The Submarine in War and Peace: Its Development and its Possibilities
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Title: The Submarine in War and Peace: Its Development and its Possibilities
Author: Simon Lake
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE: ITS DEVELOPMENT AND ITS POSSIBILITIES ***
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
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Obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
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More detail can be found at the end of the book.
THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE
[Illustration: (Frontispiece; Simon Lake)]
THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE
ITS DEVELOPMENTS AND ITS POSSIBILITIES
BY
SIMON LAKE, M.I.N.A.
_WITH 71 ILLUSTRATIONS
AND A CHART_
PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
1918
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
DEDICATED
TO
LEBBEUS B. MILLER
OF ELIZABETH, NEW JERSEY
An honest and patriotic man, who took up a poor young man, and
who, through his thorough grasp of things mechanical, was among
the first to see practical possibilities in the dreams of a young
inventor. With his financial means he was able to assist materially
in the development and perfection of an important weapon for the
defence of his country, thus rendering a valuable service to the
nation.
Without his assistance much of the development work described in
this volume would have been impossible of accomplishment.
No greater tribute can be paid to him than to remark of him that
he is one--and there are but few of whom this may be said--who has
steadfastly refused to take advantage of conditions which offered
him the opportunity to increase his personal fortune at the expense
of other individuals or of the welfare of his country.
FOREWORD
Some twenty years ago the author began to collect data with the idea
of publishing a book on the submarine at a future time. There was very
little information concerning submarines available at that date, as the
early experiments in this field of navigation were generally conducted
in secrecy. There had been constructed, up to that time, no submarine
vessel which was entirely successful, and for this reason inventors and
designers were disinclined to reveal the features of the vessels upon
which they were experimenting.
Since then there has been considerable dissemination of facts about
the submarine; much of this knowledge has found its way into print,
some in short historical sketches published by the author and other
designers. However, most of the publications on this subject have come
from the hands of professional writers and newspaper men, some of whom
have not had the engineering knowledge to sift the practical from the
impractical, and who have not had any actual first-hand acquaintance
with the facts. They have not understood the mechanical details of the
submarine and the principles governing its operation well enough to
comprehend or to elucidate the various phases of the development of
this type of vessel. The result has been that many inaccuracies have
been published, both in respect to the history of the development of
the submarine and in regard to the practical operation of such vessels.
There have been published one or two good works dealing with this
subject in a very complete and intelligible manner, but intended for
those engaged in engineering pursuits. One of the best of these was
"The Evolution of the Submarine Boat, Mine and Torpedo, from the
Sixteenth Century to the Present Time," by Commander Murray F. Sueter,
of the Royal British Navy, published in 1907.
When this book first appeared the present writer felt that the subject
had been so fully covered that there was no need for him to publish
his own information. However, since the beginning of the world-war
the prominent part played by the submarine has led to a demand for
more knowledge about the workings of this weapon of mystery, and for
information concerning its future possibilities.
The aim of this work, therefore, is to present to the reader in a
simple, interesting way the facts relating to the submarine; its
mechanical principles; the history of its development; its actual
operation; the difficulty of combating it; and its industrial
possibilities. These facts are presented, together with descriptions of
the experience of the author and other inventors, in order to clarify
in the reader's mind the difficulties, the trials and tribulations
of both the submarine operator and the inventor. Furthermore, the
narrative is not restricted to a discussion of the submarine question
from a mechanical standpoint. The submarine to-day is a factor in the
political and industrial life of the world. The submarine problem
transcends a mere matter of mechanical detail, and a book upon this
topic must, of necessity, deal with it in its broadest aspects.
SIMON LAKE
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. WHAT THE MODERN SUBMARINE IS 6
II. COMEDY AND TRAGEDY IN SUBMARINE DEVELOPMENT 36
III. EXPERIENCES OF PIONEER INVENTORS OF THE SUBMARINE 77
IV. THE EVOLUTION OF THE SUBMARINE 149
V. USE OF THE SUBMARINE IN WAR 196
VI. THE POSSIBILITY OF DEFEATING THE SUBMARINE 228
VII. THE SUBMARINE IN TIMES OF PEACE 259
VIII. THE DESTINY OF THE SUBMARINE 289
ILLUSTRATIONS
DOUBLETONES
PAGE
Simon Lake _Frontispiece_
The Pigmy Conquerer of the Sea 2
Storage Battery Cell 14
A Submarine Cell Completely Assembled Ready for Installation 14
On Picket Duty 20
The Lower Portion of Galileo Periscope 22
The Voice and Ear of the Submarine 26
Torpedo Tubes Assembled Ready for Installation in a Submarine Boat 27
A Whitehead Torpedo 28
Rear End of the Whitehead Torpedo 29
Rapid-firing Guns 30
A Modern Submarine Cruiser, or Fleet Submarine (Lake Type) 32
The Launching of the "Protector" 62
The "Delphine" 66
The "Fenian Ram" 96
"Argonaut, Jr.," 1894 128
Sketch of the Confederate Submarine "Hunley" 150
The New Orleans Submarine 152
The "Intelligent Whale" 153
"Argonaut" as Originally Built. Launched in August, 1897 176
Submarine with Cushioned Bottom Wheels 178
The "Argonaut" after being Lengthened and Rebuilt, in 1898,
Showing Ship-shaped, Watertight, Buoyant Superstructure 182
The "Holland" Running on the Surface 190
"Amphibious" Submarine 202
The "Protector" (Lake Type, 1901-1902) 210
Official Drawing of the Captured German Mine-planting Submarine,
U C-5 214
A Bottom-Creeping Submarine Passing Through a Mine Field 216
A Mine and Net Evading Submarine Under-running a Net 217
Mines Placed Under Ships at Anchor 220
Submarine Supply Station 221
Submarine "Seal"--Lake Type U.S. 226
British Submarine B-1 (Holland type) 227
British Submarine C-2 Arriving at Portsmouth in a Gale 230
Germany's U-9 and Some of Her Sister Submarines.--Aeroplane
and Submarine 234
Russian Cruiser-Lake Type Submarine in Shed Built by Peter
the Great--1905 236
A Group of German U-boats 238
Russian-Lake Type Cruising Submarine "Kaiman" making a Surface
Run in Rough Weather in the Gulf of Finland 239
The U-65 242
Russian-Lake Type 243
C-1, One of the Later Type French Submarines 248
Cargo-Carrying Submarines of the Author's Design 249
The "Deutschland" 252
Torpedo being Fired from the Deck Tubes of the Submarine "Seal" 256
British Submarine No. 3 Passing Nelson's Old Flagship "Victory" 257
Under-ice Navigation 260
A Submarine Garden at the Bottom of the Sea 266
Submarines for Hydrographic Work and Wreck Finding 267
The "Argonaut" Submerged 276
Experimental Cargo-Recovering Submarine 278
Sketch Drawing Illustrating a Method of Transferring Cargoes from
Sunken Vessels to Submerged Freight Cargo-Carrying Submarines 278
Semi-submergible Wrecking Apparatus 280
Submarine Oyster-Gathering Vessel 286
The "Argosy and Argonaut III" 290
Diagram of the "Argosy and Argonaut III" 291
LINE CUTS
Method of Control in Diving Type Boats 17
Method of Controlling Hydroplane Boats 18
How Hydroplanes Control Depth of Submersion 19
Showing Various Conditions in Which a Submarine of the Level Keel
Type Fitted with Bottom Wheels, May Navigate 21
The Periscope is the Eye of the Submarine 23
Diving Compartment 31
Bushnell's Submarine, the "American Turtle" 79
Robert Fulton's Submarine 82
Tuck's "Peacemaker" 84
Longitudinal Section of the French Submarine "Le Plongeur" 153
The "Plunger" (Holland Type Submarine), Launched in August, 1897 167
Lake Design as Submitted to the U. S. Navy Department in 1893 170
The "Argonaut" after Lengthening and Addition of Buoyant,
Ship-shaped Superstructure, Increasing the Surface Buoyancy
over 40 Per Cent 178
The "Holland" 190
Various Types of Modern Foreign Submarines 194
An Amphibious Submarine being Hauled out of the Water 204
The "Caviar Map" of Shipping's Greatest Grave-yard 283
CHART
Diagram to Illustrate the Comparative Visibility and Consequently
the Comparative Safety of Surface Ships and Cargo-Carrying
Submarines 254
THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE
INTRODUCTION
Jules Verne, in 1898, cabled to a New York publication: "While my book,
'Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea,' is entirely a work of the
imagination, my conviction is that all I said in it will come to pass.
A thousand-mile voyage in the Baltimore submarine boat (the _Argonaut_)
is evidence of this. This conspicuous success of submarine navigation
in the United States will push on under-water navigation all over the
world. If such a successful test had come a few months earlier it might
have played a great part in the war just closed (Spanish-American war).
The next war may be largely a contest between submarine boats. Before
the United States gains her full development she is likely to have
mighty navies, not only on the bosom of the Atlantic and Pacific, but
in the upper air and beneath the waters of the surface."
The fantasy of Verne is the fact of to-day.
Admiral Farragut, in 1864, entered Mobile Bay while saying: "Damn the
torpedoes--four bells; Captain Drayton, go ahead; Jouett, full speed!"
An admiral, in 1917, damns the torpedoes and orders full speed ahead,
but _not_ toward those points guarded by submarine torpedo boats.
While the British Admiralty once held that the submarine "is the weapon
of the weaker power and not our concern," to-day the British naval
officers in the North Sea operations somewhat discredit the former
official Admiralty stand that "we know all about submarines; they are
weapons of the weaker power; they are very poor fighting machines and
can be of no possible use to the mistress of the seas."
Even as late as 1904 the submarine was not considered by naval
authorities as a weapon of much value. A British admiral expressed his
views on the submarine at that time in these words: "In my opinion,
the British Admiralty is doing the right thing in building submarines,
as in habituating our men and officers to them we shall more clearly
realize their weaknesses when used against us. Even the weapon they
carry (the Whitehead torpedo) is, to all intents and purposes, of
unknown value for sea fighting."
However, from the very outbreak of the war now being carried on in
Europe, the submarine has made its presence felt as a most effective
weapon. German submarines have translated into actuality the prophecies
of Verne, and have altered the views not only of the English but of the
world as to the efficacy of the submarine as a naval weapon.
[Illustration: THE PIGMY CONQUERER OF THE SEA.
A drawing made by the author in 1893 to illustrate the possibilities of
his submarine boat, and called "The Pigmy Conquerer of the Sea."]
On March 10, 1915, a former chief constructor in the French Navy,
M. Lauboeuf, stated: "An English fleet blockades the German coast,
but at such a distance that a German division was able to go out and
bombard Scarborough. When the English tried a close blockade at the
beginning of the war, the German submarines made them pay dearly
by torpedoing the _Pathfinder_, _Cressy_, _Hogue_, and _Aboukir_.
Similarly the French fleet in the Adriatic was compelled to
blockade Austrian ports from a great distance, and the battleships
_Jules Ferry_, _Waldeck Rousseau_, and _Jean Bart_ had fortunate
escapes from the Austrian fleet."
As I write, the submarines of Germany are holding the navies of the
Allied Powers in check. The British fleet dares not invade German
waters or attempt a close blockade of German ports. In spite of the
mighty English navy, the German U-boats--the invisible destroyers--are
venturing forth daily into the open Atlantic and are raising such havoc
with merchant shipping that the world is terrified at the prospect.
It is the German U-boat which to-day encourages the Central Powers to
battle almost single-handedly against the rest of the world's great
nations.
So it is in this surprising manner that the submarine torpedo boat has
emerged from its swaddling clothes and has begun to speak for itself.
Its progress and development have been retarded for many years by the
lack of appreciation of its possibilities on the part of those who have
had the planning of naval programs. These have been, for the most part,
men of ripe years and experience, and perhaps because of these years of
experience they have become ultra-conservative and have been inclined
to scoff and doubt the capabilities of any new device until it has been
tried out by the fire of actual experience. Notwithstanding the fact
that the problem of submarine navigation has been successfully solved
for the past fifteen years, it has been only within the past four years
that any great naval authority has unqualifiedly endorsed submarines as
being of paramount importance in naval affairs.
Admiral Sir Percy Scott, in a strong letter to the _London Times_
shortly previous to the beginning of the present war, stated: "The
introduction of the vessels that swim under water has, in my opinion,
entirely done away with the utility of the ships that swim on top of
the water."
He stated further: "If we go to war with a country that is within
striking distance of submarines, I am of the opinion that the country
will at once lock up their dreadnoughts in some safe harbor and we
shall do the same. I do not think the importance of submarines has
been fully recognized, neither do I think that it has been realized
how completely their advent has revolutionized naval warfare. In my
opinion, as the motor has driven the horse from the road, so the
submarine has driven the battleship from the sea."
Sir Percy Scott, however, is an inventor, being the man who devised the
"spot" method of gun firing, and has, therefore, the type of mind which
is able to foresee and to grasp the value of new devices.
Sir A. Conan Doyle, another man of great vision and imagination, was
so impressed with the potentialities of the submarine that he wrote a
story which prophesied, with such accuracy as to make his tale almost
uncanny, the events which are actually taking place to-day around the
coast of England in the prosecution of Germany's submarine blockade.
In these pages, therefore, I may make claims for submarines which have
not yet been publicly proved by actual performance, and such claims
may impress many as being as visionary as the destructive capabilities
of submarines appeared to be until Lieutenant Weddingen, of the German
Navy, shocked the conservatives and put the submarine on the map as a
naval weapon by sinking, single-handed, three cruisers within one hour
of each other.
I shall be careful, however, not to make any claim for submarines which
is not warranted by experiments actually made during my twenty-two
years' continual study and experience in designing and building
submarine boats and submarine appliances in the United States and
abroad.
To men of imagination and of inventive faculties these claims will not
appear preposterous. The achievements of the submarine, in the face
of all the ridicule, scepticism, and opposition which surrounded its
development, will, I hope, commend these advanced ideas of mine to the
attention, if not the respect, of the more conservative.
CHAPTER I
WHAT THE MODERN SUBMARINE IS
What is a modern submarine boat? A modern submarine vessel is a complex
mechanism capable of being navigated on the surface of the water just
as is any boat, but with the added faculty of disappearing at will
beneath the surface, and of being operated beneath the surface in
any desired direction at any desired depth. Some submarines are able
to wheel along the bottom itself, and are also provided with diving
compartments from which members of the crew, encased in diving suits,
may readily leave and re-enter the vessel during its submergence.
The principal use to which the submarine vessel has thus far been
turned has been that of a naval weapon, for scouting and for firing
explosive automobile torpedoes, either for defensive or offensive
purposes. Its full capacity has by no means been realized up to the
present time.
All submarines, regardless of their design, have certain essential
features which will be described in the order of their importance.
=The Hull.=--This must be watertight and capable of withstanding a
pressure corresponding to the depth at which the vessel is designed
to operate. The hull in most submarines is circular in cross-section;
the circular form is best adapted for withstanding pressure. In some
cases this circular hull is surrounded by another hull or is fitted
with other appendages which will both increase the stability and
seaworthiness of the submarine and add to its speed.
=Superstructure.=--Most of the early military submarines built for
the French, Spanish, United States, and English governments were
circular in cross-section and of cigar-or spindle-shaped form in their
longitudinal profile view. It is difficult, in vessels of this form,
to secure sufficient stability to make them seaworthy. They are apt to
roll like a barrel when light, due to a diminishing water plane, and
when under way the water is forced up over their bows, making a large
"bow wave" which absorbs power and causes such vessels to dive at times
when least expected. In some instances this tendency to dive has caused
loss of the vessel, and, in some cases, of the lives of the crew as
well.
They are also very wet for surface navigation, as the seas break over
their inclined sides like breakers on a beach. These difficulties
led to the invention of the buoyant superstructure, first used on
the _Argonaut_. This is a watertight structure built of light-weight
plating--in some cases it has been built of wood--with valves which
admit free water to the interior of the superstructure before
submerging.
By the admission of the water, danger of collapse is prevented. By this
expedient the pressure upon these light plates is equalized when the
vessel is submerged. This combination of a circular pressure-resisting
inner structure, surmounted by a non-pressure-resisting outer structure
of ship-shaped form, is now common to all modern submarines of all
navies of the world. This superstructure adds to the seaworthiness and
habitability of submarine vessels and increases their speed, both in
the light and submerged conditions, as it admits of better stream lines.
=Stability.=--The stability of a vessel refers to its ability to
keep upright and on a level keel. It is desirable to have great
stability in a submarine in order that it may not assume excessive
angles when submerged. The measure of stability is expressed in
inches of metacentric height. The metacentric height of a vessel when
submerged is the distance between the centre of buoyancy--or submerged
volume--of the vessel and the centre of all the weights of hull,
machinery, stores, and equipment contained within the vessel. This
distance between the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity must
be determined very accurately in order to obtain conditions of ideal
stability in a submarine.
The metacentric height of a vessel is a term used in naval architecture
to express the stability of the ship. In surface ships the term may
be used to express either the longitudinal or transverse stability of
the vessel, and varies according to the load line and trim or heel of
the ship. On the other hand, in submarine boats _when submerged_ the
metacentric height is constant and expresses the distance between the
centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy of the vessel, and is the
same either in the transverse or longitudinal plane of the vessel. In
other words, the centre of buoyancy of the vessel when submerged must
be directly over the centre of gravity of the vessel to cause her to
submerge on a level keel.
We then get the effect of a pendulum, the length of the pendulum arm
being the distance between the two points, and the weight of the
pendulum equalling the weight of the ship. Therefore, if a submarine
has a submerged displacement of five hundred tons, with a metacentric
height of twelve inches, her stability, or ability to remain upright,
is equal to a pendulum of five hundred tons hung by an arm twelve
inches long, and it would require the same force to incline the ship
as it would to incline the pendulum. Therefore it is evident that the
greater the metacentric height the more stable the ship, and the less
likely she is to make eccentric dives to the bottom or "broach" to the
surface.
=Ballast Tanks.=--All submarines are fitted with tanks which may be
filled with water so that the vessel will submerge; these are called
ballast tanks. When the vessel is navigating on the surface she has
what is called "reserve of buoyancy," the same as any surface vessel.
It is this reserve of buoyancy which causes the vessel to rise with the
seas in rough weather. It means the volume of the watertight portion
of the vessel above the water line. In surface cruising a vessel with
great buoyancy will rise to the seas, while if the "reserve" is small
the vessel is termed "loggy" and will not rise to the sea. In the
latter case the seas will break over the vessel just as they break over
a partially submerged rock in a storm. On such a vessel the men cannot
go on deck in a storm; in a sea-going submarine a large reserve of
buoyancy is therefore essential.
Now in a modern submarine, of five hundred tons submerged displacement,
for instance, this reserve should be about one hundred and twenty-five
tons, according to the best practice. This means that before the vessel
could sink beneath the surface the ballast tanks must be filled with
one hundred and twenty-five tons of water. On the surface these tanks
are filled with air. The water is permitted to enter by the opening of
valves for that purpose. These ballast tanks are located within the
main hull and in the superstructure.
