest; there wreathed in tangled
festoons, and themselves covered with smaller creepers and parasitic
plants." Such is Mr. Wallace's description of the interior of the
Amazonian forest.
[Illustration: Fig. 11.--VISCERA OF SMALL BIRD (_Euphone violaceus_).
_a_, Crop; _b_, termination of the Windpipe, or inferior larynx; _c_, one
of the Vocal Muscles; _d_, lower portion of the Gullet; _e_, the Gizzard;
_g_, Lung of the right side; _h_, Liver; _i_, Alimentary Canal.]
"The forests of Rio Janeiro," says Mr. Darwin, "are ornamented with the
cabbage palm trees 110 feet high, with a stem so narrow that it might
be clasped with two hands. The woody creepers themselves are of great
thickness, some of them measuring two feet in circumference. If the eye
was turned from the world of foliage above to the ground beneath, it was
attracted by the extreme elegance of the leaves of the ferns and mimosæ
(sensitive plants). The latter in some parts covered the ground; in
walking across these thick beds, a broad track was marked by the change
of colour produced by the drooping of their sensitive leaves. It is easy
to specify the individual objects of admiration in these grand scenes,
but it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of
wonder, astonishment, and devotion, which fill and elevate the mind."
These are the localities amongst which species of the ARBOREAL
ORDERS find their Paradise, and hold undisturbed possession. Myriads
of climbing birds--parrots, macaws, and cockatoos--fill the whole
atmosphere with joyful screams, deafening the very monkeys with their
din; gorgeous toucans, with enormous bills and feathers dipped in flame,
and woodpeckers scarcely less gaily clad, make the woods echo, as with
axe-like beaks they chop their way in search of insect food.
The peculiar structure of the feet in the arboreal races is evidently
adapted to a life amongst the branches of trees: the outer toe can be
directed backwards like a thumb, enabling them to grasp the boughs as
with a hand.
If, leaving the trackless gloom of the forest, we approach the sylvan
scenery of the surrounding country, the "bosky woods" and isolated trees,
or the sparse undergrowth of bushy shrubs, we find innumerable forms that
have their feet contrived for _perching_ only. These INSESSORIAL races,
called also PASSERES, from their general resemblance to sparrows, live
upon insects, fruit, and grain; but those with strong beaks live more
exclusively upon grain, and those with slender beaks upon insects. The
proportional length of their wings is as variable as their habits. They
have four toes, generally so disposed that there are three in front and
one behind; sometimes all four in front. Their legs are slender, and they
hop rather than walk.
The forests and the trees, the bushes and the brakes, the thickets and
the hedgerows, being thus provided with appropriate denizens, we turn
our attention to the level ground; and here we find species as obviously
designed for a terrestrial existence as were the preceding groups for a
residence among the branches. The terrestrial or GALLINACEOUS birds live
principally upon the ground. Their body is large and heavy, and their
wings short and rounded, so as to be but ill adapted to prolonged flight.
They have three toes in front, which are united at their base by a short
fold of the skin, and their hinder toe is affixed above the level of the
rest. In many species the male is provided with formidable weapons in
the shape of _spurs_. To this order belong the turkeys, pheasants, and
barn-door fowls. Their legs are thick, strong, and muscular, their toes
short and powerful. They always prefer running to flying, and, indeed,
will rarely take to their wings, except when compelled to do so by the
urgency of the occasion.
If any doubt could be entertained as to the terrestrial character of the
gallinaceous birds, there can be none whatever as to those distinguished
by the name of CURSORES or runners. The principal characteristic of the
cursorial race consists in the undeveloped condition of their wings,
which are quite disproportioned to the size of their body. In some cases
these rudimentary wings are but imperfectly furnished with feathers, and
seem only to be used after the manner of sails, to catch the wind, and
thus assist in running. The living species form two families, of one of
which the Ostrich, and of the other the Apteryx, is the type.
Leaving the firm dry land, we next turn our attention to the marshes--the
dubious confines between land and water--and here we find the order of
WADERS, or, as they have been named on account of their long stilt-like
legs, GRALLATORES or stilt-walkers. These birds, as their name imports,
are characterised by the height of their legs, which are naked, and
thus adapted for wading to a certain depth into the water, where many
species catch their prey. A remarkable example is met with in this order
of the facility with which difficulties, apparently insurmountable, in
the adaptation of certain species to peculiar circumstances, have been
encountered and overcome. In India, the tanks and ponds of considerable
depth are more or less covered with the broad leaves of water-lilies
and other floating vegetation. In such places, which are far too deep
to be occupied by wading birds, and yet too extensive to be left
without inhabitants, we find a family provided with toes so enormously
lengthened, and moreover eked out by claws of such extraordinary length,
that the spread of their feet extends over a very large surface, thus
enabling them to walk over the floating weeds.
Another order of birds comprehends those whose feet are specially
constructed for swimming, constituting a NATATORIAL TYPE; for this
purpose they are placed far back upon the body, the legs are short and
compressed, and the toes are united by a web. Their plumage is thick and
shining, impregnated with oil, and closely packed with soft down, so as
to preserve them from all contact with the water. They are the only birds
the length of whose neck much surpasses that of their legs, thus enabling
them, while swimming at the surface, to obtain their food at the bottom.
Such are the DUCKS and SWANS, which are, moreover, further characterised
by having their bill covered with a soft skin, and furnished occasionally
at the sides with ridges and tooth-like points. The DIVERS, trusting to
their superior powers of battling with the watery element, are met with
further from the shore; while, at distances still more remote from land,
daring the utmost fury of the tempestuous ocean, walking upon the waters,
or riding upon the seas--
"Up and down, up and down,
From the base of the wave to the billow's crown,
In the midst of the flashing and feathery foam,
The Stormy Petrel finds _her_ home."
Lastly, in this our rapid survey of the distribution of the feathered
tribes, we have to speak of those whose element is the air. And here,
perhaps, the reader may feel inclined to remark that, with the exception
of the cursorial birds, such as the Ostriches and the Apteryx, all
the species we have had occasion to mention are more or less capable
of flight--that this is the special attribute of the whole class.
Nevertheless, upon a little consideration, he will find that amongst the
many races that fly well, there are some so pre-eminent in this respect
that all others quail before them. It is one thing to be able to fly, and
another to be furnished with wings so powerful that they never seem to
tire. It is one thing to be the champion of the coppice, but another to
be the tyrant of the sky!
The greatest powers of flight are of course conferred upon the rapacious
birds, whose business is to overtake and destroy their swift-flying
prey. To enable them to do this, their wings are necessarily of the most
perfect structure; and they may also be recognised by their feet, which
are strong, and armed with formidable talons. Of the swiftness of the
falcon we have spoken elsewhere; and any one who has witnessed the flight
of the eagle is not likely to have forgotten so grand a spectacle; his
movements are majestic, and as he sails above the clouds on outstretched
wings he seems to feel himself the monarch of the scene around. And
yet even the falcon and the eagle cannot, as regards their powers of
flight, be looked upon as the most highly gifted of flying birds. The
spread of wing of the frigate-birds measures ten feet from tip to tip,
and their flight is so powerful that they are everywhere to be seen in
tropical climates at immense distances from land; while the albatross
has been known to fly around a ship for weeks together, exhibiting such
indomitable strength of wing that it has been supposed to be capable of
circling round the world.
It is by no means our intention to trouble the reader with unnecessary
details concerning the anatomy of the creatures upon the history of which
he is about to enter; nevertheless, it is indispensably requisite that we
should give at least an outline of their internal organisation.
No one can have examined attentively the bony framework whereby the
body of a bird is sustained, without being forcibly impressed with the
lightness as well as the compactness of its construction. The most
wonderful economy is exhibited in the arrangement of the weighty material
of which it consists. The bones present in their interior extensive
cavities, whereby they are considerably lightened, and their walls,
although exceedingly dense and strong, are much thinner than in any other
animals. The extremities of the cylindrical bones are occupied by a light
open network of slender filaments shooting across in every direction from
wall to wall, and as these attenuated buttresses are likewise hollow,
it is easy to perceive how incomparably lightness and strength are here
conjoined.
The extent to which the skeleton is thus filled with air varies in
different birds in relation with their powers of flight. In the Swifts
and the Humming-birds every bone of the skeleton, even to the toes
and the claws, is permeated by the atmospheric fluid. In the opposite
extreme, the terrestrial Apteryx and the aquatic Penguin have not a
single bone thus excavated.
[Illustration: Fig. 12.--SKELETON OF A BIRD.
_a_, the Skull; _b_, Vertebræ of the Neck; _c_, Dorsal Region of
the Spine; _d_, Vertebræ that support the Tail; _e_, _e_, _e_,
the Sternum or Breast-bone; _f_, _f_, _f_, _f_, the Ribs; _h_,
the Scapula, or Shoulder-blade; _i_, _i_, the conjoined Clavicles
or Collar-bones, forming the Furculum, or "Merry-thought;" _k_,
the Coracoid Bones; _l_, the Humerus, or Arm-bone; _m_, _n_,
Bones of the Fore-arm; _o_, _b'_, Bones of the Wrist or Carpus;
_p_, _p_, the Metacarpal Bones and Rudimentary Thumb; _q_, _q_,
Pieces representing the Middle Finger; _r_, _s_, _s_, the Pelvis,
formed by the consolidation of the hinder Vertebræ of the Back
into one piece; _t_, the Thigh-bone; _u_, the Leg; _x_, _x_,
the Tarso-Metatarsal Bones, usually called the Tarsus; _y_, the
Hallux, or Hinder Toe; _z_, _z_, the Front Toes.
]
The skeleton of an animal formed for flight must be constructed upon
mechanical principles of a very refined character. The utmost lightness
is indispensable; nevertheless, in a framework which has to sustain the
powerful action of muscles so vigorous, strength and firmness are equally
essential. It is in combining these two opposite qualities that the human
mechanician exhibits the extent of his resources and the accuracy of his
knowledge; but let the best and most ingenious mechanic carefully examine
the skeleton of a bird, and we doubt not that in its construction he
will find all his ingenuity surpassed, and perhaps derive not a little
instruction from the survey.
In order to render the following account of the structure of a bird's
skeleton intelligible to the non-scientific reader, we have delineated
that of the Pigeon, and with this figure before us we shall have but
little difficulty in indicating those points with which it is essential
that the reader of the present volume should be intimately acquainted.
(See Fig. 12.)
In the back-bone, or vertebral column, we find three principal regions,
each of which will merit distinct notice.
The _cervical region_, or that portion belonging to the neck (Fig. 12,
_b_), is exceedingly variable in its proportionate length, and forms the
only flexible portion of the spine; it performs, indeed, the functions of
an arm, at the end of which the beak, the chief instrument of prehension,
is situated. The number of vertebræ entering into the composition of this
part of the skeleton is very variable; in the Swan there are as many as
twenty-three, in the Crane nineteen, while in the Sparrow there are only
nine. As a general rule, it may be observed that the neck of a bird is
never so short as not to be able to reach to every part of the body; in
many aquatic species it is remarkably elongated, whether they swim upon
the surface by means of webbed or natatory feet, like the Swan, or wade
into rivers and marshes, like the Crane or the Heron. Throughout the
entire class a very beautiful contrivance is observable in the S-shaped
curvature of this region, the joints of the upper vertebræ being so
disposed that they will bend forwards, while in the lower part they can
only be bent backwards, thus enabling the bird to lengthen or shorten its
neck with the utmost facility and gracefulness.
But if flexibility is thus admirably provided for in the cervical
region, in the thoracic portion of the skeleton which has to support the
framework of the wings, and sustain the efforts of the powerful muscles
connected with flight, firmness and rigidity become essential requisites,
and, accordingly, in the dorsal region, every means has been employed
to prevent those movements which in the neck are so advantageously
permitted. The vertebræ of this region (Fig. 12, _c_) are therefore so
consolidated as to be almost immovable; and, moreover, splints of bone
laid along the back materially add to its stability and strength. There
are likewise two sets of ribs, one firmly lashed to the back-bone, the
other strongly attached to the sides of the sternum; these dorsal and
sternal ribs are moreover united to each other by firm connections, and
a thorax is thus formed, possessing sufficient mobility to perform the
movements connected with respiration, but still affording a strong basis
for muscular action; nay, still further to strengthen this part of the
skeleton, from the hinder margin of each dorsal rib a broad flat plate of
bone (Fig. 12, _f_) is prolonged backwards, so as to overlap the rib next
behind, and thus bind the whole together as firmly as possible.
The sternum or breast-bone (Fig. 12, _e_) is developed in proportion to
the size of the three pectoral muscles subservient to flight, and is
prolonged beneath into a deep keel-like projection. In the cursorial
races, such as the Ostriches and the Apteryx, whose wings are not
available for flying, the keel is entirely wanting.
Whoever considers the position of the hip-joint in the skeleton of a
bird, and reflects how far it is necessarily removed behind the centre of
gravity when the bird walks with its body in a horizontal position, will
at once perceive that the hinder portion of the spinal column, having
to support the whole weight of the body under the most disadvantageous
circumstances, and at the same time to give attachment to the strong
and massive muscles that wield the thigh, must be consolidated and
strengthened in every possible manner, and that even the slight degree of
movement permitted in the region of the back would here be inadmissible.
Most of the hinder vertebræ are, therefore, solidly conjoined into a
single piece (Fig. 12, _r_, _s_), sufficiently strong and massive to bear
the great strain to which it is continually subjected, leaving only a few
of the hindmost pieces (Fig. 12, _d_) free, upon which the feathers of
the tail are supported.
The fore limb of a bird, although used for the purpose of flight, when
stripped of the feathers and quills that, as we have already seen,
form the extensive surface of the wing, will be found very much to
resemble the human arm in its general arrangement, presenting only
such modifications as are required for the performance of its peculiar
function.
The framework of the shoulder consists of three bones (Fig. 12, _h_,
_i_, _k_), named respectively the _scapula_ or _shoulder-blade_, the
_clavicle_ or _collar-bone_, and the _coracoid bone_. The scapula (_h_)
is a long and comparatively slender piece placed upon the ribs, and
embedded in the muscles, to which it gives attachment. The coracoid bone
(_k_) is the strongest piece of the shoulder; it supports the wing at
one extremity, while at the opposite it is firmly united to the sternum
by a broad and massive joint. But the most peculiarly formed part of the
shoulder is the _furculum_, or "merry-thought," as it is usually called
(_i i_), consisting of the two collar-bones united, so as to form but a
single fork-shaped apparatus, the presence of which materially enlarges
and strengthens the shoulder, without unnecessarily adding to the weight.
