Illumination and Its Development in the Present Day
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Title: Illumination and Its Development in the Present Day
Author: Sidney Farnsworth
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUMINATION AND ITS DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESENT DAY ***
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
[Illustration:
There are some who
follow the arts from poverty
and necessity, also for gain,
and for love of the art; but
those who pursue them from
love of the art and true
nobleness of mind are to
be commended above all
others.--_Cennino Cennini._
Sidney Farnsworth
1920
]
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
BY
SIDNEY FARNSWORTH
_Illustrated with Drawings
and Diagrams by the Author_
NEW YORK
[Illustration]
GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY
_Printed in Great Britain_
PREFACE
This book is the outcome of a series of articles which appeared
in _Drawing and Design_. At the suggestion of the Editor of this
periodical, the whole of the chapters originally published have been
entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged; at the same time a large
amount of quite new matter has been added.
The additions that have been made include a chapter on the development
of writing in the past, together with a number of alphabets based on
historical examples. I have also added a brief sketch of the history
of Illumination, as I felt that the book would not be complete without
some reference to this side of the subject. Some attention has been
given to the colours and gilding methods of the mediæval artists, and
it is hoped that the notes given may be of interest to the student.
Extensions have also been made in connection with the use of colours
and materials by the student to-day.
Chapters on the further development of illumination, the illumination
of the printed book, and printed book decoration, are also amongst the
additions. The chapters on the application of lettering and decoration
from the commercial standpoint have also been developed considerably,
and at the end of the book some notes have been added on books for
further study.
I have tried to write in as simple a manner as possible, so that
the youngest student should have no difficulty in understanding the
instructions that are given.
So many books have been written on the subject of Illumination that
it may seem quite superfluous to add yet another to the long list.
Still, I think that a work treating the matter from the present-day
standpoint ought to be of some service to the student who is desirous
of practising this art to-day.
I have felt for some time past that there was a need for a work that
would deal with the various ways in which this art could be applied
in a time like the present. I have found that most of the books that
have been written on Illumination treat the subject either from the
standpoint of the archæologist or merely from that of the amateur. It
is simply the result of a sincere desire to supply what I feel to be a
real need that this book has been written, and in the hope that it may
serve as a handbook and guide for the serious worker.
It has not been written with the idea of introducing a quick and easy
method of becoming expert in the art of illumination. Success, in this,
as in anything else of importance, can come only through hard work.
I have endeavoured to foster interest and enthusiasm, so that the
student may not look upon the hard work entailed with this subject
merely as a certain amount of drudgery to be got through. To one who
is keenly interested in any particular study hard work often becomes a
pleasure, and it is only when such is the case that the full benefit is
derived from such study.
Illumination has a value in the present day as well as it had in the
past. The developments of this art are seen in many of the common-place
things of to-day. In some cases the development has been carried so far
as to lose almost its identity with the original craft from which it
has sprung, but the connection is there all the same.
The art of the book began with the illuminated manuscript, the early
printed books being based entirely on the manuscripts that preceded
them; and the same thing may be said with regard to the application of
decoration to printed lettering generally.
The practice of illumination in the present day should result in
something more than weak imitations of illuminated borders which were
produced in the mediæval period. Illumination ought to be a real living
art to-day.
There are numerous ways in which it could be used as a craft at the
present time, quite apart from the many ways in which it could be
applied commercially.
With regard to the study of lettering, there is a great need for more
serious attention to be given to it. We are so surrounded by bad
lettering that it is well that an effort should be made to get better
results, and, as a means to this, some study of the beautiful forms of
lettering used in the past should be of the greatest service. For this
reason I have tried, by giving some examples, to direct the student’s
attention to at least some of the fine styles of lettering that were
employed in centuries gone by.
It is a great pity that the splendid book-hands of the past should
have fallen into disuse, to say nothing of the beautiful decoration
that accompanied the writing. It would, undoubtedly, be a good thing
if some further encouragement were given to serious study of the
well-formed lettering that was produced during the mediæval period.
I trust that this small work may, in some slight measure, be the means
of fostering increased interest in lettering and illumination. I am
deeply conscious of its many imperfections, and I only hope that, in
spite of its many faults, it may be of some use to the reader who is
interested in this art. If the study of it is the means of creating
greater zeal and energy in the production of good work in this
direction, I shall feel that my efforts have not altogether been in
vain.
SIDNEY FARNSWORTH.
THE ISLAND,
LITTLE WALTHAM,
NEAR CHELMSFORD.
INTRODUCTION
“In all great arts, as in trees, it is the height that charms us; we
care nothing for the roots or trunks; yet they could not exist without
the aid of these.” This quotation from Cicero may as well be applied to
the art of illumination as to anything else. The fact, however, that
the tree cannot exist without the aid of the trunk and roots, shows how
important these are; and no one who intends giving serious attention to
the tree in its entirety can afford to neglect these.
It is only through careful study of the art of illumination that it
is possible to understand fully the construction that enters into
the growth of this art. When some knowledge has been gained of the
manner in which this work has been done in the past, through practical
experience, it is then that a real appreciation is felt for the choice
work of the mediæval period.
“Perfect illumination,” says Ruskin, in one of his _Lectures on
Art_, “is only writing made lovely;... But to make writing _itself_
beautiful--to make the sweep of the pen lovely--is the true art of
illumination.” Certainly it is only when the student is able to produce
writing that is attractive in itself, that it is permissible to add
decoration to it. The decoration should be the natural outgrowth from
the writing.
A page of well-formed lettering makes good pattern, and is not merely
pattern, as it serves also the purpose for which it was intended,
_viz._, to be read.
It is when he has gained the mastery of the pen, in making well-formed
letters with good arrangement on the page, that the student may
consider that he has well started on the road to the production of good
illumination.
For the construction of well-finished lettering it is essential that
a mastery of the tool and materials employed should be acquired. It
is when the pen becomes almost a part of the writer, so that he is
able to concentrate all his energy on the writing, giving scarcely any
attention to the pen itself, that he may claim to be proficient in the
use of the pen.
If there is one thing more than another that one feels when examining
some of the best illuminated work of the past, it is that the writer
was a master of the pen as a letter-making tool. He did his work well;
his books were transcribed in a workmanlike manner, and the decoration
which followed seems to come quite naturally from the writing itself.
It is for this reason that so much attention has been given to the use
of the quill and reed pen in the formation of good writing.
Students are frequently at a disadvantage from inability to handle the
pen properly. To help, in some measure, to remedy this, the student is
shown how to make sharply-defined strokes before attempting to form
letters. At the same time no particular manner of holding the pen has
been insisted upon.
In the Introduction to his “Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful,” Burke
says: “I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches
most nearly to the method of investigation is incomparably the best;
since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths,
it leads to the stock on which they grew; it tends to set the reader
himself in the track of invention, and to direct him into those paths
in which the author has made his own discoveries, if he should be so
happy as to have made any that are valuable.”
This has been the ideal that the present writer has tried to keep ever
before him in writing the instructions that are given in the succeeding
pages. His aim has been to direct the student in the right way, and
then to encourage him to study the subject for himself. Whether he has
been successful in this endeavour must be left for the reader to judge.
The study of calligraphy, in connection with illumination, ought to be
helpful in making the ordinary handwriting more legible. Before the age
of printing, the book-hand developed alongside of the ordinary cursive
handwriting, and possibly the fact that the book-hand has been lost
may be advanced as a reason why most of the handwriting to-day is so
degenerate. A careful study of some of the fine models of book-hands of
the past cannot but be beneficial. It will certainly enable the student
to appreciate beautiful forms of lettering, and its influence should
soon be apparent in the lettering in general use. This should result in
better sign-writing, better lettering in our magazines and papers, in
short, better lettering all round.
Undoubtedly it would be a good thing if the children in our schools
could be taught to form some of the fine book-hands of the past with
the quill pen. It is certainly, to a great extent, due to the lack of a
practical knowledge of some of the splendid forms of lettering used in
the past, that the general lettering in use at the present time is so
bad. It ought not to be at all impracticable for this suggestion to be
carried out.
After the student is able to make well-formed letters with the quill
and reed pen, and arrange them well, the use of decoration and the
further development of illumination should follow naturally.
There is undoubtedly a place for illumination to-day, and even in
connection with the illuminated manuscript book, which should certainly
possess the first place amongst the work of the modern illuminator.
There is not the slightest suggestion there that the illuminated
manuscript should usurp the place of the printed book, but there is no
reason why it should not be in use at the same time. One of the great
charms that a fine manuscript possesses is its uniqueness, not being
one of many, as in the case of the printed book. Then again, some
things, as, for example, Poetry and Romance, are rendered in a much
more sympathetic fashion in the illuminated manuscript than in the
printed book.
There are many ways in which the art of illumination might be applied
to-day, as well as in the usual illuminated testimonial. Several
suggestions are given in the following pages for different ways in
which it may be employed.
In the decoration of the printed book the services of the artist who is
well-trained in the use of good lettering and book-decoration should
be of value to the printer. Although there is no need for the printer
to endeavour to imitate the work of the illuminator, there ought,
certainly, to be room for a well-developed style of decoration that
could be used with a good form of type.
A few centuries ago, before printing was used for the production of
books, illumination as a part of calligraphy was an important craft.
Books were not only beautifully written but they were also richly
decorated with gold and colours. The writing of long manuscripts
was very slow work, compared with the increased speed of production
afforded by the printing press; but, notwithstanding this, it appears
to have been important that the writing should be rendered more
beautiful by the enrichment of decoration. Unfortunately, although
methods of book-production are now so speedy, most of the lettering is
of the barest and crudest kind. Book-decoration seems to be, in most
cases, confined to illustration, and even this does not often form an
altogether inseparable part of the book.
With regard to the various developments on the purely commercial
side, the study of pen- and brush-formed lettering cannot but be of
the greatest service to the commercial artist who requires lettering
for posters, labels, book-covers, and the many things that require
lettering.
In fact, lettering enters so largely into decorative design that the
study of some of the fine forms of lettering is of paramount importance
to any artist who desires that the lettering that he uses should be
of good construction. So many drawings have been spoiled through the
introduction of weak and badly formed lettering that the need for
training the student to produce lettering that is well-finished and of
good form should be obvious to everyone.
Without doubt one of the great things in lettering is to allow the
tool to have its way. Pen-formed lettering should be of a form easily
constructed with the pen, and should not pretend to be a brush-formed
lettering, and _vice versâ_.
It is for this reason that in the first chapter so much attention
has been given in noting the influence that the tools and materials
employed have had on the shaping of the letters.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE 1
INTRODUCTION 5
CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL
Writing the Foundation of Illumination--Early
Influences--Babylonian Characters--Egyptian
Hieroglyphics--The reed and quill Pen--The use
of Vellum 23
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST
Majuscule Writing--Square Capitals--Rustic
Capitals--Uncials--Mixed Uncial and Minuscule
Writing--Half-Uncials--Irish Half-Uncials--
English Half-Uncials--Minuscule Writing--
Lombardic Writing--Visigothic Writing--
Merovingian Writing--Carlovingian Writing--Later
Styles 32
CHAPTER III
THE PREPARATION AND USE OF THE PEN
Cutting the Pen--Simple Exercises 42
CHAPTER IV
THE FORMATION OF LETTERS
Letters formed with simple Pen-strokes--Method in
working--How the various Letters are formed 48
CHAPTER V
FORMING WORDS AND SENTENCES
Writing a short Quotation--Spacing Letters--
Italics--Pen-formed Figures 54
CHAPTER VI
ALPHABETS FOR STUDY, BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES
Uncial Letters--Half-Uncials--Writing, from the
Tenth to the Fifteenth Century 60
CHAPTER VII
ROMAN LETTERING
Building up Letters with Pen-strokes--Roman
Letters made with simple direct Pen-strokes--The
Construction of Roman Capitals 70
CHAPTER VIII
SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF ROMAN LETTERING
The Alphabet of the Trajan Column--Various
Alphabets from the Thirteenth to the Sixteenth
Century 76
CHAPTER IX
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
1. _From the Fourth to the Eleventh Century_
Classical and Byzantine Illumination--Celtic and
Anglo-Celtic--Carlovingian--The Winchester
School 84
CHAPTER X
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
2. _From the Twelfth Century to the Decline_
Illumination in the Twelfth Century--Thirteenth
Century--Fourteenth Century--Fifteenth Century
and later 93
CHAPTER XI
THE INITIAL LETTER
How the Decoration springs from the Initial letter--
Examples from the Seventh to the Fifteenth
Century 101
CHAPTER XII
SIMPLE ILLUMINATION IN BLACK AND RED
Method of setting out a Page--Arranging the
Lettering--Initial letters, and how to construct
them--Various arrangements of Lettering 107
CHAPTER XIII
THE COLOURS USED BY THE MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATOR
Early treatises--Theophilus--The Book of the Art
of Cennino Cennini 115
CHAPTER XIV
COLOURS: THEIR COMPOSITION AND PERMANENCE
The importance of a knowledge of the different
Colours employed--Yellow Pigments--Red
Pigments--Blue Pigments--Green Pigments--Brown
Pigments--Black Pigments--White Pigments 123
CHAPTER XV
COLOURS: THEIR PREPARATION AND USE
Various forms in which Colours are prepared--Mixing
Colours--A method of keeping body colours in a
convenient form--Preparing a set of Colours for
Illuminating 131
CHAPTER XVI
THE GILDING METHODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES
Early gilding methods--Powder gold--The early use
of gold-leaf--Raised gilding 138
CHAPTER XVII
THE USE OF GOLD
Shell-gold--The use of gold-leaf--How to handle
gold-leaf 146
CHAPTER XVIII
ILLUMINATION WITH GOLD AND COLOURS
Vellum for Illuminating--Hand-made paper--
Brushes--Colour-work 152
CHAPTER XIX
THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The development of decoration--Present-day uses of
Illumination--Possible developments 161
CHAPTER XX
THE ILLUMINATED ADDRESS
The Framed Address--The Vellum Scroll--The
Book-form 171
CHAPTER XXI
THE VARIOUS METHODS OF REPRODUCTION
Line Blocks--Half-tones--The Three-colour
Process--Lithography 178
CHAPTER XXII
CHRISTMAS CARDS
Bronze gilding--Setting out to design--
Suggestions--Hand-written Cards--Invitation
Cards 185
CHAPTER XXIII
LETTERING FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES
Various things requiring Lettering--Lettering for
Maps, Plans, etc.--Lettering for Poster-work--
Arrangement of letters--Designing a Magazine
Cover 192
CHAPTER XXIV
HAND-WRITTEN POSTERS, ETC.
A quick method of writing a Poster--The reed pen
and the brush--Window Tickets--Showcards 203
CHAPTER XXV
THE ILLUMINATED MS. BOOK
The Arrangement of Pages--Planning out--The
Colophon--The Primary Object of the Book--The
Decoration 216
CHAPTER XXVI
A SIMPLE METHOD OF BINDING MSS.
Binding in limp Vellum--Sewing the sections--The
Decoration of the Cover 225
CHAPTER XXVII
THE ILLUMINATION OF THE PRINTED BOOK
The Combination of Printing and Illumination--
Books suitable for Illumination--The Style of
Decoration suited to this 232
CHAPTER XXVIII
PRINTED BOOK DECORATION
The Title-page--The Initial Letter--Types to
avoid--Tail-pieces, etc. 238
CHAPTER XXIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS 248
CHAPTER XXX
NOTES ON BOOKS 256
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Illuminated Page _Frontispiece_
Babylonian Characters (Fig. 1) 25
Egyptian Hieroglyphics (Fig. 2) 27
Egyptian Hieratic Writing 28
Stylus and Early Pens 29
Cadmus gives the Greeks an Alphabet 32
The Development of Writing (Fig. 3) 34
The Development of Writing (Fig. 4) 38
The Pen (Fig. 5) 43
Simple Pen-Strokes (Fig. 6) 45
Pen-formed Letters (Fig. 7) 49
The Construction of Letters (Fig. 8) 51
Forming Words and Sentences (Fig. 9) 55
Word-spacing, etc. (Fig. 10) 57
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 11) 61
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 12) 63
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 13) 64
Alphabets for Study (Fig. 14) 66
Roman Lettering (Fig. 15) 71
Pen-formed Roman Lettering (Fig. 16) 74
The Trajan Column 76
The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 17) 77
The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 18) 78
The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 19) 79
Roman Alphabets (Fig. 20) 80
Roman Alphabet, pen-formed (Fig. 21) 81
Roman Alphabets (Fig. 22) 82
The Lindisfarne Gospels 84
Flemish Initials 101
Initial Letters (Fig. 23) 102
Initial Letters (Fig. 24) 105
A Simple Page in Black and Red 107
Method of Setting out Page (Fig. 25) 108
Mediæval Alphabets (Fig. 26) 110
The Construction of Initials (Fig. 27) 111
Illumination in Black and Red (Fig. 28) 113
The Preparation of Colours (Fig. 29) 133
Gilding Materials (Fig. 30) 148
Illumination with Gold and Colours (Fig. 31) 157
Illuminated Altar Tablet 161
The Development of Illumination (Fig. 32) 162
Rough Sketches of Illuminated Pages (Fig. 33) 166
A Roll of Honour 167
Illuminated Altar Tablet 169
A Church Porch Text 170
An Illuminated Address 171
Various Forms of Illuminated Addresses (Fig. 34) 172
Designs for Christmas Cards 185
A Christmas Card 187
Styles of Cards (Fig. 35) 188
Styles of Cards (Fig. 36) 189
Designs for Programme and Progressive Whist Card 190
Booklet Cover 192
An Attractive Advertisement 192
A Handbook Cover 194
Lettering for Maps, etc. (Fig. 37) 195
A Design for a Certificate 196
An Alphabet for Poster Work (Fig. 38) 197
Two Designs for Labels 198
A Design for a Letter Heading 199
A Design for a Music Cover 200
A Design for a Bookplate 201
An Attractive Piece of Lettering 204
Guide for Hand-written Posters (Fig. 39) 205
Specimen Poster written with Pen (Fig. 40) 207
Specimen Poster written with Brush (Fig. 41) 209
Design for a Menu 210
Window Tickets (Fig. 42) 213
A Showcard (Fig. 43) 214
Frontispiece of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence” 216
Arrangement for MS. Book (Fig. 44) 218
Title-page of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence” 219
Examples of Colophons (Fig. 45) 221
Two pages from “Songs of Innocence” 223
Method of Stitching MS. Book (Fig. 46) 226
Vellum Cover (Fig. 47) 228
Cover ready for Binding (Fig. 48) 229
Completing the Cover (Fig. 49) 230
The Illumination of the Printed Book (Fig. 50) 233
Styles of Title Pages (Fig. 51) 239
Types of Initials to Avoid (Fig. 52) 242
Decorative Initials (Fig. 53) 243
Tail-pieces (Fig. 54) 245
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL
Calligraphy and Illumination are inseparably bound up with each other.
The art of Illumination cannot be severed from that of Writing. One
cannot imagine the decoration apart from the writing. Undoubtedly this
sprang from a desire to beautify the writing. Man sought to make his
manuscripts beautiful, and the result was a form of illumination, at
first very primitive, but gradually developing into the beautiful art
that we are so familiar with in the choice manuscripts of the middle
ages.
When commencing the study of the art of illumination it is extremely
important that it should be approached from the proper standpoint. It
is to be feared that this has not always been the case. The lure of the
bright gold and colours has often led both teacher and taught astray,
and the proper use of the pen in writing has been almost entirely
neglected.
