Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering
by Edward Johnston · English · Gutenberg #47089 · 525,551 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering
Author: Edward Johnston
Contributor: A. E. R. Gill
Illustrator: Noel Rooke
Release date: October 10, 2014 [eBook #47089]
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TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: See Transcriber's Endnote for details of this
transcription. Scans of the original printed book are available from
https://archive.org/details/writingillumina00john.
THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS
EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY
WRITING & ILLUMINATING,
AND LETTERING
[Illustration: _Frontispiece._
A SCRIPTORIUM
_This drawing (about two-fifths of the linear size of the original)
is made from a photograph of a miniature painted in an old MS.
(written in 1456 at the Hague by Jean Mielot, Secretary to Philip
the Good, Duke of Burgundy), now in the Paris National Library (MS.
Fonds français 9,198)._
_It depicts Jean Mielot himself, writing his collection of Miracles
of Our Lady in French. His parchment appears to be held steady by a
weight and also by (? the knife or filler in) his left hand—compare
fig. 41 in this book. Above there is a sort of reading desk, holding
MSS. for copying or reference._]
WRITING & ILLUMIN-
ATING, & LETTERING
BY EDWARD JOHNSTON. WITH
DIAGRAMS & ILLUSTRATIONS
BY THE AUTHOR & NOEL ROOKE
8 pp. EXAMPLES IN RED&BLACK
AND 24 pp. OF COLLOTYPES
PUBLISHED BY JOHN HOGG
13 PATERNOSTER ROW
LONDON 1906
[p-vii]
EDITOR’S PREFACE
In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic
Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims.
In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of
workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have
critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting
aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship,
and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more
especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope
to treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship.
During the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture
of an academic kind, were little considered, and there was a
tendency to look on “design” as a mere matter of _appearance_. Such
“ornamentation” as there was was usually obtained by following in a
mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little
of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical
attention given to the crafts by [p-viii] Ruskin and Morris, it came
to be seen that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this
way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable
element of good quality, involving as it does the selection of good
and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert
workmanship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament,
and indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of
fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship
when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought—that is, from
design—inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation,
divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls
into affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language
addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech
of the tool.
In the third place, we would have this series put artistic
craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for
those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of
academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only
a very few per cent. can fairly hope to succeed as painters and
sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability
that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of
apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of
success.
In the blending of handwork and thought in [p-ix] such arts as we
propose to deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from
the dreary routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncertainty
of academic art. It is desirable in every way that men of good
education should be brought back into the productive crafts: there
are more than enough of us “in the city,” and it is probable that
more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to
Design and Workmanship.
* * * * *
Of all the Arts, writing, perhaps, shows most clearly the formative
force of the instruments used. In the analysis which Mr. Johnston
gives us in this volume, nearly all seems to be explained by the two
factors, utility and masterly use of tools. No one has ever invented
a form of script, and herein lies the wonderful interest of the
subject; the forms used have always formed themselves by a continuous
process of development.
The curious assemblages of wedge-shaped indentations which make up
Assyrian writing are a direct outcome of the clay cake, and the
stylus used to imprint little marks on it. The forms of Chinese
characters, it is evident, were made by quickly representing with a
brush earlier pictorial signs. The Roman characters, which are our
letters to-day, although their earlier forms have only come down to
us cut in stone, must have been formed by incessant practice with a
flat, stiff [p-x] brush, or some such tool. The disposition of the
thicks and thins, and the exact shape of the curves, must have been
settled by an instrument used rapidly; I suppose, indeed, that most
of the great monumental inscriptions were designed _in situ_ by a
master writer, and only cut in by the mason, the cutting being merely
a fixing, as it were, of the writing, and the cut inscriptions must
always have been intended to be completed by painting.
The “Rustic letters” found in stone inscriptions of the fourth
century are still more obviously cursive, and in the Catacombs some
painted inscriptions of this kind remain which perfectly show that
they were rapidly _written_. The ordinary “lower case” type with
which this page is printed is, in its turn, a simplified cursive form
of the Capital letters. The Italic is a still more swiftly written
hand, and comes near to the standard for ordinary handwriting.
All fine monumental inscriptions and types are but forms of writing
modified according to the materials to which they are applied. The
Italian type-founders of the fifteenth century sought out fine
examples of old writing as models, and for their capitals studied the
monumental Roman inscriptions. Roman letters were first introduced
into English inscriptions by Italian artists. Torrigiano, on the
tombs he made for [p-xi] Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey and for
Dr. Young at the Rolls Chapel, designed probably the most beautiful
inscriptions of this kind to be found in England.
This volume is remarkable for the way in which its subject seems to
be developed inevitably. There is here no collection of all sorts
of lettering, some sensible and many eccentric, for us to choose
from, but we are shown the essentials of form and spacing, and the
way is opened out to all who will devote practice to it to form an
individual style by imperceptible variations from a fine standard.
Writing is for us the most universal of the Arts, and most craftsmen
have to deal with lettering of a more formal kind. It is a
commonplace of historical criticism to point out how much the Italian
artists owed to the general practice amongst them of goldsmith’s
work, a craft which required accuracy and delicacy of hand. We cannot
go back to that, but we do need a basis of training in a demonstrably
useful art, and I doubt if any is so generally fitted for the purpose
of educating the hand, the eye, and the mind as this one of ‹WRITING›.
W. R. LETHABY.
_October 1906._ [p-xii]
“_We must set up the strong present tense against all the rumours
of wrath, past or to come. So many things are unsettled which it is
of the first importance to settle,—and, pending their settlement,
we will do as we do. . . . Expediency of literature, reason of
literature, lawfulness of writing down a thought, is questioned;
much is to say on both sides, and, while the fight waxes hot, thou,
dearest scholar, stick to thy foolish task, add a line every hour,
and between whiles add a line. Right to hold land, right of property
is disputed, and the conventions convene, and before the vote is
taken, dig away in your garden, and spend your earnings as a waif
or godsend to all serene and beautiful purposes. Life itself is a
bubble and a scepticism, and a sleep within a sleep. Grant it, and
as much more as they will,—but thou, God’s darling! heed thy private
dream: thou wilt not be missed in the scorning and scepticism: there
are enough of them: stay there in thy closet, and toil, until the
rest are agreed what to do about it. Thy sickness, they say, and thy
puny habit, require that thou do this or avoid that, but know that
thy life is a flitting state, a tent for a night, and do thou, sick
or well, finish that stint. Thou art sick, but shall not be worse,
and the universe, which holds thee dear, shall be the better._”
—‹Emerson.›
“_I began to think that if I should discover how to make enamels, I
could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily, because
God had gifted me with some knowledge of drawing. And thereafter,
regardless of the fact that I had no knowledge of drugs, I began to
seek for the enamels as a man gropes in the dark._”
—‹Palissy.›
“_. . . in that communion only, beholding beauty with the eye of the
mind, he will be enabled to bring forth, not images of beauty, but
realities (for he has hold not of an image but of a reality), and
bringing forth and nourishing true virtue to become the friend of
God and be immortal, if mortal man may._”
—‹Plato.›
[p-xiii]
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
WRITING
The arts of WRITING, ILLUMINATING, & LETTERING offer a wide field
for the ingenious and careful craftsman and open the way to a number
of delightful occupations. Beyond their many uses—some of which are
referred to below—they have a very great educational value. This has
long been recognized in the teaching of elementary design, and the
practice of designing Alphabets and Inscriptions is now common in
most Schools of Art. Much would be gained by substituting, generally,
‹WRITING› for _designing_, because _writing_ being the medium by
which nearly all our letters have been evolved from the Roman
Capital (see p. 35), the use of the pen—essentially a letter-making
tool—gives a practical insight into the construction of letters
attainable in no other way. The most important use of letters is
in the making of books, and the foundations of typography and book
decoration may be mastered—_as they were laid_—by the planning,
writing, and illuminating of MSS. in book form. Of this a modern
printer (see also p. 368) says:
“In the making of the Written Book, . . . . . . the adjustment of
letter to letter, of word to word, of picture to text and of text
to picture, and of the whole to the subject matter and to the page,
admits of great nicety and perfection. The type is fluid, and the
letters and words, picture, text, and page are conceived of as one
and are all executed by one hand, or by several hands all working
together without intermediation on one identical page and [p-xiv]
with a view to one identical effect. In the Printed Book this
adjustment is more difficult. . . . . . . Yet in the making of the
printed book, as in the making of the written book, this adjustment
is essential, and should be specially borne in mind, and Calligraphy
and immediate decoration by hand and the unity which should be
inseparably associated therewith would serve as an admirable
discipline to that end.”
And though calligraphy is a means to many ends, a fine MS. has a
beauty of its own that—if two arts may be compared—surpasses that of
the finest printing. This in itself would justify the transcribing
and preservation of much good literature in this beautiful form
(besides the preparation of “Illuminated Addresses,” Service Books,
Heraldic and other MSS.) and make the practice of formal writing
desirable. And furthermore as the old-fashioned notion _that a
legible hand is a mark of bad breeding_ dies out, it may be that
our current handwriting will take legibility and beauty from such
practice. And even the strict utilitarian could not fail to value
the benefits that might some day come to men, if children learnt to
appreciate beauty of form in their letters and in their writing the
beauty of carefulness.
ILLUMINATING
Of the practice of ‹ILLUMINATING›—properly associated with writing—it
may be observed that, among various ways of acquiring _a knowledge
of the elements of design & decoration_ it is one of the most simple
and complete. Moreover, a fine illumination or miniature has a beauty
of its own that may surpass the finest printed book-decoration. And
pictures in books may be as desirable as pictures on the wall—even
though like the beautiful household gods of the Japanese they are
kept in safe hiding and displayed only now and then. [p-xv]
LETTERING
Magnificent as are the dreams of a fine Decoration based on
lettering, the innumerable practical applications of ‹LETTERING›
itself (see Chap. XVI.) make the study of _Letter-Craft_ not only
desirable but imperative. And perhaps I may here be permitted to
quote from _The Athenæum_ of Feb. 3, 1906, which says of “the new
school of scribes and designers of inscriptions”
“These have attacked the problem of applied design in one of its
simplest and most universal applications, and they have already done
a great deal to establish a standard by which we shall be bound to
revise all printed and written lettering. If once the principles
they have established could gain currency, what a load of ugliness
would be lifted from modern civilization! If once the names of
streets and houses, and, let us hope, even the announcements of
advertisers, were executed in beautifully designed and well-spaced
letters, the eye would become so accustomed to good proportion in
these simple and obvious things that it would insist on a similar
gratification in more complex and difficult matters.”
Yet _Ordinary Writing_ and even scribbling has had, and still might
have, a good influence on the art of the Letter maker, and at least
the common use of pen, ink, & paper makes it a simple matter for any
one to essay a formal or ‘book’ hand. A broad nib cut to give clean
thick and thin strokes (without appreciable variation of pressure)
will teach any one who cares to learn, very clearly and certainly.
And though much practice goes to the making of a perfect MS., it is
easier than people suppose to make really beautiful things by taking
a little pains. As “copy book” hands simple, primitive pen-forms—such
as the Uncial & Half-Uncial (pp. 38, 70)—afford the best training and
permit [p-xvi] the cultivation of the freedom which is essential in
writing: they prepare the way for the mastery of the most practical
characters—the ROMAN CAPITAL, roman small-letter, & _Italic_—and the
ultimate development of a lively and personal penmanship.
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING & ILLUMINATING
Developing, or rather _re_-developing, an art involves _the
tracing in one’s own experience of a process resembling its past
development_. And it is by such a course that we, who wish to revive
Writing & Illuminating, may _renew_ them, evolving new methods and
traditions for ourselves, till at length we attain a modern and
beautiful technique. And if we would be more than amateurs, we must
study and practise _the making of beautiful ‹THINGS›_ and thereby
gain experience of Tools, Materials, and Methods. For it is certain
that we must teach ourselves how to make beautiful things, and must
have some notion of the aim and bent of our work, _of what we seek
and what we do_.
Early illuminated MSS. and printed books with woodcuts (or
good facsimiles) may be studied with advantage by the would-be
Illuminator, and he should if possible learn to draw from hedgerows
and from country gardens. In his practice he should begin as a scribe
making MS. books and then decorating them with simple pen & colour
work. We may pass most naturally from writing to the decoration of
writing, by the making and placing of _initial letters_. For in
seeking first a fine _effectiveness_ we may put readableness before
“looks” and, generally, make a text to read smoothly, broken only by
its natural division into paragraphs, chapters, and the like. But
these divisions, suggesting that a pause in reading is desirable,
suggest also that [p-xvii] a mark is required—as in music—indicating
the “rest”: this a large capital does most effectively.
A technical division of illumination into _Colour-work_, _Pen-work_,
and _Draughtsmanship_ is convenient (see Chap. XI.). Though these
are properly combined in practice, it is suggested that, at first,
it will be helpful to think of their effects as distinct so that we
may attain quite definitely some mastery of pure, bright, colours
& simple colour effects, of pen flourishing and ornament, and of
drawing—whether plain or coloured, that will go decoratively with
writing or printing. This distinction makes it easier to devise
definite schemes of illumination that will be within our power to
carry out at any stage of our development. And while the penman
inevitably gains some power of pen decoration it is well for him
as an illuminator to practise in bright colours and gold; for
illumination may be as brilliant and splendid in its own way as
stained glass, enamels, and jewellery are in theirs.[1] At first,
at any rate, hues that have the least suspicion of being dull or
weak are to be avoided as though they were plainly “muddy” or
“washed-out.” The more definite we make our work the more definitely
will our materials instruct us; and such service must precede mastery.
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF LETTERING
Referring again to good ‹LETTERING›: the second part of this book
deals with some of its _Qualities_, _Forms_—the Roman Capitals &
their important pen-derivatives—and _Uses_. It is written [p-xviii]
largely from the penman’s point of view,[2] but a chapter on
inscriptions in stone has been added and various types and modes of
letter making are discussed. The essential qualities of Lettering
are _legibility, beauty, and character_, and these are to be found
in numberless inscriptions and writings of the last two thousand
years. But since the traditions of the early scribes and printers
and carvers have decayed, we have become so used to inferior forms
and arrangements that we hardly realize how poor the bulk of modern
lettering really is. In the recent “revival” of printing and book
decoration, many attempts have been made to design fine alphabets
and beautiful books—in a number of cases with notable success. But
the study of Palæography and Typography has hitherto been confined
to a few specialists, and these attempts to make “decorative” books
often shew a vagueness of intention, which weakens their interest
and an ignorance of _Letter-craft_ which makes the poorest, ordinary
printing seem pleasant by comparison. The development of Letters
was a purely natural process in the course of which distinct and
characteristic types were evolved and some knowledge of how these
came into being will help us in understanding their anatomy and
distinguishing good and bad forms. A comparatively little study of
old manuscripts and inscriptions will make clear much of the beauty
and method of the early work. And we may accustom ourselves to good
lettering by carefully studying such examples as we can find, and
acquire a practical knowledge [p-xix] of it by copying from them
with a pen or chisel or other letter-making tool. A conscientious
endeavour to make our lettering readable, and models[3] and methods
chosen to that end, will keep our work straight: and after all
the problem before us is fairly simple—_To make good letters and
to arrange them well._ To make good letters is not necessarily to
“design” them—they have been designed long ago—but it is to take the
best letters we can find, and to acquire them _and make them our
own_. To arrange letters well requires no great art, but it requires
a practical knowledge of letter-forms and of the rational methods of
grouping these forms to suit every circumstance.
THE SCOPE OF THIS HANDBOOK
Generally this book has been planned as a sort of “guide” to models
and methods for Letter-craftsmen and Students—more particularly for
those who cannot see the actual processes of Writing, Illuminating,
&c. carried out, and who may not have access to collections of
MSS. Much of, if not all, the explanation is of the most obvious,
but that, I hope, gives it more nearly the value of a practical
demonstration. In describing methods and processes I have generally
used the present tense—saying that they “_are_—”: this is to be taken
as meaning that they _are_ so in early MSS. and inscriptions, and in
the practice of the modern school of scribes who found their work on
them.
Regarding the copying of early work (see pp. 195, 323, &c.) it
is contended that to revive an art [p-xx] one must begin at the
beginning, and that, in an honest attempt to achieve a simple end,
one may lawfully follow a method[4] without imitating a style. We
have an excellent precedent in the Italian scribes who went back 300
years for a model and gave us the Roman small-letter as a result
(see p. 47). The beginners attitude is largely, and necessarily,
imitative, and at this time we should have much to hope from a school
of Artist-Beginners who would make good construction the only novelty
in their work. We have almost as much—or as _little_—to be afraid
of in Originality as in imitation, and our best attitude towards
this problem is that of the Irishman with a difficulty—“to look it
boldly in the face and pass on”—_making an honest attempt to achieve
a simple end_. Perhaps we trouble too much about what we “ought to
do” & “do”: it is of greater moment _to know what we are doing &
trying to do_. In so far as tradition fails to bound or guide us we
must think for ourselves and in practice make methods and rules for
ourselves: endeavouring that our work should _be effective_ rather
than have “a fine effect”—or _be_, rather than appear, good—and
following our craft rather than making it follow us. For all
things—materials, tools, methods—are waiting to serve us and [p-xxi]
we have only to find the “spell” that will set the whole universe
a-making for us.
Endeavouring to attain this freedom we may make Rules and Methods
serve us (see p. 221), knowing that Rules are only _Guides_ and that
Methods are suggested by the work itself: from first to last our
necessary equipment consists in good models, good tools, & a good
will. Within the limits of our craft we cannot have too much freedom;
for too much fitting & planning makes the work lifeless, and it is
conceivable that in the finest work the Rules are concealed, and
that, for example, a MS. might be most beautiful without ruled lines
and methodical arrangement (see p. 343). But the more clearly we
realize our limitations the more practical our work. And it is rather
as a stimulus to definite thought—not as an embodiment of hard and
fast rules—that various methodical plans & tables of comparison &
analysis are given in this book. It is well to recognize at once, the
fact that mere taking to pieces, or analysing, followed by “putting
together,” is only a means of becoming acquainted with the mechanism
of construction, and will not reproduce the original beauty of a
thing: it is an education for work, but all work which is honest and
straightforward has a beauty and freshness of its own.
The commercial prospects of the student of Writing & Illuminating—or,
indeed, of any Art or Craft—are somewhat problematical, depending
largely on his efficiency & opportunities. There is a fairly steady
demand for Illuminated Addresses; but the independent craftsman
would have to establish himself by _useful_ practice, and by seizing
opportunities, and by doing his work well. Only an attempt [p-xxii]
to do practical work will raise practical problems, and therefore
_useful practice is the making of real or definite things_. In
the special conditions attaching to work which the craftsman is
commissioned to do for another person, there is a great advantage.
And the beginner by setting himself specific tasks (for example:
making a MS. book for a specific purpose—see p. 100) should give
reality to his work. As a craftsman in Lettering he might get work in
some of the directions mentioned in pp. 337–341.
Although the demand for good work is at present limited, the
production of good work will inevitably create a demand; and,
finally, the value of Quality is always recognized—sooner or later,
but inevitably—and whatever “practical” reasons we may hear urged in
favour of _Quantity_, the value of Quality is gaining recognition
every day in commerce and even in art, and there or here, sooner or
later we shall know that _we can afford the best_.
EDWARD JOHNSTON.
_October 1906._
My thanks are due to Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, to Mr. Emery
Walker, and to Mr. George Allen for quotations: to Mr. Graily
Hewitt, to Mr. Douglas Cockerell, to Mr. A. E. R. Gill, to Mr. C. M.
Firth, and to Mr. G. Loumyer, for special contributions on gilding,
binding, and inscription-cutting: to Mr. S. C. Cockerell for several
of the plates: to Mr. W. H. Cowlishaw, to the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott,
to Dr. F. S. Kenyon of the New Palæographical Society, to the Vicar
of Holy Trinity Church, Hastings, to the Secretary of the Board of
Education, S. Kensington, to Mr. H. Yates-Thompson, to Mr. G. H.
Powell, and to others, for permission to reproduce photographs,
&c.: and to Mr. Noel Rooke and G. J. H. for assistance with the
illustrations and many other matters: I should like, moreover, to
acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. W. R. Lethaby and Mr. S. C.
Cockerell for encouragement and advice in years past.
E. J.
――――――――――――――――――――
FOOTNOTES TO AUTHOR’S PREFACE:
[1] See Chap. XVI. “Of Colour” in “Stained Glass Work” by C. W.
Whall, in this Series, and the illuminator might profit by the
suggestion (_ibid._, p. 232) of playing with a home-made kaleidoscope.
[2] Dealing with the practical and theoretical knowledge of
letter-making and arrangement which may be gained most effectually by
the use of the pen.
[3] In making choice of a model we seek an essentially legible
character, remembering that our personal view of legibility is apt to
favour custom and use unduly, for a quite bad, familiar writing may
seem to us more readable than one that is far clearer in itself but
unfamiliar.