=Propelling Machinery.=--When on the surface the submarine may be
propelled by steam, internal-combustion engines, or any other kind
of motive power adapted to the propulsion of surface ships. For
propulsion when submerged many types of engine have been tried:
compressed air engines; steam engines drawing the steam from boilers
in which water has been stored at high temperatures; carbonic acid
gas engines, and the internal-combustion engines receiving their
air supply from compressed-air tanks. Most modern submarines use
internal-combustion engines for surface navigation and storage
batteries delivering current to electric motors for submerged
propulsion. The internal-combustion engine is best suited for surface
work because it can be started or stopped instantly, which is a
desirable feature in submarine work. It is not fitted for submerged
operation because of its great noisiness, and also because its spent
gases must be discharged from the boat, in which case these gases
ascend to the surface in the form of bubbles and thus betray the
presence and position of the submarine. The storage battery, on the
contrary, permits the use of practically noiseless machinery and does
not require any outboard discharge of gases, as the battery gives off
no material quantity of gases when delivering its stored-up power.
I was the first to use successfully an internal-combustion engine in
a submarine boat, the _Argonaut_. This first engine was a heavy-duty
engine of rugged construction, and gave but little trouble. This
type of engine, with but slight modifications, was installed in six
other boats built subsequent to the _Argonaut_. They also worked
satisfactorily for several years, and so long as I had knowledge of
them they always gave satisfactory and reliable service.
The first gasolene (petrol) internal-combustion engines installed in
the Holland boats were also of rugged construction, and I have been
informed by various officers in our submarine service that they were
reliable and gave but little trouble. It is known that, after twelve
years' service, some of them are still doing good work. The boats in
which these engines were installed were slow-speed boats, making only
from eight to nine knots on the surface.
A natural desire on the part of the governments of various nations was
to secure increased speed. They sent out requirements to submarine boat
builders calling for increased speeds within certain limits of cost.
The submarine boat builders said: "Certainly we can give you increased
speed if the engine builders can give us engines of the necessary
power to go into the available space, and within a certain weight, to
thus enable us to get the power plant within a certain size vessel
possessing the fine lines necessary to give the required speed." The
engine builders said _they could do it_.
The first, as I remember, to break away from the slow-speed, heavy-duty
type was a celebrated Italian firm. Then two large and well-known
German firms followed; then a celebrated English firm, and certain
American firms claimed that they could build reliable, compact,
high-speed engines on very much less weight than we had been using.
I remember one American firm which offered engines as low in weight
as twenty pounds per horsepower. Fortunately, we had sense enough to
refuse to accept an engine so light as that, but we, as well as all
other submarine boat builders both in this country and abroad, did
accept contracts which required engines very much less in weight than
the old, slow, heavy-duty type first used, and there has been "wailing
and gnashing of teeth" both by the submarine boat builders and by the
engine-room forces in the world's submarine navies ever since.
The first light-weight engines built by the Italian firm "smashed
up" in short order. The German engines followed suit, and the losses
to this firm, or to the shipbuilders, must have been enormous, as a
large number of engines were built by them before a set was tested
out in actual service. The test of an engine in the shop, on a heavy
foundation, open to inspection on all sides, and with expert mechanics
in constant touch with the engine, does not mean that this same
engine will prove satisfactory in the restricted space available in a
submarine boat when run by other than expert engine-building mechanics.
I was present at a shop test of one of the German engines referred to,
and under shop conditions it appeared to work very well--so well, in
fact, that I took an option for my firm to build from the same designs
in America. When the engine was tried out, however, in one of the
German submarines it rapidly deteriorated and pounded itself into junk
in a few weeks. Cylinders and cylinder heads cracked, bed-plates were
broken, and crank-shafts twisted or broken. It was evident that the
design was too light all the way through.
There are some destructive actions in connection with large,
high-speed, light-weight internal-combustion engines which practically
all designing engineers have failed to grasp. Otherwise, engineers of
all nationalities would not have failed to the extent they have; and I
do not believe that there is a submarine engine in service to-day which
has fully met the expectations of its designers and builders.
It is unfortunate for the engineering profession that government policy
will not permit of a full disclosure of the defects of engines and
other equipment in government-owned vessels. Were a frank disclosure
made, other inventors and engineers would, in all probability, take up
the problems and they might the sooner be solved.
All the earlier submarines were equipped with engines which used
gasolene (petrol) as a fuel, but the gas from this fuel, when mixed
with a proper proportion of air, is highly explosive. A number of
serious explosions occurred in submarines due to this gas escaping from
leaky tanks, pipings, or valves. Some of them were accompanied by loss
of life. The most disastrous was that on board the Italian submarine
_Foca_, in which it is reported that twenty-three men were killed.
Therefore, several years ago, all governments demanded the installation
of engines using a non-explosive fuel; and builders then turned to the
"Diesel" engine as offering a solution of the problem.
As early as 1905 I had anticipated that such a demand would ultimately
be made, so during that year I built, in Berlin, Germany, an
experimental double-acting heavy-oil engine; but unfortunately the
engineer in charge of the work was taken ill and eventually died. This
engine was later completed and showed great flexibility in its control
and in reversing. It, however, has never been put on a manufacturing
basis.
In the meantime, others took up the work of developing the heavy oil
Diesel engine for submarines. The first of the Diesel type engines to
be installed in a submarine were built by a well-known French firm of
engine builders. As we were then in the market for heavy-oil submarine
engines, plans of these engines were submitted to me, but I found it
impossible to install them in any boat we then had under construction,
owing to their size and weight. I have been advised that engines of
this design were installed in some of the French submarine boats. I
have also been informed that the shock and vibrations produced by them
were such as to cause the rivets in the boats to loosen, and this
started the vessels to leaking so badly that it was found necessary to
take them out. These engines differed only slightly from the vertical
Diesel land engine.
The engine is the most important element in the submarine. Without this
it is impossible to make long surface runs, and in the event of its
disablement it is impossible to charge the storage batteries to enable
the submarine to function submerged, which is, of course, what she is
built for doing.
I think the demand for increased speed has come too rapidly. It is
more important to have reliability than speed. The criticisms which
have been made regarding United States submarines, if traced to
their source, may be found to be justified so far as they apply to
the engines, but the Navy Department cannot be held responsible, and
neither can the designers of submarines. They have both searched the
world's markets and secured the best that could be purchased. All naval
departments were undoubtedly right when they decided to abandon the
gasolene (petrol) engine and substitute therefor the heavy-oil engine.
Eventually a successful heavy-oil engine will be produced.
[Illustration: STORAGE BATTERY CELL]
[Illustration: A SUBMARINE CELL COMPLETELY ASSEMBLED READY FOR
INSTALLATION
Storage batteries as used in modern submarines have been especially
developed to meet the special needs of submarine-boat service. The
requirements for this service are much more severe than those for
any other service to which the storage battery has been applied. The
batteries as first introduced in submarines were entirely too frail to
stand up to their work, and the gases given off from them while being
charged were the cause of much distress and danger to the crew, and
have been in some cases responsible for the loss of both vessel and
crew.]
The Diesel engine, weighing practically five hundred pounds or more
per horsepower, has functioned satisfactorily in land installations
and has come into very general use, especially in Germany, but when
the attempt was made to change this slow-speed engine of five hundred
pounds per horsepower into high-speed engines of approximately
fifty pounds per horsepower, all designers "fell down." It was but
natural that naval authorities throughout the world should call for
increased speed; they cannot be criticised for that, as it is a
desirable thing, but experience has shown that they called for it too
early in the game.
The expense of the development of a new type of motive power, such as
the high-speed, heavy-oil-burning engine, for use in vessels whose
prime purpose is to preserve the autonomy of the country, should
be borne by the government rather than by individuals or private
corporations. Millions of dollars have been expended in the development
work of engines, but, although vast improvements are now in progress,
the successful engine is not yet on the market.
Dr. Diesel has stated that he worked seven years before he succeeded in
getting his first engine to make one complete revolution. Governments
and the people must therefore content themselves to accept what they
can get in a heavy-oil engine, imperfect though it may be, until such
time as a satisfactory engine is evolved, built, and tested out under
service conditions.
=Storage Batteries.=--It is impossible in a book of this character to
go into much detail regarding the development of the storage battery.
There have been two types in general use. They are both lead batteries,
one known as the Planté type, in which metallic lead is used to form
both the positive and negative plates. The other type employs what
is commonly known as pasted plates, in which various compositions of
materials are worked up into a paste and forced into metallic grids to
form the positive and negative plates. The pasted type has greater
capacity per pound of material used, but much shorter life.
In both of these batteries sulphuric acid solutions are used as the
excitant between the elements. In charging, hydrogen gas is given off
in the form of bubbles, the skin of the bubbles being composed of
sulphuric acid solution. These bubbles, when taken in one's lungs, are
very irritating, and if they collect in any quantity, or break up and
allow the hydrogen gas to mix with the air, there is always danger of
creating an explosive mixture within the hull of the vessel or in the
battery tanks, which a spark would set off at any time.
The best method of installing batteries on a submarine boat is to
have them isolated from the living quarters of the vessel in separate
watertight compartments. The elements of the battery should be
contained in non-metallic containers and sealed to prevent spilling
of the electrolyte under excessive rolling or pitching of the vessel.
Means should be provided to discharge the hydrogen gases from the boat
as rapidly as formed. Special care should be taken to prevent leakages
between the adjacent cells. Circulation of air to keep the cells dry is
the best means of preventing this.
Mr. Edison has been working for a number of years on a storage battery
suitable for submarine work, and it has recently been stated that he
has finally solved the problem of producing a battery that will stand
up longer than the lead type of battery, and that it has the further
advantage in that it will not give off chlorine gas in case salt water
should get into the cells. It should, however, be contained in a
separate compartment, which should be ventilated during the charging
period, as I understand the Edison battery gives off hydrogen gas the
same as the lead batteries. Chlorine gas, as given off from the lead
battery when salt water has got into it, has undoubtedly caused the
loss of some lives. Mr. Edison claims that his battery, when immersed,
will not give off poisonous gases of any kind.
[Illustration: METHOD OF CONTROL IN DIVING TYPE BOATS
Horizontal rudder set down aft inclines the vessel down by the bow,
in which condition, with only a small reserve of buoyancy, she will
"dive." When she reaches the desired depth a lesser inclination of
the diving rudder is supposed to reduce her angle of inclination
sufficiently so that the pressure on the top of her hull will offset
the tendency to rise due to her positive buoyancy. To be successful
there must be no movable ballast, and variable stream line effect
requires expert manipulation of the diving rudder.]
=Depth Control.=--Practically all modern submarines use hydroplanes
with a horizontal rudder for the control of depth when under way.
Hydroplanes might be said to correspond to the side fins of a fish.
They are substantially flat vanes that extend from either side of
the vessel. They are set on shafts that may be partially rotated by
mechanism in control of a man within the vessel. They readily control
the depth of the vessel with a certain amount of either positive or
negative buoyancy. For instance, submarines are usually submerged
with a small amount of positive buoyancy. If a vessel has positive
buoyancy she will float. We have seen that in a surface condition the
five-hundred-ton submarine has about one hundred and twenty-five tons
of positive buoyancy.
[Illustration: METHOD OF CONTROLLING HYDROPLANE BOATS
Showing a proper arrangement of hydroplanes and horizontal rudders. C
B represents the centre of buoyancy of the vessel when submerged. G
represents centre of gravity, which lies directly beneath centre of
buoyancy. Now if hydroplanes are located at equal distances fore and
aft their up or down pull is always balanced and does not cause the
vessel to dive or broach, but holds her to a level keel. If stream line
pull tends to upset this level keel, horizontal rudders may be used to
correct it.]
Now to prepare the vessel for a submerged run, we admit, say, one
hundred and twenty-four tons of water; the positive buoyancy is then
reduced to one ton. Now if the forward edges of the hydroplanes are
inclined downward (see diagram), and the vessel is given headway, the
pressure of the water on top of the inclined hydroplanes, combined
with the tendency for a vacuum to form under the planes, will overcome
the one ton of positive buoyancy and will pull the vessel bodily under
the water. When the desired depth is reached the operator sets the
inclination of the hydroplanes so as to just balance the upward pull
of the one ton of positive buoyancy, and the vessel proceeds at the
desired depth. On modern boats the control of depth is most remarkable;
it is very common for submarines to make continuous runs of several
hours' duration without varying their depth more than a couple of feet.
When the headway or motive force of the submarine is stopped, if she
has reserved some positive buoyancy she will come to the surface. If
she has negative buoyancy she will sink, but while under way with as
much as a ton of positive or negative buoyancy the hydroplanes will
absolutely control the depth of the vessel.
[Illustration: HOW HYDROPLANES CONTROL DEPTH OF SUBMERSION
The vessel being "under way" in the course of the arrow, the water
contacting against the upper surface of the hydroplanes, as in the
upper view, its course is thus diverted and adds weight to the upper
surface of the planes. There is also a tendency to form a vacuum under
the plane. Both these forces tend to overcome the positive buoyancy of
the boat and force her under water and on a level keel if these forces
are properly distributed fore and aft of the centre of buoyancy and
gravity of the vessel.]
=Action of the Hydroplanes=.--The diagrams are intended to demonstrate
how it is that the Lake and other hydroplane boats can be so easily
held at a predetermined depth and controlled vertically on an even
keel.
The hydroplanes are symmetrically disposed on two sides of the vessel.
They should be equal distance forward and aft of amidships. This
symmetrical disposition, with equal forces acting on each hydroplane,
compels the boat either to rise or sink on an even keel, depending upon
which face of the hydroplanes is presented to the passing water during
the boat's progress.
In the upper diagram the entering edges of the hydroplanes are inclined
downward, and the force of the passing stream lines strikes upon the
upper face of the blades. This exerts a downward force which causes the
boat to sink, as indicated by the arrows marked "A, A." The opposite
of this takes place when the forward ends of the hydroplanes are
lifted. This brings the force of the stream lines against the under
side of the hydroplanes, and the resultant is a lifting impulse in the
direction of the line of least resistance, which is here indicated by
the arrows marked "B, B." It is the lifting force so applied that makes
it possible to raise hydroplane boats from the bottom even when having
considerable negative buoyancy.
[Illustration: ON PICKET DUTY
This is a field of service to which the anchoring weights and the
diving compartment of the Lake boats lend themselves conjointly with
especial fitness. The illustration represents a submarine doing picket
duty on an offshore station. A junction box is placed in a known
locality with telephone or telegraph cables leading therefrom to the
shore. The submarine, having taken her position on the surface, lowers
her anchoring weights, reduces her reserve buoyancy to the desired
extent, and then draws herself down to the bottom by winding in again
on the cables connecting with the anchoring weights. Having reached the
bottom, the diving door is opened and a diver passes out and makes the
necessary connections between that junction box and the instruments in
the boat.]
=Holding Depth When Not Under Way.=--If it is desired to bring the
boat to rest while submerged, but when no motive force is being used,
other methods must be used than that just described. One method is to
have an anchor or anchors to hold the vessel at the desired depth.
If it is desired to lie at rest off the entrance of the enemy's
harbor to wait for her ships to come out, the submarine proceeds to
her station submerged with a small amount of buoyancy,--which is
the usual method of navigating submerged. When she arrives at the
desired station the speed is reduced and an additional amount of
water is gradually admitted to give her a small amount of negative
buoyancy. At the same time her anchoring weights are paid out until
they touch bottom. As soon as they do so water is forced out of the
ballast tanks by compressed air until positive buoyancy is restored
and the vessel stops sinking and remains at rest anchored between the
surface and the bottom, like an anchored buoyant mine. By winding in
on the anchor cables a submarine may then be hauled down nearer the
bottom, and by paying out the cables she may rise nearer the surface.
On picket duty off harbor entrances she remains sufficiently near the
surface to project her telescoping periscope occasionally above the
crest of the waves to keep watch and see that an enemy ship does not
enter or clear. In this condition there is no necessity to have any
machinery running on board the submarine, therefore she can remain
for weeks at a time on station without exhausting her fuel supply.
It is only necessary for her to renew the air supply now and then,
which can be done at night. Another method for holding a vessel at
rest is by taking in and forcing out alternately small quantities of
water so as to keep her in equilibrium between positive and negative
buoyancy. Another method is to use vertical propellers operating in
wells extended from the sides, and by running these it is possible
to exert an upward or downward pressure and so hold her at a depth.
Neither of these methods is as satisfactory, however, as the anchor
weights, because the vessel will not hold a definite position on
station, but will drift off with the current. They also make a drain
on the storage battery and require constant attention on the part of
the members of the crew. By the anchor weights scheme the vessel may
stay on station as long as the food and fuel supply holds out.
[Illustration: SHOWING VARIOUS CONDITIONS IN WHICH A SUBMARINE OF THE
LEVEL KEEL TYPE FITTED WITH BOTTOM WHEELS, MAY NAVIGATE
1, running light on surface; 2, awash, ready for submergence; 3,
submerged, depth controlled by hydroplanes; 4, running on bottom.]
The above facts set forth simply the outstanding mechanical principles
upon which the operation of the submarine is based. The submarine of
to-day, however, has many auxiliaries, to describe which in detail
would require several volumes of technical description.
I will briefly enumerate a few of the more important of these devices
and describe their function as applied to the war submarine.
[Illustration: THE LOWER PORTION OF GALILEO PERISCOPE]
[Illustration: THE PERISCOPE IS THE EYE OF THE SUBMARINE.
(See description.)]
=The Periscope.=--The periscope is the eye of the submarine. In its
simpler form it consists of a stiff metallic tube, from fifteen to
twenty feet in length and about four inches in diameter. Referring to
Figure 1, on page 23, it is made up of an object glass, _A_, which
"views" or takes an impression of all objects within its range or
field of vision, and transmits an image of such object through the
right-angle prism, _B_, which turns the image so that it appears some
distance down the tube, say, for purposes of description, at _C_. If
a piece of ground glass were held at the focus of the objective lens
at _C_, the image could be seen. The lens _D_, located farther down
the tube, in turn now "views" the image and transmits it still
farther down the tube, where it is turned through the right-angle
prism, _E_, and where the image is again turned into an erect
position. A piece of ground glass located at _F_ would show the
image in the same manner as an image is shown on the ground glass of
a camera. The magnifying eyepiece _G_ magnifies the image so that
distant objects appear of natural size.
Other figures show a periscope as made by the Officina Galileo in
Florence, Italy. This firm makes periscopes with binocular eyepieces.
The success of any periscope depends upon the character of the material
used in the lenses and prisms and the accuracy of the workmanship.
This firm, which is probably the oldest optical manufacturing house
in the world, said to have been founded by Galileo himself, turns
out instruments of the most beautiful workmanship. The flange of
the instrument is bolted to the top of the conning tower, or deck,
and a gate valve is arranged between the deck and the eyepiece so
that in case the tube should be carried away the gate valve can be
closed and thus prevent water from entering the vessel. A hand wheel
arranged below the binocular eyepiece permits of easy rotation of the
instrument. Provision is made for introducing dry air; this prevents
condensation forming on the lenses or prisms within the tube.
Owing to the fact that there is a certain loss of light in transmitting
the image through the various prisms and lenses, it is customary to
magnify the image so that it appears to be about one-quarter larger
than when viewed by the natural eye. This has been found by experience
to give, when viewed through the periscope alone from a submerged
vessel, the impression of correct distance.