Instead of allowing the tool to have its own way, it has been forced to
form laborious shapes that are not suited to its construction at all.
The decoration, it is to be feared, has been looked upon as a sort
of spice to be added as a finishing touch, instead of being a vital
growth springing naturally from the writing. Until it be viewed from
this standpoint, no real progress can be made. If a building is to be
soundly constructed, the first thing to see to is that the foundations
are well laid. The same principle applies in this case. The decoration,
if it is to be living and real, must have a starting-point for growth.
The student should see that this is a sure foundation and not a
tottering, shaky structure. Well-formed writing should be the first
consideration.
Ordinary hand-writing is a development of the kind of writing used by
the old calligraphers. Generally speaking, the connection between the
two is not recognised. Probably if this were so calligraphy of the
present day would be much better than it generally is. The fact that
it is generally referred to as “printing” shows how the connection has
been lost. Drawing is thought to be more akin to it than hand-writing.
It is no uncommon sight to see a student carefully drawing the shapes
of the letters and then filling them in with a fine mapping pen. If the
individuality of the pen as a letter-making tool were recognised this
kind of thing would not occur.
It may be interesting to consider briefly some of the early influences
at work in the production of writing.
[Illustration: BABYLONIAN CHARACTERS.
Showing the influence of the tool on the shapes of the Characters.
FIG. 1.]
In Fig. 1 some examples of early Babylonian characters are shown. In
these early days the common writing material was clay. The characters
used in writing were rough pictures of different objects which were
drawn in outline. Thus the sign for “king” was a rude drawing of a
man crowned; this was scratched on the surface of the soft clay with
a pointed tool. One can quite understand how these characters could
be constructed with a series of impressions in much less time than it
would take to draw them in outline. Then again it must have been much
easier to draw on the soft clay in this way. A square-pointed stylus
was used for this purpose, and, with the wedge-shaped impressions thus
produced, the characters could be formed quite easily. Not only was
the scribe able to write with greater speed, but the way in which the
characters were produced was more methodical. The character for “king,”
when made with the wedge-shaped impressions, was constructed as shown
in (_b_). One can easily recognise the same form placed horizontally,
instead of vertically, as was originally the case. In course of time
the characters became somewhat simplified. The next step in the
development of the character is shown in (_c_). The final form is shown
in (_d_), this being very much simplified. In like manner the signs
represented in (_e_) and (_h_) were used to denote “star” and “sun”
respectively. The development of these is seen in (_f_) and (_g_),
also in (_i_) and (_j_). The reason for calling attention to these
characters is to show how the shapes are influenced by the tool and the
material employed. This is a most important factor in the formation of
letters.
Where soft clay was used as a material, and the characters were formed
by making impressions with a stylus, one would naturally expect that
these signs would take the form of a series of indentations rather than
flowing lines as from a brush or pen.
In the case of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, shown in Fig. 2, a
difference is at once noticed. These characters were at first small
pictures carved on stone. The hieratic characters were simple
interpretations of these formed with a reed pen. It is quite obvious,
to all who care to observe, how easily these characters could be
formed, especially when they are compared with the earlier signs. In
this case the influence is quite different from that of the Babylonian
characters. Instead of a series of impressions, one notices long
flowing strokes characteristic of the pen. It is interesting to note
how the essential quality of the more elaborate character is obtained
with simple pen-strokes. Although the hieroglyphic is often quite
complex there is still a likeness retained in the hieratic form.
[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.
Showing the development into the Hieratic or pen-formed Characters.
FIG. 2.]
The reed pen used by the Egyptian scribes was the forerunner of the
modern pen. It was formed from the hollow stalk of grasses that grew
in marshy districts. Sometimes pens were made from hollow canes and
bamboos. This kind of pen is still used in the East.
The material used for writing upon was known as papyrus. This was made
from the pith of a species of reed, the _Cyperus Papyrus_ of Linnæus.
This was, in early days, cultivated in the Delta of Egypt. It was
used for several different purposes, one of the most important being
for writing-material. This was prepared by cutting it into strips and
placing these side by side, with another set placed across them at
right angles. The two layers were stuck together and the whole pressed
and dried, and the surface smoothed to make a sheet of writing-material.
It is a most difficult matter to state when the quill pen was first
used. Probably the earliest allusion to it occurs in the writings of
St Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, who lived in the early part of the
seventh century. The following is the quotation in question:
“_Instrumenta scribæ calamus et penna; ex his enim verba paginis
infiguntur; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen dividitur
in duo._”
(“The tools of the writer are a reed and a quill; for by these words on
pages are impressed; the reed is of wood, the quill from a bird, and
its point is divided into two.”)
But of course it is extremely probable that quill pens were in use
at a much earlier period than this. It is well known that metal pens
were used by the Romans, as a number of these, made of bronze, are in
existence at the present time.
For general writing purposes tablets coated with wax were used by
the Greeks and Romans. A stylus with one end pointed and the other
flattened was used to write with, the writing being done with the sharp
point and erasures made with the flattened end.
[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HIERATIC WRITING.]
[Illustration:
_Ivory Stilus._
_Silver Stilus, bound with gold wire._
_Ancient Roman Bronze Pen._
_Ancient Reed Pen._
]
The skins of animals have been used as a writing material since quite
an early period, and the use of vellum was probably an improvement
upon this. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” tells the story, on the
authority of Varro, of how Eumenes II., King of Pergamus from 197 to
159 B.C., was desirous of extending the library in his capital, but
the Ptolemies, being jealous, stopped the export of papyrus, thinking
by this means to prevent the royal library from growing. Owing to the
lack of papyrus, skins were employed and, necessity being the mother
of invention, the manufacture of vellum came about. Whether any real
importance can be attached to this story or not, it is certain that
Pergamus was a great centre for the manufacture of vellum. In fact, the
word “parchment” is derived from _charta Pergamena_, _i.e._, “paper
from Pergamum.”
It is easy to see how this ideal writing-material, with the quill
pen, must have had a great influence upon the formation of letters.
Generally speaking, the writing on parchment or vellum is crisper and
more sharply defined than that on the papyrus.
There is not the slightest doubt that the influence of the tool and the
writing-material had a great deal to do with forming the shapes of the
letters. Good lettering was seldom or never consciously designed, but
was the result of certain influences at work.
In the development of lettering in the past, the pen, as a
letter-making tool, has played a most prominent part. A reed or quill
pen cut with a broad nib, so as to give crisp thick and thin strokes,
is an ideal tool for the formation of letters, but one thing is
necessary: the pen must be allowed to have its own way. The letters
should not be designed first and copied with the pen afterwards. If the
lettering is to be pen-formed, let it be formed with the pen; it should
come straight from the pen.
The capabilities of the pen as a letter-making tool should be carefully
studied. The reed or quill pen should be used, and one of the best ways
to become intimate with the pen is to cut it to shape for oneself. One
is thus able to understand the possibilities of this tool as a means
for the formation of letters, in a much more intimate manner than if
a ready-made tool is placed in the hand. The first thing to endeavour
to grasp is how to cut and use the pen. After this has been mastered,
the next step should be the formation of letters. This is followed
by forming letters into words. Then comes writing and designing with
masses of writing. Not until the student is thoroughly familiar with
the use of lettering should he attempt to add any decoration to it. A
fine piece of writing in black, or black and red, on vellum or fine
hand-made paper is a piece of decoration by itself, but a bad piece
of lettering cannot be made beautiful, however much ornament be added
afterwards. The first step towards the study of illumination proper
comes then, and attention should be given to the place of the initial
letter and the part it has played in the past as a starting-point for
the decoration in the MSS. of the mediæval period. At first a good deal
can be done with the use of black and red only, or black, red, and
blue. Then come simple decoration with gold and colours; the use of
raised burnished gold; the application of illumination for commercial
purposes; and the illuminated MS. book.
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST
Before describing the method of cutting and using the pen, it may
possibly be instructive to survey briefly the development of writing
through the centuries.
The alphabet, as we know it, has been traced right back to that used
by the Phœnicians. In fact, until a comparatively short time ago,
it was thought by some that it could be traced back to the Egyptian
hieroglyphics, but in the light of recent discoveries this theory is
no longer tenable. The origin of our alphabet is therefore still a
matter for research, although there seems to be no doubt concerning its
descent from the Phœnician alphabet.
The Roman alphabet seems to be a direct descendant from this, and it is
from the Roman alphabet that the lettering that is in use to-day has
been derived.
Roman writing was divided into two distinct classes: the formal
book-hand, and the cursive hand which was the common hand-writing of
the people.
MAJUSCULE WRITING
The book-hand first took the form of majuscules, which in turn were
divided into Square Capitals, Rustic Capitals, and Uncials. After
this came the modified forms of Uncials caused by the admixture of
minuscules.
[Illustration: CADMUS GIVES THE GREEKS AN ALPHABET.
(Tradition relates that letters were first introduced into Greece by a
Phœnician named Cadmus.)]
By way of explanation it may be here mentioned that, in both Greek and
Latin palæography, capital letters are termed “majuscules,” while small
letters are known as “minuscules.”
SQUARE CAPITALS
Probably the earliest Latin majuscule writing is that known as square
capitals. These seem to be modelled on the same type of letter that
was used for the fine inscriptions. Although the general opinion is
that these are the earliest form, there is very little square capital
writing in existence. The earliest specimen known has been attributed
to the end of the fourth century, although it is thought that this
form of writing had been in use some centuries before this. It was
in use until the fourth or fifth century. There is not the slightest
doubt that writing, when these letters were used, must have been
comparatively slow work.
RUSTIC CAPITALS
Rustic capitals seem to be an attempt to write the letters by means of
simple pen-strokes. Writing with this type of letter must have been
much quicker than when the square capitals were used. This style of
writing has been used in the earliest Latin MSS. now in existence,
but, although this is the case, the general opinion seems to be that
the square capitals were used first. The title “Rustic” is somewhat
misleading, as it might lead one to suppose that these letters are
rough in character, when they are generally written quite as carefully
as the square capitals.
UNCIALS
[Illustration:
Roman Square Capitals.
Rustic Capitals.
Uncials.
Half-Uncials.
Irish Half-Uncials.
English Half-Uncials.
FIG. 3.]
The next stage is the use of the majuscules known as “Uncials.” These
are true pen-formed letters. They seem to be based on the square
capitals, but, in place of so many angles, curves are employed, these
being much more adapted to the use of the pen. It is a round hand, and
a very beautiful form of writing. The simplicity of the characters
with their flowing curves is such that they may be easily formed with
a sharply-cut reed or quill. The letters, A, D, E, H, M, and U, are
the principal letters that show the characteristics of this form of
writing. It seems to have been in common use as a book-hand in the
fourth century. It is, however, thought by some that it is quite
possible that it may have been in use as early as the third century,
as in the oldest specimens that are known the lettering appears to
be fully developed. One of the special distinctions of this kind of
writing is the way some of the vertical strokes rise above, or fall
below, the line of writing. From the fifth to the eighth centuries it
was given the premier place as a literary hand. The early uncials, as
also were the square capitals and rustic capitals, were written with a
pen cut with a slanted point.
MIXED UNCIAL AND MINUSCULE WRITING
It must be remembered that all the time these majuscules, both capitals
and uncials, represent only one side of the handwriting employed,
_viz._, that used for the production of books. The ordinary handwriting
of the people, known as “cursive” writing, was in extensive use at
the same time. Very often this form of writing got mixed up with the
other, and the result was a mixed style. For example, in some of the
early majuscule MSS., notes have been found written in this style. This
gradually came to be used as a book-hand, until soon very few of the
early uncial forms were left.
HALF-UNCIALS
To this form of writing in its full development the title of
“Half-Uncial” has been given. It was employed as far back as the fifth
century for writing MSS. It may have been used because it could be
written more quickly than the ordinary uncial; anyway, it seems to
have been very extensively used as a literary hand. This style is very
important, as it marks the beginning of the change from majuscule
to minuscule writing. These characters were generally formed with a
straight-cut pen.
IRISH HALF-UNCIALS
Writing in the British Isles was greatly different from that used on
the Continent. On the Continent the hand was developed from the Roman
cursive writing, while in England and Ireland the Roman Half-Uncial was
the starting-point of development.
There is not the slightest doubt but that the rise of Christianity in
the British Isles had a great deal to do with the development of the
book-hand. It is a well-known fact that the Christian missionaries
from Rome brought with them a number of MSS. which may have served as
models for the native scribes. These were probably written in Roman
half-uncials, which would account for the manner in which the Irish
handwriting developed. Evidently no MSS. written in pure uncials came
to Ireland; anyway, there seems to be no reason to suppose that such
was the case, as no MS. of this type has been found that may be claimed
to be purely Irish without any shadow of doubt.
Early Irish writing is in two forms, round and pointed. The round hand
is distinctly half-uncial. Although it is most difficult to state the
earliest date of the Irish MSS., the general opinion is that they date
back at least as far as the seventh century. The famous Book of Kells
is a well-known example of Irish half-uncials. The pointed writing
was developed in the eighth and ninth centuries. This is probably a
development of the round hand, and in course of time became the Irish
national hand.
ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS
In England there were two distinct schools of writing, one of which
came from Ireland and the other brought over by the Roman missionaries.
Very little is known of the writing brought over by the foreign
missionaries, as only a small amount is known to be in existence. There
is evidence, however, that some of the Roman rustic capitals were made
use of.
The English half-uncials were modelled on the Irish half-uncials. The
writing in the Durham Book, now in the British Museum, affords a good
example of this kind of writing. It is interesting to compare this
writing with that of the Book of Kells; there is a great similarity.
Both are carefully written with the straight-cut pen. The English
half-uncials also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a
pointed hand. Capitals which were used for initials, etc., are simply
variations of the majuscules.
MINUSCULE WRITING
As mentioned before, the Roman cursive was the basis of the writing
on the Continent. Three great national hands were formed, _viz._,
Lombardic, Visigothic, and Merovingian.
LOMBARDIC WRITING
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
This was the national handwriting of Italy; it was used from the eighth
to the eleventh centuries. The term “Lombardic” is given as a general
term to the writing of Italy in the early middle ages. In Fig. 4 some
free renderings are given of this hand. The first (_a_) is an example
in one of its earliest stages, written cursively in the early part of
the ninth century. The next, shown in (_b_) is the book-hand a little
later. The third example (_c_) is a later development of the eleventh
century, known as “broken Lombardic.” It may be noted that in all these
the slanted-cut pen has been used.
VISIGOTHIC WRITING
The title “Visigothic” has been given to the national handwriting
of Spain. Derived also from the Roman cursive, it developed into a
book-hand that was used in the eighth century. It was in use until the
twelfth century. The first example (_d_) is a half-cursive book-hand of
the seventh or eighth century. The next (_e_) a book-hand of the early
tenth century. The last example (_f_) is the last stage, being of the
twelfth century. All these are written with the slanted-cut pen.
MEROVINGIAN WRITING
This is the name given to the writing practised in the Frankish
empire. This form of writing leads on to the great reform in the time
of Charlemagne. Starting, as was the case in the other two schools,
from the Roman cursive, it developed into a set book-hand which is
noticeable in several MSS. of the seventh and eighth centuries. An
early specimen is shown in (_g_). Several different types of writing
were used within the limits of the Frankish empire, some of which bear
a strong resemblance to the Lombardic style. In fact, so similar are
they that it is rather difficult to distinguish one from the other.
The example (_h_) is one of this type, being of the late seventh
century. As uncial and half-uncial characters were still used for a
good number of MSS. it is but natural that these should influence the
style of writing. The specimen given in (_i_) is an example showing
the influence of the half-uncial, and is a step towards the full
development of the Caroline minuscule.
CARLOVINGIAN WRITING
The great revival of learning during the reign of Charlemagne resulted
in the development of a new school of writing known as Caroline, or
Carlovingian. Towards the end of the eighth century the decree calling
for the revision of the Church books naturally became the cause of
fresh activity in the writing schools connected with the monasteries.
At Tours the book-hand was developed which is known as the Caroline
Minuscule. An example is given of this hand. This form of writing
spread rapidly all over the Frankish empire and gradually influenced
the book-hands employed in the neighbouring countries. The use of the
slanted-cut pen is an important thing in connection with the formation
of these minuscules.
LATER STYLES
The tenth century example given is from the Benedictional of Æthelwold,
Bishop of Winchester from A.D. 963-984. This lettering is of the
foreign type, but it has a strongly defined native character all its
own, some of the letters being distinctly Saxon in type.
From the twelfth century onwards a great number of MSS. were produced,
each country having its own particular style and developing on certain
definite lines. It is impossible to give specimens of all the different
kinds of Calligraphy. The examples shown must be taken as roughly
indicating the general style of the writing. The use of the slanted-cut
pen tended towards the compression of the letters, thus forming a
strong contrast to the letters produced in the earlier periods with the
straight-cut pen.
In the thirteenth century writing became considerably smaller. In
the latter part of this century a very large number of Bibles appear
to have been written, and volumes were smaller, standing out in
strong contrast to the ponderous tomes of the preceding century. In
the fourteenth century the writing became considerably stiffer and
more angular. This tendency showed itself still more strongly in the
fifteenth century.
In Italy this tendency did not make itself felt quite as early as in
the writings of Northern Europe. Although later on they became more
or less affected in this way, there is a decided difference between
Italian writing and the styles employed by the other countries.
In the fifteenth century the Italian scribes appear to have gone back
to their early periods for models for book-hands, and it is this that
influenced the early printers of Italy to use type of this character,
which has its modern representative in the Roman type of to-day.
CHAPTER III
THE PREPARATION AND USE OF THE PEN
To obtain a practical knowledge of the use of the pen as a
letter-making tool is, as stated before, the first important thing for
the student to acquire. All the practice he can get in cutting it to
shape, and using it in the manner described here, will be found to be
of the greatest service in helping him to produce good lettering with
it later on.
For large writing, the best tool is undoubtedly the reed pen. In fact,
this is probably the best pen for the beginner to experiment with
first. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a good reed pen. The ordinary
kind that is sold by the artists’ colourmen is rather too soft and soon
becomes sodden with the ink. Crisp writing is then impossible. A pen
made from a piece of hollow cane or bamboo seems to answer best of all.
A sharp knife is required for cutting, and a thin piece of metal to
form a spring to hold the ink is a great advantage. It should be quite
easy to see from Fig. 5 how the pen should be cut. The great thing to
remember is to see that the pen is cut with a nice chisel point, as
this ensures crisp and sharp writing. Another important detail is the
slit in the nib. This should be just the right length for easy writing.
If it is too long it makes the pen too soft, while, on the other hand,
if too short it is difficult to write with it. The student will find
that experiment alone will teach him what is right in this matter. An
hour or two spent experimenting for himself with a reed or quill will
teach him far more than pages of instruction. Beyond just giving a few
hints, there is no need to devote much space to directions as to how to
cut the pen. The few details given are just to act as a guide to the
student.
[Illustration: THE PEN
FIG. 5.]
In cutting the nib, care should be taken that the slit is a clean cut,
also that the points are equally proportioned on each side. The spring
is best made from a piece of thin brass, copper, or pure tin. If,
ordinary tinned iron is used it is liable to get rusty besides being
generally too thick. It will be found that a great deal depends on the
position in which this is placed, with regard to the flow of ink from
the pen.
When using the reed pen for large writing it will be found necessary to
pare the curved inside of the pen quite flat at the point, to ensure a
firm stroke, as otherwise a hollow stroke will be the result.