[4] Much remains to be found out and done in the matter of improving
tools & materials & processes, and it would be preferable that the
rediscovery of simple, old methods should precede new & complex
inventions. We still find the Quill—for its substance & for shaping
it and keeping it sharp—is a better tool than a modern gold or
metal pen (see p. 60). The old parchment, paper, ink, gilding-size
& colours are all much better than those now obtainable (see pp.
51, 167, 173, 178–179). I should greatly appreciate any advice from
illuminators and letter-craftsmen as to materials and methods, and
should endeavour to make such information available to others.—E. J.
[p-xxiii]
ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA
P. 51. Beginners practising _large_ writing may more easily use a
_thin, or diluted, ink_: in _small_ writing this does not show up
the faults with sufficient clearness.
P. 59. Quills often have a sort of _skin_ (which tends to make a
ragged nib), this should be scraped off the back.
P. 63. Until the simple pen-stroke forms are mastered, the pen
should be used without appreciable pressure. With practice one gains
_sleight of hand_ (pp. 85, 311), and slightly changing pressures &
quick movements on to the _corners_, or points, of the nib are used.
The forms in the best MSS. shew such variations; _e.g._ the Uncials
in fig. 5 appear to have been made with varying pressure (perhaps
with a soft reed) & their fine finishing-strokes with the nib-point
(_comp._ forms in fig. 146). _Versals_ likewise shew varying, and
sometimes uncertain, structures that suggest a form consisting of
strokes other than definite pen strokes. [p-xxv]
[Illustration: ‹Figs.› _a_ to _n_, illustrating Addenda &
Corrigenda.]
P. 64. A nib may be _sharpened_ several times, before it is re-cut,
by paring it underneath (fig. _a_).
Pp. 73 & 81. The thin finishing-strokes of j, & F, G, J, N, are made
with the point of the nib—see note p. 63 above.
P. 99. The plan of a paper scale is shewn in fig. _b_.
P. 109. The dots for lines were often pricked through the edges of
the book-sheets which were cut off after ruling (fig. _c_).
P. 118. The spread or _wedge-shaped_ thin stroke, sometimes very
strongly marked, is common in early forms (fig. _d_).
P. 144. [/V] & ℞: better (pen) forms of these are shewn in fig. _e_.
P. 208. Ornamental Letter forms may _consist of_ flourishes,
patterns, leaves, flowers, &c. (see fig. _f_).
Pp. 215–217. _Diapering_ generally means the variegation, figuring,
or flowering, of a plain or patterned surface, with a finer pattern
(see fig. 191_a_). Some diagrams of simple patterns (_g_–_g_^2 from
modern _cantagalli_ ware) are shewn in fig. _g_. Note: the more
solid penwork line-fillings in figs. 87, 126, make effective framing
borders (see fig. _h_).
Pp. 219–220. Note: the principle of breaking straight or long lines,
mentioned in regard to background edges (p. 190), and illustrated in
the line-finishings (fig. 126) and flourishes (fig. 79), is related
to _branching out_ and is re-creative, whereas the prolonged line is
tiresome (see figs. _k_, _k_^1, & _comp. k_^2).
P. 249. The B & D should be _round-shouldered_—see note p. 280
below. [p-xxvi]
P. 260. It is sometimes better to make narrow forms than to combine
wide ones—example fig. _l_.
Pp. 270–275. The large types—“Old Face”
Pp. 280–288. (founded on Caslon Type) and
“Old French” (modern) respectively
—are used in these pages as reference
or index letters (not as models).
P. 280. Generally _round-shouldered_ letters have finer and more
stable forms than square-shouldered, and generally emphasis should
be laid on the _strong, thick stroke running obliquely down from
left to right_ (@), while the weak, thin stroke (/) is rather to be
avoided (see fig. _m_). The writing used in the diagrams in this
book, considered as a formal hand, shews a little too much of the
thin stroke (see p. 485).
P. 324. Commonly letters are made more slender in proportion as they
are made larger, and it is generally not desirable (or possible)
in practical work to have exactly similar proportions in large and
small lettering.
P. 325. g from fig. 173 inaccurate—_comp._ fig. 173 & see fig. _n_.
P. 331. Ornamental letters—see note p. 208 above.
P. 481. A small writing is often the most practical—in the matter
of speed in reading and less bulk in the MS., besides speed in the
writing of it—but it is more difficult for the beginner to write it
well and it is apt to lose some of the virtues of formal penmanship
(see Fine-pen writing pp. 59, 86, 311, 324, 482).
P. 485. Oblique thin stroke—see note p. 280 above. [p-xxvii]
CONTENTS
‹Editor’s Preface› vii
‹Author’s Preface› xiii
‹Addenda & Corrigenda› xxiii
PART I WRITING & ILLUMINATING
CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING 35
CHAPTER II ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (1) TOOLS
Acquiring a Formal Hand: Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper &
Ink — Pens: _The Reed_: _The Quill_ — Of Quills generally —
Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c. 48
CHAPTER III ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (2) METHODS
Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the Pen —
Holding the Pen — Filling the Pen, &c. 61
CHAPTER IV ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (3) MODELS
Models — Notes on Construction: Script I. — Coupling the
Letters — Spacing: Letters, Words, & Lines — Uncial Capitals:
Script II. — Numerals & Punctuation Marks — Of _Copying_ MSS.
Generally 70
CHAPTER V ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE
Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single
Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) — Problem II. (a Sheet
of Poetry) — Spacing & Planning Manuscript 85
CHAPTER VI MANUSCRIPT BOOKS
MS. Books: Tools & Materials — Methods & Proportions — The
Size & Shape of the Book — The Widths of the Margins — The
Size of the Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General
Remarks 98
CHAPTER VII VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals —
Notes on Construction of Versals — Spacing & Arrangement of
Versals 112
CHAPTER VIII BLACK & RED
Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces &
Notes in Colour — Pages with Coloured Headings — Page or
Column Heading & Initial — Versals in Column or Marginal
Bands — Stanzas or Verses marked by Versals — Music with Red
Staves — Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c. — Rubricating: General
Remarks 127
CHAPTER IX LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD
Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the Gold-Leaf
— Burnishing the Gold — Remedying Faults in Gilding — Gold
Writing — Other Methods & Recipes for Gilding — Appendix on
Gilding (by _Graily Hewitt_) 145
CHAPTER X THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL LETTERS &
SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment,
“Vellum,” & Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour Effects — Matt
Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines —
Background Capitals — Applying the Background — Ornament of
Backgrounds 172
CHAPTER XI A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination — “Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumination” —
“Filigree, or Pen-Work, Illumination” — “Natural, or Limner’s,
Illumination” 193
CHAPTER XII THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The Development of Illumination — Line-Finishings — Initial
Letters — Borders & Backgrounds 204
CHAPTER XIII “DESIGN” IN ILLUMINATION
“Design” — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale & Scope
of Decoration — Of “Designing” Manuscripts, Generally 214
PART II LETTERING
CHAPTER XIV GOOD LETTERING — SOME METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION &
ARRANGEMENT
Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering — Simplicity
— Distinctiveness — Proportion — Beauty of Form — Beauty of
Uniformity — Right Arrangement — Setting Out & Fitting In —
“Massed Writing” & “Fine Writing” — Even Spacing — Theory &
Practice 237
CHAPTER XV THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES
The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters: Widths — Upper &
Lower Parts — Essential or Structural Forms — Characterisation
of Forms — Built-Up Forms — Simple-Written Capitals — Uncials
— Capitals & Small-Letters — Early, Round, Upright, Formal
Hands — Slanted-Pen Small-Letters — Roman Small-Letters —
Italics — Semi-Formal Hands — Of Formal Writing Generally —
Decorative Contrasts — Ornamental Letters 268
APPENDIX A
CHAPTER XVI SPECIAL SUBJECTS
Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding MSS (_with
Note by Douglas Cockerell_) — Broadsides, Wall Inscriptions,
&c. — Illuminated Addresses, &c. — Monograms & Devices — Title
Pages — Lettering for Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions
on Metal, Stone, Wood, &c. — Of Inscriptions Generally —
Bibliography, &c. 337
APPENDIX B
CHAPTER XVII INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE (_By A. E. R. Gill_)
Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets — Size & Spacing
— The Material — Setting Out — Tools — A Right Use of the
Chisel — Incised Letters & Letters in Relief — The Sections of
Letters — Working _in situ_ 389
‹Notes on the Collotype Plates› 407
‹The Collotype Plates› 431
‹Index› 489
PART I
WRITING & ILLUMINATING
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 1.›]
[p035]
PART I
WRITING & ILLUMINATING
CHAPTER I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
Nearly every type of letter with which we are familiar is derived
from the Roman Capitals, and has come to us through the medium, or
been modified by the influence, of the pen. And, therefore, in trying
to revive good Lettering, we cannot do better than make a practical
study of the best pen-forms, and learn at the same time to appreciate
the forms of their magnificent archetypes as preserved in the
monumental Roman inscriptions.
The development and the relations of the principal types of letters
are briefly set out in the accompanying “family tree”—fig. 1. When
the student has learnt to cut and handle a pen, he can trace this
development practically by trying to copy a few words from each
example given below. [p036]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 2.›]
_THE ROMAN ALPHABET._—The Alphabet, as we know it, begins with the
ROMAN CAPITALS[5] (see fig. 2). Their fine monumental forms were
evolved by the use of the chisel—probably under the influence of
writing—and had reached full development about 2000 years ago (see
Plates I., II., and Chapter XV.).
_FORMAL WRITING_—the “_book-hand_” or professional writing of the
scribes—comes of the careful writing of the Roman Capitals (see also
_footnote_, p. 38, on the beginnings of fine penmanship). It was the—
“_literary hand_, used in the production of exactly written MSS.,
and therefore a hand of comparatively limited use. By its side, and
of course of far more extensive and general use, was the _cursive
hand_ of the time”[6] [p037]
In early _cursive writing_—the running-hand or ordinary writing of
the people—
“The Letters are nothing more than the old Roman letters written
with speed, and thus undergoing certain modifications in their
forms, which eventually developed into the _minuscule hand_.”[7]
(See fig. 3.)
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 3.›]
Here it is sufficient to trace the history of the _formal_ Latin
“hands,” but the continual, modifying influence exerted on them by
the ordinary _cursive_ writing should be borne in mind. Notable
results of this influence are seen in _Half-Uncials_ and _Italics_.
_SQUARE CAPITALS_ were formal, pen-made Roman Capitals, of the
monumental type: they were used (perhaps from the _second_) till
about the [p038] end of the _fifth_ century for important books (see
Plate III.).
_RUSTIC CAPITALS_ were probably a variety of the “Square Capitals,”
and were in use till about the end of the _fifth_ century (fig. 4;
see also p. 297).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 4.›—Æneid, on vellum, third or fourth century.]
_ROMAN UNCIALS_ were fully developed by the fourth century, and were
used from the fifth till the eighth century for the finest books
(fig. 5).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 5.›—Psalter, fifth century.]
Uncials are true pen-forms[8]—more quickly written than the “Square,”
and clearer than the “Rustic” Capitals—having the characteristic,
simple strokes and beautiful, rounded shapes which flow from the
rightly handled reed or quill. The [p039] typical Uncial letters
are the round D, E, H, M, U (or V), and A and Q (see p. 300).
_ROMAN HALF-UNCIALS_—or _Semi-Uncials_—(fig. 6) were mixed _Uncial_
and _Cursive_ forms adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in
writing. Their evolution marks the formal change from _Capitals_ to
“_Small-Letters_.”
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 6.›—S. Augustine: probably French sixth century.]
They were first used as a book-hand for the less important books
about the beginning of the sixth century.
_IRISH HALF-UNCIALS_ were founded on the Roman Half-Uncials (probably
brought to Ireland by Roman missionaries in the sixth century). As a
beautiful writing, they attained in the seventh century a degree of
perfection since unrivalled (see Plate VI.).
They developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a “pointed”
writing, which became the Irish national hand.
_ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS_ (fig. 7) were modelled on the Irish
Half-Uncials in the seventh [p041] century. They also developed in
the eighth and ninth centuries into a “pointed” writing.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 7.›—“Durham Book”: Lindisfarne, about ‹A.D.›
700. (See also Plate VII.)]
_CAROLINE_ (_or CARLOVINGIAN_) _WRITING_.—While English and Irish
writing thus came from Roman Half-Uncial, the Continental hands were
much influenced by the rougher Roman Cursive, and were, till near the
end of the eighth century, comparatively poor.
“The period of Charlemagne is an epoch in the history of the
handwritings of Western Europe. With the revival of learning
naturally came a reform of the writing in which the works of
literature were to be made known. A decree of the year 789 called
for the revision of church books; and this work naturally brought
with it a great activity in the writing schools of the chief
monastic centres of France. And in none was there greater activity
than at Tours, where, under the rule of Alcuin of York, who was
abbot of St. Martin’s from 796 to 804, was specially developed
the exact hand which has received the name of the Caroline
Minuscule.”[9] [p042]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 8.›—British Museum: Harl. MS. 2790. Caroline
MS. _first half of_ 9th century. (See also fig. 171 & p. 305.)]
[p043]
The influence of the Caroline hands (see fig. 8) presently spread
throughout Europe. The letters in our modern copy-books may be
regarded as their direct, though degenerate, descendants.
_SLANTED-PEN or TILTED WRITING._—The forms of the letters in early
writing indicate an easily held pen—slanted away from the right
shoulder. The slanted pen naturally produced _oblique_ thick strokes
and thin strokes, and the letters were “tilted” (see fig. 9).
In the highly finished hands—used from the sixth to the eighth
centuries—such as the later Uncials and the Roman, Irish, and English
Half-Uncials, the pen was manipulated or cut so that the thin strokes
were approximately horizontal, and the thick strokes vertical (fig.
10). The earlier and easier practice came into fashion again in the
eighth and ninth centuries, and the round Irish and English hands
became “pointed” as a result of slanting the pen.
The alteration in widths and directions of pen strokes, due to the
use of the “slanted pen,” had these effects on the half-uncial forms
(see fig. 11):—
1. _The thin strokes taking an oblique_ (_upward_) _direction_
(_a_) (giving a sharp angle with the verticals (_d_, _a_)) led to
angularity and narrower forms (_a_^1), and a marked contrast between
thick and thin strokes—due to the abrupt change from one to the other
(_a_^2).
2. _The thick strokes becoming oblique_ (_b_) caused a thickening of
the curves below on the left (_b_^1), and above on the right (_b_^2),
which gave heavy shoulders and feet.
3. _The horizontal strokes becoming thicker_ (_c_) gave stronger and
less elegant forms. [p044]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 9.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 10.›]
[p045]
4. _The vertical strokes becoming thinner_ (_d_) (with oblique or
pointed ends—not square ended) increased the tendency to narrow
letters.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 11.›]
It is to be noted that the Caroline letters—though written with a
“slanted pen”—kept the open, round appearance of the earlier forms.
[p046]
_TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH CENTURY WRITING._—The easy use of
the slanted pen, and the lateral compression of the letters which
naturally followed, resulted in a valuable economy of time and space
in the making of books. This lateral compression is strongly marked
in the tenth century (see fig. 12), and in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries it caused curves to give place to angles, and writing to
become “_Gothic_” in character (see Plate XI.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 12.›—Psalter: English tenth century. (See also
Plate VIII.)]
_THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND FIFTEENTH CENTURY WRITING._—The tendency
to compression continued, and a further economy of space was effected
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the general use of much
smaller writing (see fig. 13). In the fifteenth century writing grew
larger and taller again, but the letters had steadily become [p047]
narrower, more angular, and stiffer, till the written page consisted
of rows of perpendicular thick strokes with heads and feet connected
by oblique hair-lines—which often look as if they had been dashed in
after with a fine pen—all made with an almost mechanical precision
(see Plate XVII.).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 13.›—_Colophon_ of English MS., dated 1254.]
_ITALIAN WRITING._—In Italy alone the roundness of the earlier
hands was preserved, and though in course of time the letters were
affected by the “Gothic” tendency, they never lost the curved forms
or acquired the extreme angularity which is seen in the writings of
Northern Europe (compare Plates X. and XI.).
At the time of the Renaissance the Italian scribes remodelled their
“hands” on the beautiful Italian writing of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries (see Plates X. and XVIII., XIX., XX.). The early Italian
printers followed after the scribes and modelled their types on these
round clear letters. And thus the fifteenth century Italian formal
writing became the foundation of the “_Roman_” _small letters_, which
have superseded all others for the printing of books. [p048]
_ITALICS._—The Roman Letters, together with the cursive hand of the
time, gave rise to “_Italic_” letters (see fig. 1, & pp. 311, 316,
483).
_ORNAMENTAL LETTERS_ originated in the simple written forms, which
were developed for special purposes, and were made larger or written
in colour (see ‹Versals›, &c., figs. 1, 189).
Their first object was to mark important words, or the beginnings
of verses, chapters, or books. As _Initial Letters_ they were
much modified and embellished, and so gave rise to the art of
_Illumination_ (see pp. 113, 114).
CHAPTER II
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (1) TOOLS
Acquiring a Formal Hand: Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper & Ink —
Pens: _The Reed: The Quill_ — Of Quills generally — Pen-knife,
Cutting-slab, &c.
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: TOOLS, &C.
The simplest way of learning how to make letters is to acquire a fine
formal hand. To this end a legible and beautiful writing (see p. 70)
should be chosen, and be carefully copied with a properly cut pen.
_For learning to write_, the following tools and materials are
required:—
Desk.
Writing-paper.
Ink and _filler_.
Pens (Reed and Quill) with “_springs_.” [p049]
Pen-knife, sharpening-stone, and _cutting-slab_.
Magnifying glass.
Two-foot (preferably _three-foot_) rule, and pencil.
Linen pen-wiper.
THE DESK
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 14.›]
An ordinary desk or drawing-board can be used, but the best desk is
made by hinging a drawing-board (“Imperial” size) to the edge of a
table. The board may be raised and supported at any desired angle by
a hinged support, or by a _round_ tin set under it (fig. 14). For a
more portable [p050] desk two drawing-boards may be similarly hinged
together and placed on a table (fig. 15).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 15.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 16.›]
A tape or string is tightly stretched—horizontally—across the desk
to hold the writing-paper (which, as a rule, is not pinned on).
The lower part of the writing-paper is held and protected by a
piece of stout paper or vellum fixed tightly, with drawing-pins,
across and over it (fig. 16). Under the writing-paper there should
be a “_writing-pad_,” consisting of one or two [p051] sheets of
blotting-paper, or some other suitable substance.[10]
It is a good plan to have the lower, front edge of the desk bevelled
or rounded, so that the tail part of a deep sheet, which may hang
below the table, does not become accidentally creased by being
pressed against it. A curved piece of cardboard fixed on the edge
will answer the same purpose.
PAPER & INK
For “practice” any smooth—not glazed—paper will do. For careful work
a smooth _hand-made_ paper is best (pp. 103, 111).
A good, prepared, liquid (carbon) ink is best. It should be as black
as possible, without being too thick. A jet-black ink will test the
quality of the writing by “showing up” all the faults; “pale” or
“tinted” inks rather conceal the faults, and lend a false appearance
of excellence (p. 322). A thin ink greatly adds to the ease of
writing (see _Addenda_, p. 23). Waterproof inks, as a rule, are too
thick or gummy, and do not flow freely enough.
The ink-bottle is kept corked when not in use, to keep the ink clean
and prevent evaporation. Thick or muddy ink should be put away: it is
not worth while trying to use it.
A small brush is used for filling the pen.
PENS
A Reed or Cane pen is best for very large writing—over half an inch
in height—and therefore [p052] it is of great use in studying pen
strokes and forms.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 17.›]
A Quill is best for smaller writing, and is used for all ordinary MS.
work (pp. 54–60).
_The REED_[11] pen should be about 8 inches long.
I. One end is cut off obliquely (fig. 17).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 18.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 19.›]
II. The soft inside part is shaved away by means of a knife laid flat
against it, leaving the hard outer shell (fig. 18).
III. The nib is laid, back up, on the slab (p. 61), and—the
knife-blade being vertical—the tip is cut off at right angles to the
shaft (fig. 19).
IV. A short longitudinal slit (_a_–_b_) is made by [p053] inserting
the knife-blade in the middle of the tip (fig. 20).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 20.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 21.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 22.›]
V. A pencil or brush-handle is held under the nib, and is gently
twitched upwards to lengthen the slit (fig. 21). An ordinary reed
should have a slit about 3/4 inch long. A very stiff pen may have in
addition a slit on either side of the centre.
The left thumb nail is pressed against the back of the pen—about 1
inch from the tip—to prevent it splitting too far up (see also fig.
27).
VI. The nib is laid, back up, on the slab, and—the knife-blade being
vertical—the tip is cut off at an angle of about 70° to the shaft,
removing the first rough slit _a_–_b_ (fig. 22). [p054]
VII. A strip of thin metal (very thin tin, or clock spring with the
“temper” taken out by heating and slowly cooling) is cut the width
of the nib and about 2 inches long. This is folded into a “_spring_”
(fig. 23).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 23.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 24.›]
VIII. The _spring_ is inserted into the pen (fig. 24).
The loop _a b c_ is “sprung” into place, and holds the spring in the
right position. The loop _c d_, which should be rather flat, holds
the ink in the pen. The point _d_ should be about 1/8 inch from the
end of the nib.