Previous to 1900 there was no instrument which would give through a
long tube normal vision and a correct idea as to distance. At this
time I took up with various opticians the question of producing such
an instrument. They all contended that it was impossible to produce
an instrument that would give through a long tube a field of vision
equal to the natural eye or that would convey a correct idea as to
the distance of an object when viewed through a long tube. The camera
lucida which Mr. Holland and others had used in the earlier submarines
simply threw a picture of the object on a bit of white paper, usually
located on a table. This did not give to the observer any more idea of
the correct distance of an object than a photograph would. Believing,
however, that a solution could be found, I then purchased a variety of
lenses and started making experiments.
Without any special knowledge of optical science, one day quite by
accident I secured the desired result and found that it was possible
to secure practically normal vision through a tube of considerable
length. About the same time, Sir Howard Grubb, of England, brought
out an instrument in which he accomplished the same result. I then
continued in my experimental work and brought out an instrument which
was designed to give a simultaneous view of the entire horizon.
This instrument was called an "omniscope." It was first called a
"skalomniscope," which was a word coined with the idea of describing
the function of the instrument and which, translated, means "to view
and measure everything." A scale was used in connection with this
instrument which would convert it into a range finder by measuring the
image of an abject of known dimensions, such as the length of a ship or
the height of its smokestack, and give simultaneous reading as to its
distance.
For a time it was necessary for us to manufacture our own sighting
instruments, but later, when the optical houses understood the
principle of the periscope, they took up the matter of manufacture
and have so greatly improved them that it is now possible to secure
instruments of great accuracy and fine definition.
The periscope, however, is faulty, in that it is only an instrument for
day use. As soon as dusk comes on the periscope becomes useless. The
passing of the image down the tube and through the various lenses and
prisms reduces the brilliancy of the image to such an extent that, even
though it is finally magnified to above normal, the image is so thin
at night that it cannot be seen. This forces the submarine to become
vulnerable in making an attack at night, as it is necessary for the
conning tower to be brought a sufficient distance above the surface of
the water to permit the commanding officer to secure natural vision.
With the powerful searchlights and rapid-fire guns, the submarine would
have little opportunity to approach a surface war vessel at night
without great danger of being discovered and destroyed.
[Illustration: THE VOICE AND EAR OF THE SUBMARINE
A Fessenden oscillator, before being installed. The flange of the
oscillator is riveted to the shell of the ship and its diaphragm is
caused to vibrate by the sound waves, which pass through water more
distinctly than they do through the air. To send out signals it is
caused to vibrate mechanically by electrical apparatus.]
=Invisible Conning Tower.=--For night observation it has been
proposed to use transparent conning towers built of clear glass,
in which the commander takes his station and just sticks his head
above the crest of the waves in order to direct his vessel against
the enemy. This has not as yet come into general use because of the
difficulty of securing sufficiently clear glass in the desired form.
Experiments have been made, however, which show that quite a large
transparent conning tower cannot be seen on a submarine at rest even
when within a couple of hundred yards; the application of these
conning towers will greatly increase the submarine's efficiency for
night work.
=Submarine Sound Receivers.=--All modern submarines are fitted with
devices which enable the commanders of submarines to communicate with
each other when running under water even when considerable distances
apart. One of these outfits consists of a signal bell and a powerful
receiver with which sounds may be transmitted and heard. Conversations
may be carried on by the Morse and other codes for distances of ten or
twelve miles.
[Illustration: TORPEDO TUBES ASSEMBLED READY FOR INSTALLATION IN A
SUBMARINE BOAT
Left view, the breech end of the tube. Right view, the outboard doors,
which must first be opened before the torpedo is expelled from the
tube by compressed air. When the torpedo is expelled it starts a
compressed-air engine supplied with air stored at high pressure within
the torpedo, and will run several thousand yards under its own power.]
A later device, called the Fessenden oscillator, will transmit
or receive sounds a distance of twenty miles. The principle of
its operation is that of setting up wave vibrations by very large
transmitters; these vibrations are carried by the water and taken up
by receivers on other submarines. It has been found that the human
voice will set up vibrations in the Fessenden transmitter so clearly
that wireless conversation may be carried on under water for several
hundred yards. I discovered in my earlier experiments that when a
submarine was lying submerged, with all machinery shut down, the
noise of the machinery in an approaching ship could be detected quite
a distance off without the use of any special kind of receivers. In
this way the commander of a submarine can always note the approach of
an enemy simply by shutting down his own machinery. The warning thus
given him comes long before he could sight the enemy ship were he on
the surface. After a little experience one can tell the type of ship
approaching from the sound, as every type of ship has sounds peculiar
to her class. The smash of paddle wheels, the deep, slow pound of the
heavy merchant ships or battleships, the clack and the whir of the
higher speed machinery on destroyers or torpedo boats, are all easily
recognizable when one becomes familiar with them. At the present time
all the larger submarines are fitted with wireless outfits on their
decks which they may use when on the surface to communicate with other
submarines or with their base.
=Torpedo Tubes.=--These are used to start the automobile torpedo on its
course toward the enemy. In simple form they are tubes about eighteen
inches in diameter and seventeen feet long, placed in line with the
axis of the vessel. They are fitted with doors both internal and
external to the submarine. The inboard door of the tube opens into the
interior of the vessel and permits the loading of the torpedo. When the
torpedo is to be discharged the inboard door is closed and securely
fastened. The outer door is then opened, and through the operation of
quick-opening valves compressed air is admitted back of the torpedo
and the torpedo is driven out of the tube in the same manner that the
bullet is driven out of an air rifle or the cork out of a pop-gun.
Some of the larger modern submarines carry several torpedo tubes
firing in line with the axis of the vessel both forward and aft. Some
carry torpedo tubes on their decks which may be made to train to fire
broadside on either side of the vessel.
[Illustration: A WHITEHEAD TORPEDO
Courtesy of the Scientific American
The forward end of the torpedo is the war head filled with guncotton
or trinitrotoluol. A detonator is screwed into the end of the war head
to set off the main charge on contact. An air flask forms the middle
portion of the torpedo. Aft of this is the depth-control mechanism, in
which a diaphragm controls the diving rudder by the pressure of the
water against a spring set for the desired depth. A pendulum controls
the levelling mechanism and a gyroscope its direction in the horizontal
plane, tending to keep it on the course by its control of the vertical
rudder.]
[Illustration: REAR END OF THE WHITEHEAD TORPEDO
Courtesy of the Scientific American
Showing compressed air engine and twin propeller with their control
gear.]
=Automobile Torpedoes.=--These are the projectiles which are used
to destroy the enemy's ship. They are called automobile torpedoes
because they will, on being ejected from the torpedo tubes, continue
running in the direction in which they are aimed, from power and
mechanism contained within themselves. They are wonderful pieces of
mechanism and cost several thousand dollars each. They are virtually
miniature submarine boats. The essential features of the automobile
torpedo are the airflask, the warhead, the depth control, and steering
and propelling machinery. The airflask forms the central section, which
is a steel tank containing compressed air stored at high pressure;
about twenty-five hundred pounds per square inch is the present
practice. When the torpedo is expelled from the torpedo tube this
air is automatically turned on to run the engines. It passes through
reducing valves and heaters to drive either a multiple cylinder or a
turbine engine, and revolves two propellers, running one clockwise and
the other counterclockwise, set in tandem at the stern of the torpedo.
The propellers, running in opposite directions, thus enable the torpedo
to be more easily steered by the delicate automatic steering machinery.
A diaphragm operated by the pressure of the water operates control
mechanism which regulates the depth. An instrument called the "Obry
gear" steers it in the horizontal plane. The essential feature of the
"Obry gear" is a gyroscope which is started when the torpedo is ejected
from the tube. It is instantly speeded up either by a powerful spring
or an air turbine to about fifteen thousand revolutions per minute.
The peculiarity of the gyroscope is that it has a tendency to hold
the direction in which it is started. Hence, if the torpedo starts
swerving either to the right or left from the direction in which it
is aimed, the gyroscope causes certain valves to function which will
automatically set the steering rudder to bring the torpedo back into
its original course. The "Gyro" will continue this control until the
torpedo has completed its course, which in some of the latest types is
said to be about five miles.
The warhead is the forward portion of the torpedo and contains usually
wet gun-cotton, which is a safe high explosive and can be exploded
only by a detonating charge of the more sensitive explosives. This
detonating charge is placed in a tube screwed into the forward end of
the torpedo. Extending out from the forward end of the tube is a small
propeller, the purpose of which is to set the firing mechanism after
the torpedo has run a certain distance from the vessel from which it
has been fired. This is a safety device to prevent the torpedo from
being exploded near its own ship. The torpedo running through the water
causes the propeller to revolve, which turns a shaft. After the shaft
makes a certain number of revolutions it sets a firing pin, and then
if it hits an object it will explode. Many modern torpedoes are loaded
with trinitrotoluol. This is a much more powerful explosive. According
to experts, the explosion of two hundred and fifty pounds of T-N-T, as
it is called, will destroy any battleship ever built.
[Illustration: RAPID-FIRING GUNS
Courtesy of the Scientific American
Rapid-fire disappearing guns may be quickly elevated above armored
turret when the submarine rises to the surface.]
=Divers' Compartment.=--Some submarines are fitted with a divers'
compartment, from which compartment mines may be planted, either when
on the surface or when submerged. This compartment is fitted with a
door which opens outwardly in the bottom of the boat. It is shut off
from the living and machinery rooms of the vessel by an air lock and
heavy pressure-resisting doors. The divers' door may be opened when the
vessel is submerged and navigating on the bottom, and _no water will
come into the vessel when the door is opened_. This is accomplished in
the following manner: The members of the crew who wish to go outside
the vessel first go into the diving compartment. They close the door
which shuts them off from other parts of the vessel. They then turn
compressed air gradually into the compartment until the air pressure
in the compartment equals the water pressure outside. If the depth is
one hundred feet the air pressure in the compartment would need to be
43.4 pounds per square inch; if the depth is two hundred feet, twice
that, or 86.8 pounds per square inch, etc. When the air pressure in the
compartment equals the water pressure outside, at any depth, the door
in the bottom may be opened and the water will not rise up into the
compartment, because the air pressure keeps it out. Tests have been
made which show that it is safe for divers to go out from compartments
of this kind in depths up to two hundred and seventy-five feet.
[Illustration: DIVING COMPARTMENT
This view shows the diving compartment being used for the purpose of
grappling for the electric cables controlling fields of submarine
mines. Operating in this manner, the diving compartment becomes a
veritable travelling diving-bell, and when the air pressure in the
diving chamber is made to balance with the water pressure outside the
diving door may be opened and yet the water will not enter the working
chamber.]
=Dangers.=--Years of painstaking development work have eliminated most
of the dangers connected with the operation of submarines in times of
peace. The experienced designers have learned the importance of having
great submerged stability, so that no modern craft is likely to make
an unexpected headfirst dive into the mud, hard sand, or rocks on
the bottom. This was a common occurrence not many years ago. Another
danger to be avoided is that of asphyxiation by the escape of noxious
gases from the engines. The blowing up of the vessel by the ignition
of hydrogen fumes from the battery is another risk to be guarded
against. In the latest vessels the noxious gases from the engine are
not permitted to escape into the engine-room; gasolene is rapidly
giving place to heavy-oil engines which do not use an explosive fuel,
and the hydrogen gas given off during the charging of batteries is
pumped overboard as rapidly as it is generated. Consequently modern
submarines, when navigating on the surface, are as safe as any surface
ship. In fact, they are safer, from the fact that they are so much
more strongly built and that they are divided into compartments. Any
one of these compartments could be filled by water in an accident and
the remaining compartments would keep the ship afloat. In submerged
peace-time navigation the dangers are those of collisions with surface
vessels, uncharted rocks, or sunken ships. The danger of collisions
with surface ships may be avoided by keeping below the depth of keel
of the deepest draft surface ship, when long under-water runs are being
made, and always stopping machinery to listen for the sound of surface
ships before rising to the surface. If running near the surface where
periscopic vision is possible, constant vigilance must be maintained,
as there are no rules of the road or right of way which may be claimed
by the submarine commander, owing to the fact that the lookout on the
surface craft, in all probability, cannot see his little periscope in
time to avoid collision.
[Illustration: A MODERN SUBMARINE CRUISER, OR FLEET SUBMARINE (LAKE
TYPE)
The parts indicated by numbers in this illustration are as follows:
1, main ballast tanks; 2, fuel tanks; 3, keel; 4, safety drop keel;
5, habitable superstructure; 6, escape and safety chambers; 7,
disappearing anti-aircraft guns; 8, rapid-fire gun; 9, torpedo tubes;
10 torpedoes; 11, twin deck torpedo tubes; 12, torpedo firing tank;
13, anchor; 14, periscopes; 15, wireless; 16, crew's quarters; 17,
officers' quarters; 18, warhead stowage; 19, torpedo hatch; 20, diving
chamber; 21, electric storage battery; 22, galley; 23, steering gear;
24, binnacle; 25, searchlight; 26, conning tower; 27, diving station;
28, control tank; 29, compressed-air flasks; 30, forward engine
room and engines; 31, after engine room and engines; 32, central
control compartment; 33, torpedo room; 34, electric motor room; 35,
switchboard; 36, ballast pump; 37, auxiliary machinery room; 38,
hydroplane; 39, vertical rudders; 40, signal masts.]
=How the Submarine Works.=--Reference to the diagrammatic view of a
modern submarine will probably make clear the following explanation of
the operation of a submarine. We will assume that our submarine leaves
her own harbor with fuel, stores, and torpedoes on board, wireless
and signal masts erected. She is bound to a station farther down the
coast, but receives word by wireless that an enemy fleet has been seen
approaching the coast in such a direction as to indicate an attack on
New York. She receives instructions to return and take up a station
fifteen miles off Sandy Hook, the entrance to New York Harbor, and also
that she is to coöperate with the smaller harbor-defense submarines
that are permanently located in New York. She therefore puts back to
the station designated. All deck fittings and lines are stowed except
the ventilators and the deck wireless outfit; the latter is left
standing so as to keep in touch with the scout ships and destroyers
which are reporting the approach of the enemy. Shortly after arriving
at her station, the commander notes smoke on the horizon and orders are
given to "prepare to submerge." Each member of the crew then proceeds
to his particular task; the wireless masts and ventilators are quickly
housed, and all hatches are closed and secured. The quartermaster
and submerged-control man who controls the steering and hydroplane
operating gear take their stations in the control department. The
engines are uncoupled by means of the rapid operating clutch, the
electric motor is coupled, the hydroplanes are unfolded, the valves
are opened, and the word is passed to the commander, "All ready for
submergence!" All this is done in a modern vessel in less than two
minutes.
The command is then given: "Fill main ballast!" Quick-opening
valves are opened and the water rushes into the ballast tanks and
superstructure at the rate of fifty or sixty tons per minute. The
order is then given: "Trim for submergence!" Sufficient water is then
admitted into the final adjustment and trim tank to give the desired
buoyancy and trim, and the vessel is now ready to submerge on signal
from the commander, who now takes his station at the periscope. The
gunners have also taken their stations at the torpedo tubes to prepare
to load the tubes as soon as the torpedoes already in the tubes are
discharged. The whole time consumed from the time word to "prepare to
submerge" until the vessel is running under water has probably not been
over two or three minutes. In the meantime the enemy has been rapidly
approaching and her superstructure is already above the horizon. The
commander of the submarine notes that if the enemy holds its course it
will be advantageous to change his position to intercept the oncoming
fleet. He therefore gives word to submerge to the desired depth and
gives the quartermaster the course, and the vessel proceeds, entirely
submerged, to get nearer the enemy's line of approach. The commander
then brings his submarine to rest before extending his periscope above
the surface. As soon as the enemy is found to be coming within range he
manoeuvres his ship so that his torpedoes will bear the proper distance
in advance of the ship he selects to destroy. To make a hit it is
necessary to fire in advance of the oncoming ship to allow for the time
the torpedo takes to reach the point where the enemy will be. Range
finders, torpedo directors, and rapid calculators enable the commander
to calculate this to a nicety. If the distance is only a thousand or
fifteen hundred yards, a hit is pretty certain to be made, but the
greater the distance the less the chance of success and the greater the
opportunity for error.
CHAPTER II
COMEDY AND TRAGEDY IN SUBMARINE DEVELOPMENT
One of the first queries which laymen usually direct at the submarine
navigator is, "Are you not afraid that the boat will never come up?"
and other variants on the same theme. Most people are surprised and
many are very sceptical when they are informed that there is no
sensation at all connected with the act of going under water in a boat
except that due to one's own imagination. The fact is that if one were
going down inside the vessel in some of the modern submarines he could
not readily tell whether the vessel was running on the surface or
navigating in a submerged condition.
I remember the time when it was first decided to give a public
exhibition of the _Argonaut_ in 1897. Various newspapers were permitted
to send their representatives to make a submerged trip in the vessel.
Quite a large number of newspaper men were present, and among the
reporters was one young lady representing a New York newspaper. This
being the first time that the newspaper fraternity had been given the
opportunity to make a submarine trip, speculation ran rife as to the
outcome of the venture. So great a number of reporters came that all
could not be permitted to board the vessel. Lots were therefore cast
as to who should go. The lady claimed the privilege of her sex, and
all agreed that she should be one of the party. When the lots were
drawn, one of those who had drawn a lucky number suddenly recalled
that he was afflicted with a very diseased heart, and he did not feel
it wise to go. Another discovered that his life insurance had just
expired, and he gave up his opportunity to a friend. Finally the party
was made up and the boat started away from the dock. They were all
invited down into the cabin, where a general conversation ensued as to
the possibilities of submarine navigation proving a success, upon the
sensation of going under water, and other related subjects; I had given
the signal to submerge, in the meantime, several minutes before they
had finished visiting with each other. Soon one of them asked me when I
expected to submerge. They were all greatly surprised when I informed
them that we had already been under water for several minutes, and they
would hardly believe it until I took them into the conning tower, where
they could see the dark green of the water through the glass of the
eye-ports. Two of the party promptly discovered that they had each a
bottle of champagne concealed about their persons. It was their opinion
that it was time to drink to the health of the lady and to the success
of the _Argonaut_. After we had rummaged around and finally found an
old rusty tin cup, this was done.
All first experiences, however, have not been so pleasant as that of
the _Argonaut's_ trial. The submarine _Hunley_ (page 150) suffocated
and drowned four different crews during her brief career. Twice she was
found standing on end with her bow stuck in the mud in the bottom of
the river, with a crew of nine men dead in her fore part, where they
had been thrown when she dived to the bottom. In these two instances
the men were suffocated, due to lack of air, as no water was found in
the boat when she was raised. The gradual exhaustion of the air and
final unconsciousness which overtook these brave volunteers can only be
left to the imagination.
When experimenting with the _Argonaut_, I received a visit from the
late Col. Charles H. Hasker, of Richmond, Va. He had volunteered as one
of the party to try the _Hunley_ after she had suffocated her second
crew. On the trial, for which Mr. Hasker volunteered, she started away
from the dock in tow of the gunboat _Ettawan_ by a line thrown over the
hatch combing. She had been trimmed down so that she had very little
freeboard, and as she gained headway she started to "shear," due to her
peculiar flatiron-shaped bow. Lieutenant Payne, who was in command,
attempted to throw the towline off the hatch combing, but got caught
in the bight of the line. On his struggle to free himself he knocked
a prop from under the tiller of the horizontal diving rudder, which
had been set to hold the bow up. As soon as the prop was knocked out
the tiller dropped down and inclined the horizontal rudder to dive,
and the vessel dove with her hatches open. Lieutenant Payne freed
himself, and Colonel Hasker managed to get partly out of one of the
hatches before the vessel sank, but the inrushing force of the water
closed the hatch door, which caught him by the calf of his leg, and he
was carried with the vessel to the bottom in forty-two feet of water.