For smaller writing the best pen is the turkey quill. The goose quill
is not quite firm enough, but a good turkey quill can be cut either
for quite tiny writing or large bold writing. It is best to strip the
feather part right away, as there is no advantage in having it on the
pen. This can easily be torn off by pulling the end of the feather
downwards.
For practice any good smooth-surfaced paper may be used. Several of the
well-known makers of high-class hand-made drawing papers make a special
paper for writing and illumination.
A good fluid waterproof drawing ink should be used. Care should be
taken to procure one that will not thicken either in the bottle or in
the pen. It is a great fault with some inks that, although they do
not seem to thicken very much in the bottle, they do so in the pen.
When this is the case, good writing is almost impossible. One cannot
produce good writing if one has to stop every little while to wash out
one’s pen. Besides, when the ink is beginning to thicken, clear, sharp
writing becomes impossible.
Fig. 6 gives some simple exercises with the pen. It should be quite
easy to understand the formation of the pen-strokes from this diagram.
They should be practised over and over again until the strokes can be
made very easily. It should be noticed that the pen is kept practically
at the same angle all the time. It must be held as easily as possible.
There is no need to acquire any special manner of holding it.
Different people hold the pen in different ways and it is best for the
student to find out which way is easiest for him to hold it to produce
good writing. If the pen is held in a manner which may be correct
according to a copy-book but which feels awkward and cramped for the
writer, the writing produced in this way is bound to show evidences
of this. If, however, the pen is held freely, and easily, it becomes
almost a part of the writer himself, and there is a feeling of freedom
about the writing that is entirely absent from that produced by the
other method.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
The strokes in the diagram were made with a turkey quill pen in
exactly the same manner as described here. One of the most important
things is to endeavour to keep the pen practically at the same angle
all the time. If the pen is allowed to twist about in the hand, the
distinction between the thick and thin strokes will not be sufficiently
marked. It should be quite easy for the student to acquire this mastery
of the pen without holding it in a vice-like grip.
For clear, sharp writing it is practically essential that there should
be no ink on the back of the nib. A small piece of linen, free from
fluff, should be kept for a pen-wiper, and the back of the pen should
be wiped before commencing to write. The ink should be kept free from
pieces of fluff or small hairs, as if these get into the pen it is
impossible to produce good writing.
The exercise should be practised first with two ruled lines, then with
one only. It is good training if, after this, the student will try his
skill in writing without any lines at all. He should not sketch it in
lightly first in pencil, but should start straight away with the pen.
The width of the nib should be approximately the same as the thickness
of the thick strokes of the writing.
When the nib becomes blunt or uneven it should be carefully re-cut.
When re-cutting the pen it is advisable not to cut it in too drastic a
fashion. Cut it gradually, taking very little off at first and using
only a very sharp knife. One of the best knives for this purpose is a
surgeon’s scalpel, as, being made of hard surgical steel, it does not
get blunt so quickly as the ordinary pen-knife.
In the next chapter it is intended to begin to practise the formation
of letters. Before studying it the student should practise cutting the
pen and forming the strokes in Fig. 6. He should endeavour to make a
sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes, and also strive
after perfect regularity. The more he practises this exercise the
better will he be able to form the letters in the succeeding ones.
The student is advised thoroughly to master one stage before proceeding
with the next. One that has been mastered is of more value than several
hurried over in a careless fashion.
CHAPTER IV
THE FORMATION OF LETTERS
Having become somewhat acquainted with the use of the pen, the next
step to be taken is the formation of letters, on the same principle as
the strokes were made in the last chapter.
Fig. 7 shows an alphabet of capital letters and also one of small
letters. Each letter is formed with simple pen-strokes, and the student
should experience no difficulty in forming these after practising the
previous exercise.
Perhaps it would not be amiss to give a few suggestions as to working.
In the first place he should set about his task in a workmanlike
manner. It is practically useless practising on a few odd scraps of
paper, in a slipshod way, without making any special preparations. This
method of working is responsible for a good deal of slovenly work and
cannot be too severely censured. The old proverb, “If a thing is worth
doing it is worth doing well,” is perfectly true in this case.
[Illustration: PEN-FORMED LETTERS.
FIG. 7.]
The student should obtain a drawing-board and fasten his paper down
carefully before commencing to work. It will be found that a pad made
of several sheets of blotting-paper placed under the writing-paper will
make the writing easier. This makes a much more sympathetic surface
to write upon than the hard drawing-board. Then the slope should be
considered. It is not advisable to work with the board flat on the
table. It should be raised to form a convenient slope. In the old
illustrations that we have representing the mediæval illuminator at
work, he is always depicted as writing at a sloping desk. By far the
most suitable for writing is a firm water-colour easel which can be
inclined to any angle. If, however, this is not to hand, a drawing can
be raised on a table to the required angle by resting one end of the
board on a small box.
Another point is the lighting. It is best to arrange this so that the
light comes over the left shoulder, otherwise the shadow of the hand
falls on the work.
Rule lightly, with a black-lead pencil, some lines to work upon. First
rule two lines for each row of letters. For the capitals these should
be about ¾ in. apart, and for the lower-case letters 3/8 in. should be
sufficient.
The pen should be cut so as to give a fairly bold stroke, to prevent
forming a thin, weak-looking letter. Great care should be taken to
ensure that the writing be crisp and sharp. See that the back of the
nib is free from ink, and be careful to keep the pen at practically
the same angle. The habit of turning the pen about in the hand while
writing is responsible for a lot of clumsy work. The beginner generally
fails to turn the ends of his strokes smartly, thus failing to
distinguish between the thick and thin strokes. This is caused by not
keeping the pen at the same angle. The least possible pressure should
be put on the nib. Let the pen have its own way; do not force it at
all. Some prefer to dip the pen into the ink, wiping the back of the
nib on a small linen pen-wiper. Others use a small brush or quill for
dropping the ink into the pen. Some dealers put their ink into bottles
provided with quill stoppers for this purpose. Whichever way be used,
care should be taken not to fill the pen too full, as if this is done
there is every probability that a blot may be caused by ink dropping
from it.
Fig. 8 shows exactly how the various strokes are formed. The different
strokes that go to make up the capital A are carefully shown in the
proper order and exactly how they can be made. Most of the letters in
the alphabet are also shown with the pen-strokes necessary for their
production. They are numbered so that the student should have no
difficulty in understanding exactly how to form them, the first stroke
being numbered 1, the second 2, and so on. It will be found that the
letters that are not shown in this manner are made up of strokes that
are shown plainly in some other letter.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
After practising the formation of these letters between two lines,
the student should use one line only. In fact, after he begins to
get familiar with this method of forming letters he should discard
altogether the use of the second line, as he should be able to write
just as easily on one line only. Some students seem to be afraid that
they will not be able to keep the writing the same size unless they use
two lines. It is strange that in ordinary hand-writing they would never
think it necessary to rule two lines to keep their writing the same
size. The use of two lines is necessary to the beginner until he has
become familiar with the pen, but there is no necessity to keep using
these, for they only hamper him and give him less freedom in working.
One of the difficulties that beginners generally experience, in
attempting to form letters with the pen in this way, is that they are
unable to get good firm curves and strong upright strokes. The cause
of this is nothing more or less than simply lack of practice. If the
student has any trouble in this way he should practise the earlier
exercise again and again. Weak-looking curves and tottering strokes
will soon become few and far between as he gains confidence in himself.
If he gives his whole attention to forming the strokes, the facility to
produce well-formed letters will soon be acquired.
Another cause of bad writing is often due to the pen. If this is not
cut so that it will give crisp strokes good lettering is impossible.
The student should not waste time trying to write with a badly-cut pen;
it is much better to re-cut it straight away.
After practising forming the letters this size, he should reduce them.
The pen should be cut with a smaller point to suit the size of the
letters, and lines should be ruled closer together. He should endeavour
to get the same crispness and sharp distinction between the thick and
thin strokes as in the larger writing. He should not rest satisfied
until he is able to produce clear sharp writing on single lines. He
should strive to keep the strokes of the letters quite upright, not
leaning to the right or to the left. If he has practised the earlier
exercise thoroughly he should experience no difficulty in this matter.
The next chapter will deal with massing letters together to form words
and sentences. It is, however, as well to emphasise the fact that the
formation of the individual letters should be mastered thoroughly
first.
CHAPTER V
FORMING WORDS AND SENTENCES
One of the best ways to get familiar with spacing and forming letters
into words is to write out a short quotation.
In Fig. 9 one is given for the student to transcribe. A sheet of
smooth-surfaced paper should be fastened to a board with drawing-pins,
placing the pad of blotting-paper underneath. The page should then be
ruled out with the lines 3/16 inch apart, with the exception of the
first lines, which are 3/8 inch apart. Rule the lines as lightly as
possible, with an HB. pencil, so that they are just visible, and can be
removed by the gentlest possible touch of the rubber.
It should be noticed that the width of the paragraph is determined by
the first word, “Imagination.” The way that the individual letters
are carefully packed together, side by side, is an important factor.
It is hardly worth while cutting a special wide pen for writing the
initial I. This can be easily formed by making two strokes closely
together. This practice should not be adhered to as a general rule for
this type of letter, as some letters present a patched appearance when
constructed in this manner. Letters should be composed either of simple
pen-strokes or else built up. Never attempt to worry a letter into
existence. Later on a method of building up letters will be shown.
They are, however, a different type from those shown here.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
This exercise should first be written between two ruled lines to each
row of lettering. Then write it out using one line only. Then reduce
the size, cutting a pen with a smaller point, but keeping to the same
proportion in spacing. In copying this do not draw the lettering first
in pencil, but go straight ahead with the pen. Also do not attempt to
copy it in a rigid manner, endeavouring to get exactly the same number
of words on each line as in the copy. Pack each letter closely to
its fellow, and do not attempt to spread out any word to make it fit
better. The distance between each word should be about the width of a
small letter. Do not try to squeeze a word or syllable in at the end
of a line. It is better to let it project slightly over the line; see
(_a_) Fig. 9. If, when the end of the line is reached, there is a space
left not quite large enough for the next word, do not attempt to spread
out the last word, but either add a simple pen ornament as in (_b_)
or the line may be emphasised by pen-strokes or dots, as in the copy.
Still another method is shown in (_c_), where flourishes from the final
letter fill the space. These, however, should be used sparingly, as
they tend to make the matter less readable.
After the student has had a good amount of practice in writing in this
manner he will begin to feel his way and be able to mass and arrange
the letters and words properly. It is only when he becomes master over
the pen, so that he can write quickly and easily, that he is able to
mass the letters into words with facility.
After having written this quotation, a fresh one may be selected and
written out in a similar manner. If this practice is persisted in, the
student will gain valuable experience in the spacing and arrangement of
words.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
In Fig. 10 several interesting points are noticed. In the first place
the necessity for packing the letters should be noted in (_a_). If
the two renderings of the same word be carefully examined, it will
be seen that the first one has a somewhat broken appearance. This is
notwithstanding the fact that each letter is exactly the same distance
from the next to it. In the second example there is much more unity,
yet the letters are not really so equally spaced. The way to get
over this difficulty is to place each letter as closely as possible
to its fellow. The first example looks like L ETTER ING because due
consideration has not been given to the fact that however closely L and
E, and R and I, are placed together, there will always be a fair amount
of space, so that these should be packed, if possible, closer together
than the rest. As the E is a curved letter, the L can easily be formed
so that the lower part comes underneath. Also the tail of the R can
project under the I. This device should not be carried to excess as
shown in (_b_). One often sees architectural drawings disfigured by a
lot of this kind of thing. The student is advised carefully to guard
against this, or his writing will become freakish.
In (_c_) two examples are given which show the advantage of massed
writing. In the first example the letters are placed together in a
loose manner, and the two lines are too far apart. The second is much
easier to read because the letters are packed closer together, and also
the lines of lettering are nearer. For general purposes massed writing
is undoubtedly best, but for some things, as, for example, in writing
poetry, the lines may be wider apart. The letters, however, should be
packed together, and it is not a bad plan to make the stems and tails
of the letters just a trifle longer than usual.
A curious optical illusion is shown in (_d_), in connection with
the letter S. The first one is constructed so that each half is
approximately the same size, but it appears to be larger in the top
half. It presents the same illusion if the page is held upside down.
The second one, which is drawn with the top half slightly smaller,
appears right. This applies to several other letters in the alphabet,
but in the letter S it is most noticeable. The letter P is a letter
that requires some attention. If a word begins with this letter, the
form with the stem projecting below the line may be used; but when this
occurs in the middle of a word, it tends to make it less readable. The
example given, at first glance, looks like HEADS.
A modern fad of using V instead of U, and I in place of J, should be
discouraged. In Latin, possibly, there is something to be said for it,
but in modern English it looks foolish and affected, besides being
almost unreadable at times.
The student will find the alphabet of italics useful for rapid
lettering of plans, maps, etc. He should endeavour to preserve the same
slope, not getting some letters falling over and others nearly upright.
There is no need to give detailed instructions as to how to form the
individual letters, as, after having practised the formation of letters
in the preceding chapter, he should experience no difficulty in feeling
his way with regard to the forming of the individual strokes that go to
make up each letter. The same thing applies to the pen-formed figures
that are given here. These are all composed of simple pen-strokes, and
the student should be able to form these quite easily and quickly.
Constant practice with the reed or quill pen will do more than anything
to make him an efficient writer.
CHAPTER VI
ALPHABETS FOR STUDY, BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES
After the student has, to some extent, mastered the pen, and is able to
write fairly easily, it would be a good plan for him to study some of
the best historical examples, forming the letters in the same simple
manner.
The examples given here are free renderings of the various alphabets
used in the different periods. In the case of any of the letters being
missing to form the complete alphabet, these have been constructed
in a similar style. The reason for doing this is so that the student
should experience no difficulty in writing when using any one of these
alphabets, as would possibly be the case if an incomplete alphabet were
given. These alphabets are merely given for convenience, the object
not being in any way to keep the student from studying the original
manuscripts for himself. It was thought, however, that it might
possibly be helpful if the various letters were given in the form of
complete alphabets, as, after studying the various forms of lettering
in this manner, the student would be encouraged to study the actual
MSS. for himself.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
One of the most beautiful forms of simple pen-formed lettering is given
in Fig. 11. The uncial characters shown here (_a_) afford one of the
best examples for practice in writing with the reed or quill. These
letters are all formed with simple strokes made with the slanted-cut
pen. For the purpose of general writing it may be as well to change
the form of one or two of the letters, such as the A, for example,
and possibly the D. Forming these characters with a well-cut pen is
splendid practice for the student. He should endeavour to form the
letters with simple direct strokes, with no touching up afterwards.
After having practised the previous exercises well, he should be able
to form these letters quite easily. He should, as opportunity occurs,
examine carefully some of the fine uncial manuscripts, or at any rate
some good reproductions of them.
The alphabet shown next (_b_) is founded on the Irish half-uncials. The
one striking difference between this and the previous alphabet is that
this is written with a straight-cut pen instead of a slanted-cut pen.
This is plainly noticeable in the round letters such as a, c, e, o,
etc., the thickness coming in quite a different place. It will be found
that writing in this manner with the straight-cut pen is much slower
work than writing in the other way. It is, however, very good practice
for the student. The same remarks that were made about the uncial
letters apply also here; it would be as well to modernise some of the
letters, such as the “g” and the “n,” when writing with this alphabet.
In Fig. 12 some very beautiful alphabets are shown which are excellent
in every way as examples for study. These are all formed with quite
simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen. The one shown in (_c_) is
a free rendering of the letters used in the famous “Benedictional of
Æthelwold.” As the “s” and the “t” given here are liable to be somewhat
unreadable, additional forms of these letters are suggested.
The example given in (_d_) is taken from a tenth-century Psalter, now
in the British Museum. This MS. is a very beautiful example of the
English writing of this period. The writing of this century should be
very carefully studied. The student should not be content with merely
working from the letters given here, but should study some of the MSS.
of this period for himself, noting carefully the spacing and the
arrangement of the lettering.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
The next alphabet (_e_) is taken from an Italian twelfth-century MS.
This is slightly stiffer in character than the preceding one, and the
writing tends to become more compressed. However, the lettering still
retains its round character. It is easy to mass the letters together
when using this alphabet.
The letters in Fig. 13 are still more compressed in character. The
alphabet shown in (_f_) is taken from a late twelfth-century MS. of the
French School. It is a very good form of lettering and will well repay
careful study.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
The next one (_g_) is a typical example of the style of lettering
largely employed in the thirteenth century. Although the letters
are shown here as large as in the preceding example, the lettering
generally was much smaller. If the student examines carefully any of
the thirteenth century MSS. he will notice this to be the case. He
should practise using this alphabet in the same way, cutting his pen
so that he is able to form the small letters quite easily. He will
probably experience difficulty in producing writing as small as the
mediæval scribe was able to do, as this comes only from a great amount
of practice, but he should be able to write quite easily with the lines
of lettering not more than 3/16 in. apart.
The alphabet that follows this (_h_) is from a fourteenth century MS.
It will be noticed that the letters here are much more angular, and
they conform more to what is popularly known as “Old English.” This
form of writing can be quite easily formed with the slanted-cut pen.
There is no need to employ a fine pen for putting in the thin strokes,
as is so often the case, as the complete letter may be formed with the
same pen if it is cut with a nice chisel point. It is most important
that the student should form the whole of the letter with the same
pen, without any touching up afterwards. The practice of forming
letters roughly and shaping them up afterwards with a fine pen tends
to cultivate most unworkmanlike habits and cannot be too severely
censored. Also letters formed in this manner are always lacking in
character and vitality. If the student has become familiar with cutting
and handling the pen he ought to be able to form any of the letters
given here without the slightest difficulty.
The alphabets of capital letters given in Fig. 14 will be useful as
initials, etc., in connection with the small letters. It is quite
obvious that these letters are not formed with simple pen-strokes in
the same manner as the small letters are. These are built up with a
series of strokes, the body of the letter being then filled in with
either pen or brush. This method of building the letters up with
pen-strokes will be described in detail in a later chapter.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
The first alphabet given here (_i_), is based on the capital letters
used in the famous Book of Kells. These will serve well as initials
when using the Irish half-uncial characters for writing with. A good
many of the letters are given in a variety of forms. Some of these are
shown here and are liable to be somewhat unreadable if used in the
present day. For example, the Irish O is shaped more like D, and may
as well be used instead of this letter, which is not very distinct in
character. The letter G would be hardly recognisable if used in the
Irish form, so a simplified letter has been suggested. Some slight
modifications have also been suggested in the letters N and P. By
raising the cross-bar in N it conforms more to the modern shape of
this letter. It is necessary to simplify the Irish P, as this letter
resembles the letter R more than anything else.
The next alphabet, shown in (_j_), is based on capitals used in the
tenth century, a somewhat stiff and severe type of letter.
The last one (_k_) shows the type of capital used in the eleventh
century.
Some further alphabets will be given later on, when dealing with
illumination.
The student should not content himself merely with forming the letters
given here, but should study the subject for himself. He should,
if possible, examine some of the illuminated MSS. exhibited in the
various museums in London and elsewhere. He is specially recommended
to study the MSS. produced between the tenth and thirteenth centuries.
If he cannot possibly study the actual MSS. he should experience no
difficulty in obtaining reproductions of them. The British Museum
publishes an excellent series of collotype plates of a good number of
their choicest illuminated MSS., as well as some splendidly reproduced
in gold and colours. It will be found that a fair amount of time given
to the study of these old MSS. will well repay in the end. The way the
letters are massed together should be carefully noted, as well as the
formation of the individual letters. He should note also the freedom
displayed, the letters not being cramped in any way.
