Salvador of the Twentieth Century
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Title: Salvador of the Twentieth Century
Author: Percy F. Martin
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ***
Transcriber's note:
Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals.
* * * * *
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
WORKS BY
PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S.
MEXICO OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
With Map, and more than 100 Illustrations. 2 Vols.
Demy 8vo. 30s. net.
"Will take its place as a standard work of reference on the
country."--_Truth._
PERU OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
With Map, and 43 Illustration. I Vol. 15s. net.
SALVADOR OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
With Map, and 48 Illustrations. 1 Vol. 15s. net.
LONDON : EDWARD ARNOLD
[Illustration: "THE COLOURS."
THE SALVADOREAN FLAG, SUPPORTED BY CADETS OF THE SCHOOL FOR
CORPORALS AND SERGEANTS.]
SALVADOR
OF THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY
BY
PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S.
AUTHOR OF
"THROUGH FIVE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA," "MEXICO OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY," "PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY," ETC.
NEW YORK
LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.
LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD
1911
[_All rights reserved_]
PREFACE
"And so I penned
It down, until at last it came to be,
For length and breadth, the bigness which you see."
BUNYAN: _Apology for his Book_.
While it is quite reasonable to hope for a consistent improvement
among the Central American nations, and as easy to discern the
extent of amelioration which has already occurred, it is necessary
to bear in mind some of the causes which have hitherto conduced to
the turbulence and the tragedies which have characterized government
by some of these smaller Latin Republics.
Many writers, who can know but little of the Spanish race, have
attributed the early failures of the States which broke away from
the Motherland, not only to lack of stability, but to a radical
psychological defect in the national character. This is a decided
mistake, for the Spanish people, both in their individual and in
their collective character, are fully as capable of exercising the
rights, and of enjoying rationally the benefits, of self-government
as any other nation of the world. The patriots and heroes who
distinguished themselves in the early days of these young Republics,
while themselves descendants of the Spaniards, generally speaking,
and having only in a few cases Indian blood in their veins, had to
combat against all the ambition and avarice, all the pride and
prejudices, of the Church-ridden land which had set its grip upon
New Spain, and meant, if possible, to keep it there. But it was
not possible, and in a few decades was witnessed their complete
expulsion as rulers from the countries which had been won by the
flower of Spain's soldiery, and lost by the exercise of Spain's
oppression and greed.
While the early history of the Latin-American Republics contains
much to distress, and even to depress, the reader, it is impossible
to avoid paying a tribute to the band of gallant men who fought so
desperately in the cause of freedom, and eventually won it. It is
not just to say, as so many historians have said, that the highest
incentives of these men to action were the favours of artificial
and hereditary greatness, with the accumulation, by whatsoever
means, of that wealth by which such favours might be purchased.
Undoubtedly some mercenary motives were at work, as they usually
are in political upheavals of this nature. Does anyone imagine, for
instance, during the disturbances which occurred in Mexico early
in the present year, and which were personally assisted by United
States citizens, that low mercenary motives were lacking? Does
anyone imagine that the numerous North American filibusters who
took part in the fighting, first on the Texas borders, and then in
Mexico itself, had any idea of assisting a persecuted people to free
themselves from the yoke of a tyrant? Or was it not the glamour of
golden lucre to be paid to them, and the promise of the much-coveted
land across the Rio Grande del Norte, that impelled these young
Yankees to throw in their lot with the rebels, trusting to their
own complacent Government at Washington to see them through--as it
actually did--any trouble which might happen to them if they proved
to be upon the losing side?
It would perhaps be equally correct to describe the early Spanish
conquerors as greedy adventurers, since they never had any ideas
of benefiting the countries or the people whom they afflicted so
sorely. It is true that they encountered fearful dangers, displayed
unheard-of bravery, overturned empires, and traversed with bloody
steps an entire continent; but it was to aggrandize the Crown of
Spain and to fill their own empty pockets with golden spoil, which,
once secured, witnessed the fulfilment of their ambitions.
It was, moreover, from this veritable horde of greedy tyrants that
in later days the peoples of these nations sought to obtain, and
finally did obtain, their freedom; their experiences of the Spanish
Viceroys, with their courts more brilliant and more corrupt than
that at Madrid itself; the persecutions of the Church, which has
left a record in Latin-America more bloody and more barbarous than
even in Europe; the deafness shown by the Spanish Crown whenever an
appeal for consideration or clemency was addressed to it--all these
things conduced to that upheaval which has taken over one hundred
years to consummate and fructify.
It was, then, against all this that the people of Central America
were called upon to fight. Can anyone be surprised at the
demoralization which occurred in their own ranks when their efforts
to secure their freedom from Spain were once crowned with success?
History shows many other such instances; indeed, bad as is the
record of the earliest days of Latin-American self-government, it
by no means stands without parallel. The objects--beyond a desire
to be free from the brutal tyranny of the Spanish Viceroys--of the
Latin-American revolutionists were never very clearly defined or
well understood. Neither was any preconceived or organized plan ever
made or carried out in connection with the French Revolution.
Some historians are of opinion that the revolutionists of Central
America originally contemplated the establishment of an independent
Kingdom or Monarchy which should comprise the ancient Vice-Royalty,
or, as it was called, the "Kingdom of Guatemala." But there is
little evidence that any such notion was generally popular. Among
the body of office-seekers and hangers-on of royal Courts it may,
of course, have been regarded with favour. But the Provisional
Junta, which was convoked immediately after the separation from
Spain, showed a great majority of Liberals, who, in spite of the
pressure brought to bear upon them, and the personal danger in which
they stood, proceeded boldly to administer the oath of absolute
independence, and to convoke an assembly of patriots which should
organize the country on the basis of Republican institutions. The
effort which was made later on through French machinations to
establish a monarchy in Mexico failed dismally, as had the previous
efforts put forward by the Mexicans themselves, when Iturbide was
made--or, to be more correct, made himself--Emperor for a very brief
period.
The people of Central America were but few in number, and were
widely distributed over the face of the country. It took several
weeks to get into communication with some of the outlying districts,
and the diffusion of the newly-created voters prevented them from
becoming in any way a united people, or even cognizant of what was
being done in their name. In fact, while anxiously awaiting the
intelligence that their Junta was about to issue the long-looked-for
Republican Charter, the people of Salvador received the startling
and disastrous news that their country was to be incorporated
into the Mexican Empire. They had been basely betrayed, and it is
small wonder that they stood aghast at the colossal nature of that
betrayal.
Terrible indeed was the position for the newly-arisen Republic
of Salvador. The men whom they had sent to attend the Junta
at Guatemala City were met and overawed by armed bands; their
deliberations were forcibly interrupted and suspended; some of them,
such as Bedoya, Maida, and others, were ruthlessly assassinated,
while their own leader and President of the Provisional Junta, one
Gainza, turned traitor and went over to the enemy under promise of a
high post in the new royal Government.
