A system of pyrotechny
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Title: A system of pyrotechny
Comprehending the theory and practice, with the application of chemistry; designed for exhibition and for war.
Author: James Cutbush
Release date: March 21, 2015 [eBook #48539]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024
Language: English
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A
SYSTEM OF PYROTECHNY,
COMPREHENDING THE THEORY AND PRACTICE, WITH THE
APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY;
DESIGNED FOR EXHIBITION AND FOR WAR.
_IN FOUR PARTS_:
CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THE SUBSTANCES USED IN FIRE-WORKS;
THE INSTRUMENTS, UTENSILS, AND MANIPULATIONS; FIRE-WORKS
FOR EXHIBITION; AND MILITARY PYROTECHNY.
ADAPTED TO THE
MILITARY AND NAVAL OFFICER, THE MAN OF SCIENCE
AND ARTIFICER.
_BY JAMES CUTBUSH, A. S. U. S. A._
LATE ACTING PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, IN THE UNITED
STATES' MILITARY ACADEMY--MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY--CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE COLUMBIAN INSTITUTE--MEMBER
OF THE LINNÆAN AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES OF PHILADELPHIA--LATE
PRESIDENT OF THE COLUMBIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, AND VICE-PRESIDENT OF
THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF A RATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION,
&C. &C. &C.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY CLARA F. CUTBUSH.
1825.
EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit:
BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the ninth day of February, in the
forty-ninth year of the independence of the United States of America,
A. D. 1825, CLARA F. CUTBUSH, of the said district, hath deposited
in this office the title of a book, the right whereof she claims as
proprietor, in the words following, to wit:
_A System of Pyrotechny, comprehending the Theory and Practice,
with the application of Chemistry; designed for Exhibition and
for War. In four parts: containing an account of the Substances
used in Fire-Works; the Instruments, Utensils, and Manipulations;
Fire-Works for Exhibition; and Military Pyrotechny. Adapted to the
Military and Naval Officer, the Man of Science, and Artificer. By
James Cutbush, A. S. U. S. A. late Acting Professor of Chemistry
and Mineralogy in the United States' Military Academy--Member
of the American Philosophical Society--Corresponding Member of
the Columbian Institute--Member of the Linnæan and Agricultural
Societies of Philadelphia--late President of the Columbian Chemical
Society, and Vice-President of the Society for the Promotion of a
Rational System of Education, &c. &c. &c._
In conformity to the act of the congress of the United States,
intituled "An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the
copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of
such copies, during the times therein mentioned."--And also to the
act, entitled, "An act supplementary to an act, entitled, "An act
for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps,
charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies
during the times therein mentioned," and extending the benefits
thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical
and other prints."
D. CALDWELL,
_Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania_.
_To the Corps of Cadets, of the United States' Military Academy, West
Point_;
GENTLEMEN,
To you, a scientific and distinguished Corps, this work on Pyrotechny
is respectfully dedicated. Your liberal subscription first encouraged
me to undertake its publication; for which, accept my grateful thanks.
CLARA F. CUTBUSH.
ADVERTISEMENT.
In submitting the present work to the public, it may be proper to
state some of the difficulties, under which it has been published,
and to bespeak an indulgent allowance for any imperfections, which
may be observed in the style or arrangement. As a posthumous work, it
has been deprived of those final improvements and emendations, which
are generally made by Authors, while their works are in progress
of publication. While, however, the work has laboured under these
disadvantages, the publisher has felt it her duty to make every
arrangement, to supply, as far as possible, the want of the author's
personal superintendence of the publication. This course was due to
the scientific reputation of her late husband, as well as to the
numerous and generous patrons of the work.
_Philadelphia, April, 1825._
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
Page.
Pyrotechny in General, 1
Sec. i. Definition of Pyrotechny, ib.
ii. General Theory of Pyrotechny, ib.
iii. Remarks on the Nature of Particular Compositions, 9
iv. Of Illuminations, 23
v. Of some of the Feats or Performances by Fire, 26
CHAPTER II.
Of the Substances used in the Formation of Fire-works, 48
Sec. i. Of Nitrate of Potassa, or Saltpetre, ib.
ii. Of Nitrate of Soda, 73
iii. Of Chlorate of Potassa, 74
iv. Of Sulphur, 78
v. Of Phosphorus, 84
vi. Of Charcoal, 87
vii. Of Gunpowder, 97
viii. Of Lampblack, 144
ix. Of Soot, 145
x. Of Turpentine, Rosin, and Pitch, 146
xi. Of Common Coal, or Pitcoal, 149
xii. Of Naphtha, Petroleum, and Asphaltum, 153
xiii. Of Oil of Spike, 156
xiv. Of Amber, ib.
xv. Of Camphor, 157
xvi. Of Gum Benzoin, and Benzoic Acid, 161
xvii. Of Storax Calamite, 162
xviii. Of Essential Oils, 163
xix. Of Mastich, ib.
xx. Of Copal, 164
xxi. Of Myrrh, ib.
xxii. Of Sugar, 165
xxiii. Of Sal Prunelle, 167
xxiv. Of Alcohol, 168
xxv. Of Fulminating Mercury, 171
xxvi. Of Fulminating Silver, 173
xxvii. Of Fulminating Gold, 175
xxviii. Of Fulminating Platinum, 176
xxix. Of Detonating Powder from Indigo, 177
xxx. Of the Fulminating Compound, called Iodide of Azote, ib.
xxxi. Of Detonating Oil, or Chloride of Azote, 179
xxxii. Of Pyrophorus, 180
xxxiii. Of Sal Ammoniac, 184
xxxiv. Of Corrosive Sublimate, 186
xxxv. Of Orpiment, 187
xxxvi. Of Antimony, 188
xxxvii. Of Carbonate of Potassa, 189
xxxviii. Of Wood Ashes, 192
xxxix. Of Clay, 193
xl. Of Quicklime, 194
xli. Of Lapis Calaminaris, 195
xlii. Of Zinc, 196
xliii. Of Brass, 197
xliv. Of Bronze, 198
xlv. Of Mosaic Gold, 200
xlvi. Of Iron and Steel, 201
xlvii. Of Glass, 210
xlviii. Of Glue and Isinglass, 214
xlix. Of Wood, 216
l. Of Linseed Oil, 218
li. Of Gum Arabic and Gum Tragacanth, 219
lii. Of Cotton, ib.
liii. Of Bone and Ivory, 220
liv. Of Galbanum, 221
lv. Of Tow and Hemp, 222
lvi. Of Blue Vitriol, ib.
lvii. Of Nitrate of Copper, 223
lviii. Of Strontia, 224
lix. Of Boracic Acid, 226
PART II.
Instruments, Tools, and Utensils, 228
CHAPTER I.
Of the Laboratory, 228
Sec. i. Of Laboratory Tools and Utensils, ib.
ii. Of Mandrils and Cylinders for forming Cartridges
and Cases, 230
iii. Of Rammers, Charges, and Mallets, 231
iv. Of Utensils necessary for constructing Signal
Rockets, 232
v. Of the rolling or plane Board, 233
vi. Of the Driver for Charging large Rockets, 233
vii. Of Mortars and Pestles, ib.
viii. Of the Choaker or Strangler, ib.
ix. Of the Table and Sack for mealing Gunpowder, 234
x. Of Sieves, ib.
xi. Of the Paper Press, ib.
CHAPTER II.
Preliminary operations in the preparation of fire-works, and
observations on the preservation of Gunpowder, and sundry
manipulations, 235
Sec. i. Of the Workshop, ib.
ii. Of the Magazine, ib.
iii. Of the Driving or Ramming of Sky-rockets, 236
iv. Of the Boring of Rockets, 238
v. Of the Preservation of Steel or Iron filings, 239
vi. Of the Making of Wheels and other Works
incombustible, 240
vii. Of the Formation of Rocket and other Cases, 243
viii. Of Tourbillon cases, 245
ix. Of Balloon Cases, or Paper Shells, ib.
x. Of Cases for Illumination Port-Fires, 246
xi. Of Cases and Moulds for Common Port-Fires, 247
xii. Of Pasteboard, and its Uses, 249
xiii. Of the Pulverization of Substances, 253
xiv. Of Mixtures, ib.
PART III.
Fire-Works in General, 255
CHAPTER I.
Observations on Fire-works, 255
CHAPTER II.
Fire-works for Theatrical Purposes, 262
Sec. i. Of Puffs, or Bouffées, ib.
ii. Of Eruptions, 263
iii. Of the Flames, 264
iv. Of the Fire-rain, ib.
v. Of other Compositions for Fire-rain in Chinese Fire, 265
vi. Of Thunderbolts, (_Foudres_), ib.
vii. Of Dragons and other Monsters, 266
viii. Of Lightning, 267
ix. Of the Artifice of Destruction, ib.
x. Of the Spur-Fire, ib.
xi. Of the Coloured Flame of Alcohol, 269
xii. Of Red Fire, 270
CHAPTER III.
Of Portable Fire-works, 271
Sec. i. Of Exhibitions on Tables, ib.
ii. Of Table Rockets, 272
iii. Of the Transparent Illuminated Table Star, 273
iv. Of Detonating Works, ib.
CHAPTER IV.
Of Scented Fire-works, 283
Sec. i. Of Pastilles, 286
ii. Of Vases of Scent, 288
iii. Remarks on Spontaneous Accension, ib.
iv. Of Torches, and Odoriferous Flambeaux, 289
v. Remarks concerning Odoriferous and Fetid Fire, 290
CHAPTER V.
Of Matches, Leaders, and Touch Paper, 292
CHAPTER VI.
Of the Furniture, or Decorations for Fire-works, 298
Sec. i. Of Serpents, ib.
ii. Of Crackers, 300
iii. Of Single Reports, 301
iv. Of Serpent Stars, ib.
v. Of Whirling Serpents, 302
vi. Of Chinese Flyers, 303
vii. Of Simple Stars, ib.
viii. Of Rolled Stars, 304
ix. Of Cracking Stars, ib.
x. Of Sundry Compositions for Stars, designed for
Various Purposes, ib.
xi. Of the Fire-rain, (filamentous), 309
xii. Of Sparks, ib.
xiii. Of Gold-rain, 310
xiv. Of Rains in General, for Sky-Rockets, &c. 311
xv. Of Rain-Falls and Stars, double and single, ib.
xvi. Of substances which show in Sparks, 312
xvii. Of Italian Roses, or Fixed Stars, 313
xviii. Of Lances of Illumination, white, blue and yellow, 314
xix. Of Slow White-flame Lances, 315
xx. Of Lights, ib.
xxi. Of Lances for Petards, 318
xxii. Of Lances for Service, ib.
xxiii. Of Marrons, ib.
xxiv. Of Shining Marrons, 320
xxv. Of Saucissons, 321
xxvi. Of Fire-Pumps, 322
xxvii. Of the Volcano of Lemery, 323
xxviii. Of the Blue and Green Match for Cyphers, Devices
and Decorations, 324
xxix. Of the Purple or Violet Match, 325
xxx. Of Meteors, ib.
CHAPTER VII.
Of Rockets and their Appendages, 326
Sec. i. Of the Caliber and Proportion of Rockets, ib.
ii. Of the Composition of Sky-Rockets, and Observations
on its Preparation, and on other Subjects
respecting rockets, 329
iii. Of the Heading of Rockets, 334
iv. Of the Decorations for Rockets, and the Manner
of filling their Heads, 335
v. Of the Dimensions, and Poise of Rocket-Sticks, 336
vi. Of the Mode of Discharging Rockets, 337
vii. Of the Appendages, and Combinations of Rockets, 340
viii. Of Swarmers or Small Rockets, 343
ix. Of Scrolls for Sky-Rockets, and of Strung, Tailed,
Drove, and Rolling Stars, 344
x. Of Line-Rockets and their Decorations, 345
xi. Of Signal Sky-Rockets, 347
CHAPTER VIII.
Of Sundry Fire-works, denominated Air-works, 347
Sec. i. Of the Composition, and Mode of Forming large
and small Gerbes, 348
ii. Of Paper Mortars, 349
iii. Of Mortars to throw Aigrettes, &c. 350
iv. Of Making Balloon Fuses, 357
v. Of the Mosaic and Common Tourbillon, 358
vi. Of Mortars for throwing Aigrettes, and the
Manner of Loading and Firing them, 363
vii. Of Making, Loading, and Firing Pots des Brins, 364
viii. Remarks respecting Fire Pots, 365
CHAPTER IX.
Of Particular Compositions, 367
Sec. i. Of Fire-Jets, or Fire-Spouts, ib.
ii. Of Priming and Whitening Cases, and Remarks
concerning Spunk and Touch Paper, 370
iii. Of Chinese Fire, 371
iv. Of Bengal Lights, 377
v. Of Roman Candles, 380
vi. Of Mosaic Simples, 381
vii. Of Mosaic Tourbillons, 382
viii. Of Hydrogen Gas in Fire-works, 383
CHAPTER X.
Of the Manner of fixing and arranging Fire-works in General
for Exhibition, 387
Sec. i. Of the Composition of Wheel-Cases, Standing
and Fixed, 388
ii. Of Single, Vertical, Horizontal, Spiral, and
other Wheels, 391
iii. Of Revolving Suns, 395
iv. Of Fixed Suns, 397
v. Of Fixed Suns with Transparent Faces, 398
vi. Of the Rose-Piece and Sun, 399
vii. Of the Manner of changing a Horizontal to a
Vertical Wheel, and representing a Sun in front, ib.
viii. Of Caprices and Fire-Wands, 400
ix. Of Palm and other Trees, 401
x. Of the Pyramid of Flower Pots, 402
xi. Of the Dodecaedron, 403
xii. Of Cascades of Fire, 404
xiii. Of Chinese Fountains, and Parasols, 405
xiv. Of Wings, or Cross Fire, 406
xv. Of Galleries of Fire, and Batteries of Roman
and Mosaic Candles, ib.
xvi. Of Girandoles, and their Modifications, 407
xvii. Of Cracking Caprices, ib.
xviii. Of the Projected Regulated Piece of Nine Mutations, 408
xix. Of the Pyric or Fire-Piece, 412
xx. Of Sundry Illuminated Figures, 413
xxi. Of the Spiral or Endless Screw, and Waved Fire, 418
xxii. Of the Decoration of Wheels, ib.
xxiii. Of Globes, with their Various Decorations, 419
xxiv. Of the Representation of the Moon and Stars, 421
xxv. Of the Representation of Sundry Figures in Fire, 423
xxvi. Of the Representation of Flat Stars with a large
Body of Fire, 424
xxvii. Of the Single, Double, and Triple Table Wheel, 425
xxviii. Of Decorations, Transparencies, and Illuminations, ib.
xxix. Of Imitative Fire-works, 440
CHAPTER XI.
Of Aquatic Fire-works, 442
Sec. i. Of Water Rockets, 443
ii. Of Pipes of Communication, ib.
iii. Of Horizontal Wheels for Water, 444
iv. Of Water Mines, ib.
v. Of Fire Globes for the Water, 445
vi. Of Odoriferous Water Balloons, 446
vii. Of Water Balloons, 447
viii. Of Water Squibs, 448
ix. Of the Water Fire-Fountain, ib.
x. Of Swans and Ducks, to discharge Rockets in Water, ib.
xi. Of Discharging Rockets under Water, 449
xii. Of the Representation of Neptune in his Chariot, 450
xiii. Of the Representation of a Sea-Fight with small
Ships, and the Preparation of a Fire-Ship, 451
CHAPTER XII.
Of the Arrangement of Fire-works for Exhibition, 452
PART IV.
Military Pyrotechny, 456
CHAPTER I.
Observations in General, 456
Sec. i. Of Cartridges, 462
ii. Of Cannon Cartridges, 467
CHAPTER II.
Of Matches, 471
Sec. i. Of Slow Match, ib.
ii. Of Priming Tubes, 475
iii. Of Quick Matches, 477
CHAPTER III.
Of Port-Fires, 479
CHAPTER IV.
Of Fuses for Shells, Howitzes, and Grenades, 481
Sec. i. Of the Method of Charging the Fuses of Bombs
or Shells, 482
ii. Of Loading Shells, Howitzes, and Grenades, 484
iii. Of Fuses with Dead Light, 485
iv. Of the Dimensions of Fuses, and the Dimensions
and Charge of Bombs, Howitzes, and Grenades, 487
CHAPTER V.
Of Incendiary Fire-works, 490
Sec. i. Of Fire Stone, 491
ii. Of Incendiary Matches, 492
iii. Of Carcasses and Fire Balls, ib.
iv. Of Incendiary Balls, or Fire Balls, to be thrown
from Cannon or by Hand, 497
v. Of Smoke Balls, 499
vi. Of Stink Balls, ib.
vii. Of Poisoned Balls, ib.
viii. Of Red-hot Balls, 499
ix. Of Pitched Tourteaux and Fascines, 500
x. Of Torches, or Flambeaux, 501
xi. Of Powder Bags, 503
xii. Of the Powder Barrel, ib.
xiii. Of the Burning, or Illuminating Barrel, ib.
xiv. Of the Thundering Barrel, 504
xv. Of the Petard, 505
xvi. Of the Stink-Fire Lance, 506
xvii. Of the Combustible Substances used in, and the
Manner of preparing, a Fire-Ship, 507
xviii. Of Infernal Machines, 512
xix. Of the Catamarin, 514
xx. Of the American Turtle, 515
xxi. Of the Torpedo, 521
xxii. Of the Marine Incendiary Kegs, 523
xxiii. Of Sea Lights, 525
xxiv. Of Signal and War-rockets, 526
xxv. Of Sky-Rockets, (_Meurtrières_,) 538
xxvi. Of the Rocket Light-Ball, 539
xxvii. Of the Floating Rocket Carcass, ib.
xxviii. Observations on Rockets, 540
xxix. Of the Succouring Rocket, 544
xxx. Of the Greek Fire, ib.
xxxi. Of Mines and Mining, 550
xxxii. Of the Means of Increasing the Strength of
Gunpowder for Mining, 554
xxxiii. Of Incendiary Bombs, 556
xxxiv. Of Murdering Marrons, 557
xxxv. Of Incendiary Rope, 558
xxxvi. Of Balloons of Grenades, of Bombs, and of
Flints or Stone, 559
xxxvii. Of Spherical Case Shot, ib.
xxxviii. Of the Fire-Rain, according to Casimir Siemienowicz, 560
xxxix. Of the Effect of Mirrors in inflaming Bodies at
a Distance, 562
xl. Of Incendiary and Poisoned Arrows, 566
xli. Of Pyrotechnical Sponge, 570
xlii. Of Extinguishing Flame with Fired Gunpowder, 572
xliii. Of the Inflammable Dart, 574
xliv. Of the Firebrand, ib.
xlv. Of the Fire Flask, 575
xlvi. Of the Trompe-Route, ib.
xlvii. Of Fire-Pots for Ramparts, ib.
xlviii. Of Inflammable Balls, 577
xlix. Of Pauly's Inflammable Powder, ib.
l. Of Extemporaneous Fire, 578
li. Of the Indian White Fire, 580
lii. Of the Pyrophore of Defence, 581
INTRODUCTION.
In presenting this work to the public as a system of Pyrotechny,
which, we have reason to believe, is the only full and connected
system that has appeared, we may be permitted to remark, that, in our
arrangement of the subject, we have appropriated separate heads for
each article.
This plan, of the subject being considered in chapters and sections,
and forming with the divisions of the work, a connected system of
arrangement, enables the reader to have a full view of the whole,
and, at the same time, all the facts in detail belonging to the
chapter, or section under consideration. By referring to the Table
of Contents, this plan will be seen without further comment. The
arrangement of the different articles in this manner, necessarily
comprehends in the onset all the substances, which are employed in
various preparations. In considering this part of our subject, we
have given the chemical characters, or peculiar properties of each
substance respectively; by which a rationale of pyrotechnical effects
may be the better understood, and, consequently, the action of bodies
on each other better illustrated.