When studying lettering from photographs, or photographic
reproductions, the proportional compass is extremely useful for
measuring the exact size of the letters. The exact size of the page
is nearly always given, and it is quite a simple matter to adjust the
compass so that, when the measurement is taken with the smaller end,
the exact size of the lettering can be marked off with the opposite
end. This instrument is most useful when used in this manner, as
it is difficult to gauge the exact size of the lettering from the
measurements of the page. It is also always advisable to know, if at
all possible, the exact size of the lettering in the original when
studying a reproduction of a MS.
When examining MSS. in glass cases, when it is not convenient to have
them taken out, a magnifying lens of about five or six inches focus
is very useful for analysing the construction of fine lettering. This
depth of focus enables the lens to be used through the glass without
the necessity of having the case opened.
The student should seize every opportunity that may arise to examine
some of the best work of the mediæval period.
For the present he should confine his attention to the lettering. The
decoration will be considered later on, but, as this springs from the
lettering, it is essential that sufficient attention should be given
to the foundation before attempting to build upon it. He should also,
when opportunity arise, examine some of the best modern work in this
direction.
CHAPTER VII
ROMAN LETTERING
The Roman alphabet is certainly one of the most beautiful of all
the alphabets that we possess. It is, however, strictly speaking,
not a pen-formed alphabet. The fine forms of the Roman capitals,
as exemplified in the well-known inscription on the Trajan Column,
were most certainly the result of the evolution of chisel forms. The
pen-formed letters that came after were evolved from these Roman
capitals.
At first the type of letter used was practically the same as the chisel
form. Writing with this type of letter must have been extremely slow
work, compared with the simpler pen-forms that came into use later. It
is impossible to write, in the true sense of the word, when using Roman
letters. Although in the case of the early square-capital writing these
letters were constructed in a fairly simple fashion with a slanted-cut
pen, it is very difficult to write with any speed in this manner and at
the same time produce a well-finished letter. For general purposes it
is better to form the letters as shown in Fig. 15.
These are constructed in quite a different way from the types already
shown, the difference being that while they were formed with simple
pen-strokes as in ordinary handwriting, these are built up.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
For the purpose of illumination, Roman lettering is not by any means
ideal. It is much better to select a true pen-formed alphabet; but
for modern usage, such as the various branches of commercial work,
Roman lettering is used a great deal. It possesses one very great
advantage, that is, its legibility. As the man in the street has his
daily newspaper printed in a form of Roman lettering, he is therefore
more familiar with this type than any other. The greater bulk of
the commercial art of the present day aims to attract the attention
of this individual, so that it is necessary that it should be just
what he can understand. To letter a popular advertisement in a late
Gothic lettering would be foolish in the extreme, as he would, in all
probability, experience difficulty in deciphering it. The thing to aim
at, in this case, is to do it so that he cannot help seeing it. The
most important thing, in the eyes of the advertiser, is not so much the
design of the poster as the goods advertised, and the lettering calling
attention to these must be clear, distinct, and prominent. Lettering,
therefore, that is based on the Roman type is best for this kind of
work.
Illumination, in general, appeals to a different type of individual.
Something is required that is away from the ordinary. Also as
illumination is so inseparably bound up with writing, it is almost
essential that a true pen-formed lettering should be used.
The Roman capitals, as shown in Fig. 15, are based, to a great extent,
on those used in the Trajan Column inscription. It will be found
that the more practice that one has in forming letters with simple
pen-strokes, as already shown, the easier it will be to form the
letters by building them up, as in this case.
For general purposes the easiest way to form Roman letters is with a
pen cut with a medium point and a fairly long slit. The outward strokes
should be made first, then the ones that come inside the letter.
The serifs are then added, the outline filled in, and the letter is
complete. The lower-case letters given are a type that may be used in
conjunction with the capitals. Apart from the utility of this alphabet,
the student will find that forming these letters in this way will be
extremely good practice. He should also practise forming them with
a brush. For this purpose he should use a small, but firm, sable
water-colour brush. Construct the letters in exactly the same manner
as when using the pen. After a good amount of practice in this way he
will be surprised at the dexterity he is acquiring with the use of the
brush. Then, using a larger brush, he should endeavour to form large
letters in this way. This will be extremely useful for writing large
notices and announcements.
For work where very accurate lettering is required, such as high-class
commercial art, title-pages, etc., the outlines of the letters should
be produced by means of tee-square, set-square, and compasses. The
serifs also should be carefully drawn. In this case it is not wise to
go straight ahead with the pen, without drawing first carefully in
pencil.
The letters given in Fig. 16 are a type of Roman lettering made with
simple direct strokes of the pen. These will no doubt be useful, as
they may be very easily and quickly written. They should be very
helpful for writing quickly announcements, notices, etc.
A few notes may be useful to the student with regard to the
characteristics of the various Roman capitals.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
The letter A is sometimes pointed at the top, being generally formed in
this manner in inscriptions, but for pen- and brush-formed lettering
it is preferable to finish it in the way shown in Fig. 15. It should
be noticed that in the letter B the top part forms an angle with the
upright, while the bottom part curves into the stem. The same thing
applies to D, E, and L. The serifs on the lower limbs of E and L should
point outwards, while the serifs on the other limbs of E are quite
straight. This also applies to F. It is best to make the cross-bar in H
form angles with the uprights rather than curving into them. The form
of the letter J may be varied, the tail may be curved round, but it is
as well to avoid the ugly shape that is in general use. The tail may
project below the line considerably, if it is felt to be necessary, but
care should be taken not to exaggerate this too much. The same thing
applies to the tail of the next letter, K. In the letter M the two
outside strokes occasionally spread outwards, and in the form used in
inscriptions the top serifs are missing. These, however are generally
added to the pen- or brush-formed letter. The same thing applies to the
letter N. The letter O is not quite a circle; it is sometimes made in
the tilted form, _i.e._, as formed with the slanted-cut pen; when this
is the case all the corresponding curved letters should be treated in
the same way. The curve of P does not always touch the upright stem
below. The tail of the Q may be lengthened occasionally, as also is
the case in the letter R. The letter S often leans slightly forward,
but this tendency should not be accentuated too much. The top part of
this letter should be made slightly smaller than the lower part; this
applies also to all letters similarly divided in the middle. In the
letter T the top generally forms angles with the centre stem instead
of curving into it. For general writing the curved type of U should be
used in preference to the V which is used in Latin inscriptions. W is
formed by crossing two V’s.
The student is strongly advised to study some of the best historical
examples of Roman lettering. Some of these are detailed in the next
chapter.
CHAPTER VIII
SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF ROMAN LETTERING
The examples given in this chapter do not pretend to be, in any way,
a complete series of alphabets of Roman lettering. To go into this
matter properly would require far more space than is available here.
If, however, sufficient interest is aroused to encourage the student to
study the subject for himself, it will be worth while dealing briefly
with the subject here.
One of the most important alphabets is that used in the inscription on
the base of the Trajan Column (circa 114 A.D.). To help the student to
form these letters in their proper proportions, each letter has been
enclosed in a square (See Figs. 17-22). This should be a great help in
determining the correct form of the different letters. For example,
take the letter O; this is not quite a circle, as is shown plainly by
placing the letter in a square. In the case of the W, as this is larger
than the other letters, this has been placed in two squares.
As the alphabet from this inscription is incomplete, suitable forms
have been suggested for H, K, Y, and Z. Also additional letters have
been given for J, U, and W, which are necessary in modern usage.
[Illustration: THE TRAJAN COLUMN.]
This alphabet is extremely beautiful, and for important inscriptions
it is hardly possible to find a better model. The student is advised to
make a careful study of this alphabet.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
When using this alphabet for writing an inscription it is not a bad
plan to make a small cardboard gauge giving the width of the different
letters in proportion to the height decided upon. A small gauge like
this is very easily constructed and should be a great help in quickly
spacing the letters. For example, it may be noted that the letters C,
D, G, H, K, M, N, O, Q, U and Z nearly fill the square, while A, R,
T, V come next in size. B, X, and Y are slightly narrower, while the
letter P is a shade less than these. L and S are still slightly less in
width, and E and F are the most narrow of all the letters, excepting,
of course, I and J. If these various widths are marked on the edge of a
small strip of card it ought to be quite an easy matter to space these
letters quickly.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
The first alphabet shown in Fig. 20 (_a_) is a free rendering from a
thirteenth-century inscription in the Church of St. Ursula, Cologne. As
the alphabet was incomplete it has been completed, so that it may be
used without any difficulty arising through any of the letters being
missing.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
The next one is from an inscription of the early part of the fourteenth
century (_b_).
A late fifteenth-century alphabet is given in (_c_), which is taken
from an inscription in niello on a silver plaque fitted to a reliquary.
This is Italian and is dated 1496.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
The alphabets of capitals and minuscules shown in Fig. 21 are of
special interest to the illuminator. These are based on the writing
used in a late fifteenth-century illuminated MS. now in the British
Museum, St. Augustine’s “City of God” (Add. MS. 15246). These letters
are formed with quite simple strokes of the pen. In this MS. the
_f_-shaped minuscule _s_ is used. In the alphabet given here this has
been substituted by one more in keeping with the modern type of letter,
and several letters have been added to make the alphabet complete.
The student is strongly advised to study the lettering in this MS. for
himself. It makes a very effective script if written fairly small with
a crisply-cut pen.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
Some further alphabets are shown in Fig. 22. The lettering from which
the alphabet is taken that is shown in (_a_) is from a title-page from
“Utopia et Mori et Erasmi Epigrammata,” dated 1518. It has woodcut
borders and title-pages by Holbein. This style of letter is used
throughout the book for headings, etc. It is undoubtedly a very fine
type of letter and is worthy of careful study. As has been the case in
the other alphabets, this alphabet has been completed by adding letters
of approximate form to supply the missing ones.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
The next alphabet, given in (_b_), is taken from an inscription in
marble on the monument of the Marchese Spinetta Malaspina (d. 1352),
relating to its re-erection in the Church of San Giovanni in Sacco at
Verona in 1536.
The last one shown here, in (_c_), is from an inscription on the marble
monument of Filippo Decio (d. 1535), in the Campo Santo, Pisa, by
Stagio Stagi (d. 1563).
Of course, numerous other examples might be given, but sufficient have
been shown to enable the student to study the subject further if he so
desires. There are numbers of reproductions from old inscriptions and
MSS. easily obtainable.
In studying these alphabets the student will find that it is not a
bad plan, after forming the letters with a pen as described in the
preceding chapter, to use a brush as also suggested there. He should
then endeavour to form them fairly large, working straight away with
the brush. A good brush for this purpose is a sable “writer,” such as
is commonly used by sign-writers. Dexterity with this type of brush is
to a great extent merely a matter of practice. In fact, as has been
insisted on repeatedly throughout this book, practice, and plenty
of it, will do more than anything else towards making the student
efficient.
When studying this subject further the student should note especially
the manner in which the letters are arranged in the various
inscriptions, as a great deal depends upon the arrangement of the
letters and words.
CHAPTER IX
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
(1) _From the Fourth to the Eleventh Century_
Perhaps it would be as well, before dealing with the practical side
of illumination, to give a brief sketch of the history of this art in
Europe. It will not be possible to do more than give just a very short
outline of the history here. The modern illuminator should, however,
know something of the history of illumination. It is not intended to
deal with any but vellum MSS. Possibly it may be claimed that some of
the Egyptian Papyrii are illuminated MSS., but these have little in
common with the illuminated work of the Middle Ages, and it is with
this that this short review is chiefly concerned.
[Illustration: THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS.
_By kind permission of
the British Museum._
]
CLASSICAL AND BYZANTINE ILLUMINATION
It is known from the Epigrams of Martial, who himself lived in the
first century, that vellum MSS. were illuminated as early as A.D. 100.
Although this was undoubtedly the case, very few MSS. have survived. It
is very difficult to state exactly the date of the earliest of these,
but most authorities are of the opinion that the third or fourth
century is the earliest date that any of them can be assigned to. Some
think that the MS. of Virgil in the Vatican (No. 3225) is the oldest
illuminated MS. This MS. is written on seventy-six leaves of vellum.
It has fifty miniatures, but of this number five are scarcely visible
at the present time. These miniatures are framed with gilt or coloured
bands, but the MS. displays nothing in the way of ornament which is
generally associated with illuminated work.
Another early MS. is the Ambrosian Iliad, at Milan, which some think
to be of the third century and others of the fourth or fifth. This is
noted for its fine handwriting and also its illustrations.
These early MSS. are really illustrated rather than illuminated, as the
term is generally understood.
Following on after this comes the Byzantine School of illumination. The
most important of the early MSS. are the Dioscorides and the Genesis
of the Vienna Library. These two MSS. are both thought to be of the
sixth century. The first of these, called after its principal author
the “Dioscorides,” is a collection of treatises on botany, hunting,
etc., by several Greek physicians. This was written for the Princess
Juliana Anicia, daughter of Flavius Anicius Olybrius, who was Emperor
of the West in 472. It is written in uncial characters and contains,
amongst other things, a portrait of Juliana. It contains also a number
of coloured drawings of plants, birds, insects, etc., illustrating the
text.
In the Vienna Genesis the text is written in gold and silver on purple
vellum. It has forty-eight miniatures which are placed in square
frames, and there is no marginal decoration. Gold is occasionally used,
but it is not burnished.
There is also a fragment of a Genesis Codex in the British Museum
(Cott. Otho. B. VI.), which is supposed to be of the same period.
The Joshua Rotulus in the Vatican Library (Codex Vat. Palat. Gr. 431)
is a very important MS. It is thought by some to be a copy of an
original MS. possibly as old as the fifth century. Opinions, however,
differ, other authorities ascribing it to the fifth or sixth century.
Another well-known MS. is the famous Gospel Book in the Laurentian
Library of Florence, known as the Rabula MS. This MS. is dated 586.
The first phase of the Byzantine School is Hellenesque, and, no doubt,
it was part of the Alexandrian School, which was at its height in
the sixth century. The later style, which reached its maturity about
the end of the ninth century and began to decline after the twelfth
century, represents what is generally understood as Byzantine. A Simeon
Metaphrastes of the eleventh-twelfth century (Add. MS. 1180) and a
twelfth-century Gospels (Harley MS. 1810), both in the British Museum,
represent the peculiarly dignified ecclesiastical style of this school.
The Byzantine School influenced the development of illumination very
strongly. Especially is this noticeable in Italy.
CELTIC AND ANGLO-CELTIC ILLUMINATION
In the development of illumination the Celtic School played a most
important part. There is a very strong contrast between this and the
Byzantine School. The Byzantine MSS. were illustrated by more or less
naturalistic representations, while in the Celtic MSS. everything
seems to be treated as pure ornament. Even when the human figure is
introduced it seems to be treated in this way. Gold is also absent in
purely Irish MSS. The artists do not appear to represent the figure
with any degree of realism.
The chief characteristics of Celtic work are intricate spirals and
interlaced pattern, also patterns composed of dots, and curious
elongated creatures entwined together in a most complicated fashion.
Possibly the earliest date mentioned in connection with Celtic
illumination is that given by Giraldus Cambrensis, who went to Ireland
at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion. He was chaplain to John,
the son of Henry II. He wrote concerning a famous MS. called the
Book of Kildare, a book which at present is not known to be extant.
He describes it as having been written at the “dictation of an angel
in St. Bridget’s own time.” St. Bridget, of Kildare, lived in the
latter part of the fifth and the early sixth centuries, so that, if
this account may be relied upon, it must have been written at least
a century before the celebrated Book of Kells. From the details that
Giraldus Cambrensis gives of the Book of Kildare, he might easily be
describing the Book of Kells. It was evidently very similar.
The Book of Kells is now in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin.
Some authorities think this to be as old as the seventh century, while
others assign it to the eighth or ninth century. This is an extremely
beautiful MS.; it has been described so many times that there is no
need to give a detailed description here.
Another well-known MS. is the Book of Durrow, also in Trinity College,
Dublin. Some have thought that this was written by the famous Columba
of Iona, as the name “Columba” is mentioned in the colophon at the end
of the MS., but whether this Columba was St. Columba of Iona is, of
course, debatable. Certainly a number of authorities are agreed that
its claims to be an actual relic of St. Columba are by no means to be
altogether rejected. The Book of Durrow, although very fine, is not
such a good example as the Book of Kells.
It would be interesting to know if St. Columba had much to do with
the cultivation of this art. The early biographies certainly speak of
him as an enthusiastic calligrapher, and in an ancient “Life of St.
Columba” he is spoken of as having written “three hundred splendid,
lasting books.”
It was through the efforts of the Scoto-Irish missionaries from
Iona that the art of illuminating was introduced into the north of
England. They founded a monastery at Lindisfarne early in the seventh
century. The famous Durham Book, or Lindisfarne Gospels, now in the
British Museum, was written here about the year 700 (Nero D. IV.). The
decoration and writing in this splendid MS. are essentially Celtic.
It, however, differs from the Book of Kells by the slight use of
gold in the decoration, also in the four full-page portraits of the
Evangelists, which show a strong Italo-Byzantine influence. This MS. is
undoubtedly one of the choicest treasures amongst the illuminated MSS.
in the British Museum.
CARLOVINGIAN ILLUMINATION
At the end of the eighth century the great revival of the arts which
followed the accession of Charlemagne acted as a great impetus to the
art of illumination. This art was developed from the crude Merovingian
style, and many elaborate volumes were produced. Some of the most
sumptuous are the Alcuin Bibles, and the Gospel Books, which were
written in gold. One of these Alcuin Bibles is exhibited in the British
Museum (Add. MSS. 10546), also one of the Gospel Books (Harley MS.
2788). The miniatures and decoration in these MSS. seem to show the
influence of the Roman, Byzantine, and Celtic Schools. The best period
of Carlovingian illumination seems to be the eighth century.
THE WINCHESTER SCHOOL
One cannot write even the briefest of sketches concerning the history
of illumination without referring to the work produced by the two
Winchester Scriptoria, generally referred to under the appellation of
“Opus Anglicum.”
The Anglo-Celtic tradition seems to have been completely lost, probably
due to the Danish raids in the ninth century.
It is said that in the time of Alfred the Great, there was a
scriptorium already in existence at Winchester, founded by St. Swithin,
who was made Bishop of Winchester in 852. Alfred, when a boy of
five, went with his father to Rome, and there is, at the very least,
presumptive evidence that, when returning, he saw the library of
Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle.
When he came to the throne in 871 he founded another monastery near the
old one, attaching a scriptorium. These two scriptoria were, at a later
date, to become the nursery of English illumination.
Although Alfred seems to have done so much to foster this art, there
are, unfortunately, no specimens which have survived that can be
assigned to any earlier date than that of his grandson Athelstan
(925-40).
A small MS. known as Athelstan’s Psalter was principally written on the
Continent in the ninth century, but many additions were made to it in
England towards the middle of the tenth century. This MS. shows that
some efforts had been made to replace the lost art of the Anglo-Celtic
School, which had flourished more than 200 years before by a new style
based on Continental models; and, although these miniatures may appear
somewhat crude, they probably represent the best work of the English
artists at this early period.
The first known example of actual Winchester work is the “Golden
Charter” of King Edgar, in 966, now in the British Museum (Cott. MS.
Vesp. A. VIII.). This represents an enormous advance on the crude
paintings in Athelstan’s Psalter; a miniature on a purple ground
shows King Edgar, standing between the Virgin and St. Peter, offering
the Charter to the Saviour. This page is well designed and a fine
decorative border surrounds the miniature.