It is by the union of the three last-mentioned bones that a place is made
for the socket of the shoulder, with which the wing is more immediately
connected.
The skeleton of the wing presents the bone of the arm, called the
_humerus_ (Fig. 12, _l_), and the two bones of the fore-arm, named
respectively the _radius_ (_m_) and the _ulna_, or _cubit_ (_n_). The
_wrist_, or _carpus_, consists of two bones (_b' o_), and the metacarpus
(_p_) is likewise made up of two pieces; these, with two, or sometimes
three, rudimental fingers (_p' q q_), complete the framework of the wing.
The largest finger consists of two, or sometimes of three joints; a
second offers but a single joint; and the third, when present, is a mere
appendage to the carpus, representing a sort of apology for a thumb.
The bones of the leg likewise exhibit the same parts as exist in the
human skeleton, but modified. The _thigh_, or _femur_ (Fig. 12, _t_),
is a short and strong bone, to which succeeds the leg, consisting of
two bones (_u_), named the _tibia_ and the _fibula_, but the latter
is generally very imperfectly developed. That part which is commonly
considered to be the leg consists of the bones of the ankle and a part
of the foot (the tarsal and metatarsal bones) consolidated into a single
piece, called by anatomists the _tarso-metatarsal_ bone, but known to
ornithologists as the _tarsus_ (_x_). At the lower extremity of the
tarsus are three joints that support the three front toes (_z, z_), while
a fourth toe (technically called the _hallux_) (_y_), which is directed
backwards, is attached to it by the intervention of a small accessory
piece. In the gallinaceous order there exists a bony spur, considered by
some as representing a fifth toe.
In order to facilitate the description of a bird, it is usual for the
ornithologist to consider its exterior as being mapped out into sundry
_regions_ (see Fig. 13), to each of which has been assigned a definite
and appropriate name; with the names of these regions, and their precise
application, it is requisite that the reader should be intimately
acquainted.
A bird, like any other vertebrate animal, is divisible into the head,
the body, and the limbs; under one or other of which divisions all
subordinate parts may be classed.
The head consists of the _skull_ and the _bill_, and is joined to the
body by the _neck_. Commencing with the bill, we see that it is composed
of two pieces, corresponding to the jaws of quadrupeds; that which is
above is called the _upper mandible_ (Fig. 13, 1), that which represents
the under jaw is called the _lower mandible_ (2). The upper mandible
contains the _nostrils_ (3); its highest part is called the _culmen_
or _ridge_ (4), while the corresponding ridge of the lower mandible is
called the _gonys_ or _keel_ (9).
The lateral edges of the mandibles which meet when the bill is closed are
called the _margins_. In some birds the margins of the upper mandible
fold over those of the lower, while in others the edges meet; when
this is the case, the line of junction between the two is called the
_commissure_ (5).
In many birds the upper mandible is continued far back over the forehead,
and there dilated, so as to form a _casque_ or _helmet_. In rapacious
birds and parrots there is a belt of soft naked skin at the base of
the upper mandible, named the _cere_, in which the nostrils are placed,
while around the eye is a space, often denuded of feathers, called the
_ophthalmic_ region (11).
The HEAD is that part which lies immediately over the skull, extending
from the base of the beak to the commencement of the neck. The _front_
or _forehead_ (12) is that part of the head which lies close above the
nostrils; then follows the _crown_ or _summit_ (17), which occupies the
middle or centre of the head, forming that part which is usually occupied
by the crest in birds so ornamented. The _hind head_(18) commences at
the declivity of the skull; its lower portion is called the _nape_ (19).
[Illustration: Fig. 13.--ORNITHOLOGICAL REGIONS OF THE BODY OF A SMALL
BIRD.
1. Upper Mandible.
2. Lower Mandible.
3. Nostrils.
4. Ridge, or Culmen.
5. Commissure, or cutting edges of the Mandibles.
6. Apex, or point of the Beak.
7. The Chin.
8. Upper Throat.
9. Keel, or Gonys.
10. } Coloured Bands, usually called Bridles and Stripe.
11. }
12. The Forehead.
13. The Gape, or Rictus.
14. Space around the Eye.
15. Lower Throat.
16. Superciliary Region.
17. Crown, Summit, or Vertex.
18. Hind Head, or Occipital Region.
19. The Nape, or Nucha.
20. The Ear, or Ear-feathers.
21. The Throat.
22. The Breast.
23. The Neck above, or Upper Neck.
24. The Back, or Mantle.
25. Scapular Wing-covers.
26. Lower Back, or Tergum.
27. The Shoulder.
28. Body, or Lower Breast.
29. The Belly.
30. The Vent.
31. The Tail Feathers.
32. The Under Tail-covers.
33. Spurious Quills.
34. Secondary Quills, or Secondaries.
35. Primary Quills, or Primaries.
36. The Shoulder Margin.
37. Wing Covers.
38. Under-surface or Under-part of the Body.
39. The Tarsus, or Leg.
40. The Front Toes.
41. The Hinder Toe, or Hallux.
42. Upper Tail-covers.
]
On the sides of the head the following parts have received distinct
names:--The feathers that cover the ears, to save repetition, are usually
called the _ears_ (20): they are generally rather more rigid and their
webs more disconnected than the surrounding feathers. The space between
these and the corner of the mouth (usually called the _gape_)(13), is
termed the _cheek_.
The parts of the NECK are thus designated:--The back of the neck is
called the _upper neck_, or _nucha_ (23), beneath which is the _lower
neck_ or _auchenium_. The under-side of the neck is divided into three
regions; first, there is the _chin_ (7), or that small space just
beneath the lower mandible; to the chin succeeds the _upper throat_ (8),
between which and the broad part of the body is the _lower throat_ (15).
The BODY presents the following regions: first there is the _breast_
(22), which extends over the space which covers the breast-bone. To
this succeeds the _belly_ (29), which is terminated by the _vent_ or
_crissum_ (30). Immediately behind the vent are the _under-tail covers_
(32), which are frequently of a different colour from the surrounding
feathers.
On the upper aspect of the body we have the _interscapular region_,
sometimes called the _back_ (24), to which succeeds the _lower back_
(26), which terminates at the _rump_, or that part where the _upper-tail
covers_ (42) are inserted.
Last of all comes the TAIL, composed of long stiff feathers, called the
_tail-feathers_ (31), concerning which it is only necessary to observe
that the two middle tail-feathers are the _intermedial_, while those on
the sides are the _lateral_ tail-feathers.
The WING of a bird will be found to present a structure worthy of our
highest admiration. The object aimed at in the arrangement of its
different parts is evidently to obtain a very large and firm expanse of
surface, by employing the smallest possible quantity of material. For
the purposes of flight it is obviously necessary that the superficial
extent of the wings shall be sufficiently ample, not only to sustain
the weight of their possessor in the thin and yielding element in which
it flies, but, by the vigour of their stroke and the violence of their
impulse, to propel the bird with a rapidity proportioned to the occasion,
and, moreover, by the lightness of their touch and the accuracy of
their movements, to steer and steady its course through all the varied
evolutions whereby it is enabled to capture prey, or sportively display
the wonderful activity conferred upon the feathered tribes.
We have already seen, while examining the construction of the skeleton,
that the bony framework of the wing essentially resembles that of the
human arm, and that the limb when stripped of its feathers is no more
adapted for flying than our own. The needful expansion is obtained
altogether by the addition of the quill feathers, which, as explained in
a preceding page, combine in their structure all the qualities requisite
for the intended purpose, lightness, firmness, strength, elasticity, and
extent of surface: the central part of the arm or wing forms merely a
basis of support, into which the quills and other appendages to the wing
are securely implanted. It will therefore be easily understood that the
importance of the individual quills as instruments of flight will depend
very much upon the position they hold in the wing, of which they form
so considerable a portion, and, consequently, that they have received
names expressive of their relative efficiency. Those that are affixed to
the bones representing the hand (Fig. 12, _p_, _q q_), by the length of
their stroke, and the peculiarity of their arrangement, are obviously of
primary importance, both from their size and the situation they occupy,
and have consequently been named the "_primaries_," or the "_primary
quills_," (Figs. 2, _f_; 13, 35); they might be called with equal
propriety the "_hand-quills_," a term more particularly expressive of
the parts to which they are attached. Upon the relative length and other
proportions of the primary quills the shape and mechanical power of the
instrument principally depend; if the first primary be the longest, the
termination of the wing is sharp and pointed (_acuminate_), as in most
birds that are remarkable for the swiftness of their flight; whereas if
the second, third, or fourth of these quills should exceed the others in
this respect, the wing becomes more and more rounded (_obtuse_), and the
perfection of its action visibly deteriorated.
The "_Secondary Quills_," or "_Secondaries_" (Figs. 2, _c_; 13, 34),
are exclusively sustained by the bones of the fore-arm (Fig. 12, _m_,
_n_); from their situation being much nearer to the shoulder-joint than
the preceding, the extent of their sweep is more limited, and their
stroke much feebler; they are, consequently, as their name indicates, of
secondary importance in locomotion.
[Illustration: _Plate 4 Cassell's Book of Birds_
1. Tyrant Shrike (_Tyrannus intrepidus_).--2. Virginian Chordeiles
(_Chordeiles Virginianus_).--3. Cow-bird (_Icterus pecoris_).--4.
Crimson Honeysucker (_Myzantha garrula_).--5. Masked Weaver-bird
(_Ploceus larvatus_).--6. Fire-crested Wren (_Regulus pyrocephalus_).--7.
Rice-bird (_Padda oryzivora_).--8. Variegated Grakle (_Quiscalus
versicolor_).--9. White-tailed wheatear (_Saxicola leucura_).--10. The
Wittal Oriole (_Oriolus galbula_).--11. The Alpine Accentor (_Accentor
Alpinus_).--12. Nordman's Glareole (_Glareola Nordmanni_).--13. Alpine
Tit (_Parus Alpinus_).--14. Crested Tit (_Parus Cristatus_).--15. African
Parra (_Parra Africana_).--16. Piririguan Tick-eater (_Crotophaga
Piririgua_).--17. Ptarmigan (_Lagopus Scoticus_).--18. Scapulated Crow
(_Corvus Scapulatus_).--19. The Kestrel (_Tinnunculus Cenchris_).--20.
The Senegal Thick-knee (_Oedicnemus Senegalensis_).--21. Rock Kestrel
(_Tinnunculus rupicolus_).--22. Corythus (_Corythus enucleator_).--23.
The Red-legged Stilt-Walker (_Himantopus rufipes_).--24. The Stone Thrush
(_Turdus saxatilis_).--25. The Silk-tail (_Bombycilla garrula_).--26.
Long-tailed Tit (_Parus biarmicus_).--27. The Wall-creeper (_Tichodroma
muraria_).--28. The Troopial (_Agelaius phœniceus_).--29. The
Yellow Bunting (_Emberiza Cia_).--30. The Red-eyed Coccyzus (_Coccyzus
erythropthalmus_).--31. The Cirl-Bunting (_Emberiza cirlus_).]
The _Spurious_, or _Bastard Quills_ (Figs. 2, _e_; 13, 33), are attached
to the rudimental bone that represents the thumb (Figs. 2, _g_; 12,
_p_); their size is diminutive, and their use in flight comparatively
unimportant.
The _Wing Covers_ or _Coverts_ (Fig. 13, 37) are small feathers arranged
in several rows, which overlap and strengthen the bases of the quills;
they are often variously coloured, and thus afford important features
whereby different species may be distinguished. Besides the above, there
are certain conventional terms employed by the ornithologist that will
require enumeration. The arm-part of the wing in the living bird is
generally known as the _shoulder_ (27); the elbow-joint is the _flexum_;
while that part of the fore-arm which corresponds to the edge of the wing
is denominated the _shoulder-margin_ (6).
The names appropriated to the different parts of the hinder-limb have
been already sufficiently indicated when describing the composition of
the skeleton.
There are many birds which have stripes of variously coloured feathers
situated above, before, and behind the eye; while others sometimes occur
at the base of the lower mandible. To all these distinct names have
been appropriated. A _superciliary_ stripe is situated _above_ the eye,
occupying a position analogous to that of the human eyebrow. An ordinary
eye-stripe is either _anterior_, _posterior_, or _entire_. It is called
_anterior_ when it only occupies the space between the eye and the bill;
_posterior_ when it commences behind the eye, and advances towards or
unites with the ear-feathers; and _entire_ when it is both posterior
and anterior. A _maxillary_ stripe commences at the base of the under
mandible, and descends on the sides of the neck.
[Illustration: Fig. 14.--CHICKEN IN THE EGG, NEARLY ARRIVED AT MATURITY,
Showing the little Hammer or "Bill-scale" on the end of its beak,
wherewith it is enabled to break through the egg-shell.]
Such is the by no means very long list of names of parts used by the
ornithologist in his description, and which in the course of the present
volume will necessarily be of very frequent occurrence.
The oil with which birds preen their feathers, and the glands that supply
it, constitute a remarkable provision peculiar to the feathered creation.
Embedded among the feathers at the root of the tail, there is on each
side a small nipple, yielding upon pressure a butter-like substance,
which the bird extracts by squeezing the orifice with its bill. By means
of the oil, or rather ointment, thus procured, it dresses its feathers,
either for the purpose of increasing their brilliancy, or, as in the case
of the swimming birds, to make them impenetrable to wet.
The pairing of birds is a feature in their history which draws a broad
line of distinction between the feathered tribes and the generality of
quadrupeds. Among mammiferous quadrupeds the young derive their nutriment
during the earlier period of their existence entirely from the maternal
breast, the male parent contributing nothing towards its support; but in
the winged races the callow brood derive their supply of food from the
industry of both parents, whose united exertions are not more than is
requisite to procure the needful supply. In this circumstance we may see
a reason for the faithful love of the feathered mate as contrasted with
the vagrant disposition of the quadruped. The parental fondness of birds
towards their young has escaped no observer; no historian of nature is
silent upon this subject. "How well they caress them," says Derham, "with
their affectionate notes, lull and quiet them with their voice, put food
into their mouths, cherish and keep them warm, teach them to peck and
eat, and gather food for themselves, and, in a word, perform the part of
so many nurses deputed by the Sovereign Lord and preserver of the world
to help such young and shiftless creatures."