_THE QUILL._—_A Turkey’s Quill_ is strong, and suitable for general
writing. As supplied by the stationers it consists of a complete
wing-feather, about 12 inches long, having the quill part cut for
ordinary use. For careful writing it should be re-made thus:—
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 25.›]
I. The quill should be cut down to 7 or 8 inches (fig. 25); the long
feather if left is apt to be in the way.
II. The “barbs” or filaments of the feather are stripped off the
shaft (fig. 26). [p055]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 26.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 27.›]
III. The nib already has a slit usually about 1/4 inch long. This is
sufficient in a fairly pliant pen; in a very stiff pen (see p. 60)
the slit may be lengthened to 3/8 inch. This may be done with care
by holding a _half-nib_ between the forefinger [p056] and thumb of
each hand, but the safest way is to _twitch_ the slit open (fig. 27),
using the end of another pen (or a brush-handle) as explained under
_Reed_, V. (see p. 53).
IV. The sides of the nib are pared till the width across the tip is
rather less than the width desired[12] (fig. 28).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 28.›]
V. The nib is laid, back up, on the glass slab, and the extreme tip
is cut off obliquely to the slit, the knife blade being slightly
sloped, and its edge forming an angle of about 70° with the line of
the shaft (fig. 29; see also fig. 36). [p057]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 29.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 30.›]
The shaft rests lightly in the left hand (not _gripped_ and not
pressed down on slab at all), and the knife blade is entered with a
steady pressure.
If the nib is then not wide enough it may be cut again; if too wide,
the sides may be pared down.
Cut very little at a time off the tip of the nib; a heavy cut is apt
to force the pen out of shape and spoil the edge of the nib.
VI. The nib should then be examined with the magnifying glass. Hold
the pen, back down, over a sheet of white paper, and see that the
ends of the two half-nibs are in the same straight line _a_–_b_ (fig.
30).
The nib should have an oblique chisel-shaped tip, very sharply cut
(fig. 31).
A magnifying glass is necessary for examining a fine pen; a coarse
pen may be held up against [p058] the light from a window—a
finger-tip being held just over the nib to direct the eye (fig. 32).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 31.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 32.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 33.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 34.›]
A nib in which the slit does not quite close may be bent down to
bring the two parts together (fig. 33). [p059]
Uneven or blunt nibs (fig. 34) must be carefully re-cut.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 35.›]
VII. The _Spring_ (see _Reed_, VII.) (about 3/32 inch by 1-1/2 inch)
is placed so that the point is about 1/16 inch from the end of the
nib. The long loop should be made rather flat to hold plenty of ink
(A, fig. 35)—neither too much curved (B: this holds only a drop), nor
quite flat (C: this draws the ink up and away from the nib).
OF QUILLS GENERALLY
For ordinary use the nib may be cut with a fairly steep angle, as
shown (magnified) at (_a_) (fig. 36).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 36.›]
But it is better for fine, sharp writing that the angle be made very
sharp: the knife blade is laid back (much flatter than is shown in
fig. 29) and the quill is cut quite thin; the knife blade is then
held vertical and the extreme tip of the nib is cut off sharp and
true (_b_, fig. 36).
For large writing, the curved inside of the quill is pared _flat_
(_c_, _d_, fig. 36) [p060] to give full strokes. If the nib be left
curved and hollow underneath (_e_), it is apt to make hollow strokes.
The pen may be made more _pliant_ by scraping it till it is thinner,
or by cutting the “shoulder” (_a_–_b_, fig. 29) longer, or _stiffer_
by cutting the nib back until the “shoulder” is short.
Goose and Crow Quills (see p. 172).
The main advantages of a quill over a metal pen are, that the former
may be shaped exactly as the writer desires, and be re-cut when it
becomes blunt.
A metal pen may be sharpened on an oilstone, but the process takes so
much longer that there is no saving in time: it is not easily cut to
the exact shape, and it lacks the pleasant elasticity of the quill.
A gold pen is probably the best substitute for a quill, and if it
were possible to have a sharp, “chisel-edged” _iridium_ tip on
the gold nib, it would be an extremely convenient form of pen. A
“fountain pen” might be used with thin ink.
PEN-KNIFE, CUTTING-SLAB, &C.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 37.›]
_THE KNIFE._—Quill makers use a special knife. A surgical scalpel
makes an excellent pen-knife. The blade should be fairly stout, as
the edge of a thin blade is easily damaged. It should be ground
almost entirely on the right side of the blade (fig. 37) and kept
very sharp. [p061]
_THE SLAB._—A piece of glass (preferably white) may be used for fine
quills; hard wood, bone, or celluloid for reed and cane pens.
_SHARPENING STONE._—A “Turkey” (fine) or “Washita” (fine or coarse
grained) stone.
_MAGNIFYING GLASS._—A magnifying glass (about 1 inch in diameter)
is necessary for examining fine pen nibs to see if they are “true.”
A “pocket” glass is the most suitable for general use, and for the
analysis of small writing, &c.
_RULE._—A 2, or 3-foot wood rule having brass strips let in to
protect the edges, or a metal rule.
_LINEN PEN-WIPER._—A piece of an old linen handkerchief may be used
to keep the pen clean.
CHAPTER III
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (2) METHODS
Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the Pen — Holding
the Pen — Filling the Pen, &c.
POSITION OF THE DESK
_Always write at a slope._ This enables you to sit up comfortably
at your work, and to see the MS. clearly as though it were on an
easel—and, by the resulting horizontal position of the pen, the ink
is kept under control. It may be seen from ancient pictures that
this was the method of the scribes (see _Frontispiece_). Never write
on a flat table; it causes the writer to stoop, the MS. is seen
foreshortened, and the ink flows out of the pen too rapidly. [p062]
The slope of the desk may be about, or rather less than, 45° to begin
with: as the hand becomes accustomed to it, it may be raised to about
60° (fig. 38).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 38.›]
The “heel” of the right hand may be tired at first, but it soon grows
used to the position. A rest for the left arm, if necessary, can be
attached to the left side of the board.
_Lighting._ The desk is placed very near to a window, so that a
strong light falls on it from the left. Direct sunlight may be cut
off by fixing a sheet of thin white paper in the window. _Careful
work should be done by daylight._ Work done by artificial light
always appears faulty and unsatisfactory when viewed by day.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 39.›]
THE WRITING LEVEL
Each penman will find for himself the _writing level_ along which his
pen will move most naturally and conveniently (see figs. 39 and 16).
The _paper guard_ should be pinned on about 1 inch below the [p063]
writing level: the _tape_ is fixed across about 3 inches above the
guard. In the case of very large writing the space between the tape
and the guard is greater, and in the case of a very small MS. it is
less.
_The writing level is kept constant._ When one line has been written,
the writing paper—which is placed behind the tape and the guard—is
pulled up for another line.
USE OF THE PEN
For the practical study of pen-forms use a cane or a reed pen—or a
quill cut very broad—giving a broad, firm, thick stroke. It is the
chisel edge (p. 57) of the nib which gives the “clean cut” thick and
thin strokes and the graduated curved strokes characteristic of good
writing (fig. 40).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 40.›]
Therefore, _let the nib glide about on the surface with the least
possible pressure_, making natural pen-strokes the thickness of which
is only varied [p064] by the different directions in which the nib
moves (see _Addenda_, p. 23).
It is very important that the nib be cut “sharp,” and as often as its
edge wears blunt it must be resharpened. It is impossible to make
“clean cut” strokes with a blunt pen (see _Addenda_, p. 25).
When the nib is cut back, the “shoulder” should be cut back to
preserve the elasticity of the pen (p. 60).
HOLDING THE PEN
_The hand holds the pen lightly and easily._ A good method is to loop
the thumb and forefinger over, and slightly gripping, the shaft of
the pen, and support the shaft from below with the second finger. The
third and fourth fingers are tucked, out of the way, into the palm
(figs. 41, 45).
The pen should be so lightly held that _the act of writing should
draw the edge of the nib into perfect contact with the paper,
both the half-nibs touching the surface_. (To make sure that the
contact is perfect, make experimental thick strokes on a scrap of
paper—pinned at the right-hand side of the desk—and see that they
are “true,” _i.e._ that they are of even width, with “clean cut”
edges and ends.) The writer should be able to feel what the nib is
doing. If the pen be gripped stiffly the edge of the nib cannot be
felt on the paper; and it will inevitably be forced out of shape and
prematurely blunted.
A thin slip of bone—a “folder” or the handle of the pen-knife will
do—is commonly held in the left hand to keep the paper flat and
steady (see fig. 41). [p065]
_THE CUSTOMARY MANNER._—The ancient scribe probably held his pen in
the manner most convenient to himself; and we, in order to write
with freedom, should hold the pen in the way to which, by long use,
we have been accustomed; _provided that, for writing an upright
round-hand, the pen be so manipulated and cut as to make fine
horizontal thin strokes and clean vertical thick strokes_ (see fig.
40, & _footnote_, p. 304).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 41.›]
_SLANTED SHAFT, &c._—Most people are accustomed to holding a pen
slanted away from the right shoulder. The nib therefore is cut at
[p066] an oblique angle[13] to the shaft, so that, while the shaft
is slanted, _the edge of the nib is parallel with the horizontal
line of the paper_, and will therefore produce a horizontal thin
stroke and a vertical thick stroke. For example: if the shaft is held
slanted at an angle of 70° with the horizontal, the nib is cut at an
angle of 70° with the shaft (fig. 42). The angle of the nib with the
shaft may vary from 90° (at right angles) to about 70°, according to
the slant at which the shaft is held (fig. 43).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 42.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 43.›]
If the writer prefers an extremely slanted shaft, to cut the nib
correspondingly obliquely would weaken it, so it is better to
counteract the slant by slightly tilting the paper (fig. 44).
To produce the _horizontal thin stroke_, therefore:
_The slant at which the shaft is held_,
_The angle at which the nib is cut_, and
_The tilt which may be given to the paper_: [p067]
must be so adjusted, one to another, that the chisel edge of the nib
is parallel to the horizontal line of the paper. Before writing,
make trial strokes on a scrap of paper to see that this is so: the
vertical thick strokes should be square ended and the full width of
the nib, the horizontal strokes as fine as possible.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 44.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 45.›]
_HORIZONTAL SHAFT, &c._—_The pen shaft is held approximately
horizontal._ This will be found the natural position for it when the
slope [p068] of the desk is about 50° or 60°. It gives complete
control of the ink in the pen, which can be made to run faster or
slower by slightly elevating or depressing the shaft (fig. 45).
_The writing-board may be slightly lowered or raised_ with the object
of elevating or depressing the pen shaft (fig. 46 & p. 118).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 46.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 47.›]
_The pen makes a considerable angle with the writing surface_, so
that the ink, which is held in the hollow of the nib, comes in
contact with the paper at the very extremity of the nib, making very
fine strokes (_a_, fig. 47).
_The spring is adjusted carefully_, the tip being approximately 1/16
inch from the tip of the nib. The nearer the spring is to the end of
the nib, the faster the ink flows. The loop must be kept flattish in
order to hold the ink well (see fig. 35). [p069]
It is convenient to stand the ink, &c., beside the desk on the left,
and for this purpose a little cup-shaped bracket or clip may be
attached to the edge of the writing-board. The filling-brush stands
in the ink-bottle (p. 51) or pot of colour (p. 176), and is taken up
in the left hand; the pen, retained in the right hand, being brought
over to the left to be filled.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 48.›]
_The back of the nib is kept dry_ (_a_, fig. 48). A very convenient
and perfectly clean method, when care is taken, of removing any ink
on the back of the pen is to draw it across the back of the left
fore-finger.
In careful work the pen should be tried, on a [p070] scrap of paper,
almost every time it is filled (to see that it is not too full and
that the ink is flowing rightly).
_The nib is kept clean._ A carbon ink (p. 51), through gradual
evaporation, is apt to clog the nib (especially in hot weather);
therefore every now and then, while the nib is in use, the spring is
taken out and the whole thoroughly cleaned. It is impossible to write
well with a dirty pen.
CHAPTER IV
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (3) MODELS
Models — Notes on Construction: Script I. — Coupling the Letters —
Spacing: Letters, Words, & Lines — Uncial Capitals: Script II. —
Numerals & Punctuation Marks — Of _Copying_ MSS. Generally.
MODELS
The best training is found in the practice of an _upright round-hand_
(p. 302). Having mastered such a writing, the penman can acquire any
other hands—sloping or angular—with comparative ease (p. 323).
The English Half-Uncial writing in Plate VII. is an excellent model.
Those who have sufficient time to spare for the careful study of
this, or any other legible and beautiful round-hand, should obtain
access to the MSS. in a museum, or procure good _facsimiles_ (see
Plates at end of Book, & p. 388).
Those who have not sufficient time for a careful and thorough
study of an early MS. will find it [p071] easier to begin with a
simplified and modernised writing, such as Script I. (fig. 49).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 49.›]
Before copying a hand it is well to examine carefully the manuscript
from which it is taken: observe its general appearance: note the
character and mode of the ruling, and the sizes and relative
proportions of page, text, margins, and ornaments. With regard to the
actual forms of the letters and the mode of their arrangement, such a
method of analysis as the following will be found useful, as an aid
to accuracy in copying, and definiteness in self-criticism. [p072]
_A METHOD OF ANALYSIS._ ‹Example›: Analysis of Script I.
(as in fig. 50).
1. THE WRITING—general character: _Modernised Half-Uncial._
(Ruling)—Double or single lines, _Double lines_
&c. (see pp. 304, 305): (_see figs._ 59, 65).
Letters—round or angular: _round._
upright or sloping: _upright._
coupled or separate: _coupled._
2. THIN STROKES: horizontal or _horizontal._
oblique (see figs. 10, 9):
3. THICK STROKES: heavy, medium, _medium._
or light (see fig. 183):
4. “HEADS” & “FEET”: character _solid, triangular, &c._
(see fig. 145):
5. STEMS (_ascending_ & _medium._
_descending_): short, medium,
or long (see fig. 183):
6. SPACING (_Letters, Words,_ _fairly close_
_Lines_): close or wide (see (_see figs._ 54, 55).
fig. 154):
7. ARRANGEMENT: in mass (of equal _in mass of equal lines_
lines), or in column (of (_see fig._ 66).
unequal lines) (see fig. 154):
8. MEASUREMENTS (& _proportions_
_see pp._ 324, 327):
width of thick stroke (see p. 83): _l = about 3/32″ wide._
height of _o_ and _d_ (see pp. _o = about 3/8″ high._
82, 84): _d = about 11/16″ high._
writing lines, distance apart _Lines 1″ apart._
(see p. 82):
9. COMPONENT PARTS: number and _a has 3 strokes._
forms (see pp. 75, 81, 84): _b has 3 strokes._
_c has 2 strokes._
_and so on_ (_see fig. 51_).
[p073]
The pen generally is held so as to give approximately horizontal thin
strokes (see p. 66), but in making «v» («w», «y») and «x», parts of
«z», &c., it is “slanted.” In figs. 51 and 57 these forms are marked
with a small diagonal cross × (see also p. 25).
Most of the strokes begin as _down-strokes_, but at the _end_ of a
_down-stroke_, when the ink is flowing freely, the stroke may be
continued in an upward direction (as in _coupling-strokes_, &c., the
_feet_ of letters, the thin stroke of «x», and, if preferred, in
making the last stroke of «g», «s», and «y»).
While the ink is still wet in a _down-stroke_, the nib may be
replaced on it and be pushed _up_ward and outward to form the round
arch in «b», «h», «m», «n», «p», and «r». This stroke, reversed, is
also used for the top of «t».
The making of these UP-strokes is shown diagrammatically in fig. 51.
‹Note.›—The forms +«oin»× in fig. 51 contain all the principal
strokes in this alphabet, and are therefore useful for early practice.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 50.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 51.›]
COUPLING THE LETTERS
The letters are joined together by means of their _coupling-strokes_,
which for this purpose may be slightly drawn out, and forward, from
the naturally round forms of the letters (see «c», «e», &c., fig. 52
& fig. 59).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 52.›]
The _coupling-strokes_ are finishing strokes—and as such are akin
to _serifs_ (p. 244)—growing out of or added to such stems as need
“finishing.”
Coupling enables one to write faster and with [p076] more freedom,
the concluding or “coupling” stroke not being _slowed down_, but
written with a dash, which is covered by the first stroke of the
succeeding [p077] letter. It keeps the individual words more
distinct, and therefore permits closer spacing of the text. Coupling
is for convenience _and_ legibility, and where it tends to interfere
with legibility, we must be careful. The freer and more _cursive_ the
hand, the greater is the tendency to join and run letters together,
as in ordinary writing.
It is preferable to couple letters below, if possible. Couplings
above are sometimes apt to confuse the reading; for example, the
cross-bar of «t» (though the most natural coupling for the scribe to
use—see _petatis_, Plate VII.) should generally be made to pass over
or fall short of the succeeding letter (see fig. 52).
SPACING: LETTERS, WORDS, & LINES
The letters of a word are fitted together so that there is a general
effect of evenness. This evenness is only to be attained by practice:
it is characteristic of rapid skilful writing, and cannot be produced
satisfactorily by any system of measurement while the writer’s hand
is still slow and uncertain. It is worth noting, however, that the
white interspaces vary slightly, while the actual distances between
the letters vary considerably, according to whether the adjacent
strokes curve (or slant) away or are perpendicular (figs. 53, 152).
It is sufficient for the beginner to take care that two curved
letters are made very near each other, and that two straight strokes
are spaced well apart.
If the curves are too far apart there will be spots of light, and
where several heavy stems are made too close together, “blots” of
dark, marring the evenness of the page. [p078]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 53.›]
_Words_ are kept as close as is compatible with legibility. The
average space between two words is the width of the letter «o» (fig.
54). [p079]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 54.›]
_The Lines_ in _massed writing_ (see p. 262) are kept as close
together as is compatible with legibility. The usual distance apart
of the _writing-lines_ is _about_ three times the height of the
letter «o» (see also p. 327).
The _descending strokes_ of the upper line must “clear” the
_ascending strokes_ of the lower line. _Interlocking_ of these
strokes may be avoided by the experimental placing of «p» over «d»
(fig. 55).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 55.›]
UNCIAL CAPITALS: SCRIPT II.
These _modernised Uncials_ (see fig. 56, & p. 300) are intended to
go with Script I., and their analysis and mode of construction are
almost identical with those of Script I. (see pp. 72, 73). [p082]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 56.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 57.›]
_Grouping_: Uncials have no _coupling-strokes_; when several are used
together, they are not joined, but evenly grouped, allowing as before
for curves and straight strokes (see p. 77).
_Spacing_: (a) _When used with Script I._, Uncials are written on
the same lines, and have to follow the same spacing (in spite of
their longer stems).
(b) _When Uncials are used by themselves_, their spacing may be
wider (p. 297).
‹Note.›—The height of _Uncial_ «o» is about equal to the height of
the _Half-Uncial_ «d».
NUMERALS & PUNCTUATION MARKS
(See fig. 57.)
These are best made with a “slanted” pen (fig. 9).
When writing “Arabic numerals,” «1» and «0» may be made _on the
line_, «2468» _ascending_, and «3579» _descending_.
OF _COPYING_ MSS. GENERALLY
When copying a MS. it is best to choose a complete page—or part of a
page—to be copied in facsimile.
Two or three lines are copied to begin with; then the composition of
the individual letters and words is studied by means of a large pen;
and finally the whole page is copied in facsimile. (Of _practising_,
see pp. 85, 86).
Make a general examination and analysis as suggested at p. 71.
Accurate measurements will be found helpful.
Take the heights of the «o» and the «d», and the distance apart of
the writing-lines with dividers [p083] The width of the thick stroke
is best found by making experimental thick strokes—the _full width_
of the pen nib—on a scrap of paper: cut the paper in half across the
thick strokes, and place the cut edge on the _thickest_ strokes in
the original MS., you will then find whether the pen nib should be
cut wider or narrower.
The direction of the _thickest_ strokes is approximately at right
angles to the direction of the thin strokes; which commonly
approaches the horizontal in early round hands, and is oblique in
other hands (see figs. 9 and 10). The positions both of these strokes
in the model, and of your pen, determine the angle of the nib.
Therefore, _cut the nib across at such an angle to the shaft of the
pen that, when you hold the pen naturally, the direction of the thin
strokes which it makes on the writing paper will coincide with the
direction of the thin strokes in the model_; but
(_a_) The way in which the shaft is held,
(_b_) The angle at which the nib is cut,
(_c_) The position of the writing paper,
may all be slightly varied, so that the direction of the thin strokes
can be followed exactly (see p. 66).
The writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in accordance with the
model; and the heights of the letters and the widths of the thick
strokes in the copy agree as nearly as possible with those in the
original. It is therefore a good test for accuracy—_when a few lines
of writing have been copied_—to measure and compare their lengths. If
they correspond with their originals, it goes far to prove the copy a
good one.