The most famous example, however, is the well-known Benedictional of
Æthelwold, in the Library of the Duke of Devonshire. If the student
wishes for a full and illustrated description of this fine MS. he is
referred to the twenty-fourth volume of the Archæologia.
This MS. was written by Godeman, a monk of the old Minster, at
Winchester; it contains twenty large miniatures, each facing a
benediction for the most important days, with seven others of groups of
Confessors, Virgins, and Apostles at the beginning, and at the end the
bishop is represented giving a benediction in his cathedral. All these
miniatures, excepting the last, are surrounded with arches or frames of
gold and colours, and a similar border surrounds the opening words of
the benediction.
The Harleian Psalter (Harl. MS. 2904), in the British Museum, is
another MS. of this school. It would take far too much space to
go into details concerning this, but special mention should be
made of the drawing of the Crucifixion. This is in outline and is
slightly tinted and shaded. It is very interesting as showing the
stage that figure-drawing had reached at this early period. One very
characteristic feature of Winchester work is the curious “fluttering”
drapery which is noticeable in practically all the work of this school.
CHAPTER X
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
(_continued_)
(2) _From the Twelfth Century to its Decline_
ILLUMINATION IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY
A great change is noticeable in the illuminated work of the twelfth
century, one of the most important being the development of initial
decoration and the use of raised and burnished gold, and especially the
miniatures, which were often introduced within the initial letters. The
art of illumination gained considerably during this century, of which
the second half is notable for the number of richly-illuminated Bibles
of large size that were produced.
In England during this century there is a great difference between the
work produced and that of the preceding century. Probably a number of
things may be instanced as having caused this. There is hardly a doubt
but that the Norman Conquest may have had a great deal to do with
the introduction of Continental ideas. It is also possible that the
Crusades may have been responsible for a better knowledge concerning
the Byzantine and Eastern Schools.
The framing borders to the miniatures, etc., are somewhat different to
the loose entwined borders of the Winchester School, being generally
simple rectangular bands, either displaying a simple pattern or else
practically plain and severe. It is in initial-ornament that the
greatest development is noticeable.
In the latter part of the century some very beautiful initials filled
with conventional foliage with human, animal, and grotesque forms
entwined were produced. Both in miniature painting and also in outline
drawing a very definite style was formed.
The Psalter of Westminster Abbey (Royal MS. 2 A. XXII.) is a good
example of the miniature painting of this period, while the famous
Guthlac Roll (Harley Roll Y. 6) affords a good example of the outline
drawing of this period.
THIRTEENTH-CENTURY ILLUMINATION
In the thirteenth century the style of decoration was more refined.
Some of the most beautiful work in the whole history of illumination
was produced in this century. Numerous examples abound, and these
deserve very careful study. The ornamental border, which had
practically disappeared in the twelfth century, gradually re-developed
during this century; first in the form of a growth from the initial
letter, it developed into a foliated border upon which small animals,
birds, and quaint little figures were placed.
Some of the French MSS. of this period are particularly beautiful.
Bibles are numerous, being often quite small in size. Some of these
MSS. appear to be as perfect as if they had just been completed, the
gold being still brilliant and the colours still retaining their
freshness. All the MSS. of this period seem to follow a general scheme
of decoration. For example, the opening page of Genesis is one of the
most elaborate, being taken up with a series of miniatures representing
the days of Creation; the Jesse tree was also represented at the
opening of the Gospels.
In the latter half of this century diaper backgrounds were used a great
deal in the miniatures, and in some cases burnished gold was used with
patterns indented upon it.
A typical example of a thirteenth-century Bible is shown in the Bible
of Robert de Bello, who was Abbot of St. Augustine’s, Canterbury,
1224-1253. This MS. is in the British Museum (Burney MS. 3). It is
written in a minute hand and illuminated with figure initials and
partial borders. The initial I of Genesis is quite characteristic of
thirteenth-century work.
Another MS. in the British Museum, a Bible History, moralized, in Latin
(Add. MS. 18719), is a good example of the outline drawing at the end
of this century. This is a MS. of the French School.
Another fine French MS., of about 1300, also in the British Museum,
is that of the Somme le Roi (Add. MS. 28162), which, with its bright
colours and burnished gold, is a good example of the best French work
of this period.
There are, of course, many other MSS. that might be detailed, these
instanced here being merely typical of the general style of work
produced in this century.
ILLUMINATION IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
The illumination of the fourteenth century was a development of the
work of the preceding century. Nature was copied more, and natural
foliage treated in a conventional manner was largely used. The oak, the
hawthorn, the ivy, and various other natural growths were frequently
employed. Especially was this the case with the ivy, which in the
French MSS. was used a great deal. The use of very large initials was
not so usual, but while the initials decreased in size the technique
improved. This tendency towards naturalism developed more and more
as the century advanced. These natural forms, however, were still
considered as decoration and were not mere naturalistic renderings.
Miniature painting was also developed in this century; indeed, the art
of illumination is generally considered to have reached its highest
point of development in this century. Certainly some of the most
beautiful and richly-decorated MSS. are of this period.
There is a fine example of English work of the early fourteenth century
in the British Museum in the MS. known as Queen Mary’s Psalter (Royal
MS. 2 B. VII.). This MS. is very interesting, as it not only has the
usual richly-illuminated pages, but also a large number of lightly
tinted outline drawings.
A beautiful example of French miniature work of the early part of this
century is shown in an Apocalypse, also in the British Museum (Royal
MS. 19 B. XV.). The miniatures in this MS. are drawn in outline and
slightly tinted, on grounds of dark blue and red.
Another fine French MS. in the British Museum is an Epistle in French
by Philippe de Maizières, Celestin of Paris, to Richard II. of England,
advocating peace and friendship between him and Charles VI. of France,
1395-1396. This affords a good example both of miniature work and
ivy-leaf decoration.
Some initials that have been cut from a large Missal (Add. MSS. 29704,
29705) show the development of rich decoration in England towards the
end of the fourteenth century.
ILLUMINATION IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY AND LATER
In the early part of the fifteenth century the work of the French
School was undoubtedly superior to that of the English. The ivy-leaf
decoration of the fourteenth century was developed into an elaborate
decorative scheme. The gold and diaper backgrounds began to be
dispensed with and natural scenery was substituted. In fact miniature
painting became more and more naturalistic in treatment, and the same
tendency is noticeable in the decoration, which, although often most
elaborate and highly finished, is not to be compared with the earlier
work.
In this century, Flemish illumination, which during the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries was very similar in style to the French and
English MSS., developed into a most distinctive style specially notable
for its fine, delicate drawing. An illuminated MS. in the British
Museum, “Mandeville’s Travels” (Add. MS. 24189), is an example of this
style. It contains twenty-seven miniatures, without text, illustrating
Sir John Mandeville’s travels. These are drawn with a pen on vellum
that has been tinted a soft pale green. They have been shaded in black
and white with a brush, and colour is used for flesh tints, foliage,
etc., and gold is also used for crowns, nimbi, etc.
In Flemish illumination of the latter part of the fifteenth century
miniature painting became highly developed, becoming more realistic.
The decoration became debased, becoming eventually merely a frame of
gold or colour upon which were painted realistic representations of
flowers, fruit, insects, etc. These were often beautifully painted, and
the miniatures also show great skill from a technical standpoint, but
lacking generally the fine feeling that characterises the work of the
earlier periods.
This later style is represented by a number of MSS. in the British
Museum. One only is mentioned here, although this is but one of many.
The “Hours of the Virgin” (Egerton MS. 1147).
The Breviary of John, Duke of Burgundy (Harley MS. 2897), and the “Book
of Hours” of John, Duke of Bedford (Add. MS. 18850), are two famous
MSS. of the French School at this period, now in the British Museum.
“The Missal of William Melrith, Alderman of London” (Arundel MS. 109),
is an example of English illumination of the first half of this century.
In Italy, as was the case in regard to writing, the illuminators in
the early part of this century seem to have gone back to the period
of the eleventh and twelfth centuries for models. A familiar type of
decoration is formed of twining vine-tendrils, generally in white
on coloured grounds. Another type that was in use a great deal was
a delicate style of decoration composed of a conventional treatment
of flowers, foliage, etc., studded with a large number of raised
gold spots brilliantly burnished, outlined and rayed. In course
of time these styles became much more elaborated with medallions,
vases, candelabra, portrait busts, realistic renderings of gems, and
Renaissance figures.
Some examples of late Italian work in the British Museum are as
follows:--St. Augustine’s “Commentary on the Psalms” (Add. MS. 14799);
“Luiz, de Bello Macedonico,” etc. (Harley MS. 3694); “Book of Hours,”
of Bona Sforza, Duchess of Milan (Add. MS. 34294).
When the art of printing from type was first practised, this did not
at once stop the production of illuminated MSS. The large number of
MSS. that were produced after this date shows quite plainly that,
except in the commoner class of books, the MS. book still occupied the
most prominent place. Professional illuminators were still employed by
people in high positions, and some very costly and elaborate volumes
were produced. Many of the early printed volumes were printed with
spaces left for initials, miniatures, etc., to be filled in by the
illuminator. However, in course of time this art gradually fell into
disuse.
This brief summary of the history of this art is necessarily
incomplete; it has not been possible to deal thoroughly with this
subject here. It is hoped, however, that the student will continue the
study of the historical side of illumination, and that this little
sketch will serve as an introduction to further study.
[Illustration: Early 14th Century.
FLEMISH INITIALS.]
[Illustration: Late 13th Century.
FLEMISH INITIALS.]
CHAPTER XI
THE INITIAL LETTER
If the illuminated MSS. of the Middle Ages are carefully studied, the
importance of the initial letter as a starting-point for the growth of
the decoration cannot possibly escape one’s notice. The rough sketches
shown in Figs. 23 and 24 trace the development in this direction
through the various centuries. These are given simply to indicate the
way in which the initial letter was used in the different periods. The
student is strongly advised to study the subject for himself. If he
cannot examine the details from the actual MSS., there are plenty of
excellent reproductions published which will enable him to study them
at his leisure. It is, however, practically essential that, even if he
cannot spend much time over them, he should make a point of at least
seeing some of the actual work of the mediæval artists.
In the famous Book of Kells the initial letter is used to great
advantage. It will well repay the student to study carefully some good
reproductions of the pages of this wonderful MS. It shows what can be
done with fine decoration based on lettering. Quite a number of pages
are taken up with the words _Liber generationis Christi_, while one
page is entirely devoted to the sacred monogram X P I.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
In Fig. 23 an example is shown in (_a_) from the famous Lindisfarne
Gospels, now in the British Museum (Cotton MS., Nero D. IV.). This
beautiful MS. is written in fine, half-uncial characters, the
decoration being of the kind known as Hiberno-Saxon, or Anglo-Celtic.
A note at the end of this MS. states that it was written by Eadfrith,
Bishop of the Church of Lindisfarne. It was finished about the year
700. It has a most interesting history, which is much too detailed
to describe here. It should, however, be carefully studied from the
standpoint now being considered, viz., the initial letter. The page
represented by this rough sketch is the opening page of the Gospel of
St. Matthew. Of course this very rough suggestion can convey no idea of
the beauty of the original, but it gives one some notion of the way in
which the monogram X P I has been used as a basis for the decoration.
Perhaps it would be as well for the student to study, for the present,
some of the MSS. of the best periods from this standpoint alone. He
should note exactly how the letters are placed and the manner in which
they are used. For the time being he should not concern himself so much
with the details of the decoration. This may follow later, after he has
become more familiar with the subject.
The page shown in (_b_) is from a Psalter probably written at
Winchester in the latter part of the tenth century (Harley MS. 2904).
It is the commencement of Psalm ci. This is also in the British Museum,
as also are all the examples illustrated here. It is quite different
to that of the Lindisfarne Gospels, although possibly some Celtic
influence may be noted.
The next one (_c_) is also from a Psalter (Arundel MS. 60). This is a
further development of the same school as the last, and was probably
written at New Minster, Winchester, about 1060. It is interesting to
observe how the D is linked up with the border.
The initial B, illustrated by (_d_), is from a twelfth-century Psalter
of Westminster Abbey (Royal MS. 2 A. XXII.). Very large initials were
very common during this period. This letter is filled with foliage,
animals, etc., and also shows scenes from the life of David. The
initial B at the commencement of the Psalms was a favourite subject
with the illuminator at this time. He generally introduced the subject
of David slaying Goliath also.
A common feature of the thirteenth-century illumination was the use
of large decorated examples of the initial I, of which an instance is
given in (_e_). These were filled with miniatures and foliage and were
extremely decorative in character. This one is from a French Gospel
Lectionary (Add. MS. 17341), and is filled with scenes from the Life of
Christ.
A charming example is shown in (_f_), which is from a Book of Hours
(Stowe MS. 17). The initial D contains a miniature, as also does the A.
This is probably either late thirteenth or early fourteenth century.
David and Goliath are also represented. The whole MS. is delightful in
style.
Fig. 24 shows some more examples. Another page from a Book of Hours is
given in (_g_) (Egerton MS. 2781). This is a fourteenth-century MS. The
initials and borders are rather rough in technique, but they are very
interesting from the point of view of design. The large initial D has a
miniature representing a legendary story of the childhood of Christ.
The initial A shown in (_h_) is from a fourteenth century Missal
(Harley MS. 2891). The letter is filled with a most delightful
miniature.
The next example (_i_) is a very beautiful initial taken from a Bible
executed in England during the latter part of the fourteenth century
(Royal MS. 1 E. IX.). A number of the initials are filled with foliage,
as in this case, and others contain miniatures. The backgrounds of
these letters are usually of burnished gold with patterns indented upon
them.
A simple, but very beautiful, type is given in (_j_). This is taken
from an extremely fine MS. written, also, at the end of the fourteenth
century (Royal MS. 20 B. VI.). It is a very interesting MS., being an
Epistle by Philippe de Maizières to Richard II. of England, advocating
peace and friendship between him and Charles VI. of France. This type
of initial was fairly common at this period. It is a type of letter
that should be very useful for the beginner.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
In the fifteenth century the initial letter lost a good deal of its
importance. The result of this was that the decoration became debased
in character, until it finally became nothing more or less than a
number of naturalistic renderings of flowers and insects, painted
on a gold border and represented as throwing shadows upon it. There
is, however, a certain amount of sweetness about some of this work,
especially when it is compared with some of the work of the present
day. However, some of the MSS. that were produced in the earlier part
of this century are very fine pieces of work. The example illustrated
by (_k_) is from a Psalter of Henry VI., about 1425-1430 (Cotton MS.
Domitian A. XVII.). The large initial D is joined to a miniature.
Several initials are given in (_l_). These are all of the thirteenth
century. The E is of raised and burnished gold on a blue block, the
centre being red and the whole finished with white lining. The N,
P, and U are of a type largely used, being generally red with blue
pen-work, or _vice versâ_. The others are similar to the E, but are
shown as an example of how they were joined when coming close together.
Excellent reproductions of these examples have been published by the
British Museum authorities in a series of collotype plates, the only
exception being (_e_) in Fig. 23, of which an illustration is published
in the Guide to the MSS., Part III.
The main object of this chapter is to direct the student to the study
of the MSS. for himself and especially to show what an important place
the initial letter had in the MSS. of the mediæval period. He is
strongly advised to make a point of studying some of the actual MSS.
for himself.
[Illustration: A Simple Page in Black & Red.]
CHAPTER XII
SIMPLE ILLUMINATION IN BLACK AND RED
A good deal of very effective work can be done by using black and red
only. The student should be able to do good work in this way before
attempting to use gold and colours.
A method for setting out the page, before commencing to write, is shown
plainly in Fig. 25. For this purpose a tee-square and set-square are
required, together with a pair of spring dividers and a sharply-pointed
HB. pencil. The approximate size of the page and the distance between
the lines of lettering must be decided. Then the margins at the top and
the two sides must be marked out, and the upright lines drawn in by
means of the set-square. The distance between the lines of lettering
is then pricked off down one side with the spring dividers. The lines
can then be ruled across against the tee-square. A word of caution is
perhaps needed here: the pencil should be held as shown in the diagram,
and kept at the same angle during the ruling of the line. If this rule
is not carefully observed, it is possible to start with the point of
the pencil close up against the edge of the tee-square, or set-square,
and finish the line with it about one-sixteenth of an inch away from
it. If this habit is developed, the lines of lettering will hardly ever
be quite straight and even. Another important detail is to see that
the tee-square rests tightly against the edge of the board, and the
set-square against the tee-square.
[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
It will be found that an HB. pencil is the most satisfactory grade for
ruling the lines with, as if used lightly the lines can be cleaned off
quite easily afterwards with a piece of soft rubber. Some illuminators
recommend an H. or HH. pencil for this, but, although these keep a
sharp point longer, the lines produced are not so easily erased.
After ruling the page the next thing to be settled is the size of the
initial letter. It should be lightly sketched in with the pencil. It is
best to use the writing lines to govern the size of this. For example,
the size of this letter might be four or five lines down.
It is very effective to have the first few words in capitals. Several
different arrangements are shown in Fig. 25. The position of these
may be roughly planned out in pencil. They may then be written in red
straight away, or may be left until after the black lettering is done.
It is best not to finish the initial until after the lettering is done.
When the position of the initial and the opening words is determined,
the black lettering should be proceeded with. The student should
endeavour to ensure perfect freedom in working, also to aim at
preventing the writing from looking as if a great deal of trouble had
been taken to make it fit and space well. For anyone to derive any joy
out of it, there must be a feeling of spontaneity and freedom about it.
He should allow his imagination to work when writing. If he studies
the words that he is writing he is bound to have suggestions come
to his mind. For example, perhaps one verse seems to stand out very
prominently, and it is felt that it would be better if written entirely
in red. Or, again, another verse seems to start a new line of thought,
and a fresh initial is suggested.
After the writing is completed, attention should be paid to the initial
and the decoration. A good method for the beginner is to fix a sheet of
tracing-paper over the page; as the lettering shows plainly through,
there is plenty of opportunity for experimenting with decoration.
Some good types of letters suitable for initials are shown in Fig.
26. The first alphabet is based largely on a type of letter used in
the eleventh century, while the second one is a free rendering of
thirteenth-century letters. These letters are all built up. They may be
made with either pen or brush.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
Building up these letters with strokes made with the pen or brush is
excellent practice for the student. For constructing the letters in
the first alphabet the pen will probably be found to be the best tool.
These letters are constructed in a similar manner to that described in
an earlier chapter on forming Roman capitals. Some suggestive details
are shown in Fig. 27.
The letters in the second alphabet may be formed much more easily with
a brush than with a pen. It will be seen in Fig. 27 how naturally the
letter is filled in with the brush, the end of the stroke terminating
in a small knob. For filling in the letters in this way a brush should
be used quite full of colour, and it should also have; a good point.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
After having a fair amount of practice in forming letters in this way
the student will soon be able to produce them quickly and easily.
The terminals of these letters may be drawn out if necessary, or they
may be joined up with the border. The student should take note, from
the examples given in the previous chapter, of the manner in which the
initial was used in the past as a starting-point for the decoration.
Vermilion is a good red for this purpose. There are several varieties
sold, known by various names, such as scarlet vermilion, orange
vermilion, vermilion, and Chinese vermilion. The kind known simply as
vermilion seems to answer best of all. Scarlet and orange vermilion
are liable to look somewhat weak. This also applies to the Chinese
vermilion we are able to get in this country. Some illuminators prefer
to add a little crimson to the vermilion.