It would lead us far beyond the limits of our space were we to do more
than indicate the close relationship that exists between the exalted
temperature and warm clothing of the feathered creation and the wonderful
instinct which urges them to build nests for the reception of their
eggs, or the still more remarkable blind perseverance with which they
devote themselves to the task of incubation. "There is nothing," says
Paley, "either in the aspect or in the internal composition of an egg
which could lead even the most daring imagination to conjecture that it
was hereafter to turn out from its shell a perfect living bird. From the
contents of an egg would any one expect the production of a feathered
goldfinch? To suppose the female bird to act in this process from a
sagacity and reason of her own is to suppose her to arrive at conclusions
there are no premises to justify." And yet HE who made the egg not
only ordained that such should be the result of the simple process of
incubation; but, as though to confound scepticism, by giving, as it were,
the last touch to HIS inscrutable work, provided the young bird with the
means of escaping from incarceration, by attaching to the end of its beak
a little hammer, called the "bill-scale," the only use of which is to
crack the egg-shell, and allow the little prisoner to come forth. (See
Fig. 14.)
With these few prefatory remarks, we leave our author in the reader's
hands, at the same time promising that he will find in the succeeding
pages a rich store of valuable information.
[Illustration: Fig. 15.--A YOUNG BLACKBIRD SHORTLY AFTER ITS ESCAPE FROM
THE EGG, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT AND CONDITION OF THE FEATHERS.]
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.
Those who are familiar with modern works on ornithology will have
observed that it is usual to commence the history of the feathered
tribes by a description of the vultures--the most disagreeable and
least intelligent of the race. Some writers, however, consider the
singing birds as entitled to the first place, the remaining members of
the heterogeneous multitude being arranged according to the pleasure
of individual naturalists more or less acquainted with their subject.
For our own part, we recognise in the parrots the qualifications most
fitted to entitle them to take the precedence, and it is, consequently,
with these that we shall commence our history. Ornithologists, moreover,
differ widely among themselves as regards the relation that exists
between the parrots and other members of the class to which they belong,
either placing them in a group by themselves, in a manner never intended
by Nature, or associating them with toucans, woodpeckers, and cuckoos,
with which they possess but few characteristics in common. Under these
circumstances, we have considered ourselves at liberty to adopt our
own views upon the subject, and have, accordingly, constituted for the
parrots a distinct order, under the quaint but expressive name of
CRACKERS (_Enucleatores_),
in allusion to the facility with which, owing to the construction of
their beaks, they are enabled to crack nuts, and other hard seeds, that
form the usual staple of their food.
The order that we have thus thought it advisable to establish is,
however, by no means limited to the parrots; it includes various
other seed-eating birds, chiefly belonging to the passerine tribes,
the resemblance of which to parrots has been in some cases generally
acknowledged in selecting the names ordinarily conferred upon them. Thus,
the Cross-bills have long been known in Germany as the FIR-TREE PARROTS,
and, on the other hand, the epithet of SPARROW-PARROTS, applied to some
races of climbing-birds, clearly shows the relationship that exists
between these generally dissevered groups.
The birds thus associated will be found to present many features in
common. They live chiefly upon vegetable substances, and their strong
beaks enable them to break up hard kinds of food, such as nuts, seeds,
and grain. They will also eat fruit and leaf-buds, or the tender shoots
of plants; many will devour insects; and a few do not altogether reject
the flesh of other animals. They are all clever, lively, and active,
much attached to the society of birds of their own species, though they
do not often cultivate acquaintance with those belonging to a different
family. Their great intelligence enables them to live comfortably even
under disadvantageous circumstances, and their temperament allows them
to fight the "battle of life" very cheerfully. Owing to the diversity of
their habits, they are necessarily widely distributed, and some of them
are to be met with in every climate; the parrots only are restricted
to the torrid zones, the remaining members of the order being citizens
of the world. As to the localities they frequent, much depends upon
the absence or presence of the trees to which they usually resort, by
far the greater number being strictly arboreal, passing their whole
lives in flying from tree to tree, and confining their excursions to
a very limited district. Only such as live in cold countries migrate;
indeed, regular migrations--that is to say, such as take place at stated
periods--or journeys to any considerable distance, are quite exceptional
among them. They are, in general, very affectionate and docile; the male
has frequently but one mate during his whole life, and nearly all of them
brood more than once in the year.
The nests of this order of birds are of very various construction, and
the number of eggs never large. The task of incubation usually devolves
upon the female, who is cheered and tended by her mate during the
period of her seclusion, but he also occasionally shares her labours,
and both parents co-operate in feeding and taking care of their young.
Many species are considered inimical to mankind, on account of their
marauding attacks upon property; and yet the benefits they confer far
outweigh any injuries of which they may be guilty. They clear away the
seeds of noxious weeds, free the plants from insects; and their lively
and cheering presence in the woods, their beauty, their song, and the
ease with which they are tamed, together with other good qualities, fully
entitle them to our admiration and regard. The flesh of most of them
affords an appetising and healthy food, and the plumage of some species
forms a beautiful and admired decoration.
PARROTS (_Psittacini_).
If it is ever permissible to compare animals of one class with those of
another, we would state our opinion that the parrots hold among birds
much the same position as that occupied by monkeys among quadrupeds.
The truth of this remark will become obvious as we proceed with their
history. Most systematists have considered parrots as entitled to take
but an inferior place in the zoological series, founding this opinion
upon a single characteristic which they share with many other birds
of far humbler endowments; we allude to the prehensile structure of
the foot. Parrots, Woodpeckers, Pepper-eaters, Curacus, Barbets, and
Jacamars, are all climbing birds; that is to say, they all have two toes
placed in front and two directed backwards; and, immaterial as this
structure of the foot may appear, it has been deemed a sufficient reason
for forming an order embracing several races of most dissimilar form,
which present only this one feature in common. Little stress should,
in reality, be laid upon this disposition of the toes, from whatever
point of view it is regarded, seeing that Woodpeckers, Tree-creepers,
and a great number of others that do not possess the scansorial foot,
vie with the so-called climbing birds in the facility with which they
climb. The three-toed Woodpecker is not inferior in the dexterity with
which it can use its claws to any four-toed scansorial species; and we
shall, we believe, be giving this climbing foot its proper appreciation
if we compare it to and rank it with the flexible tail of some mammalia,
the possession of which is not confined to any particular race, but
bestowed alike upon arboreal species of the most various kinds. A foot of
this description is by no means of such uniform structure as is usually
supposed, and, in truth, is scarcely less varied than are the birds
themselves; the foot of the parrot, in particular, differs essentially
from the pair-toed foot of other Scansores, in the development of the
central part, which renders it in its functions comparable to a hand. The
parrots, in fact, constitute a distinct and very clearly defined race,
their most distinguishing characteristic being found in the structure
of their beak, which can never be mistaken for that of any other bird.
At the first glance, indeed, the beak of the parrot would appear to
resemble that of the birds of prey; but it is, in reality, much thicker
and stronger, and also comparatively higher and more symmetrical in
its form. The legs are thick, strong, and fleshy, but never long; the
tarsus much shorter than the middle toe, and always covered with small
scaly plates; the toes are moderately long, and have a thick sole, but
this exists only on certain peculiar ball-like elevations; upon their
upper surface the feet are covered with minute scales, resembling those
of the tarsus; and these scales, as they approach the ends of the toes,
become gradually larger, and project beyond the base of the claw upon
the terminal joint in the shape of short tubular or band-like plates;
the claws are not long, but much bent and tolerably sharp, never very
powerful. The structure of the wings is in exact correspondence with that
of the feet; the bones are of moderate length, but strong; the pinion
feathers tolerably numerous--twenty to twenty-four. The compactly formed
primary quills are seldom long, but so disposed that the outspread wing
is generally pointed; the tail-feathers vary considerably in different
species, both as regards length and shape. The general plumage is
remarkable on account of its compactness; it consists of few feathers,
but these are usually of large size, with the exception of those covering
the head, which are small. The eye is in many instances surrounded by
a naked patch of skin, which during life is usually powdered over with
white dust. The body feathers are each furnished on the under side with
a large downy appendage. The coloration of the plumage, notwithstanding
its great diversity, will require notice, as presenting a feature very
distinctive of the different races of parrots. The prevailing tint is
a more or less vivid leaf-green; but we also meet with hyacinth, blue,
purple, red, golden yellow, and at times darker hues; their distribution
is also characteristic, more especially the frequent occurrence of
complementary colours upon the upper and under sides of the same
feather--blue-violet, dark blue, light blue or green above, with light
yellow, orange-yellow, cinnabar red, or purple underneath. Not less
peculiar is the frequent concealment of glowing tints among others which
are less conspicuous, as, for example, in the case of some Cockatoos in
which we meet with feathers having their lower portion and their downy
roots of a deep cinnabar red or brilliant yellow, and yet this portion
is seldom visible, on account of the length of the white feathers among
which it is hidden.
The extraordinary intelligence exhibited by some parrots is particularly
remarkable; it is, indeed, their sensible behaviour, not their form, that
makes us regard these creatures as representatives of the Quadrumana.
The parrot has, superadded to the form of a bird, all the qualifications
and troublesome propensities of the monkey--humoursome and fickle at
one moment, gentle and agreeable at the next; it is intelligent, active
and circumspect, provident and crafty, very quick in discernment, and
possessed of an excellent memory; on this account it is eminently
susceptible of instruction, and may be taught almost anything. On
the other hand, it is choleric, malicious, spiteful, and deceitful;
it forgets injuries as little as it does kindnesses; it is cruel and
inconsiderate to creatures weaker than itself, tyrannically ill-treating
the helpless and unfortunate, as does the monkey. It has been the
fashion to rank parrots as inferior to many other birds, because they
do not exhibit such conspicuous capabilities of locomotion; they are,
nevertheless, very well endowed, even in this respect. The larger species
fly with apparent heaviness, but with considerable rapidity; the smaller,
wonderfully well--so well, indeed, that we have been almost consoled for
the loss of a favourite bird whilst watching the beauty of its flight.
Very many appear to be quite out of their element when upon the ground,
they seem to hobble rather than to walk, but there are some Ground
Parrots that run swiftly and with much facility; and Gould makes mention
of a Grass Parrot that he saw running upon the ground like a plover.
The capability of hopping from bough to bough is an accomplishment in
which parrots are deficient, nevertheless they have their own mode of
progression among the branches; any considerable space they fly over,
but smaller distances they pass by climbing, and that with considerable
rapidity, unwieldy as some of them appear; helping themselves along
by means of their beak, as well as their feet, while other birds use
their feet only. Parrots are unable to swim, and are quite incapable of
diving. The bill is far more movable than that of any other bird, and
is useful for many purposes. Their voice is harsh and screaming, but
yet not entirely destitute of an agreeable sound when heard in their
native haunts. Some species will learn to whistle tunes with remarkable
clearness and accuracy; the faculty which they possess of imitating the
human voice and speech is well known--their performance, indeed, is
wonderful; they do not babble, they speak, and seem to know the meaning
of the words they use.
With the exception of Europe, parrots are to be met with in all parts
of the world, more especially in tropical regions; one American species
ranges as far north as 42°, and another is found in the southern
hemisphere, as far as the inhospitable wastes of Tierra del Fuego, in
53° south latitude. Cockatoos are known to inhabit New Zealand and
Macquarrie's island, 52° south. In Asia and Africa, the parrots are
principally confined to the limits of the torrid zone; in China, they
rarely pass 27° north latitude, and in India, at furthest, only extend
to the foot of the Himalaya mountains. In Western Africa, they rarely go
beyond 16° north, and in Eastern Africa, according to our information,
not further than 15°; but towards the southern hemisphere they probably
are to be met with at a greater distance from the equator.
Generally speaking, the woods are their favourite haunts; but this is by
no means universally the case. There are certain species, for example,
which only frequent treeless plains or wide steppes; in the Andes some
are to be found living far beyond the region of trees, even at an
altitude of 11,000 feet above the level of the sea.
In the north-east of Africa, according to our own experience, they
almost exclusively reside in places frequented by monkeys, insomuch
that apes and monkeys seem to be their inseparable companions. The more
extensive the forests--that is, the richer they are in vegetation--the
more these birds abound; indeed, in the tropical forests, they constitute
a large--we might almost say, the largest--proportion of the feathered
inhabitants. The same remark applies to Australia, as well as to many
localities in India, and in part also to Africa; in these countries
parrots are as numerous as crows are in Europe, and as common as sparrows.
They would seem to understand how to make themselves conspicuous; and
while they deafen the ear with their discordant cries, enliven the dark
shades of tropical forests with their lavishly-coloured plumage. "It
is impossible," says Gould, "to describe the enchanting scene afforded
by certain parrots, more especially by those adorned with feathers of
glowing red, as they wheel their varied flight among the silver-leaved
gum-trees of Australia, their gorgeous plumage standing out amid the
surrounding scenery with wonderful effect."
"Morning and evening," writes Schomburgk, "countless multitudes may
be seen at a considerable height, making an insufferable noise; one
afternoon I saw such a prodigious flight descend upon the trees by the
river-side, that the branches bent low under the weight of the birds."
"It is necessary to have lived in these countries, more especially in the
hot valleys of the Andes," says Humboldt, "to believe it possible that
the shrieking of the parrots actually drowns the roar of the mountain
torrents as the waters leap from rock to rock. What would those wondrous
tropical forests be without parrots? Lifeless gardens of enchantment,
a wilderness of silence, a solitary desert; by these birds they are
awakened and kept alive, for the parrots know equally well how to find
occupation both for the ear and eye of the traveller."
Except in the breeding season, parrots live in society, or, we might
rather say, in great flocks; they select a locality in the forest as
their settlement, and thence make daily excursions to considerable
distances. Early in the morning they simultaneously quit their
roosting-place, to invade the same tree or the same field in search of
food, stationing sentinels, whose duty it is to protect the community
from a sudden surprise. They pay instant attention to any voice of
warning, and when alarmed, immediately take flight, either all together
or shortly after each other.
"At the first glimmering of the clear morning sun of the tropics,"
says the Prince von Wied, "the parrots rouse themselves from their
sleeping-places, dry their wings, which have become wetted with the dews
of night, and playfully call aloud to each other; then, after describing
many sweeping circles above the high woods, they quickly depart in search
of the morning's meal. In the evening they invariably come back again to
their usual roost."
Le Vaillant tells us that in south-eastern Africa the native parrots
fly in little flocks in search of food, bathe about noon, and hide
themselves among the foliage during the overpowering heat of the sun.
Towards evening they disperse themselves, after which they again bathe,
and then fly back to the same roosting-place from which they had departed
in the morning. These roosting-places are very various--sometimes the
thickly-leaved top of a tree, sometimes a rock full of holes, often a
hollow tree trunk; the situation last mentioned seems to be especially
sought after. "Their sleeping-place," says Audubon, speaking of the
American parrakeets, "is a hollow tree, or the hole chiselled out in
some tree's trunk, to be the nestling-place of the larger woodpeckers,
that is, in case these are not occupied by their true owners. In the
gloaming large flocks of parrots assemble around old hollow sycamores,
or other trees of similar character; and may be seen immediately in
front of the entrance clinging to the bark, until one after another they
disappear through the hole that leads into the interior, in order to
pass the night. When a hollow of this description is not sufficiently
large to accommodate the numbers that are assembled, those that come last
are content to suspend themselves by their bill and claws from the bark
before the entrance.