However, he maintained his presence of mind, and when the vessel became
full it balanced the pressure so that he could release himself from the
hatch cover. He was a good swimmer and escaped to the surface. Two men
escaped from the other hatch. The other five members of the crew were
drowned in the vessel.
Notwithstanding that this was the third time she had sunk and killed a
number of men, she was again raised and a crew of nine other brave men
was found to man her. Under command of Lieutenant Dixon, on the night
of February 17, 1864, she was brought alongside of the United States
battleship _Housatonic_ and sank her, but Lieutenant Dixon and his crew
went down with the _Hunley_ at the same time. Thus, in the various
attempts to operate this vessel in a submerged condition, a total of
thirty-two lives were lost.
The New Orleans submarine boat was also built by the Confederates
during the Civil War. A friend who took the photograph of this vessel
told me the following story as related to him by a Southern gentleman
who was familiar with the history of the boat. It appears that this
submarine was the conception of a wealthy planter who owned a number
of slaves. He thought that it would add considerable interest to the
occasion of her launching if, when the vessel left the ways, she should
disappear beneath the waves and make a short run beneath the surface
before coming up. So he took two of his most intelligent slaves and
instructed them how to hold the tiller when the vessel slid down the
ways, and in which way to turn the propeller for a time after she began
to lose her launched speed. He told them when they got ready to come
up they should push the tiller down and the vessel would come to the
surface to be towed ashore.
A great crowd assembled to see this novel launching. "When things
were all ready," said the old Southern gentleman, "sure enough, them
two niggers got into the boat and shut down the hatches; and do you
know, suh, that at that time them niggers was worth a thousand
dollars apiece." Well, it seems that the boat slid down the ways and
disappeared under the water just as had been planned. The crowd waited
expectantly, but the vessel did not reappear. Eventually they got into
boats and put out hooks and grappling lines, but she could not be
found. The designer of the craft stated as his opinion that "he might
have known better than to trust them pesky niggers anyway," and he was
willing to bet that they had taken the opportunity to steal the vessel
and run away. He asserted that very likely they would take the boat up
North and give it to the Yankees, and that they could expect to hear of
the "Yanks" using it to blow up some of their own (Confederate) ships.
Her disappearance remained a mystery for a great many years--until long
after the war closed, in fact, and the incident had been forgotten.
Years afterward, during some dredging operations to deepen the harbor,
the dredge buckets one day got hold of something they could not lift. A
diver was sent down to investigate, and he reported that there was some
metal object buried in the mud which looked like a steam boiler. They
set to work to raise this, and putting chains around it they lifted it
on to the wharf. The old gentleman, in closing the narrative, remarked,
"And do you know, suh, when they opened the hatch them two blamed
niggers was still in thar, but they warn't wuth a damned cent."
One amusing experience that I had occurred in the Chesapeake Bay in
1898, a few miles below the Potomac River. We were bound from Baltimore
to Hampton Roads, and a part of the journey was made on the bottom
of the bay. We found this exceedingly interesting, as we could sit
in the divers' compartment and view, through the open divers' door,
the various kinds of bottom we were passing over, rake up oysters and
clams, catch crabs with a crab net, and amuse ourselves in trying to
spear fish.
The _Argonaut_ at this time had a double pipe mast fifty feet in
height, through one of which we got air to run our engines. The other
was to provide for the exhaust. We carried a red flag on top of this
mast as a warning to surface vessels to keep clear. One afternoon we
had been submerged about four hours, running on the bottom in depths
varying from twenty-five to forty-five feet; night coming on, we
decided to come up and seek a harbor. When we came to the surface we
noticed a "bugeye" (a small schooner) "hove to" about fifty yards to
the leeward. I blew the centre tank, which brought our conning tower
up out of the water, opened the hatch, and hailed the skipper of the
bugeye to ask our location and the nearest harbor. He did not wait to
answer, but as soon as I yelled he squared away "wing and wing" for
the shore. As there was a stiff breeze blowing, it did not take him
long to make it, and he ran his vessel right up on the sandy beach,
where we saw him and another man--who composed the crew--clamber out
over the bow and start to run inland as fast as they could go, leaving
their boat without so much as lowering their sails. We finally located
ourselves as just north of the mouth of the Rappahannock River, and
saw that there was a good harbor very near, so we put in there for the
night. After supper, as we were in need of fresh provisions, we went
ashore and learned that there was a store a couple of miles down the
peninsula. We walked down there and found the store full of natives who
were obviously curious as to our identity and business. Finally the
storekeeper gathered up his courage and asked us who we were. When he
learned that we were down on an experimental cruise in the submarine
boat _Argonaut_, he burst into laughter and told us that we had solved
a mystery which had stirred up the entire community. He then explained
that just about dark one of his neighbors, who never had been known
to drink and whose reputation for veracity was excellent, had rushed
into the store, followed by his mate. Both were pale from fright, and
sank on the porch completely exhausted. They then related a weird tale
of seeing a red flag moving down the bay _against the current_ on a
buoy. When they went alongside of it they heard a "puff-puff" like
a locomotive--that was the exhaust from our engine coming up out of
the pipe--and, furthermore, they stated that they had smelt sulphur
distinctly. Just then, they claimed, the buoy commenced to rise up and
a smokestack--our conning tower--came up out of the water and "out
stepped the devil"--myself, who at that time had on a rather brilliant
red cap. Then they had "moseyed" for shore as fast as they could go.
The storekeeper said that they had put the honorable captain to bed,
and implied that he would be "right smart mad" when he learned how
he had deceived himself. We went back to our boat and got an early
start in the morning, as we did not know but that the "guying" of his
neighbors might "rile" the captain considerably--and these Virginians
are usually pretty good rifle shots.
One of the greatest dangers in submarine navigation is that of being
run down by surface vessels when the submarine comes to the surface
after a deep submergence. I mean by a deep submergence when the vessel
goes down so far that the water covers the top of her periscope and
the commander gets out of touch with surface vessels. All submarine
commanders have probably had narrow escapes from this danger; it is one
of the chances that go with the business. I myself have had several
very close calls. The first was with the _Protector_ manoeuvring in
rough weather in Long Island Sound off Bridgeport in 1903. The weather
was exceedingly rough, the wind blowing a halfgale and blowing the
spume from the white-caps into spray. Some of our directors were in
a large towboat at anchor and we were manoeuvring in their vicinity,
running back and forth, submerging, etc., so that they might observe
how steadily she could run in a rough sea. Finally, upon submerging,
we observed a sloop in distress; part of her rigging had been carried
away, and she was half full of water. The sea had broken the cabin
windows and she was on the verge of sinking. We observed this through
the periscope, so we came up and got a line to her and took her into
Bridgeport. There were several young men aboard her, and when they
first saw us standing on our conning tower they thought we also had
been wrecked and were on top of a buoy.
As the _Protector_ had functioned beautifully and we had in addition
saved a shipwrecked crew, I felt quite proud of the day's performance,
and was greatly surprised, therefore, when I reported to the directors,
who had preceded us into the harbor, to have one of them "call me down"
for taking such a foolhardy chance in submerging just in front of the
steamer _Bridgeport_. He was astonished when I told him that I had
never seen the steamer, and then he informed me that I had submerged
just under her bow, and as she was going very fast they all expected
us to be hit. The white-caps and spray had prevented us from seeing the
steamer, as our periscope was a short one and only gave us intermittent
views in the rough water. I was curious to learn whether the captain
of the steamer had seen us, but I was told by him that he had not.
The rough water had prevented the captain from seeing the wake of our
periscope, just as it had made it impossible for us to catch a sight of
his vessel.
At another time of close escape I was in the channel leading from the
Gulf of Finland into Cronstadt, Russia.
We were requested to conduct some manoeuvres for the purpose of
familiarizing the Russian officers and crew with the method of handling
the boat. Admiral Rodjevensky's fleet was outfitting off Cronstadt,
preparing to start for the Orient. As the officers of the battle
squadron had never seen a submarine in operation, we were requested
to conduct our manoeuvres in their vicinity. One of the high Russian
admirals, whom I afterward met at the officers' club in Cronstadt, said
to me: "Mr. Lake, I do not like your submarine boat. One can never tell
where it is going to bob up, and I think if you were my enemy I should
slip my anchor and run." After manoeuvring around the fleet at anchor
we took a run out in the channel. Captain Alexander Gadd, the officer
who was to command the _Protector_, was in the sighting hood. Our
periscope had gone "blind" because one of the crew did not make up a
joint properly. Water had entered and dropped on the lower prism, which
destroyed our ability to see. We were anxious, however, to continue
our manoeuvres, and Captain Gadd had volunteered to "con" the vessel
from the sighting hood and give us our steering directions. We were
thus able to make submergences of short duration. In leaving the port
we appeared to have a clear passageway down the channel. After running
for a few minutes we brought the sighting hood above the surface,
upon which Captain Gadd became very much excited and cried out in
German--which I had no difficulty in understanding--that a big ship was
coming right toward us. I was puzzled to know what to do, so I pulled
the commander away from the sighting hood, got a look myself, and
discovered a big white ship headed directly for us. The only thing to
do under the circumstances was to blow the centre tank, give the signal
to back up, and to blow our whistle, as there was hardly sufficient
time to turn out of our course. Blowing the centre tank relieved us
very quickly of sufficient water to bring the conning tower above the
surface. Fortunately we were observed, and both vessels reversed and
went full speed astern, thus preventing a collision which only could
have been disastrous to us, because, as there was not sufficient depth
of water in the channel to permit the large ship to pass over us, the
small boat would have been crushed like an egg-shell. By looking at the
chart I saw that we had sufficient water on either side of the main
channel to carry on our work of instructing the crew, so I instructed
the quartermaster, in English, to change his course. Captain Gadd, not
understanding English, was not aware that I had changed the course, and
I did not know that mines had been planted for the defense of Cronstadt
and Admiral Rodjevensky's fleet, so the next time we came to the
surface Captain Gadd once more became very much excited, finally making
me understand that we were in a mine field. It seems that the Russians
feared the Japanese might by hook or crook, during the night or at
a time of fog, which at that time of the year occurred frequently,
get hold of some vessel, equip her with torpedoes, and make a raid
on the fleet at anchor. Consequently they had mined all except the
principal channel, which could be watched. We immediately stopped the
_Protector_, blew tanks, and proceeded with caution back to the main
channel and returned to Cronstadt. I felt that we had had sufficient
manoeuvres for that day at least.
Another experience which came very close to a tragedy was brought
about by the spirit of mischief of one of the trial officers while
conducting the official trials of the _Protector_ in the Gulf of
Finland. One of the trial conditions set by the Russian Government
was that we were to be able to run the _Protector_ under her engine
with her decks submerged and conning tower awash, I standing in the
open hatchway with the _Protector_ running under these conditions,
ready for instant submergence, her conning tower being held above the
surface by setting her hydroplanes up. By pulling the hatch cover down
and inclining the hydroplanes downward the vessel could be almost
instantly submerged--submergence not occupying over fifteen seconds. I
had so much confidence in the safety of the _Protector_ running in this
condition that I did not hesitate to leave the depth-control mechanism
for considerable periods of time.
During this official trial in the Gulf of Finland we ran through a
school of small fish, and, leaving the hydroplane control gear, I went
out upon the deck of the conning tower and watched the fish, which
could be plainly seen as the _Protector_ passed through them. At this
time there was about three feet of water over the decks, and the
deck of the conning tower was about a foot or eighteen inches out of
the water. All at once the _Protector_ started to go down. I jumped
down inside the conning tower, pulling the hatch after me, and I am
free to confess that my hair stood on end. I then observed that the
_Protector_ had gone back to her normal condition, and saw at the
same time that the senior Russian officer, a very tall man who had to
stand in a stooping position in the conning tower, was shaking with
laughter. Captain Gadd then explained to me that the other officer--I
shall not mention his name, because he is now a high admiral--had "set"
the hydroplanes a little down for the purpose of seeing if he could
frighten me. He frightened me all right, and I assure you that I never
ran the _Protector_ afterward in that condition, because I came to
the conclusion that, while it might be possible to make a submarine
fool-proof, one could never make reasonable calculations which would
eliminate danger from the actions of the practical joker. It was only
a few weeks after this incident that I read the account of the A-8,
one of the diving type of boats in the British Navy, making the fatal
dive when running on the surface with the hatch open, even though she
had, according to the testimony of the officer, who was standing on the
top of the conning tower at the time she went down--and drowned her
crew--as much as six or eight tons reserve of buoyancy.
Some of the early boats of the diving type were fitted with fixed
periscopes through which one could see in one direction only, and
that straight ahead, and with a limited field of vision. In order to
get a complete view of the horizon it was therefore necessary for the
commander of a vessel equipped in this way to turn the boat completely
around. This was the cause of the first serious accident and loss of
life in the British submarines of the A type. The A-1, running in the
English Channel with her periscope extended above the surface, did
not see a steamer following her at a speed exceeding her own; the
lookout of the steamer did not see the periscope, and ran the A-1
down, drowning her entire crew. The foolishness of having a periscope
that could see in one direction only was demonstrated by some of the
officers in the Austrian Navy. Our company had built the first two
boats for the Austrian Government, U-1 and U-2. Another type of boat
had been built later which had only a fixed periscope of the type
described. One day, when this submarine was running along with her
periscope above the surface, which gave her commander no vision back of
him, some officers approached in a speedy little launch and left their
cards tied to the periscope without the knowledge of the commander of
the submerged vessel. This demonstrated perfectly that it is essential,
both in war and peace times, for the commander of the submarine to know
what is going on in his vicinity on the surface. With the noise of
machinery running it was difficult in the early boats for the commander
to tell whether there was any other power boat in the vicinity of the
submarine. That fact led to the practice of running mostly with the
periscope above the surface, and eventually to the introduction of two
periscopes, one to con the course of the ship and the other to keep
watch of the surrounding water to see that other ships do not approach
the submarine unawares. That is now the usual practice in peace-time
manoeuvres.
At Hampton Roads, on one occasion, after a submarine run, we came up
under a small launch and picked her up bodily on the deck. We had not
seen the boat until we heard her bump against the conning tower and
heard some of the ladies scream. We submerged quickly and lowered them
into the water again. Another time we came up under a large barge,
but all the damage incurred was a broken flagstaff. The best mode of
procedure at such times is to bring the vessel to rest while submerged
and stop all machinery, then listen for the sound of the machinery of
surface vessels. These noises can be heard for a considerable distance
under water. If no sound is heard it is then safe to come up. Even
in this case there is some possibility of coming up under or just in
front of a sailing vessel. One has to take some chances, and I do not
consider this taking any greater chance than is taken by the navigator
of a surface vessel in running in a fog or in a snow storm.
The question of air supply was at one time one of the most difficult
problems to solve on paper with which early experimenters with
submarines had to contend. There was no exception in my case. I thought
it would be possible to remain submerged only a short time unless I
provided some sort of apparatus to extract the carbonic acid gas and
restore oxygen to the air after breathing and exhaling the air in an
enclosed space like a submerged vessel. I took up the question with
various physicians and with a professor of physiology at Johns Hopkins
University, and, according to their information and text-books, it
would be a very difficult matter to carry sufficient air to remain
submerged without change of air except for a very short time. Their
text-books stated the quantity of free air that should be allowed per
individual. This varied from fifteen hundred to three thousand cubic
feet of air per individual per hour. It would be impossible to provide
this amount of air in a submarine. What it was essential to discover
was _how little_ air a man could live on without suffering ill effects.
I then built a box containing twenty-seven cubic feet of air space. I
entered this and was hermetically sealed within it. At fifteen-minute
intervals I lighted matches to note how freely they would burn. At
the expiration of three-quarters of an hour the matches still burned
brilliantly at the top of the box, but went out when lowered to about
the level of my waist. This indicated that about one-half of the oxygen
had been consumed and converted into carbonic acid gas. I was surprised
to find how distinctly the line was drawn between the air containing
oxygen and that containing the heavier carbonic acid gas. I concluded
from this experiment that from fifteen to twenty cubic feet of air per
individual per hour was sufficient to maintain life for short periods
of time without injury.
On completing the _Argonaut_ in 1897 we amplified these experiments,
five men remaining hermetically sealed in the _Argonaut_ for a period
of five hours without admitting any air from our air storage tanks,
and later on in the _Protector_ eight men remained submerged for
twenty-four hours, no fresh air being admitted during the first twenty
hours. As the volume of air space in the _Protector_ was about three
thousand cubic feet, this averaged about eighteen cubic feet per man
per hour. Without the definite knowledge of my previous box experiment
it is very doubtful if the crew would have consented to remain
submerged so long without renewing the air supply, so great is the
effect of imagination.
In our first test to determine a practical time of submergence in
1897 we had been submerged for nearly two hours when I noticed some
members of the crew showing signs of distress. After a time they got
together in the after part of the boat and appointed a spokesman, who
came to me and asked if I had not noticed that breathing had become
very difficult. They urged that we should go up immediately. By this
time two of the men were breathing with evident exertion, and beads
of perspiration were on their faces. I told them they were suffering
from imagination, and explained my experiment with the box. I then
took a candle and proved to them that it burned freely in all parts
of the boat. We measured the height of the candle flame at the floor
of the boat and found it one and five-eighths inches high. In the
twenty-four hours' test on the _Protector_ the men became frightened
in the same way, but after an explanation had been made and the candle
demonstration had been shown them they lost their fear and in a few
minutes all were breathing as normally as ever.
I have always had some little sympathy for the sensations or fears
which those without a knowledge of natural physics might experience on
going down into the water; but I have had little sympathy for those
who by their education should know and understand the principles of
submarine navigation, when operating with a properly designed boat with
an experienced crew.
Now, one of the features which the _Argonaut_ possessed, which was new
in its application to submarine boats at that time, was the use of a
diving compartment and air-lock connected with the main hull of the
vessel, which would permit divers to leave the vessel when submerged
by opening a door in the bottom of this diving compartment after
first filling the compartment with compressed air corresponding to the
pressure of the water outside of the vessel, which varies in accordance
with the depth of submergence.
Every schoolboy is taught the principle of the diving bell, which can
be illustrated by the use of a tumbler or glass. If a tumbler is turned
upside down and forced into water, the water will not rise to fill the
tumbler, owing to the fact that the air, being the lighter, will remain
in the tumbler and the water will simply rise, compressing the air to
the same pressure per square inch as the pressure surrounding it. Now
if you push a tumbler down into the water a distance of thirty-four
feet the tumbler would be about one-half full of water and one-half
full of air, which corresponds to one atmosphere in pressure. Now if an
additional tumbler full of air was compressed to the same pressure and
released in that tumbler it would force the water out, and there would
be a double volume, or two atmospheres of air, in the tumbler, or just
twice what there would be on the surface and under normal atmospheric
pressure. This is the principle on which the diving compartment in the
Lake type boat operates, it being only necessary to admit air into
the diving compartment until the pressure equals the outside water
pressure; then a door opening outwardly from the bottom may be opened
to permit ready egress or ingress, and so long as the air pressure is
maintained no water will rise in the boat.