It is important that the red should be painted in solid, and not be
thin and washy in character. This also applies to the black, which
should be a decided black, not inclining to brown or grey. The red
should be kept quite bright and clean, care being taken not to get
it mixed up with dirty colour in any way. A great deal of the effect
depends on the strong black and brilliant red.
In Fig. 28 an initial with a simple border is shown in (_a_). The
initial letter and the decoration may be done in red, and also the
opening words.
Very decorative arrangements are possible with simple lettering and a
fine initial, as in (_b_). When an initial letter is used in this way,
without any border, it is best to fit it in with the lettering so that
the line of the letter does not project beyond the line of the black
lettering. When, however, a simple border is added down the side, it
may project, as shown in (_c_).
An interesting arrangement is shown in (_d_), where two columns are
used. By the judicious use of red, a fine decorated page is possible if
carried out in this style.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
The initial O shown here is an example of what can be done with simple
pattern work in the way of diapers. In the illuminated manuscripts
from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries a great number of these
were used. This simple pattern work is very pleasant, and the student
is recommended to study these for himself. He should also study the
fine initials with pen-work in red and blue. He can then vary his
work by adding blue in addition to red, using a red initial with blue
decoration, or _vice versâ_.
The various forms of simple pattern work, made with simple
pen-strokes, and shown here, should also claim his attention. He should
endeavour to make borders for himself in this simple way. They may
serve as tail-pieces and line finishings, and the construction of these
is all good practice in design.
It is excellent practice for the student to write out a number of
quotations in this way, in black and red, with nicely-drawn initials
and borders of simple pattern work. He should endeavour to guard
against making them too florid in treatment, and, above all, should
be careful not to employ a lot of meaningless flourishes. The work of
the mediæval period affords the best examples for study that he could
possibly have.
CHAPTER XIII
THE COLOURS USED BY THE MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATOR
One can hardly study the illuminated work of the Middle Ages without
being interested in the methods employed by the artists of this period.
The MSS. still in existence, with colours still fresh and bright, make
one curious to know what colours were used to produce this result.
Our knowledge of the colours used in classical times is derived
chiefly from Pliny’s “Natural History” and the writings of Vitruvius.
Theophrastus, in his work on stones, also adds some description of
pigments.
It appears from these writers that the earth colours, such as the
ochres and siennas, were well known, as also was the green earth terra
verte. Blues and greens were obtained from the ores of copper, one of
the most notable being azurite, a blue carbonate of copper. Verdigris
was prepared by the action of vinegar on copper. Cinnabar, a native
variety of red sulphide of mercury similar to our vermilion, which is
the same thing artificially prepared, and orpiment, the native sulphide
of arsenic, were also colours used at this period.
A number of white earths were also employed, chalk being the most
important. White lead was used, being prepared in practically the same
way as the best is to-day. Lakes were made by dyeing chalk or gypsum.
Several vegetal dyes were used for this purpose, such as madder, weld,
and woad. In addition to these dyes, lakes were prepared from kermes
and the celebrated murex. Kermes is a red dye caused by a small insect
similar to that of the cochineal insect; it was used for dyeing and for
making pigments, both in classical and mediæval times. The murex was a
species of shellfish from which was extracted the famous purple dye.
This was the dye used for the purple vellum that was used so much in
the early period.
The blacks used were carbon-blacks, such as lamp-black, bone-black, or
the black prepared from grape husks and vine leaves.
Indigo was undoubtedly in use, and it is highly probable that the red
resin known as dragon’s blood was also in use. Pliny, in his “Natural
History,” describes the fighting between the elephant and the dragon,
and he states that the name cinnabar should be given to the thick
matter which issues from the dragon when crushed beneath the weight
of the dying elephant, mixed with their blood. It is thought that he
may be referring to this pigment, for, in another chapter, he refers
to India sending the corrupt blood of her dragons and elephants. There
is one colour, which was one of the principal pigments of the Middle
Ages, of which no mention is made in the classical period, and that is
ultramarine.
It is difficult to be certain as to how the different colours were
mixed, but the ink used was prepared from lamp-black mixed with gum
and water, and it is probable that the colours were mixed with either
gum, glue, or egg.
The Lucca MS. of the eighth century, in the cathedral library at Lucca,
contains, amongst other things, a short list of pigments. There is very
little difference between the information given here and that given
by Pliny. This MS., however, gives the first distinct directions for
making artificial vermilion. It is also interesting as giving definite
information as to how colours were mixed for working on parchment or
vellum, as the following quotation plainly shows: “On wood the colours
being mixed with wax, on _skins_ fish-glue being mixed.”
In the twelfth-century MS., the Mappæ Clavicula, the greater part of
the Lucca MS. is repeated.
The Schedula Diversarum Artium of Theophilus is also of about the same
date, and is a very important MS. It is divided into three books, the
first dealing with painting, the second with the manufacture of glass,
and the third with metal-work. It is evident that Theophilus, who was
a monk in some German monastery, was a worker in metal. However, he
collected quite a lot of information on various forms of art work. It
is, of course, in the book on painting that the information with regard
to colours is found.
In Chapter XXVII. he gives instructions for preparing the gum for
mixing with colours. This is described as follows: “Take gum which
exudes from the cherry or plum tree, and, cutting it up very small,
place it in an earthenware pot, and pour water upon it abundantly and
place it in the sun, or in winter upon the coals, until the gum has
liquefied; and mix it together with a smooth piece of wood. Then strain
it through a cloth, and grind the colours with it and lay them on.”
In Chapter XXXIV., which is entitled “How Colours are Tempered for
Books,” he says: “Make a mixture of the clearest gum and water as
above, and temper all colours except green and ceruse and minium and
carmine. Salt green is worth nothing for books. You will temper Spanish
green with pure wine, and if you wish to make shadows, add a little
sap of iris or cabbage or leek. You will temper minium and ceruse and
carmine with clear of egg. Compose all preparations of colours for a
book as above, if you want them for painting figures. All colours are
laid on twice in books, at first very thinly, then more thickly; but
once for letters.”
Salt green, that is mentioned here, was a mixture of verdigris and
subchloride of copper. Spanish green was verdigris, and minium was
red lead, while ceruse was white lead. Verdigris is, of course, a
notoriously fugitive colour, but while in ordinary water-colour
painting it would probably not be safe to use, it would last fairly
well in books. Certainly it seems to have done so in the past, if one
may judge from the greens in many of the old MSS., which are still
brilliant.
Other colours described are those known as “folium” colours. These seem
to have been different vegetal dyes.
In Chapter XL. he gives a description of how to prepare ink. This
is quite different from the ink of the classical period, which,
as mentioned before, was made from lampblack and gum-water. The
ink described by Theophilus is more of the nature of our modern
writing-ink, being prepared from the bark of thorn-trees, amounting
really to an infusion of tannin, with the addition of iron sulphate,
popularly known as green vitriol.
There is no mention in this MS. of the preparation of ultramarine.
Following this there are the MSS. that have been translated by Mrs.
Merrifield, _viz._, Eraclius, Alcherius, the book of Peter St.
Andemar, all included in the MSS. of La Bègue, the Sloane MS., and the
Strassburg MS.
The MS. of Eraclius is regarded as not being later than the thirteenth
century, the first two books being very early and quoted by Theophilus.
In these MSS. it is plainly stated that the colours were generally
mixed with either gum-water or egg. White of egg was often used,
but occasionally the yolk. For example, it seems to have been used
as a medium for vermilion and orpiment. These MSS. contain a lot of
information very similar to that in the MS. of Theophilus.
Lakes were, in the earliest MSS., prepared in a similar way to that
used in the classical period, and are described in this manner in
the MS. of Eraclius. In the MS. of Jehan le Bègue, however, there
are several recipes that have been compiled by him from the MSS. of
Alcherius, of the fourteenth century, which are practically the same as
the modern method.
The MS. of Le Bègue is also of interest, as it contains a recipe for
the preparation of real ultramarine.
Perhaps the most interesting MS. of all is that known as the Book of
the Art of Cennino Cennini. This is a most delightful treatise on the
methods then in use. Cennino Cennini was an Italian painter and was
living in Padua in 1398. The MS. in the Vatican is dated 1437, but
this is in all probability merely the date attached by the copyist. It
is evident that the colours and methods that he mentions were in use
during the fourteenth century.
As this was a period when some of the finest examples of illumination
were produced, it is interesting to note the various colours used, so
they are given in detail.
The reds mentioned by him are sinopia, cinabrese, cinnabar, minium,
amatisto, dragon’s blood, and lake. Sinopia is a similar colour
to light red, either native or prepared by roasting yellow ochre.
Cinabrese is a mixture of sinopia with chalk. Cinnabar, as mentioned
before, is mercuric sulphide, which, when artificially prepared, is
termed vermilion. There is hardly any doubt that the variety Cennino
was familiar with was the artificial kind, for he remarks that it
“is produced by alchemy, performed in an alembic.” Minium is red
lead, while amatisto is probably hæmatite. Dragon’s blood, as already
referred to, is a resinous colour, and lakes were prepared from various
dyes.
The yellow pigments were ochre, giallorino, orpiment, risalgallo,
zafferano, and arzica. Giallorino is supposed to have been a native
mineral yellow pigment. It is described by Cennino as a volcanic
product. Some, however, think this to be similar to the pigment that
used to be known as Naples yellow, which was a compound of the oxides
of lead and antimony. Risalgallo realgar, or red orpiment, was prepared
by gently heating orpiment. Zafferano was saffron, while arzica was a
lake prepared from weld, which is wild mignonette.
The greens that he refers to are verde terra, verde azzurro, and
verderame. Verde terra is the natural earth known also as terra verte.
In all probability verde azzurro was a native copper carbonate, similar
to green bice. Verderame was verdigris.
The blues used were azzurro della magna, azzurro oltre marino, and
indaco baccadeo. Azzurro della magna was a copper-blue similar to the
azurite of the classical period. Azzurro oltre marino was the genuine
ultramarine. Cennino’s description of the preparation of this pigment
from the _lapis lazuli_ is very similar to the recipes that are given
in other MSS. Indaco baccadeo was indigo from Bagdad.
The white pigments were bianco sangiovanni and biacca. Bianco
sangiovanni was whiting or chalk, while biacca was white lead.
The blacks were “a soft black stone,” black “made of the young shoots
of the vine, which are to be burnt, and when burnt, thrown into water,
and quenched, and then ground like other black pigments.” Another
black pigment “is made of the shells of almonds, or of peach-stones.”
Lampblack was also used.
The colours were mixed with gum arabic or egg.
Cennino also makes mention of the use of the _pezzuole_ colours, or
clothlet tints, which were used a great deal in the Middle Ages. These
were pieces of linen stained with transparent pigments. When required
for use, a small piece was cut off and soaked in water to make a tint
of the colour, a little gum being added.
Cennino also treats of tinting parchment with various colours. This
was not done, as was the custom in the earlier period, by staining the
vellum with a dye, but by washing a colour over it with a large brush.
It may be noted that practically all the permanent colours mentioned in
these MSS. are in use to-day. Some of the colours used in the Middle
Ages can hardly be recommended to-day. The copper blues, for instance,
are not reliable, as impure air is very liable to change them into
copper sulphide. Orpiment is an unsafe colour to use, while kermes will
fade in a strong light, besides being no longer an article of commerce.
Both dragon’s blood and saffron are notoriously fugitive colours.
It is hoped that these few brief notes with regard to the colours used
by the mediæval artist may be of interest to the student. If he wishes
to study this subject further he is referred to the various works
mentioned.
CHAPTER XIV
COLOURS: THEIR COMPOSITION AND PERMANENCE
One of the characteristics of the mediæval artist was that he had a
good knowledge of the different materials that he employed in his work.
One cannot help being struck by this fact when reading some of their
writings that have come down to us. They seem to have known all the
various properties of the different colours and materials that they
used. It is probable that the chief reason for this was that it was
absolutely necessary for them to be able to prepare the materials for
use, as it was practically impossible to buy them ready prepared.
The artist of to-day can buy so many things ready prepared for him by
the artists’ colourman that he is very liable to give little or no
attention to their composition and quality. It is as well, however,
that the artist should have some knowledge of the materials that he
uses, so that he may be able to select the best for his purpose.
It is important that he should understand something, at any rate,
about the composition of the various colours that he uses, and that he
should be able to distinguish permanent colours from those notoriously
fugitive. Of course, it must not be understood by this that it is
necessary for the artist to subject all his colours to chemical
analysis; if he buys his colours from any reliable artists’ colourman
he can rely on the colours being true to their name.
There are, however, some students who have not the slightest idea of
the character of the different colours that they are in the habit of
using. It is a great pity when good work is completely spoiled by being
executed with fugitive colours through the ignorance of the artist.
Good work should be as lasting as it is possible to have it, and this
is not practicable if one is not certain whether the colours are likely
to fade or change in any way.
The following notes as to the composition and permanence of the
different colours may be of service to the student.
YELLOW PIGMENTS
Aureolin, Cadmium Yellows, Chrome Yellows, Gamboge, Raw Sienna, Yellow
Ochre, Naples Yellow.
Of these colours, Aureolin is the most expensive, but it is a very
beautiful colour, and has the advantage of being permanent. It is
sometimes called Cobalt Yellow; it is prepared from cobalt and
potassium nitrites.
The Cadmium Yellows are sulphides of cadmium, and are in various shades
from pale yellow to orange; they are also permanent.
Chrome Yellows are all chromates of lead, and they darken very quickly
in an impure atmosphere, especially when used in water-colour
painting. These colours are very cheap, and, at the same time, very
brilliant, but they should be avoided in all cases where permanence
is desirable. They also produce serious changes when mixed with other
colours; for example, a green made by mixing chrome yellow with
prussian or antwerp blue is notoriously fugitive in character.
Gamboge is a gum-resin from the East Indian tree _Garcimia Cambogia_.
It forms a bright opaque yellow solution with water, requiring no
grinding or mixing in any way, owing to its natural gum. It is
fairly permanent and works well in water-colour, but is not quite so
satisfactory in body-colour painting.
Raw Sienna and Yellow Ochre are both natural earths containing iron
oxide. They are quite permanent.
Naples Yellow is generally prepared by mixing Cadmium Yellow with Zinc
White.
RED PIGMENTS
Vermilion, Rose Madder, Scarlet Madder, Alizarin Crimson, Crimson Lake,
Carmine, Indian Red, Light Red, Burnt Sienna.
Vermilion is one of the most important colours for the illuminator. It
is prepared from sulphide of mercury. There are various kinds, which
are termed Orange Vermilion, Scarlet Vermilion, Vermilion Extract,
Vermilion, etc. Probably that known simply as Vermilion is most useful
to the illuminator.
Most vermilions are manufactured in this country, but that known as
Chinese Vermilion is imported from China.
Although vermilion is indispensable to the illuminator, it cannot be
guaranteed as being absolutely permanent. Cennino Cennini, writing
about this pigment, says: “But remember that vermilion is not durable
when exposed to the air; it is more lasting on pictures than on walls,
because, by long exposure to the air, it becomes black when applied to
walls.”
It is a fact that vermilion does change in this way, but it is
debatable whether it is affected by the air. It is thought by some
that the action of the sun’s rays is a more likely cause of change.
There are two varieties of mercuric sulphide, the red and the black;
unfortunately the red is liable to change into the black. No chemical
change is necessary for this, as they are both identical from a
chemical standpoint. In the diffused light of a room this colour seems
to be quite permanent, but it is liable to turn black suddenly when
exposed to direct sunlight. There is conclusive proof that vermilion,
when not placed so that the rays of the sun come into direct contact,
is quite permanent by the fact that in the illuminated MSS. produced
centuries ago the vermilion is still bright.
Most authorities are of the opinion that genuine Chinese vermilion is
more permanent than the English variety. There are two methods employed
at the present day in the manufacture of this colour--the wet and the
dry process. The dry method is used in China and the other in Europe.
The wet method is more economical, but it is generally admitted that
vermilion produced by the dry process is more permanent than the other
kind. Unfortunately the Chinese vermilion that is obtainable in this
country is often rather poor in quality.
Rose Madder and Scarlet Madder are lakes prepared from the madder root.
These are very beautiful colours and are permanent under ordinary
conditions. They should not, however, be exposed to direct sunlight.
Alizarin Crimson is a permanent crimson with a coal-tar origin.
Crimson Lake and Carmine are lakes prepared from cochineal; they are
quite fugitive and should not be employed for serious work.
Indian Red is a variety of iron oxide and is permanent.
Light Red and Burnt Sienna are prepared by burning Yellow Ochre and Raw
Sienna; they are both quite permanent.
BLUE PIGMENTS
Cobalt Blue, Cerulean Blue, Ultramarine, Ultramarine Ash, French
Ultramarine, New Blue, Prussian Blue, Antwerp Blue, Cobalt Violet,
Purple Madder.
Cobalt Blue is a fine colour prepared from cobalt oxide and alumina.
This is quite permanent under ordinary conditions.
Cerulean Blue, made from cobalt and tin oxides, is also a permanent
colour.
Genuine Ultramarine is a beautiful permanent colour obtained by
grinding the _lapis lazuli_. Cennino Cennini, in his treatise, gives
interesting particulars concerning the method then used to prepare
this colour. Ultramarine Ash is a second quality of this same blue.
Unfortunately the great cost of genuine ultramarine debars the
majority of artists from using this colour. Happily, under the name
of French Ultramarine, it is now made synthetically. By this means a
good permanent colour is produced at a cheap rate. New Blue is a pale
variety of French Ultramarine.
Prussian Blue is ferrocyanide of iron. Antwerp Blue is a weaker variety
of the same colour containing alumina. These colours are not altogether
reliable, as they are subject to change.
Cobalt Violet is a purple colour made from cobalt, and is quite
permanent.
Purple Madder is usually prepared from the madder root, and is
permanent under ordinary conditions. Sometimes, however, it is prepared
from Crimson Lake, in which case it is fugitive.
GREEN PIGMENTS
Chromium Oxide, Viridian, Emerald Green.
Chromium Oxide is, as its name implies, an oxide of chromium; this
is an opaque variety. Viridian is also an oxide of chromium, but is
transparent. Both these are quite permanent.
Emerald Green is aceto-arsenite of copper, and a somewhat dangerous
colour to use; it is darkened by impure air, but this is not so serious
as are its effects upon other colours when mixed with them. If used at
all, it should be used quite by itself, as if it is mixed with other
colours it is sure to have a bad effect on them. It turns some colours
black very quickly.
BROWN PIGMENTS
Raw Umber, Burnt Umber, Sepia, Vandyke Brown.
Raw Umber is a natural earth, containing oxide of manganese; it is
quite permanent. Burnt Umber is the same colour burnt, by which it
becomes darker and richer in colour.
Sepia is generally prepared from the ink of the cuttle-fish, although
occasionally a natural earth is substituted. Vandyke Brown is also a
natural earth; both these colours are permanent.
BLACK PIGMENTS
Ivory Black, Lamp Black, Indian Ink.
Ivory Black is made from ivory and bone charred to blackness.
Lamp Black is a smoke-black, being a finely divided soot formed by the
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
Genuine Indian Ink does not come from India, as might be supposed, but
from China. There are, however, several other varieties in liquid form.
It is generally admitted that carbon-black forms the bulk of all these.
All these black pigments are quite permanent.
WHITE PIGMENTS
Zinc White, Flake White.
Zinc, or Chinese, White is an oxide of zinc. This pigment is quite
permanent and should be used always when a lasting white is needed.
Unfortunately this white does not photograph its true value, so for
process work it is best not to use this.