In this part we also comprehend the General Theory of Fire-works,
which it may be proper to remark, we have drawn from the known
effects of chemical action; so far, at least, as the laws, of
affinity, which govern such action, are applicable to the subject.
The importance of this inquiry, although having no relation to the
mere manipulations of the artificer, can not be doubted; since a
knowledge of chemistry has already improved the preparation of
gunpowder, and its effects are now known to be owing to the formation
of sundry elastic aeriform fluids. On this head, that of the
application of chemistry to Pyrotechny, we claim so much originality,
as, so far as we know, to have been the first, who applied the
principles of chemistry.
It is not to be expected in every instance, that a rationale of the
decomposition as it occurs, or the order in which it takes place,
can be given with certainty; because, where a variety of substances
enter into the same preparation, which is frequently the case, the
affinities become complicated, and the laws of action for that reason
indeterminate, and frequently anomalous. But, on the contrary, in
a variety of primary operating causes, by which effects analogous
in their nature result, decomposition of course being the same, the
causes are well understood, and the effects are thereby known, and
duly appreciated.
This, for instance, is the case with a mixture of nitrate of potassa,
charcoal, and sulphur, in the proportion necessary to form gunpowder;
for, it is known, that the explosive effects of powder are owing to
the sudden production of a number of gases, which suffer dilatation
by the immense quantity of caloric liberated at the moment of
combustion. Although the production of caloric by the inflammation
of gunpowder is a case, which cannot be explained by the present
received theory of combustion, as we have noticed in that article;
yet we know that it is a fact, and that caloric is generated by the
decomposition of the powder.
If we consider the primary cause of this decomposition, we naturally
inquire into the products of the combustion, and endeavour to
account for the production of the elastic aeriform fluids. We know
that carbon has the property of decomposing nitric acid, and also
nitrate of potassa; for, when it is brought in contact in the state
of ignition with nitre, a deflagration will ensue, and carbonic acid
be formed. The quantity of this acid is in the direct _ratio_ to
the quantity of oxygen required to _saturate_ a given quantity of
carbon; and therefore, by employing certain proportions of nitre and
charcoal, the latter will decompose the former, and by abstracting
its oxygen, on the same principle form carbonic acid, while the
azote, the other constituent of nitric acid, will be set at liberty.
Nor is this all, if we consider the action of sulphur. The sulphur
must unite with one portion of the oxygen to produce sulphurous acid
gas, and also with the potassa of the nitre, and form a sulphuret, a
compound necessary to be formed, before we can explain the production
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which results from the decomposition
of water contained in the nitre. There also results, as a product,
sulphate of potassa. In considering these products at large, it would
be necessary to go into detail; and, as we have descanted largely on
its combustion in gunpowder, we accordingly refer the reader to the
article on _Gunpowder_. It will be sufficient, however, to remark,
that the _agent_, and consequently the cause, which produces the
decomposition of nitrate of potassa, is carbon or charcoal. This, by
uniting with the greater part of the oxygen of the nitre, produces,
in a determinate proportion, carbonic acid gas. This gas, therefore,
in conjunction with other gases, formed at the same time, all of
which being expanded, causes what is denominated the _explosive
effect_ of gunpowder.
We have then a primary cause of the decomposition, and most of the
effective force of gunpowder is owing to the carbonic acid; and it
is found, that gunpowder made without sulphur is equally powerful as
that with, since it adds nothing to its power.
Causes, therefore, chemically speaking, operate alike under similar
circumstances. The materials made use of being equally pure, and used
in the same proportion, the effect must necessarily be the same.
It is not only in the instance we have mentioned, but in every other,
in which chemical action ensues, that this doctrine is tenable.
We might, indeed, notice a number of cases of a similar kind; as,
for instance, in the combustion of many incendiary preparations,
as fire-stone, fire-rain, composition for carcasses, light-balls,
and a variety of fire-works of the same kind. If we mix pitch, tar,
tallow, &c. with nitrate of potassa, and burn the mixture, we have
the combined action of two elementary substances, which enter into
the composition of these bodies, namely, carbon and hydrogen. The
products would be carbonic acid gas, and water; because the oxygen of
the nitre would unite with the hydrogen, as well as the carbon. If we
employ sulphur at the same time, another product would be sulphurous
acid gas, and probably sulphuric acid; and if gunpowder be used, as
in the _fire-stone_ composition, then, besides these products, we
would have those of the gunpowder.
As this subject, however interesting to the theoretical pyrotechnist,
cannot be understood without a knowledge of chemistry, it is obvious,
that that science is a powerful aid to pyrotechny. It is unnecessary
to dwell on this head. We may add, nevertheless that, in order to
understand the effect of all mixtures, or compositions made use of,
it is necessary to consider the nature of the substances employed,
and the manner in which chemical action takes place, and consequently
the products, which determine in fact the characteristic property
of each species of fire-work, and the phenomena on which it is
predicated. All products of combustion depend on the substances thus
decomposed, and by knowing the effects, we may readily refer them to
their proper causes.
With respect to _caloric_, it may not be improper to offer some
remarks.[1] The hypothetical element of phlogiston having given
way to the antiphlogistic theory at present received, our ideas
respecting caloric are predicated on facts. Caloric is a term, which
expresses heat, or matter of heat. In pyrotechny, we have merely to
consider it in a free, or uncombined state; but as the subject is
interesting, we purpose to notice it very briefly under the following
heads: viz. its nature; the manner it is set in motion; its tendency
to a state of rest; the changes it produces on bodies; and the
instruments for measuring its intensity.
As to the nature of caloric, different opinions are entertained.
We know the effect of heat: if we touch a substance of a higher
temperature than our bodies, we call it hot, and _vice versa_. The
one is evidently the accession, and the other the abstraction, of
caloric. The latter is merely relative as respects ourselves; for the
effect depends on our feelings, and the sensation of hot or cold is
therefore governed by them.[2] Caloric, however, is considered to
be a substance, composed of inconceivably small particles; but count
Rumford and sir H. Davy are of a contrary opinion, namely, that it
depends upon a peculiar motion and not on a subtle fluid.
As the effect of caloric, according to their view, depends on motion,
the agencies by which this is effected are of the first importance.
That it exists in all bodies in a state of rest, and in a greater or
smaller quantity, and consequently in a relative proportion, is well
known, and on this, the capacities of bodies for caloric is founded.
The capacities of bodies for heat are changed by various means, and
caloric is put in motion; and, according to its quantity, the bodies
may be either cold or hot. When the surrounding bodies become heated,
they receive this caloric thus set free, and, in this view, the
absolute quantity of their heat is increased. This state of rest, to
which caloric is subject, may be destroyed either by an increase or
a diminution of the capacity of a body. If caloric be put in motion
by causes of any kind, which influence the capacities of different
bodies, a theory maintained by Davy, then as the capacity for heat
is changed so is free heat produced. Diminish the capacity of a
body, its excess will of course be given out, and distribute itself
among the surrounding bodies, which become heated; but increase
the capacity, and a different effect ensues. The body absorbs
caloric, by which its capacity is increased, and cold is produced.
Caloric, whether considered a substance, or an attribute, possesses,
nevertheless, this property, that when it is given out, as in the
mixture of sulphuric acid and water, which occupies a less space than
both in a separate state, the sensation of heat follows; and when it
is absorbed, as in the various freezing mixtures, or in a mixture of
snow and common salt, the sensation of cold is excited. The causes,
however, which set caloric in motion, or that produce heat, are such
as combustion, condensation, friction, chemical mixture, and the
like. It is remarkable, that these effects are invariably the same,
and are affected by corresponding affinities. When a piece of iron
is struck with a hammer, the percussion produces a condensation of
the iron, its specific gravity is increased, and the iron finally
becomes ignited. The condensation of air, in the condensing syringe,
will set fire to tinder. The flint and steel produce a condensation;
for the metal, although small, is sent off in scintillations in
the state of ignition. That caloric is contained in bodies in the
state of absolute rest, and is evolved by condensation, there is no
doubt. Gunpowder, by percussion, in contact with pulverized glass, is
inflamed; and it appears very probable, that it also contains caloric
in a state of rest. The experiments of Lavoisier and Laplace, on the
quantity of caloric actually absorbed in nitric acid, and in a latent
state, (noticed in the article on _gunpowder_), are satisfactory.
If caloric is not in that state in nitre, how are we to explain the
sudden transmission or evolution of caloric in fired gunpowder, where
no external agent in any manner can influence the formation, or
disengagement of caloric? Friction or attrition produces heat; and
the distributable excess of caloric, as it is called, although not
satisfactorily accounted for, may arise from a condensation; which,
however, is denied.
The Esquimaux Indians kindle a fire, very expeditiously, in the
following manner: They prepare two pieces of dry wood, and making a
small hole in each, fit into them a little cylindrical piece of wood,
round which a thong is put. Then, by pulling the ends of this thong,
they whirl the cylindrical piece about with such velocity, that the
motion sets the wood on fire, when lighting a little dry moss, which
serves for tinder, they make as large a fire as they please; but as
the little timber they have is drift wood, this fails them in the
winter, and they are then obliged to make use of their lamps for the
supply of their family occasions. _Ellis's Voyage for the Discovery
of a North-West Passage._
Friction is, therefore, one means of producing distributable heat,
which is also exemplified very frequently in the axis of a carriage
wheel; of mill work; in the rubbing of wood, when turned on its axis
in a lathe, by which turners ornament their work with black rings;
rubbing a cord very swiftly backwards and forwards against a post or
tree, or letting it run over a boat, &c. as in the whale fishery;
the motion of two iron plates against each other, pressing them at
the same time, &c. The great object in the construction of machines
is to avoid, or lessen the degree of friction. See Hatchette, Vince,
and Gregory. Count Rumford (Nicholson's Journal, 4th edit. ii, 106),
and professor Pictet (_Essai sur le Feu_, chap. ix.) have made some
valuable experiments on heat evolved by friction.
The sun is one great source of caloric. In whatever mode it produces
it, whether by giving it out from its own substance, by the action
of light on the air that surrounds the globe; by the concentration
of calorific rays by means of the atmosphere, acting as a lens; or
by putting caloric in the distributable state, always pre-existing
in some other, as in a state of rest, are questions, which, in our
present state of knowledge, we are unable to solve. We know the
fact, and that the caloric is of the same nature as that obtained by
combustion.[3]
Combustion is a process by which caloric is put in a distributable
state. The opinion of Stahl and others, that all combustible bodies
contained a certain principle called phlogiston, to which they owed
their combustibility, and that combustion was nothing more than a
separation of this principle, gave rise to the phlogistic or Stahlian
theory, which was afterwards modified by Dr. Priestley. But his
theory is equally untenable. Kirwan's opinion was no less vague,
although he substituted hydrogen for phlogiston.
The Lavoiserian, or antiphlogistic theory overturned the Stahlian.
According to this theory, a combustible in burning unites with
oxygen, and heat and light are given out by the gas, and not from
the combustible. According to a modified theory of the above, by Dr.
Thomson, caloric is evolved by the gas, and light from the burning
body. Without noticing the instances, in which this theory, as a
general one, is insufficient to explain the cause of combustion, or
of the production of heat and light, we will merely remark, that
bodies which support combustion are called supporters, as oxygen gas,
chlorine gas, &c. and those, that undergo this change, are named
combustible bodies.
The products of combustion may be fixed or gaseous, and either
alkalies, oxides, or acids; or, when chlorine is the supporter,
chlorides, &c. A few examples will be sufficient. By the combustion
of metals, iron for instance, we obtain a fixed product, and in
the present case an oxide of iron; by the combustion of antimony
and arsenic, the antimonic and arsenic acids; by the combustion
of charcoal, we have carbonic acid gas, a gaseous product; by
the combustion of potassium or sodium, we obtain a fixed alkali,
depending however on the quantity of oxygen; by the combustion of
sulphur, phosphorus, &c. acids; and when metals are burnt in chlorine
gas, chlorides are produced.
It is evident from facts, that, whatever theory may be assumed,
combustion occasions the production of _free_ caloric, or changes
the _condition_ of caloric, from quiescent to distributable heat.
The conclusions drawn by Mr. Davy and others, appear to have been
predicated on the absorption of the base, and development of caloric,
as in oxygen gas, and the peculiar alteration in bodies implying a
decrease in their capacity; and hence, as regards the products of
combustion, they must necessarily possess a less capacity for heat
than the mean capacity of their constituents.
Whether we regard heat as latent, in the acceptation of the term, as
applied or used by Dr. Black, or quiescent, or in a state of rest, it
is certainly evident, that combustion is a chemical change, and by it
caloric passes from a combined to an uncombined state, and is thus
made sensible, free, or thermometrical heat. Combustion may, as it
certainly does, put quiescent heat in a distributable state; but this
quiescent heat is the same in the present case, of which there can
be no doubt, as latent caloric. The thermometer will only indicate
as much caloric in the air as is in a distributable, or free state;
but, if the same air be employed to supply, or support combustion,
the heat, rendered appreciable by the senses and the thermometer,
will be in the ratio of the decomposition of the oxygen gas of the
atmosphere, and, of course, to the development of free caloric.
Chemical combination, such as occurs by the mixture of fluids, as
alcohol and water, sulphuric acid and water, some of the gases,
as muriatic acid gas with water, &c. evolves heat, and sometimes
sufficient to boil water. In cases of spontaneous combustion, it
would seem, that quiescent heat passes to the state of distributable
heat; for if nitric acid, for instance, contains so large a quantity
of quiescent heat, or fixed heat, as the experiments of Mr.
Lavoisier make it appear, we may readily explain why spontaneous
combustion ensues, when that acid is brought in contact with spirits
of turpentine; because the chemical action of the acid on the carbon
and hydrogen of the turpentine, which takes place, produces at the
same time a corresponding change in the caloric itself, from a
quiescent to a distributable state. If the same data be admissible
with regard to the combination of the nitric acid with potassa, which
we may judge to be the case by the experiments of Lavoisier and
Laplace, (quoted in our article on _Gunpowder_), then, indeed, its
mechanical union with charcoal, and sulphur, although in a common
temperature no combustion ensues, will, at the temperature required
to inflame the mixture, (about 700 degrees according to some),
produce a decomposition altogether chemical; and while new products
are formed, the caloric, necessary also for their generation, passes
from a quiescent to a distributable state; and a portion of it goes
into a new state of combination, also quiescent. We mean that portion
which is necessary for the constitution of gaseous fluids. This
fact is remarkable. By referring to the original state or condition
of the caloric, if we admit that state in the present instance,
(which appears the only mode of accounting for the emanation of free
caloric by the combustion of gunpowder), it is easily perceived, that
chemical changes, besides the usual supporters of combustion being
concerned, as in ordinary cases of combustion, must produce a similar
change in the state of combined or quiescent heat.
Predicating this opinion on the results of the experiments of MM.
Lavoisier and Laplace, and seeing that gunpowder inflames _per se_,
or without the aid of a gaseous supporter, we have no hesitation in
risking it, in the present state of our knowledge concerning heat as
our present belief and conviction. Although there is no satisfactory
theory offered to explain all the instances of spontaneous
combustion, yet it seems reasonable to conclude, that in many cases
at least, that effect may take place by some chemical action,
which, like the instances already quoted, may change quiescent
into distributable heat. We have stated (See _Gunpowder_) some
instances of spontaneous combustion, which have taken place merely
in consequence of the charcoal. Some have attributed the effect to
pyrophorus, and others to the presence of hydrogen in the coal,
which, by absorbing and combining with oxygen and forming water,
sets the caloric of the oxygen gas at liberty, and thus produces
combustion. However this may be, there are other instances, that of
cotton and oil, some kinds of wood, wood-ashes and oils, &c. which
have produced spontaneous combustion.
We will only add, however, that until we can give a better theory,
the effect in these instances may be attributed to chemical action,
and _with it_, the change of caloric in the manner already mentioned.
Chemical action in such cases appears necessary, although mechanical
means, as percussion will produce heat.
Quiescent heat is also put in motion by electricity; but in what
manner it acts, so as to produce that effect, is unknown. It is a
powerful agent in nature, and calculated for important ends, of which
we are ignorant. It is unnecessary to notice opinions concerning it.
All electrics will yield it, such as glass, rosin, &c. and it may
be collected in the usual manner by the prime conductor and Leyden
jar. Galvanism, called also Galvanic electricity, produced by an
arrangement of zinc, and copper plates in a pile, or trough, and
placed in contact with some oxygenizing fluid, has the same effect of
causing quiescent heat to become distributable, and is undoubtedly
the result of chemical action. The peculiar character of this fluid,
the nature of the two opposite poles, &c. have been, and continue
to be, a subject of interest to the philosopher. The _deflagrator_
of professor Hare of Philadelphia is an apparatus well calculated
for many interesting experiments on galvanism. To that gentleman, we
are also indebted for the compound blowpipe, which produces a very
intense heat by the combustion of hydrogen in contact with oxygen
gas. Notwithstanding professor Clark of England has laid claim to the
apparatus, and the use of hydrogen gas in this way, the merit of the
discovery is due to our learned and ingenious countryman.
Since heat is put in motion as a consequence of the increased
capacity of a body, and, by combining with a substance whose capacity
has been increased, becomes by degrees quiescent, according to
the respective capacities of bodies; cold is an effect, which is
occasioned by this change from a free to a combined or quiescent
state. The absorption of heat, necessary for the generation of
cold, if so we may consider it, takes place in every instance,
where that effect is observed. The heat of surrounding bodies, in a
distributable state, is now no longer characterised as such; and the
consequence is, therefore, that that particular sensation, or effect
follows.
Cold may be produced by saline mixtures, the salts for which having
their full quantum of the water of crystallization; and by the
evaporation of fluids, as water, alcohol and ether. In the one
case, that of the freezing mixtures, we have seen, that the effect
is produced by the _absorption_ of heat; and with regard to the
cold produced by fluids, even in _vacuo_, (where the effect is more
instantaneous), the cause is attributable to evaporation; for the
fluid changes from a liquid to an aeriform state, and during this
transition robs the body, with which it was in contact, of a part of
its caloric, and thereby reduces its temperature. Artificial ice is
made on this principle.
The next subject with regard to heat, is the different modes in which
it tends to a state of rest. There are some facts in relation to this
subject worthy of notice; and particularly, that, in the tendency of
caloric to become quiescent, after having been put in motion, bodies
often increase in temperature. This tendency to a state of rest is
effected either by the conducting power of bodies, or radiation.
Heat radiates in all directions, and in quantities, according to
the experiments of Leslie, more or less variable, which depend on
the nature of the radiating surface. Hence that power, which bodies
possess, called the radiating power, varies in different substances.
Thus, the radiating power of lampblack is 100, while gold, silver,
copper, and tin plate are 12, from which it appears that the metals
distribute less heat by radiation. That caloric obeys the same
laws as light, is obvious from Pictet's experiments with concave
mirrors, where the calorific rays move in the same order, the angle
of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection. It is also
refracted; hence the concentration of the solar rays in a focus by
the burning glass. Various experiments have been made with mirrors,
and concave reflectors. The effect of the former in destroying the
fleet before Syracuse, an experiment made by Archimedes, is a fact
well authenticated in history. Concave reflectors have inflamed
gunpowder. This subject, however, is noticed at large, when speaking
of mirrors as an incendiary in war.
That bodies conduct heat, and with different degrees of power, so
that some are called good and others bad conductors, is well known.
This property depends on the quantity of caloric, which a body
receives, before it changes its state. Metals are considered good
conductors, and glass, charcoal, feathers, &c. bad conductors. Hence
bad conductors, as wool, &c. preserve the temperature of the body,
or keep it _warm_ in winter; and snow, for the same reason, prevents
the action of intense cold on the ground. Liquids also conduct heat.