A professor of physics in the University of Pennsylvania visited the
_Argonaut_ in Baltimore during some early experiments with her, and
in discussing the features of the diving compartment with which, from
his position as a professor of natural physics, he should have been
entirely familiar, expressed some doubt as to its practicability.
He said he understood the theory of it all right, but thought there
might be some difficulty in carrying it out in a practical way as I
had explained. I invited him into the diving compartment and told
him that I would submerge the boat and open the door for him for his
benefit, so that he could explain to his students that he had actually
seen it done. He turned pale and said, "Oh, no; I would not put you
to that trouble for the world"; but by that time I had the heavy iron
door closed between the diving compartment and the main hull, and had
already started to raise the pressure of the air in the compartment,
and assured him that it was not the least trouble in the world; on the
contrary, it was a great pleasure. By this time beads of perspiration
were standing on his face. When one undergoes air pressure for the
first time considerable pain is ofttimes experienced in the ears, due
to the pressure on the Eustachian tubes and ear-drums not becoming
equalized. To equalize this pressure it is necessary for divers or
those undergoing pressure to go through the movement of swallowing,
which has a tendency to relieve the unequal pressure and stop the pain.
I noticed that the professor was experiencing quite a little pain and
consequently told him to swallow, and it was really amusing to see the
rapidity with which he worked his "Adam's apple" up and down. He then
asked if there was any danger. I answered him that there was none,
except to those who were troubled with heart-disease. He immediately
put his hand up over his heart and said, "Well, my heart is quite
seriously affected," but by that time we had secured the necessary
pressure to enable me to open the diving door at the bottom, so I
released the "locking dogs" and allowed the door to open, and when he
saw the water did not come in, his face cleared and he said, "Well, you
know I never would have believed it if I had not seen it," and then he
added that he would not have missed seeing it for the world.
Another interesting incident in connection with undergoing pressure
occurred while at Hampton Roads, Va. One day I received a visit from
a professor of mathematics and his wife at the Hampton Institute,
each of whom held a professorship in the college. They stated that
the _Argonaut_ had been discussed before the faculty and that they
would like very much to go down in her and see the diving door opened,
which I was very glad to show them. Just previous to going into the
diving compartment Professor S---- explained to me that his wife was
deaf in one ear, that she had been under a physician's care for about
two years, and he wanted to know if undergoing pressure was likely to
have an injurious effect upon her. Not being a physician or knowing
what might occur, I advised against her undergoing pressure; but she
insisted on going into the compartment, promising that if she felt any
ill effect from the air pressure she would tell me and I could let
her out. I was reluctant to have her go in, and when we entered the
compartment I allowed the air to come in very slowly, in the meantime
giving a general description of the vessel, and occupying as long a
time in the procedure as possible. I noticed almost at once that she
was in pain. Although she turned her back to me, I could tell by her
clenched jaws and hands that she was probably suffering agony. I then
stopped the pressure and suggested to the professor that he had better
let his wife go out, but through clenched teeth she still protested,
"No, go ahead; I can stand it!" Finally we got the pressure on and
opened the door, but, while the professor seemed delighted, his wife
made no remark. She simply stood with her hands clenched and I was
afraid she was going to faint. Then all at once she screamed; but
immediately after her face lighted up with a smile and she exclaimed,
"It is all gone!" When she came out of the compartment, after the
experiment was over, I noticed her put her hand up to one ear, and
she said to her husband, "Do you know, I can hear as plainly out of
that ear as I ever could!" About a year afterward I saw Professor
S---- and he told me that apparently the experiment had cured his
wife of deafness where physicians had failed to help her; that to
date it had never returned, and that she could hear as well as she
had ever heard. In discussing this matter with an ear specialist some
time afterward, he explained to me that the lady had probably been
suffering with a disease which caused the small bones connected with
the ear-drum to freeze fast, so that the ear-drum did not vibrate.
He stated that it is a very common cause of deafness and can seldom
be cured; that the bringing of the uneven pressure on the Eustachian
tube or other parts had broken away the secretion which had cemented
these small bones together and permitted the ear-drum to vibrate as it
should, and probably that was the only way in which she could have been
helped. I am publishing this incident in the hope that it may lead to
the construction of scientific apparatus for the cure of deafness in
cases where the deafness is caused by trouble similar to that of the
professor's wife.
After our experiments with the _Argonaut_ in the Chesapeake Bay and on
the Atlantic coast, she was enlarged and otherwise improved and in the
winter of 1899 I brought her to Bridgeport, Connecticut, which offered
excellent harbor conveniences and deep water, as well as providing the
necessary manufacturing facilities for continuing my experimental work.
While there the request was made of me to let some of the newspaper
people and some prominent men of the town witness her trials; I
therefore invited them to take a trip out into the Sound. I remember
that we extended in all twenty-eight invitations to the Mayor, to the
press, and to some other prominent citizens, expecting that perhaps
three or four of the number would accept. Very much to my surprise,
twenty-nine appeared, and only one of those who had received the
invitation failed to come, while two others brought their friends with
them. Among the number was John J. Fisher, at that time quite a noted
singer for the American Graphophone Company. I had planned to cook and
serve a dinner for the party on board, and we intended to be back about
two o'clock in the afternoon, but when we got out on the bottom of the
Sound all the different members of the party wanted to see the bottom,
so we travelled out over some oyster beds and clam beds and I opened
the diving door and let the party all see the bottom of the Sound and
pick up clams and "jingle" shells, in depths varying from twenty-four
to thirty-odd feet, while running along the bottom. The air-lock was
small and we could take only two at a time through it into the diving
compartment. In the meantime a meal had been cooked for the others and
served. Mr. Fisher amused the company by singing "Rocked in the Cradle
of the Deep" and other songs appropriate to the occasion.
We did not arrive at Bridgeport until after four o'clock, and then
found the wharf black with an excited populace, largely composed of
friends of those who had taken the trip. Tugboats had been engaged,
and the editor of one of the afternoon papers gave me a very severe
"dressing down" for having kept the party out so long, as the whole
city was excited and every one feared that we had been lost. The
afternoon editions of the papers had all been held up awaiting our
return, and the editor of the paper in question informed me that they
were just telegraphing New York for a wrecking outfit to come and raise
us, as they had sent a tugboat out and the captain had reported that we
were submerged off Stratford Point Light and that our red flag, which
extended from the top of the mast, was above water, but that we were
not moving at that time and hence they thought that all hands must have
perished.
Working under water from a submarine boat is very interesting work. The
_Argonaut_ was built with the idea of demonstrating the practicability
of conducting explorations under water, locating and recovering beds
of shellfish, in addition to locating and recovering wrecks and their
cargoes. This line of work is the most interesting of the submarine
work in which I have been engaged, and offers, in my judgment, great
opportunities for the benefit of the human race. A submarine boat is
a rather expensive craft, however, for conducting such operations,
and there are certain disadvantages in operating around wrecks in
a submarine without any surface connections, as there is always a
possibility of the vessel becoming entangled in the wreckage of the
sunken ship. I remember in one case we had located a sunken wreck and
had gone down alongside of her with the _Argonaut_. This sunken wreck
had an overhanging guard and was quite strongly built. The tide carried
the _Argonaut_ up against the side of the sunken wreck, and after our
divers had come in and made their report in regard to her we attempted
to come up to the surface, but the Argonaut could not come up, because
the current had carried her in under the guard, and it was necessary
for us to wait until the tide turned to enable us to get away from the
obstruction.
At another time we were operating alongside of a wreck in which we were
demonstrating the practicability of removing cargo from the sunken
wreck to a small experimental cargo or freight-carrying submarine.
This freight-carrying submarine was practically a tank, and was built
purely for demonstrating purposes. It was nine feet in diameter and
twenty-five feet long, with conical ends (see illustration, page 278).
It had wheels underneath so that it could be towed on the bottom by
the _Argonaut_. The _Argonaut_ had gone down alongside of a sunken
wreck loaded with coal, with the freight submarine alongside opposite
to the wreck. The _Argonaut_ had a centrifugal wrecking pump mounted
on her deck, driven by a shaft extending through a stuffing box, and
to fill the little cargo-carrying submarine it was necessary for the
diver only to place the suction pipe connected with the wrecking pump
into the sunken coal barge and the discharge pipe into the hatch of the
cargo submarine, start the pump, and transfer the coal from the sunken
wreck to the cargo-carrying submarine. We made several successful
demonstrations of this, and actually transferred fifteen tons of coal
from the sunken wreck to the cargo submarine with a six-inch pump in
nine minutes. It was then necessary for the diver only to close the
hatch of the freight-carrying submarine, admitting compressed air
into the interior which blew the water out through check valves in
the bottom of the freight submarine, and then the freight submarine
would come to the surface with her cargo, which could be towed into
port on the surface by surface tugboats. One day, when down on the
bottom repeating this experiment, the diver came back into the diving
compartment and said that he wanted the _Argonaut_ moved ahead about
twenty feet. The divers, having become familiar with the operation at
this time, were a little careless. There were three of us in the diving
compartment at the time, and it was "up to me" to go back into the
machinery compartment and move the boat forward twenty feet; we could
tell the distance by the revolutions of her wheels over the bottom. I
told them to close the bottom diving door, and when I left the diving
compartment they were in the act of doing so. As I looked back through
the lookout window in the air-lock door I saw that the diver had taken
off his helmet and was smoking his pipe--this being the first thing a
diver always wants to do when coming out of the water. I then started
to move the boat, assuming that the diving door was closed, but the
boat did not move. Having been at rest there for some time, I assumed
that she had probably taken in through a leaky valve some additional
water, and I decided that it was necessary to lighten her somewhat, so
I called on the telephone and asked them if everything was all right
in the diving compartment and they replied that it was. I then pumped
and tried her again; still she did not move, so I pumped out a little
more from the forward end of the boat for the purpose of lightening her
burden some more. All at once she left the bottom with a rapid rush and
ascended to the surface. There was something which held her down, I do
not know what it was, but it was not released until we had given her a
partial buoyancy of perhaps two or three tons. I submerged her again
quickly and went back through the air-lock into the diving compartment
and then observed that the diver was taking off his diving suit; he
was pale and appeared to be very much excited. I asked his helper, who
was laughing, what the matter was. To this question the diver himself
replied, "I will tell you a funny story when we get ashore." The tender
then explained to me that they had not closed the door entirely, but
had left it open about four inches, and when the boat rose, the air,
rushing out of the compartment with a noise like a thousand locomotive
whistles, had scared Captain S---- half to death. The tender had
been with me in the diving compartment once before when a similar
accident occurred and consequently he was used to it. As soon as we got
alongside of the dock the diver referred to jumped ashore and said,
"The funny story I am going to tell you is this: I will never set foot
in your d---- boat again."
Another amusing situation occurred on the _Argonaut_ which might
have proved very serious. After we had completed our experiments
with the _Argonaut_ and started to build the _Protector_, not having
any immediate use for her, the _Argonaut_ was anchored in the river
off the place where we were conducting our building operations. Our
engineer, W----, received a visit one day from a friend of his who
had visited Bridgeport on his wedding trip and had left his wife in
the depot between trains while he ran up to see his old friend, our
chief engineer. The chief took him out on board the _Argonaut_ to show
him through, and in explaining the boat to him the two men went into
the diving compartment. Now the Argonaut had been shut up for some
months, but the chief found that there was still sufficient air in the
air tanks to enable him to admit the air into the diving compartment
and show his friend how the door could be opened. The door, which
opened downward, was quite heavy, weighing something over four hundred
pounds, and was raised by block and tackle. He got the air pressure
on all right and opened the door; the boat was near the bottom, and
when the door opened downward the lower end of it settled into the
mud. In attempting to lift it again the rope, which had become rotten,
due to dampness, broke, and consequently he could not lift the door.
In the meantime the tide was falling and the diving door was forced
farther into the mud. As no one at the works knew that the chief had
gone on board the _Argonaut_, when night came everybody went home and
it was not until eleven o'clock that night that the watchman went down
to the end of the pier and heard some one tapping on the _Argonaut_.
Thinking this somewhat strange, he got into a boat and rowed out
alongside. He still heard the tapping at regular intervals, and was
astonished to see a small boat alongside; then he struck the _Argonaut_
with his oar and immediately got a rapid tattoo in response. Feeling
sure now that somebody in distress must be down in the _Argonaut_, he
got a lantern, went down inside the boat and forward to the diving
compartment. There, on the other side of the lookout window, he saw
the face of the engineer. The chief had made the mistake of closing
the forward air-lock door, so that when he got the pressure on in the
diving compartment and the diving door open he could not close it
again. There was no way for him to relieve the pressure and open the
air-lock door without flooding the whole boat; while, had he closed
the first or inner door he could have gone through into the air-lock,
closing and securing the forward door behind him. He could then have
released the air from the air-lock and escaped, in the meantime leaving
the pressure on in the diver's compartment and the divers' door open.
When the watchman appeared the chief wrote a note and put it up to the
window, instructing the watchman to close the inner air-lock door. This
was done, and then he and his friend got out. It was nearly midnight
when they were released; and, feeling a natural curiosity in the
circumstances, I asked the chief if his friend found his bride still
waiting for him at the station. He replied that after they had managed
to get out his visitor would not even speak to him, and that he had
never heard from him since the occurrence.
I have described above how I ran grave risks while navigating in
Russian waters, and it was in connection with the construction and
delivery of these same boats for the Russian Government that I met with
still other interesting experiences.
[Illustration: THE LAUNCHING OF THE "PROTECTOR"
Built in Bridgeport, Connecticut, in 1901-1902. Sent to Vladivostock,
Russia, during the Russian-Japanese war, and was the only Russian
submarine in full commission during that war. She was the forerunner
of the German U type of boat, with her large flat deck, light-weight
watertight superstructure and hydroplane control.]
At the time of the Russo-Japanese War the _Protector_ was being tried
out in Long Island Sound, and representatives of both warring countries
sent officers to witness her perform and to make propositions for her
purchase. Russia secured her, however, and it then became a problem
to get her out of the country without evading the neutrality laws. We
discovered that we were being watched by spies, and had reason to
believe that if it became known that Russia had purchased her, and
that we were planning to take her out of the country, an injunction
would be secured against us. We had secured high legal advice that
if she were shipped incomplete we would not be evading the United
States laws, but that she might, notwithstanding this precaution, be
captured on the high seas or held in this country by injunction as
contraband. We therefore removed her battery and sent it to New York,
ostensibly for repairs; from there it was later shipped to Russia
_via_ steamer. The agents of the Russian Government then chartered the
steamer _Fortuna_ to carry a cargo of coal from Norfolk, Va., to Libau,
Russia. While loading coal, heavy timbers to form a cradle on the deck
were also shipped on board, and while coming up the coast this cradle
was assembled and the _Fortuna's_ decks strengthened sufficiently
to carry the _Protector_, which had been stripped down to about one
hundred and thirty tons by the removal of her battery. The plan was
that the _Fortuna_ should come into Sandy Hook at midnight on Saturday
and proceed to Prince's Bay, a cove back of Staten Island. There the
_Protector_ was to be picked up by the powerful floating derrick,
the _Monarch_, and the _Fortuna_, with the _Protector_ on her deck,
was then to get outside of Sandy Hook before daylight and pass the
three-mile limit on Sunday morning. None of my crew was in the secret
that an effort was to be made to get the _Protector_ out of the country
before legal proceedings could be taken to prevent her going; and, as
she had no batteries on board, they were much surprised to be informed
on Saturday--the morning of the day set to make the attempt--that they
were to bring their suitcases and a change of clothing with them, as
I was going to give the _Protector_ a trial under her engines alone
and we might be away a day or two. When we left Bridgeport I headed
the _Protector_ away from New York, and our men thought we were bound
for Newport, but as soon as we got out of sight of the shore, in which
we were assisted by a fog, I ran over under the Long Island shore
and headed for New York. We remained in hiding during the day and
passed through Hell Gate, the entrance into the East River, at about
nine o'clock, and reached Prince's Bay according to schedule; but
the _Fortuna_ did not appear until eight o'clock on Sunday morning.
Fortunately for the enterprise, a very heavy rainstorm came up and
shut out all view of us from the shore until the _Protector_ had been
loaded and was out to sea. Before she sailed I called my crew together
and told them that the _Protector_ had been sold to a foreign country,
and that, although I could not tell them to whom or to what port she
was bound, I should like some of them to go with me to assist me in
training the foreign crew to operate her. Every man volunteered and
was anxious to go, so I selected those I wanted and they took their
suitcases on board the _Fortuna_. It was seven years before some of
these men returned to America.
The _Protector_ was covered with canvas and she was sighted but once on
her way across. To prevent suspicion I returned to Bridgeport for a few
days and then took the fast steamer _Kaiser Wilhelm II_ to Cherbourg
and was met by the Russian Ambassador in Paris, who gave me Russian
passports under the assumed name of Elwood Simons, as the Russian
Government did not wish it to become known that it had purchased the
_Protector_ or that the builder was coming to Russia to instruct their
officers and men in the use of submarines. This travelling about
under an assumed name brought about some amusing complications and
experiences later.
I arrived at Libau by train the morning the _Fortuna_ and _Protector_
arrived off that port, but the government had decided to send her on to
Cronstadt, the principal naval station and defense of St. Petersburg,
now called Petrograd, so orders were given accordingly. On the way up
the Baltic the coverings over the _Protector_ had been removed, and
a Russian torpedo boat, seeing her, made off at full speed, soon to
return with another torpedo boat and a larger gunboat and beginning
to fire blank shots for the _Fortuna_ to stop. The captain did not
stop quickly enough, and then they fired solid shot just in front of
the _Fortuna's_ bow and she was forced to stop. It developed that one
of the officers had recognized the _Protector_ from having seen the
pictures of her, but, not knowing that she had been bought by his own
government, suspected that the Japanese Government had purchased her,
and that she would probably be launched somewhere in the Baltic and
attack the Russian fleet. He then sent an armed prize crew on board the
_Fortuna_ to take her into Cronstadt as a prize--which incidentally was
where she was bound, anyhow.
On arriving at Cronstadt we were met by a number of officers of
the Russian Navy, among whom were Captain Becklemechief and Chief
Constructor Bubonoff, who were the joint designers of the Russian
submarine _Delphine_, which had recently been completed. While
sitting in the _Fortuna's_ cabin exchanging congratulations upon the
safe arrival of the _Protector_ a telegram was brought in to Captain
Becklemechief which, I noticed, caused his hitherto cheerful face to
assume a grave aspect. He handed it to Constructor Bubonoff with a word
in Russian which I could not understand. A little later, on our way
to Petrograd, he informed me that the _Delphine_ had sunk and drowned
twenty-three officers and men, a number of whom were in training to be
transferred to the _Protector_ to make up her crew upon her arrival. We
passed her on our way into Petrograd. She lay just off the Baltic works
dock, and divers were then recovering the bodies.
[Illustration: THE "DELPHINE"
Russian submarine, which drowned 23 of her crew the day the author
arrived at Cronstadt.]
It appears that thirty-five men, all told, were on board, and that her
conning tower hatch was closed by a lever arm connected to a nut which
travelled on a threaded shaft operated from down inside the vessel,
and it is believed that the officer in command gave the order to fill
certain tanks which were usually filled previous to closing the hatch,
not taking into consideration the fact that there was so much more
weight on board than usual, due to so many more men--eight being the
usual crew--and at the same time giving the order to close the hatch.