Flake White is prepared from lead carbonate and hydrate, and may be
used for process work in place of zinc white. It, however, should not
be used for work that is required to be lasting, as when used as a
water-colour it soon turns black. As, however, it has more body than
zinc white, it photographs better. A white is sometimes prepared for
process work from barium sulphate. This is permanent, but does not work
quite so well from the brush.
CHAPTER XV
COLOURS: THEIR PREPARATION AND USE
It is practically needless to say that the colours used for
illuminating are water-colours. These are sold by the artists’
colourmen, ready prepared, in three different forms, _viz._, in cakes,
pans, and tubes. These consist of powder colour ground with gum arabic,
or senegal (a brown variety of the same gum), to which a portion of
honey and glycerine is added.
The best prepared colours are undoubtedly those sold in the form of
cakes, as they are the purest. The other forms contain a considerable
amount of glycerine, which does not improve the colour, but enables
them to be kept moist for quite a long time--a greater advantage to the
artists’ colourman than to the artist.
Tube colours contain more glycerine than those sold in pans. The great
advantage, however, that tube colours possess is their convenience. A
small quantity of clean colour can be squeezed out and the cap replaced
on the tube, thus keeping the rest of the colour free from dust. The
admixture of so much glycerine with the colour, however, often prevents
it from drying quite flat when used as body colour.
One word of warning may be useful here: gum should not be mixed with
water-colours. This is often recommended in books on illumination, but
it is not only unnecessary but it entirety spoils the appearance of the
colour. There is always quite sufficient gum mixed with the colour, and
there is nothing specially beautiful about the shiny appearance caused
by an excess of gum in the colour.
Without a doubt the best colours for the illuminator to use are powder
colours. They are mixed with gum arabic and water. Care should be taken
to get the right quantity of gum mixed with the colour. If there is not
sufficient to bind the colour it will rub off when dry, while, on the
other hand, if there is too much, it will dry patchy, and if very much
in excess it will present a shiny appearance. Experience will soon show
the exact amount necessary.
One very great objection that is often urged against the use of powder
colours is their inconvenience, but if these are prepared in the manner
described below they should not be more inconvenient to use than the
ordinary ready-prepared water-colours.
For illuminating, where the work is required to be lasting, none but
permanent colours should be used; but when making designs which are
for temporary use only it is foolish to use expensive colours like
aureolin and cadmium yellow when the same effect can be obtained with
the various shades of chrome yellow, which is much cheaper, although
notoriously fugitive.
It is best to buy the colours ready ground. A china slab or a piece of
plate glass may be used to mix the colours on, or the back of a large
white plate might serve in lieu of these. When it is necessary to
grind the colour a muller is used for this purpose. (See Fig. 29.)
[Illustration:
Slab & Muller.
Palette Knife.
Scraper.
Saucer, with Cover.
Method of taking Gum from Jar.
FIG. 29.]
Gum arabic is prepared in a very simple manner for mixing with
colours. Some pieces of this gum are placed in a wide-mouthed jar and
covered with cold water. It should be given a stir occasionally, and
the following day it will probably be dissolved. It may be strained
through muslin if necessary. A few drops of carbolic acid added to it
will prevent this solution from becoming sour. It is as well also to
provide a loose-fitting cover for the jar to keep dust from the gum.
For mixing the colour a palette-knife is required. A little of the
powder colour is placed on the slab and mixed with the palette-knife to
a stiff paste with water and a little gum. A glass tube may be used to
take the gum from the jar. If this tube is placed in the jar of gum,
and the finger placed over the top of it, a small quantity of gum can
be easily removed and may be dropped on to the slab by removing the
finger. (See Fig. 29.) This is a much better method than dipping the
palette-knife into the gum, as this is very likely to get contaminated
with the colour if this is done.
It is not advisable to mix the colour too thinly with water before
adding the gum, as one of the effects of the gum is to make the colour
flow much easier, and if there is a fair quantity of colour on the slab
it is liable to flow over the edges.
After it has been well mixed up with the palette-knife it should be
tested to see if it has sufficient gum in it. The student should take
a clean brush and paint a small square with the colour on a piece of
paper. When this is quite dry it is very easy to tell if it has the
proper quantity of gum in it. As mentioned before, if it has too much
the colour will look patchy or shiny. To find out if there is enough
gum in it, take a small piece of rough paper and rub the patch of
colour vigorously with it; if there is insufficient gum to bind the
colour it will rub off on to the paper; if there is too much gum, more
colour should be added; while, on the other hand, if there is not
enough a little more should be mixed with it.
When painting a fresh square of colour for testing purposes it is
essential that the brush should be thoroughly washed before painting
the new patch. If this is not done the result will be that the colour
will be mixed with that already in the brush, and the test will not be
a true one. Another important thing is to see that the colour is well
mixed with the gum, otherwise one is very liable to get one brush full
of colour that is nearly all gum and another with insufficient gum in
it.
When the colour is well mixed up with the right quantity of gum it
should be thinned out with water and is then ready for use. It should
be placed in little saucers, which may be obtained from any artists’
colourman. A small square of glass may be placed over the saucer to
prevent the evaporation of the water from the colour, as, if left
exposed to the air, this will soon dry quite hard. If it is desired to
keep the colour moist for any considerable time, a small quantity of
glycerine and honey should be added to it. The colour, however, does
not work so well when used as body-colour if this is done.
The following is a good method of keeping body-colour in a convenient
form. The colour should be painted on large pieces of glass or slabs
of porcelain and allowed to get perfectly dry. It can then be scraped
up in the form of a fine powder. An old chisel-knife, or a broken
palette-knife, makes a good scraper. This powder requires only a little
water to be added to it and the colour is ready for use. It dissolves
very quickly in water to form an easy-flowing colour, much superior
to colour that has glycerine and honey added to it to keep it moist.
Especially is this the case when working on vellum. It dries with a
dull, velvet-like surface which shows in strong contrast to brightly
burnished gold. If the colour, when scraped up, is not very finely
divided it should be rubbed up, in its dry state, on the slab, with
the palette-knife or muller, until it is quite fine, as the finer the
powder the more quickly will it dissolve.
A complete set of colours for illuminating may be prepared in this way
and put into small bottles until required. No gum should be added when
using them, as each small grain of colour has its own portion of gum
which binds it to the surface on which it is painted.
When it is required to use any of the colours prepared in this way, a
small quantity of the powder should be placed in a small saucer and a
little water added. It should then be worked up with the finger-tip
until it is fluid enough to work well with the brush.
Colours prepared in this way work very well also in the pen, vermilion
especially working very well indeed. It is not advisable to use a brush
to mix the colour up with, as this method not only quickly spoils a
brush, but also it does not mix the colour up nearly so well as the
finger-tip.
If a little colour is left in the saucer after using it, it can
easily be moistened up again with a little water. It is not, however,
advisable to mix up much more than is required, as it dries rather
hard and requires soaking some little time if a considerable quantity
is left to dry.
When mixing colours in this way it is as well to label carefully the
bottles in which the colour is stored. If this is not done, one is very
liable to mistake a fugitive colour for a permanent one, and _vice
versâ_. Cadmium yellow may easily be mistaken for chrome yellow, and
crimson Lake for permanent crimson.
CHAPTER XVI
THE GILDING METHODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES
The most casual observer cannot fail to notice the gilding that is
such a prominent feature of the MSS. of the mediæval period. Brightly
burnished gold, which appears as if it had been laid and burnished
quite recently, although centuries have passed since the work was
completed, cannot fail to impress and arouse one’s curiosity as to the
gilding methods employed when this work was produced.
Some of the old MSS. that treat of painting and the preparation of
colours give also some information concerning the various methods of
gilding, and our knowledge of these methods is chiefly derived from
these MSS.
Dr. A. P. Laurie has made careful examination of the different forms of
gilding employed in illuminated MSS., and in his book, “Pigments and
Mediums of the Old Masters” says that gold was used in three distinct
forms: as gold-leaf laid on the surface, and in the form of gold paint,
prepared by grinding leaf-gold to powder; the other method seems to
have been a paint made of rounded granules of gold. He suggests that
this gold was probably obtained from river washings, and that the only
preparation has been to sift out the finer grains. He says, further,
that when it is examined under the microscope this form of gold paint
is easily distinguished from that prepared from leaf-gold, which
presents the appearance of little particles of gold with sharp corners
and edges, while this shows rounded granules.
The art of gold-beating is of very great antiquity. Pliny, in his
“Natural History,” states that one ounce of gold was made into 750
leaves, each leaf being four fingers square. This is about three
times as thick as the ordinary gold-leaf of the present day. It is
very difficult to form any idea as to when and where it originated.
Some think that it arose amongst Oriental peoples. It certainly has
been practised amongst these since quite remote periods. Some of the
coffins of the Egyptian mummies have gilding on them evidently done
with gold-leaf in a similar way to modern methods. Some of the books of
gold-leaf used by the ancient Egyptians are in existence to-day, there
being one at the Louvre in Paris.
Pliny says, “Gold-leaf is laid over marble, etc., with white of egg,
on wood with glue properly composed; they call it leucophoron.” In
another place he states that leucophoron is composed of sinopia (a red
earth colour), light sil (yellow ochre), and melinum (a white earth).
Evidently this was mixed with size to form a ground upon which to lay
the leaf.
The Lucca MS., of the eighth century, gives instructions how to prepare
gold for writing by reducing the metal to a fine powder to form a gold
paint.
The following recipe is from the “Mappæ Clavicula,” a MS. of the
twelfth century: “If you wish to write in gold, take powder of gold and
moisten it with size, made from the very same parchment on which you
have to write; and with the gold and size near to the fire; and, when
the writing shall be dry, burnish with a very smooth stone, or with
the tooth of a wild boar. Item, if then you wish to make a robe or a
picture, you may apply gold to the parchment, as I have above directed,
and shade with ink or with indigo, and heighten with orpiment.”
Parchment size is prepared by boiling parchment or vellum cuttings with
just enough water to cover them for about two hours. The size is then
poured off and sets in a firm jelly when quite cold. When required for
use a small portion is placed in a jar, which is put into a basin of
hot water, the size then quickly becoming liquid.
In the writings of Theophilus, of about the same period, he gives a
good deal of information concerning the mediæval methods of gilding.
In Chapter XXIV. he gives directions for hammering out gold-leaf. The
next chapter, which is quoted, explains how the leaf is laid on. “In
laying on gold, take the clear part of the white of egg, which is beat
up without water, and then with a pencil paint lightly over the place
in which the gold is to be placed, and, the handle of the same pencil
being wetted in your mouth, touch one corner of the cut leaf, and so
elevating it, lay it on with the greatest quickness, and spread it even
with a brush. And at that moment you must beware of a current of air
and refrain from breathing, because if you blow you lose the leaf and
with difficulty recover it. When this is laid on and dried, superpose
another upon it, if you wish, in the same manner, and a third likewise,
if it is necessary, that you may be able to polish it more brightly
with a tooth or a stone.”
Evidently this was the general method of gilding, for he states that
the leaf can be laid in the same manner on a wall or ceiling.
In Chapter XXX. he describes the method of grinding gold for books.
This is done by first filing the gold very finely and then gradually
grinding it until it is an extremely fine powder. In the next chapter,
which is entitled, “How Gold and Silver are Laid in Books,” the method
of applying the gold is given. This is as follows: “Afterwards take
pure minium and add to it a third part of cinnabar, grinding it upon a
stone with water. Which being carefully ground, beat up the clear of
the white of an egg, in summer with water, in winter without water,
and when it is clear, put the minium into a horn and pour the clear
upon it, and stir it a little with a piece of wood put into it, and
with a pencil fill up all places with it upon which you wish to lay
gold. Then place a little pot with glue over the fire, and when it is
liquefied, pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it. When you
have poured which into another shell, in which the purifying is kept,
again pour in warm glue, and, holding it in the palm of the left hand,
stir it carefully with the pencil, and lay it on where you wish thick
or thin, so, however, that there be little glue, because, should it
exceed, it blackens the gold and does not receive a polish. But after
it has dried, polish it with a tooth or bloodstone carefully filed and
polished, upon a smooth and shining horn tablet. But should it happen,
through negligence of the glue not being well cooked, that the gold
pulverises in rubbing, or rises on account of too great thickness, have
near some old clear of egg beat up without water, and directly with a
pencil paint slightly and quickly with it over the gold; when it is
dry, again rub it with the tooth or stone. Lay in this manner silver,
brass, and copper in their place, and polish them.”
In this early period this form of gilding was certainly used a good
deal, but soon after this the raised gilding, which was produced
by laying the leaf on a raising made of gesso, was in general use.
A number of different recipes have been found. Probably the most
important, however, are those given by Cennino Cennini in the early
part of the fifteenth century. Chapter CLVII. is entitled, “How You
Must do Miniature-Painting and Put Gold on Parchment.” It is quoted in
full. “First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden
style figures, foliage, letters, or whatever you please, on parchment,
that is to say in books; then with a pen you must make the delicate
permanent outline of what you have designed. Then you must have a paint
that is a sort of gesso, called asiso, and it is made in this manner;
namely, a little gesso sottile and a little biacca, never more of this
than equals a third part of the gesso; then take a little candy, less
than the biacca; grind these ingredients very finely with clear water,
collect them together, and let them dry without sun. When you wish to
use some to put on gold, cut off a piece as large as you have need of,
and temper it with the white of an egg, well beaten, as I have taught
you. Temper this mixture with it; let it dry; then take your gold,
and either breathing on it or not, as you please, you can put it on;
and the gold being laid on, take the tooth or burnishing-stone and
burnish it, but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood,
very smooth. And you must know that you may write letters with a pen
and this asiso, or lay a ground of it, or whatever you please--it is
most excellent. But before you lay the gold on it, see whether it is
needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife, or clean it
in any way, for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in
another. Always beware of this.”
The next chapter is also quoted, as it gives another method of laying
gold on parchment. “If you would like another kind of asiso--but this
is not so good, but may be used for putting on gold grounds, though not
to write with--take gesso sottile, and a third part biacca, a fourth
part Armenian bole, with a little sugar; grind all these very finely
with the white of an egg; lay on the ground in the usual manner, and
let it dry; then with the point of a knife scrape and clean the gesso.
Put the previously mentioned tablet under the parchment, or a very
flat stone, and burnish it; and should it by chance not burnish well
when you put on the gold, wet the gesso with clean water with a small
minever brush, and when it is dry burnish it.”
Gesso sottile was plaster of Paris that had been thoroughly slaked by
long soaking in water so that it had lost all its setting properties.
As mentioned in a previous chapter, biacca was white lead. The white of
egg is prepared by beating it thoroughly to a thick froth and letting
it stand one night to clear itself. Armenian bole is a red earth colour
which seems to have been used a great deal to give colour to the ground
for gilding. In some of the MSS. where the gold has been slightly
rubbed off, the red colour of the raising preparation plainly indicates
that is one of the ingredients used.
In Chapter CLX. instructions are given on “How to Grind Gold and
Silver, and How to Temper Them to Make Foliage and Embellishments.”
Evidently in this case the gold was prepared by grinding the
leaf-gold--not, as was the case in the earlier descriptions, by first
filing the metal and gradually reducing it to a fine powder.
The powder gold was, however, generally used only for painting in fine
gold lines and heightening miniatures, although in the latter part of
the fifteenth century matt gold grounds were often used as borders
round miniatures, etc.
The raised gilding was, however, used more often, and the various
recipes given in the different MSS. are generally very similar to those
given by Cennino. Sometimes chalk or pipe-clay is used instead of
gesso, and occasionally parchment size or fish-glue is recommended as a
medium for mixing it with.
Endeavouring to work from these recipes is no easy matter, and the
student is not advised to waste too much time in experimenting in
this direction. Although there is a certain amount of fascination in
trying the various preparations and methods, there is so much that is
important that should claim the attention of the student that it is
hardly profitable for him to spend a lot of time trying to work from
these old formulas when it might be better employed.
One cannot help being interested, however, in these old recipes and
directions for applying gold to vellum.
CHAPTER XVII
THE USE OF GOLD
Gilding, in illuminated work, is done with either gold-leaf or shell
gold. Gold-leaf is the metal that has been beaten out into thin sheets,
and shell gold the same ground up and mixed with gum and honey. Shell
gold is so called on account of the fact that it is sold in small
shells ready for use.
The student is especially warned against using any of the varieties of
gold paint for work that is desired to be permanent. These are mixed up
with powdered bronze, and, in course of time, will turn black.
Shell gold is painted on in the same way that other colours are.
A small brush should be used, so as not to waste any more than is
absolutely necessary. It is also essential that quite clean water
should be used, to ensure the gold being as bright as possible, as if
the water is contaminated with colour it will dull the gold when mixed
with it. The great disadvantages of shell gold are lack of brilliance
and also the expense. It is, however, very useful for putting in very
fine lines, which are difficult when using gold-leaf.
The use of gold-leaf for gilding purposes has been known since quite
an early period. Some of the early manuscripts were written with gold
and silver letters on purple vellum. Silver-leaf is prepared in a
similar manner to gold-leaf; unfortunately, however, it quickly turns
black when exposed to the air. The best substitute for silver-leaf is
undoubtedly platinum, although it is very expensive. Aluminium leaf is
sometimes used, but it is rather too thick for fine work. Sometimes
aluminium paint is used where silver work is required. This, however,
has the same objection as shell gold in lacking brilliance.
Without a doubt the use of leaf, raised and burnished, is the ideal
method of gilding. If the student examines any of the old MSS. of the
best periods he is bound to be struck with the brilliance of the raised
gold, and he will notice how superior are the results to any produced
by means of gold paint. Gold-leaf gilding, even if it is unburnished,
is infinitely more brilliant than either gold paint or shell gold.
Some difficulty may at first be experienced in handling the leaf, as,
being so thin, it has an unpleasant habit of blowing about. It is sold
in books containing twenty-five leaves. It is best to get that known
as “double fine gold,” specially prepared for illuminating. For large
masses of gold, a thicker leaf may be used, known as “quadruple.”
The student should be careful to use only the best gold-leaf. Some of
the cheap foreign leaf is very poor in quality. He should be careful
also to avoid the leaf known as “Dutch metal,” which is not gold at all.
A gilder’s cushion should be obtained with a knife and tip. (See Fig.
30.) The cushion is generally about nine inches by six in size, and
is made by stretching a piece of soft leather over a piece of board
slightly padded. A piece of parchment is fastened on one end, which
acts as a shield to prevent currents of air from blowing the leaf
about. The student should be extremely careful to prevent touching
the surface of the cushion with his fingers, as, if it becomes greasy
in the slightest degree, he will experience trouble through the leaf
sticking to it.
[Illustration:
Guilder’s Cushion
Guilder’s Tiip
Agate Burnisher
Guilder’s Knife
Camel Hair Mop
FIG. 30.]
The best way for the beginner to learn how to handle the gold-leaf is
to get an experienced gilder to show him how to use the cushion. If
this is not possible he ought, by carefully following the directions
given here, to be able to manage the leaf after a little practice.
The best way is to take the book of gold-leaf and open it very
carefully. It is then turned over so that the leaf rests on the
cushion. The back of the book is then gently tapped with the
finger-tips; if it is then carefully lifted up the leaf will be found
lying upon the surface of the cushion. If it is not lying quite flat
and even, it may easily be smoothed by blowing gently on the centre of
it. It is as well, however, not to be too vigorous, or the result may
be to crumple the leaf up worse than before.
The student should be careful not to touch the leaf with his fingers,
otherwise it will stick to them and the whole leaf will probably be
spoiled. He should also avoid breathing upon the surface of the leaf,
or it will probably roll up in a hopeless tangle, or else go floating
off into the air, as the slightest puff of wind tends to do this.