Whether we consider caloric in this case carried, or transported,
as it is more properly defined, the fact may be shown by several
experiments. Ebullition, or boiling, is a phenomenon, which depends
on the increment of temperature; for as water, for instance, receives
caloric, until the thermometer indicates 212 degrees, the boiling
point, mere evaporation ensues; but that temperature, under the
usual pressure of the atmosphere, causes the formation of bubbles at
the bottom of the vessel, as that part receives the degree of heat
necessary for ebullition before any other; and these bubbles, as they
form, rise in succession, and pass off in the state of steam, while
the circumjacent fluid takes its place, and the process continues
till all is boiled away. Water, when it passes off in the state
of steam, which requires a degree of heat equal to 212 degrees of
Fahrenheit, receives also 1000 degrees of non-distributable caloric,
or latent heat; and however singular the fact may appear, the wise
Author of Nature, it seems, has reserved a _store of caloric_, in
this form, ready to be put in requisition, when necessity demands it,
in a distributable shape.
Caloric, when in a state of rest, exists in different proportions,
and although the actual temperature may be the same, yet the quantity
of caloric in a quiescent state may be variable. There are several
experiments, which are adduced to illustrate this fact. It results
from experiment, that bodies receive heat according to their several
capacities for it; hence, when any number of bodies are differently
heated, the caloric, which becomes latent, does not distribute itself
in equal quantities, but in various proportions, according, as we
remarked, to their several capacities. Caloric, therefore, in a
state of rest, is in relative quantities; and as the capacity of
bodies for heat is variable, and relative as to each other, the term
_specific caloric_ has been applied. From these conclusions, we may
readily perceive what is implied by an equality of temperature. That
it merely depends on the state of rest, which caloric necessarily
comes to, and which is relative as respects the capacity of bodies,
and nothing more, is a deduction very plain and obvious. Heat, in a
state of motion, may be said to be progressing to a quiescent state;
and equalization of temperature, although differently understood,
may be considered an equalization of fixed caloric, according to the
relative capacity of bodies, without regarding the equalization,
which takes place of uncombined caloric, as is manifested by
thermometrical instruments. In a word, by considering caloric in this
view, that of tending to a state of rest, and uniting with bodies
according to their respective capacities, we may account for many
phenomena; as, for instance, the quantity of caloric which enters
into ice, and becomes latent, during liquefaction. The quantity of
caloric, in this respect, may be learnt by adding a pound of ice at
32 degrees to a pound of water at 172 degrees. The temperature will
be much below 102 degrees, the arithmetical mean, viz. 32 degrees.
It is evident that the excess of caloric has disappeared; and by
deducting 32 degrees from 172 degrees, 140 degrees remain, which
is the quantity of caloric that enters into a pound of ice during
liquefaction, or the quantity required to raise a pound of water from
32 degrees to 172 degrees. This change of capacity appears to be
absolutely essential to the well being of the universe, as affording
a constant modification of the action of heat and cold, the effects
of which would otherwise be inordinate. If this did not take place,
the whole of a mass of water, which was exposed to a temperature
above the boiling point, would be instantly dissipated in vapour with
explosion. The polar ice, would all instantly dissolve, whenever the
temperature of the circumambient air was above 32 degrees, if it were
not that each particle absorbs a quantity of caloric in its solution,
and thereby generates a degree of cold which arrests and regulates
the progress of the thaw; and the converse of this takes place in
congelation, which is in its turn moderated by the heat developed
in consequence of the diminution of capacity, which takes place in
the water during its transition to a solid state. The reason why
boiling water in the open air never reaches a higher temperature than
212 degrees is evident, if we consider, that the capacity of those
portions of liquid, which are successively resolved into a vapour,
becomes thereby sufficiently augmented to enable them to absorb the
superabundant caloric as fast as it is communicated.
The most obvious effect of caloric on bodies, is the change, which
they undergo when exposed to its action.
That it acts constantly in opposition to the attraction of cohesion
or of aggregation, by which bodies pass from a solid to a fluid,
and from a fluid to an aeriform state, and produces also different
changes in bodies,--are facts that come under our daily observation.
It occasions changes in the bulk of bodies; hence solids, liquids,
and gases are expanded. The expansion, and subsequent contraction
of atmospheric air, give rise to various winds, which are currents
of air rushing from one point of the compass to another to maintain
an equilibrium. The theory of the winds is predicated on this fact,
although some have asserted, that they depend greatly on the diurnal
motion of the earth. The air thermometer of Sanctorius, and the
differential thermometer of Leslie, are founded on this principle, of
the expansion of air. Fluids expand until they arrive at the boiling
point, as is the case with water, alcohol, &c. The expansion of
mercury, in a glass tube, furnished with a graduated scale, forms the
mercurial thermometer, by the rise and fall of which, the different
variations of temperature are marked.
Notwithstanding caloric has the property of expanding bodies, there
are some exceptions to this law, which may be proper to notice.
Water, for instance, at the temperature below 40° contracts at every
increment of temperature until it reaches 40°, which is its maximum
of density. Above 40° it expands, until it arrives at the boiling
point. Alumina, or pure argillaceous earth, also contracts by heat;
hence it is used in the pyrometer of Wedgwood, to measure by its
contraction intense degrees of heat. Various saline substances, in
the act of crystallization, also expand. Several of the metals, when
previously melted, on cooling exhibit the same character; and water,
in the act of freezing, exerts a powerful force by its expansion,
competent to the bursting of shells, and the splitting of rocks.
The changes in bodies, produced by caloric, we have already noticed.
We will only add, that fluids require different temperatures, called
the boiling point, to make them boil, under the same atmospheric
pressure. Water boils at 212°. Many observations have been made
with respect to water, both in the state of ice, and the state of
vapour. Besides the accession of 212 degrees of caloric, appreciable
by the thermometer, in water in the state of steam, there is also
an accession of non-distributable caloric, called _latent heat_,
which is calculated at 1000°. In consequence of this circumstance,
steam has been judiciously applied to various useful purposes, and
particularly in a certain manner for the drying of gunpowder.
That chemical changes are produced by the agency of caloric, is a
fact well known. It is supposed to occasion decompositions, according
to the laws of affinity, by changing previous affinities, and causing
new affinities to take place. Hence the operations by fire, whether
the substances themselves are exposed in a dry state to the action
of heat, or otherwise, produce new results, or compounds, which
could not be made without it. This truth has long been obvious.
In consequence of a knowledge of this fact, Dr. Black (_Lectures_
vol. i, p. 12,) defined "chemistry to be the study of the effects
of heat and mixture, with the view of discovering their general and
subordinate laws, and of improving the useful arts."
Caloric as a powerful auxiliary, performing as it does an innumerable
multitude of changes and effects, an agent by which the operations
of the universe are maintained in order and harmony for universal
good, exerts the same effect in the furnace of the chemist, as in
the great laboratory of nature; and regulates, and determines all
the consequences, which follow a succession of fixed, and appointed
changes.[4]
We have thus, in this brief and hasty outline of the nature,
principal effects, and properties of caloric, detailed the leading
facts on this subject; from which it will be seen, that caloric,
so far as respects its generation by the combustion of different
pyro-mixtures, and effects, generally, should form a part of
Pyrotechny, and claim the attention of those, who are connected with
the preparation of Fire-Works.
Respiration is also a process which puts quiescent heat in motion.[5]
In the second part of the work, we embrace the furniture of a
laboratory, for the use of fire-workers, consisting of various tools
and utensils.
Under this head, we also embrace sundry manipulations, such as the
preparation of substances for use, the manner of forming mixtures,
and various anterior operations. The formation of pasteboard for
cases, the mode of forming as well as charging cases, different
modes of charging rockets, the dimensions of rammers, mallets &c.
This preliminary ought to be well understood; as the successful
practice of the art depends greatly on these operations. We may
observe, however, that we have had occasion to repeat some of these
manipulations in certain instances, to make them more intelligible;
or rather to present, more in connection with the subject, a detail
of minutiæ.
In the different compositions, the reader will bear in mind, that
the copious collection of formulæ, both old and new, embraces all
the facts, with which we are acquainted, concerning pyrotechnical
preparations.
In most instances, where the importance of the subject required it,
we designated, or set apart from the rest, formulæ, which have been
_approved_, and particularly in France.
This is more particularly the case as it respects the fourth and
last part, which appertains exclusively to Military Fire-Works. On
this subject, permit me to remark, that fire-works, intended for the
purposes of war, should be depended on; and for that reason, in order
to produce a certain effect, the materials of which they are composed
should be pure, weighed with accuracy in the proportions required,
and carefully mixed according to the rules laid down. It is true,
however, that while this nicety is required in particular cases, it
is unnecessary in the formation of all fire-works. The composition
for carcass and light-ball, for tourteaux, links, and fascines, and
some others, do not require that precision; whereas the composition
for fuses for bombs, howitzes, and grenades should be in every
respect accurately made; for on the accuracy of the composition, must
depend the time a fuse will burn, which is afterwards regulated by
using more or less of the fuse, according to the time it will take
for the shell to reach its destination, on which depends the skill of
the bombardier. Accuracy, however, in making of preparations should
be a general rule.
Viewing Pyrotechny either as a science or an art, there is
undoubtedly required in its prosecution much skill and practice. A
knowledge of the theory of fire-works may be readily acquired. The
mere artificer or fire-worker, by constant habit and experience, may
understand it is true how to mix materials, prepare compositions,
charge cases, and perform all other mechanical operations; but it is
equally certain, that, without a knowledge of chemistry, he cannot
understand the theory. We would not say, that the workman should be
a chemist, but that he should know enough to determine the purity
of the substances he employs, and their respective qualities and
effects; for if that principle were admitted, we might go further
and say, that every person, who practices a chemical art, as the
tanner, gluemaker, brazier, &c. should be a chemist, or that the art
could not be conducted without a previous knowledge of chemistry,
which we know is contrary to fact. This, however, may be said, that
in _all_ arts which are decidedly chemical, as that of _dying_ for
instance, chemical knowledge will enable the artist or operator to
conduct his processes with better advantage, and correct any _old_
routine, which is too often pursued, because it was handed down
from generation to generation. Mr. Seguin in France facilitated the
preparation of tanned leather, by adopting a new process altogether
chemical. In a word, so far as chemistry is connected with the
arts, and by which we explain the operations that take place, it is
undoubtedly important; and with regard to Pyrotechny, it appears, in
the way we have mentioned, to be indispensable. Chaptal (_Elements de
Chimie_) observes, that the works of artificers frequently miscarry
in consequence of their being unacquainted with the art.
In noticing this subject, we may be permitted to digress, while we
state, that, being fully convinced of this truth, we have directed
our labours in the Chemical Department of the United States'
Military Academy to two distinct objects; _viz._ to theoretical
and experimental chemistry, forming the first year's course, and
chemistry in its application to the arts, manufactures, and domestic
economy, constituting, along with mineralogy, the course of the
second year. In addition to the usual applications, Pyrotechny, in
the manner we have stated, and especially that branch which treats of
military fire-works, has claimed our attention; and we have reason
to believe, that this addition, to the usual course of chemical
instruction, has considerably advanced the utility, especially to
gentlemen designed for the army, of the application of chemistry.
The system of instruction adopted throughout the academy, in the
different departments, (the plan of which may be seen in the new
_Army Regulations_, article Military Academy), which, we have no
hesitation in believing, is the most complete of any in the United
States, and by far the most extensive,[6] is so regulated, that each
section of a class regularly recite, and are interrogated on each
subject of instruction, so that, while an emulation to excel is thus
excited, the comparative merit or standing of the cadets is thereby
determined. Adopting the same system in the Chemical department,
that of interrogation on the subject of the preceding lecture, has
many peculiar advantages; so that, while the mind and memory of the
pupil are thus exercised, a comparative estimate of the progress of
each one is obtained during each week, by which we are enabled, as in
other departments, to present a Weekly Class Report of their progress.
While we are indebted to the talents and industry of the professors
and teachers of the Academy, for the flourishing condition it is now
in, and the progress of the cadets in every branch there taught; it
is but justice to remark, that for the present organization of the
academy, as relates to the studies, which is obviously preferable to
the old system, and also for the improvements in instruction, we are
indebted to the present superintendent, Col. S. Thayer, of the U. S.
corps of engineers.
Considering pyrotechny, abstract from the questions usually given,
and forming a distinct branch, it may be proper to remark, that the
interrogatories on this head have been minutely and satisfactorily
answered. The following outline will exhibit the order in which such
questions were put, observing, however, that they are merely in
connection with this subject:
What is saltpetre? What is nitric acid? What is potash? What are
the sources of saltpetre, and how is it obtained? How is it formed
in nitre beds, extracted, and refined? What circumstances are
necessary to produce nitre, and how does animal matter act in its
production? What is the difference between the old and new process
for refining saltpetre? What reagents are used to discover the
presence of foreign substances in nitre? What are nitre caves? Where
do they exist? What are the nitre caves of the Western country,
and how is nitre extracted from the earth? What proportion of
nitre does the saltpetre earth of the nitre caves afford? What is
the theory of the process for extracting saltpetre from nitrous
earth, or nitrate of lime? What is sulphur? How is it obtained,
and how is it purified for the manufacture of gunpowder? Of what
use is sulphur in the composition of gunpowder? Does it add to the
effective force of gunpowder? What is charcoal? What is the best
mode of carbonizing wood for the purpose of gunpowder? What woods
are preferred for this purpose? In the charring of wood, what part
is converted into coal, and what gas and acid are disengaged? What
is the use of charcoal in gunpowder? What is gunpowder? What are
considered the best proportions for forming it, and what constitutes
the difference between powder for war, for gunning, and for mining?
How does the combustion of gunpowder take place? Can you explain why
combustion takes place without the presence of a gaseous supporter of
combustion, as gunpowder will inflame in vacuo? What are the products
of the combustion of gunpowder? What gases are generated? To what
is the force of fired gunpowder owing? What are the experiments of
Mr. Robins on the force of gunpowder? How would you separate the
component parts of gunpowder, so as to determine their proportions?
What are gunpowder proofs? What is understood by the comparative
force of gunpowder? What are eprouvettes? &c. In noticing in the
same manner the preparations used for fire-works, and for war, as
the rocket for instance, the following questions were propounded;
_viz._ What is a rocket? How is it formed? Is the case always made of
paper? What is the war rocket? What is the composition for rockets,
and how does it act? What particular care is required in charging
a rocket? What is the cause of the ascension of rockets? What is
the use of the conical cavity, made in a rocket at the time it is
charged, or bored out after it is charged? How do cases charged with
composition impart motion to wheels, and other pieces of fire-work?
What is understood by the rocket principle? What is the rocket stick,
and its use? Is the centre of gravity fixed, or is it shifting in the
flight of rockets? How are rockets discharged? What is the head of a
rocket? What is usually put in the head? Are all rockets furnished
with a head? What is understood by the furniture of a rocket? How
are the serpents, stars, fire-rain, &c. forming the furniture of
a rocket, discharged into the air, when the rocket has terminated
its flight, or arrived at its maximum of ascension? What forms the
difference between a balloon, in fire-works, and a rocket? As the
balloon contains also furniture, and is projected vertically from a
mortar, how is fire communicated to it, so as to burst it in the air?
Is the fuse used, in this case the same as that for bombs, howitzes,
and grenades? What is the Asiatic rocket? The fougette of the French?
In what seige were they employed with success by the native troops of
India? What was the nature of their war-rocket? What is the murdering
rocket of the French? Is the conical head hollow, or solid, blunt or
pointed? Why is it called the murdering rocket? What is the Congreve
rocket? Is Congreve the inventor, or improver of this rocket? What
are Congreve rockets loaded or armed with? In what part is the load
placed? Is the case made of paper or sheet iron? What are the sizes
of Congreve rockets?
What are the ranges of Congreve rockets? What angle of elevation
produces the best range? How are Congreve rockets discharged in the
field, and what number of men are usually employed for that service?
Are the Congreve rockets considered to be a powerful offensive
weapon; and, if so, in what particular? What is a carcass rocket?
As an incendiary, is the carcass rocket equal to the usual carcass
thrown from mortars? What is the carcass composition made of? What is
the Congreve rocket light ball? In large rockets, are their sticks
solid, or bored and filled with gunpowder? Why is that expedient
used? &c.
It is obvious, that the student, after obtaining a knowledge of each
subject by the preceding lecture, accompanied with demonstrations, is
enabled to detail minutely all the facts in relation to it.
Pyrotechny, as known at present, is confined to a few books, and
scattered in a desultory manner, without any regular or connected
system. In fact the works which treat on this subject are in French,
or translations from the French on particular subjects, but generally
very imperfect. As applied to the uses of war, we may indeed say,
that the small treatise of Bigot, (_Traité d'Artifice de Guerre_),
and Ruggeri (_Pyrotechnie Militaire_) are the only works. We have,
therefore, consulted these authors, as will be seen in the pages of
the work.
Roger Bacon, in his _Opus Majus_, has given some account of the Greek
fire, and of a composition, which seems to have had the effect of our
modern gunpowder.
Malthus (_Traité de l'Artillerie_) contains some formulæ for Military
Fire-Works. Anzelet and Vanorchis, in their several works, have given
some receipts for incendiary preparations. Henzion (_Recreations
Mathématiques_) and Joachim Butelius have also something on the
subject.
The celebrated Polander, Casimir Siemienowicz, has nothing of any
moment, if we except the incendiary fire-rain, an account of which
may be seen in the fourth part of our work. His book is considered,
however, the best of the whole of them. Belidor, Theodore Duturbrie,
&c. have mentioned some preparations; but their works are chiefly
confined to artillery.
The improvement of Pyrotechny is ascribed to the Germans and
Italians, and the French acknowledge, that they are indebted for a
knowledge of it to the Italians. Be this as it may, it is certain,
that it was known in China from time immemorial. Their acquaintance
with gunpowder, before it was known in Europe, is a fact which
appears to be generally admitted. For an account of the Chinese
fire-works, and the origin of gunpowder in Europe, consult these
articles respectively.
Whatever merit we may claim in this work, as the public will be able
to judge impartially, it will be seen, by referring to the different
chapters and sections, that we have endeavoured to form a system, by
presenting a connected view of the whole subject.
Having noticed under separate heads, the particular use and
application of each composition, we have added a chapter on the
arrangement of fire-works for exhibition, together with the order
to be observed. We may remark here, that we have enlarged in this
part more perhaps than its merit or importance deserves; but, on
reflection, we thought it better to embrace the whole subject, in
order to form a more complete system in all its parts.
After going through the fire-works for exhibition, and noticing the
different formulæ, and preparations, for arrangement, with the
theory of effects, we consider, in the next place, a subject of
more importance, that of Military Pyrotechny. We have adopted this
arrangement, more on account of obtaining a better acquaintance with
ordinary fire-works, before the reader is prepared for military
works, which he will understand with more facility; for all the
preliminary operations precede the practical part.
On this head, it will be sufficient to add, to what we have already
stated, that we have given in each article, generally speaking, a
variety of formulæ, with ample instructions for the preparation of
each composition. The table of contents will exhibit the order in
which they are treated.
In noticing the substances used in fire-works, in the first part, it
will be perceived, that we have noticed some of them more extensively
according to their importance; as for instance, _saltpetre_. Besides
the different modes of obtaining saltpetre in Europe and elsewhere,
and the means employed for refining it, we mention the saltpetre
caves of the western country, which furnish an abundance of this
article, and which contain an almost inexhaustible supply.
The extraction of saltpetre from the earth, (principally nitrate of
lime), by using a lixivium of wood-ashes; the formation of rough,
and subsequently of refined nitre; the various methods of refining
saltpetre, and particularly that adopted in France; with sundry facts
respecting the origin of nitre, and on the formation of artificial
nitre beds; all claim our particular notice.
The extraction of sulphur from its combinations, and the means used
for purifying it for the purpose of gunpowder, are also considered in
the same manner.