"We have ourselves, in the primitive forests around the Blue River,
in Africa, repeatedly watched the parrots at twilight, slipping one
after another into their hole, and have observed them ranged with
great regularity around the many perforations in the trunk of some old
Adansonia.
"In India, the Collared Parrot, as Layard informs us, sleeps among the
thickets of bamboos. "All Parrots, Bee-eaters, Grakles, and Crows from
districts extending for many miles around, pass the night in flocks among
the great bamboo plantations, where the dull rushing sound caused by
their flutterings, constantly heard from sundown till dark, and from the
first grey dawning in the east until long after sunrise, might almost
be supposed by the observer to proceed from numerous steam-engines in
full work. Many of these flocks returning late in the evening from
their excursions, fly so near to the ground that they scarcely clear
the obstacles to their course; indeed, they do not always succeed in
doing so; for, several nights together, we have picked up parrots which
had flown against walls or similar obstructions, and had been killed in
consequence."
Layard gives a very lively account of the behaviour and doings of the
Alexander parrot (a species commonly met with in Ceylon), at one of their
sleeping-places.
In Chilau, he relates, that he has seen such massive flights of these
birds winging their way to their roosting-places among the cocoa-nut
trees that overshadow the market-place, that their cries completely
drowned the Babel-like confusion of tongues heard among the buyers and
sellers in the streets. He had previously been told of the flocks which
thus pay their nightly visits, and placed himself, accordingly, towards
evening, upon one of the neighbouring bridges, in order to form a
calculation of the numbers that might make their appearance in a certain
given direction. At about four o'clock in the afternoon they began to
arrive; scattered swarms were seen wending their way homewards, to these
there succeeded others still more numerous, and in the course of half an
hour the homeward stream was apparently in full flow. He very soon found
that it was impossible even to count the flocks, which seemed gradually
to unite into one great living, roaring torrent. Some flew high in the
air, until they were immediately over their roosting-place, and then
suddenly plunged down, wheeling round and round towards the tree-tops,
of which they were in search. Others crowded onwards, flying close to
the ground--indeed, so closely that some of them nearly grazed his face.
They swept along with the rapidity of thought, and their dazzling plumage
seemed to be lit up with gorgeous brilliancy, as it glanced in the rays
of the sun. He waited at his post of observation until the evening closed
in, and he could see no longer, but even then the flight of the birds as
they made towards their nests was audible. When he fired off a gun, they
rose with a sound like that of a furiously rushing wind; soon, however,
they again settled down, and commenced an indescribable hubbub. The
shrill screams of the birds, the noise caused by the fluttering of their
wings, and the rattling of the leaves of the palm-trees was so deafening,
that he was heartily glad when he escaped from such a turmoil, and took
refuge in his own house.
[Illustration: COCKATOOS (_Cacatua_).]
Next to a safe sleeping-place, the presence of trees thickly crowned
with foliage is an essential requisite for the comfortable lodgment of
parrots; this they require, not so much as a protection against the
weather, as for a secure hiding-place. Of all things they like warmth,
nevertheless they do not absolutely avoid a cool temperature, and still
less are they afraid of wet, at least for a time.
[Illustration: COLLARED PARROT (_Palæornis torquatus_).]
"During the heavy tropical rain-storms that sometimes darken the air,"
says the Prince von Wied, "it is not uncommon to see parrots sitting
motionless upon the dead branches at the very top of a tree, uttering
cheerful screams, as the water streams off from their plumage; there may
be dense foliage, and thick boughs immediately beneath, under which they
might easily find shelter, but they prefer the warm shower, and seem to
enjoy the wetting. No sooner, however, has the rain ceased, than they
appear equally desirous to dry themselves, and to rid their plumage of
the moisture."
In fine weather it is quite otherwise; they then decidedly prefer the
shelter of the thickest trees, either as a protection from the burning
heat of the sun, or for the purpose of concealment, and hasten to them at
once on the slightest alarm. They know what an excellent protection to
them, clothed as they are in leafy green, the verdant bower offers; and,
truly, when thus ensconced, they are tolerably secure from observation;
a man may know that there are fifty of them in a tree, and not see
one. In playing their game of hide and seek, both the colour of their
feathers, and the cunning so peculiar to all parrots, contribute to their
safety;--they do not want to be seen. One of their company has just at
the right time observed the approach of an enemy; he gives a sign, they
are all at once silent, and withdraw themselves towards the centre of the
tree; noiselessly, they climb to that side of the summit opposite to the
spot where the enemy has appeared, they then fly off, and it is only when
they are a hundred yards away that they seem to recover their voice, and
scream to their hearts' content, apparently rather out of bravado, after
having thus outwitted their pursuers, than for the sake of calling upon
their companions. This clever game they play more especially when they
have settled on some tree for the purpose of enjoying the fruit, as it is
then that their thievish design is carried out with the greatest cunning.
"Whilst on the wing," says Pöppig, "the large golden green Araras of the
Andes will arrest their flight to come down upon the scarlet Coral trees
(_Erythrinæ_) and the yellow _Tachiæ_, the heads of which they eagerly
devour. Their cry is positively fearful; nevertheless, they are quite
clever enough to understand that it would be dangerous to give utterance
to it when they are just about to plunder some ripening field of Indian
corn. At such a time, every one of them will repress its inclination
to make a noise, giving utterance to no sound except a sort of murmur,
with which it accompanies its proceedings, as it prosecutes its work
of destruction with surprising quickness. The sportsman, or even the
exasperated Indian, finds it by no means an easy task to surprise the
thieves, seeing that two of the oldest birds are always set as watchmen
upon the highest trees in the neighbourhood. The first note of alarm is
immediately answered by a general, half-uttered cry from the assembled
pilferers; the second is responded to by deafening screams, raised by
the whole flock as they fly away, and it is only when their enemy has
departed that they begin anew their destructive raid."
The presence of a numerous flock of parrots is generally only betrayed by
the empty husks that rattle as they fall against the broad leaves of the
bushes, producing a sound that can be heard from some distance.
Le Vaillant has noticed the silence of these birds at the approach of a
suspicious-looking visitor, on the occasion of their mid-day assemblages.
They will keep themselves so still that not the slightest sound can
be heard to proceed from among them, even though thousands should be
congregated together. On the discharge of a gun, the whole multitude will
immediately take wing, and rise into the air with deafening cries, as
though rendered furious by the interruption.
Far different is their conduct when they have become aware that the
good-nature of man leaves them unmolested. In India, as Jerdan informs
us, they not only come boldly into the towns, but will settle down,
without the slightest shyness, upon the tops of the houses, and from this
elevation descend to plunder the gardens and fields in the neighbourhood.
Incredibly great, and justifying the most efficient means of defence on
the part of man, is the destruction caused by parrots; nothing is safe
that is not constantly guarded. Like the monkeys, they waste a great deal
more than they eat.
The multitudes which assemble upon the fields or fruit trees devour all
they can upon the spot, bite off still more, and carry a few ears of
corn up into the trees, in order peaceably to fill their much craving
stomachs. When they make their appearance in the orchard, they search
every tree that is in fruit, and pluck such as may be ripe; bite a bit
off, and if it does not exactly suit their very refined taste, throw
it down upon the ground and take another instead. While feeding they
generally climb the branches from below upwards, and as soon as they get
to the top fly away to another tree, sweeping over the ground without
ever moving their wings. Arrived at this second tree they recommence the
work of destruction just as before.
In North America and in Chili they attack the fruit before it is ripe, in
search of the as yet milky pippins, and we may imagine the damage thus
caused. According to Audubon, the cornstacks in the fields are sometimes
the objects of their attack; they will hang upon them, and draw the ears
out of the sheaves, thus sparing the owner the trouble of threshing.
Some prefer one kind of seed and some another; but all agree in spoiling
everything that man sows or plants for his own use; and on this account
anything like friendship between the farmer and the parrots is quite out
of the question.
After having satisfied their hunger in this manner they go in search of
water to drink; and, according to Audubon and Schomburgk, do not refuse
salt, or at any rate brackish water. Besides occasional rain-baths, they
will bathe in lakes, washing themselves, Le Vaillant tells us, until they
are soaked through, as with a heavy rain. We also learn from Audubon that
they enjoy playing in the sand like fowls, covering their plumage with
dust, and will creep into king-fishers' holes, in order to find it. They
are fond of salt ground, and are always to be found near the saltworks in
the forests.
The incubation of these birds takes place during the months that
correspond in their native lands to our spring. The larger kinds
appear to lay but once in the year, and then only two eggs; though the
Australian Grass Parrot and some others are exceptions to this rule,
inasmuch as they will lay regularly from three to four eggs, and in
some cases from six to nine, twice or even three times during the year.
The eggs are always white, smooth, and round. Holes in trees are the
favourite nesting-places of these birds, but not exclusively so; some
American kinds will lay in holes in the rocks, and the Indian parrots in
crevices in old buildings, pagodas, monuments, or houses.
Audubon assures us that several females will lay in one hole; but we
consider this as very doubtful, though it is true that parrots prefer
breeding in society, sometimes even associated in immense flocks.
Molina speaks of a large settlement of these breeding birds in Chili,
and Pöppig of another, probably of the same species. "These several
settlements," says the last-mentioned naturalist, "must be very
astonishing to those to whom they are new. Fancy yourself, about mid-day,
wearily approaching a precipice, believing yourself to be perfectly
alone, that deep silence reigning around you that always indicates noon
in these tropical regions, when all animals seek repose in sleep; a kind
of growling strikes your ear, but you look in vain for any creature
that could produce it; suddenly you hear the parrots' cry of warning,
answered by many others, and before you are awake to your true position,
are surrounded by swarms of these quarrelsome birds, flying about in a
close circle, and in evident anger, threatening to strike you. From all
the innumerable holes upon the face of the rocks little round heads are
protruding, looking comical enough; and those that do not come out unite
their screams to the general uproar. Every opening indicates a breeding
hole, that has been excavated by its owner in the clay met with between
the strata of the rocks. At times many hundreds may be counted."
These colonies are always so cunningly situated, that it is impossible
for a beast of prey to approach them. Such settlements could not be made
in the woods, as the trees would not afford a foundation strong enough to
sustain their weight.
In general, it is in old trees that parrots make their nests; in Central
Africa the Adansonia is preferred, more especially should it grow on the
outskirts of a forest. We once saw a group of monkey-bread trees in the
Kordofanian steppes inhabited in this manner, although not yet covered
with their leaves.
As it is not always possible to find a trunk whose interior has been
hollowed by some friendly woodpecker, the parrots are often forced to
excavate their own nesting-places, and then it is that they show what
an available instrument their beak can be. It is the female who almost,
but not exclusively, makes the hole; at this work she shows herself most
skilful; she hangs, like a woodpecker, from the bark, and gnaws, rather
than cuts away, one shred after another, until the dwelling is completed;
this labour often occupies several weeks, but with patience the end is at
length attained. The hole is the principal matter, the nest does not need
much making; a few chips picked from the ground are all that is required
as a bed on which to deposit the eggs; even a hole that leaves much to
be desired in the way of convenience will content these very easily
satisfied parents. "From the white stem of a Trimi-palm," says Pöppig,
"I once saw a brilliant light blue tail depending; it betrayed the
Yellow Arara, who was busy with her strong beak enlarging a woodpecker's
hole, out of which her ell-long tail hangs whilst brooding." The female
generally sits alone, and is fed and entertained by her mate during the
whole time of incubation.
Among the smaller kinds of these birds, the brooding season lasts
from eighteen to twenty, and with others nineteen, twenty-three, or
twenty-five days.
The young are perfectly helpless when they leave the egg, but their
growth and development is rapid. At first they are very imperfectly
fledged, but in from five to six days the feathers begin to sprout,
and they open their eyes within eight or ten days of their birth. The
warbling Grass Parrakeet leaves the nest thirty-three days after being
hatched, and may be seen flying about two days later. Both parents feed
the young and tend them for some time after they have left the nest.
The food, if corn, is softened in the parent's crop before it is put into
the beak of the young bird. Schomburgk tells us that a pair of parrots
which had settled near his encampment in the wood, only fed their young
twice in the day, once at eleven in the forenoon and again about five
in the evening. As soon as they arrived they perched upon a branch near
the hole, and if they fancied themselves watched would sit quite still,
until they thought that a favourable opportunity occurred for stealing in
unobserved.
The parents are by no means deficient in tender care for their progeny,
and will shield their offspring from danger with most self-sacrificing
courage. Some species will attach themselves with great tenderness to
deserted birds; not merely to those of their own family, but to any
helpless orphan, even although belonging to another species.
Cunningham tells us that the surgeon of the _Triton_--a ship plying
between England and Australia--had a Blue Mountain Parrot, and a very
beautiful smaller one, that he had taken from its nest so young that
it was unable to feed itself. Under these circumstances the elder bird
undertook to give it food, and watched over it with the greatest anxiety.
The mutual friendship of these creatures seemed to increase as time
went on; most part of the day was spent in caresses; they trimmed each
other's feathers, and the old bird would spread her wings over her little
charge with every indication of solicitude. Indeed, their affectionate
demonstrations soon became so noisy that they had to be separated, in
order that the passengers might not be annoyed, and the young one was
placed in a cabin with several others.
After a two months' separation the elder parrot succeeded in escaping,
and was guided to the cabin by the voice of its young protégé, to
whose cage it clung. From this time the friends were not parted, but a
fortnight later the young one died, in consequence of a wound caused by a
fall. Its friend was silent from that hour, and did not long survive its
little charge.
Parrots attain their full beauty of plumage, and commence laying by the
time they are two years old; some of the smaller kinds breed within the
first twelve months, but, notwithstanding this, live for many years, and
have been known to long survive the family in which they passed their
youth.
In countries where parrots abound they are destroyed with unrelenting
perseverance, and this simply for the protection of property. "People
must not imagine," says Audubon, "that all the injuries they are guilty
of meet with no reprisals; on the contrary, these birds are slaughtered
in great numbers during their predatory visits to the farmers. Armed
with his loaded gun, the exasperated proprietor creeps amongst them, and
brings down eight or ten at the first shot; the survivors rise screaming
into the air, fly about in circles for three or four minutes, but return,
and surround the bodies of their fallen companions, uttering loud cries,
and this is repeated again and again, until so few remain that the farmer
does not think it worth while to waste his powder and shot upon them.