Just then a steamer came by and a sea broke into the hatch, which
frightened one of the men so that he tried to get out, and succeeded in
getting one shoulder and his head out of the hatch. His body prevented
the man down below from closing the hatch before the vessel had sunk
with all hands; but after she sank either the man at the closing
mechanism or some one else must have had sufficient presence of mind
to open the hatch again, as twelve of the men were carried up out of
the boat, presumably by the air bubbles which must escape from any
enclosed airtight vessel before it can become entirely filled with
water. This phenomenon may be observed by taking a bottle and forcing
it down under water; the water will rush in and compress the air,
and then the compressed air will overcome the pressure of the incoming
water and rush out, carrying some of the water with it. Two of these
men and Captain Tillian, who escaped, were afterward members of the
_Protector's_ crew. Captain Tillian told me that he was in the after
part of the boat when she sank, and the last he remembered was being in
water up to his breast and that one of the sailors asked him to kiss
him good-bye. The captain was picked up on the surface unconscious.
Another of the men said that he was carried to one end of the boat
on the first inrush of water and then he felt himself being rapidly
carried back to the centre of the boat and heard a sharp hissing sound
like the rush of air. The next thing he recalled was coming to on the
dock.
The _Alligator_ was the first of the large cruising type of submarines
which we built for the Russian Government. These vessels were five
hundred and thirty-five tons submerged displacement, which was about
twice that of the displacement of any submarines which had previously
been built; and I was very anxious to get a trial of her before the
winter season came on in the fall of 1907. As the winter closes all
navigation in the Gulf of Finland for six or seven months, and as
there were a number of new features to be tried out in this boat, I
knew that unless I succeeded in getting a trial before the winter shut
down I would have several months of worry as to whether or not the
boat would function satisfactorily when submerged. Delays occurred,
so that we were not able to get our trial as early as expected. The
action of the weather indicated that navigation was likely to be
closed within a day's time, as frequently occurs in those northern
latitudes. We had not received the periscopes or lights, and the
boat was not entirely completed, but was sufficiently far advanced to
make it safe for me to try her on a submerged run. Consequently we
arranged with the commandant of Cronstadt to supply us with a sea-going
tender and went out for a trial in the open gulf, where we could get
sufficient water to navigate such a large boat. It was very rough and
stormy, and it took us some little time to get our final adjustments
to enable us to submerge completely. We found that we did not have
sufficient ballast to enable her to be submerged by filling the usual
water ballast tanks, so we had to let some additional water in her
motor-room, being careful not to let it rise high enough to saturate
the windings of our dynamo-motors. In the meantime the storm had been
increasing in velocity and a very rough sea had arisen. I had observed
through the sighting hood that the tender was making very bad weather
of it; the last I saw of her she was pitching and jumping out of the
water to such an extent that at times I could see her keel from the
stem to nearly one-half her length. When we got under water we became
so much interested in the operation, which was entirely satisfactory,
that we did not come to the surface again for about fifteen minutes.
Then we simply rose for a look around and submerged again, giving no
thought to the tender. The seas were so high that we could not see any
distance from our sighting hood, and supposed she was somewhere in the
vicinity. We continued our tests, alternately submerging and trying her
out on the turns and at different speeds of motors until our battery
was nearly run down, then we blew tanks and came to the surface just
at dusk, expecting to find the tender to lead us back to Cronstadt. We
had no lights or compass at this time, but fortunately we were able to
catch sight of one of the lightships off the entrance to the channel
leading to the harbor of Cronstadt, sufficient to set our course for
port. By this time it was blowing a gale; in fact, it was the north
storm which preceded the close of navigation, which followed a day or
two later. Finally it set in to sleet and rain, and shut off our view
of the light. We had nothing to guide us, but took a chance on the
general direction. Fortunately we had no mines to fear, as the war had
closed and they had been removed. Finally it "cleared up" sufficiently
for us to make out the lights again, and we got into Cronstadt in the
early hours of the morning. On our arrival at the dock we found the
commandant of the port and a number of officers who had been informed
of our arrival when we came through the war harbor gateway. We found
the officers and men of the tender which had escorted us, all under
arrest, and the commandant of the port asked me with very great
seriousness if I would like to have them sent to Siberia. It seems that
they had waited about an hour after they saw us disappear, and had
come to the conclusion that we were lost. The commander of the tender
said that if he had remained out any longer he thought that he himself
would have been lost, as the storm was so severe. It broke loose nearly
everything he had in the boat, washed all of his portable deck fittings
overboard, and he feared his vessel would founder. I explained to
the commandant of the port that under the circumstances, and from my
observations of the way the boat had jumped around when we submerged,
as well as from the fact that the commander of the tender could not see
us, he was justified in coming into port. I also said that I would be
very greatly obliged to him--the commandant of the port--if he would
release the captain and crew from arrest, with my compliments; and
this, I am glad to say, was done.
A number of submarine vessels with their crews have been lost in
peace-time manoeuvres. The cause of loss has not always been easy to
determine. In numerous cases it was undoubtedly due to faulty design,
especially in boats of the diving type, where they lacked sufficient
static stability and plunged headfirst into the bottom. Numerous lives
have been lost by the explosion of either gasolene fumes or hydrogen
gas given off by the batteries, and some by asphyxiation, caused by the
escape of the products of combustion from the engines, the accumulation
of carbonic acid gas or chlorine gas generated by salt water getting
into the batteries.
These accidents are usually brought about by the carelessness of some
member or members of the crew. I had been fortunate in not having any
loss of life on any of my boats up to the beginning of the war, but
ignorance and carelessness have, in several instances, caused injuries,
and might as readily have caused loss of life.
I have had a commander, after being coached as to proper procedure, to
attempt to submerge his submarine vessel without checking up to see
that hatches and ventilators were closed.
When we were enlarging the _Argonaut_ at Erie Basin, in Brooklyn, I
went down into the boat one day and found a strong odor of gasolene
and saw numerous kerosene torches burning. Upon investigation I found
that two machinists who were dismantling the engine had broken the
gasolene supply pipe and allowed the gasolene in the pipes to run out
on the floor of the engine-room--about a half-gallon, I should judge.
I ordered the men all out of the boat and blew out the torches, even
taking the precaution to pinch the wicks. Upon going up on the deck,
a sub-foreman in charge of the men declared that there was no danger
and ordered the men back to work. I objected, and went up to the main
office to report that they were doing a dangerous thing, and to see if
I could not get the superintendent to order a blower sent down to blow
the gas fumes out of the boat. But before I could get his attention I
saw the ambulance drive by, and learned that as soon as I had left the
deck a couple of the men said I must be a d---- fool to be afraid of a
little gas, and they had then gone down in the boat and struck a match
to relight one of the torches. By this time an explosive mixture had
been formed, and I can only hope that the explosion which occurred,
as well as the following weeks which they spent in hospital, have now
convinced them, as well as some of the other doubters, that a little
gasolene in an improper place is exceedingly dangerous.
Another more serious explosion occurred on one of our large cruising
submarines at the New Admiralty Works in Russia, which was due to a
combination of both carelessness and ignorance. In this instance,
gasolene had been sent down to the Admiralty dock for conducting
dock trials of the engines. When the fuel arrived, the boat was
full of workmen, carpenters, pipe-fitters, machinists, etc., but,
notwithstanding the fact that there were rules posted that all men
should leave the boat when taking on gasolene--except an inspector,
who should check up to see that the proper valves were opened and
everything tight--the quartermaster in charge of the labor crew,
without notifying anyone in charge or anyone aboard the boat,
connected up with the supply system and started pumping the gasolene
into the boat. The engine was then running and charging batteries. Now
it appears that one of the naval officers had--also without notifying
the engineer--ordered a section of the filling pipe taken down for
the purpose of having a branch pipe connection made in order to carry
some additional fuel in the centre ballast tank--something we did not
approve of; so, when the gasolene was pumped into the boat, instead
of going into the proper tanks it ran out on the floor of the conning
tower, then down through some openings for electric wires that had
not yet been sealed, over the switchboard, and collected in a large
puddle on the floor. One of the Russian electricians, who had been aft
adjusting the dynamos, finally noticed this gasolene running down over
the switchboard and cried out in Russian, "Quick, leave the boat for
your lives!" and in his excitement he pulled the switch through which
the dynamos were charging the batteries. This created a spark, which
was all that was needed to create an explosion. Fortunately, this was
a large boat and she had three exit hatches, all of which were open. A
number of men were just in the act of going through the hatches; they
were blown up into the air twenty-five or thirty feet, according to
some observers, two of them falling into the water, from which they
were rescued. Many of the men were seriously burned, but none fatally.
Those most seriously injured were those near the hatches, as the flash
of flame rose toward the hatches, the openings being the line of least
resistance for the compressed air and gases. The men in the ends of the
boat were not injured, while those midway between the hatches had about
six inches of the bottom of their trousers burned to a crisp, which
shows that the heavy gasolene fumes had not yet become thoroughly mixed
with the air.
I had been on board this vessel only a few minutes previous to this
explosion and at that time everything was in proper order, but I
had left to keep an appointment with the Minister of Marine. Before
reaching his office, however, one of our office men overtook me and
notified me of the explosion. On my return I found great excitement,
as it was reported that many men had been killed. The explosion had
set fire to a lot of shavings and the wooden deck covering over
the batteries, as well as some joiner work which was in process of
erection. Some of the yard officers had ordered the hatches battened
down, but the engines were still running, receiving sufficient air
through ventilators to supply combustion. It was reported that several
men were missing, and it was believed they had been killed by the
explosion and were still on board. In the meantime the Minister of
Marine and other officers had arrived, also a couple of fire companies,
and I requested them to open the hatches and see if they could not put
out the fire and get out the bodies if any were there. The officers
objected on the ground that if any water were put on board it probably,
upon coming in contact with the batteries, would create a lot of
hydrogen gas and cause a further and perhaps more disastrous explosion.
Finally I procured a couple of flasks of carbonic acid gas and let
that into the boat over the battery compartment where the fire was,
which smothered the flames, and then borrowed one of the firemen's
smoke helmets and went down into the vessel, expecting to find some
of the bodies of our missing men. The fire had burned the rubber
insulators off the wires and some of the asphaltum insulators around
the batteries, and the smoke was so thick that it was impossible to see
anything, even with an electric lamp which I carried, but the heat was
not very intense, as the flames had been put out by the carbonic gas
and I found no bodies, so I ordered the hatches open, blowers put in,
and a few buckets of water, which put out the embers. Our missing men
were later found in the hospital, where they had been rushed before
their names had been taken. Seventeen of the men were injured so
badly that they had to go to the hospital, but the burns were mostly
superficial, only the outer skin and hair being burned, and this was
due to the instantaneous flash of the gasolene. They all eventually
recovered.
The following day I held an investigation and learned the above facts
regarding the delivery of the gasolene on board, the breaking of the
pipe, etc. Several of the Russian workmen saw the gasolene leaking
down into the compartment; one whom I interrogated said it had been
leaking in for about five minutes before the explosion. I asked him if
he knew it was gasolene. He said, "Yes." I asked him if he knew it was
dangerous, and he said, "Yes." I asked him then why he did not report
it, and his reply was characteristic of the Russian "moujik." He said,
"I was sent down there to clean up the shavings after carpenters and
not to look after the gasolene, as to whether that was being put on
board in a proper manner or not, and I know enough to attend to my own
business and do only what I am told to do."
The evidence further shows that about a quarter of a barrel of gasolene
had been pumped into the boat before it was discovered that the pipe
had been disconnected.
From the fact that the trousers of the men standing between the
hatches were burned only about six inches up from the bottom, it shows
that the gasolene fumes were still lying close to the floor, owing to
the fact that the fumes of gasolene are heavier than atmospheric air.
Had the explosion come a few minutes later, when the gasolene fumes and
the air had been more thoroughly mixed, the explosion would have been
more powerful and would probably have killed every man on board, as it
did in the Italian submarine _Foca_, when twenty-three men were killed
by an explosion due to a leaky gasolene tank.
There have been many other explosions, resulting in fatalities, in
almost all of the navies using gasolene boats, especially where the
fuel was carried in tanks built within the main hulls of the vessel,
as it seems impossible to so "caulk" a seam in a tank that the fumes
of gasolene will not leak through. The fact that it first settles to
the floor makes it not easy to detect by the nostrils. When gasolene
fumes become sufficiently mixed with air to rise up to the height of
one's nostrils I always consider it an explosive mixture and would not
think of striking a spark, as experiments show that a proper mixture
of air and gasolene or hydrogen and air at only atmospheric pressure
in an enclosed vessel will exert an explosive force of about ninety
pounds per square inch, which will cause practically instant death.
The above case, in regard to the Russian vessel, was undoubtedly due
to carelessness or thoughtlessness of the officer who ordered the pipe
to be disconnected, and the ignorance of the "moujik" who failed to
give warning when he saw the gasolene coming into the boat; also to the
further thoughtlessness of the electrician who pulled the switch which
made the spark.
Among other accidents that have happened in peace times, causing loss
of life, are several in the British Navy in vessels of the diving type;
the _Farfadet_ and _Lutine_ in the French Navy, due to lost control in
diving; also the _Pluviose_, which was run down and cut in two as she
was coming to the surface; the _Fulton_, during an experimental cruise,
and the F-4, E-2, and F-1 in the American Navy. In war time there have
undoubtedly been many submarine vessels and entire crews lost, with
none to tell the story of their passing.
CHAPTER III
EXPERIENCES OF PIONEER INVENTORS OF THE SUBMARINE
The experiences of the pioneer inventors of the submarine, if known in
detail, would undoubtedly afford many amusing incidents as well as some
tragic ones. Some of these have been treated in the previous chapter
on the comedy and tragedy of submarine development. Cornelius Debrell
must have been either something of a joker or else he was much further
advanced in the art of revitalizing the air than are any of our modern
scientists. His experiments attracted much attention during the reign
of King James the First, and, according to the accounts published
at that time, he must have been quite a court favorite, for it is
reported that King James made a trip with him from Westminster Bridge
to Greenwich. The accounts assert that he could remain under water for
long periods of time by simply pouring out a few drops of some secret
liquid from a bottle which he carried with him. The celebrated Ben
Jonson, in one of his works, refers to Debrell and his celebrated boat
in a humorous passage from one of his plays, "The Staple of News,"
acted by "His Majesty's Servants" in 1625.
P. JUN.--Have you no news against him, on the contrary?
NATH.--Yes, sir. They write here, one Cornelius-son hath made the
Hollanders an invisible eel, to swim the haven at Dunkirk and sink
all the shipping there....
P. JUN.--But how is't done?
CYM.--I'll show you, sir. It is an automa, runs under water, with
a snug nose, and has a nimble tail, made like an auger, with which
tail she wriggles betwixt the costs (ribs) of a ship, and sinks it
straight....
P. JUN.--A most brave device, to murder their flat bottoms.
(_Act_ II, _S._ 1.)
Of course, there are no authentic plans of Debrell's boat in existence,
but from the descriptions which were published in regard to it I am
under the impression that probably he did succeed in submerging below
the surface of the water and propelling her with the tide for some
distances. The description tells of some very ingenious arrangements
for submerging the boat, in which he used goatskins sewed together in
the form of bags. The mouth of each bag was nailed over an orifice
opening from the interior of the boat into the sea. These goatskins
were placed between planks, with a sort of a Chinese windlass
arrangement for squeezing the planks together. When he wished to
submerge the boat he allowed the planks to open out, and the water,
rushing into the goatskins, increased the vessel's displacement so
that it sank. When he wished to come to the surface he simply drew
the planks together and squeezed the water out of the goatskins, thus
restoring the vessel's buoyancy. According to description, the boat was
propelled by oars extending through ports opening into the sides of the
boat. Goatskins sewed in the form of cones prevented the water from
entering the vessel, the base of the cone being nailed to the sides of
the boat, the apex of which was cut off and bound around the staff of
the oar. This gave sufficient flexibility to feather the oars and row
under water.
Nearly one hundred years after Cornelius Debrell's experiments an
Englishman by the name of Day built a small wooden submarine and
descended in it under the water. This experiment gave him sufficient
confidence to undertake the construction of a large vessel, and he
proposed to make a profit from its use by making wagers that he could
descend to a depth of one hundred yards and remain there for a period
of twenty-four hours. He built the vessel, placed his wagers, and
descended. He won his wagers but never returned to the surface to claim
them.
[Illustration: BUSHNELL'S SUBMARINE, THE "AMERICAN TURTLE"]
During the Revolutionary War Dr. David Bushnell, a resident of
Saybrook, Connecticut, devised a submarine vessel called the _American
Turtle_. He aimed to destroy the British fleet anchored off New York
during its occupation by General Washington and the Continental Army.
Thatcher's _Military Journal_ gives an account of an attempt to sink
a British frigate, the _Eagle_, of sixty-four guns, by attaching a
torpedo to the bottom of the ship by means of a screw manipulated
from the interior of this submarine boat. A sergeant who operated
the _Turtle_ succeeded in getting under the British vessel, but the
screw which was to hold the torpedo in place came in contact with
an iron strap, refused to enter, and the implement of destruction
floated down stream, where its clockwork mechanism finally caused it
to explode, throwing a column of water high in the air and creating
consternation among the shipping in the harbor. Skippers were so badly
frightened that they slipped their cables and went down to Sandy Hook.
General Washington complimented Doctor Bushnell on having so nearly
accomplished the destruction of the frigate.
If the performance of Bushnell's _Turtle_ was as successful as this,
it seems strange that our new government did not immediately take up
his ideas and make an appropriation for further experiments in the
same line. When the attack was made on the _Eagle_, Doctor Bushnell's
brother, who was to have manned the craft, was sick, and a sergeant who
undertook the task was not sufficiently acquainted with the operation
to succeed in attaching the torpedo to the bottom of the frigate. Had
he succeeded, the _Eagle_ would undoubtedly have been destroyed, and
the event would have added the name of another hero to history and
might have changed even the entire method of naval warfare. Bushnell's
plans did not receive any encouragement, however, and were bitterly
opposed by the naval authorities. His treatment was such as to compel
him to leave the country, but, after some years of wandering, under an
assumed name he settled in Georgia, where he spent his remaining days
practising his profession.
Doctor Bushnell was also the inventor of the submarine mine, with
which he blew up a schooner anchored off New London, Connecticut, and
attempted to sink some British men-of-war in the Delaware River off
Philadelphia by setting them adrift with the tide, expecting them to
float down, strike against the sides of the ship, and then explode.
Fortunately for the ships, none of them happened to strike, but the
fact becoming known that torpedoes were being set adrift in the river
caused great consternation among the British shipping people. When some
wag set a lot of kegs adrift, which floated down the river, it caused
tremendous excitement, the English crews firing at the kegs as they
came floating down the river. This has been recorded in that humorous
poem called "The Battle of the Kegs," by Francis Hopkinson, one of the
signers of the Declaration of Independence.