Salvador was the nearest province to Guatemala, and the centre of
Liberalism. It was not long before the patriots of this country
took up arms in the defence of their newly-acquired freedom, and
when they did theirs was practically the first battle which was
fought upon Central American territory by Central Americans among
themselves. Unfortunately, it was by no means the last; and history
bristles with instances of terrible internecine warfare--of father
arrayed against son, brother against brother, and of whole families,
once united in bonds of love, wrenched asunder, never again to be
reconciled this side of the grave. For years following, the soil
of this beautiful land was drenched with human blood, its energies
crippled, its resources abandoned. Are we justified in supposing
that the end has come? I verily believe that, if it has not
actually arrived, it is at least in sight.
It must be remembered that the people of Central America are no
longer an uneducated and unduly excitable race, except, perhaps,
where their personal honour and independence are concerned; they
possess an exceedingly clear and precise knowledge of their
prospective or immediate requirements; they have as enlightened
leaders among them as ever their powerful Northern neighbour
possessed or possesses: all that they ask, and all that they should
be granted, is the freedom to manage their own affairs in their
own way and in their own time. A well-known writer upon Central
America, who visited these countries some five-and-fifty years
ago, declared: "Even as it was no one, whatever his prejudices,
could fail to perceive the advance in the manners and customs, and
the change in the spirit, of the people of Central America during
the ten years of freedom which the Constitution secured." If that
was true then, it is doubly, trebly true to-day, when education
and foreign travel have served to open the minds and broaden the
tolerance of these people, who may reasonably be permitted, and even
earnestly encouraged, to work out their own salvation. By free and
unrestricted intercourse with the nations of the world this can best
be effected, and day by day is proving the truth of the saying of
Dr. Johnson: "The use of travelling is to regulate imagination by
reality, and, instead of thinking how things _may_ be, see them as
they _are_."
_October_, 1911.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGES
Discovery of Salvador--Scenery--Volcanoes--Separation of
Salvador from Spanish dominion--Central American
Confederation--Attempts to reconstruct it--General
Barríos--Lake Ilopango--Earthquake results--Remarkable
phenomena--Public roads--Improvement under Figueroan
Government 1-12
CHAPTER II
Government--Executive power--Chamber of Congress--The
Cabinet--Justice--The courts--Prisons and prisoners--
Employment and treatment--Police force--How distributed--
Education--Colleges and schools--State-aided education--
Teaching staffs--Primary education--Posts and telegraphs--
Improved interstate parcels post 13-35
CHAPTER III
Biographical--The President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo--The
ex-President, General Figueroa--The Cabinet--Dr. don
Francesco Dueñas, Minister for Foreign Affairs--Dr. don
Teodosio Corranza, Home Affairs--Dr. Gustavo Baron, Public
Instruction--Ingeniero Peralta Lagos--Dr. Castro V.--Don
Eusebio Bracamonte--Don Miguel Dueñas--Department of
Agriculture--Señor Carlos Garcia Prieto, Finance and
Public Credit 36-48
CHAPTER IV
Government finances--London Market appreciation of Salvador
bonds--History of foreign debt--Salvador Railway
security--Central American Public Works Company--Changing
the guarantee--Financial conditions to-day--Public debt at
end of 1909--Budget for 1910-11--Small deficit may be
converted into surplus--Summary 49-60
CHAPTER V
Salvador _versus_ Honduras and Nicaragua--Attitude of the
President--Proclamation to the people--Generals Rivas and
Alfaro--Invasion of Salvador--Ignominious retreat of
enemy--Conciliatory conduct of General Figueroa--Character
of Salvadorean people--Treachery of Zelaya 61-73
CHAPTER VI
Outbreak of hostilities between Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Guatemala--Discreditable conduct of
Nicaragua proved--Failure of United States and Mexican
intervention--Dignified and loyal attitude of General
Figueroa--Warning to Honduras--President Davila used as
Zelaya's cat's-paw--The former's subsequent regret--Central
American Court of Justice trial of claim for damages and
result of judgment 74-85
CHAPTER VII
The Army--Division of forces--Active reserve--Auxiliary--
Republic's fighting strength--Military education--Strict
training--Excellent discipline--Schools and polytechnics--
Manual exercise--Workshops and output--Economies in
equipments--Garrison services--Barracks--Destruction of
Zapote Barracks--New constructions at Capital, Santa Ana,
Santa Tecla, Sitio-del-Niño, Ahuachapán, Cojutepeque, San
Miguel--Annual expenditure 86-95
CHAPTER VIII
British Minister to Salvador--Lionel Edward Gresley
Carden--British Legation hospitality--Mrs. Carden--
Government indifference to valuable services--British
Vice-Consul--No report for twenty years--Foreign Office
neglect--United States Minister--Valuable trade information
from American Legation--Salvadorean relations with
Washington 96-109
CHAPTER IX
United States information for traders--Improved Consular
services--United States and Salvador Government--Bureau
of Pan-American Republics--Mr. Mark J. Kelly--Exceptional
services--The American Minister, Major W. and Mrs.
Heimké--Salvadorean Minister to U.S.A., Señor Federico
Mejía--Central American Peace Conference and the United
States 110-119
CHAPTER X
Latin-American trade and British diplomacy--Serious handicap
inflicted by the British Government--Sacrificing British
interests--Why British trade has been lost to Salvador--
United States trade with Salvador--German competition--
Teutonic characteristics--Britain's free trade
principles--Severe American rivalry--United States Steel
Company's methods 120-136
CHAPTER XI
British trade declines--Suggested remedy--Distributing
centres--Trading companies and branches--Unattractive
cheap goods--Former hold on Salvadorean markets--
Comparative statistics between Great Britain, Germany,
and the United States--Woollen and cotton goods--Absence
of British bottoms from Salvadorean ports--Markets open
to British manufacturers--Agricultural implements 137-149
CHAPTER XII
British fire apparatus--Story of a British installation--
Coffee and sugar machinery--Cane-mills--Fawcett, Preston
and Co.'s installations--High reputation enjoyed by British
firms--United States coffee equipment--German competition--
Methods of German commercial travellers--Openings for
British trade--Effect of Panama Canal--Libel upon Salvador
manufacturers--Salvador Chamber of Commerce 150-165
CHAPTER XIII
Systems of business--Long credits--British and United States
methods _versus_ German--Making "good" stock losses--
Question of exchange--Effect upon business--Drafts and
speculators--Customary terms of payment--Central American
banks as agents--Prominent Salvadorean banks--The Press of
the Republic--Prominent newspapers--Some of their
contributors--Central American Press Conference 166-180
CHAPTER XIV
Mining--Ancient workings--Precious metals found--Copper
deposits--Iron ores--Treatment of ores in England--
Difficulties of transport--Some deceased authorities--
Mines in operation--Butters' Salvador mines--History of
undertaking--Large profits earned--Directorial policy--
Machinery and equipment--Butters' Divisadero Mines--
Butters' cyaniding plant 181-195
CHAPTER XV
Transportation--Salvador Railway Company--Early
construction--Gauge--Bridges--Locomotives--Rolling-
stock--_Personnel_ of railway--Steamship service--
Extensions--Increasing popularity--Exchange and influence
on railway success--Importers _versus_ planters--Financial
conditions--Projected extensions--Geological survey--Mr.