The subject of charcoal, an essential constituent of gunpowder,
claims, in like manner, particular attention. The various modes
of charring, the woods employed, the quantity of coal obtained,
the formation of pyroacetic acid in the process of carbonization,
and many facts of the same kind are considered. These subjects,
_viz._ nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, are highly important to the
manufacturer of gunpowder.
A knowledge of the various processes for refining saltpetre; the best
and most approved modes of carbonizing wood; the purification and
quality of sulphur; the different processes for making gunpowder,
with the proportion of the ingredients used in France and elsewhere;
the granulation, glazing, and drying of powder, the use of the steam
apparatus, and the different modes of proving it, and of examining
it chemically; and the means of ascertaining the purity of nitre in
any specimen of gunpowder; are, with others, subjects of particular
interest to the gunpowder manufacturer.
With respect to the Theory of the explosion of gunpowder, we have
noticed it at some length, and have added the experiments and
observations of Mr. Robins, and of other persons, made at different
periods.
In the consideration of the gaseous products, and the caloric evolved
by the combustion of powder, we have taken a view of the gases
produced, the cause of their production, the dilatation which they
suffer, and the experiments of Lavoisier and Laplace, with regard to
latent heat, and deducing therefrom some views of the probable cause
of the production of caloric in fired gunpowder.[7]
Our observations respecting rockets, the theory of their ascension,
of the Congreve carcass and Asiatic rockets, and some others, are
we apprehend sufficiently extensive. As it regards the different
incendiary compositions, and their use in war, the reader will find
ample instructions on these heads.
We may also remark, that we have given some of the more common, or
general properties of the substances, employed in the composition of
fire-works, without going into that detail, which belongs exclusively
to works that treat of Chemistry. It was neither our design, nor have
we given, for the reasons thus stated, _all_ the chemical characters
or properties of the substances so employed; and, therefore, have
confined ourselves, generally speaking, to an enumeration of such
properties as are connected with the subject, or are indispensably
necessary to be known, before a rationale of the causes and effects
can be understood.
It was our intention to accompany the work with plates, exhibiting
the arrangement, &c. of fire-works, which, there can be no doubt,
would have facilitated in particular the knowledge of forming, and
arranging, certain pieces of fire-work; but, on second reflection, as
such illustrations were connected more with fancy exhibitions, and
have little or no relation to Military Fire-works, the most useful
branch of Pyrotechny, we were finally of opinion, that the addition
of plates would greatly enhance the price, without advancing or
adding to the value of the work.
If, however, a second edition should be required, various figures
in illustration of particular subjects may be added, either with
a distinct explanatory chapter, or a reference from the articles
themselves, with the necessary explanation, to the figures
respectively.
It would require at least twenty-five plates to include all the
figures we originally intended to have introduced.
Before concluding this introduction, it remains for us to remark,
that, in forming this work, we consulted a variety of authors, but
with little advantage, except some French works, which we shall
notice. Chaptal (_Chimie Appliqué aux Arts_;) Bigot (_Artifice de
Guerre_;) Morel (_Feux d'Artifice_;) Thenard (_Traité de Chimie_;)
Ruggeri (_Pyrotechnie Militaire_;) MM. Bottée and Riffault (_Traité
de L'Art de Fabriqué la Poudre à canon_;) Peyre (_Le Mouvement
Igné_;) Biot (_Traité de Physique_, _Recherches Experimentales et
Mathématique_, _sur les mouvement des Molecules de la Lumiere_,
_&c._;) M. Duloc (_Theorie Nouvelle sur le Mechanisme de
l'Artillerie_;) the _Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_; the _Dictionnaire
Encyclopedique des Arts et Metiers Mecaniques_, article _Art de
L'Artificier_; _Œuvre Militaire_; _Archives des Découvertes_;
_Système des Connoissances Chimiques par A. F. Fourcroy_;
_Aide-Mémoire a l'usage des officiers d'Artillerie de France_.
We examined various authors in English; and with regard to the origin
of inventions, we found the learned, and valuable work of professor
Beckman (_History of Inventions_) very useful, and likewise James's
_Military Dictionary_. To the _Encyclopedia Britannica_, we are
indebted for many interesting facts, and some extracts on fire-works
for exhibition.
On the subject of mining, we consulted the _Treatise on mines for the
use of the Royal Military Academy_, by Landmann.
We deem it necessary to observe, that, in collecting our formulæ for
military fire-works, although we have sometimes extracted from the
Strasbourg _Memoir_, the _Bombardier and Pocket Gunner_, and the
_Military Dictionary_ of Duane and James, we have generally followed
Bigot; as the formulæ which he gives for the preparation of Military
fire-works have been approved by the French government; and where
any thing of importance occurred in Ruggeri, we have, for the same
reason, extracted such formulæ from that author.
As respects the turtle, torpedo, and catamarin, submarine machines,
it appears that Bushnel (_Trans. Am. Phil. Soc._) claims the
originality of the discovery from the date of his invention,
although similar contrivances had long ago been suggested. Fulton's
improvements, in the torpedo, are deserving of particular attention;
but it is plain, that the Catamarin of the English is the same in
principle and application as Fulton's torpedo, and that Fulton
deserves the merit of it. Congreve, if we believe Ruggeri, was not
the inventor of the rocket, which bears his name; for, according
to him, it was invented about the year 1798 by a naval officer at
Bourdeaux. It is certain, however, it was neither much known, nor
used before the attack on Copenhagen.
It is certain that the present incendiary fire-stone was taken
from the recipe for fire-rain contained in the military work
of Cassimir Siemienowicz, or that the fire-rain gave rise to a
similar preparation. The idea of the _pyrophore_, mentioned in the
_Archives des Découvertes_, must have originated from the use of the
powder-barrel, and of similar means of defence. We might enumerate
many other inventions, which owe their origin in the same way.
A SYSTEM
OF
PYROTECHNY.
CHAPTER I.
PYROTECHNY IN GENERAL.
_Sec. I. Definition of Pyrotechny._
Pyrotechny is defined the doctrine of artificial fire-works, whether
for war or exhibition, and is derived from the Greek, πυρ _fire_, and
τεχνη _art_. In a more general sense, it comprehends the structure
and use of fire-arms, and the science which teaches the management
and application of fire in several operations.
_Sec. II. General theory of Pyrotechny._
In the composition of artificial fire, various substances are
employed, having different properties, and designed to produce
certain effects characterised by particular phenomena. These
substances are either inflammable, or support the combustion of
inflammable bodies. As pyrotechnical mixtures are differently formed,
and of various substances, the effects are also modified, although
combustion, under some shape always takes place.
Combustion is either modified, retarded, or accelerated; and
in consequence of the presence of certain substances, different
appearances are given to flame.
The conditions necessary for combustion are, the presence of a
combustible substance, of a supporter of combustion, and a certain
temperature. Thus, charcoal when raised to the temperature of 800° in
the open air, takes fire. This elevation of temperature enables it
to act chemically on the oxygen gas of the atmosphere; the latter,
as it comes in contact, being decomposed. Now, as oxygen gas is a
combination of oxygen and caloric, the caloric being in a latent
state, the charcoal unites with the oxygen, and the phenomena of
combustion ensue; that is, an evolution of _heat_ and _light_.
The caloric of the decomposed gas is given out in a free state,
and, according to the theory of Dr. Thomson, (_Thomson's System of
Chemistry_, vol. i.) the light proceeds from the burning body. We
have then an instance of combustion, in which there is a combustible,
a supporter of combustion, and an elevated temperature. The old
theory of combustion, called the _Stahlian_ theory, which presupposes
an element called phlogiston, or a principle of fire, to exist in all
bodies under some modification, would explain these effects by merely
supposing, that combustion was nothing more than a disengagement of
phlogiston; and that when a body had lost its inflammable principle,
(as a metal, when oxidized), it became dephlogisticated. But,
as it proved that phlogiston is a hypothetical element, and the
anti-phlogistic doctrine clearly shows, that combustion is no other
than a process which unites the supporter with the combustible,
forming new products; it follows, that, in all changes of the kind,
the same reasoning will apply, and the same principle be tenable.
The products of combustion depend on the nature of the substance
burnt, and the supporter employed. Thus, in the instance just
mentioned, the charcoal, by its union with oxygen, is changed into
carbonic acid, which takes the gaseous state. We say then, that
carbonic acid is the product of the combustion of charcoal, or,
chemically speaking, of carbon. As resins, oil, &c. contain hydrogen,
as well as carbon, the products in such cases would be water, as well
as carbonic acid.
The chemical effects, therefore, which we consider in fire-works,
forming the basis on which a theory of sundry phenomena may be
formed, are no other than the result of the action of one body
on another, according to the laws which govern such action, and
the consequent operation of chemical combination. Combustion, in
fire-works, may be considered a primary agent in _all effects_ which
characterise artificial fire.
The second change, with respect to the appearance of the flame,
the formation of stars, serpents, rain, &c. terms used in the
art, is owing either to new chemical changes which the substances
undergo, or to the decomposition of the products themselves. These
effects, it is obvious, must be governed by the circumstances,
under which the mixtures are made. Saltpetre, for instance, is the
basis of fire-works, whether used in a separate state, or employed
in mixture with charcoal and sulphur, as in gun-powder; and, from
its composition, is adapted to all the purposes of the art, because
it yields its oxygen very readily to all inflammable bodies. In
consequence of the decomposition, it undergoes at an elevated
temperature, when brought in contact with charcoal, sulphur, &c. and
various substances which contain carbon, as pitch, rosin, turpentine,
tallow, copal, and amber, combustion results, and, according to
circumstances, is more or less rapid, and the flame also more or less
brilliant.
When charcoal, in the state of ignition, is brought in contact with
nitre, a deflagration takes place, because, at the temperature of
ignition, it has the property of decomposing the nitric acid of the
nitre; and as this process unites the carbon with the oxygen, in
the proportion necessary to constitute carbonic acid, this acid is
accordingly produced. When, therefore, we inflame a mixture of nitre,
charcoal, and sulphur, or gun-powder, the whole or greater part
disappears; and if we were to collect in a pneumatic apparatus, the
products of the combustion, it would be found, that they are nearly
altogether gaseous, and composed, as we shall speak hereafter, of
sundry elastic aëriform fluids. This decomposition, the immediate
effect of the charcoal on the nitric acid of the nitre, is the same
as in the preceding instance, for carbonic acid gas is formed in both
cases. We have then another instance of combustion, where a number
of substances are concerned, and therefore, the products must be
numerous.
We notice this subject more particularly, since, as in the different
fire-works, nitre and inflammable bodies are used in different
proportions, the result is always affected by the same laws of
chemical decomposition; for the same substances, placed under similar
circumstances of proportion, mixture, &c. afford the like results.
If carbon alone be employed, carbonic acid gas is the result; if
oil, tallow, rosin, or turpentine be used, we have then, as we had
occasion to remark, water, as well as carbonic acid, by reason of
the union of the hydrogen, which forms one of their constituent
parts, with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid.
Again, in a composition of mealed powder, rosin and sulphur, with
or without the addition of saw dust, we infer, from the composition
of the ingredients and the chemical action which subsequently takes
place, that the products of combustion would be carbonic acid gas,
sulphurous acid gas, water, sulphuretted hydrogen, and probably
azotic, and nitric oxide gases. If the filings of steel, brass,
zinc, or copper, enter into the composition, besides the products
above-mentioned, there would be either an oxide of iron, an oxide
of zinc, or, an oxide of copper, according as one or other of these
metals are employed.
Copper, in fire-works, has the effect of communicating a green
colour to the flame. M. Homberg, (_Collection Acad._) observes, that
the green colour in such cases is owing to the _dissolution_ of
the metal, which in fact is nothing more than the _effect_ of its
oxidizement.
The various compositions for brilliant fire, as the Chinese fire, owe
their peculiar character to pulverised cast iron, and commonly to
steel and iron filings. Now the effects in these cases are the same;
for the same oxidizement ensues, more or less rapidly, which in fact
distinguishes the kinds of brilliant fire. That of the Chinese is the
most perfect, and next is the composition made with steel filings. It
will be seen, however, that compositions generally are governed, in
their respective appearances when inflamed, by the purity, as well as
the proportion of other substances, which enter into them; and hence
much of their effect depends on collateral circumstances, which we
purpose to consider when we treat of the compositions individually.
That the light of certain burning bodies may be increased, is evident
from these facts; and experiment has shown, that the intensity of
the light of burning sulphur, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, &c. is
increased by throwing into them, zinc, or its oxide, iron, and other
metals, or by placing in them very fine amianthus or metallic gauze.
Protochloride of copper burns with a dense red light, tinged with
green and blue towards the edges. If the hydrogen of the oil acts in
separating the chlorine from the copper, and the reduced copper is
ignited by the charcoal, this appearance must necessarily ensue.
When solid matter is the product of combustion, as in the burning
of phosphorus, zinc, iron, &c. the flame is remarked to be more
intense. Flame may be modified under other circumstances, as we will
have occasion to mention hereafter. When, for instance, a wire-gauze
safety-lamp is made to burn in a very explosive mixture of coal gas
and air, the light is very feeble and of a pale colour; but when a
current of coal gas is burnt in atmospheric air, the combustion is
rapid and the flame brilliant.
Dr. Ure thinks it probable, (_Dictionary of Chemistry_, article
combustion,) that, when the colour of the flame is changed by the
introduction of incombustible compounds, the effect depends on the
production, and subsequent ignition or combustion of inflammable
matter from them. Thus he infers, that the rose-coloured light given
to flame by the compounds of strontium and calcium, and the yellow
colour given by those of barium, and the green by those of boron, may
depend upon a temporary production of these bases, by the inflammable
matter of the flame. It is inferred also, as a probable conclusion,
that the heat of flames may be actually diminished by increasing
their light, (at least the heat communicable to other matter), and
_vice versa_; because, in the most intense heat, as in the compound
blow pipe, or in Newman's blow pipe apparatus, in which a mixture of
oxygen and hydrogen gases is compressed, the flame, although hardly
visible in bright day light, instantly fuses the most refractory
bodies; but the light of solid bodies ignited in it, is so vivid as
to be painful to the eye.
Some curious facts with regard to flame, in connection with
electricity, are given by Brande in the Phil. Trans. for 1814. He
supposes that some chemical bodies are naturally in the resinous,
and others in the positive electrical state. He supposes also,
as a consequence, that the positive flame will be attracted, and
neutralize the negative polarity, while the negative flame will
operate a similar change by inducing an equilibrium at the positive
pole. Thus he found, that certain flames were attracted by the
positive ball of an electrical apparatus, and others attracted by the
negative ball. The flame of sulphur and phosphorus is attracted by
the positive pole, and the flame of camphor, resins, and hydrogen by
the negative pole.
In relation to the production of flame, we may observe, that, as
sundry solid and fluid substances are inflammable, the products of
combustion depend on the composition of the substance made use of,
and the condition under which it is burnt. As to gaseous substances
that are inflammable, the base of some gases, we may remark, as
carbon and hydrogen, unite in the process of combustion with the
base of other gases, (as oxygen;) and in other instances, the _gas_
itself takes fire, and exhibits the phenomena of flame. Now carbonic
acid gas extinguishes flame, although its base is inflammable; but
hydrogen, as well as hydrogen gas, is inflammable, and when burnt in
oxygen gas or atmospheric air produces water, which also extinguishes
the flame of burning bodies.
As we will have occasion to notice a variety of aëriform fluids,
especially when we treat of the aëriform products of fired
gun-powder, a few remarks on this head may be useful at this time.
By the combustion of bodies, substances are generated that are
either gaseous or solid, whence arises the variety of products. Of
aëriform fluids, some are coloured, as nitrous acid vapour, (nitrous
gas and oxygen), chlorine, and the protoxide and deutoxide of
chlorine. The first is red, the rest yellowish-green, or yellowish.
Some relight a taper, provided the wick remain ignited, as oxygen
gas, protoxide of azote, and the oxides of chlorine. Others produce
_white vapours_ in the air, as muriatic acid, fluoboric, fluosilicic,
and hydriodic. The inflammable gases, which take fire in the air
by contact of the lighted taper, are hydrogen, hydroguret, and
bihydroguret of carbon, carbonic oxide, prussine or cyanogen,
called also carburet of azote, and phosphuretted, sulphuretted,
arsenuretted, telluretted, and potassuretted hydrogen. Other gases
are acid, and redden litmus, which, for that reason, are called acid
gases, such as nitrous, sulphurous, muriatic, fluoboric, hydriodic,
fluosilicic, chlorocarbonic, and carbonic acids; the oxides of
chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, telluretted hydrogen, and carburet
of azote. Some gases are destitute of smell, as oxygen, azote
and its protoxide, and carbonic acid; while others have a strong
and characteristic odour, as ammoniacal gas. Some gases are very
soluble in water, and others but slightly soluble, such as fluoric,
fluosilicic, carbonic, sulphurous, and muriatic acids, and ammoniacal
gas. Alkaline solutions absorb some gases, as nitrous, sulphurous,
muriatic, fluoboric, carbonic, hydriodic, fluosilicic, chlorine,
chlorocarbonic, and the two oxides of chlorine, sulphuretted
hydrogen, telluretted hydrogen, and ammonia. Alkaline gases are
ammonia, and potassuretted hydrogen.
The character of gases is well defined. The compound gas of
phosphorus and hydrogen takes fire spontaneously in the atmosphere,
burning with a brilliant white flame; but there is another gas formed
of the same substances, that does not inflame spontaneously, but is
inflammable, called subphosphuretted hydrogen. This gas has a strong
smell of garlic or phosphorus, and is luminous in the dark. It may
be this peculiar combination, which gives rise to the _ignes fatui_;
but the permanent ignes fatui, observed in volcanic countries, are
said to be the slow combustion of sulphur, forming sulphurous acid
gas. Sir H. Davy found, that phosphuretted hydrogen produced a flash
of light when admitted into the best vacuum that could be made by an
excellent pump of Nairn's construction.
Naphtha in contact with red hot iron glows with a lambent flame
at a rarefaction of thirty times, though its flame ceases at an
atmospheric rarefaction of six. Camphor ceases to burn in an air
rarefied six times, but, in a glass tube which becomes ignited,
the flame of camphor exists under ninefold rarefaction; whereas
phosphorus, according to the experiments of Van Marum, will burn,
although the atmosphere be rarefied sixty times. Hydrogen gas will
burn in a rarefied air, when it is four or five times less than the
pressure of the atmosphere, and its flame be extinguished, when the
pressure is between seven and eight times less; from which it is
inferred, that the flame is extinguished in rarefied atmospheres,
only when the heat it produces is insufficient to keep up the
combustion. Olefiant gas (hydroguret of carbon) ceased to burn in an
atmosphere, where its pressure was diminished between ten and eleven
times. The flames of alcohol and of wax taper were extinguished in
an atmosphere, where pressure was five or six times less without
the wire of platinum, and seven or eight times less when the wire
was kept in the flame. See _Flameless Lamp_. Several interesting
conclusions may be drawn from these facts, which, to enumerate, would
lead us beyond our design. It will be sufficient, therefore, to
add, that although a supporter of combustion is necessary for that
process, and flame may be differently modified, yet combustion ceases
if the pressure of the atmosphere be diminished in certain ratios, as
already noticed.
Besides nitre, other saline substances which contain oxygen feebly
combined, have been used for the same purpose. Some years ago, it
was proposed to substitute the hyper-oxymuriate, now called chlorate
of potassa, for nitre in the formation of gun-powder. As chlorate
of potassa, when mixed with sulphur, &c. produces combustion by
percussion, or by the contact of fire, this effect is attributed to
the same cause,--the separation of oxygen, not from azote, but from
the chlorine of the chloric acid, Hence, when that salt is used in
fire-works, the result of the combustion is similar to that in which
nitre is employed; at least as regards the union of the oxygen with
the elementary principles of the inflammable body. On this subject,
we shall make some remarks hereafter. Nitrate of soda, a salt which
contains nitric acid, and similar to saltpetre in that particular,
has been recommended also for fire-works. It has, however, several
objections. Our object in noticing it at this time is to remark,
that, when it is so employed, its effect is the same as nitrate of
potassa, or saltpetre, by furnishing oxygen as the supporter of
combustion. See _Nitrate of Soda_.