=Fulton's Attempt.=--Robert Fulton, the man whose genius made steam
navigation a success, was the next to turn his attention to submarine
boats, and submarine warfare by submerged mines. A large part of his
life was devoted to the solution of this problem. He went to France
with his project and interested Napoleon Bonaparte, who became his
patron and who was the means of securing sufficient funds for him to
build a boat which was called the _Nautilus_. With this vessel Fulton
made numerous descents, and it is reported that he covered fifty yards
in a submerged run of seven minutes.
In the spring of 1801 he took the _Nautilus_ to Brest, and experimented
with her for some time. He and three companions descended in the
harbor to a depth of twenty-five feet and remained one hour, but he
found the hull would not stand the pressure of a greater depth. They
were in total darkness during the whole time, but afterward he fitted
his craft with a glass window, one and a half inches in diameter,
through which he could see to count the minutes on his watch. He also
discovered during his trials that the mariner's compass pointed equally
as true under water as above it. His experiments led him to believe
that he could build a submarine vessel with which he could swim under
the surface and destroy any man-of-war afloat. When he came before the
French Admiralty, however, he was met with blunt refusal, one bluff old
French admiral saying, "Thank God, France still fights her battles on
the surface, not beneath it!"--a sentiment which apparently has changed
since those days, as France now has a large fleet of submarines.
[Illustration: ROBERT FULTON'S SUBMARINE]
After several years of unsuccessful efforts in France to get his plans
adopted, Fulton finally went over to England and interested William
Pitt, then Chancellor, in his schemes. He built a boat there and
succeeded in attaching a torpedo beneath a condemned brig provided for
the purpose, blowing her up in the presence of an immense throng. Pitt
induced Fulton to sell his boat to the English Government and not bring
it to the attention of any other nation, thus recognizing the fact that
if this type of vessel should be made entirely successful, England
would lose her supremacy as the "Mistress of the Seas," a prediction
which seems now somewhat verified, judging from the work of the enemy
submarines in the past few months.
Fulton consented to do so regarding other European countries, but
would not pledge himself regarding his own country, stating that if
his country should become engaged in war no pledge could be given that
would prevent him from offering his services in any way which would be
for its benefit.
The English Government paid him $75,000 for this concession. Fulton
then returned to New York and built the _Clermont_ and other
steamboats, but did not entirely give up his ideas on submarine
navigation, for at the time of his death he was at work on plans for a
much larger boat.
Tuck, the inventor of the _Peacemaker_, had an unhappy lot. He spent
a considerable portion of his wealth upon his experiments, and it is
reported that his relatives, thinking he would spend all of his money
in this way, and consequently leave nothing to them, had him adjudged
insane and incarcerated. Some years ago I met a diver who had been
employed by Tuck in his submarine boat experiments. This diver related
to me an incident that nearly caused them to lose their lives. It
appears that the boat had been first submerged in shallow water to
find out if it was tight, which it was under a moderate pressure. They
then took it out in the Hudson River, but on reaching a greater depth,
water started to come in around the gasket of the hatch, the hatch
not being constructed in a manner to increase its tightness as the
pressure on the same increased. The water came in so fast that they
could not rise. He said they tried to caulk the leak by stuffing their
handkerchiefs in between the hatch covering and the combing, but they
could not stop it. Finally one of the men became so hysterical that it
was necessary for the diver to take up a hammer and tap him on the head
with it and threaten to brain him unless he became quiet and did as
he was told. The diver told me that he became satisfied that the only
chance for their lives was to allow the boat to fill, then hold their
breath as it was filling, until the external pressure on the hatch
was equalized, and then open the hatch and swim to the surface. They
followed this plan and escaped safely.
[Illustration: TUCK'S "PEACEMAKER"]
=Holland's Achievements.=--While Mr. John P. Holland and I worked in
adjoining rooms at the Columbian Iron Works, in Baltimore, in the
years 1896 and 1897, at the time he was building the _Plunger_ and I
the _Argonaut_, and saw each other almost every day, we never became
sufficiently intimate to exchange personal experiences. I am therefore
indebted to his son, Mr. John P. Holland, Jr., for the loan of notes
left by his father and compiled by himself regarding his father's early
and later experiences. I quote from the notes:
On the southwest coast of Ireland, a few miles from the famous cliffs
of Mohar, and overlooking the river Shannon, stands the village of
Liscannor. Here was born on February 24, 1841, John P. Holland, later
to become famous as the inventor of the Holland submarine. He was
the second son of John and Mary Holland, who had long been residents
of the place. His father was a coast guard, and from him little John
heard the stories of the sea that inspired in him the love he had for
it in later years. His elder brother, Alfred, was a strong, healthy
boy of great intellect. When John was six years old he was sent to the
Irish Christian Brothers school at Ennistymon, in the same county. He
always credited the Irish Christian Brothers with giving him the early
education that made him capable, later, of achieving results that
scientists of to-day can hardly credit as being true.
In 1853 the family moved to Limerick, causing John to be transferred
to the schools taught by the Christian Brothers at Sexton Street,
that city. He was a very studious boy and made great progress in his
studies. He loved to tell how he was in the habit of rising early in
the morning and going into the fields, where he would climb a tree and
there study his lessons for the day. The family had not resided long
in Limerick when the father was taken from them very suddenly. He had
been suffering from some slight ailment, and mentioned the fact to a
friend. The friend advised that he take a home remedy, composed mostly
of potash. He took the prescribed dose and died within a few hours.
On the death of his father John was compelled to give up school and
seek employment in a tobacco shop. In 1858 he left the position and
became a teacher in the Christian Brothers schools. In 1860 he showed
signs of failing health; accordingly the Brothers transferred him to
one of their schools in Waterford, in the hope that the climate there
would prove more beneficial to his impaired health. However, after
residing in that town for a time it was seen that the looked-for
improvement did not materialize, and he grew worse instead of better.
During the following twelve months he was assured by the best medical
advice available that his health would not permit him to continue his
studies, and that in order that it be restored he would do well to
live in some place having a mild and dry climate, such as is found in
the Madeira Islands. For several reasons this was impracticable, so he
went to Cork to wait until he could find a suitable climate in which to
live. While staying in Cork he lived at Ashburton, at the western end
of Clanmire Hill, for about one year. While here he improved greatly in
health and strength.
The War of the Rebellion in the United States had started a few months
before he came to live in Cork. Toward the end of November, 1862, he
read in the Cork _Examiner_ an announcement of the first combat between
armored ships that had occurred about two weeks previously; that is,
the battle between the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_ at Hampton Roads, Va.,
in which the little _Monitor_ defeated the _Merrimac_, of twice her
bulk and power, after a short contest. Just before the remarkable duel
the _Merrimac_, ignoring the guns of her opponent, the wooden ship
_Congress_, sank her by striking her with her massive iron stem. The
_Cumberland_, another ship like the _Congress_, lying in the water
near her, did not wait to be similarly rammed, but made haste to run
aground on the nearest shallow place. But this did not save her, as
the _Merrimac_ attacked her and set her on fire with her heavy guns,
while ignoring her fire, which did very little harm. This epoch-making
contest in Virginian waters astonished naval authorities the world
over, especially in England, whose main reliance for the maintenance
of their power was placed in the "wooden walls," and in the bravery
and skill of their seamen. The English nervousness was due to the
demonstration at Hampton Roads that wooden ships could be no more of a
hindrance to an armorclad than the _Cumberland_ and _Congress_ were to
the _Merrimac_, and that if the Yankees built a few more monitors and
sent them across the Atlantic quickly, they could come to London by
water absolutely unhindered and destroy London and all the English navy
within reach. All the English naval depots could, with practically no
hindrance, be treated similarly within a few months, and an end made of
English oppression from which it could never recover.
That this is no wild dreaming will be evident to everybody, when the
action of the English Parliament regarding a proposal made there by a
Lord of the Admiralty was considered and acted upon favorably in rapid
order. A certain Lord Paget, who commanded an English ship at the
bombardment of Sebastopol, proving that he was not without experience
in justifying the assertion, told them that if all the five hundred
and eighty English warships then in existence were sent into the Cork
harbor; and if the little American _Monitor_ were to get in there, too,
at the same time; and also if a suitable chain boom were fixed so as to
enclose the whole lot, that the same little _Monitor_ could send them
all to the bottom within a few hours without being compelled to fire a
single shot. Lord Paget made these assertions in support of a motion he
made before the House of Commons, proposing that the unspent part of an
appropriation of about $75,000,000 designed to build forts to defend
harbors in the South of England for the protection of their fleets
against the French and Yankees should be immediately applied to the
construction of armorclad ships. Without any delay a bill was passed
making the required change in the appropriation bill. Very shortly
after the Admiralty proposed the construction of four ironclads, which
proposal was immediately adopted.
Four large battleships were taken and razed and covered with
armor-plate. They were followed later by many much more powerful
vessels designed especially to carry armor, _until at the present
day the English Navy is competent to engage all the European navies
together_. Mr. Holland, reflecting upon the result of the duel at
Hampton Roads, foresaw this result clearly, because he knew that
England possessed the necessary materials, money, and mechanical skill
required to provide ships enough to maintain her claim to her assumed
title, "Mistress of the Seas," and to enable her to terrorize the
greatest nations of Europe that had persistently shown lack of wisdom
by their neglect to properly provide themselves with the only weapon
that could resist her; that is, a sufficiently powerful navy.
They trusted, to their undoing, to great armies, forgetting that
England had already proved her ability to cause combinations of her
former enemies against any one of them.
But, having carefully noted the development of armored ships in
the American, English, and French navies since the first duels of
armorclads at Hampton Roads, Mr. Holland conceived the notion that it
would be possible to build a vessel that would utilize water cover
as a protection against an enemy's projectiles and thus be capable
of ramming her enemy without exposing herself to attack. The study
of the possibility of designing a practicable submarine boat to
encounter English ironclads in this manner became the most interesting
problem that he had to solve for a considerable time afterward. He
further relates the physical difficulties that had to be overcome;
bad health and hard work hindered consideration of the problem for a
long time, until one day he happened to see in a newspaper an account
of the experiments made with a submarine in New York harbor.[1] The
description of its performances appeared to be incredible when he
remembered the physical difficulties that had to be overcome, as his
former study of the subject revealed them. Reflecting later that
it was foolish and unfair to ridicule and laugh at a project which
was described only by a short notice in the newspaper, and that
described only its success in overcoming the physical difficulties
in its operation, he started on a thorough study of the question in
connection with a design roughly sketched on a sheet of paper; giving
due attention to the essential points concerned in using a submarine
boat so that it would be practical to live and work while completely
submerged even in rough water; so as to propel it, first, at an even
or any required depth; second, to be able to steer it with certainty in
any required direction; third, to have an ample supply of compressed
air on board, as well as the necessary apparatus to renew it when
exhausted.
Fortunately he had sufficient engineering knowledge to determine the
thickness and weight of a spindle-shaped steel shell competent to
endure the external water pressure due to a submergence of two hundred
and fifty feet depth, which was probably the greatest pressure it would
ever be compelled to endure when in action. He was also competent
to provide for a change of trim and for regulating the degree of
submergence, as well as to provide for a slow or a rapid rise to the
surface as circumstances might require. After completing his design,
however, he found there was no one with confidence enough in the idea
to give him backing. He was regarded as a second Jules Verne; in a
word, a dreamer. He accordingly locked his plans in his trunk and for
the time being forgot all about them.
A few years later his mother came to the United States and he decided
to follow her. He landed in Boston in the winter of 1872, and in the
middle of typical New England weather as found at that time of the
year. Everything was covered with ice and snow, quite different from
the mild winters he had known in the little "Green Isle." One morning
after his arrival he was walking through one of the streets of the
"Hub," and, not being possessed of the agility of a mountain goat--so
necessary for a man to navigate one of our American streets during
an icy spell--he had not gone far before he fell and broke his leg.
Passersby helped him home, and he was assured by the physician who set
the fracture that he would not be able to move about for at least two
months. Finding himself with so much idle time on his hands, he decided
to get out his forgotten plans and study them again. The result was
that by the time his convalescence was over he had drawn a new and much
superior design.
But it was not until 1876, when he was teaching school in Paterson, New
Jersey, that he succeeded in securing financial backing for his first
boat. A friend at that time raised the necessary capital, about $6000,
and the building was done at the Albany Street Iron Works, corner of
Albany and Washington Streets, New York, in 1876, in the shop owned
by Messrs. Andrew and Ripley. To their courteous superintendent, Mr.
Dickey, he was indebted for many suggestions toward rendering the
boat practical and useful. Early in 1878 she was removed to Todd and
Rafferty's shop in Paterson, New Jersey; he, being a resident of that
city at that time, could complete her outfit more easily there. Toward
the end of July, 1878, she was taken to a point where she could be
more easily launched, about one hundred yards above the Falls Bridge,
on the right bank of the river. She was taken there late one fine
afternoon and launched from the wagon on which she was moved. Mr.
William Dunkerly, the engineer in charge of the operation, fastened a
strong line on her bow to bring her to when she was afloat; but she
did not float long, for the wagon wheels sank in the made ground where
they launched her, the greater part of the wagon being submerged, as
well as nearly one-half of the volume of the boat, leaving the boat
with the stern considerably elevated. After hard work on the part of
Messrs. Dunkerly and John Lister, the owners of a boathouse above the
bridge she was pulled off the wagon and floated for a few minutes, amid
the cheers of mill operatives who lined the banks and covered every
available spot on the bridge. But the cheering suddenly ceased when
the boat backed a little out in the river, for she settled deeper in
the water and finally sank, to the great disappointment of the crowd,
who expressed their feelings in loud yells until Messrs. Dunkerly and
Lister moved the wagon out of the way, took hold of the boat's painter,
and pulled her out of the water high and dry on the spot previously
occupied by the wagon. It is no exaggeration to say that the natives
were much astounded to see a little iron boat weighing four tons pulled
by two men from the bottom of the Passaic and left standing high and
dry on the bank.
The next day the accidental submergence was explained by the absence
of two five-eighths inch screw plugs from the bottom of the central
compartment in which the operator would be seated while the boat was
in operation. By opening a stop valve while the boat was in operation
under water a sufficient quantity of water would enter, surround the
operator in his diving suit, and render the boat and its contents
heavier than water, so that it would sink as it did after having been
launched with the plug holes open. The reason that it did not sink, and
that it was so easy a matter to pull it ashore, was because the total
weight on board on that occasion was much more than it was designed to
carry. The central space then carried water equal to the weight of the
diver and his suit of armor, as well as the additional quantity that
would fill the space around him, as well as that which would be due
to the distention of the suit by air pressure while it was in action
during diving. The actual practicability of being able to handle the
boat under these conditions was the first important point proved by
experiment on the day following the launch.
"We proved conclusively, a few weeks after, that our estimate of the
quantity of fresh compressed air required to support life comfortably
in the operator was probably a little excessive. The quantity of
compressed air, as well as the pressure required to force all water
out of the boat and to cause her to float light on the surface, was
ample. A few days after the launch, the engine having been given a
slight test, the boat was towed up the river to a point opposite the
old Pennington house. In the launch that towed her were Mr. Dunkerly,
Captain John Lister, and three men prominent in the 'Fenian' movement."
What happened when the boat reached the point for the test is best told
by Mr. Dunkerly: "We fastened ropes to the bow and stern," Mr. Dunkerly
said; "Mr. Holland climbed into the submarine, closed the hatch, and
started the engine. The bow went down first, and before we realized
the fact the boat was under twelve feet of water. The ropes were a
safeguard in case the compressed air should not prove sufficient to
expel the water from the ballast tanks. Holland was also given a hammer
with which to rap upon the shell of the boat should he find himself
in difficulties. After being submerged one hour, Holland brought the
boat to the surface, to the great relief of all who were witnessing the
test. As soon as the boat came up the turret opened and Holland bobbed
up smiling. He repeated his dive several times, and then he invited us
to try it, but we preferred to 'stick to the ropes.' About the third
trip we made up the river a stranger was seen hiding behind the rocks
on the river road. He had a powerful field glass, and it was said
that he was an agent of the British Government. His presence caused
a commotion for a time." From here we will continue in Mr. Holland,
Senior's, own words:
"Continuous submergence trials for various periods were next
undertaken. We had one serious setback that caused no greater
trouble than shortening our experiments by compelling us to omit
all running trials and to confine ourselves to testing matters of
essential importance. This was due to the failure of the misnamed
Braton engine that was installed in the boat. The builders assured
me that it was a Braton engine, but they had improved on Braton's
designs by employing two double-acting cylinders, having both
ends of each supplied with charges from one central combustion
chamber. On trial in the boat this engine failed to develop any
noticeable power, so we were compelled to employ Mr. Dunkerly's
launch, supplying her engines with steam, which was conducted from
the boiler of his launch by way of a hose to the engine of the
submarine, which was now employed as a steam engine. This entailed
a considerable loss of steam, due to condensation, but it produced
enough power to propel the submarine, having Mr. Dunkerly's launch
alongside so as to allow free vertical movement, as when diving,
so that we could test the efficiency of the boat's horizontal and
vertical rudders. The vertical rudders, those that controlled
horizontal motion, proved to be very effective, but the horizontal
rudders, placed on the level of the centre of buoyancy, proved
to be useless. We proved that the boat should move three or four
times more rapidly before they could produce a useful effect. This
experiment showed the folly of attempting to control the degree of
submergence of the boat by the employment of central horizontal
rudders, a method on which so much importance was placed by some of
my predecessors and successors, in attempts at submarining, and,
strange to say, some of them still believe in it, very evidently
because they have never tested them. A good many submarine and
other inventors are satisfied with designs on paper and do not
bother to make experiments. We determined some other very evident
matters that it was necessary to prove by actual experiment; that
is, that it is not practical to cause a boat to lie still at any
given depth without the employment of complicated machinery that
should have no place in a submarine boat. Several other important
points regarding the design, construction, and management of
submarines, which still cause difference of opinion and design,
were determined fairly well. For instance, the modern craze for
'good, big boats,' as well as for large, high conning towers, was
proved to be absurd. Even though our views on these and other
matters were exhibited to the Navy Department Ordnance Bureau,
practically no notice was taken of them. I disliked the idea common
among politicians that my failures to get a government contract was
owing to political influence or 'pull,' but, judging by my short
experience in Washington, I concluded that there was another, and
much more serious, hindrance to the adoption of my ideas.
"The history of the efforts I made to induce the government to
consider the claims of the first submarine boat proposed to them
by me in 1875, as well as the results, reflects no credit on the
officials that had anything to do with it, as can be clearly seen
from what follows.
"The first proposition was made in 1875, through a friend of the
late Secretary of the Navy Robeson, for his consideration. It was
referred by him for a report to the late Admiral Sampson, at that
time commander of the torpedo station at Newport, Rhode Island.
The Admiral reported in good time that the project was practically
impossible, owing mainly to the difficulty of finding in what
direction to steer the boat under water, and the attempt to do so
would be an aggravated case of trying to find one's way in a fog.
Very evidently he had no notion of the possibility of steering
by compass under water. The same incredulity was expressed by a
distinguished Swedish officer whom I afterward met in New York.
"After having determined the correctness of my ideas regarding
submarines, and adding a few points revealed by the experiments
made on the Passaic River, my financial supporters, the trustees of
the Fenian Skirmishing Fund, determined to build a larger boat that
could be employed for breaking blockades.[2] Toward the end of May
I started to design a new boat of about nineteen tons displacement;
in other words, one small and light enough to be carried on
ship's deck and launched overboard whenever her services would be
required. Only three men were required for her crew.