Minor C. Keith's Salvador concession 196-215
CHAPTER XVI
Ports and harbours--La Unión--Population--Railway
extensions--Lack of British bottoms--Carrying trade--
H.B.M. Vice-Consul--Port of Triunfo--Improving the
entrance--Proposed railway--Acajutla--Loading and
unloading cargoes--Proposed improvements--Salvador
Railway connections--La Libertad--Commandante and
garrison--Loading and unloading cargoes--Cable station
and the service provided by Government--The staff of
operators 216-227
CHAPTER XVII
Agriculture--Government support and supervision--Annual
productions--Agricultural schools--Cattle-breeding--
Coffee--Sugar--Tobacco--Forestry--Rice--Beans--Cacao--
Balsam--Treatment by natives 228-246
CHAPTER XVIII
Departments: Capital cities--Population--Districts--
Salvador Department--City of San Salvador--Situation--
Surroundings--Destruction in 1854 by earthquake--
Description of catastrophe--Loss of life actually
small--Evacuation of city--Recuperative faculty of the
people 247-255
CHAPTER XIX
City of San Salvador--San Salvador as place of residence--
Theatres--Parks--Streets--Hotels--Domestic servants--
Hospitality of residents--Societies and associations--
Educational establishments--Government buildings--Religion
and churches--Casino--Hospitals and institutions--
Disastrous conflagrations--Public monuments 256-275
CHAPTER XX
Department of Chalatenango--Rich agricultural
territories--Annual fair--Generally prosperous
conditions--Department of Cuscutlán--City of
Cojutepeque--Industries--Cigar factories--Volcanoes--
Lake of Cojutepeque--Department of Cabañas--Scenic
features--Feast of Santa Barbara--Department of San
Vicente--Public buildings and roads 276-286
CHAPTER XXI
Department of La Libertad--Physical characteristics--
Balsam Coast--Santa Tecla--Department of Sonsonate--
Life and hotels--Department of Ahuachapán--City of
Ahuachapán--Public buildings and baths--Projected
railway extension--Department of Santa Ana--Chief
city--Generally prosperous conditions 287-299
CHAPTER XXII
Department of La Paz--Characteristics--Zacatecoluca--
Population--Former proportions--Districts--Towns--
Principal estates--Santiago--Nonualco--San Juan
Nonualco--Climate--Water-supply--Santa Maria Ostuma--
Mercedes la Ceiba--San Pedro Mashuat--Some minor
estates--Small property holdings 300-305
CHAPTER XXIII
Department of San Miguel--Postless coast--Indigo
plantations--City of San Miguel--Cathedral--Water-
supply--Archæological interests--Projected railway
connections 306-310
Department of Morazán--City of Gotéra--Mountains and
fertile plains--Agricultural produce 310-311
Department of La Unión--Boundaries--Scenery--Guascorán
River--Industries--Commerce 311-313
Department of Usulután--Physical characteristics--Volcanic
curiosities--Surrounding villages--Populations--El
Triunfo--Santiago de Maria 313-316
CONCLUSION 317-320
INDEX 321-328
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
"The Colours" _Frontispiece_
Views on New National Road, between San Vicente
and Ilopango 8
H. E. Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of the Republic
of Salvador 1911-1915 18
The 3rd Company, Sergeants' School, in Review Order 28
Company in Line, Sergeants' School 28
Section of Riflemen kneeling, Sergeants' School 28
General Fernando Figueroa, President of the Republic of
Salvador 1907-1911 38
Dr. Artúro Ramón Ávila, Consul-General for the Republic of
Salvador to Great Britain, appointed May, 1911 46
Artillery on Parade-Ground, San Salvador Barracks 60
Colonel's Quarters, School of Sergeants 70
Officers' Club-Room, School of Sergeants 70
Penitentiary at San Salvador 78
Officers' Club-Room, Military Polytechnic School 78
Colonel, Adjutant, and Captains of Company 86
Cadet Corps, School of Sergeants 86
Mr. Lionel Edward Gresley Carden, C.M.G., H.B.M.
Minister-Resident at Salvador (as well as at Guatemala,
Nicaragua, and Honduras) 98
Front of Sergeants' School, San Salvador 108
Typical Street in San Salvador, showing Style of
One-Storey Houses 108
Mr. Mark Jamestown Kelly, F.R.G.S., for Fifteen Years
Consul-General in Great Britain for Salvador (retired
June, 1911), and Chairman of the Salvador Railway
Company, Limited 114
Side-view of "El Rotulo" Bridge 118
The National Road leading to La Libertad, showing "El
Rotulo" Bridge 118
Entrance to Avenida La Ceiba at San Salvador 130
The Famous Avenida under Construction 130
View of the New Avenida leading to San Salvador, taken
from the North 140
View of the Picturesque Town of Marcala 150
El Parque Barríos, one of the most Beautiful Public Resorts
in Central America 162
Government Building ("Casa Blanca"), San Salvador 178
Campo de Marte (Racecourse), San Salvador 178
1. View of Butters' Divisadero Mines, Department of
Morazán, Salvador 188
2. Butters' Salvador Mines, Santa Rosa, Department of La
Unión, Salvador 188
Map of the Salvador Railway 198
Deck Bridge on Salvador Railway 206
Station Building at Santa Ana on the Salvador Railway 206
Mr. Charles T. Spencer, General Manager of the Salvador
Railway, appointed May, 1911 222
Don Juan Amaya, Governor of the Department of Cuscutlán 222
Native Habitation in the Hot Country 232
Native making Sugar from a Primitive Wooden Mill 232
A Street in Sonsonate (Calle de Mercado) 242
Type of "Quinta" or Country-House in Santa Tecla (New San
Salvador) 242
Public Park in San Salvador, where Throngs of Well-dressed
People assemble in the Evening to listen to an Excellent
Military Band 258
New National Palace at San Salvador 268
Theatre at Santa Ana, Department of Santa Ana 268
Cathedral of Sonsonate, Department of Sonsonate 274
Public Park at Cojutepeque, Department of Cuscutlán 284
Barracks at Cojutepeque, Department of Cuscutlán 284
Municipal Palace at Sonsonate, Department of Sonsonate 294
Group of Salvadoreans of the Superior Working-Class 314
The "Stately" Offices of His Britannic Majesty's Vice-Consul
at La Unión, one of the Principal Ports in Salvador 306
Barracks at Santa Tecla (New San Salvador) 306
Map of the Republic of Salvador _At end_
SALVADOR OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
CHAPTER I
Discovery of Salvador--Scenery--Volcanoes--Topographical
features--Mountain ranges--Natural fertility--Lake
Ilopango--Earthquake results--Remarkable phenomena--
Disappearance of islands--Public roads improvement
and construction under Figueroa government.