We are of opinion, that many of the nitrates might be advantageously
employed in the manufacture of fire-works. Some, as nitrate of
strontian, communicate a red colour to flame, as the flame of
alcohol. Nitrate of lime also might be used.
All nitrates, as well as the different hyperoxymuriates, or
chlorates, contain oxygen as an essential ingredient in the acid of
their respective salts, which is readily given up to inflammable
substances.
When nitrates are employed for fire-works, they should be free from
moisture, or water of crystallization, unless otherwise required.
The presence of water may, in many cases, prove injurious to the
composition; and, consequently, the effect in those instances, may be
influenced by this circumstance. The composition of nitric acid, and
the action of carbon in the decomposition of the nitrates, or salts
formed by the union of nitric acid with sundry bases, will claim our
attention in the article on gun-powder.
With respect to the production of colours, some remarks on this
subject may be here added.
Speaking of colours, Haüy (_Elementary Treatise of Natural
Philosophy_, trans. ii. p. 253.) takes into view their formation
according to the Newtonian doctrine; and in a note by the translator,
several instances are given of the change of colour by oxidizement
and other processes. Iron when exposed to heat in contact with
atmospheric air gradually absorbs oxygen, and changes its colour.
The colours produced depend entirely on the quantity of oxygen, and
on the absorption of some of the rays of light, and the reflection
of others. See _Iron_. The tempering of steel instruments depends on
this property, and also the blueing of sword blades, and many similar
operations. The first impression of fire usually developes a blue
colour; a second degree produces a yellow; and, if the oxidizement
augments, the iron becomes red. The major part of the metals present
similar phenomena.
In vegetables, the blue colour is formed by fermentation; and many of
these colours are susceptible of passing to red by a greater quantity
of oxygen, as they depend on the absorption of oxygen. It is thus
that the green fecula of indigo becomes blue; turnsol, red by air and
acids; and the protoferrocyanate of iron, blue when exposed to the
air.
When meat putrefies, the first degree of oxygenation decides the blue
colour; the red soon succeeds as the process goes on. It would seem
that the maximum of oxidation determines the reflection of rays of
every kind, in the same proportions as subsist in solar light, of
which we have many instances in combustion.
The flame of burning bodies exhibits the same phenomena. It is blue
when the combination of oxygen is slow; red when it is stronger, and
white when the oxygenation is complete.
These facts lead to the conclusion, that the combination of oxygen,
and its proportions, give birth in bodies to the property of
reflecting corresponding rays of light; but, since the combination
of oxygen in different proportions ought to change the thickness
and density of the component laminæ, and, consequently, to produce
variations in the colours, this doctrine is not easily reconciled
with the received theory.
By considering the temperature necessary to inflame different bodies;
the nature of flame, and the relation between light and heat, which
compose it; the caloric disengaged in a free state during the
combustion of bodies, and the causes, which modify the appearance
of flame,--we may be enabled to account for the phenomena already
noticed. Thus, phosphorus at 150°, and sulphur at 550°, are said
to take fire, and two acid products are formed; at 800°, hydrogen
gas explodes with oxygen, and produces water; and, according to
Ure's view, the flame of combustible bodies may in all cases be
considered as the combustion of an _explosive mixture_ of inflammable
gas, or vapour, with air; and as to the change of quiescent into
distributable heat, and the causes that modify combustion and flame,
the facts on these heads are numerous and very important.
_Sec. III. Remarks on the Nature of particular Compositions._
The _spur fire_, which was invented by the Chinese, but brought to
perfection in Europe, is remarkably beautiful when employed in some
particular parts of fire-works. This fire was so named from the
effect it produces, that of forming scintillations, resembling a
shower, or drops of rain, or the rowel of a spur. The _artificial
flower pot_ is formed of this fire. The _stars_ and _pinks_, which
it produces, are said to be brilliant. The composition of spur
fire being saltpetre, lampblack, and sulphur, in the proportions
we shall give hereafter, is similar in fact to that of gunpowder;
for the lampblack acts in the same manner as common charcoal. As
the lampblack, however, is extremely fine, and of a purer quality,
its action on that account may be more powerful. While one portion
of it decomposes the nitric acid of the nitre, with the oxygen of
which it forms carbonic acid; another portion is thrown off in
actual combustion, which puts on the appearance we have mentioned.
Lampblack, it is to be observed, is a very impalpable powder, and
takes fire with more facility than pulverised charcoal.
The lampblack, therefore, is consumed both by the oxygen of the
nitre, and the oxygen gas furnished by the atmospheric air. With
respect to the sulphur, it facilitates the combustion, as it is
more readily inflamed, and it forms in the process of combustion,
sulphurous acid gas. Spur fire has been improved by the addition of
steel filings: They produce very brilliant scintillations, in the
combustion of which, oxide of iron is formed.
With respect to the composition of rockets, the materials of which
are united in different proportions, we will remark at this time,
that as mealed powder, saltpetre, and charcoal constitute their
principal ingredients, the chemical effect is similar to that we
have stated. The combustion of such mixtures is attributed to the
same cause; for whether we consider the composition of gunpowder, or
the extra addition of saltpetre and charcoal, or the substitution
of nitre for the gunpowder, the action must be the same, and
therefore the products of combustion, similar. The action, however,
as the effect evidently shows, is affected by the proportion of
the substances employed, and by other circumstances which we shall
notice hereafter. The different appearances, therefore, are owing
entirely to the composition, as in _rocket stars_, _rains_, _gerbes_,
_tourbillons_, _&c._
It may appear surprising, that the combustion of gunpowder with
other substances, previously well rammed in cases, as in the rocket,
will give to the case a _momentum_ of great velocity and force.
This motion is regulated by the _balance_ of the rocket; and its
_power_ depends upon the size of the case, and the compactness of
the composition. There is nothing new, however, in the fact; for it
is perfectly familiar with every one, if we consider the recoil of
a gun when fired, the powder having a resistance to overcome, as the
ball, that the explosive effect of gunpowder is equal, and that the
gases produced impel on all sides. Now the effect of a ball is as
the difference of its weight with the weight of the gun; while the
one being so much lighter is propelled forward with great celerity,
and with a corresponding projectile force, the other suffers but
little motion, which we term the recoil. The combustion of the
materials, of which a rocket is composed, in a case, and in many
fire-works where the cases are arranged on wheels, &c. which act on
the rocket-principle, produces in like manner a force proportionate
to the quantity of the material employed, and the manner it is driven
in the case. The force in such instances is given to the rocket by
the combustible substances; and the rocket itself when free, will
ascend, or move in the direction required; or if small cases are
fixed on wheels, which move on an axis, they communicate motion, as
in the single vertical wheels, horizontal wheels, plural wheels, and
the like, and may then be considered a moving power. That rockets
are used as a missile weapon is well known. They were employed by
the native troops of India against the British during the siege of
Seringapatam in 1799. Mr. Congreve, the inventor of the _war-rocket_
which bears his name, may have received his first idea of using
rockets from this circumstance. This rocket will be described
hereafter. The projectile force of the rocket is well calculated
for the conveyance of case shot to great distances; because, as it
proceeds, its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded, as
happens with every other projectile, while the average velocity of
the shell is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of 9
to 8. The basis of this increase of power in the flight of rockets,
induced Congreve to make a number of experiments, which resulted in
their improvement, so far as they may be used of various calibres,
either for explosion or conflagration, and armed both with shells and
case shot. It may be sufficient to remark, that the 32 pr. rocket
carcass, which has been used in bombardment, will range 3000 yards
with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in the
ten inch spherical carcass.
M. de Buffon, (_Mémoires de l'Académie_, 1740,) wrote an ingenious
essay on sky rockets, in which he states the appendages which may be
put to them.
If we inquire into the cause of the ascension of rockets, it will
appear, that this apparently extraordinary effect, as we have
already remarked, is owing to the decomposition, and the consequent
production and disengagement of a large quantity of gaseous fluid
and caloric. The impelling power, as in the large Congreve rocket,
of which we had occasion to speak, is regulated in proportion to its
size, and the accuracy with which the materials have been driven.
The manner in which the flame, and, consequently, the gases are
expelled from the orifice of a rocket, resembles the operation of an
æolipile, which throws out the vapour of water, and sets in motion
the air in its vicinity. As the more flexible must yield to the more
solid body, so, in this respect, the gases produced are repelled by
the air in contact with the orifice of the rocket. Thus it follows,
that the rocket _displaces_ a volume of air of a much greater weight
than itself. The rocket then has upon the air, reasoning _a priori_,
the same effect as the oars of a boat have upon water; and hence,
the greater the volume of fire from the rocket, the greater is
its velocity and ascent. The impelling force also increases as it
consumes, being a uniformly accelerated motion.
It also appears, that a rocket sent in an horizontal direction will
not pass over so great a distance, as when its motion is vertical;
for, a rocket, directed in a line parallel to the horizon, passes
through a medium of equal density, but if directed perpendicular to
the horizon, from the moment it leaves the ground till it arrives at
its greatest height, it penetrates and passes through an atmosphere
whose density is continually decreasing, and consequently its
impelling force meets with less resistance. But when we consider the
increase of the force of the rocket, there is no comparison between
that force, and the diminution of the density of the air.
From these premises it follows, that the ascension of rockets of
all kinds is governed by one principle, namely, the disengagement
of gaseous fluids and caloric, which displacing an equal volume of
atmospheric air, operates by mutual contact.
Since, however, the air is heavier than the gases produced by the
rocket, as the latter are greatly expanded, it is evident, that the
gases will ascend; their specific gravity at the time of dilatation
being less than that of the air.
The gases proceeding from the interior of the rocket, act therefore
upon the air in the immediate vicinity of the orifice, and the rocket
is consequently propelled, the stick guiding it in the direction
given to it. If it were not for the rocket-stick or balance, its
direction would be neither regular nor certain. Considering then,
that, by the rocket-stick, the centre of gravity is changed from
the rocket itself to the stick, the motion is regulated in its
perpendicular flight by the stick. The rocket-stick must be always of
a proportionate length and weight to the rocket.
The motion given to rockets is always to be considered, for this
depends upon the direction at first imparted; but the force of
ascension is regulated by the size, and other circumstances which we
have mentioned.
Assuming the principle of constant force acting upon the rocket, its
velocity will increase with the time, and will be as the squares of
the time, according to the principles of uniform accelerated motion;
but if the force varies from uniformity, then the velocity and spaces
will proportionably vary.
As action and re-action must be equal, the repulsion produced by the
action of the gases upon the air is equal to the force impelling the
rocket. The constant action produces equal acceleration of the motion.
On the subject of the condensation and dilatation of air, and the
different pressures at a mean temperature, which is more or less
connected with this inquiry, the reader may consult with advantage,
the work of Mr. Biot, (_Traité de Physique_, &c. tome i, p. 110,
and 141.) The conclusions of Mr. Robins on the gaseous products of
gunpowder, and the elasticity of those products, may be seen by
referring to the article on _gunpowder_.
It must be confessed, that the theory of rockets differs in many
essential particulars from that of the usual projectiles; for
the motion of rockets is more complicated than that of common
projectiles, and is described to partake of all the anomalies that
attend the accelerated motion arising from the rocket composition,
and the uniform motion of the rocket-case, after the composition is
expended. It is a fact, which appears to be established, that little
or no advantage has yet been gained from the experiments that have
been made with cannon, even where the angle of elevation, and the
initial velocity of the ball were both accurately known. It seems
totally useless to look for mathematical investigations, with respect
to determining the ranges, &c. of military rockets; because, if we
could determine, with the greatest accuracy, the point, position,
and velocity of the rocket, at the moment when the composition was
expended, the remaining part of its track would still be subject
to all the inequalities attending on common projectiles. During
the burning of the rocket, however, its motion might, by a series
of experiments, be reduced to precise rules. As the principles of
gunnery, or rather of projectiles, involve a number of collateral
circumstances, such as the exact momentum of any given ball when
projected with a given velocity, and from a given distance, the
subject is still not fully settled; but they are so far conclusive,
that the resistance of the air to the same ball is as some function
of the velocity. The remarks of Dr. Hutton on this head would be too
lengthy. A rocket, however, is very different. The very medium, in
this case, is the principal agent in producing the motion; and being
enabled to ascertain all the successive energies of the propelling
power, and the resisting force, we may thus far determine correctly.
It is suggested, that a rocket fixed to the ballistic pendulum would
determine its whole energy; but, in order to make the experiment more
perfect, it is proposed to attach it to a wheel, or revolving body,
and then to measure its successive energies by the motion of some
weight attached to the revolving axis of the machine. It is worthy of
remark, that it is impossible to accommodate or determine the motion
of rockets by other projectiles; and, therefore, to ascertain their
momentum, such a contrivance would be eminently useful.
Mr. Moore of the Royal Military Academy, Great Britain, (_Treatise
on the motion and flight of rockets_,) who seems to have adopted the
hypothesis of Dr. Desaguliers, respecting the momentum of the ignited
composition, has given a variety of problems relative to the motion
and flight of rockets in non-resisting mediums, some of which we
purpose to notice.
Mariotte and Desaguliers have given two distinct theories of the
motion of rockets. The latter ascribes their motion to the momentum
of combustion, and the former to the elastic nature of the gaseous
fluid, generated by the combustion, and the resistance of air. The
observations of Desaguliers are the following: "Conceive the rocket
to have no vent at the choke, and to be set on fire, the consequence
will be, either that the rocket will burst in the weakest place,
or if all the parts be equally strong, and be able to sustain the
impulse of the flame, the rocket would burn out immoveable. Now, as
the force of the flame is equable, suppose its action downwards, or
that upwards, to lift 40 pounds; as these forces are equal, but their
directions contrary, they will destroy each other's action. Imagine
then the rocket opened at the choke; by this means, the action of the
flame downwards is taken away, and there remains a force equal to
forty pounds, acting upwards, to carry up the rocket and stick." This
theory, however ingenious, is not altogether true; for it is asserted
on the contrary, that the action of the flame or gas within the
rocket, when closed, as supposed above, is conceived to arise wholly
from the elastic nature of the gas, and the reaction it experiences
against the ends and sides of the rocket-case; the whole of which
ceases as soon as a free vent is given to the flame; and, therefore,
if a rocket could be fixed in a vacuum, as the flame would, in that
case, experience no resistance, there would be no reaction, and
consequently, no motion would ensue. Some experiments, analogous to
this position, have been made. We may merely add, with respect to
Mariotte's theory, that he attributes the motion of the rocket to
the resistance and reaction of the air, in consequence of which the
propelling force will decrease as the velocity increases, owing to
the partial vacuum left behind the rocket in its flight; so that the
correct solution of the problem necessarily involves the integration
of partial differences of the highest orders.
We may remark also, from the premises already established, that the
first motion of the rocket, like all other motions not produced by a
great momentary impulse, is slow; and before the stick is clear of
the flame, gravity has been acting upon the rocket, and depressed it
below its natural position, while the stick is prevented from being
equally depressed, by the top of the frame; so that the angle of
projection is in fact considerably less than the angle of the frame,
or slope of the rocket's first position. In consequence of this, the
rocket has the appearance of falling the moment after projection;
and, for this reason also, the angle for producing the greatest
range of a rocket exceeds very considerably that which gives the
extreme range of a shell projected from a mortar. There are various
propositions given by Mr. Moore respecting rockets, but to give the
calculus, &c. would take up more room than we could appropriate to
this abstract question. The nature of these propositions, however,
may be given in a few words, _viz_: The strength or force of the gas
from the inflamed composition of a rocket being given, as also the
weight and quantity of the composition, the time of its burning, and
the weight and dimensions of the case and stick, to find the height
to which it will ascend, when projected perpendicularly upwards.
After making the necessary calculation, he concludes by observing,
that, having determined the height of the rocket, and its velocity,
when the composition is just consumed, it follows that its whole
height may be determined in the usual manner by the known formula,
for the ascent and descent of heavy bodies. Another proposition is
that of determining the path of a rocket near the earth's surface,
neglecting the resistance of the air; and among others, for finding
the horizontal range of a rocket, the angle of elevation, and the
time the composition is on fire, being given.
The observations of Mr. Peyre, (_Le Mouvement Igné_,) are confined
principally to the effects of gunpowder; and although applied to the
use of gunpowder, and the theory of its explosive effects, yet there
is nothing in immediate relation with this subject. The generation
of gaseous fluid, and its impelling power, and the consequent recoil
of pieces, predicated in fact on the ingenious experiments and
conclusions of Mr. Robins, may furnish some data on this head. But
the principles of accelerated motion, on which the effective power of
war-rockets depends, this accelerated motion being no other than the
acquired velocity of their recoil, necessarily involves a question of
a different kind from that of common projectiles.
The _caduceus_ rocket has not much more than half the power of
ascension as the single rockets; because, being composed of
two rockets placed at an angle of 90 degrees, with the usual
counterpoise, (the stick), it forms in its flight a serpentine motion
resembling two spiral lines, or double worm; and although by reason
of the stick it ascends vertically, yet the great resistance it meets
with from the air, in consequence of this motion, causes its flight
to be considerably retarded.
On the contrary, when rockets are fixed one on the top of another,
called _towering rockets_, their effect is not at all diminished;
for they experience no additional resistance, as the small rocket is
placed in the head of the large one; and when the latter arrives at
the maximum of elevation, it communicates fire to the former, which
then rises as far beyond the first, if not higher, in consequence of
the pressure of the atmosphere being less, as it would, if discharged
by itself on the ground. Sky rockets, however, which are merely
placed on one stick, do not, unless so required, act in this manner.
Although two, three, or more, may be so arranged, yet the intention
is nothing more than to combine their effect, so that their tails may
appear as one stream of fire. Nevertheless, they may be so arranged,
as that when one is consumed, another may take its place, and produce
a new volume of fire, and, in this case, they would mount to a great
height.
_Tourbillons_, usually called the common or table _tourbillons_,
which receive their name from the whirling motion they take in
their flight, produce also, by the arrangement of their cases, and
the cross stick which serves as a balance, a horizontal and rotary
motion; and while one part of the fire serves to elevate them,
another part, issuing in a horizontal direction, but at opposite
sides and extremities, gives to the tourbillon a wheeling motion. The
mosaic tourbillons are of a different kind, and intended for another
effect. Tourbillons of this kind preserve a regular and constant
motion.
The _mosaic candle_ owes its effect, in a great measure, to the
rocket composition. Using alternately, composition, meal-powder,
and a star, ramming the composition sufficiently, but not so as to
break the stars, a case is formed, the effect of which is brilliant
and striking. Besides the rapid combustion of the composition, the
stars, when the fire comes to the meal-powder, are thrown out by it
in succession, and to the height of one hundred and more feet. We
have also, in this instance, the effect of the rocket composition,
and that of gunpowder; the last of which, acting in the case in the
same manner as powder in a musket on a ball, throws the stars to a
great height. Hence the _effect_ is varied according to the manner
of loading the case; and by employing alternately the substances
we have mentioned, the effects follow in regular succession. The
use of gunpowder in this manner, is strikingly shown in many other
fire-works. When, for instance, stars, serpents, &c. forming the
furniture of a rocket, are to be dispersed, gunpowder is put in the
head or conical cap of the rocket, and fire is communicated to it at
the moment the rocket has arrived at its extreme elevation. In the
bursting of paper shells, the same effect ensues, and the different
substances contained in the shell are dispersed in every direction.