It is hardly necessary to point out that it is not wise to attempt
handling gold-leaf for the first time with the doors and windows open,
as the slightest draught will carry the leaf with it.
The gilder’s knife must not be sharpened, as, if this is done, the
result will be that instead of cutting the leaf it will probably tear
it and cut the cushion. One important thing to remember is that the
fingers should be kept from touching the blade, otherwise the leaf
will stick to it owing to the slight amount of grease left on it. Also
if the blade is allowed to get rusty it is liable to tear the leaf
instead of cutting it properly. The knife should be kept clean, and the
edge should occasionally be burnished with the back of a pen-knife, or
something similar, to remove any roughness that may prevent it from
giving a clean cut. If it is found that the leaf sticks to the blade of
the knife, it is because there is a slight amount of grease on it; this
may be removed by rubbing the knife on a board with a little powdered
bath brick.
The leaf is cut by placing the knife carefully down on to the surface
of the leaf, and moving it backwards and forwards with a sawing
movement. The knife should be pressed down firmly on the cushion when
cutting, and great care should be taken not to rumple the leaf in so
doing.
It is as well not to endeavour to be too economical when cutting the
leaf up. A piece of leaf should be cut large enough to cover the part
that it is required to gild. If the student tries to be too exact in
cutting, he is very liable to cut the piece too small, and then other
pieces have to be cut to patch the parts not covered with the leaf.
When this is the case, apart from the extra time taken up, it is false
economy, as more leaf is required than if a slightly larger piece was
cut at first.
After the leaf is cut, it is conveyed from the cushion to the work by
means of the gilder’s tip. (See Fig. 30.) This is a kind of brush made
by fixing a thin layer of hair between two pieces of card, which are
pasted or glued together. This tip is used by first rubbing it on the
skin or hair, and then placing it on the piece of leaf, which will
then adhere to it. It can then be carried and placed in position where
it is needed. The reason that the gold adheres to the tip is because
by rubbing it on the skin or hair the tip becomes slightly greasy and
attracts the leaf.
If any leaf is left on the cushion after finishing the gilding, it
should be carefully replaced in the book. This may be done by putting
the top of the blade of the knife down flat on the cushion and pushing
it under the centre of the leaf. By this means the leaf may be lifted
and carried to the book. The tip should not be used for this purpose,
or some difficulty may be experienced in inducing the leaf to leave
this for the book. When pushing the knife under the leaf, however, it
should be pressed firmly on the cushion, otherwise the result will be
to crumple the leaf and spoil it.
For dusting the loose leaf away after gilding, a large camel-hair mop
similar to that shown in Fig. 30 is useful.
For burnishing the gold, an agate burnisher is required. The best shape
is shown in Fig. 30.
For commercial work it is hardly worth while using gold-leaf, and
bronze powder is recommended instead. A method of using this will be
explained later when dealing with commercial work.
CHAPTER XVIII
ILLUMINATION WITH GOLD AND COLOURS
The best material for the illuminator to work upon is undoubtedly
vellum. No paper has ever been made that is equal to it. The chief
drawback that this material has is, of course, the expense. Parchment
is cheaper, but not nearly so nice.
In selecting vellum for illuminating, the ordinary thick kind,
generally known as illuminators’ vellum, is to be avoided. This
presents too much the appearance of shiny cardboard, the surface being
much too hard and horny. This kind is prepared calf-skin, and it is
most objectionable to work upon. A very fine vellum, known as “Roman
Vellum”--probably prepared lamb-skin--has an ideal writing surface. It
is perhaps best to get a slightly heavier vellum if it is intended to
cover it with a lot of heavy work.
A very curious statement has found its way into a number of books on
illumination to the effect that it is impossible to remove pencil-marks
from the surface of vellum. It has been stated that all attempts to
remove a pencil-mark with rubber or bread result only in producing
a greasy smudge. The present writer has worked on a considerable
quantity of vellum, but he has never come across any from which he
has experienced any difficulty in removing pencil-marks. Of course it
is not advisable to use a very soft pencil, such as a 4 or 6B, very
freely on a piece of vellum, especially if it is at all inclined to be
greasy. The use of carbon-paper is often recommended for transferring
a design to vellum, but, generally speaking, the use of this material
is not desirable. It is generally somewhat greasy, and it certainly
is difficult to remove these marks from the surface of the vellum.
The best way is to cultivate the habit of working straight away on
to the vellum. Work that is carried out in this manner is generally
characterised as having more vitality and displaying more freedom than
when it is traced off from another drawing.
Some of the fine hand-made papers, specially prepared for writing and
illuminating, make excellent substitutes for vellum, although, of
course, paper is never as durable as vellum. Cold tea makes a very good
and quite harmless stain with which the paper can be tinted a similar
shade to vellum. When tinting the paper with tea, it is best not to
use too strong tea for this purpose, otherwise the result may not be
altogether satisfactory. The paper should be carefully fastened to a
board with drawing-pins. A broad, flat camel-hair brush is useful for
washing the tint on, care being taken to get this quite even. If the
paper is needed to be used for a MS. book, both sides should be tinted,
but this is hardly necessary if one side only of the paper is to be
worked upon.
When using paper for large, important work it is best to stretch it
before commencing to work upon it. This is done by damping it freely
until it becomes quite limp. The margin is then coated with paste for
about half an inch all round. It is then stuck on to the drawing-board
by means of this pasted margin while the paper is still wet. Care
should be taken that the pasted margin dries hard before the rest of
the paper begins to dry, otherwise, when the paper starts to contract,
it will come away from the board. This is obviated by re-damping the
centre of the paper, so that the margin has a chance of becoming firmly
attached to the board before the paper begins to pull.
The beginner is not advised to attempt to stretch vellum in this
manner. It requires considerable experience to stretch vellum
satisfactorily, and it is quite easy to spoil a large sheet in an
unsuccessful attempt at stretching it. The best way is to fasten it
to the drawing-board with plenty of drawing-pins. If the sheet of
vellum is placed in a damp place for some little time before pinning
it on to the drawing-board, or placed for a short time between damp
blotting-paper, it will, if stretched tightly on the board with the
drawing-pins while it is slightly damp, be found to be stretched quite
well enough for all practical purposes when dry.
Perhaps it would be as well here to have a word to say about brushes.
The best kind for the illuminator are red sables. These are made both
in quills and with metal ferrules. Some prefer one kind and some the
other. Two or three of the smaller sizes should be selected, with a
larger one for bolder work. The student will soon find out which size
is most convenient for him to use. The present writer uses a No. 1,
metal ferrule, for most of his work, using a larger brush for filling
in broad masses of colour and larger work. To ensure getting the best
service out of brushes they should be taken care of. After using, they
should be carefully washed by shaking vigorously in a jar of clean
water. Brushes soon spoil if they are put away dirty. The colour gets
between the hairs and prevents the brush from coming to a point. If
the colour dries in the brush it is very difficult to get it quite
clean afterwards. One would think it was hardly necessary to state that
brushes should not be placed so that they are resting on their points,
but they are often left in this way by careless people. When a brush
has been used for Indian ink it will be found that washing in ordinary
water will be insufficient to clean it. In this case soap and water may
be used, carefully washing the soap out afterwards with clean water.
Vellum is generally pounced before working upon it. A very good pounce
may be prepared by mixing equal parts, by measure, of pumice powder and
french chalk. When pouncing vellum it should be spread out flat on a
board covered with a sheet of clean paper. The pounce is sprinkled over
it and rubbed in with the palm of the hand. Care should be taken not to
pounce too long, or the vellum will be roughened and spoiled. After the
vellum has been well pounced, the pounce is shaken off and the vellum
carefully dusted with a soft handkerchief.
If the surface of vellum is examined very carefully it will be
noticed that one side is different from the other. The side which was
originally the hair side of the skin is rougher than the flesh side.
The smoother side is nicer for writing upon, although, when using one
side of the vellum only, it is not advisable for the beginner to use
the flesh side, as it is so difficult to make an erasure on this side,
without spoiling the skin. Of course, it is much better to endeavour
to avoid making mistakes, but still it is almost impossible to prevent
them occasionally. When it is necessary to make an erasure a _very_
sharp knife should be employed with the least possible pressure. For
erasures on the flesh side of the vellum the kind of rubber known as
kneaded rubber is very useful. This erases very slowly, but at the same
time very efficiently. When using a knife for erasures on vellum it
is essential that it should be extremely sharp and that scarcely any
pressure be put on it. It is best, however, to avoid the use of the
knife on the flesh side of vellum.
A simple but effective style of illumination is shown in Fig. 31. This
is based, to a large extent, on pen-work. The block of the initial
P may be blue, with the centre red. The initial itself is of raised
gold, as also are the buds and centres of the small flowers in the
surrounding decoration. The fine scroll-work may be in black or brown,
the decoration on the initial being white.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
After the lettering is completed, the decoration should be drawn in
carefully with pencil. The scroll-work may then be drawn in with
the pen. The page should then be carefully cleaned with a piece of
soft rubber, removing all pencil-marks that will not be covered with
colour. The next step is the gilding. Various preparations are sold by
different artists’ colourmen for this purpose. When buying gold-size,
however, the student should see that he gets the kind specially
prepared for illuminating. There are many varieties on the market,
some of which are useless on vellum. For example, it would be foolish
to try and gild on vellum with oil gold-size or japanners’ gold-size.
Also the different kinds of water gold-size, used by decorators and
picture-frame gilders, are difficult to use on vellum, as the gold is
laid by flooding the surface of the size with water and then applying
the leaf. The result of this is to cockle the vellum in a most
unpleasant fashion.
Most dealers sell raising preparation and water gold-size. The raising
preparation is generally sold in two distinct forms by different
makers, one in the form of a thick paint and the other a thick jelly,
which requires heating to liquefy ready for use. The former kind will
be found the most satisfactory.
A small ichneumon brush may be used for applying the raising
preparation. Before filling in the parts that it is desired to raise
it is not a bad plan to roughen the surface of the vellum slightly in
these parts. This will help to prevent the raising from scaling off
when it dries.
Difficulty is often experienced through air-bubbles in the raising
preparation. In drying, of course, these show as tiny holes. In this
case prevention is better than cure. These bubbles are generally
introduced into the preparation by means of the brush. The brush being
full of air is used to stir the preparation, and the air leaves the
brush in the form of bubbles, which mix with the raising preparation.
The best way to use the raising preparation is to take a small quantity
out of the bottle and place it in a small saucer. It should then be
carefully worked up with the finger-tip with a little water until
it is about the consistency of cream. It is much better to use the
finger-tip to mix it up with rather than a brush. Using a brush for
this purpose is a fruitful source of air-bubbles, besides spoiling the
brush. Before using the brush to lay on the preparation with it should
be shaken vigorously in water and squeezed out, thus displacing the
air and preventing the formation of bubbles. All the parts that it is
desired to gild should be given a fairly substantial coating. It should
be almost dropped from the brush. It is not desirable to raise it too
high, or the effect will be somewhat tawdry. The student should use the
work of the mediæval artist as his guide in this direction. When this
is all filled in, the work is placed in a room free from dust for the
raising to dry firm and hard. The surface is then scraped carefully
with a knife until it is quite smooth, all little irregularities being
removed.
It is then given a coat of water gold-size, and when this appears
dry on the surface it is breathed upon until it becomes tacky. The
leaf is then cut to size and laid on at once, pressed down with
cotton-wool and left to dry. The superfluous gold is then brushed away
with a camel-hair mop. On the following day it may be burnished. If
the burnisher does not work freely on the surface, its action may be
facilitated by rubbing the surface of the gold with a soft cloth that
has been slightly smeared with beeswax.
When using the water gold-size it is most important that this should
be kept free from dust, and especially small hairs and pieces of
fluff that often float about in the air. It is impossible to gild
successfully if the size is full of these. After painting on the size
it should not be allowed to get thoroughly dry before laying the
leaf--it should only _appear_ dry on the surface. If it is allowed to
get properly dry it will be next to impossible to make it tacky by
breathing upon it.
It is just possible that after the gilding has been done it will be
noticed that the gold-leaf has adhered to the surface of the vellum
in parts where it was not intended. Brushing the surface with the
camel-hair mop is not sufficient to remove this. It, however, can
generally be cleaned by means of kneaded rubber. There is no need to
use any friction; if it is pressed on the parts and lifted again it
will pick up the leaf from the vellum. Care should be taken, however,
to avoid touching the surface of the raised gold, as it is very liable
to spoil the appearance of it.
After the gilding is completed, the colouring should be proceeded with.
The large masses of colour are laid in first, then the white lining on
the colour, and finally the outline. If the surface of the vellum is at
all inclined to be greasy it may be advisable to use a little oxgall
with the colour.
The various other suggestions shown in Fig. 31 practically explain
themselves; (_b_) and (_c_) are different methods of spacing the
decoration. Two more initials are shown, also the construction of the
decoration and other suggestive details.
[Illustration: ILLUMINATED ALTAR TABLET.]
CHAPTER XIX
THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The style of decoration suggested in the previous chapter was based, to
a large extent, on pen-work. The examples indicated in Fig. 32 show a
further development, in which brush-work plays a more prominent part.
A suggestion for an illuminated version of the Twenty-third Psalm is
shown in (_d_). The decoration here may appear somewhat stiff, but it
is difficult to show in black and white the effect that colour gives.
This simple and somewhat severe type of decoration is, however, much
easier for the beginner than the freer kind of ornament.
It is rather difficult to suggest in writing the exact colouring, as
so much depends on the various shades used to form the general colour
scheme. Possibly the following notes may be useful to the student as
indicating roughly the colours that may be used.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.]
The writing is in black with the capital letters in red. The background
of the initial and border, _viz._, the parts indicated by horizontal
shading, should be blue. This colour should be neither too dark nor
too light, also it should not tend towards either purple or green.
The student should take special note of the blues used by the mediæval
artists. The large initial T should be painted in a warm shade of red,
not quite so vivid as vermilion, nor yet a cool crimson. The centre of
this initial and also the centres of the blossoms, with the background
of the small circles formed by the stems, are of raised burnished
gold, as also are the small buds in the line work. The stems should
be painted in a neutral tint and may be heightened up in places with
touches of clean bright colour. The leaves may be green shaded with a
lighter tint of the same colour. The flowers might be a pale creamy
tint with the centres shaded with orange. The scroll-work on the colour
may be painted either in white or in a lighter tint of the background
colour upon which it is painted. The initial T may be treated in this
way, and also shaded with a darker red.
In (_e_) an arrangement is shown for a page with the border completely
surrounding it. Some endeavour should be made to get good pattern
with the masses of gold and colour. In the page suggested in (_f_)
the decoration is formed down one side, springing from the initial P.
The initial B that is shown here is in raised gold, the flowers in
the centre also being in gold, as well as the berries in the pen-work
springing from the letter. The background of the letter is blue and
red--blue where the shading is indicated by horizontal strokes and red
where vertical strokes are used.
A study of plant form is very useful to the illuminator. The decoration
used by the mediæval artist was practically all based on natural
forms, and some of the best advice that can be given to the modern
illuminator is that he should study nature. In doing this the student
should remember that the object is primarily decoration and not
representation. He should not degrade this art into a mere realistic
rendering of sprays of flowers, insects, etc., but rather aim at
producing decoration as the direct result of his study of nature. As
an example, some of the ivy-leaf decoration that was so much used
during the fourteenth century is shown here. The importance of study
from nature cannot be emphasized too strongly. Drawing from plant-form
is one of the best exercises the illuminator can have. Possibly a few
hints on this important study will be of service to the student.
In the first place, when drawing a plant, or indeed any natural object,
one should be careful to avoid drawing it like drawing a map, _i.e._,
without realising that it is form. If this is persisted in, the result
will be that the drawing will be lacking in vitality, besides being not
nearly so intelligible. If the endeavour be made to keep constantly
before the mind the fact that it is _form_ that one is drawing, and
everything is carefully reasoned out before attempting to draw it, the
finished drawing will not only have far more life in it, but it will
also be much easier to understand.
One should also strive to draw with feeling; there is a great
difference between a _living_ plant and an artificial reproduction of
it. The drawings of plants and flowers made by some students remind
one of paper flowers and foliage, as they are drawn in such a hard and
severe manner. A natural leaf is a thing of beauty, there is nothing
rigid or stiff about it, but one that is cut out of paper is dead and
unyielding in every respect and is absolutely devoid of all feeling.
One should get all the life and feeling possible into one’s drawing,
and this comes from plenty of practice in careful and thoughtful
drawing from nature.
When making plant studies for one’s own use in design there is no need
to limit oneself by making outline drawings in pen and ink, as when
they are intended to be reproduced by means of line-blocks. The aim of
the artist should be to make the drawing as much as possible like the
original. It is not advisable to go in for sketchy effects; everything
should be made perfectly intelligible so that it is possible to
understand every detail of the drawing.
Of course, some parts of the plant should be painted in colours, so as
to form a record of the actual colours, but for general drawing a soft
black-lead pencil, such as a 3 or 4B, is very useful. One should be
careful to observe all the details, such as the way the branches attach
themselves to the main stem, also the manner in which the leaves and
flowers arrange themselves. The feeling of unity which runs throughout
the whole of the plant should be carefully noted, how there is a
distinct relationship between every leaf and bud with the main stem.
There is no need to confine one’s nature study to actual plant-drawing.
If one’s powers of perception are trained to observe, there is a
great deal to be learned from a walk in the country. Attention should
be given to the pattern that abounds everywhere in nature; flowery
banks and hedgerows are rich in suggestion. The meadow spangled with
buttercups and daisies is a delightful example. A field of barley when
it is just beginning to change colour offers a wealth of possibilities
both in pattern and colour. Then take trees, their different structure
and foliage. No two species of trees are exactly alike in the
arrangement of foliage, etc. One should not, however, give too much
attention to detail to the neglect of considering things as a whole.
For example, a tree as a whole should be noted, attention being given
to the way in which the trunk springs from the ground and the general
massing of the branches and foliage.
The use of a sketch-book for noting things down is very useful, but
too much reliance should not be placed on this. If one’s powers of
perception are trained to observe, the memory will be stored with an
abundance of suggestions and ideas from the study of nature that has
been going on almost unconsciously day by day.
[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
As well as nature study, the student should also make careful study of
some of the best illuminated work of the mediæval period, especially on
the lines indicated in the chapter on the Initial Letter. The use of
a note-book will prove to be very serviceable for this purpose. Quick
sketches of the arrangement of the pages, as suggested in Fig. 33,
should help the student very much in arranging the decoration of the
page. Of course, the drawing of details is also useful, as by carefully
copying some of the initials and decoration he is able to gain some
experience of the mediæval artists’ methods of working.
[Illustration: A ROLL OF HONOUR.
_By kind permission of
Miss Harrison, of
Little Waltham Hall._
]
Possibly it may be as well to say a few words about miniature painting
in connection with illumination. As has often been explained, the
term “miniature” when used with reference to illuminated MSS. must
not be confounded with the modern idea of miniature painting, _i.e._,
painting on a small scale in a minute fashion, as the word “miniature”
is derived from the Latin word _minium_, the red pigment used in the
decoration of MSS., therefore the original meaning is writing or
painting with minium. There is also no reason at all why miniatures,
when painted on vellum and used in conjunction with illumination,
should be stippled and worked up in the minute fashion that is usual
with the ordinary miniatures on ivory.
It is not advisable to paint these in a similar way to the ordinary
water-colour painting. It is very difficult to paint on vellum in this
way. U
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