Before copying more of the page, the construction of the letters
should be carefully studied. The number and the forms of pen-strokes
in each letter [p084] are found by examination—with a magnifying
glass if necessary—and by the experimental putting together of
strokes, to form a similar letter. For this a large pen, such as a
reed, is useful, and it is a good plan to write individual letters
and words exactly two, three, or four times their _height_ in
the model: both the pen nib and the individual letters are made
correspondingly two, three, or four times as _wide_ as in the
original.
It is particularly important, in copying, to preserve accurately
the proportion of the _thick stroke_ to the _height and width_ of a
letter (see p. 324). These are conveniently measured by the pen nib
itself, or by the estimated width of the thick stroke; thus, in the
writing shown in fig. 50, the _width_ of the «o» is approximately
_five_, and the _height_ approximately _four_, times the width of the
thick stroke.
Not only must the copier ascertain what the forms are like and what
are their proportions, but he must try to find out _how they were
made_. This is of the greatest importance, for the manner of making
a letter, or even a single stroke, affects its form and character
with a definite tendency (see p. 416 & fig. 172). And this becomes
more marked the faster the writing. An apparently right form may yet
be wrongly—if slowly—made; but in rapid writing, a wrong manner of
handling the pen will inevitably produce wrong forms. As the real
virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can write quickly, it
is well worth training the hand from the beginning in the proper
manner.
Patient and careful examination should be made of the changing
pen-strokes, and of the mode in which they join—to form letters—and
begin and end—to form “heads” and “feet.” This, accompanied [p085]
by practical experiments in cutting and handling the pen, will
bring out details of the utmost technical value. A certain amount
of legitimate “faking” (p. 246), play of the pen, and sleight of
hand (p. 311), may be found, but, in the main, the regular, natural,
_thick_ and _thin_ strokes of the pen, and the orderly arrangement of
the writing, give to a manuscript its beauty and character.
Then having cut the nib rightly, you may, in a sense, _let the pen
do the writing_, while you merely follow the strokes of the model,
and you will, in course of time, have the pleasure of seeing the same
beautiful writing—in the very manner of the ancient scribes—growing
under your own hand.
CHAPTER V
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE
Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet —
Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) — Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) —
Spacing & Planning Manuscript.
PRACTICE
In acquiring a formal writing the penman should have two paper books
constantly in hand: one for the study of the forms of letters, the
other for both the letters and their arrangement. The first should
contain large and very carefully made writing—with perhaps only one
word to the line; the second [p086] should have smaller and quicker
writing, neatly arranged on the pages, with four or five words to the
line. (See MS. Books, Chap. VI.)
A broad nib is used in preference to a narrow one, so that the
characteristics of true pen-work are brought out and the faults made
clear. A fine, light handwriting is often very pretty, but it is
certain to mislead the novice in penmanship (see p. 324).
Having acquired a formal hand the penman may modify and alter it,
taking care that the changes are compatible, and that they do not
impair its legibility or beauty. Such letters as are obsolete he
replaces by legible forms akin to them in feeling, and, the style of
the selected type becoming very naturally and almost unconsciously
modified by personal use, he at length attains an appropriate and
modern Formal-Handwriting. The process of “forming” a hand requires
time and practice: it resembles the passage of “Copy-book” into
“Running” hand, familiar to us all (see p. 323).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 58.›]
SCRIPTS I. & II.
Having cut the nib of a reed or large quill to the exact width
required for the thick stroke, copy the component strokes of the
letter @ (Script I.), and [p087] immediately make the complete
letter: go through the whole alphabet in this way several times (fig.
58). Next join the letters together (see p. 73) [p088] to form
words—writing always between ruled lines (fig. 59 & p. 414).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 59.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 60.›]
Script II. is similarly practised: the letters are _grouped_ (p. 82)
to form words (fig. 60).
Next make a neat page of large writing, and, if possible, write such
a page every day. The more definite and methodical practice is, the
better. “Practising” _anyhow_, on scraps of paper, does more harm
than good.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 61.›]
ARRANGING & RULING A SINGLE SHEET
The _size_ of an inscription is commonly settled before the
arrangement of the text is planned out, being determined by
considerations of its future position and office, or by custom and
use (see pp. 100–103 & 351). [p089]
The proportions of the writing, spacing, and margins will likewise
properly _settle themselves_ (see pp. 265, 103, 107), but where the
size of the sheet only is fixed, we have, broadly speaking, to decide
between “large” writing with “small” margins (fig. 61), and “small”
writing with “large” margins (fig. 62).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 62.›]
Generally a compromise is arrived at and the proportions are more
evenly balanced (fig. 63).
_Ruling_ (see also pp. 258, 99).—The mode of ruling _marginal
lines_ and _writing lines_ is shown in fig. 65. The ruling should
be light, but firm and accurate. A fine pen, or hard pencil, or a
blunt point may be used. Where the _writing lines_ are double (as
for _round_ hands, p. 304), it is best to have a double ruling point
(see fig. 77). Two hard pencils firmly [p090] lashed together make
a convenient tool for large work: the distance between the points is
easily adjusted by means of a small wedge.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 63.›]
PROBLEM I. (A SHEET OF PROSE)
_To write out the Pater noster_ (50 _words_) _in a formal round-hand
(arranged in “mass” of equal lines) on a sheet of “foolscap”_ (i.e.
17 _inches high and_ 13-1/2 _inches wide_).
If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, a
few words are written out in a script chosen to suit the subject, the
space, &c., and these are measured to find the area which the whole
text so written would occupy (fig. 64). The size of the script is
then modified, if necessary, to suit the available area. [p091]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 64.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 65.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 66.›]
[p094]
Frequently it is desirable first to determine the sizes of the
margins. These depend on various considerations of the position and
office of the MS., but more particularly on the size of the sheet and
the character of its future environment[14] (see p. 351).
The _top_ and _side margins_ may be of equal width—or the _top_ may
be a little less (see _a_, fig. 70). Ample space should be allowed
for the _foot margin_, which is generally about twice the width of
the _top_, but may vary in different cases, according as the text
falls short of or encroaches upon it (see pp. 352, 342). For a plain
_foolscap_ sheet: _sides_ (each) 2-1/2 inches, _top_ (approx.) 2
inches, and _foot_ (approx.) 4 inches, may be taken as suitable
margins (fig. 65).
The _width of the sheet_ (13-1/2 inches) less the two _side margins_
(2-1/2 inches each) gives _the length of the writing lines_ (13-1/2 –
5 = 8-1/2 inches). One or two such lines are written experimentally
in a suitable script (say, 5/16 inch), and _the average number of
words per line_ (four) is found.
The number of words in the complete text (fifty) will determine the
number of lines: an extra line or so may be allowed for safety (50/4
= 12-1/2, say, _thirteen_). The spacing of these is calculated—
5/16 in. writing requires about 7/8 in. (close) spacing (p. 79):
_Thirteen_ lines at 7/8 in. gives 11-3/8 in. = _depth of text_:
11-3/8 in. from 17 in. leaves 5-5/8 in.[15] for _head_ and _foot
margins_
—and if the space is not sufficient, the writing is made a little
smaller. If, on the other hand, the [p095] marginal depth left over
were excessive, the writing _might_ be made a little larger in order
to fill up the space.
PROBLEM II. (A SHEET OF POETRY)
_To write out_ “_He that is down, needs fear no fall_,” _in a formal
round-hand on a sheet of foolscap_ (i.e. 17 _inches high_ × 13 1/2
_inches wide_).
Here there are three verses of four lines each: these with two space
lines, left between the verses, give a total of fourteen lines (fig.
67).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 67.›]
A poem has a given number of lines of various lengths, and only very
strong reason or necessity can justify our altering its proper form
(_e.g._ by breaking up the lines) in order to make a mass of equal
lines. Such theoretical margins as are possible in the treatment of
prose can therefore seldom be observed in writing out a poem, and,
unless the height or the width of the sheet can be altered, there is
apt to be an excess of margin in one or the other direction. When
such excess margin is obviously unavoidable, no objection can be
made to its appearance. _Poetry may conveniently be treated as “fine
writing”_ (see p. 263).
If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance,
several of the _longer lines_ (_e.g._ the first and the eleventh
in the poem given) are written on a piece of paper in the size of
writing preferred (say, 1/4 inch). By laying this paper on the given
sheet, it is seen whether such lines would allow of sufficient _side
margins_. (If they would not, the writing may be made smaller.)
The height of the writing (1/4 inch) must allow of the full number
of lines (fourteen) being properly [p097] spaced on the sheet (17
inches) with sufficient _head_ and _foot margins_. This is calculated—
1/4 in. writing requires approximately 3/4 in. spacing (p. 79):
_Fourteen_ lines at 3/4 in. gives 10-1/2 in. = _depth of text_:
10-1/2 in. from 17 in. leaves 6-1/2 in. for _head_ and _foot margins_
—and if the space were not sufficient, the lines might be made a
little closer, or the writing a little smaller (or, if necessary, the
blank lines might be left out between the verses; p. 123).
_The Sizes of the Margins._—It will be seen that the above method
is primarily for settling _a length of line_ which will allow of
sufficient side margins. The process can be reversed; if necessary,
the side margins are made of a given width, thus determining the
exact length of the line, _the size of writing_ which this line
allows being found experimentally.
‹Note.›—The _extra_ long lines may slightly encroach on the
right-hand margin: the effect of this is balanced by the falling
short of other lines.
SPACING & PLANNING MANUSCRIPT
In penmanship great nicety of spacing and arrangement is possible.
The _ascending_ and _descending_ strokes may be shortened or drawn
out, the spaces between letters and words may be slightly increased
or decreased, the lines may be written near or far apart, and the
letters may be written with a broader or narrower nib.
Elaborate spacing and planning, however, should not be attempted at
first, and straightforward, undesigned work is often the best. The
student is apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft [p098]
in order to ascertain how to space the matter. This is a mistake,
because if written well, it is a waste of good writing on a mere
draft; if written ill, it is bad practice. The briefer experiments
and calculations are, the better, though the simplest problem always
requires for its solution a calculation or _process of guess and
trial_ (such as suggested in the preceding pages). Practice will make
people very good _guessers_, and the best work of all is done when
the worker guesses rightly, and follows his guesses with the actual
work, itself the trial and proof of accuracy.
CHAPTER VI
MANUSCRIPT BOOKS[16]
MS. Books: Tools & Materials — Methods & Proportions — The Size &
Shape of the Book — The Widths of the Margins — The Size of the
Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General Remarks.
MS. BOOKS: TOOLS & MATERIALS
_The making of manuscript books_, based on a study of the early MSS.,
offers the best training to the scribe and illuminator in _writing_,
_lettering_, _rubricating_, _gilding_, _illuminating initials
and borders_, _and miniature painting_, and is the best means of
mastering the foundations of Book Typography and Decoration.
_Materials, &c. for MS. Books_; _Paper_ (see pp. 51, 103, 111, 317);
_Vellum and Parchment_ and _Pounce_ [p099] (see pp. 110, 167,
173–5).—Cut a small sheet the size of a page of the book, and clip
the long edge between two flat pieces of wood (holding it as it would
be if bound). If the page will bend over and stay down by its own
weight, it is thin enough («R» fig. 68); if it stands up («W»), it is
too stiff.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 68.›]
_Cutting Sheets._—A frame or template (the size of the sheet desired)
is used by parchment makers. It is useful for cutting out the sheets
for a common size of parchment book. They are cut on the end-grain of
wood, or on card or glass.
_Folding._—A _Folder_, as used by bookbinders (or a bone
paper-knife), is useful, and also a _Set or T-Square_ for testing
right angles, &c. The fold and the top edge of each book-sheet are
commonly squared by proper folding.
_Ruling_, _&c._ (see p. 343).—For marking distances of lines, a
carefully prepared paper[17] scale or pattern (p. 25) and an awl (p.
109), or a [p100] “_star-wheel_”—having regular intervals between
the spikes—may be used. Or the ruling—of the writing lines—may be
simplified by using a stout card frame (internally the size of the
text-column) with strips glued across it: for a common size of
book this might be made in stout tin or other metal. The lines are
commonly ruled with a _ruling stylus_ (see figs. 72, 77), or a sort
of “_rake_” may be made to rule six lines at once.
_Writing_, _Colouring_, _Gilding_, _Binding_ (Chaps. II., X., IX.,
XVI.).
METHODS & PROPORTIONS
Having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose, the scribe
formulates in his mind a general plan of the work, and decides
approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem
most suitable.
He endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use, and
therefore allows the (most suitable) material, the subject-matter
and the office of the book, and the way in which it will be read and
handled, to determine as far as is possible the proportions of its
parts, and its treatment as a whole.
Its _material_ may be vellum, parchment, or paper, on which a variety
of pens, brushes, and other tools, with inks, colours, and metal
foils, may be employed. Its _office_ may be “useful” or “ornamental”;
its contents may be long or short, weighty or light, and of greater
or less worth; it may be for public or for private use; and the book
may be intended to be placed on a lectern, to be held in the hand, or
to be carried in a coat pocket.
In following out such natural indications, the [p101] practised
craftsman relies greatly on his working methods, preferring a
direct mode of treatment to one which is too ingenious or subtle.
In deciding a doubtful point, a common-sense of proportion is a
sufficient guide, and one may generally assume that great works are
best “writ large,” and that large letters look best on an ample page,
and _vice versâ_.
The main proportions which have to be considered are interdependent,
and follow one another in their natural order (see p. 256), thus—
1. _The size and shape of the book._
2. _The widths of the margins._
3. _The size of the writing_, &c.
And the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and
regular sizes, each size having corresponding and regular proportions
of margins and writing. Though these may greatly depend on individual
taste and experience, it is suggested that—like all good designs—they
should be allowed as far as possible to _settle and arrange
themselves_.
THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK
A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book, and
the width and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its
convenient shape and pleasant appearance when open. The most
economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of paper can be folded
(or a skin of parchment can be cut) may commonly be allowed to decide
these proportions.
When a printer is about to print a book he chooses a sheet of paper
which will fold into a suitable shape and size. If the sheet be
folded [p102] once to form two leaves, the book is called a _folio_
(fig. 69); folded again to form a “_section_” of four leaves—a
_quarto_ (4to); or folded a third time to form a _section_ of eight
leaves—an _octavo_ (8vo).[18] [p103] The book is made up of a number
of sections sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 69.›]
The penman will find that, besides saving time and labour, it
conduces to good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for
“large,” “medium,” and “small” books; and, if the ordinary sheets of
paper which he uses will fold in convenient _folio_, _quarto_, and
_octavo_ sizes, it is well that he make these his standards for paper
books.
Paper being made in sheets of various dimensions, by folding a large
or a small sheet, a “large” or “small” folio—4to, 8vo—can be obtained.
It may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper[19]
are very commonly _about as 9 is to 7_. And therefore, when the sheet
is folded for _folio_ or _octavo_, the proportions are roughly about
7: 4-1/2, which are very good proportions for a page of a book. It is
obvious that a narrow (“_upright_”) book is easier to handle and more
pleasant in appearance (when open) than an album or “_oblong_” shape
of book (_b_ and _c_, fig. 70).
THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS
Margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text: thus
they contribute to its legibility and beauty. It is better that
they be wide rather than narrow (see p. 106, & ‹Note›, p. 265); but
_excessively_ wide margins are often neither convenient nor pleasing
(see p. 222).
The “page” or column of text should be in such proportion to the page
of the book, and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate
[p104] margins on every side. A narrow column of text is generally
best, for short lines are easiest to write and to read, and do not
tire the hand, _or the eye_, in passing from one line to the next.
For this reason the text is often divided into two or more columns
when the page is wide, or the writing is very small _in comparison_.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 70.›]
The exact proportion of margin to text in a given page depends
on circumstances, and is largely a matter of taste (ex. fig. 71
& note 2, _b_, p. 256). But just as it is advantageous generally
to keep to certain [p106] sizes of pages, it is well to keep to
certain—_corresponding_—sizes of margins for regular use.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 71.›—Diagram showing the ruling of a (_Recto_)
page 4-3/4 inches × 7-1/4 inches as for a manuscript book (allowing
five or six words to the _Writing-line_). There are fifteen
Writing-lines, the _Line-space_ being 5/16 inch.
The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are set by the
Line-space (_footnote_, p. 221).
The Foot margin is 1-7/8 inch.]
_The proportions of the margins to each other_ follow a sort of
tradition (see fig. 70), the foot margin (4) usually being twice
as wide as that at the top (2), the side margins generally greater
than the top and less than the foot. The two pages of an _opening_
may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of text; and the two
inner margins, which combine to form an interspace, are therefore
made narrow (about 1-1/2 each), so that together they are about equal
to one side margin (fig. 70). These proportions (1-1/2: 2: 3: 4)
approximate to the proportions common in early MSS.
Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness
and beauty of a book. That the writers and illuminators used them
when books were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now,
shows that such things are not, as some might suppose, a matter of
affectation. Besides the natural fitness of the common proportions
commends them: a deep foot margin is a foundation to the whole, and
gives a spare piece for the reader to hold,[20] and wide side margins
rest the eyes and keep the text from “_running off the page_” at the
end of each line; and (the _two_) narrow inner margins combine to
separate the pages sufficiently, but not too far, so that they form
two “columns” together, _framed_ by the outer margins of the open
book.
When books are meant to be bound, from 1/16 inch to 1/8 inch extra
margin should be allowed _all round_ the page for the cutting down
and binding. The [p107] binding is apt to encroach on the inner
margins, especially in vellum books, which do not open fully; in
order, therefore, that the inner margins may keep their proper width,
an extra width of 1/8 to 1/4 inch (according to the stiffness of the
material) is allowed.
THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C.
The shape, size, and margins of the page (already settled) together
determine the length of the _writing-line_ (see fig. 71); and the
_size of the writing_ should be such as will allow a reasonable
number of words to that line.[21]
Eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary
printed books, and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary
_maximum_. Lines having very many words are difficult to read.
On the other hand, lines of only two or three words each are
generally tiresome, though they may be allowed in special cases of
_fine writing_ (see p. 262), where it is less necessary to economise
space or time, and the effect of an even mass is not desired. But in
any case where there is an attempt to make the right-hand edge of the
text approximately even, at least four or five words to the line are
necessary; the scribe may therefore take four words per line as his
ordinary _minimum_.
We may say generally, then, that _an ordinary manuscript book
should contain between four and eight words (or between 25 and 50
letter-spaces) to the line_. [p108]
The exact size of the writing allowed in a given case may be found by
a process of guess and trial, but this is seldom necessary for the
practical scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions.
_The line spacing._—The size of the letter determines approximately
the distance apart of the writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much
depends on whether the _ascending_ and _descending_ letters are long
or short (see fig. 154).
_The number of writing-lines to the page_ equals the number of times
that the _line-space_ is contained in the _text-column_ (_i.e._ the
height of the page less the top and foot margins)—allowing for the
top line not requiring a full space (see fig. 71). Any fractional
space left over may be added to the foot margin, or, if nearly equal
to one line-space, a little may be taken from the margins to complete
it.
_The Large Capitals_ are commonly _one_, _two_, or _more_ of the
line-spaces in height (fig. 71, & p. 128).
RULING
Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small (book)
sheets of the size determined on, take one of these as a pattern and
rule it throughout as if it were to be used in the book.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 72.›]
The ruling stylus has a blunt point, which indents the paper, but
does not scratch it. A stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a
piece of wood does very well (fig. 72). [p109]
Under the writing paper there should be a “pad” of ordinary paper (or
blotting paper).
The marginal lines are ruled from head to foot of each leaf (_a_,
fig. 73). Besides being a guide for the writing, they give an
appearance of straightness and strength to the written page.[22]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 73.›]
The writing lines are ruled across, between the marginal lines, their
places having been indicated by equidistant dots (_b_, fig. 73).
A dozen or more of the small sheets of the book are piled together on
a board _with their top edges exactly coinciding_, and the pattern
sheet is accurately placed on the top of the pile. The pile of sheets
may be fixed by a narrow piece of wood placed across and screwed down
(fig. 74). (See _Addenda_, p. 25.)
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 74.›]
The writing line dots are [p110] pricked through all the sheets by
means of a fine awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 75.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 76.›]
The writing lines are ruled as in fig. 76 (sometimes across the
narrow inner margins).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 77.›]
For double writing lines a double-ruling stylus may be made of two
pins fixed in a wooden handle at the exact width of the _writing
gauge_ (fig. 77).
MS. BOOKS—GENERAL REMARKS
_Sections_ (p. 102).—A _section_, or “_gathering_,” commonly consists
of four book-sheets, folded in half into eight leaves (_i.e._ sixteen
_pages_), but _three_ or even _two_ sheets are sufficient when they
are extra thick, and _five_ or _six_ may be used when extra thin.
Parchment sheets should have their smooth sides so placed together
that each “opening” of the book has both its pages rough or both
smooth and the pages are _pounced_ after they are ruled (see p. 174).