Balloons are nothing more than shells made either of paper, or
wood turned hollow. These balloons are discharged from mortars,
or fire-pots, sometimes called pots of ordnance. They are merely
cylinders of various diameters, made of paper and very thick, or
of metal, and are furnished at their bottom with a conical cavity
lined with copper, designed to hold the charge of powder. When the
balloon is filled, (see _Balloons_), it is introduced into the
mortar over the charge, and being furnished with a fuse as in other
shells, takes fire the moment the powder is inflamed. According
to the quantity of powder made use of, so will be the height of
ascension. By determining the ascension, and the time required for
the fuse to burn, and communicate fire to the shell, we may fix the
precise moment for its explosion. The powder contained in the shell
is sufficient only to burst it, and disperse its contents. (See
_Mortars_, _Fire-pots_, and _pots of Aigrette_.)
A balloon will contain more stars, serpents, &c. than the head of an
ordinary rocket, and the effect which they produce, must of course
be more striking. The Congreve rocket, calculated as it is to convey
carcass composition, balls, grenades, &c. if furnished with stars,
crackers, &c. would produce an effect equal, if not superior to the
balloon.
We remarked, that, in common sky rockets, the charges consist of a
mixture of gunpowder, saltpetre, and charcoal, with occasionally
other additions, as steel-filings. _Rocket-stars_, on the contrary,
are usually formed of mealed powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and
sometimes other substances according to the colour of the flame
required. Thus, for the _white star_, composition oil of spike, (a
preparation of Barbadoes tar, and spirit of turpentine), and camphor
are employed; the camphor giving to the flame a white appearance. The
_blue stars_ owe their colour to sulphur, which is in the proportion
of one to four of the meal-powder; the _variegated stars_ have the
same materials, with sulphur vivum, and camphor; and the _brilliant
stars_, _common stars_, and a variety of others, we shall mention
in their proper places, are all formed by the addition of sundry
substances.
The variety of _rains_, as _gold rain_, _silver rain_, &c. are
differently prepared. Besides saltpetre, meal-powder, and sulphur,
gold rain contains in its composition the filings of brass, saw-dust,
and pulverized glass. In this instance, the saw-dust communicates
colour, while the brass and the glass are thrown out, the former
partly consumed, and the latter partially fused by the intense heat.
The same effect may be produced by meal-powder, saltpetre, and
charcoal, or saltpetre, sulphur, antimony, brass filings, saw-dust,
and pulverized glass. Here the antimony, as well as the brass,
communicates the golden colour. (_See antimony._) Silver rain is
generally formed of saltpetre, sulphur, meal-powder, antimony, and
sal prunelle, but without saw-dust; the antimony communicating silver
brilliancy to the flame. It may also be formed, by employing, in
given proportions, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, the particular
effect depending upon the proportions; or by using antimony in lieu
of the charcoal, or in the place of the antimony, steel-filings.
Whether antimony or steel-filings are used, the effect of their
combustion is the same, forming in the one instance, an oxide of
antimony, and in the other, an oxide of iron. Both gold and silver
rain is employed chiefly for sky-rockets. As to the colours required,
they may be formed of other substances.
The charges for _water-rockets_ are also various. In some of which,
besides the usual ingredients, (meal-powder, saltpetre, and
sulphur,) sea-coal, steel-filings, saw-dust, &c. enter into their
composition.
As to the different compositions, it will be sufficient to remark,
that for _wheels_, _fixed cases_, _sun cases_, _gerbes_, _Chinese
fire_, _tourbillons_, _water balloons_, _water squibs_, _serpents_,
_port-fires_, _cones_, _globes_, _air-balloon fuses_, _fire-pumps_,
and many others to be noticed hereafter, the basis of them is either
gunpowder or saltpetre, and sulphur and charcoal, with or without
additions. With respect to the composition of the stars of different
colours, it is to be observed, that the particular colour is given
by pulverized cast-iron, steel-filings, camphor, amber, antimony,
perchloride of mercury, (corrosive sublimate), ivory-dust, copper,
frankincense, &c. To produce _tails of sparks_, pitch or rosin is
added. Stars which produce _some_ sparks are usually made by using
gum water in mixing the composition. The gum appears to produce
a separation of the inflammable substances, and, as it is not
combustible, to check, as it were, the rapidity of the combustion. In
some preparations, also, isinglass or fish-glue is used in solution.
This, no doubt, acts in the same manner, as well as to give firmness
to the composition; but its solution is also used as a vehicle. On
the same principle also, we learn the use of caustic ley, quicklime,
&c. in preparing match-rope. After soaking the cord in a solution
of nitre, it is afterwards dipped into ley, which is nothing more
than a solution of potash rendered caustic by means of quicklime.
The potash evidently checks the combustion. The formulæ for slow
match, are, however, various. In the match-wood, also, prepared from
the wood or bark of the linden, the wood is usually first soaked in
a solution of saltpetre, and afterwards in a solution of acetate
or sugar of lead, &c. For the same purpose, nitrate of copper is
recommended. For stars of a yellow colour, besides gum arabic, or gum
tragacanth, saltpetre, and sulphur, the addition of powdered glass,
orpiment, (sulphuret of arsenic), and white amber, are occasionally
made. The colour is owing to the amber and the orpiment, which have
the property of communicating it to flame. We may observe, generally,
that the colours produced by different compositions, is a subject of
importance to the pyrotechnist. He should know the properties of each
substance, and the effect of each ingredient; and, with respect to
their action, be able to foretell the appearance of the flame, and
other circumstances connected with the art. As a general example,
we may state, that sulphur gives a blue; camphor, a white, or pale
colour; saltpetre, a clear white yellow; amber, a colour inclining
to yellow; muriate of ammonia, (sal ammoniac), a green; antimony,
a reddish; rosin, a copper colour, and Greek pitch, a bronze, or
a colour between red and yellow. In using these substances, the
following remarks may be useful;--that for producing a white flame,
the saltpetre should be the chief part; for blue, the sulphur;
for flame inclining to red, the saltpetre should be the principal
ingredient, using at the same time, antimony and pitch. (See _matches
of different colours_, in Part ii.)
Coloured flame may be produced by various other substances, many
of which are expensive, and therefore could not be employed
economically. Thus, in fire-works made with hydrogen gas, or
inflammable air, which have a pleasing effect, by forcing the gas,
either from a bladder, oiled-silk bag, or gas-holder, through a
variety of revolving jets, which are so arranged as to exhibit stars,
or through pipes furnished with small apertures, &c. to resemble
different standing figures,--the effect may be varied by previously
mixing the gas with the vapour of ether, and other substances, which
communicate to the flame, particular colours, which, in a darkened
room, are extremely brilliant. Cartwright's fire-works are formed in
this manner. (See _fire-works with inflammable air_.)
Muriate of strontian, mixed with alcohol, or spirit of wine, will
give a carmine-red flame. For this experiment, one part of the
muriate is added to three or four parts of alcohol. Muriate of lime
produces, with alcohol, an orange-coloured flame. Nitrate of copper
produces an emerald-green flame. Common salt and nitre, with alcohol,
give a yellow flame. (See _Illuminations and Transparencies_.)
In addition to the facts already stated, it may be proper to observe,
that the ingredients employed to _show in sparks_, which are rammed
in _choaked cases_, are various, according to the colours required;
as black, white, gray, and red. The black charges are composed
of meal-powder and charcoal; the white, of saltpetre, sulphur,
and charcoal; the gray, of meal powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and
charcoal; and the red, of meal-powder, charcoal, and saw-dust. These
are considered regular or set charges, to which we may add two
others, called compound and brilliant charges. The compound charges
contain a variety of substances which afford sparks; and hence,
besides the usual inflammable bodies, saw-dust, antimony, steel and
brass-filings, are used. The brilliant fires owe their particular
effect to the presence of steel-filings, or pulverized cast-iron.
Iron, in any of its states, when minutely divided, has the same
effect.
Quick match is usually formed of cotton, by soaking it in a solution
of nitre, and adding meal-powder. A solution of isinglass is
sometimes used. The etoupille of the French is of the same nature.
The manner, quick and slow match, &c. are prepared, with the various
formulæ, will be considered under their respective heads. Touch
paper, for capping serpents, crackers, &c. will also be noticed. The
pyrotechnical spunge owes its inflammability to nitre.
In the various composition of aquatic fire-works, although more
care and attention are required, it is to be observed, that, in
forming water-rockets, horizontal wheels, water-mines, fire-globes,
water-balloons, water-squibs, water-fire-fountains, and the like,
substances are generally used along with the usual ingredients,
which, under particular circumstances, may be said to _repel_, as
well as resist the action of the water; and in this particular
they resemble the celebrated Greek fire, of which we shall speak
hereafter. This remark, however, applies only to certain works. After
the rockets have been filled, their ends are dipped in melted rosin
or sealing-wax, or secured with grease.
Fire-works, usually exhibited in rooms, are made with odoriferous
gums and perfumes, and hence are called odoriferous fire-works.
We may remark, that the odour or perfume is given by a variety of
substances; for these, at a high temperature, are partly consumed,
and partly evaporated. Thus camphor, yellow amber, flowers of
benzoin, myrrh, frankincense, cedar-raspings, and the essential oils,
particularly of bergamot, are employed for this purpose. Scented
fire-works are of the same character. The Italians and the French,
who have made more experiments in Pyrotechny, than other nations,
have improved odoriferous fire-works. In these compositions, they
also employ storax, calamite, gum benzoin, and other substances.
_Scented fire_ was greatly in use in Egypt, Rome, and Athens, at
their fetes and public ceremonies. The unpleasant smell which
gunpowder, sulphur, &c. occasion in a confined apartment, has induced
the modern artificers to add sundry odoriferous substances to their
pyro-mixtures. On this subject, it will be sufficient to observe,
that the _scented vase_, which was in use at Athens, contained the
following substances: storax, benzoin, frankincense, camphor, gum
juniper in grains, and charcoal of the willow. It does not appear
that nitre was employed. The custom of burning frankincense before
the altar, is indeed very ancient; for, in the primitive temple at
Jerusalem, the custom was adopted by the priests in the Sanctum
Sanctorum, and is continued by the Greeks and Armenians, the Jews,
the Turks, the Persians, (especially the followers of Zoroaster),
preserve this custom. The _Holy Fire_ of the latter is nothing more
than the inflamed carburetted hydrogen gas, which comes from the
naphtha ground at Baku.
Besides the use of nitre in pyrotechnical compositions, as it forms
an essential part in all of them, there is another salt we had
occasion to notice, of which an account will be given hereafter,
that affords a variety of amusing experiments. This salt is the
hyperoxymuriate or chlorate of potassa. Although it has neither
been used for fire-works on an extensive scale, nor does it enter
into any of the compositions usually made for exhibition, yet its
effect is not the less amusing. Some general idea may be had of its
effect, by stating a few experiments. If a mixture of this salt and
white sugar be made in a mortar, and the mixture laid on a slab or
tile, and a string wetted with sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol), be
brought in contact with it, or a drop or two of the acid be let fall
upon it, a vivid combustion will take place. In this experiment, the
acid decomposes the salt, and the oxygen unites with the carbon and
hydrogen of the sugar, and forms carbonic acid and water. The same
salt, rubbed in a mortar with sulphur, will produce a crackling noise
resembling that of a whip; and if a mixture of the two be struck with
a hammer, the percussion will cause a loud detonation. The same thing
happens when phosphorus is used, but the detonation is more violent.
Various other experiments may be made with it. It forms the principal
part of the match, called the _pocket lights_. These are made, in the
first place, by dipping the wood previously cut in splints in melted
sulphur, and afterwards in a mixture of this salt with sugar, which
is moistened with water. The match is then dried. When used, it is
dipped in sulphuric acid. The red colour, usually given to the match,
is formed by mixing with the composition some vermillion. Another
application of the same principle, is the firing of cannon. For this
purpose, after the tube is filled with powder, a covering of the same
mixture is applied when mixed with water. It is then dried. When the
tube is put in the vent, a drop of sulphuric acid will inflame it,
and consequently discharge the gun. This salt also, when mixed with
sulphur, may be used to fire fowling pieces, provided the lock be so
constructed, as in a late invention, that it acts by percussion. (See
Thenard's Priming powder.)
The Rev. Alexander Forsyth of Alexander Forsyth of Belhelvie,
in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, took out a patent for a new kind of
gun-lock, to be used without a flint, and has contrived to inflame
powder merely by percussion. The powder employed for priming,
consists of chlorate of potassa and sulphur. The gun-lock is
calculated for firing cannon as well as musquetry; it is contrived
to hold forty primings of such powder; and the act of raising the
cock primes the piece. Each charge of priming is supposed to contain
one-eighth of a grain of the salt. There are other substances which
also produce fire by percussion. The fulminating silver, mixed with
any substance, or used by itself, will detonate by percussion. It
should be used with great caution. A grain or two will explode with
great violence. (See _Detonating Works_, _Waterloo crackers_, _&c._)
There are several other metallic preparations which detonate
violently, such as the fulminating gold, fulminating mercury, &c.
all of which must be used with extreme caution. (See the respective
articles.)
_Sec. IV. Of Illuminations._
Although nothing of much importance can be said on the subject of
illumination, yet at the same time, as it is connected with some
remarks we will hereafter offer, it may be proper to observe, that
the practice of illuminating, as well as the exhibition of fire-works
in public rejoicings, has been in use for many years. The former
indeed has been customary for many centuries. We have, however,
appropriated an article to the manner of forming illuminations and
transparencies, and also on imitative fire-works.
Illuminations, whether with lamps, candles, flambeaux, &c. may be
rendered more impressive from the manner of their arrangement. In
some instances different coloured flames have been used; and the
effect in this case is more grand and beautiful.
The public lighting of cities on festivals, and particularly on
joyful occasions, called illuminations, is of great antiquity.
Indeed, illuminations are a general expression of the public feeling,
and should, on important occasions, be encouraged. Victories gained
over an enemy by the army or navy are subjects of rejoicing. While,
in such cases, illuminations may be viewed as an _expression_ of the
feelings of the people, they serve moreover to stimulate, in the
spirit of the _amor patriæ_, the future actions of the patriot and
the soldier; and while such rejoicings are demonstrative of victory,
they are equally expressive of that virtuous feeling, of which every
one must partake, on the return of an honourable peace.
What could have been more impressive than the brilliant
spectacle exhibited in Paris in 1739, on the return of peace?
Besides illuminations, the fire-works on that occasion were truly
magnificent. The same may be said of those at Pont Neuf, and those
at Versailles in the same year. We shall have occasion to speak of
them, when we come to the arrangement or the order of fire-works for
exhibition.
The Egyptians at an early period, made use of illuminations, and
particularly at a festival, which is mentioned by the Greek authors.
During the festival, as Herodotus says, lamps were placed before all
the houses throughout the country, and kept burning the whole night.
During the festival of the Jews, called _festum encæniorum_, the
feast of the Dedication of the Temple, the lamps were lighted
before each of the houses, and the festival continued eight days.
Illuminations were also used in Greece, according to a passage in
Æschylus. When games were exhibited in the night-time at Rome, the
forum was lighted. Caligula, on a similar occasion, caused the city
to be illuminated. In honour of the great orator Cicero, as he was
returning home at night, after the defeat of Cataline's conspiracy,
lamps and torches were lighted in all the streets. Byzantium,
afterwards Constantinople, was ordered to be illuminated with lamps
and wax candles on an Easter eve, in the time of Constantine.
That this custom was prevalent among the christians in the first
century, is evident from many authors. Professor Beckman, in his
_History of Inventions_, vol. iii, p. 383, says, that "the fathers of
the first century frequently inveigh against the christians, because,
to please the heathens, they often illuminated their houses, on
idolatrous festivals, in a more elegant manner than they. This they
considered as a species of idolatry. That the houses of the ancients
were illuminated on birth-days, by suspending lamps from chains, is
too well known to require any proof."
At Damascus, the Turks always keep a lamp burning over the tomb, as
it is called, of Ananias, which they much reverenced. It is said
to be in the same house in which St. Paul lodged with Judas. (See
_Maundrel's Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem_.)
Lamps, according to Dr. Pococke, are kept continually burning in the
Jewish synagogue at Old Cairo, said to have been built about sixteen
hundred years ago. (See _Pococke's Travels through Egypt_.)
In Persia, lamps are kept burning in consequence of some religious
notion, and particularly at the sepulchre of Seid Ibraham. (See
_Travels through Muscovy into Persia_.)
A lighted lamp is frequently put up in Persia as a mark to shoot
at. To be a good shot, the marksman must extinguish it. At the
celebration of the feast called Ashur or Ten, from its lasting ten
days, which is kept in memory of Hossein, the youngest son of Hali,
the Persians make use of rags dipped in suet and naphtha, and burn
them in lamps; and their courts are lighted up with thousands of
lamps, the light from which is increased by as many more lanterns
made of paper, that are fastened to cords drawn across the court.
The Chinese, in celebrating their solemn feasts, especially on the
15th day of the first month, called the Feast of the lanterns, from
the multitude and grandeur of the lamps they exhibit in the evening,
are remarkable for the splendour of their exhibitions. We are
informed, (_A Description of China, &c._), that many of the grandees,
retrenching every year something from their tables, apparel, and
equipage, to show the greater magnificence in the lanterns, used on
this occasion, expend the sum of 2000 crowns. The largest are about
twenty feet in diameter, and are lighted by an immense number of wax
candles and lamps; but those that are most common, are of a middling
size. These are generally composed of six faces, or panes, each of
which has a frame of varnished wood, adorned with gildings four
feet high, a foot and a half broad, covered on the inside with fine
transparent silk, on which are painted flowers, trees, rocks, and
sometimes human figures. The painting is very curious, the colours
lively, and the wax candles give the painting a beautiful splendour.
These six pannels joined together, compose a hexagon, surmounted at
the extremities by six carved figures, that form its crown. Around it
are hung broad strings of satin, of all colours, with other silken
ornaments, that fall upon the angles without hiding the light of the
pictures. The feast of the lanterns is also celebrated by bonfires
and fire-works.
Candles are also used for the same purpose. Chandeliers, differently
made, and holding a greater or smaller number of candles, add greatly
to the effect.
The candles used by the natives of Otaheite are curiously made.
According to Cooke, (_First Voyage, &c._), they have candles made of
a kind of oily nut, which they stick one over another upon a skewer
thrust through the middle of them. The upper one being lighted, burns
down to the second, at the same time consuming that part of the
skewer which goes through it; the second, taking fire, burns in the
same manner down to the third, and so of the rest. These candles give
a tolerable light, and some of them will burn a considerable time.
The lighting of streets, Beckman considers in some respects to be a
modern invention, and after quoting various authorities concludes,
that, of modern cities, Paris was the first that followed the example
of the ancients by lighting its streets. It appears, therefore,
that the practice of illuminating was reserved by the ancients
for some great occasion, that lighting of the streets was more or
less partial, and confined to particular places, and that it was
not general without some particular occasion called for it. (See
_Illuminations_.)
Kircher, the German philosopher, had a wick made of amianthus,
which burnt for two years without injury, and was at last destroyed
by accident.[8] The Greenland stone flax, which is the same as
amianthus, the Rev. Mr. Edge says is used in Greenland for lamp
wicks, and burn without being in the least wasted, whilst supplied
with oil or fat. Ellis (_Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West
Passage_), found the mountain flax, (asbestus), among other minerals,
on the Resolution Islands, inhabited by the Esquimaux, which is
used for similar purposes. We may remark here, that the Esquimaux
use stone for lamps, which they hollow out, and, according to
circumstances, use also dried _goose dung_ for wick.
_Sec. V. Of some of the Feats or Performances by Fire._
We introduce this subject to show, that certain kinds of fire-works
have been employed for the purpose of deceiving the ignorant, and
amusing the better informed part of mankind. Many of the tricks of
jugglers and slight-of-hand men, and the performances of certain
rites, particularly by the ancient magi, and pagan priests, come
under this head. Sundry substances, in connection with artificial
fire, have been employed by persons of this description. It is true,
our account of them is rather imperfect. Had the works of Celsius,
which he wrote against the ancient magi, been preserved, we would,
no doubt, have been better acquainted with the art of the ancient
conjurors and jugglers.