Hundreds are thus destroyed in the course of a few hours, and baskets
filled with the spoils."
Various are the expedients adopted for their destruction in different
parts of the world. The Chilians rush out with all speed when they see
the parrots settling, and attack them with sticks. The Australians rouse
them from their sleeping-place, and then throw their boomerangs amongst
the retreating flock. Adventurous men let themselves down the rocks in
which the South American species breed, to draw the young out of their
holes with hooks; or shooting parties and hunters endeavour to steal upon
them unawares. When it is found impossible to climb the trees on which
they breed, these are cut down, and nets and limed twigs placed around
to catch the young. The flesh of the slaughtered birds is often eaten,
although hard and tough, or is made into excellent soup.
Very frequently they are sought for on account of their splendid plumage.
"There is nothing more natural," says the Prince von Wied, "than this
most simple and pleasing decoration, to the use of which savages are
much addicted; and very beautiful are the articles made from feathers by
entirely untaught tribes; many of the aborigines of Brazil particularly
excelled in this kind of work." The love for parrot feathers is very
ancient. "In long forgotten times," says Pöppig, "the inhabitants of the
tropical forests brought arara feathers as tribute to the Incas, for the
decoration of their palaces, and early historians inform us that these
feathers and the 'Koka' were the only produce which led to the peopling
and cultivation of the formidably hot districts in which they abound."
It is said that Alexander the Great brought tame parrots from India, and
in later times these birds were taken in great numbers to Rome, where the
favour in which they were held was carried to such excess that it was
often reproved in the open forum. "Oh, unhappy Rome!" cried that severe
censor Marcus Portius Cato; "have we lived to see the day when our women
nurse dogs upon their laps, and our men go about with parrots on their
hands?" The Romans kept them in cages made of silver, tortoise-shell,
and ivory, and had tutors who particularly taught them to utter the word
Cæsar; in those days the price of a parrot that could speak exceeded that
of a slave. Ovid did not consider it beneath him to sing their praises,
and Heliogabalus thought he could not set anything more delicate than
parrots' heads before his guests. In Nero's reign, it would seem, only
Indian species were known; but probably at a later period African parrots
were introduced.
During the Crusades these birds adorned the houses of the rich, and
the first discoverers of America found tame parrots in the huts of the
natives. Von Schomburghk tells us, that in their native lands, when tame,
they are allowed to fly about, without having their wings clipped. "I
saw many," he writes, "which joined the flocks that were living over the
village during the day, and returned to their master's hut at night."
In comparison with such a life as this the parrots brought to Europe have
a sad fate; but they suffer most before their destination is reached.
The Indians inhabiting the primitive forests capture them in order to
exchange them for European articles, and hand them over to some sailor
in the nearest harbour, who knows nothing either of the necessary food
or of the care they require; not more than half the number that are
shipped survive the long sea voyage, and many of those that reach Europe
in safety perish in the dark, dirty, pestiferous shops of the dealers.
It is only when the bird receives especial attention that its fate is
ameliorated; but by that time it has often become distrustful, violent,
and ill-behaved, and only loses these rude ways after long care and kind
treatment; it is, however, very quick, soon learns to adapt itself to its
altered position, and becomes accustomed to all kinds of diet. At first
hemp or canary seed is acceptable, but after a time the parrot grows more
dainty, and if supplied with sweets becomes such an epicure that any less
delicate food is distasteful; it is easily habituated to almost anything
that man enjoys, even to tea, coffee, wine, or beer, and will quite
intoxicate itself with strong drink. These remarks do not apply to the
little Australian Ground parrot, which refuses everything except grass
seeds and the leaves of plants. Most of the larger kinds enjoy hemp-seed,
hard-boiled rice, ants, maize, lettuce, cabbage, fruit, small kinds of
millet, canary-seed, and the leaves of plants; such food as this keeps
them well and thriving. Bitter almonds and parsley, according to Küle,
are poisonous to these birds.
Many degrees of intelligence are observable among the members of the
Parrot tribe, and the same species often contains individuals of very
varied capabilities; but the memory of all is generally excellent. As
regards teaching them to speak, the most important point to be attended
to is that they should at first be kept closely confined and constantly
instructed; any extent of freedom may, however, be accorded when their
education is nearly completed. On the contrary, should the owner desire
the parrot to breed, a certain amount of liberty is needful. For this
purpose the first requisites are space, quiet, and a suitable tree for
the nest. A tolerably roomy chamber in which they may live throughout
the year, and the trunk of a hollow tree with convenient holes, the wood
being of a soft kind, afford all that is necessary in these respects.
The classification of parrots is particularly difficult, on account of
the great number of species, and it is almost impossible to indicate
distinct boundaries between the different families. It will, however,
answer our present purpose to arrange them under the general titles
of TRUE PARROTS (_Psittacinæ_), MACAWS (_Arainæ_), LORIES (_Lorinæ_),
COCKATOOS (_Cacatuinæ_), and GROUND PARROTS (_Pezoporinæ_), all of which
differ from each other more or less in their habits and modes of life.
THE TRUE PARROTS (_Psittacinæ_)
are inhabitants of the woods, only leaving them to linger on their
outskirts, and from thence to contemplate the tempting fields of fruit,
upon which from time to time they make a raid. Many of them never quit
their dense forests, whilst others of the smaller kinds prefer the less
shady trees or open country.
These birds belong to Africa and the neighbouring islands, and also to
various islands in the Pacific Ocean; they are likewise met with in
great numbers in South America. The family is very rich in species;
we shall, however, only select a few from the many, seeing that the
mere description of their plumage would be wearisome, and we scarcely
possess any information with regard to their mode of life in their native
haunts. There can be no hesitation in placing the "JAKO," the GREY, or
RED-TAILED PARROT (_Psittacus erithacus_) first upon the list, for it may
be considered as the type of the race; it is true that it has neither the
quickest flight nor the gayest plumage, but it combines in itself that
equal excellence of all the attributes of a parrot which gives and will
retain for it a pre-eminence among its congeners.
THE JAKO.
The GREY PARROT exhibits only two colours in its plumage. The tail is of
a deep Cinnabar red, and all the other feathers are ash-grey or greyish
blue, bordered with a lighter shade; near the head and neck the light
borders of the feathers are somewhat wider than elsewhere. The beak
is black, the eyes light brown, the bare places round the latter of a
whitish colour. The male and female do not differ in hue, and but little
in size, the male being the largest; its average measurement is twelve
inches in length and twenty-five inches across the wings, the tail three
inches and a half, the wing from shoulder to tip eight inches and a half;
when folded, the wing extends some lines beyond the tail.
Very little is known of these birds in their wild state, although they
are brought to Europe in far greater numbers than any other species. We
learn from Heuglin that the habitat of the Jako extends from the western
coast of Africa, deep into the heart of that continent, and reliable
naturalists have seen it in great numbers in Wan and Bongo, up to 8°
north latitude. It does not appear to penetrate further east, and is
quite unknown in eastern Soudan; how far north and south it is found is
at present doubtful. It is worthy of remark that these birds were not
many years ago imported from Guinea to Madagascar, where they became
naturalised and increased so rapidly, that at the commencement of the
eighteenth century their numbers rendered them a perfect scourge to the
inhabitants of the island of Bourbon and the Mauritius. The Grey parrot
is one of the most highly-prized of our domestic favourites, and well
merits the esteem in which it is held. Its praises have been sung in all
languages, and every work on natural history relates some anecdotes of
its surprising cleverness.
Perhaps the most celebrated of the species is one which lived for many
years in Vienna and Salzburg, and luckily found an exact and industrious
observer of its performances.
The Count Courcy Droitaumont was the first who, in the year 1835, in
Oken's "Isis," gave us such particulars of its attainments as awakened
astonishment in all quarters. This account has been attested by the
late possessor of the parrot, President Kleimayrn, at the wish of Lenz,
who afterwards published the following narrative:--"Jako noticed and
criticised everything that passed before him, gave the proper answer to
a question, did as he was bidden, saluted people who entered the room,
and made his adieux to those who were taking leave; he wished you good
morning and good night at the proper times, and asked for food when he
was hungry.
"He called all the members of the family by name, and preferred some
of them to others; if he wanted me (his master), he called out 'Papa,
come here,' and whatever he said, sang, or whistled, was done as a human
being would do it. There were times when he seemed inspired like an
improvisatore; his voice then sounded like that of a speaker heard from a
distance, when too far off to enable you to understand the words.
"Sometimes he would be marvellously polite--'Good morning, reverend
sir!' 'An almond, if you please, reverend sir!' 'Do you want an almond?'
'Should you like a nut?' 'Shall I have some food soon?' 'Have you got
something?' Occasionally he would threaten--'Be off, you rascal; are
you going home or not?' 'Be off, you thief, or wait till I come!' 'You
idiot!' 'You clown!' At times he was self-complacent--'Good little
prattler!' 'You are an excellent little parrot!' 'Take time, neighbour,
take time!' &c. If any one knocked at the door he would call very loudly
and distinctly (just like a man) 'Come in! Come in, Herr B.!' 'What
orders have you?' 'I am your humble servant!' 'I am delighted to have the
honour! quite delighted to have the honour!' Or he would tap on his cage
and say the above to himself.
"He could imitate the cuckoo excellently. Occasionally his conversation
was rather discursive. 'Look out!' 'Come out!' 'Come up!' 'My dear
little parrot!' 'Bravo, bravissimo!' 'Are we not going to dinner?' 'Let
us go to the window!' 'Hieronymus, stand up!' 'I am going!' 'Long live
the Emperor!' 'Where have you been?' 'Will you kindly excuse me, but I
thought you were a bird?' Whenever he bit or spoiled anything, he would
say, 'Don't bite!' 'Be quiet, do!' 'What have you been doing?' 'Wait a
minute, you rascal; what have you been doing?' 'I am coming after you!'
'How are you, you little chatterer?' 'Have you got something to eat?' 'I
hope you will enjoy it!' 'Hush, hush, good night!' 'Pretty Poll may go
out; so come, come shoot, Poll, shoot!' and then he would shoot, calling
loudly 'Puff!' 'There, there, there!' 'Go home, come march, go home
directly!' 'I'm coming after you!' He would ring a bell that was placed
in his house, and say, 'Who's that ringing? who's that ringing?' 'Why,
here's a little dog! a pretty little dog!' Then he would whistle to the
dog and say, 'Whistle, little dog!' and ask, 'What does the little dog
say?' and then bark. If told to fire, he would say 'Puff!' and give the
word of command, 'Halt; right about face; make ready; present; fire!
Bravo, bravo!' He never said 'Bravo!' in connection with his faults.
[Illustration: THE JAKO (_Psittacus erithacus_).]
"Sometimes he would cry out, 'What are you shaking me for? What are
you doing to me?' and scream for help, as though being shaken, and
call out again, 'Don't shake me, you rascal! Ah! that's the way of the
world! alas! alas! Don't shake me, you rascal!' and then laugh with
great distinctness. If anything ailed him, he would exclaim mournfully,
'Poor Poll is ill; poor little parrot!' If annoyed, his tone became
defiant--'Wait a minute; I'll come and punish you!' If ever he saw the
cloth being laid, or heard from a distance that preparations were making
for a meal, he would immediately call out, 'Let's go to dinner!' When
the family were at breakfast he would ask, 'Am I to have anything? I
should like some chocolate!' He would remain quiet as long as his master
slept; but if in another room would begin singing and whistling at break
of day. In order to see if it would be possible to teach Jako to sing,
we selected such words as he could say, and he was soon able to sing a
verse of a song; he could put in harmonies, and readily run up and down
the scales, and learnt to whistle many scraps and shakes. He never kept
to the same key, but would take the air half a tone higher or lower, and
yet never utter a false note. Whilst at Vienna he was taught an air from
'Martha,' and on being shown a dance, tried to imitate it by raising
one foot after another, and putting his body into dancing attitudes.
Kleimayrn died in 1853, and Jako fell ill, as it would seem, from pining
after his beloved master. In 1854 he was so weak that he had to be laid
in a little bed and carefully tended; he continued, however, to talk
incessantly, and after saying, 'Your poor little parrot is ill!'--died."
A young lady has given us the following particulars about another
"Jako:"--"The parrot of which I am about to speak was given me by a
man who had lived for many years in the East Indies. The bird at first
knew nothing but Dutch, but soon learnt German and French, and after a
time spoke as clearly as a human being in all three languages; he was
so observant that he often used phrases which had never been taught
him, applying them on fitting occasions in the most astonishing manner.
He said a number of disjointed Dutch words and sentences, intermixing
German quite correctly when the phrase was not forthcoming in the former
language. He could ask, answer, and request you to give him something,
and thank you for it, varying the use of the words according to the time,
place, or person. 'The little parrot wants something to eat!' If he did
not get what he wanted, he would immediately scream out, 'I _must_ and
_will_ have something to eat!' And if still kept waiting would begin
throwing everything about to vent his anger. He said '_bon jour_' in the
morning, and '_bon soir_' in the evening; asked permission to retire, and
took his leave of us. When he was carried out, he would say, '_Bon soir,
bon soir_.'
"This bird was particularly attached to his mistress, from whom he
received his food, and would press his beak on her hand, and say, 'Kiss
the lady's hand.' He took great interest in all she did, and whilst she
was busied with something would often ask, with most comic earnestness,
'What is the lady doing?' After her death, he evinced great sorrow, and
it was only with difficulty that he could be persuaded to take food,
or that his life could be preserved. He whistled wonderfully well,
particularly the tune, 'Ich dank dir schon durch deiner Sohn,' and sang
most beautifully. He would say to himself, 'Polly must sing a little,'
and then begin--
"'Perroquet mignon,
Dis moi sans façon,
Qu'a-t-on fait dans ma maison
Pendant mon absence.'
Or--
"'Ohne Lieb und ohne Wein
Können wir doch leben?'
Then he would sometimes say--
"'Ohne Lieb und ohne _maison_
Können wir doch leben.'
Or--
"'Ein Kuss--_sans façon_.'
The latter version seemed to amuse him so much that he would burst into
loud laughter. 'Polly, what does Lottie say?' he would sometimes ask
himself, and answer immediately, as though some one else had put the
question, 'Oh, my beautiful, beautiful little parrot; come and kiss me.'
And this he would utter with the exact tone of endearment used by Lottie.