Before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered
on the inner marginal line, [p111] about 1/2 inch or so below the
footline. This will prevent mistakes.
_Fly-leaves._—One or more leaves of the first and last sections in
a book are left blank (besides the extra sheet or section (p. 346)
which is used in the binding—attached to the cover). A book of any
size or importance ought to have at least three fly-leaves at the
beginning, and three or four at the end. These extra leaves protect
the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute _margins_ for the whole
body of the text. They may also be used to make thin books thicker,
for the sake of the binding. At the end of Service books, or other
books likely to be of permanent interest, additional fly-leaves
should be provided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346).
_Rough or Smooth Edges._—The rough “_Deckle_” edges of hand-made
paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness, and should be
trimmed off after folding, though they may be left in the case of
very thin books. The deckle edge should not occur at the top of
the page, as it would there be a trap for dust, and because it is
important that the tops of pages should all be level. The top edge
or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep out the
dust—this is called “_Library gilt_.” It is more suitable, however,
that _all_ the edges be gilt.
_The Top Margins_ throughout the book are kept quite level. Any
irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once, while
slight differences at the side, or considerable differences at the
foot, may occur without spoiling the appearance of the margins. All
measurements for marginal and writing lines, &c., are therefore made
from the [p112] _fold_ of the book-sheet and from the top edge,
which is cut at right angles to the fold.
_Regular Writing._—In writing one page it is a good plan to have its
fellow page, or a similarly written one, fixed on the desk beside
it as a pattern. This will save the beginner from a very common
error—writing larger or smaller (which of course spoils the look of
the pages).
_Initial Page._—The text of a book commonly begins on a _recto_, or
right hand, page (see p. 365).
CHAPTER VII
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on
Construction of Versals — Spacing & Arrangement of Versals.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS
The earliest books consisted of a number of lines of continuous
writing in capital letters. There were seldom any divisions of the
text—into paragraphs, chapters, or the like—or even of one word from
another; nor were important words distinguished by larger initials.
The first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the
text and a mark; later, the first letter of the first complete line
of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger.
When “small-letters” were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the
body of the text, and became distinguishing letters for headings and
important words. [p113]
The capitals written at the beginnings of books, chapters, and
paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at length were made
in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used
to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were called
“Versals.”[23]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 78.›]
In modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph
is generally _indented_ (_a_, fig. 78), but the earlier method of
employing a special mark or letter (_b_ or _c_) is more effective,
and it might very well be used, even in modern printed books, for
fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for illumination and
book-ornament, it was (and _is_) the natural method for the penman,
who, starting with these useful capitals, by flourishing them—in
their [p114] own colour, or by dotting, outlining, or ornamenting
them, with a contrasting colour (see fig. 79, from an old MS.),
evolved the _Illuminated Initial_.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 79› (_13th century_).]
_Types of Versal Letters_ (examples: Plates IX., X., XI., XII., and
figs. 1, 78 to 94, 150, 161, 165, 166, 189).—The earlier Versals had
very simple and beautiful pen shapes, and are the best models for the
modern penman to follow. After the fourteenth century they were often
fattened and vulgarised and overdone with ornament. In this way they
not only lost their typical forms; but their “essential forms”—as
letters derived from the Roman Alphabet—became much disguised and
confounded (see fig. 128). [p115]
GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS
1. THE LETTERS (Pen-made), Built-up, Ornamental
(coloured), “Gothic” Capitals
(Round and Square forms).
2. HORIZONTALS—
_STRAIGHT:_ Medium—commonly the width of the nib.
_CURVED:_ Thin—the thin stroke of the pen.
3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on
either side.
4. SERIFS: Long, thin, slightly curved.
5. LONG STEMS: Various (see p. 119, & figs. 84, 90).
6. SPACING—
_Letters & Words:_ Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166).
_Lines:_ Usually one or more of the _line-spaces_
apart (see pp. 126, 128).
7. ARRANGEMENT: _Singly:_ set in text or margin, or
part in both (fig. 86).
_Grouped:_ after large initials (fig. 92).
_In Lines:_ wide or close, often one
word to the line (fig. 89).
8. MEASUREMENTS: _Stem width:_ commonly two or
three widths-of-nib across thinnest
part (fig. 165).
«O» _height:_ commonly one, two, or
more of the line-spaces.
9. COMPONENT PARTS: «A» has approx. 10 strokes & filling.
«B» has approx. 8 strokes & filling.
«C» has approx. 7 strokes & filling.
and so on (see fig. 81).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 80.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 81.›]
[p118]
NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION OF VERSALS
(See figs. 80, 81, 85, 165)
_Versal Letters_ are properly _built-up_ (p. 291) with true
pen-strokes (_b_, fig. 81). Drawn or painted, they acquire a
different character (p. 292). Their office being to mark important
parts of the text, they are generally distinguished by colour and
freedom of form—tending to curves and flourishes.
The pen has an extra long slit (1/2 inch to 3/4 inch), and the
_writing-board_ may be lowered (see fig. 46, _b_) to permit of the
thick, liquid colour running out freely. The nib is of the ordinary
shape (but not too oblique), and generally rather less in width than
the nib used for the accompanying text (_a_, fig. 81).
The outlining strokes are quickly written and immediately filled in,
each letter being loaded well with the colour, which thereafter dries
evenly, with a slightly raised “flat” surface. The liquid colour
should be fairly thick (see _colour_, p. 176).
“_Gothic lettering_” is a term used for “Black-letter” and related
types, as distinguished from “Roman” types. “Gothic” capitals tend to
roundness, the small-letters to angularity, but in each the abrupt
change from thick to thin strokes, and the resulting contrast of
stroke, are characteristics—the result of pen work.[24] In Versals
this contrast is marked; _the ends of the thinner strokes spread_
(see _Addenda_, p. 25, & cross-bar of «A», fig. 71), _and the heavy
parts are crossed by thin serifs_. Versals may retain their pen
character and yet approach [p119] the “Roman Letter” (p. 294), or
be changed into the ornate “Lombardic” (p. 34). They are capable of
great variety, and the “round” or “square” «D», «E», «H», «M», and
«W» may be used at pleasure.
_The Stems_ curve in slightly on either side. When they are very tall
the mid part may be quite straight, imperceptibly curving out towards
the ends (_b_, fig. 82). This gives an effect of curvature throughout
the length, while keeping the letter graceful and straight. The head
of a stem (especially of an _ascender_) should be slightly wider than
the foot (fig. 83). _This applies generally to every sort of built-up
capitals._
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 82.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 83.›]
The _stem width_ may be nearly the same in Versals of different
heights (_a_, fig. 84): generally the letters tend to become _more
slender in proportion_ as the letters grow taller (_b_). Very large
Versals (or initials) are often made with a hollow stem to avoid a
heavy appearance («L», fig. 84). [p120]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 84.›]
_The Serifs_ are long and slightly curved in ornamental forms (fig.
79): shorter, and nearly straight in stiffer forms (fig. 166). In
many cases the serifs appear to have been written _first_, the stems
being added between them (_f_, fig. 81)—in old MSS. the stems often
show ragged ends crossing the serifs. Sometimes the serif appears
to have been _added to the stem in two pieces_, half on either side
springing from the corners of the stem (_g_). The safest way seems to
be the _complete finishing stroke added to, and forming sharp angles
with, the stem_ (_h_).
_Arms or Branches._—Width of nib at start, and built-up at free end.
(Pen horizontal, figs. 81, 165). [p121]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 85.›]
_The Bows or Curves of Versals_ (and of _built-up_ letters generally)
are begun with the _inside stroke_—a rather flat curve: and finished
with the outer stroke—a pronounced curve (_a_, fig. 85). This
preserves [p122] the continuity of the interior curve, together
with the clean contrast of the thick and thin strokes (see _inside
shapes_, p. 253). The normal form may be flattened or curved a little
(_b_), but _exaggeration_ in either direction produces a degraded
form. Part round letters, as «D», «P», and «q», may be begun with _a
complete inner oval_, or _a nearly completed_ «O» (to which the stem
is added); this preserves their interior symmetry (_c_).
The beauty and quality of Versal letters depends very much on their
freedom; _touching-up_ or trimming after they are made is apt to
spoil them; and when good letters are made with a free hand, minute
roughnesses, which are due to their quick construction, may be
regarded as shewing a _good_ rather than a bad form of _care-less_
workmanship (see (_c_) fig. 164).
SPACING & ARRANGEMENT OF VERSALS
(Allowing for the special treatment of Versals called for by the
extreme freedom and elasticity of their pen forms, the following
remarks apply _generally to the spacing and arrangement of coloured
capitals in written pages_)
_Versals accompanying Small Text_ are generally _dropped_ below the
writing-line, so that their tops are level with the tops of the small
letters (fig. 86).
_Sizes of Versals._—Letters which are of the same importance—_i.e._
serve the same purpose—are usually of like size and form throughout;
and the more important a letter, the more it tends to be elaborated
and decorated (see figs. 90, 92).
_Special words in Text marked by Versals._—Where coloured capitals
are used throughout the text (fig. 92), the colours are usually
varied (pp. 134, 185). [p123]
_Line beginnings marked by Versals._—Where every line on a page
begins with a coloured capital, the majority of the forms are kept
rather plain (see (5) p. 136). They may be effectively treated as
a _band_ of simple or variegated colour (p. 136). This is a common
treatment for a list of names or a poem; sometimes, especially if
there are many lines, _simple-written_ capitals (p. 297) may be used
instead of Versals.
_Verses or Paragraphs_ may be marked by Versals _set in the text_
(_a_), or _part in margin, part in text_ (_b_), or _wholly in the
margin_ (_c_, fig. 86). The marginal capital is the simplest, and
it has the advantage of leaving the page of text entire; it may,
however, sometimes be desirable _to break the continuity_ by an inset
capital, especially in cases of closely written text, or of _stanzas
not spaced apart_ (see p. 138).
The first word of a paragraph, which is begun with a Versal, is often
completed in _simple-written_ capitals of the same colour as the text
(_a_, fig. 86).
_Various ways of marking Paragraphs._—(_a_) The paragraph marks @, ¶,
preferably coloured, may be used instead of (or even _with_) Versals
(_comp._ fig. 95); (_b_) by one word or line (or several words or
lines) of _simple-written_ (or built-up) capitals in black or colour
(see fig. 93); (_c_) by some suitable _ornament_ (see fig. 87); (_d_)
in many cases it is well to have spaces between the paragraphs or
verses (see p. 138).
_Line-Finishings at the ends of Verses, &c._ (pp. 205, 425), _may be
made with the Versal pens and colours._ [p124]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 86.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 87.›]
[p125]
_To mark Chapters_ (or even Books), extra large Versals (fig. 88) may
be used, in lieu of more elaborate initials. Smaller Versals may be
grouped round about, beside or inside initials (p. 208 & fig. 92).
_Headings and Pages in Capitals_ (see also pp. 128, 132).—Each line
of capitals is generally kept uniform throughout its length,[25]
though different lines vary in size and colour (see fig. 89). If it
be possible it is well to keep the individual word entire [p126] and
to let the heading or page contain the complete _initial phrase or
sentence_ (see fig. 91).
Generally the greater the number of capitals the _plainer_ their
forms are kept, and the closer their spacing. It is best to keep
to the regular method of _spacing the lines of Versals one of the
writing-line spaces (or more) apart_—though in special cases the
Versals may be independent of the writing-lines.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 88.›]
_Spacing Out._—Coloured letters and ornaments are usually put in
after the plain MS. has been written. A very little practice enables
the scribe accurately to guess the amount of space which he should
leave for the Versals, &c., whether it is designed to have several
lines of them, or a single letter only on the page. A few pencil
marks may be used to settle a doubtful point, but an elaborate
sketching or setting out in pencil spoils the freedom of the work.
[p127]
CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED
Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces & Notes in
Colour — Pages with Coloured Headings — Page or Column Heading &
Initial — Versals in Column or Marginal Bands — Stanzas or Verses
marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves — Tail-Pieces, Colophons,
&c. — Rubricating: General Remarks.
RUBRICATING
“_Red, either in the form of a pigment or fluid ink, is of very
ancient and common use. It is seen on the early Egyptian papyri;
and it appears in the earliest extant vellum MSS., either in titles
or the first lines of columns or chapters. The Greek term was_
μελάνιον κόκκινον; _Latin_ minium,[26] rubrica.”—(Thompson’s “G. & L.
Palæography,” p. 51.)
_Rubricating_, or the adding of Red, _or other coloured_, letters,
line-finishings, or signs, to a MS. or Book, in which the main body
of the text is already completed in black, constitutes in itself
a very useful and effective form of decoration. It is, moreover,
a connecting link between plain writing and illumination proper;
and we may safely assume that the artists who made the beautiful
illuminations of the Middle Ages were trained as _scribes_ and
_rubricators_.
INITIAL PAGES OR TITLE PAGES
Fig. 89 represents an _Initial Page_ in Red Capitals. (The same
arrangement may of course be used [p128] with a variety of colours
and with gold: see Note (4) below). Such a page is, as it were, an
“illumination” to _all_ the pages, following it in black text.
Title Pages came into fashion after printing was introduced. Early
MSS. commonly began with the _opening words_ written in large,
decorated capitals, the _title_ sometimes being written quite small,
near the top of the page: other details were commonly put in the
_colophon_ in early books (see p. 142).
When the title is more important, in a literary sense, than the
opening sentence, it may be well to follow the modern fashion. But
when there is a finely worded opening sentence—perhaps the key-note
to the rest of the text—while the title is merely for reference, it
seems reasonable to magnify and illuminate the actual beginning of
the book rather than the mere name of it (see p. 365).
‹Note› (1).—In fig. 89 the title—(JESU CHRISTI) _Evangelium Secundum
Joannem_—is written in as a decoration of the initial word; the old
form “IH[=V] XP[=I]” is used for “Jesu Christi” (these letters, it
will be noticed, are here employed to lighten the large capitals, see
p. 208).
(2) Where IN is an initial word, to enforce narrow initial I, both
letters may be magnified.
(3) The scale of the lettering corresponds with that of the ruled
lines (these do not show in the figure): the letters and the
interlinear spaces are each one line high; the initial word is four
lines high. Such a mode of spacing is very simple and effective,
and will save the rubricator much unnecessary trouble and fruitless
planning (see _footnote_, p. 221).
(4) _Other Colour Schemes._—All _Burnished Gold_ (or with Title in
_red_); or IN gold, with smaller capitals _Red_ (or in _Blue_ and
_Red_ lines alternately—or _Blue_, _Red_, _Green_, _Red_: see p.
181). [p129]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 89.›]
[p130]
PREFACES & NOTES IN COLOUR
Fig. 90 represents a preface, or note, written in red.
It was a frequent practice in old MSS., where there were prefaces,
or prologues, or notes—not actually part of the text—to keep
these distinct by writing them in red. A somewhat similar usage
still exists in modern typography, where such parts are sometimes
distinguished by Italic type (see p. 315).
The distinction of a preface, “rubric,” or note from the main body
of the text makes a book more readable, and, as a page of red (or
blue) writing is very pleasant and effective, we may certainly take
advantage of such a reasonable excuse for introducing it. Entire
books have been written in red, but this is a questionable mode, as
too much red text would tire the eye.
‹Note› (1).—The writing is founded on the tenth-century English hand
given in Plate VIII.
(2) The flourishes on «s» and «e» fill gaps at the ends of the lines,
and the spread out _A M E N_ fills the last line.
(3) The Headline is in simple written capitals.
(4) The effect of colour contrast of the built-up Ps with the simple
writing: the solid Ps (though really the same colour) appear to
be a much deeper red than the writing, which is lightened by the
intermingled white of the paper.
(5) _Other Colour Schemes._—_The Versals_ («Pp») in burnished gold;
the rest in red or blue. [p131]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 90.›]
[p132]
PAGES WITH COLOURED HEADINGS
Fig. 91 represents the first page of a chapter (or a book) with a
_Heading_ in red capitals.
It is convenient in practice clearly to distinguish between the two
modes of beginning—
(_a_) with an illuminated Initial-_Page_ (see fig. 89), or,
(_b_) with an illuminated _Heading_ (see fig. 91).
The former may be treated as though it were a decoration to the
_whole_ book. The latter is intended more particularly to decorate
_its own page_.
The _Heading_ should therefore be proportionate to the body of the
text below it. About _one-third_ Heading and two-thirds text make a
good proportion. A “Heading” occupying half, or more than half, of
the page is apt to look disproportionate, and it would be preferable
to this to have a complete, or nearly complete,[27] _Page_ of
coloured capitals.
‹Note› (1).—The full effect of black and red is obtained by an
arrangement of the two colours in marked contrast.
(2) The lines are used as a scale for the Heading, the red capitals
and interspaces each being one line high. If a Heading so spaced
appear too close to the first line of black writing, another line
space may be left.
(3) The round Es are used to fill out the second line, and the
square, narrow E to relieve the crowded third line.
(4) _Other Colour Schemes._—The entire _heading_, or the letters W,
H, B, O, R, in burnished gold; or the whole variegated (see p. 180).
[p133]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 91.›]
[p134]
PAGE OR COLUMN HEADING & INITIAL
Fig. 92 represents the first page of a book or chapter in two
columns, beginning with a rather ornate Heading, in which the Initial
is made the principal feature, and having coloured Versals and
_line-finishings_ throughout the text.
It is more difficult to get a good effect in this way than by means
of a marked colour contrast (see p. 144), _or variegated colour, and
gold_ (see Note 7).
‹Note› (1).—The lines bounding the text would naturally be indented,
or pale (not black as in the block), and ruled from head to foot of
the page (see Note (2) on the next figure).
(2) The red ornamental line-finishings (see p. 205) would be more
effective if variegated.
(3) The Versals in the text are made about a line high, but are
dropped below the line (p. 122).
(4) The Versals in the Heading are made one line high, with one-line
spacing—between O and D increased to two lines (partly filled by
a flourish from the D), in order to fit the U, O, and D in evenly
beside the Initial.
(5) The Initial Q should project slightly up and out—beyond the
bounding lines—to mark the top, left corner more strongly (see
_footnote_, p. 211).
(6) _All_ the rubricating on this page is done with the same pen (see
pp. 205, 218).
(7) _Other Colour Schemes._ “‹Quod fuit ab initio›,” the _filigree
ornament_ and the V V in burnished gold (or the Q and VV in gold),
the rest of the Versals and line-finishings in _Red and Blue_, or
_Red and Green_, or _Red, Blue, and Green_ (see pp. 181, 185). [p135]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 92.›]
[p136]
VERSALS IN COLUMN OR MARGINAL BANDS
Fig. 93 represents two columns of black text, consisting of short
verses, &c., which are marked by coloured capitals—forming bands of
colour—in the margins.
‹Note› (1).—The coloured capitals in the figure are made rather
larger than usual, to enforce the effect of the two lines of red and
mark their contrast with the columns of black text. In practice,
however, they would be better and more distinct if rather smaller.
(2) The lines bounding the text would naturally be faint, or
_grooved_ (p. 343); but, ruled from head to foot of the page, they
would be sufficiently apparent to add materially to the general
effect of orderly arrangement. (Lines are printed here to show
clearly the way the two columns are ruled and to _suggest_ this
effect, though the process block necessarily gives a false impression
in making them appear too short and too heavy).
(3) Extra width between the columns (and also in the margin) may be
allowed for the coloured capitals (compare fig. 92).
(4) Words in simple written capitals are used to mark slight
divisions, or changes of sense, in the text.
(5) A stiff Versal of a rather “Roman” type is used, partly because
of the number of the capitals (see p. 126).
(6) _Other Colour Schemes._—The larger capitals might be in burnished
gold, the rest in red (or in _red_, _blue_, and _green_); or all
might be in _red_, _blue_, and _green_. [p137]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 93.›]
[p138]
STANZAS OR VERSES MARKED BY VERSALS
Fig. 94 represents a poem in two verses which are distinguished
by interspaces and by coloured capitals—a brief introductory line
also being in colour. (It is supposed that the poem occurs in a
book—mainly in prose—written in Roman small-letters.)
It is generally best to distinguish the verses of poems by one-line
interspaces. When this is done, coloured initials are not so
necessary, and their value become chiefly decorative (see 123).
‹Note› (1).—The writing is founded on “Italic” (see Plate XXI.),
and (it is supposed that) it would be used here wherever the songs
occurred; firstly, to distinguish them from the rest of the text, and
secondly, to keep the lines of the poem entire—_Italics occupying
less room than ordinary, round Small-Letters_ (see p. 315).
(2) The story opens with the first line, which may in this case be
regarded either as a _Title_ or as a prefatory note in red.
(3) The two red capitals are made of a rather “Roman” type to match
the Italic (and the small Roman text of the book). The difference
in height made between the W and the S is intended to balance the
difference in width, and to give them an appearance of equal weight.
This may be permitted where there are only a few capitals; where
there are many, their heights are generally kept more uniform.