It was in the year 1502 that Christopher Columbus, that remarkable
and noble-minded Genoese, undeterred by the shameful treatment meted
out to him by his adopted countrymen in Spain, sailed away to the
East Indies in search of a new passage; and it was in consequence
of the mutiny among his ruffianly followers that, putting into
Hispaniola, Salvador was discovered. For something over 300 years
Spain ruled, and ruled brutally; the history of her government
here--as elsewhere through Latin America--being one long series of
oppressions, cruelties and injustices practised upon the unfortunate
natives and the Spanish residents alike. The ill-treatment extended
to Columbus is but a case in point.
Lying on the Pacific Ocean, between the parallels of 13° and 14°
10' N. latitude, and the meridians of 87° and 90° W. longitude,
Salvador has a coast-line of about 160 miles, extending from the Bay
of Fonseca to the River Paz, which is one of the boundaries between
this Republic and the neighbouring State of Guatemala. While
Salvador is the smallest of the five different countries forming the
Central American group, boasting of but 9,600 square miles, it not
alone possesses some of the richest and most beautiful territory,
but has the densest population as well as the most considerable
industry and the most important commerce.
Very remarkable are the topographical features of Salvador, and
very profound is the impression created upon the traveller's mind
as he approaches it for the first time through the beautiful Bay of
Fonseca, with its wealth of tropical scenery, the romantic islands
and the background of noble mountains, afforested to the tops of
their numerous peaks, and filling the mind with awe at the memory of
their numerous destructive eruptions through the centuries.
The coast here presents, for the greater part, a belt of low-lying,
richly wooded alluvial land, varying in width from ten to twenty
miles. Behind this, and displaying an abrupt face seawards, rises a
noble range of coast mountains--or rather a broad plateau--having an
average elevation of 2,000 feet, and relieved by numerous volcanic
peaks. It is not the height of these mountains that lends so much
dignity and beauty, for, as mountains go, they would be considered
as anything but remarkable. It is their extraordinary formation,
their almost terrible proximity, and their long and terrifying
history, which challenge the attention of the individual who gazes
upon them for the first time.
Between the range and the great primitive chain of the Cordilleras
beyond, lies a broad valley varying in width from twenty to thirty
miles, and being over 100 miles in length. Very gently the coastal
plateau subsides towards this magnificent valley, which is drained
and abundantly watered by the River Lempa, and is unsurpassed for
natural beauty and fertility by any equal extent of country in the
tropics.
The northern border of this terrestrial paradise--so far as the eye
can judge it--rests upon the flank of the mountains of Honduras,
which tower skywards about it to the height of 6,000 to 8,000 feet,
broken and rugged to the very summits. To the south of the Lempa,
however, the country rises from the immediate and proper valley of
the river, first in the form of a terrace with a very abrupt face,
and afterward by a gradual slope to the summit of the plateau.
Then comes another curious physical feature--a deep, green, and
wooded basin of altogether unique scenic beauty and fertility,
formed by the system of numerous small rivers which rise in the
western part of the country around the feet of the volcano Santa
Ana, falling finally into the sea near Sonsonate. This formation is
in the shape of a triangle, the base resting on the sea, and the
apex defined by the volcano. A second and even a larger basin is
that of the River San Miguel, lying transversely to the valley of
the River Lempa, in the eastern division of the State, and separated
only by a number of smaller detached mountains from the Bay of
Fonseca.
Approaching the Salvadorean coast upon any of the steamers which run
there, one is confronted with no fewer than eleven great volcanoes,
which literally bristle along the east of the plateau which has been
mentioned as intervening between the valley of the Lempa and the
sea. As a boy and a keen philatelist, I always wondered why Salvador
postage-stamps had a group of three active and terrible-looking
volcanoes upon their faces. When I visited that country for the
first time I understood. The long row of sentinels, grim, yet
extraordinarily beautiful, form a right line from north-west to
south-east, accurately coinciding with the great line of volcanic
action which is clearly defined from Mexico to Peru. Commencing on
the side of Guatemala their order is as follows: Apaneca, Santa Ana,
Izalco, San Salvador, San Vicente, Usulután, Tecapa, Zacatecoluca,
Chinameca, San Miguel, and Conchagua. There are others of lesser
note, besides a family of extinct volcanoes, whose craters are
sometimes filled with water, as well as numerous volcanic vents or
"blow-holes," which the natives not inaptly call _infiernillos_,
_i.e._, "little hells!" Even the apparently harmless and beautiful
island of Tigre, which occupies the centre of the Bay of Fonseca,
and a veritable picture of scenic grandeur, is a slumbering volcano,
and has a history at once interesting and terrifying. The memorable
Cosieguina, El Viejo, Felica, and Momotombo, in Nicaragua, face El
Tigre on the other side.
The most beautiful of the Republic's many volcanic lakes is that of
Ilopango, on the borders of which is situated the village of the
same name, with a scattered population of between 1,400 and 1,500
people. The lake is some 6·85 miles long from west to east, about
5·11 miles wide, with an area of 25·1 square miles and a developed
shore-line of 28·8 miles. The late President of the Republic,
General Fernando Figueroa, was kind enough to place a steam-launch
at my disposal, which enabled me to see the lake under the most
favourable auspices, and in company with his nephew, Señor Angulo, I
spent several interesting hours upon its calm, deep green surface.
This lake has been the scene of numerous remarkable volcanic
phenomena, the most recent of which took place a few weeks after my
visit, and resulted in the centre islands, which were one of its
most charming features, completely disappearing beneath the surface
of its waters.
In January, 1880, the lake had also been the scene of a severe
earthquake, which shook the entire surrounding country. Upon this
occasion the waters suddenly rose about 4 feet above their usual
level, and, flowing into the bed of the Jibóa--a stream which forms
the usual outlet from the lake--increased it to the proportions of
a broad and raging river, which soon made for itself a channel from
30 to 35 feet in depth. A rapid subsidence in the level of the lake
was thus produced, and by March 6 in the same year the surface was
34 feet below its maximum. It was then that the rugged and stony
island, about 500 feet in diameter, and which I have mentioned
above, suddenly rose over the waters, reaching to a height of 150
feet above the level of the lake and being surrounded by several
smaller islands, the waters all around becoming intensely hot.
Previous to this extraordinary phenomenon, the bottom of the lake,
so I was informed, had been gradually rising, and so violent was the
flood when it occurred, that the small village of Atuscatla, near
the outlet, was entirely destroyed.