Professor Beckman has endeavoured to trace the origin of the
necromantic art; but although of opinion that it is very ancient, and
founded in superstition and unnatural causes, he is of opinion, that
the works of Celsius, which are lost, were full on the subject, and
for that reason our account must be imperfect.
Plain common sense, but with enlightened reason, has alone convinced
mankind of the follies of older generations, and of relying on
superstitious ceremonies, or believing in miracles, exorcism,
conjuration, necromancy, sorcery, or witchcraft.
The torch of reason, and experimental philosophy have dispelled
the clouds of ignorance and superstition; and men, becoming more
enlightened as they progress in the investigation of truth, are no
longer under the influence of false doctrines, or led away by a
bigoted priesthood. Philosophical experiments, the various optical
illusions, the effects of electricity, magnetism, &c. are founded on
immutable truths, which become the more familiar as we progress in
science.
Truth, however, although elicited by the genius of great men, who
have lived in every age, was suffered to be brought to the rack;
because it either militated against the views of the priesthood, and
enlightened the people, or curtailed the ecclesiastical power and
authority of the church.
Because Anaxagoras taught that the sun and stars were not deities,
but masses of corruptible matter, he was tried and condemned in
Greece. Accusations of a similar nature contributed to the death of
Socrates. Copernicus, in consequence of the threats of bigots and the
fear of persecution, was prevented from publishing, during his life
time, his discovery of the true system of the world; and it is well
known, that the great Galileo was imprisoned a year, and then obliged
to renounce the motion of the earth, because he asserted it. In 1742,
a commentary on Newton's _Principia_, one of the first productions of
human genius, was not allowed to be printed at Rome, in consequence
of its promulgation of this doctrine; and, in the true spirit of
_priest-craft_, the commentators were obliged to prefix to their work
a declaration, _that on this point, they submitted to the decisions
of the supreme pontiffs_! Such are the results of bigotry, ignorance,
superstition, and especially of civil and ecclesiastical governments,
that consider learning a curse, and ignorance a blessing! Happily
for the people of the United States, their co-equal rights and
enlightened reason, will ever guarantee them against tyranny on the
one hand, and fanaticism on the other. Superstition has always been
an engine of oppression, and wherever it prevails, the powerful are
sure to make use of it to oppress and destroy the weak.
Another instance of the assumed prerogative of the holy fathers
may be found in their conduct towards the house of Medici; for the
pontiffs, it is known, induced the house of Medici, by granting it
the cardinalship, to suppress the academy del Cimento. The reason
of this step is obvious to all; for they were sensible, that, if
the people became once enlightened, they would lose their weight,
their influence, and authority. But as jugglers are conscious of
their gross deceptions, working on the imagination and credulity
of the multitude, they in this respect appear at least to know
themselves. Like the juggler mentioned in Xenophon, who requested the
gods to allow him to remain in places, where there was much money
and abundance of simpletons, they acted as the prototype. We might
enumerate, if it were not irrelevant to our subject, a number of
facts concerning these impostors.[9]
The miracles wrought by Moses, as recorded in the books of Exodus,
were, we have reason to believe, by the immediate command of a
supreme power. When Moses had commissioned Aaron (_Exodus_, chap.
vii, verse 9, 10, &c.) to be a prophet, Aaron took a rod and cast
it before Pharaoh and his servants, and it became a serpent; but it
seems, however, that Pharaoh called the wise men and the sorcerers,
called the magicians of Egypt, who performed the same thing with
their enchantments; "for they cast down every man his rod, and they
became serpents: _but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods_." It
appears that on another occasion, the waters were turned into blood
by smiting them with the rod; "and the magicians of Egypt did so
with their enchantments." When Aaron was commanded to stretch forth
his hand with his rod over the streams, &c. frogs appeared upon the
land, and the magicians did so likewise; but when vermin were brought
forth, by smiting the land, the magicians were unsuccessful, and said
unto Pharaoh, "_This is the finger of God_." In the continuation of
the plague, Moses and Aaron were commanded to take the ashes of the
furnace, before Pharaoh, and sprinkle them up towards Heaven; and
it became a hail on man and beast, but the magicians were affected,
and could not stand before Moses. When Moses stretched forth his rod
towards heaven "hail, and fire mingled with hail," came down; and
on another occasion, they brought forth locusts. When this plague
ceased, Moses caused darkness to prevail.
We will merely observe, that, with regard to the magi of Egypt,
who it is known possessed all the learning of the day, and were
celebrated in after ages for superior wisdom, so much so that
many of the Grecians resorted there to be initiated into their
mysteries,--they were of a different description from those who
really worked miracles, according to divine inspiration. Hence we
find, that, although distinct in their character, the magicians
of Egypt pretended to perform certain rites, and to work upon
the feelings of the people. Their initiary process, which the
Pythagoreans in many respects pursued, and traces of which are extant
in the order of free-masonry, was merely intended to preserve their
knowledge within the pale of, and veiled in, hieroglyphic mystery,
which none but the initiated could understand. Priestley, in his
_Institutes of Moses_, points out the difference between the magi,
so called, and the rites and ceremonies of the ancient Hebrews. But
the imposition practised on mankind, even in modern times, aided by
engines of the most abominable kind, as instruments of torture, in
the inquisitorial tribunals of Portugal and Spain, are sufficient of
themselves to call down the vengeance of impartial justice.
That the magicians were conscious of their inability to work
miracles, is evident from their own declaration; for, after vermin
had been brought forth by Moses and Aaron, they endeavoured to do the
same, and being unsuccessful declared, that _this was the finger of
God_; and many other instances are recorded of their attempts being
altogether abortive. It appears also, that at first they believed
they were able to perform all that Moses had done; and Pharaoh
himself, by calling them together for that purpose, seemed to be of
the same opinion, until he and his servants were finally convinced
that Moses and Aaron wrought such miracles by inspiration. There can
be no relation whatever between Moses and the magicians; for although
he was, if we may judge from biblical history, acquainted with all
the knowledge of the magicians, his mission was altogether of a
different character. Many of the modern Greek and Armenian priests,
in their celebration of the holy fire, palm upon their credulous
followers, a belief, that they possess the power of working miracles,
as will appear from the account we shall give of them. We will not
enlarge on this subject at present, but pass on to consider the more
common performances, which have excited the wonder and admiration of
mankind.
The deception of breathing out flames, which excites the astonishment
of the ignorant, is very ancient. When the slaves of Sicily, about
two centuries ago, made a formidable insurrection, and avenged
themselves in a cruel manner for the severities which they had
suffered, there was among them a Syrian named Eunus, a man of great
craft and courage, who, having passed through many scenes of life,
had become acquainted with a variety of arts. He pretended to have
immediate communication with the gods; was the oracle and leader of
his fellow slaves; and, as is usual on such occasions, confirmed
his divine mission by miracles. When, heated by enthusiasm, he was
desirous of inspiring his followers with courage, he breathed
flames or sparks among them from his mouth while he was addressing
them. We are told by historians, that, for this purpose, he
pierced a nut shell at both ends, and, having filled it with some
burning substance, put it into his mouth and breathed through it.
Some affirm, that he used tow previously soaked in a solution of
saltpetre. The deception at present is much better performed. The
juggler rolls together some flax or hemp; sets it on fire; and
suffers it to burn till it is nearly consumed; he then rolls round
it, while burning, some more flax, and by these means the fire may
be retained in it a long time. When he wishes to exhibit, he slips
the ball into his mouth and breathes through it; which again revives
the fire, so that a number of weak sparks proceed from it; and the
performer sustains no hurt, provided he inspire the air not through
the mouth but the nostrils.
By this art, the rabbi Bar-Cacheba, in the reign of the emperor
Hadrian, made the credulous Jews believe, that he was the hoped for
Messias, and two centuries after, the emperor Constantius was thrown
into great terror, when Valentian informed him, that he had seen one
of the body guards breathing out fire and flames in the evening.
It appears evident from the writings of Herodotus, that the ancients
possessed a knowledge of attracting lightning, or the electric fluids
with pointed instruments made of iron. He informs us, that the
Thracians disarmed heaven of its thunder-bolts, by discharging arrows
into the air; and the Hyperboreans by darting into the clouds, pikes
headed with pieces of sharp pointed iron.
Pliny speaks of a process, by which Porsena caused fire from the
heavens to fall upon a monster which ravaged his country. He mentions
also, that Numa Pompilius, and Tullius Hostilius practised certain
mysterious rites to call down the fire from heaven. What these
mysterious rites were is of no moment; the fact is sufficient.
Tullius, because he omitted some prescribed ceremony, is said to have
been killed by the fire. A similar accident happened in France with
the electrical kite.[10]
For deceptions with fire, the ancients employed a number of
inflammable substances, which they dexterously used; among them,
naphtha, a fine bituminous oil, which readily inflames, was
principally used. (For the effect of _naphtha_, _see_ _Greek
fire_.) Galen informs us, that a person excited great surprise
by extinguishing a candle, and again lighting it without any
other process than holding it against a wall or a stone. This,
Galen observes, (_De Temperamentis_, iii. 2, p. 44.) was effected
in consequence of the wall or stone being previously rubbed
with sulphur, which, however, must have been something more. He
also speaks of a mixture of sulphur and naphtha. If it had been
phosphorus, or some of its preparations, it would appear more
probable.
Plutarch relates the secret effects of naphtha, and observes, that
Alexander was astonished and delighted, when it was exhibited to him
in Ecbatana. Medea destroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon, with
this oil. This fact is stated by Plutarch, Pliny, Galen, and others,
and believed by Beckman. She sent, it appears, to the unfortunate
princess, a dress covered with it, which burst into flames as soon
as she approached the fire of the altar. The dress of Hercules,
which also took fire, was dipped in naphtha, though said to be in
the blood of Nessus. On the subject of naphtha, Beckman remarks,
"that this oil must have been employed when offerings caught fire in
an imperceptible manner. _In all periods of the world, priests have
acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people._"
The most ludicrous account of the necromantic art, by which similar
tricks were performed, is that given by Celini, (_Life of Benvenuto
Celini_, a Florentine Artist, by T. Nugent, LL. D. &c.) of a Sicilian
priest, who drew circles on the floor with various ceremonies, using
fire and different perfumes. Having made an opening to the circle,
and thrown perfumes into the fire at a proper time, he observes, that
in the space of an hour and half, "there appeared several legions
of devils, insomuch that the amphitheatre was quite filled with
them." Benvenuto, it seems, at the instance of the priest, asked
some favours of them, which, however, he never realized. At a second
exhibition he held a _pentagorun_, while the priests questioned
the leaders of the demons "by the virtue and power of the eternal
uncreated God," using the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. The
Demons appeared more numerous than at first, and more formidable.
He states that "quivering like an aspen leaf, he took good care of
the _perfumes_," and was directed by the priest "to burn proper
perfumes." This ceremony was continued until the "bell rang for
morning prayers," and the priest "stripped off his gown and took up
a wallet-full of books," declaring, "that as often as he had entered
magic circles, nothing so extraordinary had ever happened to him!"
How is it, in the language of professor Beckman, that "in all periods
of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant
people?" * * * * *
This same Benvenuto Celini, however, was a man of intelligence.
He wrote a work called the _History of Jewelry_; in which the
first idea of phosphorescent mineral bodies is to be found. This
work was written in the beginning of the 16th century. His life,
although singularly marked, what with popes, priests, artists, and
necromancers, presents a singular retrospect.
What was more absurd, and even profane, than the tricks of Joseph
Balsamo, called Il Conte Cagliostro, who with Schœpfer, revived
the study of the magical arts; and who with invocations, friction,
fumigations, and optical deceptions astonished the ignorant of their
day. Whether like Æneas, in his descent to hell, they made their way
with their falchions through crowds of ghosts, or like Dioscorides,
relied on the efficacy of herbs, or like Paracelsus, carried an evil
spirit in their canes, or wore a _jewel_ like Shakspeare's toad,
which possessed marvellous virtues, or employed the magic stone
(_agate_) of the east, and invoked their _urim and thummim_,--it
is certain they worked upon the imagination of the people. By the
application of _conium maculatum_, (hemlock) consisted the ceremony
of ordaining a Hierophant; by the hartshorn of Orpheus, they had a
divine remedy for the passions of the body; and by a mixture of _new
mustard and olive oil_, they could produce a symphony, which invoked
the spirits, and, Pythonesis like, declare to the people, that they
"_had devils in their bellies_!!"
Of the phial of Cagliostro, Cardan relates that he had this phial
twice exhibited to him, and complains bitterly of having seen
nothing, after the anthem _Sancte Michael_, but some bubbles
that issued from the bottom, though it was believed that these
bubbles were angels! He says, "_Nihil tamen omnino vidi poste
hanc invocationem nisi bulas pauculas quasdam ex imo gutti fundo
exæstuantes_." Aulus Gellius and Hero mention tricks of this
kind practised by the Egyptians. Roger Bacon, the alchymist, was
excommunicated by the pope, and imprisoned ten years, for supposed
dealings with the devil.
Equally absurd to a man of reflection, are the observations of
antiquated writers on spontaneous generation, by heat. Borello
(_Physical History_) tells us, "that fresh water craw fish may be
regenerated, by their own powder, calcined in a crucible, then boiled
in water with a little sand, and left to cool, for a few days; when
the animalcula will appear swimming merrily in the liquor, and must
be then nourished with beef blood, till they attain the proper
size to stock your ponds with."[11] The Sieur Pogeris and M. de
Chamberlan, both agree with Signior Borello, but, in the chemistry of
the matter, they add that the operation must be performed, _during
the full of the moon!_ If this _lunar system_ be adopted, would not
the _crab_ also, have been a more favourable _sign_ to have ruled the
nativity of _craw fish_?
Swift, however, alludes to these agencies, fallacious as they are, in
the following lines:
"So _chymists_ boast they have a power,
"From the dead ashes of a flower,
"Some faint resemblance to produce,
"But not the virtue, taste, or juice."
Rochos, equally absurd with Borello, says, in _The Art of Nature_,
that the ashes of _toads_ will produce the very same effect, as the
powder of _crabs' eyes_! Reasoning upon that ridiculous and unnatural
principle of Cæsalpinus, in his comment on Aristotle, _Quæcumque ex
semine fiunt, eadem fieri posse sine semine_, the procreation of eels
from rye-meal, or mutton broth was predicated.
_Julius Camillus_, however, would out-do nature herself; for _Amatus
Lusitanus_ affirms, that he has seen his phials full of _homunculi_
complete in all their parts! Paracelsus (_De Rerum Natura_,) had the
same and many other absurd notions. What, we may truly say, has not
been palmed upon the world, when we are told, that the following
translation from a Hague Gazette, which appeared in the _British
Evening Post_, No. 1645, contained facts, which were confidently
believed by the ignorant:
"Mr. Tunestrick, by origin an Englishman, has just exhibited at
Versailles, a very singular experiment. He opened the head of a
sheep, and a horse from side to side, by driving a large iron wedge
into the skull, by means of a mallet; drew the wedge out afterwards,
with pincers, and recalled the animals to life, by injecting through
their exterior aperture with a tin syringe, a spirituous liquor of
his own composition, to which he attributes surprising effects!
The taste of this liquor resembles that of _Commandus Balm_!!" The
remarkable effects of galvanism, however, are well authenticated;
but _resuscitation_, notwithstanding all apparent life, has in no
instance, to our knowledge, been effected. (See Ure's _Chemical
Dictionary_, article Galvanism.)
Among other tricks, we may mention those with serpents, especially in
the East Indies, and neighbouring islands, where a certain class of
people exhibit them for money.[12]
Persons who could walk over red-hot coals, or red-hot iron, or who
could hold them in their hands and their teeth, are frequently
mentioned. In the end of the 17th century, Richardson, an Englishman,
was a great adept in this performance. We are assured he could chew
burning coals, pour melted lead upon his tongue, swallow melted
glass, &c; but the fact is incredible.
It is true, that the skin may be prepared in such a way as to become
callous and insensible against the impression made on the feet
and hands. It may be rendered as firm as shoes and gloves. Such
callosity may be produced, if the skin is continually compressed,
singed, pricked, or injured in any other manner. Beckman relates,
that in 1765, he visited the copper-works at Awestad, when one of the
workmen, for some money, took some of the melted copper in his hand,
and after showing it, threw it against a wall. He performed a variety
of other experiments with the melted metal.
The workmen at the Swedish melting-house have exhibited the same
thing to some travellers in the 17th century. The skin is first
rendered callous by frequently moistening it, as Beckman says, with
sulphuric acid; and also, he remarks, by using the juice of certain
plants. The skin must also be rubbed frequently, and for a long time,
with oil. Haller, in his _Elementa Physiologica_, V. p. 16, speaks of
this fact.
The manner of rendering the hands callous, or insensible, so that
they may take up, and hold, ignited iron, charcoal, or other
substances, may be seen in an English publication of 1667. The
_Journal des Savants_, of 1677, contains the secret. "It consists
in applying to the hands, various pastes, with spirits of sulphur,
(sulphuric acid,) which destroys the epidermis, &c. and the nervous
energy." This corroborates the account by Beckman. We read that
Richardson had prepared his tongue in such a manner, that he could
hold on the point of it a live coal, covering it first with pitch,
rosin, and sulphur, and could hold a piece of ignited iron between
his teeth. After showing the coal on his tongue, he would then
extinguish it in his mouth. The _Mémoires de l'Académie_ state, that
a person who is salivated can put a live coal in his mouth. The
_Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_ observes, that the sulphur diminishes
the heat of the coal, for the flame is less hot than a candle; and
that the flame of a combination of pitch, rosin, and sulphur, is
still less hot, and by no means so considerable as we would imagine.
In the experiment, the rosin is not melted, and the flame of the
sulphur is inconsiderable. M. Gallois observes, that he witnessed in
the Swedish iron founderies, the men hold melted cast iron in their
hands, doubtless having them previously prepared.
The traces of this art may be found in the works of the ancients. A
festival was held annually, on Mount Soracta, in Etruria, at which
the Hirpi, who lived not far from Rome, jumped through burning coals,
and on this account had certain privileges granted them by the Roman
Senate.
Women also, we are informed, were accustomed to walk over burning
coals, at Cartabola, in Cappadocia, near the temple dedicated to
Diana. Servius remarks, that the Hirpi did not trust to their
sanctity so much as they did to the preparation of their feet for the
operation!
With respect to the ordeal by fire, which it seems was performed in
several ways, one was, that when persons were accused, they were
obliged to prove their innocence by holding in their hands red-hot
iron. This mode of exculpation, as it is called, was allowed only to
weak persons, who were unfit to wield arms, and particularly to monks
and ecclesiastics, to whom, for the sake of their security, the trial
by single combat was forbidden. In Grupius' learned dissertation, in
the German, p. 679, as quoted by Beckman, we read, that the trial
itself took place in the church, under the inspection of the clergy;
mass was celebrated at the same time; the defendant and the iron,
were consecrated, by being sprinkled with holy water; the clergy
made the iron hot themselves; and they used all these preparations,
as jugglers do many motions, only to divert the attention of the
spectators. It was necessary that the accused person should remain
at least three days and three nights, under their immediate care,
and continue as long after. They covered their hands both before and
after the proof; sealed and unsealed the covering: the former, as
they pretended, to prevent the hands from being prepared by art; and
the latter to see if they were burnt.
Some artificial preparation was undoubtedly necessary, or why
prescribe three days for the defendant, who, if they wished to make
him appear innocent, had a certain preventive against the actual
cautery? The three days allotted, after the trial, were requisite, in
order to restore the hands to their natural state. The sacred sealing
secured them from the examination of presumptuous unbelievers.