He expressed his conceit by saying, 'Ah, how beautiful I am!' at the same
time stroking his beak with his foot, though he was by no means handsome,
for he had the ugly trick of pulling out his feathers. On this account he
was ordered wine baths, which were administered to him by the help of a
watering can. These baths were most disagreeable to him, and as soon as
he saw preparations being made he would beg imploringly, 'Please don't
make me wet! Poor little parrot! Please don't wet me!'
"He could not bear strangers, and those who came to see him, and wanted
to hear him speak, only attained their wishes by hiding themselves. In
their presence he was as quiet as a mouse, but chattered incessantly when
visitors were out of sight, as though he wanted to indemnify himself for
the restraint he had been under. There were people, however, who managed
to gain his affections, and he would talk with them when they came, and
used even to crack his jokes about them. A fat major, with whom he was
well acquainted, was trying one day to teach him a new trick. 'Get upon
the stick, parrot; get upon the stick!' commanded the soldier. But Polly
seemed sulky. All at once, the bird burst into a loud laugh, and said,
'Get upon the stick, major; get upon the stick!' Another friend of his
had not come to the house for some time. The visitor had been talked
about, and it was expected that 'Roth,' as he was called, would make his
appearance on a certain day. 'Here comes Roth,' said the bird, suddenly,
as he saw him approaching through the window, and recognised him from
some distance.
"This poor parrot came to an unlucky end; it was given as a present to
a relation of its master, who had become superannuated, and had taken a
childish fancy to the bird. But it could not endure the parting from all
it loved, and died in the course of a few days."
We could tell of many grey parrots that have been brought to great
perfection in the art of speaking, but the preceding anecdotes combine
all that these birds have been known to do, so we will only observe
that their wonderful memory and powers of mimicry have sometimes their
disadvantages. Their first teachers are usually sailors, and it may,
therefore, be easily imagined that their vocabulary is neither choice nor
elegant; unluckily, the best educated birds will often remember these old
lessons, and intermix the lowest and commonest words with their pretty
phrases and speeches. The parrot can reproduce any peculiar sound with
as much ease as it learns words, and will imitate the creaking of a
neighbouring door, the barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, or even an
old man's cough.
Mr. Wood tells us that a friend of his had a parrot of this species,
which proved herself a most tender and affectionate guardian. In a hedge
of roses near its owner's house, a pair of finches had built their nest,
and were regularly fed by the family, who were much attached to all kinds
of pet animals. The numerous visitors to the rose hedge attracted Polly's
attention, and, seeing the food they gave strewed around, she determined
to emulate their good example. Being allowed to fly about, she left her
cage, imitated the cry of the old finches, and gave the nestlings a part
of her food; but these expressions of sympathy did not please the parent
birds, who at once deserted their young from fear of the large stranger,
so that Polly saw the little ones thus become orphans, and a fine field
opened for her fostering care. From that hour she refused to return to
her cage, and remained day and night near her adopted children, whom
she fed with the greatest assiduity, and had the pleasure of rearing
successfully. When the little ones were fledged they used to perch upon
the head and neck of their foster-mother, who bore the burden with
exemplary care; the parrot, however, received but small thanks, for her
young charges had no sooner wings strong enough to bear them than they
flew away. Poor Polly was for some time in bitter distress, but at length
found consolation for her motherly feelings in the discovery of some
deserted hedge sparrows; these she conveyed to her cage, where they were
soon on the best terms with their adopted parent.
* * * * *
Many American varieties of the Short-tails, usually called GREEN PARROTS
(_Chrysotis_), differ from their African congeners, the Jakos, in their
prevailing green colour, and in the small size of the bare parts around
the eyes. Their body is compact, the beak strongly bent, the tail short,
broad, and somewhat rounded; the wings broad, and strongly formed,
reaching nearly to the middle of the tail; the legs are strong, thick,
and fleshy; the feet powerful, and armed with strong claws, the plumage
lies close and thick, the feathers being small and imbricated. Two
species of this family are especially well known to us, the Green and the
Amazon. They are both large birds, of fourteen inches long, and about
twenty-one to twenty-three across the wings; the tail measures from four
inches to four inches and two-thirds; and the wing, from the shoulder to
the tip, seven inches.
THE AMAZON PARROT.
The AMAZON PARROT (_Chrysotis Amazonicus_) is of a brilliant green
colour, sky blue on the brow and top of the head, yellow on its cheeks
and throat, and red on the shoulders; the side tail-feathers are
blood-red beneath, the beak deep horn grey, the cere blackish, the feet
ash grey, powdered with white, and the iris externally bordered with
orange, and internally with pale yellow. The Green parrot (_Chrysotis
æstivus_), on the contrary, has its forehead and cheek stripes of a sky
blue colour. The shoulders are green, and the red side-feathers of the
tail edged with green.
From the observations made by the Prince von Wied, Speke, Schomburghk,
and Burmeister, we learn that both kinds are widely spread over South
America.
The Amazon parrot avoids the forests near the coast, but frequents the
woods and bushes of the higher lands, while the Green parrot prefers the
primitive forests. Both kinds are much alike in their habits and mode
of life. Early in the morning they leave their roosting-places, and fly
screaming through the air, beating violently with their wings, until they
reach the woods or plantations where they can find fruit; at noon they
rest, after which they set out in search of food; and in the evening,
except in breeding time, assemble in great numbers, making a terrible
noise until a roosting-place is found for the night.
The Prince von Wied gives the following account of the Green parrot,
which is called the Kuriche by the Brazilians:--"In all the eastern
coasts of Brazil that I travelled through this bird was very common; I
found it in numbers wherever there were thick forests, and on the borders
of mango swamps at the mouths of rivers; it breeds equally well in all
such places, but seems to prefer localities where it can obtain the fruit
of the mango. Great flocks inhabit the wooded country around Rio de
Janeiro, Parahiba, Espirito Santo, and Belmonte, and their loud voices
may be heard morning and evening in the bushes of the bog-like country,
which is watered by the floods from the rivers. These bushes stand in the
same relation to the Brazilian rivers as willows do to European streams;
but the trees are higher, and the parrots can often make their homes on
their strong stems or branches. In the breeding season they usually fly
up into the air in pairs, calling and screaming loudly, but except at
that time are met with in very numerous flocks. We ourselves have seen
such enormous swarms of short-tailed parrots in the Mucuri forests and
other places, that the whole woodland was filled with their extraordinary
cry. On these occasions many different species seemed to be combined in
one flock; their united screams were deafening, and as one party drove
another from the trees, excitement gave new vigour to their shrieks.
Should they alight upon a lofty, thickly-foliaged tree, it is often
very difficult to see them, as their green hue is a great protection,
and their presence is only indicated by the fall of the shells and
stones of the fruit they devour. Whilst eating they remain quiet, but if
alarmed will utter loud cries. They are shot in great numbers, as they
are excellent food, and the soup made from their flesh is much esteemed
both in Brazil and Surinam. These parrots lay two white eggs in holes of
trees, upon a bed of shreds of wood, chipped out in preparing the nest;
they breed but once in the year, and that in the spring time of their
native land.
[Illustration: THE AMAZON PARROT (_Chrysotis Amazonicus_).]
"The young, if taken from the nest, are soon tamed, and learn to speak
distinctly; on this account they are frequently found in the Brazilian
houses, and are brought in great numbers into the towns, and sold to
sailors, who bring them to Europe; they do not learn to speak so readily
as the grey parrot, but prove teachable, tolerably gentle, and amiable
towards those that feed them."
* * * * *
Under the generic name of PIONUS, Wagner unites many small parrots, which
we will call the BLUNT-TAILED PARROTS. Their bodies are compact, the tail
very short, the wings on the contrary being slender, pointed, and so long
that they reach at least as far as the middle of the tail; the beak is
compressed at the sides, and the upper mandible generally terminates in a
long pointed hook. The legs are strong and powerful, the plumage usually
harsh, and the feathers cordiform and particularly small. Those on the
head and neck are thick and strikingly coloured. We are familiar with
many varieties of these birds, most of them from South America, and with
others from Africa, which have lately been placed in a different tribe.
[Illustration: THE MAITAKKA (_Pionus menstruus_).]
THE MAITAKKA.
Of all the blunt-tailed parrots, none is brought to Europe in greater
numbers than the Brazilian MAITAKKA (_Pionus menstruus_). This bird is
of middle size, ten and a half inches long and twenty inches across;
the tail is three inches long, and the wing six inches in length from
the shoulder to the tip. The plumage on the head, neck, throat, and
upper part of the breast, is ultramarine, through which the black ground
colour is visible: the neck feathers are of a copperish green, edged
with blue. The back, lower part of belly, breast, and wings are copper
green, the feathers on the back being edged with a darker shade; those
upon the breast are shaded with light blue. The upper wing-covers are
of a yellowish olive green, the under covers the colour of verdigris;
the quill-feathers are green, bordered with black, the wing-feathers
blood-red, yellow at the tip, and the shafts blue. The two middle
tail-feathers are green, the tip and outer web are blue, and near the
root of a light blood-red. The beak is horn grey at the tip and paler at
the base, with a rose-coloured spot on both sides beneath the nostrils;
the legs are of a greyish slate colour, the eye-rings bluish grey, and
the eyes greyish brown. The female resembles the male, but is somewhat
paler. In the young, grey is generally the prevailing hue; in old birds
blue predominates.
According to the testimony of travellers, particularly the Prince von
Wied, Schomburghk, and Burmeister, the Maitakka inhabits all the country
near the coast in Brazil and Guiana, where these birds are met with in
great numbers. They live in pairs in the dry season, and assemble in
large flocks during the rainy part of the year, flying with loud cries
from tree to tree, and settling upon those most heavily laden with fruit,
to which they often do great damage, returning in the evening to their
usual resting-places. Their movements depend upon the time when the
different fruits are ripe, and to enjoy these they fly about the country
in various directions, during the rainy season approaching nearer to the
plantations on the coast and open country, but in the hotter part of
the year keeping more immediately in the neighbourhood of the principal
forests.
The flocks of these birds are very noisy; but when pairing they only
utter their call-note, which is a shrill, harsh cry. They breed during
the dry season, and their preparations for sitting do not differ from
those of other parrots. The Maitakka is hunted zealously throughout the
whole of Brazil, partly in order to drive it from the plantations, and
partly for the sake of its flesh. It is often tamed, and though not so
teachable as other parrots, soon becomes accustomed to captivity, and
can be taught to utter disjointed words. Great numbers are brought to
the coast, and eagerly purchased by sailors, for though very numerous
in Europe, these birds always command a high price. With care they can
endure confinement for many years.
THE CRESTED HAWK PARROT.
One of the American parrots which we include in this family reminds us
of the cockatoos, and must be considered as the type of a peculiar tribe
(_Deroptyus_). Linnæus, who was acquainted with it, gave it two distinct
names, the one on account of its sparrow-hawk-like plumage (_Deroptyus
accipitrinus_), the other, because of its frill of elongated feathers
(_Deroptyus coronatus_). We will call it the CRESTED HAWK-PARROT, seeing
that the long feathers on the nape of the neck, which can be raised at
pleasure, distinguish it from other South American species.
The beak is large, strongly but bluntly toothed, and having the ridge
of the upper mandible powerfully hooked and projecting. The cere is
short, and its margin curved like the letter S. The eyes are surrounded
by a broad bare circle; the bluntly-pointed wings reach to the middle
of the tail, the latter being of tolerable length and formed of rounded
feathers, of which the three exterior on both sides are shortly
graduated; the legs are weak, and the toes long. The plumage is on
the whole extremely rich, of a pale yellowish-grey upon the head; the
exterior margin of the forehead is of a brown colour; the crest is
composed of dull blood-red feathers, edged with sky blue. The plumage
on the back is light green, somewhat darker in the middle than on the
sides, and the feathers on the lower part of the body are, as far as they
are visible, blood-red. The sides of the cheeks and the throat are of a
brownish tint; the primaries quite black, and the secondaries similarly
coloured on both sides. The tail is bluish on its upper surface, and
black underneath. Burmeister gives the length of this rare and beautiful
species as being fourteen inches, five and a half of which belong to the
tail; the wing measures seven inches from the shoulder to the tip.
As far as we know at present, this bird prefers dwelling in the wooded
district near Guiana and the River Amazon. Spix found it at Villa Nova,
on the river above-mentioned. Schomburghk mentions it but twice. He
says that he met with it on the Rupununi, and also in the huts of the
Warrau Indians; but though he saw numerous flocks of these magnificent
birds enlivening the palm-trees of Sawari, and greeting passers-by
with piercing cries, and thus had abundant opportunities for making
observations, he tells us extremely little about them. "When angry," he
informs us, "this bird is without doubt one of the most beautiful of the
parrot race, as it then raises the brilliantly tinted feathers on the
back of the neck, until they stand up perpendicularly, thus forming a
flowing circle round the head." The settlers call it "Hia," which word
is supposed to resemble its cry. From the same writer we learn that
this species inhabits the lower woods, approaching the settlements with
confidence, and although easily tamed, is weakly and unteachable. It
makes its nest in the holes of trees, and lays from two to four eggs.
THE DWARF PARROTS.
Among the most vivacious and docile members of this family, the Dwarf
Parrots (_Psittacula_) deserve our particular notice, for their behaviour
is quite in harmony with their beautiful exterior. "The poets," says
Schomburghk, "could not have been aware of the tender love that exists
between a little pair of Dwarf Parrots, or they would never have selected
doves as their models of ideal tenderness; indeed, it is impossible to
compare the latter with the former in this respect. Between these "Love
birds," as we generally call them, there exists the most perfect harmony
in all their acts and wishes. They eat together, share the same bath,
and if the male bird utters his cry his mate will instantly join her
voice to his. Should one fall ill, the other feeds it, and, however many
may be assembled on a tree, the little couples never leave each other.
It is well known that these elegant little creatures can only be reared
in pairs, or, at any rate, they must be allowed the society of some of
their race. If taken young out of the nest, before they have chosen a
mate, it may happen that solitary individuals can be reared; but the
older birds never survive the death of their little companions, and
soon pine themselves to death. More need not be said in favour of these
'inseparable birds.'"
The "Dwarf Parrots" are not larger than Finches or Larks, and are
distinguished by their short, bluntly-hooked beaks, and strikingly short
small tails, the feathers of which are tolerably equal in size and
pointed. The quills of their wings are short, and when the latter are
closed reach to the end of the tail; their legs are likewise short and
feeble. The plumage is soft, long, and large-feathered; the individual
feathers are, usually, not bright, but strikingly coloured and marked. We
are acquainted with many species, which are spread over Africa, Asia, and
South America, and resemble each other in their habits and mode of life.