(4) _Another Colour Scheme._—W and S would look better in burnished
gold. [p139]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 94.›]
[p140]
MUSIC WITH RED STAVES
Fig. 95 is a reproduction, in facsimile, showing quarter of a page of
a folio Service Book (probably French, early sixteenth century). The
page consists of two columns of ten staves each, and is headed @ _In
vigi_ (lia), _natiuitatis dnī_. The book is printed on vellum in red
and black; the columns of music have faint red bounding lines ruled
by hand (not shown in the figure).
The red stave is very effective, and it was commonly used in early
MSS. and printed books. There appears to be some doubt, however,
as to its practical value, and I have been advised that it is not
so legible as the black line stave, and also that, in _Church
Service Books_ (see p. 345), in order to make an absolutely clear
distinction, red should be reserved entirely for the _rubrics_.
The “plain-song” chant, with its four-line stave, has a simpler
and finer appearance than the more modern and elaborate five-lined
stave and tailed notes. The latter, however, may yet be treated very
effectively.
‹Note 1.›—The mark @ and the capitals @, @ and @ were blotted—it can
scarcely be called “painted”—with yellow. Yellow or red were often
used in this way to mark the small black capitals in printed books
(p. 428, & _comp._ p. 302). It is a questionable method. (These blots
have been removed from the figure—except, by an oversight, in the
case of @).
(2) _Other Colour Schemes._—(_a_) The title, or (_b_) the text and
the notes, might be in burnished gold (the other parts in either case
remaining in _red_ and _black_). [p141]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 95.›]
[p142]
TAIL-PIECES, COLOPHONS, &C.
Fig. 96 represents a coloured Tail-piece or decorative finish at the
end of a book (or chapter).
_The Colophon_ (see p. 128 & figs. 13, 191), generally distinguished
from the text by a smaller or different hand, and—especially in early
printed books—by _colour_ or other decorative treatment, occurs at
the end of a book, where it is the traditional right of the penman
and the printer to add a statement or a symbolical device. The _Name_
(of craftsman and assistants), _Time_, and _Place_ are commonly
stated—preferably quite simply—_e.g._ “_This book, written out by me,
A.B., in LONDON, was finished on the 31st day of DECEMBER 1900._” Any
reasonable matter of interest concerning the _text_, the _materials_,
_methods_, _lettering_, or _ornament_, and an account of the _number
of leaves and their size, &c._, may be added. But the craftsman,
properly and modestly keeping his name off the title-page, is at
liberty to exercise his right, marking the end of, and _signing_ his
work in any way he chooses—even in a speech or a sentiment—provided
the form of the colophon be unobtrusive and its language natural.
_Printer’s devices_ or _book-marks_, consisting of symbols,
monograms, &c. (p. 362), were likewise used.
The opportunity generally provided by the final
margin, and the natural wish to close the book with
a fitting ornament, also led to the use of colour
or capitals in the concluding lines; and sometimes
the “tail” of the text was given a triangular form,
the lines becoming shorter and shorter
till they ended in a single
word, or even one
letter.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 96.›]
[p144]
RUBRICATING: GENERAL REMARKS
_Contrast of Red and Black._—The most effective arrangement of red
lettering with black text involves a sharp contrast, and, as a rule,
the concentration of the red in a line or mass (see figs. 91, 93, and
96, where the red lettering is massed at the head, side, and foot
of the black). Too many red capitals scattered through a page lose
their effect, and appear as though they were _brown_-red rather than
bright red (see pp. 134, 185). Printed title-pages, &c., may be seen
with promiscuous lines of black and red, in which the fine effects
obtainable by the use of bright colour is dispersed and lost; while
the same, or even a less, amount of red, massed in one or two places
in the page, would show to great advantage.
_Notes in Red in Margins._—Red lettering, and particularly small red
writing, may be used freely in the margins; being much lighter than
black, it appears there as a _marginal decoration_, not interfering
with the regular look of the page. Indeed, red may be used more
freely, and I think its decorative effect is greater, in the form
of rubrics, than in any other simple form of ornament (see _Red
in Church Service Books_ (pp. 140, 345) and _Red substituted for
Italics_ (p. 315)).
_Paragraph and other Marks._—Various symbols, numerals, and marks
(such as ☛ ¶ @ * † ‡ § @ [/V] ℞—_Addenda_, p. 25) may be made in red.
_Red Lines._—Lines made to divide, or outline, pages (“rules” or
“rule borders”) should be sparingly used, and then rather in black
than in red (see p. 364). If in red, particularly between lines of
writing, these should be “ruled feint” with diluted colour. [p145]
_Red for Ornaments._—Red may be used pretty freely _with_ other
colours (blue, green, and gold), but by itself more sparingly.
_OTHER COLOURS._—The foregoing remarks refer mainly to contrasts of
black and red, but apply, to a certain extent, to black with any
bright colour (or gold) (see “_Other Colour Schemes_” given above,
and p. 180).
CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD
Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the Gold-Leaf —
Burnishing the Gold — Remedying Faults in Gilding — Gold Writing
— Other Methods & Recipes for Gilding — Appendix on Gilding (by
_Graily Hewitt_).
TOOLS & MATERIALS
These should be kept together in a convenient box, as it is important
that the process should not be interrupted by a search for a missing
tool.
_Tools and Materials._ _Summary of Process._
HARD LEAD PENCIL. For drawing forms if necessary.
POUNCE. For preparing surface: “pouncing.”
“SIZE” OR RAISING PREPARATION. For raising and backing leaf.
SMALL SAUCER. For mixing size in.
NEEDLE SET IN HANDLE. For bursting bubbles, &c.
QUILL PEN. For “laying” the size.
KNIFE. For trimming size, &c.
GOLD-LEAF. For gilding. [p146]
SCISSORS. For cutting gold-leaf.
BURNISHING-SLAB. For backing the parchment or paper
while under pressure.
BREATHING-TUBE. For damping size.
RUBBING-PAPER. For pressing leaf on to size.
CHALK OR SOFT LEAD PENCIL. For marking form on rubbing-paper.
BURNISHER, TOOTH SHAPE. For (1) pressing down, and (2)
burnishing gold-leaf.
FEATHER (Brush, &c.). For dusting off the pounce.
BRUSH. For brushing off waste leaf.
(HARD INDIARUBBER.) (For removing gold from parchment.)
(POWDER GOLD & FINE BRUSH.) (For “mending” in certain cases.)
LAYING THE GROUND
_Drawing the Form._—Elaborate letters or ornaments may be drawn
with a hard pencil, which will leave slight indentations in the
surface of the page when the marks of the lead have been removed with
indiarubber. In the case of free lettering or gold writing, however,
the forms should be made directly with the pen (see pp. 148, 164).
_Preparing the Surface: Pouncing._—The surface is thoroughly cleaned
and prepared with powdered pumice stone, or other suitable “pounce”
(see pp. 167, 174). This being rubbed well into the actual part
which is to take the size absorbs grease and slightly roughens[28]
the surface. The surrounding parts are also pounced to prevent the
gold-leaf from sticking to them later.
_Composition of the Ground or Size._ The chief [p147] substance in
a “size” or raising preparation is generally some kind of earthy
matter, to give it body. Other substances, having toughness and
stickiness, are used to bind the earthy matter and prevent its
breaking when the page is turned over or bent, and also to make the
size adhere to the page and the gold-leaf stick to the size. Yellow
or red colouring matter is often added. A preservative, such as oil
of cloves—in a minute quantity—may be present: this will permit of
the size being kept in a semi-liquid condition, in a closed jar.
The following recipe was given to me by Mr. G. Loumyer:—
“_Chalk (Whiting)._
_Oxide of Iron—1/2 grain._
_Glue (Carpenter’s)—4 grains._
_Gum Arabic—2 grains._
_Water—50 grains._
_Melt the gum and the glue together in the water, then add the oxide
of iron, and lastly put in enough chalk to make the whole a rather
liquid paste. Apply to the parchment, which you have previously
well rubbed with whiting, and, when dry, apply the gold-leaf with
alcohol._”
_Mixing the Size with Water._—A little of the size, taken from the
jar (see above), is put in the saucer with a few drops of water to
soak for an hour or two. It is then rubbed down with a finger-tip,
care being taken to mix it very thoroughly and to avoid making
bubbles. The right consistency is judged by experience—it should be
thick rather than thin.
It is essential that all the ingredients be present in their right
proportions, and the mixture should be stirred every now and then.
Otherwise the earthy [p148] matter settles down, and the sticky
parts, remaining in solution above, are liable to be used up. What
is left in the saucer after use is apt to be deficient in its sticky
parts, and it is best thrown away. Take out of the jar only what is
required at the time, and mix a fresh lot the next time.
_Bubbles_, formed in the mixture, may be burst by a needle, or by
adding a minute drop of oil of cloves.
_Methods of Laying the Size._—The parchment or paper is laid _flat_
on a table; if on a slope, the size would run down and lie unevenly.
A quill pen with a finely cut nib and an extra long slit (about 5/8
inch) is used for laying the size. It is filled pretty full by means
of a quill or a brush; if by the latter, special care must be taken
to avoid bubbles.
Experiments should be made in various methods.
I. Perhaps the best way of laying the size, so that it may set
properly and that the burnish may retain its brilliance, is to put
on a thin coat with a pen—in the direct manner in which coloured
Versals are made (_q.v._)—and afterwards add two or three thin coats,
allowing each coat to dry thoroughly. This requires considerable
patience and skill, as it takes a long time, and there is a danger,
in adding several coats, of spoiling the form by going over the edges.
II. The simplest method for ordinary gold letters is to make them
with _one extra thick coat_[29] of size, exactly like coloured
Versals—first a natural pen outline, and then the filling in (see
fig. 81). This requires some practice to do well, as the thicker size
is more difficult to manage than the [p149] colour.[30] Very narrow
parts—such as the thin strokes—are apt to be deficient in size, and
therefore, while they are still wet, the pen—held nearly vertical
with the nib in contact with the surface of the size—is moved slowly
along it until the stroke has received sufficient size and is
properly filled out.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 97.›]
III. A method that may be found more convenient for heavy forms, is
to hold the pen across the form to be gilded (which has previously
been marked on the parchment) with its nib resting on the further
outline (_a_, fig. 97). The nib being moved along that line, by
contact with the parchment restrains the size from passing beyond it,
while allowing it to flow out freely behind and below (_a_, 2). The
opposite side is similarly treated, and, if the form be narrow, the
size as it flows out blends with that already laid (_b_). The ends of
the form are finished in like manner (_c_). [p150]
The angle of the pen with the parchment is less for a wider form
(_b_, fig. 98).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 98.›]
As a general rule the size should stand pretty high when wet; it
shrinks in drying, and, if it forms too thin a coat, it will neither
hold the gold-leaf fast nor burnish well. While the size is still wet
it is easy to raise it to any height desired by running more size
into the form in the manner described above. It is well, however, not
to raise the size too high, as burnished gold too much raised looks
out of place on a page and has a heavy and vulgar appearance (p.
184). Very high raising also does not dry so well, and when dry it is
more liable to chip.
The work of laying the size should be carried out as quickly as
possible. If one part of the form is left any appreciable time before
the remaining parts are sized, the first part will begin to settle
and dry, and the different layings will not blend or lie evenly.
Though the size is thick and awkward to use at first, a little skill
will coax it quickly and evenly out of the pen, and it will all blend
and dry with an even surface.
When it is sized, put the work away to dry in a [p151] drawer or
safe place where it cannot be smudged or get dusty.
_Drying the Size._—The average time allowed is twenty-four hours, but
it varies with the weather and the temperature; damp weather may make
a longer time necessary, and dry weather or heat will shorten the
time. The thickness of the raising affects the time very much; a very
thin coat will dry in an hour or two, while an extra thick coat may
take several days. Size not dry enough is too sticky to burnish; if
too dry, it is so absorbent that it sucks up all the moisture which
is breathed on it. To ensure the gold-leaf’s sticking thoroughly, it
is safer on the whole to gild the size while it is still slightly
damp, and delay the burnishing till it is drier.
The time to allow and the right condition of the size for gilding can
only be accurately judged by experience.
LAYING THE GOLD-LEAF
‹Note.›—_In illuminated MSS., in order to avoid risk of injury to the
gold it may be laid last of all (see pp. 170–1). The inexperienced
illuminator, however, may find it better to follow the easier method
of finishing the gold before applying the colours._
The process of gold-laying must be carried out steadily and quickly;
all the necessary tools, &c., should be ready to hand (see p. 145).
_The Gold-Leaf._—This is sold in books of twenty-five leaves. The
ordinary leaf, about 3-1/4 inches square, consisting of gold and
alloy, is said to be beaten out to less than 1/200,000 inch in
thickness. As gold sticks readily to gold, especially when very thin
and liable to wrinkle and fold over, or to paper, red [p152] bole
or ochre is scattered between the leaves of the ordinary book. This
powder will come off on the work and give it an ugly colour, when
burnishing, unless it is dusted off very carefully.
It is better to get gold “double” (or “quadruple”) the ordinary
thickness, specially prepared for fine work such as illuminating,
quite pure, and put up in white books (without bole).
_Cutting the Leaf._—With the scissors, which must be quite clean and
sharp (or else the gold will stick to them and tear), cut a whole or
half leaf of gold, together with the paper leaf on which it lies, out
of the book.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 99.›]
The gold is cut on one paper (fig. 99) (not between papers, for then
it would stick and tear), and the cut edges of the paper and the gold
stick together slightly. If the edge of the gold is anywhere loose
and apt to flap about, it and the corresponding paper edge can be
nicked together with the scissors (fig. 100). The gold-leaf being
lightly held to the paper in this way is easily handled.
A piece of gold, about 1/8 inch larger all round than the form to
be gilded, is cut from the leaf in the manner described above (_a_,
_b_, fig. 100). Except in the case of a very large form, it is not
worth trying [p153] to save gold by cutting it out in the same
shape. Square, oblong, and triangular shaped pieces are suitable for
ordinary use; these are laid in a convenient place—the edge of a book
cover will do very well (fig. 101)—ready to be picked up at the right
moment.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 100.›]
The burnishing slab (a flat piece of vulcanite, celluloid, or metal)
is placed under the page to give it a hard, firm back, which will
make the pushing and rubbing of the burnisher effective.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 101.›]
_Preparing the Size._—If the size has dried rough, it may be lightly
scraped with the pen-knife—removing as little as possible of the
surface, in which the essential _stickiness_ frequently seems to be
concentrated. [p154]
Ordinarily a form should not require trimming, though if its edges
have accidental roughnesses, these may be trimmed a _little_ with the
pen-knife.
_Damping the Size._—The breathing tube is about 1/2 inch (or less)
in diameter, and 6 inches or more in length; it may be made of paper
or cane. One end of the tube being lightly held between the lips,
the other is moved about over the size, which is gently breathed
upon (fig. 102). The breath condensing on the surface of the size,
moistens it and renders it sticky. The amount of moistening required
depends on the condition of the size.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 102.›]
Care has to be taken that the breath does not condense in the tube
and drop on to the work.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 103.›]
_Laying the Gold-Leaf._—Immediately that the size has been
sufficiently breathed upon, the piece of paper with gold-leaf
adhering (held ready in the right [p155] hand) is placed upon it,
gold-leaf downwards, care being taken to place it steadily down, and
not drag it across the size (fig. 103).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 104.›]
The Rubbing Paper—a convenient piece of thin but tough paper (held
ready in the left hand)—is immediately laid above the gold-leaf
paper, and is then rubbed over firmly with the finger-tip, in order
at once to attach the leaf to the size (fig. 104). It is then quickly
rubbed with the soft pencil [p156] or chalk till the raised form
underneath is indicated on the surface of the paper (fig. 105).
These two operations may be combined by having a little blue chalk
either on the finger-tip or on the upper surface of the rubbing paper.
Round the outline of this form the point of the burnisher[31] is
worked, pressing the gold-leaf firmly—through both the papers—against
the size, in the angle formed by the size and the surface of the
parchment (fig. 106).
The fore part of the burnisher is then passed rapidly all over the
rubbing paper with a firm pressure (fig. 107).
The rubbing paper and the other paper are picked off, and an
experienced eye can usually tell if the gold is sticking properly by
a peculiar, smooth appearance which it then has.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 105.›]
_Several Letters or Forms_ which are close together may be gilded
simultaneously—with one piece of gold-leaf—as if they were one
complex form. This saves time, but if too many forms are gilded
together, some of them are liable to be less thoroughly and
effectually treated.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 106.›]
_Small Scattered Forms_ (dots, &c.).—For these the gold-leaf may be
cut into a sufficient number of little pieces, which are allowed
to fall (_gold side downwards_) on a sheet placed to receive them.
[p157] They are picked up separately by means of a needle stuck into
their backing-paper.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 107.›]
_Additional Coats of Gold-Leaf._—A second leaf of gold may be laid
on immediately on the top of the first; this will ensure richness
and facilitate burnishing. Additional leaves may be laid after
burnishing, but, unless the first gilding is absolutely clean, there
is a risk of the second leaf peeling off when re-burnished. [p158]
BURNISHING THE GOLD
_The Burnisher._—A tooth-shaped agate burnisher (fig. 108) is
commonly used.
The _point_ is used for pushing the leaf into angles and for
burnishing angles (_a_).
The _fore-part_ for general burnishing (_b_).
The _bend_ for cross-burnishing and for angles (_c_).
The _side_ for very gentle and light burnishing (_d_).
The burnisher is kept scrupulously clean, and to ensure this it is
frequently rubbed on a cloth.
_Dusting off the Pounce._—The edge of the parchment may be tapped
smartly on the desk to shake off the pounce, and a feather or a soft
handkerchief may be used, care being taken not to brush the pounce
over the gold. [p159]
_Brushing off Waste Leaf._—The superfluous gold round the edge of the
gilded form may be lightly brushed off with the tip of the brush.
This may be done after or before the burnishing—preferably _after_
(see p. 170).
Any gold which may have stuck to the surrounding parchment, in spite
of the pouncing, may be removed with the knife or with the hard
indiarubber point, _great care being taken not to touch the gilded
size_.
_Burnishing the Gold._—The gold-leaf may be burnished immediately
after laying when the size is _very dry_, but it is safer to wait
for a quarter of an hour—or longer, if the size is at all damp (see
_Drying_, p. 151).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 108.›]
The slab is again put under the work, and the burnishing is begun
very gently and cautiously: should the burnisher stick in the very
least, it is instantly stopped (or else the gold will be scratched
off), examined, and cleaned.
The first strokes of the burnisher are generally carried all over the
work, very lightly and with a [p160] circular movement (fig. 109),
till the gold begins to _feel smooth_, and the matt surface gives
place to a dull polish.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 109.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 110.›]
As the gold gets smoother a little more pressure is used, and the
burnisher is moved in straight lines in every direction across the
gold (fig. 110). At this point the gold should have a peculiar and
agreeable feeling of smoothness under the burnisher, an unmistakable
sign that all is going well.
A rapid light polish with the bend of the burnisher across a gold
stem will give a very good finish (_c_, fig. 108).
Properly burnished gold in a right light is at first as bright as a
mirror, and in some lights may look [p161] quite dark by reason of
its smoothness. A piece of white paper may be held at such an angle
that the white light from it is reflected by the gold; this will show
the quality of the burnish, and also show up any brown spots which
the leaf may have failed to cover. It is helpful, moreover, during
the actual process of burnishing to have a reflecting paper folded
and standing beside the work (fig. 111).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 111.›]
At first the size under the burnished gold is not thoroughly
hardened, and great care should be taken of it (not to breathe on nor
finger the gold in any way, nor allow it to lie about and get dusty).
It is best to put it away safely in a drawer for a week or two.
After a week or fortnight, when the size has set a little more, it
may be very gently re-burnished, and this may be done again at the
end of another [p162] fortnight. This final burnishing, when the
size is nearly hard, will give it a very lasting polish. It is well,
however, to take every care of burnished gold, and to secure it from
risk of damage as soon as may be. Illuminated miniatures were often
protected by a piece of silk between the leaves—and this should be
done now, in the case of fine work. That a bound volume protects the
burnished gold within it is proved by the large number of MSS. in
which the gold, laid and burnished 500 years ago, is in perfect and
brilliant preservation.
REMEDYING FAULTS IN GILDING
To lay and burnish gold satisfactorily requires considerable
experience. Careful practice with a good “size” will overcome the
chief difficulties: these, and their probable causes, are here
summarised:—
_To make the Size stick to the_ _Probable Causes of Size_
_Surface._ _not sticking to Parchment_
_or Paper._
Clean and pounce thoroughly: Dirty Surface.
roughen if necessary (pp. Greasy Surface.
146, 167). Horny Surface or
Non-porous Surface.
Procure or make a proper Size not sticky enough
composition, mix thoroughly
always, and stir frequently Size not tough enough (and
when in use. If composition is crumbling off)
at fault, add—
_a._ Sticky matter. both causes due to faulty
_b._ Toughening matter composition, or mixing. [p163]
(pp. 147, 166, and Appendix).