When the ordeal was abolished, it no longer was kept secret. In
the 13th century, an account of it was published by a Dominican
Monk, Albertus Magnus. In the work of this author, entitled, _De
Mirabilibus Mundi_, he has given the receipt for the composition. It
seems that it consisted in covering the hands with a kind of paste,
and not by searing them. The sap of the althæa, or marsh mallow, the
mucilaginous seeds of the fleabane, together with the white of an
egg, were mixed, and by applying this mixture, the hands were as safe
as if they had been secured by gloves. The use of this mixture, for
the same purpose, may be traced back, it is said, to a pagan origin.
In the Antigone of Sophocles, the guards, placed over the body of
Polynicus, which had been carried away and buried, contrary to the
orders of Creon, offered, in order to prove their innocence, to
submit to any trial: "We will," said they, "take up red-hot iron in
our hands, or walk through fire."
The ordeal, by heated ploughshares, was common in England. It seems,
according to English History, that queen Emma had charges preferred
against her, by Robert, archbishop of Canterbury, for consenting to
the death of her son Alfred, and preparing poison for her son Edward,
the Confessor. She claimed, by the law of the land, the ordeal, or
trial, by burning ploughshares. She passed the nine ploughshares
unhurt, which established her innocence, and caused the archbishop
to fly the kingdom. The chief trials, by ordeal, appear to have been
by fire, water, walking blindfold among heated ploughshares, and
swallowing consecrated bread, which last was introduced about the
time of pope Eugene. The custom was borrowed from the Mosaic law. An
example of its practice occurs in the New Testament, in the story
of Ananias and Sapphira; and the remembrance of it, as Blackstone
remarks, still subsists among common people, as "_May this morsel
be my last_;" "_May I be choked if it is so_," _and the like_; for
it appears, that this ordeal was a piece of bread of about an ounce
in weight, blessed by the priest, and given to the accused person,
who was to try and swallow it, praying that it might choke him if he
were guilty. The bible-ordeal, and the drowning-ordeal, are familiar
to every one, degrading as they all must have been to human reason,
and enlightened principles. Fox, in his _Book of Martyrs_, speaks of
various ordeals, as well as the cruel deaths, and inhuman punishments
inflicted, by the hand of bigotry, and fanaticism, under the cloak
of religion, which were nothing more than a base and impious
prostitution of its genuine principles.
Even among the modern Greeks, the same superstitious notions prevail.
Almost every cavern about Athens has its particular virtues, and is
celebrated for various things; and the offerings, made by Grecian
women, to the _destinies_, in order to make them propitious to their
conjugal speculations, are equally absurd. These offerings, by which
they are to work a miracle, consist of a cup of honey and white
almonds, a cake on a little napkin, and a _vase of aromatic herbs,
burning and exhaling an agreeable perfume_. We are told, however,
that those evil spirits, whose assistance is invoked, for vengeance
and blood, are not regaled upon cakes and honey, but on a piece of
a priest's cap, or a rag from his garment, which are considered as
the most favourable ingredients for the perpetration of malice and
revenge. When a person is _hated_, another absurd custom is used,
which is supposed to be followed by dreadful results. It consists
in placing before his door, a log of wood, burnt at one end, with
some hairs twisted round it. "This curse," says Mr. Dodwell, in his
_Classical Tour_, "was placed with due solemnity, at the door of the
English agent, Speridion Logotheti, while I was at Athens; but he
rendered it of no avail, by summoning a great number of priests, who
easily destroyed the spell, by benediction, frankincense, and holy
water!" This story is much in character with that of the exorcism
of rats, caterpillars, flies, and other insects, an old ritual of
the papal church, performed between the feasts of Easter and the
Ascension. A priest who resided at Bononia, performed the ceremony.
"I went," he says, "to exorcise the insects in that country,
accompanied by a curate, who was a droll fellow, and laughed at the
credulity of the people, while he pocketed their money." It appears,
however, that in all superstitious ceremonies, _fire_, under some
form, was a pre-requisite; but _ecclesiastical fire-works_ we leave
within the pales of the priesthood.
The author of the _Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_, vol. iii, speaks of
a trick, performed with a loaded musket and ball, which, although
apparently inconsistent, is nevertheless true, if we consider the
action of gunpowder equal. This _trick_ is stated to be the firing of
a musket, loaded with ball, at a person, without wounding, or in any
way injuring him.
By taking a ball of solid lead of a smaller size than the calibre of
the musket, and placing it on the charge in a gun, and as much or
nearly so of powder, _over the ball_, the effect we are assured is,
that when the gun is fired, the ball will pass out without any very
sensible force, and even drop a few yards from the gun, although the
report will be as great as if the charge and ball had been used in
the usual manner. This trick is often performed by jugglers, to the
great astonishment of the spectators. The mode of _catching a cannon
ball_ is also of the same character.
The proper charge of powder for the cannon, is divided into two
unequal portions, the lesser of which is placed in the gun as a
charge; the ball is placed on it in the usual way, and the rest of
the powder (by much the greater portion,) placed over the ball, the
lesser quantity being not more than a twelfth part of the whole. A
cannon, so charged, will not project the ball more than 20 yards,
where it might be caught with safety.
Any person who has been in the custom of shooting, must have
frequently observed, that when the shot happens to be mixed with the
powder, its range is impeded; and, under similar circumstances, they
have even been found only a few yards from the muzzle of the piece.
This fact I have witnessed, although I confess I never once reflected
on it.
As to the explanation of this phenomenon, it appears, that it can
only be accounted for by referring to the action of two opposite
forces, mutually repelling each other, added to that of the charge
under the ball; hence, the _reaction_ would be equal, if, under the
same circumstances, both charges were alike situated: but the effect
of the first charge is so much weakened by the counter effect of the
second, that the projectile force of the ball becomes comparatively
nothing.
There is another trick very often performed, which, however chemical,
is not looked upon in that light, neither do performers attempt to
explain it; we mean the exhibition of the _Glace Inflammable_ of the
French.
The preparation is made in the following manner: melt some spermaceti
over a fire, and add a sufficient quantity of spirit of turpentine,
and blend them together. The mixture when cold, will become solid,
having somewhat the appearance of ice. If made in hot weather, the
vessel containing the melted substances must be immersed in cold
water. It does not, we are told, remain in a solid state any length
of time.
It floats more or less in the fluid, which of course is the spirit of
turpentine. The trick, with this preparation, after having put some
of the solid and fluid substance together on a plate, is to pour upon
it concentrated nitric acid, or a mixture of eight or ten parts of
nitric acid, and two of sulphuric acid; inflammation ensues. It is no
other in fact than accension of the oil of turpentine; the addition
of the spermaceti is altogether secondary, and its effect, if any,
must retard instead of promoting the combustion of the turpentine.
The art of making this preparation is in rendering the essential oil
solid and transparent, without altering its inflammable properties.
There is another trick performed, by burning a thread, to which an
ear-ring is tied, and which, notwithstanding the thread is reduced
to a cinder, still holds the ring. This is what the French call the
_Bague suspendue aux cendres d'un fil_. The string is first prepared
by soaking it for 24 hours, in a solution of common salt, and drying
it; then tying it to a ring, and setting it on fire, avoiding any
vibration or oscillation of the string. It is obvious that the salt
serves to render the cinder cohesive.
We have an account in Maundrel's _Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem_,
of the office of the _Holy Fire_. The ceremony is kept up by the
Greeks and Armenians, from a persuasion that every Easter eve, a
miraculous flame descends from heaven into the holy sepulchre, and
lights all the lamps and candles, as the sacrifice was consumed at
the prayers of Elijah.
"On our approaching the holy sepulchre," says Maundrel, "we found
it crowded with a numerous and distracted mob, who made a hideous
clamour; but with some difficulty pressing through the crowd, we got
up in the gallery next to the Latin convent, where we could have a
view of all that passed. The people began, by running with all their
might, round the holy sepulchre, crying out 'huia,' which signifies,
'_This is he_,' or, '_This is it_.' After this, they began to perform
many antic tricks: sometimes they dragged one another along the floor
round the sepulchre; sometimes marched round with a man upright
upon another's shoulders; at others, took men with their heels
upwards, and hurried them about with such indecency, as to expose
their nudities; and sometimes they tumbled round the sepulchre like
tumblers on a stage. In a word, nothing can be imagined more rude and
extravagant than what was acted upon this occasion.
"This frantic humour continued from twelve till four, and then the
Greeks first set out in a procession round the sepulchre, followed by
the Armenians, and marched three times round it with their standards,
streamers, crucifixes, and embroidered habits; and towards the end of
the procession, a pidgeon came fluttering into the cupola over the
sepulchre, at which the people redoubled their shouts and clamours,
when the Latins told the English gentlemen, that this bird was let
fly by the Greeks, to deceive the people with a belief that it was
a visible descent of the Holy Ghost. The procession being over,
the suffragan of the Greek patriarch, and the principal Armenian
bishop, approached the door of the sepulchre, cut the string with
which it was fastened, and breaking the seal, entered, shutting the
door after them, all the candles and lamps within having been before
extinguished in the presence of the Turks. As the accomplishment
of the miracle drew near, the exclamations were redoubled, and the
people pressed with such violence towards the door, that the Turks
could not keep them off with the severest blows. This pressing
forward was occasioned by the desire to light their candles at the
holy flame as soon as it was brought out of the sepulchre. The two
miracle-mongers had not been above a minute in the sepulchre, when
the glimmering of the holy fire was seen through some chinks in the
door, which made the mob as mad as any in bedlam; then presently came
out the priests, with blazing torches in their hands, which they
held up at the door of the sepulchre, while the people thronged with
extraordinary zeal to obtain a part of the first and purest flame,
though the Turks laid on with their clubs without mercy. Those who
got the fire immediately applied it to their beards, faces, and
bosoms, pretending that it would not burn like an earthly flame; but
none of them would endure the experiment long enough to make good
that pretension. However, so many tapers were presently lighted, that
the whole church seemed in a blaze, and this illumination concluded
the ceremony."
Maundrel afterwards observes, that the Latins take great pains to
expose this ceremony as a shameful imposition, and a scandal to the
Christian Religion: but the Greeks and Armenians, lay such stress
upon it, that they make the pilgrimages chiefly on this account; and
their priests have acted the cheat so long, that they are forced
now to stand to it, for fear of endangering the apostacy of the
people. They entertain many absurd ideas respecting the miraculous
power of the holy fire. Even the melted wax of the candle, which had
been lighted by it, is covered over with linen, and designed for
winding-sheets; "for they imagine," says Maundrel, "that if they are
buried in a shroud, smutted with this celestial fire, it will secure
them from the flames of hell!"
Before concluding this article, we shall mention a subject highly
interesting in optics, which, in some of its forms, was employed
by the old magicians; we mean the phantasmagoria. The exhibitions
of this kind, when first got up, drew the attention of Europeans,
and particularly the French, who greatly improved the apparatus and
machinery, and varied the forms and appearances. The principles of
the phantasmagoria are described in every work on Natural Philosophy,
which treats of optics. The _Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_,
_Encyclopedie Méthodique_, Biot's _Traité de Physique_, in French
and in English, the different treatises on philosophy and optics,
particularly Dr. Smith's, the Cyclopedias, &c. contain either a
description, or the principles of it. The third volume of Biot,
especially, is full on the subject of optics. With regard, however,
to the narrative and explanation of the appearance of the phantoms,
and other figures, a subject which immediately concerns us, the
account given by Mr. Nicholson, (_Journal of Natural Philosophy,
Chymistry, and the Arts_, vol. i, p. 147.) is the most interesting.
Connected with this optical illusion, is the imitation of lightning
and thunder, which, from the account, appears also to have been
performed.
The phantasmagoria may be considered nothing more than an application
of the magic lantern, the invention of which is attributed to Roger
Bacon, who was a contemporary with Vitellio, a native of Poland, who
published a treatise on optics, in 1270. John Babtista Porta, of
Naples, who discovered the camera obscura, having formed a society
of ingenious persons at Naples, which he called the Academy of
Secrets, wrote the _Magia Naturalis_, containing his account of this
instrument, and, it is said, the first hint of the magic lantern.
Kircher, it is known, received his first information of the magic
lantern from this book, and afterwards improved it.
Adams (_Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy_, vol. ii,
p. 232. Appendix by the English editor) very justly observes, that
persons, unacquainted with the principles of optics, have been
surprised at the great illusion of their sight, by an artificial
construction of many optical instruments, exhibited by showmen and
others: such, for instance, as the optical and dioptrical paradox;
the endless gallery; the animated balls by simple reflection;
phantoms; causing the appearance of a flower from its ashes; the
optical perspective box, and the cylindrical mirror: to which we may
add, the enchanted bottle; the enchanted palace; the magic lantern;
the magician's mirror; the perspective mirror; the camera obscura;
distorting and oracular mirror; the diagonal opera glass, &c. &c.;
all which may be seen in Smith's _School of Arts_.
We may also remark, that optical exhibitions sometimes accompany
those of fire, when performed on a small scale. In the
phantasmagoria, for instance, whether before, or at the time the
exhibition commences, as well as after, thunder and lightning, if
well imitated, produces a good effect.
The mechanism of the phantasmagoria is concealed from the spectators,
who have only before their eyes a screen of gauze or gummed muslin
posited vertically, which serves as the ground of a picture,
where the images are depicted by reason of the transparency. The
apartment is deprived of all light, except that which proceeds
from an apparatus hid behind the screen. At the moment when the
operation commences, a spectre appears (as a skeleton, the head
of a celebrated person, &c.), at first extremely small, but which
afterwards increases rapidly, and thus seems to advance at a great
rate towards the spectators. And when the scene passes before them in
a room representing a cave hung with black, a solemn silence being
occasionally interrupted by mournful sounds from an appropriate
musical instrument, it is not easy for an observer to defend himself
from the impression of terror, at the sight of an object, in itself
formed to produce the illusion, and which finds in the imagination a
place already prepared for the reception of phantoms.
The instrument placed behind the gauze screen is in fact a peculiar
construction of the magic lantern: only in the former, it is
necessary that the lenses should run over a much greater space,
and that the instrument may be susceptible of approaching to,
and receding from, the frame of gauze, in such manner, that each
luminous pencil may be depicted there in a single point. The general
construction is this: In a square box, a lamp is placed, the luminous
rays proceeding from which, are reflected by a conical mirror,
towards an orifice made in the box. At this orifice is placed a tube,
blackened within, and composed of several tubes which slide one into
another, like those of a pocket telescope. This tube is furnished
with two bi-convex lenses of about five inches diameter; one of these
is fixed, the other is at the outer extremity of the tube, and is
separated from the former in proportion as the tube is lengthened by
the aid of a hooked lever situated along the tube, between the lamp
and the lenses. A groove is properly adapted to the tube, destined
to receive transparent figures; lastly, the box rests upon a table
moveable on four wheels, that slide in two channels perpendicularly
to the frame on which the images are depicted. It is manifest,
that we may augment or diminish the dimensions of the images,
and consequently make the spectre appear more or less near to the
spectator, by separating farther, or by bringing nearer together, the
two lenses; but then the focus of the diverging rays, which proceed
from the same point of the transparent body, will be no longer upon
the screen; we must, therefore, cause the machine so to recede or
approach, that the two motions, being duly combined, the image may be
distinctly formed.
These phantasmagoria are furnished with a great number of
transparencies, in each of which, several changes may be made by
slackening their springs. Thus we may change at every instant, the
form, the magnitude, and the distance of the spectres, as they appear
to the spectator.
What has been said hitherto, relates only to the images of
transparent figures. To obtain those of opaque bodies, first place
the gauze and box, at the distance of about six feet one from the
other, and adapt to the orifice of the box, an apparatus of two
tubes furnished with two bi-convex lenses. An opaque body, such, for
example, as a medal, or a picture, is attached to a little support,
posited in the middle of the box; the lamp with its supply of air,
situated in one of the foremost corners of the box, illuminates that
object, and the reflected rays, crossing the lenses, proceed till
they trace the image upon the gauze, with an amplification which is
in the ratio of the distances.
If the image be not distinct, we must infer that it is not at the
focus; but it may be adjusted in three different ways; 1. By moving
the box to or from the gauze; 2. By moving the object nearer to, or
farther from, the lenses within the box; 3. By slowly moving the
tubes, to cause a variation in the distance between the lenses.--See
Haüy's _Philosophy_, translated by Gregory, vol. ii, p. 390.
Mr. Nicholson, however, witnessed an exhibition of the phantasmagoria
at the London Lyceum by Philipstal, who took out a patent for his
improvements in the apparatus and machinery. He observes, that the
novelty consists in placing the lantern on the opposite side of the
screen which receives the images, instead of on the same side as the
spectator, and suffering no light to appear but what passes through,
and tends to form those images. His sliders are therefore perfectly
opaque, except that portion upon which the transparent figures are
drawn, and the exhibition is thus conducted.
All the lights of the small theatre of exhibition were removed,
except one hanging lamp, which could be drawn up, so that its flame
should be perfectly enveloped in a cylindrical chimney, or opaque
shade. In this gloomy and wavering light, the curtain was drawn up,
and presented to the spectator a cave or place exhibiting skeletons,
and other figures or terror, in relief, and painted on the sides
or walls. After a short interval, the lamp was drawn up, and the
audience were in total darkness, succeeded by thunder and lightning;
which last appearance was formed by the magic lantern upon a thin
cloth or screen, let down after the disappearance of the light, and
consequently unknown to most of the spectators. These appearances
were followed by figures of departed men, ghosts, skeletons,
transmutations, &c. produced on the screen by the magic lantern on
the other side, and moving their eyes, mouth, &c. by the well known
contrivance of two or more sliders. The transformations are effected
by moving the adjusting tube of the lantern out of focus, and
changing the slider during the moment of the confused appearance.
It must be again remarked, that these figures appear without any
surrounding circle of illumination, and that the spectators, having
no previous view or knowledge of the screen, nor any visible object
of comparison, are each left to imagine the distance according
to their respective fancy. After a very short time of exhibiting
the first figure, it was seen to contract gradually in all its
dimensions, until it became extremely small, and then vanished.
This effect, as may easily be imagined, is produced by bringing
the lantern nearer and nearer the screen, taking care at the same
time to preserve the distinctness, and at last closing the aperture
altogether: and the process being (except as to brightness) exactly
the same as happens when visible objects become more remote, the mind
is irresistibly led to consider the figures, as if they were receding
to an immense distance.
Several figures of celebrated men were thus exhibited with some
transformations; such as the head of Dr. Franklin being converted
into a skull, and these were succeeded by phantoms, skeletons, and
various terrific figures, which instead of seeming to recede and
then vanish, were (by enlargement) made suddenly to advance; to the
surprise and astonishment of the audience, and then disappear by
seeming to sink into the ground.
This part of the exhibition, which by the agitation of the spectators
appeared to be much the most impressive, had less effect with me than
the receding of the figures; doubtless because it was more easy for
me to imagine the screen to be withdrawn than brought forward. But
among the young people who were with me, the judgments were various.
Some thought they could have touched the figures, others had a
different notion of their distance, and a few apprehended that they
had not advanced beyond the first row of the audience.
The whole, as well as certain mechanical inventions, were managed
with dexterity and address. The lightning, being produced by the
camera, was tame, and had not the brisk transient appearance of the
lightning at the theatres, which is produced by rosin, or lycopodium
powder, thrown through a light, which in Mr. P's utter darkness might
easily have been concealed in a kind of dark lantern.
A plate of thin sheet iron, such as German stoves are made of, is an
excellent instrument for producing the noise of thunder. It may be
three or four feet long, and the usual width. When this plate is held
between the finger and thumb by one corner, and suffered to hang at
liberty, if the hand be then moved or shaken horizontally, so as to
agitate the corner at right angles to the surface, a great variety
of sounds will be produced; from the low rumbling swell of distant
thunder, to the succession of loud explosive bursts of thunder
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