All are true parrots, climbing the branches with the greatest dexterity,
flying rapidly, and feeding upon fruit and corn; the nests are made in
the holes of trees, and their eggs are small, rounded, and white.
SWINDER'S LOVE-BIRD.
SWINDER'S LOVE-BIRD (_Agapornis Swinderiana_), one of the prettiest
members of this group, is a tiny creature, at most five inches in length,
of which more than one inch belongs to the tail: it is about nine inches
broad, and each wing measures three inches from the shoulder to the tip.
The prevailing colour of the plumage is green; the under part of the
body, wings, and upper tail-covers are a beautiful azure blue; the short,
scarcely rounded tail is, with the exception of the two middle feathers,
green, but bright red at the root and towards the end, with a black line
dividing the two colours. The face, belly, and tail-covers are yellowish
green, and the upper part of the throat is surrounded by a black band.
These beautiful birds inhabit the western and interior parts of Africa,
but information as to their habits in their native land is entirely
wanting.
[Illustration: THE CRESTED HAWK PARROT (_Deroptyus accipitrinus
coronatus_).]
THE SPARROW PARROT.
The SPARROW PARROT (_Psittacula passerina_) is one of the smallest of
the Brazilian parrots, being scarcely or not at all larger than the
species we have just described. The colour of the plumage is a bright
green, shaded into yellow upon the brow, face, and lower parts. The
under-side of the tail and tail-covers are of a pale bright bluish
green; the anterior border of the wing, the large wing-covers, the back,
and secondary quill-feathers, as well as the inner wing-covers and the
under part of the body, are of a bright ultramarine; the primary quills
are blackish brown, with a green anterior edge. The beak is a bluish
ashy green; the cere somewhat darker; the feet ash grey, with green,
scale-like plates; the eyes brown.
The Sparrow Parrot is very common in Brazil, and inhabits both the
woodlands near the sea-coast and the bushes in dry districts, to which
it is an admirable ornament. These birds come in troops into the gardens
of the settlers like our sparrows, which they also resemble in the fact
that when in company with others of their kind they scream and chatter in
a very confused manner, the united flock producing a shrill twittering
sound. They settle in great numbers upon a tree or shrub to nibble the
fruit, during which time the whole swarm is in unceasing confusion,
climbing nimbly up and down the branches, and whistling briskly. In other
respects the Sparrow Parrot lives after the same manner as the rest of
its relatives, making the same kind of nest, sometimes using the deserted
oven-shaped abode of the Crested Parrot, and laying from three to four
white eggs upon the shreds of wood that cover the bottom of the hole.
Both young and old are often captured by the Brazilians, and seem soon to
forget the loss of their freedom, if they are not separated from their
mates. They are but short lived, and for that reason seldom reach Europe;
still, it occasionally happens that, with great care, they will survive
some years, and even breed in a state of captivity.
THE SISKIN PARROT.
The SISKIN PARROT (_Nasiterna pygmæa_), the dwarf among the dwarfs
belonging to this order, lives in New Guinea and the Papuan Islands. Its
green plumage is varied by a yellowish shade on the head, and the face
is light golden brown; the middle tail-feathers are blue, the rest are
black, with yellow tips; the beak is extraordinarily high and strong. As
far as we know, this bird is not rare upon the high trees on the coast of
New Guinea and in the forests of Salawatis and Misool, but no observer
has as yet given us particulars of its habits.
COCKATOOS.
Amongst the different species of parrots with which Australia is enriched
the COCKATOOS (_Plyctolophus_) take high rank. The members of this group
are distinguished by their compact body, short tail, and wings of middle
size; their large, short, broad beak toothed at the margin, the upper
mandible of which terminates in a strong hook. The tongue is usually
fleshy and smooth, the region of the eye bare, and the head decked
with an upright tuft of bright and beautiful feathers. The plumage is
generally very striking, either by reason of its pure white or delicate
rose colour, or (for a parrot) the unusually dark tints that predominate.
Cockatoos are found not only in Australia, but in the Moluccas, New
Guinea, and the Philippine Islands, where most kinds establish themselves
in enormous flocks in the woods, and fly from thence over the fields
and plains, presenting an appearance that is enchantingly beautiful.
"Perched under the shadow of the dark foliage," says Mitchell, "their
bright wings and glowing crests transform the heights upon which they
live into regions of the most exquisite beauty." In their habits and mode
of life Cockatoos resemble other parrots, and must be reckoned among
the most pleasing of the whole race. It is quite true that when living
together in large flocks their cries frequently become a deafening noise
intolerable to ordinary ears, but a solitary bird is very engaging;
indeed, there is something so extremely tender in the tone in which it
utters the word "cockatoo" (whence is derived the name), that it attracts
us involuntarily, for the cry of "cockatoo" is always intended to express
a kindly feeling, and changes when angry into a most fearful shriek. The
Cockatoo soon learns to make friends with mankind, plays fewer tricks
than other parrots, appears grateful for any kindness that is shown to
it, and seems eager to make a fitting return; unkindness alone makes
it ill-tempered or mischievous, and its excellent memory enables it to
avenge an injury after the lapse of years. Its disposition in general
is mild and gentle, and its good qualities numerous. It learns to speak
with tolerable ease and fluency, forming the words into phrases, as
though it understood them, and applies whole sentences at a fitting
opportunity. In their wild state, Cockatoos assemble in large flocks,
which remain more or less united even during the breeding season; they
pass the night buried in the leafy shelter of the trees, and at break of
day make the woods resound with their noisy screams as they rise into
the air with light strokes of the wing, hovering and gliding till they
reach a field yielding suitable food. Fruit, corn, and seeds constitute
their principal nourishment, and they will also devour buds and bulbs,
obtaining the latter very dextrously by the help of their long beaks.
Every fresh occurrence in their daily life is greeted with loud cries;
and should a second flock pass over the place where they have settled,
their combined shrieks are perfectly appalling, and can only be imagined
by those who have heard the yells a few captive cockatoos are capable
of producing. As soon as hunger is appeased these flocks retire to rest
beneath the shelter of the branches, where they remain some hours in
comparative quiet; they then again go in search of a meal, returning
to pass the night on their accustomed trees. Thus they live till the
breeding season, when they pair, and each couple sets out to find a
suitable home, preferring holes in trees, but also resorting to fissures
in the rocks. Certain precipices near the South Australian rivers are
yearly visited by thousands of Cockatoos, just as the cliffs of the north
seas are infested by huge flocks of sea-gulls. We are told that some of
these rocks are completely honeycombed by them, and the strength and
firmness of their beaks renders this assertion easily credible. They
lay two white, pointed eggs, about the size of those of a bantam fowl;
but in what manner incubation is carried on we are not aware. We are
told by travellers that they soon become timid if they suspect danger,
and, like other kinds of parrots, carry on their depredations with so
much cunning that it is very difficult, or indeed impossible, to drive
them from the fields. The natives hunt them in a very peculiar manner.
"Perhaps," says Captain Grey, "it would be impossible to imagine a more
exciting spectacle than that of seeing the Australians hunt the Cockatoo.
They employ for this purpose a very remarkable weapon called a boomerang;
this is a sickle-shaped flat instrument made of wood, which can be thrown
by the hand to a distance of 100 feet, and flies in small circles with
many windings from the direct path. An Australian will follow a flock
either into the fields or woods, preferring, however, places where large
trees are situated near water, such spots as these being the favourite
resort of the Cockatoos. Here they are to be found in innumerable hosts,
climbing on the branches or flying from tree to tree; here they also
sleep, and here the wily native comes, most watchfully observing all
necessary precautions. He goes from one tree to another, and creeps from
bush to bush, taking the greatest care not to disturb the wary birds, but
in vain, for, however quiet his movements may be, he is soon discovered,
and his near approach greeted with a hideous cry. The birds have already
perceived that danger is at hand, though they do not know what the next
step may be. At length their pursuer reaches the water, and discloses
his dark form to their view; amidst piercing shrieks the white cloud of
birds rises into the air, and at the same instant the Australian throws
his weapon amongst them. The boomerang, which is thrown with great force,
dances and springs in the most wonderful manner over the water, and then,
rising higher and higher in its wayward flight, is soon careering in
the midst of the frightened multitude. A second, a third, and a fourth
weapon is discharged; in vain the terrified creatures try to escape,
the apparently aimless course of the missile bewilders them and delays
their flight. One after the other is struck by the boomerang, and comes
to the ground, having probably either lost its head or broken its wing;
they fall screaming with pain and terror, and it is only when the dusky
hunter has attained his end that the remainder of the terrified flock
hide themselves in the foliage of the trees." The flesh of the Cockatoo
is tolerably good, and the soup made from it excellent. The number of
these birds that find a home with us prove that they are easily captured,
and, like all other parrots, they will live a long time if nourished with
simple food.
THE LEMON-CRESTED COCKATOO.
The LEMON-CRESTED COCKATOO (_Cacatua galerita_) is known by its white
colour (which in some specimens presents the appearance of having had a
delicate red breathed upon it), and by its perfectly shaped tuft, formed
of two rows of long and slender feathers, that can be raised or lowered
at pleasure. This long tuft or crest, the wings, and the inner web of the
tail-feathers are of a pale brimstone colour at the root. The eye is deep
brown, the beak black, and the foot greyish brown. The length of this
species is about one foot four inches.
We are at present uncertain whether this bird is spread over Van Diemen's
Land, as well as over the whole of Australia and New Holland, or whether
those countries are inhabited by different species of very similar
plumage. A careful examination of the Cockatoos most abounding in those
three regions has shown a decided difference in the construction of the
beak, and justifies the last-mentioned opinion. According to Gould, the
Lemon-crested Cockatoo is common to all the Australian settlements except
those to the west. These birds live in flocks of hundreds and thousands,
much preferring open plains, or slightly wooded districts, to the forests
near the coast.
LEADBEATER'S COCKATOO.
The INCA, or LEADBEATER'S COCKATOO (_Cacatua Leadbeateri_), another
species found on the continent of Australia, differs from the bird we
have just described in the arrangement of its colours. Its plumage is
white, but the forehead, sides of the neck, the middle and under surface
of the wings, are of a beautiful rose tint. The crest is magnificent;
the individual feathers of which it is composed are bright red at the
root, spotted with yellow in the middle, and tipped with white. When this
plume is laid back, nothing but the white tips can be seen, but it is no
sooner raised than the blazing red appears, and the yellow spots unite
themselves into a stripe that renders its appearance still more striking.
The spaces around the eyes are light brown; the beak light horn colour;
the foot dark brown. The female is somewhat paler on the lower part of
the body, and has large yellow spots upon the crest.
Gould tells us that these splendid birds are spread over the whole of
South Australia, living principally upon the high gum-trees and brushwood
near the rivers of the interior. They are found principally near the
Darling and Murray rivers, and do not extend as far as the north-western
coast. During the breeding season they appear in great numbers in certain
localities, and animate the otherwise monotonous forests of the interior.
The voice of the Inca cockatoo is more plaintive than that of its
congeners, and its scream not so harsh.
THE HELMET COCKATOO.
The HELMET COCKATOO (_Callicephalus galeatus_) also deserves notice as
being the type of a tribe that forms the connecting link between the True
Cockatoos and the GERINGEROES or RAVEN COCKATOOS of New Holland. This
bird is known by its short vaulted beak, which has a slightly projecting
hook on the upper mandible, and by its tolerably strong and rounded tail.
The plumage is beautiful and richly marked; the upper part of the body
is a dark slate blue, the forehead, cheeks, and crest scarlet; all the
feathers, except the primary and secondary quills and the tail-feathers,
are slender, and edged with whitish grey more deeply on the upper than on
the under part of the body. The female is darker, and almost of a slate
colour, the upper surface of the neck and back sprinkled with pale grey,
and the rest of the body marked with irregular greyish white stripes.
The feathers on the under parts of the body are of a brimstone colour,
edged with dusky red. The spaces round the eyes are blackish brown, the
beak light horn colour, the feet black and sprinkled with a greyish kind
of dust. We have no knowledge whatever of these birds in their native
state. Gould tells us that they are found in the woods on the southern
coast of Australia, and on some of the neighbouring islands, as also in
the northern parts of Van Diemen's Land, where they inhabit the highest
trees, and luxuriate upon the seeds of the different kinds of Eucalyptus.
[Illustration: THE HELMET COCKATOO (_Callicephalus galeatus_).]
Many species of Cockatoos are remarkable for the peculiar formation of
their beaks, the upper part of which is unusually prolonged. These birds
form a distinct group, but much resemble the true Cockatoos, and have
therefore been placed among them. Such, for example, is
THE NOSE COCKATOO.
The NOSE COCKATOO (_Licmetis nasicus_) is from sixteen to seventeen
inches in length; the beak measures along the ridge about two inches.
Both sexes are of the same colour, the whole plumage being white, the
under-wing and tail-covers mottled with pale brimstone yellow. All the
feathers on the head and neck as far as the upper part of the breast,
are vermilion red, white at the tip; a vermilion stripe runs across the
forehead, reaching to the back, and passes like a pair of eyebrows over
the eyes. There is also a crooked line of red upon the breast. The beak
is light horn colour, the feet ash grey. Some of the feathers near the
cheeks can be raised at will. Gould considers that there are two species
of this bird, one of which is found in Western Australia or New South
Wales, the other is confined to Port Philip and Southern Australia.
[Illustration: THE NESTOR COCKATOO (_Nestor productus_).]
The Nose Cockatoos seem rather to inhabit the interior than the
neighbourhood of the sea-coast. They assemble in large flocks, and spend
the night and noon-day upon the summits of the forest trees; passing,
however, a considerable portion of their time on the ground, where they
run, or rather hop, somewhat slowly; their flight, on the contrary, is
very rapid, and much lighter than that of their congeners. Their food
consists of corn and seeds, but principally of buds and the bulbs of
different plants, more especially of orchids, which they obtain by the
help of their long and curiously shaped beak. The breeding of these birds
offers nothing unusual; their two white eggs, which resemble those
of the Tufted Cockatoos, are generally laid on a bed of decayed wood
upon the ground, or in some hole in a large gum-tree. This species can
endure captivity for many years, and has lately been brought to Europe
in great numbers, but, notwithstanding this, it is not often met with in
our collections. Gould has observed that a caged Nose Cockatoo is much
more sullen, gloomy, and irritable than others of its race, and this
we can fully confirm, having had for a year one of these birds in our
possession, that has never become reconciled to its keeper, but threatens
with its beak all who approach; it cannot endure to be stroked or
touched, and everything unusual excites its rage; at such times it erects
the small horseshoe-shaped crest upon its brow, so that the splendid
red feathers are displayed, wags its head violently, repeatedly snaps
its beak, and screams most furiously. The word "cockatoo" is mingled
with its cries, but uttered in quite another tone to that employed by
its congeners; the latter generally utter it in a soft drawling manner,
whilst the Nose Cockatoo on the contrary pronounces the two first
syllables hurriedly, and lays a strong emphasis on the last. The facility
with which this parrot can move its beak in any direction is very
remarkable, and no other species that we are acquainted with has such
suppleness and command of the joints of its jaws. The beak of the Nose
Cockatoo is, indeed, the most extraordinary pair of pincers that ever
was constructed. In justice to this bird, we must add to the foregoing
remarks that it may occasionally be made very tame, and not only
learns to speak, but is able to apply its language very intelligently.