Some years afterwards--namely, in February, 1892--while some severe
earthquakes were taking place in Guatemala, their reflex was felt
in the same spot--Atuscatla, on Lake Ilopango--Lieutenant Hill, who
was then making investigations in Salvador on behalf of the United
States Government, declaring that a shock was felt lasting fifteen
seconds, and then continued with gradually decreasing force for a
further one minute and five seconds.
When I was a visitor to Ilopango, there were two extremely
comfortable hotels to be found on the banks, both having some very
convenient bathing facilities to offer, and each having a beautiful
garden attached. During the hot season, and upon Sundays and all
holidays, these hotels are crowded with visitors from San Salvador,
who ride out in parties, there being no other mode of reaching
the lake. The road is a truly beautiful one, travellers crossing
numerous streams and passing through shady, blossom-covered woods,
containing many magnificent trees. By moonlight this route appears
remarkably picturesque, and many people prefer to make the journey
thus. Ilopango is some four hours' ride from the capital, and the
journey across the lake usually occupies another two or three
hours in an electric or naphtha launch. The hotels and bathing
establishments, however, are located upon the side of the lake
nearest to San Salvador.
The outline of the beautiful Ilopango Lake, when last surveyed,
was quite accurately determined by means of intersections from the
various topographical stations. Its surface in January, 1893, was
found to be 1,370 feet (417·6 metres) above the sea. Its actual
depth the surveyors had no means of ascertaining; its basin,
however, is far below the general level of the surrounding ridges,
which are all volcanic. Those to the north and east are formed of
layers of sand and ashes partially compacted, yellowish in colour,
and throwing out spurs towards the lake, terminating in steep
bluffs. West of the lake the ground rises to the San Jacinto Hills;
but the soft material composing it has been eroded into a maze of
sharp ridges and deep gulches. The eastern hills are also broken
into a succession of knife-like ridges.
Professor Goodyear, a famous American geologist, has said that the
southern hills consist entirely of volcanic materials, but are of a
much harder and firmer structure than those of the north and east,
being composed largely of conglomerates containing boulders well
cemented together. The lake is situated upon the volcanic axis of
the country, and has long been the seat of numerous earthquakes and
active volcanic phenomena, the most violent of recent times being
those of 1879 and 1880. According to the same Professor Goodyear,
there was a series of earthquake shocks, some of great violence,
extending from December 22 to January 12, 1880, followed by a period
of quiet until the night of January 20, when, after a series of
loud reports and explosions, followed by violent hissings and dense
clouds of steam, a mass of volcanic rock rose from the centre of
the lake to a height of 58 feet (17·7 metres). Previous to this the
bottom of the lake had been gradually rising until January 11, and
the waters had been lifted to maximum height of 5·2 feet above their
usual level. This sudden rise converted the outlet from a small
stream--not over 20 feet wide and a foot deep, and with a current
of two or three miles per hour--into a raging torrent discharging
as much water as a great river. So violent was the flood that the
small village of Atuscatla, situated near the outlet, was as stated,
destroyed, and the channel was so widened and deepened that the
waters of the lake fell 38·6 feet (11·75 metres) from the highest
point reached, or 33·4 feet (10·17 metres) below their original
level. During the time of this flood the Rio Jibóa, which carries
off the waters of the lake, was enormously swollen and became very
muddy, and in the lower portion overflowed its banks, flooding broad
tracts of the plain. By the middle of February, 1880, the lake
adjusted itself to the new conditions, and since that time, until
the visitation of last year (1910), there had been no great change
in its level; the variations at present going on are due to the
excess of precipitation during the rainy months over that which is
prevalent in the dry season.
Anyone who had seen Salvador, say, ten years ago, and who revisited
it to-day, would assuredly be impressed by the great improvement
which has taken place in, and the extension of, both the main and
sub-roads of the Republic. Whereas in former times the roads were
only passable in the dry season, and were even then very trying to
travellers on account of the dust encountered, while in the wet
season they became mere morasses, to-day they are in the majority of
cases so well built and so carefully maintained that even in the wet
season of the year it is quite possible to use them.
This great improvement has been brought about mainly by the
enterprise of the late President, General Fernando Figueroa, who
evinced a keen and consistent interest in opening up new means of
communication by making public roadways of enduring worth, his
excellent work being actively continued by his present successor.
[Illustration: VIEWS ON NEW NATIONAL ROAD, BETWEEN SAN VICENTE AND
ILOPANGO.]
The main routes of communication in Salvador run longitudinally
through the country, from Rio Paz and the city of Ahuachapán on
the west, to La Unión and the Rio Guascorán on the east. From this
central line, which connects all the important cities and towns
of the interior, other roads run out like spurs to the towns and the
cities to the northward, or to those of the coast to the southward.
Thus, from Santa Ana there is a road north to Metapán, and one south
to Sonsonate and Acajutla. Ahuachapán also has a road to Sonsonate
via Ataco and Apaneca, two towns which are located high up in the
mountains. At Sitio de Niño, on the Salvador Railway line, there is
a road northward to Opico. Here, also, the main road to the city
of San Salvador divides, one branch going north to the volcano of
that name, and the other to the south of it via the famous Guarumál
Ravine and Santa Tecla. From the city of San Salvador there are
roads north to Chalatenango via Tonacatepeque, and south to the port
of La Libertad via Santa Tecla.
Cojutepeque is connected by road to the towns of Ilobasco and
Sensuntepeque to the north-east. San Vicente has a road to the
port of La Libertad, running south-west via Zacatecoluca. At San
Vicente the main east and west road separates, one branch going
to the north of the Tecapa-San Miguel group of volcanoes, via the
cities of Jucuapa and Chinameca to San Miguel, and the other south
via the city of Usulután. San Miguel has several roads leading in
all directions. There is one north to the town of Gotera, another
north-east to the Mining District via Jocoró and Santa Rosa, which
continues to the principal crossings of the Rio Guascorán; and there
is yet another, running nearly due east to La Unión, on the Gulf of
Fonseca.
I was in the country while construction was proceeding in connection
with the Ilopango-San Vicente road improvements, and I was much
impressed with the thoroughness of the work being undertaken. The
new construction was some 40 kilometres long by 6-1/2 to 7 metres
in width (say 20 to 25 feet). It was commenced in 1906, and it will
be finished by the end of next year (1912). It is estimated to cost
not less than 350,000 pesos. It is a purely Government undertaking,
and ranks as one of the most important highways in the Republic.
At first over 250 men were employed, but as the work progressed
this number was reduced to 200. The highest part of the road is cut
through the side of the mountain at 210 metres (say 700 feet) above
the shore of Lake Ilopango. The steepest gradient is 7 per cent.,
and the minimum radius 20 feet. The most expensive part was that
between Kilometre 14 and Kilometre 13, where extremely hard rocks
have had to be cut through. At one point ten men were engaged for a
period of nine months upon the most difficult part, and they were
suspended from above by ropes, in order to reach and to cut down the
massive timber trees obstructing progress.