_To make the Gold-leaf stick_ _Probable Causes of Gold-leaf_
_to the Size._ _not sticking to Size._
Breathe on thoroughly and Size not damped enough
avoid delay in laying the gold due to insufficient breathing
(p. 154). on, or too absorbent nature or
Do not allow size to dry too condition of, size.
long (p. 151).
More, and more careful, Not sufficient rubbing and
rubbing and pressure pressing on of gold.
(p. 156).
(See above.) Size not sticky enough.
Raise the size sufficiently Not enough size, particularly
(p. 150). If not enough when in thin lines and edges.
dry, roughen surface and add
another coat.
Try re-gilding (p. 157), or, The gold may refuse to stick
if spots persist, scrape them in _spots_ with no apparent
gently and try again: failing reason, but probably from one
that, gently scrape off all or other of the above causes.
the gold and try white of Or the size may have been
egg (dilute), or a slight touched accidentally and have
re-sizing (as above). become greasy or dirty.
If the spots are very small
and there is not time to spare
for re-gilding, they may be
touched with powder gold and
dilute white of egg, and
burnished when dry.
_To make the Gold-leaf smooth_ _Probable Causes of Gold-leaf’s_
_and bright._ _not burnishing properly._
_a._ Allow longer time (p. 151). Size too sticky.
_b._ Allow longer time (p. 151). Due to—
_c._ Remove size and re-size with _a._ Damp weather.
proper composition. _b._ Insufficient time
allowed for drying.
Sometimes this difficulty may be _c._ Too much sticky matter
overcome by using several coats in size.
of gold-leaf (p. 157).
Scrape smooth with sharp knife. Size rough surfaced.
(Sometimes the size itself is
burnished before the gold-leaf
is laid.)
Clean burnisher frequently. Burnisher becoming dirty.
[p164]
Both paper and parchment when much wet with size are apt to cockle.
Generally it is not possible, or desirable (see p. 174), to guard
against this by first stretching the material, but the size may be
used with less water, so that it will dry sooner. In cases where
there is a gold background it may often be divided into small parts
(to be sized at different times) by the pattern (see p. 191). For
large unbroken patches of gold several thin coats may be put on, one
after the other.
Some sizes have a tendency to crack: this is difficult to guard
against. But, if the cracks are very minute—such as may be seen
in many instances in the best early MSS.—they do not constitute a
serious blemish.
Burnished gold is often damaged by careless handling or insufficient
protection.
GOLD WRITING
The page (having been ruled as for ordinary writing) is thoroughly
pounced all over.
The pen has an extra long slit, and the size is made a little more
fluid than usual to allow of its flowing freely and making true
pen-strokes (p. 63).
The desk is lowered (fig. 46, _b_), or flat, so that the size may
flow freely.
The nib sometimes makes only a wet down-stroke on the parchment, but,
by lightly pushing the pen up again, the stroke will be filled by the
size which flows out from under the nib. Simple pen-strokes in small
writing hold but little, and so ought to be filled as full of size as
possible (pp. 150, 184). They will be found to dry much more [p165]
quickly than larger forms, and may be gilded within a few hours of
writing. Half-a-dozen or more letters are gilded together (see p.
156).
OTHER METHODS & RECIPES FOR GILDING
Gold-leaf may be cut with a “_gilder’s knife_” on a “_gilder’s
cushion_,” and picked up with a “_gilder’s tip_.”
Water, white of egg, or alcohol may be used to make the gold-leaf
adhere to the size.
“_Transfer gold-leaf_” is convenient, but the _greasiness_ of the
transfer paper is apt to dim the gilding.
_Gold-leaf_ is made in many shades, from “red” (gold + copper) to
“green” (gold + silver); though these may be used very effectively,
they are liable to tarnish, and it is best to begin with pure gold
(see pp. 152, 169).
_Silver-leaf_ oxidises and turns black; platinum (a good substitute)
costs about 2s. 6d., and _aluminium_ (not so good) about 6d. per book.
“_Gold Ink_” has been made with powdered gold: its effect is inferior
to _raised and burnished_ writing.
The following is from “The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini”
(written about the beginning of the fifteenth Century): Translated by
Christiana J. Herringham, 1899:—
“Chap. 157.—_How you must do miniature-painting and put gold on
parchment._
“First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden
style figures, foliage, letters, or whatever you please, on
parchment, that is to say, in books: then with a pen you must make
the delicate permanent [p166] outline of what you have designed.
Then you must have a paint that is a sort of gesso, called asiso,
and it is made in this manner; namely, a little gesso sottile [see
chap. 116, below], and a little biacca [whitelead], never more of
this than equals a third part of the gesso; then take a little
candy, less than the biacca; grind these ingredients very finely
with clear water, collect them together, and let them dry without
sun. When you wish to use some to put on gold, cut off a piece as
large as you have need of, and temper it with the white of an egg,
well beaten, as I have taught you. [_The froth is allowed to stand
for one night to clear itself._] Temper this mixture with it; let
it dry; then take your gold, and either breathing on it or not, as
you please, you can put it on; and the gold being laid on, take
the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it, but hold under the
parchment a firm tablet of good wood, very smooth. And you must
know that you may write letters with a pen and this asiso, or lay
a ground of it, or whatever you please—it is most excellent. But
before you lay the gold on it, see whether it is needful to scrape
or level it with the point of a knife, or clean it in any way, for
your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another.
Always beware of this.”
“Chap. 116.—_How to prepare gesso sottile (slaked plaster of Paris)
for grounding panels._
“You must now prepare a plaster for fine grounds, called gesso
sottile. This is made from the same plaster [plaster of Paris] as
the last, but it must be well purified (purgata), and kept moist in
a large tub for at least a month; renew the water every day until it
almost rots, and is completely slaked, and all fiery heat goes out
of it, and it becomes as soft as silk. Throw away the water, make it
into cakes, and let it dry; and this gesso is sold by the druggists
to our painters. It is used for grounding, for gilding, for working
in relief, and other fine works.” [p167]
APPENDIX: ON GILDING
(_By Graily Hewitt_)
Success with raised gilding can only be expected when practice has
rendered attention to the details of the process automatic and there
is no need to pause and think. Even then the results must be somewhat
uncertain and experimental. For our own preparations of size are
usually unsatisfactory, and the ingredients of the best we can buy
are unknown to us. And our vellum is certainly not of the quality we
find in the old books. Some one is badly wanted to investigate the
chemistry of the one and an appropriate preparation of the other. But
we can take as much care as our time allows, passing nothing as “good
enough” which we have not well examined, and bringing to the business
all the patience and deftness available.
Vellum is too stiff, or too dry, or too greasy. When stiff, it is
too thick for books; when dry, too apt to crack or cockle; when too
greasy, exasperating. And yet the soft and rather greasy sort can
be rendered more agreeable than the rest with labour. It should
be rubbed by the flat of the hand with powdered pumice (or even
fine sandpaper on the rough side) and French chalk, especially on
its split (or rougher) side, until it is serviceable. A few trials
will teach how long to give to this. Five minutes for one side of
a lamb’s skin would not be too much. It can then be beaten with a
silk handkerchief, but not rubbed with this until the size has been
laid. It may be rubbed cleaner between the laying of the size and the
gilding. Especially must those parts of pages be thoroughly rubbed
clean which in the book, when made up, will lie upon and be pressed
against gold letters on the page opposite; or the pumice left behind
will scratch them. On the other hand, if the vellum has not been
thoroughly pumiced on both pages, the greasiness in [p168] it will
dim the gold in time, both from above and below; or even make the
size flake off altogether. The size is often blamed for faults of the
vellum and its want of preparation.
Again size, or “raising preparation,” is too sticky or too dry. If
the former, the gold will not burnish well; if the latter, it will
burnish, but will not stick at the edges, and will crack sooner or
later. And though the essential quality of gilding is brightness, one
may be content to fail of this rather than have letters ragged in
outline or broken on the surface.
The size in use should be just liquid enough to flow evenly from the
pen. More water makes it dry too brittle, and tends to cockle the
vellum also; less tends to blobbiness and unevenness. Even when it is
put on fairly an uncomfortable groove is apt to form as it dries down
the centre of letters; but this can be either filled up as soon as
the first layer is dryish, or the sides of the groove can be scraped
(when the letter is quite dry) down to the level of the groove itself
with a sharp knife. The knife must be sharp. As this scraping does
not affect the extreme edges the power of the size there to hold the
leaf is not impaired by it; and certainly a well-scraped surface
is extremely even and pleasant to gild. If the surface, however,
be burnished and not scraped before laying the leaf, it will not
hold the size well, and remains lumpy also where lumps were there
originally; while scraping gets rid of these. During use the size
should be kept thoroughly mixed; and a small sable brush serves well
for this purpose, as soon as it can be used so carefully as not to
cause bubbles.
To know the exact time to allow between laying and gilding one had
need to be a meteorologist, so much “depends on the weather.” Very
dry and very wet weather are equally unkind. Generally an interval
of about twenty-four hours is right; but it is better to gild too
soon than too late, provided one can be content, on testing the naked
surface of the gilded letter with a [p169] burnisher, and noting
that the glitter is reluctant to come, to leave the burnishing for a
while, and only lay the leaf, pressing it well home to the outline
of the letters. The burnishing can then be done in a few more hours.
But if the size be too dry, the difficulty will be to make the leaf
stick to it at all. In this case the leaf adhering can be scraped
off, the size scraped down further, and another thin coat added and
gilded after a shorter interval. If the letter be so fouled that such
repairs are difficult, it should be entirely scraped away and the
size relaid altogether. In doing this care is needed that the vellum
be not injured round the letter.
The best gold-leaf for ordinary work costs about 3s. for twenty-five
pages. More expensive leaf, being thicker, does not stick so well
to the edges; cheaper is too thin to burnish well. Two kinds may be
used together with good results, the finer leaf being put on next
the size, and the thicker at once on to the top of that. The letter
is then pressed and outlined as usual through paper, and the thin
leaf will be found of considerable assistance towards the making of a
clean cut edge. Generally, however, the piling on of several leaves
is inadvisable, as bits are liable to flake away as the letter goes
on drying, leaving dim specks where they have been. Yet if, after
the outlining through the paper, the leaf is seen to be very dull or
speckled with the colour of the size, this means that the size has
been partly pressed through the leaf; and another laid immediately
will have enough to stick to, and will burnish well. The best result
comes of one moderately thick leaf laid and burnished at the right
time as quickly as possible. Thicker leaves need only be used for
large surfaces, where the edge can be scraped even and clean, or
where a black outline is to be added.
As soon as the leaf is laid, and from that point onward, the breath
must be kept from the letter with a shield (of cardboard or tin) held
in the left hand or otherwise. Inattention to this is responsible
for many failures. Not [p170] only should the actual letters under
operation be so protected, but where a quantity are sized ready for
gilding on the page these should be protected also, as well as any
parts already finished; for breath not only moistens but warms,
and on warm size moisture condenses less easily. If the work to be
done presently is so warmed, it will be found more difficult to
deal with when its time comes. The first work done in the day is
often the best, and for this reason, that the size for it is cool;
but in gilding this portion one almost necessarily warms that to be
done later. Two pages, where possible, should therefore be gilded
alternately, one cooling while a portion of the other is gilded.
Or thin plates of metal, or even cardboard, may be placed about as
shields to protect all surfaces not under actual operation.
Superfluous gold is best removed by dusting lightly with an old and
very clean and dry silk handkerchief. Indiarubber will certainly
remove gold from the vellum, but it will as certainly dim any part of
the gilding it touches. If the vellum was properly pounced to start
with the silk will easily remove all the leaf unstuck, except little
odds and ends, and these are safeliest taken away with the point of a
knife.
As the pressure of burnishing helps the leaf to stick, it is best to
wait till the letter has been burnished before this dusting. Such
spots as are visible ungilded may be afterwards treated with a slight
breath and transfer gold-leaf, or gold dust, may be painted on them.
In the latter case the spots must be most carefully burnished, if
burnished at all, or their surroundings will be scratched.
When a gold letter is to be set on a coloured background, or in
the neighbourhood of colour, it is best put on after the colour;
as may be observed was the method occasionally with the old books.
If the gold is put on first, it will certainly be dimmed by warmth
and breath during the colouring. On the other hand, if it is put on
last, great care must be taken that the gold-leaf shall not stick to
the coloured portions. Where possible, a stencil [p171] pattern of
the parts to be gilded should be cut out of paper. This is easily
made from a pencil rubbing taken after the size is laid, the raised
pattern being of course cut out carefully a trifle larger than the
outline so obtained. The paper is then laid over all the work, and
the sized portions showing through the cuttings can be gilded without
injury to the colour.
All gilded work should be retained, if possible, for a week or more,
and then re-burnished. And in burnishing generally the burnisher
should not be used, even when the size is hard, with any great force
or pressure at first. For the size in drying sets as if moulded,
and this mould cannot be squeezed about or actually crushed without
being loosened or cracked. Throughout the whole process a gentle and
vigilant alacrity is required. Success will come easily if it means
to come. It cannot be forced to come.
The binder of a book with gilding in it should be warned to press the
sheets as little as possible, and to use all his care in handling
it, so as to keep moisture, warmth, and fingering from the gold. The
folding of the sheets, when left to him, should also be done rather
differently from usual, for all gilded pages need to be kept as flat
as possible. None of the sizes in use seem capable of resisting
bending of their surfaces without crimping or cracking. Where there
is much gilding, the book will be the better for being sewn with a
zigzag[32] through the sections, as this helps to “guard” the gilded
work. [p172]
CHAPTER X
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL
LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment, “Vellum,” &
Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished
Gold — Burnished Gold Forms, & Outlines — Background Capitals —
Applying the Background — Ornament of Backgrounds.
TOOLS & MATERIALS FOR SIMPLE ILLUMINATION
_TOOLS, &c., FOR GILDING._—See Chapter IX. (pp. 145–6).
_IVORY TRACING POINT._—This is useful for various purposes, and for
indenting patterns in burnished gold (see p. 191).
_BRUSHES._—Red Sables are very good. A separate brush should be kept
for each colour—or at least one brush each for _Reds_, _Blues_,
_Greens_, _White_, and _gold “paint”_—and it is convenient to have a
medium and a fine brush for each.
_PENS FOR COLOUR._—Quill pens are used: “Turkey” or “Goose.” The
latter is softer, and is sometimes preferred for colour work. For
very fine work (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A separate pen should
be used for each colour.
_COLOURED INKS._—Brown ink (tempered with black if desired) may be
used for fine outlines: if the outlined forms are to be coloured
afterwards, it is convenient if the ink be _waterproof_. [p173]
Coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the best paint colours
(see _Colours for Penwork_, p. 176).
_COLOURS._—(p. 175). ‹MATT GOLD› (see p. 183).
_PAINT-BOX._—The little chests of drawers, sold by stationers for 2s.
6d., make very convenient “paint-boxes”: pens, &c., may be kept in
one drawer; gilding, tools, &c., in another; and colours and brushes
in another.
_PAPER_ (see pp. 51, 98, 103).—_PARCHMENT_, _VELLUM_, _& POUNCE_ (see
below).
PARCHMENT, “VELLUM,” & POUNCE
(_See also Appendix on Gilding, p. 167 and pp. 98, 356_)
The name “Vellum” (strictly applicable only to calf-skin) is
generally given to any moderately good skin prepared for writing
or printing on. All the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and
_horny_: chemical action (substituted for patient handling),
followed by liberal sizing and “dressing,” is perhaps responsible.
The old skins have much more life and character, and are commonly
much softer. Their surface is generally very smooth—not necessarily
_glazed_—often with a delicate velvety _nap_, which forms a perfect
writing surface.
_Parchment_ (sheep-skin), as supplied by law-stationers, though
rather hard, still retains the character of a skin, and is in every
way preferable to the Vellum[33] which is specially prepared for
illuminators. A piece of parchment about 26 inches by 22 inches costs
about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is still better.
“_Roman Vellum_” is a fine quality of sheep or [p174] _“lamb” skin_,
made in imitation of the Vellum used in the Vatican.
The surface of a modern skin may be greatly improved by “_pouncing_”
but there seems to be a danger of its becoming rough or porous.
_Pounce._—Fine _powdered pumice_ (as supplied by drysalters) is
very good. It is rubbed on with the hand (p. 167), or with a pad
or a piece of rag. Law-stationers use a pounce in which the main
constituents are chalk (or “whiting”) and powdered resin. The latter,
when used before gilding, is apt to make the gold-leaf stick to the
surrounding parchment. (_Before Writing_, see Note 7, p. 359.)
_Chalk_, “_Whiting_” “_French Chalk_,” and _Powdered Cuttlefish
Bone_ might be used as substitutes for pumice, or as ingredients
in preparing a pounce. _Sandarach_ (a resin) rubbed on an erasure
appears to prevent ink spreading when the surface is written over.
A skin of parchment has a smooth (whiter) side—the original flesh
side—and a rougher, yellower side—the original hair side. The penman
will find the _smooth_ side preferable for writing on (though, of
course, both sides must be used in a book: see p. 110). This side is
more easily damaged, and erasures have to be very carefully made with
a _sharp_ knife, or by gentle rubbing with indiarubber. On the rough
side, erasures cause little or no damage to the surface. A piece of
rubber—or a paper stump—dipped in pounce may be used. It is better—as
it is more straightforward—to avoid erasures if possible, and to
correct mistakes frankly, as in ordinary writing (see p. 344).
For ordinary purposes parchment should be cut to the size desired,
and be held on the desk by the [p175] tape, guard, &c. (see p. 50).
It is generally a mistake to pin it down, or to damp and stretch it
on the drawing-board (see p. 356).
_Parchment is stained a fine purple_ with “Brazil-wood”: this may be
obtained from a “store chemist.” Three teacups full of Brazil-wood
are stewed in about two pints of water, with two teaspoonsful
of alum (which acts as a mordant). The colour of this liquid is
brownish-red, and to make it purple, carbonate of potash is added
(_very carefully_, or it will become too blue). The liquid is poured
into a tray, and the parchment skin is placed in it for half a day or
a couple of days. The colour dries lighter, so it should be prepared
rather dark, and diluted if necessary: strips of parchment should be
used to test it; they are taken out and dried at the fire.
The parchment skin is stretched on a frame, the edges being caught up
over little buttons or pegs, and tied at these points with string. It
is allowed to dry slowly.
COLOURS
_POWDER COLOURS_ are the purest: they may be mixed with gum arabic
and water. Yolk of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium (or
white of egg) (see pp. 166, 179). It is more convenient for the
beginner to use prepared colours, which are ready and dependable.
_CAKE COLOURS_ rank next to powder colours for purity: they seem to
need tempering with a little gum or honey or glycerine (or egg—see
above) for use on ordinary parchment.[34] Used [p176] plain with
water, they are apt to flake off when dry.
_PAN COLOURS_ are very safe for ordinary use.
_TUBE COLOURS_ sometimes seem to have too much glycerine; they are,
however, very convenient for preparing mixed colours in any quantity,
because of their semi-fluid condition, and because the amount of each
colour in the mixture may be judged with considerable accuracy by the
_length_ which is squeezed out of the tube (p. 178).
_COLOURS FOR PENWORK, &c._—For simple letters or decoration it is
well to use a pure
_RED_—_neither crimson nor orange tinged_:
_BLUE_—_neither greenish nor purplish_:
_GREEN_—_neither bluish nor “mossy._”
A little “body colour” is generally used with _blues_ and _greens_ to
keep them “flat” (p. 118). These colours should be mixed as required,
and be diluted to the right consistency with water (see p. 118).
Colour which has been mixed and in use for some time—especially if it
has been allowed to dry—is best thrown away (see _mixing size_, p.
148).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 112.›]
If there is much rubricating to be done, a quantity of each colour
sufficient to last several days may be mixed, and kept in a _covered_
pot. A little pomatum pot is convenient—the smaller the better, as it
keeps the colour together, and does not allow it to dry so quickly.
The filling-brush (a rough brush kept for filling the pen) may rest
in the pot (see fig. 112), being given a stir round every time
it is [p177] used to prevent the settling of the heavy parts of
the colour. A drop of water is added occasionally as the liquid
evaporates and becomes too thick.[35]
_TINTS FEW AND CONSTANT._—_Red_, _Blue_, and _Green_ (and perhaps
_purple_) with _Gold_, _White_, and _Black_, are sufficient for
everything but the most advanced type of Illumination. And it is in
every way desirable that, until he has become a _Master_ Limner,
the Writer and Illuminator should strictly limit the number of his
colours (see p. 215).
It is one of the “secrets” of good “design” to use a limited number
of _elements_—forms or colours or materials—and to produce _variety_
by skilful and charming manipulation of these.
It is well to follow the early Illuminators in this also: that these
few colours be kept constant. When you have chosen a _Red_, a _Blue_,
and a _Green_—as pure and bright as you can make them—keep those
particular tints as _fixed_ colours to be used for ordinary purposes.
For _special purposes_ (pp. 182, 202) paler tints may be made by
adding white, and varied tints may be mixed, but even when your work
has advanced so that you require a more complex “palette,” you should
stick to the principle of _constant tints and modes of treatment for
regular occasions_: this is the secret of method.