There is one in the Zoological Gardens at Antwerp that is an universal
favourite with the visitors, with whom it converses freely, greeting its
acquaintances as soon as they appear, without the slightest ill-humour or
sullenness.
THE NESTOR COCKATOO.
The NESTOR COCKATOO (_Nestor productus_) represents a very remarkable
tribe of parrots, recognisable by their extraordinarily elongated beak
and sickle-shaped upper mandible, which projects far beyond the lower.
The tail is of middle size, the points of the tail-feathers being in some
places denuded of their web, and the wings, when closed, reach nearly to
the middle of the tail. The tarsus is decidedly higher, and the plumage
harsher and more imbricated than in other Cockatoos. In our specimen it
is much variegated, the upper part of the body is brown, the head and
back of the neck mottled with grey, each of the feathers covering these
parts being bordered with a darker shade. The under part of the body
and tail-covers are of a deep red; the breast, throat, and cheeks, are
yellow, the latter having a reddish tint; the tail-feathers are orange at
the root, and striped with brown: the inner web of the quills is dark red
and brown; the bare place round the eyes, the legs, and the cere, are of
an olive brown; the beak is brown; and the eye a very dark brown. Both
sexes are similarly coloured, but the young are of a dark olive brown on
the breast, instead of being adorned with the red and gold that decks
their parents.
The Nestor Cockatoos are not only striking in their appearance, but
lead a somewhat remarkable life; they are confined to a very limited
district, only inhabiting New Zealand and the neighbouring islands.
The bird we have just described is only found on Philip's Island, the
circumference of which does not exceed five miles; and Gould informs us
that people living for many years on Norfolk Island, at about four or
five miles distance, have never seen it. The extremely limited extent
of the habitat of this species is very unpromising as regards its
preservation, and it will doubtless soon share the fate of the DRONTE;
since the cultivation of the island, it has been periodically hunted, and
its days are numbered; probably it is already extinct, as we have seen
nothing of it for several years. The rocky parts of the island, partially
covered with trees, form, or rather _did_ form, its favourite resort;
here it passes its time, principally upon the ground, seeking for roots,
which it digs up with its beak, at least, so we imagine, as the bill is
often found covered with earth, and, indeed, we can well believe that so
remarkable an instrument may be employed for this purpose. According to
some naturalists it sucks nectar, although its tongue does not, like that
of the Lory, end in a tuft, but has only a nail-like horny plate at the
tip, closely resembling the nail upon a human finger. The hard nuts that
other parrots enjoy are avoided by the Nestor, whose beak is not strong
enough to break the shell. Gould saw one of these birds in the possession
of Major Andrews, in Sydney; it was a cheerful, lively companion, and
seemed fully inclined to attract the attention of strangers. Its habits
differed considerably from those of other parrots, and its owner did not
keep it in a cage, but allowed it to fly about the entrance-hall. We are
told of another tame Nestor that it had a great fondness for green food,
and would pick the leaves of lettuce and other juicy plants. The voice of
this bird has a harsh, quavering, snarling sound, much reminding us of
the barking of a dog. As regards its propagation, we only know that it is
said to lay four eggs in some hole in a tree.
THE EAGLE COCKATOO.
The EAGLE COCKATOO (_Dasyptilus Pequetii_) belongs to the same division
as the last-named species, and is remarkable for its shape and plumage,
reminding us, in some respects, of the birds of prey. Nothing positive
can be said as to its native land; Gould tells us that it lives on the
island of Formosa, where no other parrots are known, but it would rather
appear to be an inhabitant of New Guinea or Salawatti; indeed, Rosenberg
speaks decidedly as to the first-named island being its home. The Eagle
Cockatoo is about twenty inches long, ten of which are included in the
tail; the wings are ten and a half inches in length. This species is
recognised by its beak, the upper portion of which does not rise so high
above the lower mandible as in the Nestor; and by the plumage of the
head, consisting of a few stiff bristles and slender upright feathers,
with very stiff hard shafts. The cheeks and cheek-stripes appear almost
bare, the wings and tail are shaped like those of the last-mentioned
bird, though the tail is somewhat longer and more rounded. The plumage
is of a brilliant black, shading into grey on the throat, head, and
breast, the feathers on these parts being sprinkled with pale brown. The
wing-covers along the carpus, the first wing-covers of the secondary
quills, the under wing-covers, the five first feathers of the secondary
quills on their outer web, the feathers of the axilla, belly, and rump,
are of a beautiful scarlet, which is somewhat darker on the under
tail-covers; the upper tail-covers are edged with dark red, the beak is
black, and the feet dark brown. Notwithstanding the extreme rarity of
this creature, we have been able to take our description from a living
bird which was for some time in the Earl of Derby's celebrated collection.
* * * * *
In New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, viz., Salawatti, Misool,
and Waigui, we find several kinds of parrots that are included among
the Cockatoos, although their resemblance to these birds is merely
superficial. These are the LONG-BILLED PARROTS (_Microglossus_) of Le
Vaillant--very large birds of a dark colour. Their resemblance to the
Cockatoos consists principally in their short square tail, and the plume
upon the head, although the latter is of quite a different shape to that
of the true Cockatoo. Their naked cheeks, and enormous upper mandible,
remind us of the Araras. The shape of the tongue is quite peculiar; this
organ is of medium length, fleshy, but no broader than it is thick, the
upper surface is hollow and flattened at the tip; this strangely-shaped
tongue can be protruded, and employed as a spoon to convey food into the
mouth, the edges being very flexible, and capable of being bent towards
each other. The other distinguishing characteristics of the Long-billed
Parrots are the naked tarsi (which are bare as far as the heel-joints)
and the short flat soles of the feet.
THE CASMALOS.
The CASMALOS (_Microglossus aterrimus_), the best known of these species,
is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and is one of the largest of the parrot
tribe, even exceeding most of the Araras in this respect. Its plumage is
uniformly deep black, with somewhat of a greenish gloss; the living bird
has a greyish appearance, owing to a white meal-like dust, which, as in
most other parrots, is scattered over its plumage; the naked wrinkled
cheeks are of a red colour. The crest is formed by a number of long
slender isolated feathers, and is of a lighter grey than the rest of the
plumage.
[Illustration: THE CASMALOS (_Microglossus aterrimus_).]
Little is known of these birds in their natural state. "The Large-beaked
Parrot," says von Rosenberg, "is not rare in the islands of Waigui,
Misool, and Salawatti, and is found on the coast of New Guinea. It
usually perches at the very top of the highest trees, keeping its body
constantly in motion, and whilst resting, or when by powerful strokes of
its wings it raises itself into the air, it utters a trumpet-like note
quite different from that produced by the White Cockatoo. The natives
take the young birds from the nest, and, when they have reared them,
sell them to traders. In captivity they seem to prefer the fruit of the
canary tree, the hard shell of which they manage to crack with the utmost
facility. One of these so-called Cockatoos, belonging to a resident in
Amboyna, was in the habit of flying about all over the town, but always
returned home at the proper time to take its meals and to sleep." Von
Marten saw a tame parrot of this kind at Mahai. "The Black Cockatoo,"
he observes, "when perched stiffly with its tail erect, red face, and
powerful beak, has the air of an old general, and, owing to its extreme
ugliness, makes a forcible impression on all who see it. It is quiet and
slow in its movements, but allows strangers to approach, and utters from
time to time a disagreeable, harsh, guttural shriek."
[Illustration: THE RAVEN COCKATOO (_Calyptorhynchus Banksii_).]
According to Rosenberg, the Large-beaked Parrot is often seen at Amboyna,
where it may be bought for about twenty or twenty-five shillings: in
Europe these remarkable birds are amongst the greatest curiosities in our
collections. Unlike all other parrots with which we are acquainted, the
Casmalos uses its peculiarly-formed tongue in a strange manner; taking
its food with its foot, it carries the morsel to its beak, tears it
up, and presses the end of the tongue, which is provided with a round
horn-like plate, upon the pieces, which stick to it; the tongue is then
drawn in, and the food swallowed; this being a very slow process, the
meal usually occupies a considerable time.
* * * * *
The RAVEN COCKATOOS (_Calyptorhynchus_) differ very materially from all
other species not only in the colour of the feathers, but in their form.
The beak is short, crescent-shaped, and sloping, owing to the great
breadth of the lower jaw; the wings are large and broad, reaching only
over the first third of the long, strong, and rounded tail; the crest is
comparatively small.
The Raven Cockatoos, or Geringeroes, are found exclusively in New
Holland, and there only in certain districts. Gould, the great explorer
of Australian ornithology, mentions six species in his masterly work, and
gives a tolerably full account of their mode of life; there is, however,
great similarity between them, and the following observations may be
considered as applicable to all.
The Raven Cockatoos are truly _tree_-birds, feeding principally upon the
seeds of the Eucalypti, and other trees indigenous to the country, but,
unlike other parrots, they will occasionally eat large caterpillars.
Another peculiarity is that they only congregate in small parties
consisting of not more than from four to eight individuals, and never
assemble in considerable flocks. Each part of Van Dieman's Land has its
peculiar species.
The manner in which the Raven Cockatoos feed is also very peculiar. Some
species break off the little twigs of the fruit trees while eating,
apparently out of mischief; and all use their sharp beaks to draw the
concealed living insects--principally larvæ--out of the wood. The large
caterpillars which they obtain from the gum-trees do not always satisfy
their hunger; they wage war upon the grubs that lurk deep in the wood,
dextrously stripping off the bark and picking large holes in the branches
until they reach their prey. Some species prefer insects to any other
kind of nourishment, whilst others subsist upon seeds, principally those
of the Casuarinæ and Banksias. Fruit they seem to despise, although they
destroy much out of pure mischief, plucking it before it is ripe, to the
great annoyance of the owners.
So far as we know, the Geringeroes breed exclusively in the holes of
trees, always choosing the highest and most unapproachable trunks, and
invariably such as the natives cannot climb. They prepare no regular
nest in the holes which they select, or at most only collect chips of
wood from the ground, wherewith to line the interior. They lay from two
to five tolerably large eggs, 1 2/3 inch in length and 1 1/3 inch broad.
Besides the attacks made upon them by man, the Raven Cockatoos often
become victims to birds and beasts of prey. Europeans do not prize their
flesh very highly, but by the natives it is esteemed a delicacy.
BANKS' RAVEN COCKATOO.
BANKS' RAVEN COCKATOO (_Calyptorhynchus Banksii_) attains the length of
a foot and a half. The plumage of the male is black, the only exception
being the tail, which is a brilliant black with a greenish sheen. The
female is greenish-black upon the head, spotted with yellow on the neck
and wings, and striped with light yellow upon the breast. The male has
a broad scarlet band extending along the middle of the tail, but not
reaching the two middle feathers or the outer edge of the side feathers.
The female has broad yellow and reddish-yellow spotted stripes similarly
disposed, both upon the outer and the under side of the tail-covers.
Banks' Raven Cockatoo belongs to New South Wales, and is principally
found in the district between Moreton Bay and Port Philip, though by
no means rare in the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney and other large
towns. Its flight is heavy; the wings are lax, and seem to move with
difficulty; it seldom rises high in the air, but will, nevertheless,
sometimes fly for a mile at a stretch; whilst on the wing it utters a
loud cry, which is less shrill than the harsh screech of the cockatoo.
When on the ground, these birds move with difficulty; upon the tops of
trees their motions are less deliberate, but always slow. Most of them
are shy and distrustful, owing no doubt to the manifold persecutions
from which they suffer, and it is only during feeding-time that they are
less upon the watch. They are much attached to their companions, and
should one of them be killed or wounded, the hapless individual is seldom
deserted by the others, who generally fly about him, uttering a wailing
cry, and expose themselves so recklessly to the hunter, that he, knowing
how to avail himself of this habit, often succeeds in capturing the whole
flock.
THE KAKAPO, OR NIGHT-PARROT OF NEW ZEALAND.
For the same reason that the Owls and the Falcons are grouped as distinct
families, we shall consider the KAKAPO, or NIGHT-PARROT OF NEW ZEALAND
(_Strigops habroptilus_) as the type of a peculiar race. This bird,
indeed, reminds us so forcibly of the Owls, that were it not for the
structure of the foot, we should decidedly class it as one of them. Its
scientific name of "owl-faced" (_Strigops_) is very well chosen. The
large body of this species is covered with soft, delicate feathers,
which form a rudimentary veil about the face; the wings are short and
trough-shaped; the tail long and rounded; the beak long, bent like that
of an owl, and nearly covered with stiff, bristle-like feathers; the
feet are of middle size, the toes long. The general colour is a dark
green, interspersed with tolerably regular stripes, and some irregular
yellow spots; upon the breast the colour is lighter and yellower than on
the back, and the stripes are indistinct; the green tail is banded with
dark brown. The habitat of the Kakapo is restricted to New Zealand, and
the species is now found in tolerable abundance only in the most remote
Alpine valleys of the southern island. It has been nearly exterminated
in the northern portion. Lyall and Haast have given us full particulars
of its habits. "The Kakapo," says the first of these writers, "is still
found occasionally in the northern districts of New Zealand, frequenting
the dry cliffs or the low grounds near the banks of the rivers, where the
high trees and woods are, to some extent, free from ferns and brushwood.
The first time we met with it was upon some hills, rising 4,000 feet
above the level of the sea; but we afterwards found it living with others
of the same species, on open spots near the mouth of the river, and not
far from the coast." "Most striking," adds Haast, "is the fact that the
Kakapo (except in the valley of the Makavora, formed by the Lake Wanaka)
is never seen east of the mountains, although forests abound there;
apparently the absence of woodland in the intervening district is an
obstacle to its farther progress in that direction. These birds are less
numerous in the Wilkin valley, where I have observed traces of the wild
dog; in the valley of the Hunter, which is only separated from these
districts by a chain of not very high mountains and some inconsiderable
hills, no trace of them is to be found, although the fine beech forests
offer them a favourable retreat." "In s
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