The Chief Engineer engaged by the Government to undertake this
contract is Señor Don Juan Luis Buerón, a German by birth, having
seen the light at Königsberg; but he is a United States citizen
by adoption. Señor Buerón is now seventy-eight years of age,
and although he is getting rather beyond active hard work, his
valuable experience and shrewd judgment are much appreciated by
the Government in all such matters as road construction. He has
built many public roads in North America, he told me, and was also
responsible for laying the track of the Havana (Cuba) tramways.
This interesting old engineer had also gained some experience in
Mexico before the days of Maximilian (1857-1869). He now occupies a
position of comfort, and enjoys the deep respect of the hundreds of
_peons_ who call him master. Señor Juan Buerón junior, the son, is
an equally capable road engineer, and assists his father in his work
for the Government of Salvador.
Another road deserving of mention is that which has been put under
the charge of the official engineer, Don Guillermo Quirós, and
one which unites the town of Santiago-de-María with the port of
Linares, on the River Lempa, passing through Alegría. The section
from Santiago-de-María to Alegría has been completed, and it was
officially inaugurated while I was in the Republic; the journey from
Berlín to the River Lempa can now be continued with much greater
celerity. Very considerable are the advantages that this highway
has brought to that part of the country, in which are situated the
most valuable coffee plantations, whose owners now find far greater
conveniences for bringing the berry to the port of El Triunfo,
since the road leading to this place has also been repaired and
widened to facilitate the transit by beasts of burden. The official
engineer, Don Manuel Aragón, has been occupied with the planning and
opening of a road from Citalá, in the department of Chalatenango,
to Metapán, in the department of Santa Ana. The road leading from
this capital to the port of La Libertad is likewise the object of
attention. The official engineer, Don Andrés Soriano, with a gang
of foremen and labourers, have been working for several months past
repairing it.
This highroad continually needs very large sums of money for
maintenance. The repairs which in former years have been carried out
have proved anything but lasting, owing to the serious mistakes in
construction of an engineer who put into practice certain untried
experiments, which completely failed.
It is necessary now to remedy this mistake, and drains and aqueducts
have had to be constructed on the road where none previously
existed, to avoid, in the rainy season, destruction by the strong
currents of water rushing over it. The official engineer, Don
Alberto Pinto, was occupied during a good part of the year 1908 upon
road works, having made many alterations, improvements and widenings
in the roads of the Departments of San Miguel, La Unión, Usulután,
Chalatenango, Santa Ana and Cabañas.
On the way from Mercedes to Jucuapa, and also upon the road to San
Miguel, it is proposed to construct a bridge of stone and mortar,
at the place called Barrancas de Jucuapa; the chief engineer, Señor
Pinto, has already made an estimate and sent in the corresponding
plans. The cost will amount to a little more or a little less than
$10,000.
CHAPTER II
Early Days of independence--"Central American Federation"--
Constitutional Presidents--Executive power--Chamber
of Congress--The Cabinet--Justice--The courts--Prisons and
prisoners--Employment and treatment--Police force--How
distributed--Education--Colleges and schools--State-aided
education--Teaching staffs--Primary education--Posts and
telegraphs--Improved interstate parcels post.
The breaking away from Spanish dominion (although the seeds of
revolution were laid as far back as 1811) did not take place until
ten years later, and coincided with the successful termination of
the struggle for liberty which occurred in Mexico under the patriot
priest Hidalgo. Salvador gained its freedom, comparatively speaking,
without bloodshed; and on September 15, 1821, it was declared a free
and independent State. In the year following an attempt was made
to annex the country to the Mexican Empire, under the rule of the
ambitious and unscrupulous Emperor Agustin Yturbide, during his very
brief reign, in 1822. As history relates, this presumptuous Mexican
was born in Valladolid (now known as Morelia) on September 27, 1783,
and he was sentenced to death and shot on July 19, 1824.
It is to the credit of Salvador that it was the one Central
American State which firmly resisted the invasion of the Mexican
troops; but in the end it had to submit to a far superior force,
commanded by General Filisola, and was then formally incorporated
into the Mexican Empire. This humiliation endured, however, for
a very brief time, since in the following year Yturbide met his
violent death, after which a Constitutional Convention was called,
and in 1824 a Federal Republic was declared bearing the name of
the "Central American Federation." This was composed of the five
States--Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica--the
first President being General Manuel José Arce.
Party jealousies and personal ambitions, however, soon brought about
disintegration, and in spite of the efforts of some far-seeing
patriots, who considered that in union alone lay the hope of peace,
security and prosperity for their country, the form of government
proved wholly impracticable. Nevertheless it continued for a few
years to struggle along, General Francisco Morazán, doing his
best to maintain order and to save the union from disruption.
Notwithstanding all his efforts, the Federation was dissolved
in 1839, and the five States again became independent Sovereign
Republics. Three years later General Morazán unwisely made another
effort to reunite the countries; but his attempt was treacherously
rewarded by a conspiracy against his life, followed by his execution
in San José, Costa Rica, in the month of September, 1842.
Since his death various attempts have been made from time to
time, to reunite the several Republics, the last effort of this
kind having been prosecuted by General Zelaya, perhaps one of the
most unscrupulous and dishonest, as well as one of the cruellest,
Spanish-Americans who has ever attained supreme power. Whatever
chances of success a United Central America might have had, under
the auspices of a Zelaya it could have never met with anything but
failure. General Zelaya, in spite of frantic efforts to maintain
his position, was himself chased from Nicaragua in 1909, and is now
said to be living in Europe upon the proceeds of the money which he
is declared to have filched from his country during his long and
oppressive reign.
In the year 1885, General Justo Rufino Barríos, President of
Guatemala, had sought to accomplish what Morazán had failed to do;
but his efforts ended equally in disaster. On August 13, 1886,
the Constitution which is at present in force was promulgated,
and General Menéndez was elected as first President under that
Constitution by popular vote in 1887, for the term ending in 1890.
He was succeeded by General Carlos Ezeta, who was inaugurated on
March 1, 1891. The third President was General Rafael Gutierrez.
Then followed General Tomás Regaládo; Don Pedro José Escalón;
General Fernando Figueroa; and the ruling President, Doctor Manuel
Enrique Araujo.
The form of government in vogue is that of a free, sovereign and
independent Republic--that is to say, democratic, elective, and
representative. The Constitution now in existence is contained in
a code of articles. The Government is divided into Legislative,
Executive, and Judicial sections. The Legislative power is vested in
the National Assembly, which is composed of one Chamber, and having
the title of the National Chamber of Deputies. This consists of 42
members, three Deputies being elected for each Department by direct
popular vote for a term of one year, the right to vote being vested
in every male citizen who is over eighteen years of age. It is to
be observed that every Salvadorean is not only privileged, but is
compelled to vote, thus doing his duty to the State.