_RED._—Vermilion is prepared in three forms: “_Vermilion_,” “_Scarlet
Vermilion_,” and “_Orange Vermilion_.” For ordinary use “_Scarlet
Vermilion_” is the best (it may be tempered with a minute quantity
of white). “_Vermilion_” is not quite so bright, and tends more to
crimson, but, mixed with [p178] “_Orange Vermilion_” it gives the
“scarlet” form. The _pan_ colour is generally most convenient.
Where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold, their effect may be
harmonised by having a large proportion of blue in the neighbourhood:
sometimes a more crimson colour than vermilion may be used.
_Chinese Vermilion_ is a fine colour, but difficult to obtain; it
is even said that the genuine pigment is reserved exclusively for
the Chinese Emperor (whose edicts are written with “The Vermilion
Pencil”).
_GREEN._—Verdigris is a very fine colour, closely resembling, and
possibly the same pigment as, the green in early MSS., but I believe
that it has not been rendered permanent in modern use.
_Green Oxide of Chromium_ (_transparent_) (or “Veridian”) is a very
good permanent green. It is rather a thin colour, and requires body,
which may be given with _lemon yellow_, or with _white and yellow
ochre_; being a rather bluish green, it is the better for a little
yellow. This (mixed) green is most conveniently prepared from tube
colours.
_BLUE._—_Ultramarine Ash_ (whole tube about 4s.) is a very beautiful
colour. It is rather pale and transparent (and a little “slimy” to
work) when used alone. A mixture (preferably made with tube colours)
consisting of _Ultramarine Ash and Chinese White and (a very little)
Prussian Blue_ makes an extremely fine, pure blue. A similar mixture
with _cobalt_ as a base makes a very good blue.
_Ultramarine or Powdered Lapis Lazuli_ (unfortunately known as
“Genuine Ultramarine”[36]) is a fine colour; it may have a slightly
purplish tint and need [p179] tempering with green to make a pure
blue (whole cake about 18s.).
The Blue in common use in early MSS. (before Ultramarine came into
use) has a fine, pure colour, and considerable _body_: it is more
raised than any other colour; it is often seen to be full of little
sparkles, as though there were powdered glass in it. It is supposed
to have been prepared from a copper ore.
The following note on this blue has been given to me by Mr. C. M.
Firth:—
“The blue is Native Carbonate of Copper finely powdered and tempered
with white of egg (Vermilion is tempered with the Yolk).”
“The ore is of two kinds, a crystalline of a medium hardness found
in France at Chessy, and hence called Chessylite, and a soft earthy
kind which is obtained in Hungary, and largely now from Australia.
The latter is from its ease of manipulation the best for paint
making. It should be ground dry till it is no longer gritty and is
of a sky blue (pale) colour.”
“The Blue in MSS. was liable to wash off, but the oil in the Yolk
prevented a similar result with the Vermilion. The Blue is identical
with the Azzuro della magna (for d’allemaigne) of the Middle Ages.
The frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to a glass
is based on the accounts of (I.) The Vestorian blue copper ‘frit’
for enamels probably; (II.) on the accounts in sixteenth century of
the Manufacture of Smalt, which owes its colour to a glass tinted
with Cobalt. This Azzuro is the oldest known Western blue, and was
probably employed on Egyptian walls, where it has gone green, as
also in Italian Frescoes.”
“The Green tint of the chemical change in the Copper is seen in
initials in books too much exposed to the damp. These exhibit a
bright green tint in places where the colour was thinly applied.”
[p180]
It appears that Yolk, besides being unsuited in colour for tempering
this blue, changes it to a greenish colour (the effect of the oil,
which forms about 30 per cent. of Yolk of Egg).
_WHITE._—The tube _Chinese White_[37] is the most convenient to use
when tempering colours.
“_White Line or Hair Finishing_” (see p. 183). Various tools have
been recommended for this. A sable pencil with the outer hairs cut
away, “the smallest brush” made, and even a fine steel pen. I am
inclined to believe that some of the early Illuminators used a fine
quill—such as a crow quill, or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply
pointed.
_PURPLE_ is seldom used in simple pen-work, lettering, &c., but
largely and with very fine effect in complex illumination. A
_reddish-purple_ is to be preferred. A good colour can be made from
the purple _stain_ described on p. 175, or from Ruby madder and a
little Rose madder, with a very little Ultramarine.
SIMPLE COLOUR EFFECTS
_Simple “Rubrication”_ (see p. 127).—Red letters were most commonly
contrasted with _blue_ (the “warmest” and “coldest” colours),[38]
in some MSS. with _green_ alone, but more commonly the three [p181]
colours were used together, the alterations being generally—
┐ ┐
«R»_ed cap._ │ in columns «RED» │ in lines of Caps.
«B»_lue cap._ │ of Versal «BLUE» │
«R»_ed cap._ │ letters «RED» │
«G»_reen cap._ │ (see fig. 93) «GREEN» │ (see fig. 89).
&c. │ &c. │
┘ ┘
_Repetition and Limitation of Simple Colours (and Forms)._—The
uniform treatment of a MS. necessitates that no colour (or form) in
it should be quite singular, or even isolated if it can possibly be
repeated. If, for example, there be a Red capital on the “Verso”
page, the “_opening_” is improved by some Red—a capital, a rubric,
or even a line-finishing—on the “Recto” page. Very often the one
piece of colour is very small, and, as it were, an echo of the
other (compare Line-finishings and Initials, pp. 205, 193). While
it is not always possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an
opening, yet, in the book taken as a whole, _every colour used should
be repeated as often as there is a reasonable opportunity_. And,
therefore, where the opportunities for colour in a book are few and
far between, it is well to limit the “colours” used to two, or even
one.
This necessity for repetition applies to _simple_ rather than to
complex “Illuminated” Forms—_e.g._ a book need not have more than
one Illuminated Initial—but within such complex forms themselves
[p182] _repetition_ is recognised as one of the first principles of
“decorative design” (see p. 215).
_Proportions of Colours._—In Harmonious Illumination, Blue very
commonly is the predominating colour; but no exact proportions can
be laid down, for the combined colour effect depends so much on the
arrangement of the colours.
_Effects of Neighbouring Colours._[39]—When blue and red are in
juxtaposition, the blue appears bluër and greener; the red appears
brighter and more scarlet. With Red and Green, the Red appears more
crimson, and the green, greener and bluër. A greenish blue will
appear _plain blue_ beside a pure green; a blue with a purplish tinge
will appear more purple. Experiments might profitably be made with
simple arrangements of Red, Blue, Green, Black, White, and Gold in
combinations of two or more.
_Tempering Colours with White._—Forms such as flower petals, &c., may
be painted in Blue or Red, paled with White, and then be shaded with
the pure colour; this gives considerable richness, and the effect may
be heightened by very careful white line work (_q.v._). Green leaves,
&c., may be made very pale and then touched with _Yellow_—this gives
a brilliant effect.
_Black Outlines._—The effect of these is to make a bright colour
appear brighter and richer, to define, and, to a certain extent,
_harmonise_, neighbouring colours and shapes, and to keep the design
flat [p183] (see p. 186). For one or more of these reasons, all
coloured forms—patterns, charges, &c.—in a compound colour scheme
have an outline—strong or delicate, according to the strength or
delicacy of the work (see pp. 188, 187, 202, 221, 165).
_White Lining._—A black outline is often separated from the colour
by a fine white line (see fig. 129). White lines also are used to
harmonise colours, one or more commonly being painted (or “penned”)
upon the colours. This tends to make the colours appear paler and
lighter—brightening them if they are dark. Care must be taken not
to overdo the white lining, or it will make the colours chalky and
cold. White is also used in groups of dots, and in fine patterns on
backgrounds (see pp. 213, 430).
_Gold_ is even more effective than white or black for harmonising
colours. It is commonly _Burnished_ in bars or frames (see p. 481),
and in spots (pp. 481, 187), or in large masses (p. 191). _Matt Gold_
(see below).
MATT GOLD
Matt gold, or gold “paint”—the pure gold powder with white of egg
is best—is generally _painted upon colour_. It was much used in old
miniatures for “hatching” and lighting landscapes, houses, costumes,
&c.; and stars, rays of light, and outlines of clouds were painted
in delicate gold lines upon the blue of the skies. Such gold lining
has a very mellowing and pleasant effect upon colour, but it can
easily be _overdone_. Matt gold may be used besides, for letters,
ornament, and patterns _painted upon colour_. Such forms have either
no outline, or a very faint one: their effect depends upon their
lightness, and they are not made to appear _solid_. [p184]
A very pretty effect may be obtained in a small and not very formal
manuscript by painting into the spaces left for the capitals little
squares of red and blue, and painting upon these the letters and
ornament—all in gold powder—very freely and quickly. The kind of
treatment is rather crudely suggested by fig. 113. The pleasant
appearance of the pages—as though they were scattered over with
tiny squares of cloth of gold and red and blue—is produced with
comparative ease, while the use of leaf gold might entail an
expenditure of more time and pains than the book was worth. In the
finest class of manuscripts, however, these matt gold letters would
be somewhat informal and out of place.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 113.›]
BURNISHED GOLD
Gold is always raised and burnished as bright as possible, unless
there is a special reason for using matt gold.
The height to which it is raised varies, according to the effect
desired, from a considerable thickness to the thinnest possible
coat of “size.” Extremely thin and extremely thick raising are both
objectionable (see p. 150): roughly speaking, a suitable height for
any ordinary purpose is between 1/100 and 1/32 of an inch.
The surface, in the case of large forms, is generally made as smooth
and perfect as possible, so that, as Cennino Cennini says, the
burnished gold “_will appear almost dark from its own brightness_”;
and its [p185] brightness is only seen when the light falls on it at
a particular angle. The gilding of a manuscript, however, is slightly
flexible, and a large gilded surface is likely to be bent, so that
some part of it is sure to catch the light.
Small surfaces highly burnished very often do not show the effect
of, or “tell” as, gold, unless they catch the light by accident. It
is well, therefore, where the forms are small to have several on the
page, so that one or another will always shine out and explain the
rest. And while the proper craftsman tries always to get the best
finish which he reasonably can, the natural, slight unevennesses or
varying planes of small gilded forms may be of advantage to the whole
effect. The pleasant effect of such natural variations may be seen
in thirteenth-century Initials, where numbers of little gold pieces
are fitted into the backgrounds, and their changing surfaces cause
the whole to be lit up with little sparkles of light. A parallel
to this may be found in the hand-tooling of a book-cover, which
sparkles with gold, because the binder could not press in each piece
of gold-leaf absolutely level. On the other hand, the “deadness” of
a machine-stamped cover is largely due to the _dead level_ of its
gilding.
_Black and Gold._—One of the finest effects in calligraphy can be
obtained by the simple contrast of gold capitals with black writing
(see p. 299).
While, as in the case of _black and red_, the strongest effects are
obtained by a marked contrast, gold may yet be very effectively used
for small capitals throughout the black text. It does not lose or
blend its brilliance with the black of the writing as colour is apt
to do, but lights up and illuminates the page. For this reason gold
will [p186] “help out” and make agreeable a black and colour effect
which, by itself, would have been a failure (see p. 134).
BURNISHED GOLD FORMS & OUTLINES
_Plain gold letters, symbols, and other detached forms, not having
backgrounds, are usually not outlined._ An outline cheapens their
effect, making them darker and heavier, and, if the line be at all
thick, concealing the true form of the letter, and giving it a clumsy
appearance.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 114.›]
It is an instructive experiment to make a gold (or plain white)
letter with a thick outline (_a_, fig. 114), and then paint a
background round it. The effect is quite altered, and greatly
improved (_b_, fig. 114). The outline no longer tells as the outer
line of the form, but partakes more of the nature of the background,
in which it cuts out, as one might say, a little _niche_ for the
letter to rest in.
_Gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds_ are [p187]
outlined—generally in black—in order that letter and background may
together form a flat design, stable and at rest in the page.
The distinction between the use of gold “_paint_” and the treatment
of a leaf gold form should be carefully observed: the _matt gold
powder_ lies upon colour, and may appear to blend with it (p. 183);
the _bright gold-leaf_ constitutes a distinct form, which either
lies upon the surface of _a page_, or is, as it were, _set in_ a
background.
_Gold (leaf) Floral Ornament, &c._—If the stalk and leaves are both
gold: they are commonly not outlined, unless on a background.
If there be a thin stalk in black or colour with gold leaves: the
leaves are outlined with the stalk-colour (they were commonly
_furred_: _c_, fig. 115).
If there be a _thick_ coloured stalk with gold leaves: both stalk
and leaves commonly have a black outline, the “leaves” often being
treated as spots of gold (below).
_Gold Spots or Dots_ are usually outlined and furred with black
(fig. 115). The effect produced is of a bright gold form on a _grey_
background.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 115.›]
A simple “leaf” or detached spot of gold has a formless look, much as
a small _blot_ of colour or ink would have. The black outline and the
grey background-effect seem in this case to give form and interest to
the spot; at least they give it a place to _rest_ in—a nest to hold
the small golden egg. [p188]
Even a stalk and tendril (_d_, fig. 115) has the same effect of
giving intention and meaning to what might otherwise be a mere blot.
When several spots of gold (or colour) are arranged in a simple
design, together they constitute a simple form which does not require
a background. Thus the _line-finishing_ @ (a, fig. 126) has a formal
and intentional arrangement in itself, and therefore need not be
outlined.
BACKGROUND CAPITALS
_Background Capitals or Initials_ frequently employ burnished gold,
either for the letters or the ground. All the parts (including
“solid” patterns) are generally outlined in black, or dark colour.
The commonest colours for grounds are Reds and Blues. The grounds are
frequently countercharged, or made one colour _inside_ and another
_outside_ the initial (p. 190). Sometimes little or no gold is used,
and many fine white lines are employed to separate and harmonise the
colours of the Initial and the ground. It is well, however, for the
beginner to keep the letter and the ground distinct, by observing the
Herald’s maxim, and using “Metal on colour, _or_ colour on metal.”
_The forms of the letters_ vary from those of ordinary capitals
in being thicker in proportion to their height, and frequently in
having no serifs. A very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the
background.
A very good form of background initial may be [p189] made out of the
ROMAN CAPITAL (_a_, fig. 116) by thickening all its parts; in place
of the serifs, curving out and shaping the ends of the stems (_b_,
_d_) to a sort of “_blunderbuss_” pattern (_g_).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 116.›]
APPLYING THE BACKGROUND
It is well first to make the letter,[40] and then to _apply_ the
background to it (as though it were a sort of mosaic). The background
is packed tightly round the letter, and the letter occupies the
background, [p190] so that they appear to be in the same plane (_a_,
fig. 117).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 117.›]
Such “flatness” is secured even more certainly and effectively by
using two colours (_e.g._ red and blue) in the background—one inside
and one outside the letter (see Plate XII.).
The curves of the gold letter may with advantage slightly project,
and so break the hard, square outline of the background.
The letter should not have the appearance of being “stuck on,” as it
is apt to if the background is large and empty, or if the ornament
passes behind the letter (_b_, fig. 117).
In the case of letters with projecting stems or tails: the tail may
be outside the background (_a_, [p191] fig. 118), or the background
may be prolonged on one or both sides of the tail (_b_ and _c_), or
the whole “field” may be enlarged to take in the complete letter
(_d_).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 118.›]
There is no limit to the variety of shapes which backgrounds may
take—symmetrical or asymmetrical, regular or irregular—provided they
fit the initial or the ornament (which may _itself_ partially, or
entirely, bound them), are properly balanced (see Plate XII., and p.
419), and take their right place on the page.
ORNAMENT OF BACKGROUNDS
The ornament, as a rule, covers the background evenly, and is closely
packed or fitted into its place.
_Gold grounds_ are generally plain, sometimes bearing patterns in
dots. These are indented in the surface by means of a point (p. 172)
which is not too sharp. It presses the gold-leaf into tiny pits, but
does not pierce it. Gold grounds may be broken up into small parts by
coloured chequers (p. 215) or floral patterns. [p192]
_Coloured grounds_ are, as a rule, more or less evenly covered with
some form of decoration in thin white or matt gold lines, or in
“solid” patterns in various colours (see pp. 202, 212). A simple and
pretty diaper pattern may be made by diagonal lines of matt gold,
cutting up the colour into small “lozenges,” each alternate lozenge
having a fleur-de-lis or little cross, or other simple ornament (fig.
119).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 119.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 120.›]
A bolder design, in a broad white or coloured line, may be, as it
were, woven through _counterfeited slits_ in the letter (fig. 120).
This helps to preserve the general flatness of the letter, [p193]
background, and ornament, and gives additional interest.
The mimic slits are made by black lines drawn on the burnished gold
of the letter. Where the stem of the ornament comes over the gold,
the size is cut away with a pen-knife; the part hollowed out is
painted with white to cover any blemishes, and then painted with the
stem colour, and outlined.
A plain or pale stem may have a faint or brown outline, and be
“shaded” at the sides (with _greys_, _browns_, or _yellows_) to
give an effect of solidity; a stem that is painted in strong colour
(_e.g._ red or blue) may have a central white line painted upon it.
Note that where the initials have backgrounds, the line-finishings
are commonly made with backgrounds to match, though their treatment
is naturally much simpler (see Plates XV., XVII.).
CHAPTER XI
A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination — “Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumination” — “Filigree,
or Pen-Work, Illumination” — “Natural, or Limner’s, Illumination.”
ILLUMINATION
It is convenient to give a wide meaning to the word when we speak
of an “_illuminated_ manuscript,” for the scribe works with a very
free hand, and when he wishes to decorate his pages he can [p194]
write the words themselves in red, green, or blue, as easily as he
could have written them in black. He can take a clean pen and a new
colour and initial and “flourish” any part of the work to his heart’s
content. He may acquire the art of laying and burnishing gold, and no
possible brilliance of effect is denied him—within the limits of his
skill as an illuminator (see also pp. 298–299).
A limited number of specially prepared printed books can likewise be
illuminated. But the greater the number of copies, the less labour
may be spent on each one, and the more their illumination tends to be
simple “rubrication”—adding coloured capitals, flourishes, and the
like (see p. 127). And, if a large edition is to be decorated, the
printer must be content to use black, or black and red, in woodcut or
“process” work (see pp. 365, 372).
Illumination proper may be defined as the decoration by hand, in
bright gold or colours, of writing or printing.
There are three broad types of illumination, which for want of better
terms I distinguish as “_Barbaric_” (or colour-work), “_Filigree_”
(or pen-work), and “_Natural_” (or limner’s). These types run
naturally one into another, and they may be blended or combined in
every possible way, but it is convenient to consider them and the
distinctive treatments which they involve separately.
“BARBARIC, OR COLOUR-WORK, ILLUMINATION”
(_See also pp._ 203, 208, 209, 215–18, 414, 421, 422)
This is mainly a colour treatment in which forms seem to be regarded
chiefly as vehicles for [p195] colour. Its effect appeals to the
senses, rather than to the imagination; and such interest as the
forms have lies greatly in their skilful disposal or intricate
arrangement. Sometimes in their fantasy—where organic forms are
introduced—as the “great fish” in the act of swallowing Jonah (in
order to make the _T_ of ET), Plate XII. This type of illumination
appears to have reached its climax of barbaric splendour in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Though its revival nowadays might seem a little out of keeping
with the more sedate and grown-up point of view of modern life, we
cannot doubt that it is still _lawful_ to decorate our work with
the brilliance and splendour of gold and colours. Whether it is
_expedient_ or not depends upon how it is done: to justify our work,
it must succeed; it must be bright and splendid, and really gladden
our eyes. And we must really take pleasure in the making of it, for
if we do not, we can hardly expect that it will give pleasure to
others.
_Simple and Complex Forms._—Between _simple forms_—which are in a
sense permanent—and _complex forms_—which are always changing—it is
necessary to make a careful distinction.
An _equilateral triangle_ drawn by “Euclid” and one drawn by a modern
Senior Wrangler are, or ought to be, practically the same thing. If
the ancients made an ornamental band of geometrical forms, that is
no bar to us; we also are at liberty to make decorative bands of
circles, lozenges, or triangles.
The ancient Romans made a capital A—its _essential form_ (see fig.
142) two strokes sloped together and joined by a cross-bar (very like
the [p196] “_Pons Asinorum_”), it could hardly be simpler—they used
chisels and pens, which gave it its more characteristic and finished
form. If we use chisels and pens properly we shall get a similar
result—not absolutely the same—for no two chisels or two hands can
be quite the same—but closely resembling it and belonging to our own
time as much as to any other.
The essential form of the “Roman” A is a purely abstract form, the
common property of every rational age and country,[41] and its
characterisation is mainly the product of tools and materials not
peculiar to the ancient Romans.
But when there is any real _complexity_ of form and arrangement, or
sentiment, we may reasonably suppose that it is peculiar to its time,
and that the life and virtue of it cannot be restored.
It was common enough in the Middle Ages to make an initial A of two
_dragons_ firmly locked together by claws and teeth. Such forms
fitted the humour of the time, and were part of the then natural
“scheme of things.” But _we_ should beware of using such antique
fantasies and
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