[Illustration: THE "FENIAN RAM"
The first Holland power-propelled submarine boat (built 1881).
Sketch made by the author after measuring the boat
at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1915.]
"She was built at the shops of the Delamater Iron Works, at the foot
of West Thirteenth Street, New York, and launched in May, 1881.
During her construction my curiosity was excited by the apparent
incredulity of some of the engineers in the shop regarding the
practicability of such a boat. Many objections were urged against
her, especially by men who should have known better, but the
trouble with them was almost the same as I encountered later among
the staff officers of the navy, viz., because they were, almost
without exception, of English, Welsh, or Scotch descent, experienced
in all kinds of shipbuilding. They appeared to know by intuition that
the project was absurd. They proposed many difficulties that were not
solved for them. I also noticed that many of the men appeared to take
a deep interest in the progress of the work, even though they never
made any inquiries to my knowledge, yet they observed everything,
because there was no way of preventing them. I also noticed what
appeared to be consequences of this curiosity of foreigners regarding
an American machine.
"During the following twelve months many visitors came to look over
the submarine, mostly Swedes, Russians, Italians, and Germans. I
was much pleased to meet two of them who apparently had no idea of
the jealousy with which some people guard their military secrets,
viz., Ali Ritza and Hassan Effendi. But, very clearly to me,
they had no idea of the importance of what was expected from the
machine, or, much more likely, they had been persuaded by their
acquaintances of English connections that the project would never
amount to anything because it did not originate in England. The
fact that English opinion in naval matters governed the opinion of
every American was made quite clear to me later on.
"This nineteen-ton boat was launched in 1881. She was thirty-one
feet long, six feet beam, seven feet four inches in depth, and was
propelled by a Brayton petroleum engine. Her crew consisted of
three men--the pilot, engineer, and gunner. She laid at the Morris
& Cummings Dredging Company's dock in Jersey City until July 3,
1883, during which time many interesting experiments were made with
her.
"The first run on the surface and while submerged was made in the
basin, or passage, east of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The first
tests made were the surface runs to test the engine, clutch,
gearing, etc. These proved very successful, and the next in order
was to submerge the boat at the dock and determine whether the
seams were all right, and also to test the efficiency of the
compressed-air tanks for supplying oxygen for breathing and giving
impulses for expelling water from the ballast tanks.
"Accordingly Richards, the engineer, and myself entered the boat
and closed the hatch. This shut us off from the air, and our
breathing now depended entirely on the compressed-air reserve.
After waiting a few moments and finding no ill effects from the
compressed air, I decided to submerge. I drew back the little iron
levers on either side of my head (these operated the Kingston
valves in the bottom, through which water was admitted to the
ballast tanks). Almost immediately the boat began to settle, giving
us the suggestion of slowly descending in an elevator. I now looked
through the ports in the superstructure and observed that the bow
had entirely disappeared and the water was within a few inches of
the glass. A second or two later everything grew dark and we were
entirely submerged, and nothing could be seen through the ports
excepting a dark-green blur.
"Our next suggestion was a slight jar when the vessel struck the
bottom. It might also be mentioned here that we had no light
except the glow that came through the conning tower. This just
about sufficed to read the gauges, but was too poor to be of much
interest to the engineer. The engine was not needed at that time,
however, but we decided to carry a small lantern, to be used when
any adjustment was necessary, but not otherwise, as it consumed too
much of our precious oxygen.
"Richards having made an examination and found everything tight, I
decided to blow out the ballast and come up. Accordingly I opened
the valve admitting air to the ballast tank, and at once heard a
hiss that told me that the air was driving out the water. The green
blur on the ports in the conning tower grew lighter as I gazed
through them until suddenly the light of full day burst through,
almost dazzling me. After blinking my eyes a few times I looked out
again and saw the familiar surroundings of the 'Gap.' I now opened
the hatch and stood on the seat, thus causing my head and shoulders
to protrude from the tower. As soon as I was observed doing this
a cheer burst from the crowd of observers on the dock, among whom
opinion was equally divided as to whether we would ever emerge
alive from our dive or not. We had now demonstrated the fact that
our boat was tight, that our air was sufficient for breathing, and
that our ballasting system was perfect.
"Our next test was to prove that we could dive with our engine
running. Many were the gloomy prophecies advanced as to what would
happen when we attempted to force our exhaust outboard against
the water pressure found at eight or ten feet depth. For this
occasion Richards and I entered the boat, I taking my place in the
conning tower, while he went forward to start the engine. After a
little kicking and sputtering he succeeded in getting it started.
We then let in the clutch and the boat started forward. When we
reached the far side of the basin I turned her around and threw out
the clutch, causing the boat to slow down and stop. Closing the
hatch, we then made sure that everything was tight, and opened the
Kingston valves. When the water reached the observer's ports in the
conning tower, I closed them again. We then proceeded along awash;
that is, with only the little tower showing above the surface.
I found that from this position I could observe objects quite a
distance ahead, and my vision was obscured only occasionally when
a wave washed against the glass. I next threw forward the lever on
the right side of my seat (this was connected with the diving, or
vertical, rudder by a lever action). Immediately the nose of the
boat went down, and before I realized it our gauge showed a depth
of about ten feet. I now drew the lever back to centre, and the
boat straightened out on an even keel. There was very little or no
tendency to buck or be cranky; in a word, I had no difficulty in
preventing her nose from rising or dipping down.
"After running about one hundred yards submerged I steered the boat
up, and in a few seconds the superstructure of the boat was again
above water. I then opened the air valve and expelled my ballast,
causing the boat to rise and assume her normal position. This dive
was practised for some time in order that we might gain facility in
handling the diving and steering gear.
"Captain John Ericsson was at that time preparing to build his
_Destroyer_ in the same part of the shop in which my boat had
been built. Somebody in Delamater's described my boat to Captain
Ericsson and explained the purpose of a nine-inch tube placed in
the axis and having a breech and bow cap. The object of this
fitting was to permit the insertion of a six-foot torpedo that
could be shot out at a target while the boat was under water by
air at a heavy pressure contained in steel flasks connected with
the breech of the gun by a balanced valve. After the torpedo was
ejected the breech and muzzle were closed, and the water contents
of the tube were permitted to flow into two tanks to correct the
position of the centre of gravity.
"Not having any torpedo models ready for experiment when the boat
reached Jersey City, Captain Ericsson very kindly sent me word
that I might build a few like those he proposed to use in his
_Destroyer_. I therefore deferred building any on my own ideas,
and decided to use his, should they prove suitable. The Delamaters
built me two on his models and sent them to Jersey City for trial.
For the trials of Ericsson's torpedo models the boat was set awash
in the water, with the axis of the torpedo placed horizontally and
about three and one-half feet below the water surface. Because
there was a new floating dock lying in the water about one hundred
and fifty yards from the submarine, and in a direct line with it,
the firing pressure was reduced to about three hundred pounds on
the square inch. When the firing valve was opened the projectile
passed out and travelled about six or eight feet beyond the muzzle
of the gun, then it turned upward and arose in the air to perhaps
sixty or seventy feet; then it fell point foremost in the water
and buried itself so deeply in the mud that we could never find it
again. For the second shot the boat was depressed a few degrees and
was swung to port so as to avoid butting the floating dry dock.
It travelled about twice as far as its predecessor, then rose
fifteen feet in the air and passed over the wall limiting the
basin, striking a pile that projected above it, and frightening a
fisherman who was dozing thereon. He was in no danger, however,
as the pile and string-piece of heavy pine afforded him ample
protection.
"While the boat lay at Gorky's repair shop at the point called the
'Gap,' a test was made of the efficiency of the apparatus provided
for using the boat as a diving-bell, viz., a watertight hatch
placed over a hatchway on the bottom, with valves leading from
air-chambers, through which air under pressure was permitted to
flow and fill the space occupied by the operators.
"When employing the boat as a diving-bell everything was closed
tight and air was admitted to the central space until the external
water pressure was exactly balanced, and when the lower hatch
might be opened without any risk of water entering. The first man
to make a test was Mr. George M. Richards, of Erie, Pennsylvania,
my engineer. He sank the boat at high water while she lay at the
dock. When she rested on the bottom he opened the test valves to
make certain that the external water pressure was balanced by the
internal air pressure, admitting an excess of water equal to his
weight to hold her on the bottom. This operation did not consume
more than a minute. He did not actually go out of the boat, but
only dropped his feet on the bottom, passed his hands under the
boat, one on either side, and lifted the boat slowly and with
little exertion about one foot from the bottom. Had I provided the
boat with a diver's outfit he could have gone out and come back
again without trouble or risk. On July 3, 1883, we left the 'Gap'
in Jersey City in order to do some diving in the deep water of the
Narrows.
"The boat went out under its own power, unaccompanied by anybody
save a small colored boy who had managed to drop on the turret when
we were leaving the dock. The first intimation I had that we were
carrying a passenger was shortly after we had passed Robbins's Reef
Lighthouse. Then I found my view of Staten Island and Bay Ridge
became obscured by what seemed to be a pair of brown rags hanging
on either side of the turret and blocking the vision through the
side lights. When we passed Robbins's Reef the water became a
little rougher, so that the water passed up on the hull and washed
over the turret. After the windows had been wet a few times I heard
noises that plainly indicated that we were carrying an uninvited
and unwelcome passenger. Fearing that the waves would wash him off,
I headed the boat upstream, opened the hatch, and invited him to
come inside, as I feared running through rough water with him on
top. He politely refused my invitation, assuring me that he was
'puffectly safe' where he was, and that he would 'hold on like grim
death.' This unfortunate circumstance spoiled my chances of diving
in deep water that day, so we were compelled to abandon it. This
interruption by the young colored gentleman wasted so much time
that it was after sunset when we headed for the Bay Ridge shore,
with which I was unfamiliar, to look for a landing place. Seeing
through the twilight unmistakable signs that the shore was rocky,
I ran the boat out about one hundred yards and then headed her up
toward the Bay Ridge Ferry landing, with the intention of leaving
her there until daylight the next morning. Before starting north
we noticed two boys in a rowboat approaching us from the shore.
We stopped until they came alongside and inquired: 'What is this
thing?' They came on board and inspected her at our invitation,
and expressed great astonishment at the strange boat they had
picked up. But what was much more to the purpose was that when they
found we had no particular landing place in view they very kindly
offered us the hospitality of Mr. Vanderbilt Bergen's dock at Bay
Ridge for as long as we wished to stay there for experiments. Then
they took our 'painter' and towed us into his dock on the site of
the present Crescent Yacht Club station. The two young gentlemen,
Tunis Bergen and his cousin Harry Midgley, also contracted to take
care of our material and help us out during our stay at their dock.
What was of great importance to us was that we learned from Mr.
Vanderbilt Bergen, Tunis's brother, that the place we had happened
upon was by far the most suitable of any within miles for diving
and experiments. We left the boat there over two months, making
experiments to determine the value of our devices and to improve
them wherever possible.
"Every time we went out we took two or more dives of various
lengths, most of these quite across the Narrows, a little below
Stapleton. During these dives I always made certain that there was
no ship of twenty-five or thirty feet draught passing. Ordinarily
we ran at a depth of not less than twenty feet, so that we could
afford to ignore excursion steamers, fishing boats, and small
yachts. The paddles of excursion steamers we could hear a long
distance away, so that we never had any difficulty in avoiding them
by changing our course or running at a greater depth until they had
passed. We had a rather exciting experience on one occasion when we
started to run submerged from Stapleton to Bay Ridge. At starting
there was no large vessel in sight, but when about two hundred and
fifty yards from shore I distinctly heard the paddle of a steamer.
I instantly changed the vessel's course from directly across the
Narrows, heading her upstream and running to twenty feet depth so
as to eliminate any danger of a collision. Running along I listened
for the sound of paddles, but could hear nothing, so I concluded
that the steamer must have passed beyond the range of hearing or
else had changed her course. Therefore I thought it would be safe
to come within fifteen feet of the surface and listen again. I did
so, and, hearing no sound, brought the turret above the surface
to look around, but I could see no steamer. I then resumed my
course back to Bay Ridge. On approaching Mr. Bergen's dock I saw
three or four men jumping around and acting as if demented, so on
landing I asked Bergen the cause of their hilarity. 'Oh,' he said,
'you frightened the d---- out of the _St. Johns_, the Long Branch
steamer. You remember having come near the surface shortly after
you started across and then diving? We didn't see you again until
you rose three hundred yards out at this side.' I said that I
remembered it. 'Well, when you went down that time your propeller
shot a great mass of water out backward, just as big as, or bigger
than, any whale could blow. The _St. Johns_ was about two hundred
yards astern of you, and she stopped instantly, not being able to
tell what the trouble was ahead of her. After a while she started
up and headed into the Staten Island shore, keeping on until I
thought she would run ashore. She ported her helm and kept close
along shore until she passed the Quarantine anchorage, then she
headed straight for New York.'
"Experimental runs were made almost every day during the months of
July and August, and continued until September, when we returned
to the 'Gap' in Jersey City. During our experiments we were never
without a considerable crowd of witnesses, sometimes numbering
hundreds, especially in our runs from the 'Gap' up the Hudson and
return. One morning in July a very patronizing gentleman, who
announced himself as a reporter from the _New York Sun_, requested
permission to go into the boat and examine it, but, much to his
surprise, I was compelled to refuse him permission. The next
morning there appeared in his paper a long report describing the
performances of the _Fenian Ram_, a new name to which I had no
objection excepting its incorrectness. Because public curiosity
was aroused, the same Mr. Blakely Hall seldom missed reporting
every run or experiment we made while at Bay Ridge. He explained
to me that I was foolish in not wishing to advertise my invention,
because the Government would certainly wish to acquire boats of the
same type, as he could see by the newspaper reports that they were
already preparing to build them in France.
"Shortly after our return to the 'Gap,' an amusing incident took
place which is well worth recording. A number of friends and myself
decided to take a trip up the Hudson. There were eight or ten in
the party, and, as the submarine could accommodate only four, a
small sloop was hired to carry the overflow. When we got under way,
the submarine towing the sloop, we found the going rather hard,
owing to cakes of ice floating down the river. When we were off
Hoboken I slowed down to allow a steamer to cross our bow. This,
of course, slackened the towline, with the result that when I got
under way again said line fouled the propeller, held for a second,
and then broke, sending the sloop adrift among the cakes of ice.
The crew of the derelict bark shouted to attract my attention, but
I had the hatch closed and could not hear them. I proceeded about
a mile upstream from the point of the accident before I discovered
that my tow was missing. I turned back and found my unfortunate
mariners had been picked up by a passing boat and towed back to
Jersey City.
"In November, 1883, while returning from a run through the Narrows,
we dove to a depth of sixty feet, remained on the bottom for an
hour, and came to the surface with no more trouble or inconvenience
than if we dove only eight or ten feet. Shortly after this the
_Ram's_ career ended in a rather odd way. I have no intention of
advancing any excuses for the incident, as no official explanation
was ever made to me concerning it. As a result, I never bothered
again with my backers nor they with me, but before recording the
more solemn incident I would like to mention a rather amusing one
that has just come to mind.
"One morning, on going down to board the boat, I was surprised to
find no boat there. I was puzzled for a minute, but, on inquiry of
the bystanders, I found that my engineer, Richards, had decided
to take the boat out for a run by himself. He had proceeded down
stream, but that was about all the witnesses could tell me. I
therefore walked along the wharves until I came to a crowd of men
standing on a pier and pointing out into the river. My attention
was called to a point on the surface about two hundred yards off
the pier head. There a great deal of air was coming to the surface
in countless little bubbles. The man told me that the _Irish Ram_
had just gone down there, owing to the fact that the conning tower
was open when it passed close to a barge and tug. The wash from
the tug passed over the little boat, flooded the hatch, and came
near catching Richards below. He happened to be just below the
hatch, however, and was blown out by the escaping air when the boat
went down. He floundered around in the water for a few minutes and
was finally picked up by the crew of the tug. A few minutes later
Richards appeared, still a bit pale from his rather startling
experience. It cost my backers about $3000 to raise the boat and
put her in shape again.
"The final history of the boat is told in a few words. She was
taken one night from her slip in the 'Gap' and towed to New Haven,
Connecticut. During the trip she was in charge of Breslin, one of
the trustees of the fund. I received no notice of the contemplated
move then, nor was I notified after. I am told that when they
arrived in New Haven they attempted to make dives, but handled
the boat so awkwardly that the harbor master decided that she
constituted a 'menace to navigation' and demanded a bond if any
further trials were to be made. As a result she was hauled out
of the water on the property of Reynolds, another member of the
committee, and there she still is. There is also a rumor that they
have tried to sell her to the Russian Government, but failed, as on
investigation the prospective buyers found that title to her was
not clear.
"After the _Ram_ was taken from me, I had no means of experimenting
further or building another boat. After a time I secured a position
with the Pneumatic Gun Company as a draughtsman. While employed
there I managed to interest some members of the company and some
friends of theirs in a design that I had drawn immediately after
the loss of the _Ram_. I allowed these men to examine my plans,
and they, approving of them, set about to organize a company, known
as the Nautilus Submarine Boat Company.
"During the organizing of the company I became acquainted with
Captain Zalinski, U. S. A., an expert on heavy artillery. Through
Captain Zalinski I met many influential men, who not only helped me
with the project in hand at the time, but were largely instrumental
in having my boat adopted by the United States Navy.
"At the suggestion of Captain Zalinski the boat was built at Fort
Hamilton, as he was stationed there at the time, and, being on the
army active list, could not be away from his post of duty. During
the time of her construction everything was under his supervision.
The boat was fifty feet long, six feet beam, and the hull was
constructed of wood. In 1886 the boat was launched. The launching
ways ran down from the fort wall to the water's edge. This part of
the program was in the hands of a young engineer who had either an
insufficient knowledge of the subject or lacked the ability to put
his knowledge to practical use. The result was, that when the heavy
boat started down the launching ways they suddenly collapsed and
she crashed into some piling near the water's edge, tearing out the
greater part of her side and bottom.
"On investigation it was found that the cost of repairs would
exceed the amount of money still on hand in the company's treasury.
Accordingly the wrecked boat was broken up where she lay, the
engine and fittings removed and sold, and the proceeds used to
partly reimburse the stockholders for the money they had invested.
This accident discouraged my company from any further attempts at
submarine construction. Had this boat been successful, submarines
would have become an accepted success years before they did. This
unfortunate incident held me back at least ten years, as it was
that long before I was able to secure backing to construct another
boat.
"About this time the United States Navy Department was mildly
interested in the performances of submarines in France, where
they had attained some slight degree of success. The designs for
these boats, I am sure, were based on certain fundamental points
of my _Fenian Ram_ design. As I have said previously, there were a
number of foreign officers present at Delamater's Yard from 1879
to 1881, while the boat was in course of construction, and it is
hardly to be expected that they failed to take notes. However, the
knowledge they secured did them very little good, because, while
they secured a lot of valuable data, their inexperience caused them
to disregard the most vital points, with the result that their
boats never attained any degree of success. However, I do not wish
to convey the impression that the United States Navy Department
was at this time considering building submarines as the results of
the French experiments; far from it. Had it not been informed of
the success of my _Fenian Ram_, which was far more interesting and
wonderful than anything the French had done, and still remained
unconvinced? I was totally sick and disgust
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