The Executive consists of a President and a Vice-President, who are
elected by popular vote for a term of four years. In addition to
being Chief Magistrate, the President is also Commander-in-Chief
of the Army. In the event of a failure to elect the Executive, a
President is chosen by a majority of votes in the Congress from
among the three candidates having polled the largest number of
votes in the popular election. He is not eligible for re-election
either as President or as Vice-President until four years shall
have elapsed. The date of the Executive's inauguration is on March
1 following the election, which is usually held in the month of
November.
The administration of each of the fourteen different Departments
is in the hands of a Governor, who is selected by the President
from personal knowledge of both his capacity and temperament.
Besides administering the civil affairs of the territory under his
jurisdiction, this official is usually either a military man or one
possessed of adequate military knowledge; and he is thus Commandant
of the military of his Department.
It was my pleasure to meet, and spend some considerable time in the
company of, many of the Governors of the different Departments, and
I was deeply impressed with their general thoroughness of purpose,
their keen desire in all cases to further the interests of their
Departments, and to apply to their benefit any and every advantage
which could be adapted from the governments of other countries.
The municipalities, on the other hand, are managed entirely by their
own officials, all of whom are elected by the people themselves.
The officials comprise an Alcade, or Mayor, a Syndic and several
Regidores, or Aldermen, these being numbered according to the size
of the population. A good deal of competition exists for office, and
at the time of election much amusement is derived from watching the
canvassing in progress. There is a decidedly healthy appearance of
municipal enterprise in most of the towns of Salvador, and, taking
these as a whole, they seem to be uncommonly well administered. In
the accepted sense of the word, there is no real poverty, no slums,
no crying "graft" scandal demanding redress, as in our much-vaunted
civilization, and such charities as are rendered necessary in
the form of hospital relief and medical attention are rendered
cheerfully and as a matter of course, entailing neither a favour nor
a dependence upon either party.
In Salvador, as in all the Latin-American Republics, the President
is a reality, and not a mere figure-head. He makes his presence
felt, and yet, in a perfectly constitutional manner; he associates
the form of a democracy with the reality of government. For many
years past the people have had, and have to-day, an excellent
example of a thoroughly sensible and dignified Chief Executive, who
has firmly upheld the good name of the country and piloted it with a
strong, and even masterly, hand through a maze of difficulties. Of
General Fernando Figueroa as of Doctor don Manuel Enrique Araujo,
it may truthfully be said that they have kept before them a lofty
ideal of the honour of their nation, and one which has been the one
incentive in guiding their policy. The whole demeanour of these
distinguished men has been productive of the country's esteem, while
their real qualities for administration have not been denied even
by their most determined political opponents.
The _personnel_ of the present Ministry in Salvador reflects the
best intelligence and the greatest administrative ability of that
country, the President having selected from among the former members
of the Cabinet, and added to their number, such persons as enjoy
the confidence of the majority of the Congress; and he has retained
them as his advisers and his coadjutors so long as, and not longer
than, that confidence continues. The present Cabinet consist of the
following:
MINISTERS OR SECRETARIES OF STATE.
Foreign Affairs, Justice and Beneficence: Doctor don Francisco
Dueñas. Interior, Industry ("Fomento"), Public Instruction and
Agriculture: Doctor don Teodosio Corranza. Finances and Public
Credit: Don Rafael Guirola, D.
SUB-SECRETARIES OF STATE.
Foreign Affairs: Doctor don Manuel Castro, R. Justice and
Beneficence: Doctor don José Antonio Castro, V. Interior:
Doctor Cecilio Bustamente. Industry ("Fomento"): Ingeniéro José
Maria Peralta Lagos. Public Instruction: Doctor Gustavo Baron.
Agriculture: Don Miguel Dueñas. Finance and Public Credit: Don
Carlos G. Prieto. War and Marine: Don Eusebio Bracamonte.
[Illustration: H. E. DR. MANUEL ENRIQUE ARAUJO;
PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR 1911-1915.]
Perhaps it is the Ministry of the Interior which is charged with
the most numerous and most important sections. Upon this Department
depend the General Direction of the Post-Office; the General
Direction of the Telegraph and Telephones; the General Direction of
Police; the Direction of the National Printing Establishment; the
Direction of the Superior Council of Health; the General Direction
of Vaccination, as well as of the Municipal Treasury and many other
small offices that complete the establishments included in the
public administration.
The number of measures carried out by this one Ministry during the
years 1907 and 1908 amounted, more or less, to 3,600. The subjects
that came under the jurisdiction of the Secretaryship of State
are also many and complex; and in order to attain results they
demand both constant attention and an intimate knowledge of the
administrative laws, the many special regulations, the numerous
statutes and dispositions which exist, as well as any quantity of
minor laws.
The Judicial Power is vested in a Supreme Court, which holds its
sittings in the city of San Salvador; two District Courts, which are
also held in the city; District Courts which are held in the cities
of Santa Ana, San Miguel, and Cojutepeque, as well as periodical
Circuit Courts held in different districts; and there is a long list
of Justices of the Peace.
The Justices of the Supreme Court are elected by the National
Assembly for a term of two years, while the Judges of the First and
Second Instance are appointed by the Supreme Court for a term of two
years. The Justices of the Minor Courts are elected by popular vote.
As in most Latin-American countries, the course of justice is
not always speedy, all depositions, no matter how trivial the
case under trial may be, nor whether it be civil or criminal,
having to be laboriously written out, "examination-in-chief" and
"cross-examination" being practices little known. Naturally, an
immense amount of valuable time is thus consumed, and the results
are anything but conclusive.
To a considerable extent the administration of justice in Central
America is based upon the same principles as those in force in the
United States, and it is generally admitted, especially by those who
have suffered from them, that these are far from perfect. The theory
of Latin-American justice is excellent, such theory being that
every man is entitled to justice speedily and without delay, freely
and without price. We all know that this is not the experience
of litigants generally, and in no part of Latin America can the
administration of justice be considered entirely perfect. Salvador
is not worse off than any of its neighbours in this respect, while,
on the other hand, there is a decided amount of respect entertained
for the judiciary, and few verdicts have been given which have
called forth any protest, nor many rulings handed down which have
excited conflict among the public.
Travellers in Latin-American countries, more often than not such as
pay but a very superficial visit to those lands, are in the habit
of drawing pitiful pictures of the cruelty practised upon prisoners
and injustice shown towards litigants, and they indulge in harrowing
accounts of "nauseating filth," "poisonous stenches," "germs of
disease," "bad food," and numerous other, blood-curdling horrors.
However true such descriptions of some countries are, and I rather
imagine that most of them are the outcome of vivid imagination on
the one hand and of blind prejudice upon the other, it is certain
that nothing of this kind can be truthfully said about Salvador.
It would be ridiculous to suppose that this Republic more than any
other builds luxuriously-equipped and comfortable prison-houses, to
act as an encouragement for the committing of crime. The object of
punishment, we are told, is prevention of evil, and we all know
that under no circumstances can it be made incentive to good. The
punishments inflicted upon Salvadorean prisoners are based upon
much about the same scale as in other countries; but the physical
condition of the prisoners as a whole is infinitely better than that
which is to be met with in any other Latin-American country, with
the two exceptions of Peru and Mexico.[1] Of all three countries I
may say with every justice that the present prison system is of a
much more lenient and humane nature than that of any other country
in either the old or new world. I state this deliberately and after
having visited most of the prisons in Latin-American Republics, as
well as many of those to be found in Europe and the United States.
[1] See "Mexico of the XXth Century," vol i., pp. 79, 83, 86, and
vol. ii., pp. 101, 143, by the same Author.
It is the object of the Government of Salvador to make as much
use of prisoners' services as is legitimate, and at the same time
to find for them intelligent and useful occupations. While hard
work is not always compulsory, and is not always an accompaniment
of a sentence to imprisonment, every encouragement is offered to
prisoners to engage themselves in some kind of work; and in many
instances substantial payments are derived from some of the work
thus undertaken, all such payments being carefully preserved for
the use of the prisoners, and handed over to them at the time of
their release. Thus, for instance, in the Penitenciaría Central,
at San Salvador, which is the chief penal establishment in the
Republic, many of the prisoners are engaged in making furniture
for the public offices, as well as military and police uniforms,
boots, etc., likewise for use in the army and the police force. I
am not sure whether any payment is made to prisoners for this kind
of contribution; but in other penal establishments which I visited
I observed that the prisoners were making baskets, mats, toys, and
other small articles, which were offered to visitors for a trifling
sum, and in other cases were sent to the public market for sale.
At the Penitenciaría at Santa Ana the same method was in vogue with
regard to employing prisoners, some remarkably good furniture,
police clothing, and military boots and shoes, being turned out
here also. In this establishment, as well as in others, the utmost
cleanliness prevails. The long rows of airy and well-ventilated
cells are well lighted, the walls and ceilings being whitewashed
and the floors, built of red brick, kept scrupulously clean. No
furniture of any kind is allowed to remain in the cells during the
day, but at night mattresses with clean blankets are thrown down
side by side, and the prisoners sleep with their day-clothes folded
up and placed under their heads or deposited under the mattresses.
In other cells there are light canvas or wooden cots of an easily
detachable nature, which are folded up and put away during the
daytime, so that the cells are always free from encumbrances of any
kind. Prisoners are allowed to move about freely (unless under very
severe punishment due to violence) from the cells to the yard, and
most of them are engaged during the daytime in weaving baskets,
sewing materials, or doing some other kind of work which may be
congenial to them. They are not compelled to wear any special form
of clothing nor a degrading uniform, while some are even permitted
to smoke.
Although strictly guarded by armed soldiers, I did not, when I
visited these establishments, witness a single instance of brutality
or overbearing demeanour on the part of these guardians; on the
other hand, there seemed to be a sort of fraternity between them and
their wards, chatting and laughter proceeding, apparently, without
objection upon the part of the Governor or Superintendents.
The area of the prison cells was in no case less than 10 feet by
6 feet, and in some instances it was found to be considerably
larger. All ablutionary exercises take place in the paved yard of
the prison, and prisoners are compelled to bathe at least once a
week in the open air; those who are so inclined may take a bath
once every day. The food, which I had the opportunity of tasting,
seemed thoroughly wholesome and plentiful, meat being provided in
quantities as well as boiled maize, beans (_frijoles_), and coffee
of excellent quality.
I can only repeat that, from close personal observation, I am
unable to endorse any of the harrowing descriptions of prison
barbarities, which I have referred to above, as applying in any way
to Salvadorean penitentiaries.
Considerable attention has been paid to the establishment and
maintenance of a thoroughly efficient Police Force, by the late
Director-General, General Enrique Bará, who has studied the question
of Police administration in Europe and the United States, and has
applied most of the good points which he found existing there to the
Police organization in the Republic of Salvador.
All Police are under the control of the Minister of the
Interior--Ministerio de Gobernación--although the organization
itself is a military one. The severest discipline is maintained,
and the men are moderately well paid. They seem, moreover, to be
drawn from the better classes instead of from the worst, as is so
often, unfortunately, the case in some parts of Latin America.
All the larger towns, such as Santa Ana, San Miguel, Sonsonate,
La Unión, etc., have their own well-organized Police Force, each
placed under a responsible officer, but all of them directly
dependent upon, and subject to control from, the Capital. Especial
care is taken to organize both the day and night corps, and, as
a consequence of the strictness which is maintained, very few
robberies, and scarcely any murders, take place nowadays in the
Capital or chief towns.
The Superior Officers of the Police Force consist of the following:
1 Director-General.
1 Sub-Director.
1 Secretario de la Dirección (Secretary to the Director-General).
1 Tesorero Específico (Special Treasurer).
1 Instructor.
1 Ayudante de la Dirección (Adjutant to the Director).
1 Juez Especial de Policia (Special Police Magistrate).
1 Secretario del Juzgado de Policia (Secretary to the Police Magistrate).
1 Guarda-Almacén (Storekeeper).
1 Escribiente de la Dirección (Amanuensis to the Director).
1 Escribiente del Juzgado (Amanuensis to the Magistrate).
1 Escribiente de la Comandancia (Amanuensis to the Commandant).
1 Medico del Cuerpo (Doctor to the Corps).
1 Practicante (Assistant-Surgeon).
1 Telegrafista (Telegraphist).
3 Barberos (Barbers).
2 Asistentes (Assistants).
The present Director-General of the Police is General Gregorio
Hernández A., who was appointed in the month of May last (1911).
The Capital is divided up into seven different districts or zones,
each zone being policed as follows:
Zone 1: 1 Comandante (Chief Superintendent in Charge), 1 Sergeant,
4 Inspectors, and 60 Policemen.
Zone 2: Same as Zone 1.
Zone 3: 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 3 Inspectors, and 60 Policemen.
Zone 4: 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 64 Policemen.
Zone 5: 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 64 Policemen.
Zone 6: 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 56 Policemen.
Zone 7: 1 Comandante, 1 Sergeant, 2 Inspectors, and 40 Policemen.
In this last zone the policemen are mounted.
The different Departments are also well policed, as follows:
New San Salvador (Santa Tecla), having 1 Comandante
(Superintendent and Director), 2 Inspectors, and 40 Policemen.
Sonsonate: 1 Comandante (Superintendent and Director), 1
Sub-Director, 1 Secretario, 3 Inspectors, and 32 Policemen.
Cojutepeque: 1 Director, 2 Inspectors, and 25 Policemen.
Atiquizaya: 1 Director, 1 Inspector Secretario, 1 Sub-Inspector
(or Second Inspector), and 15 Policemen.
San Vicente: 1 Comandante (Director), 3 Inspectors, and 21
Policemen.
Ahuachapán: 1 Director, 1 Secretario, 3 Inspectors, and 27
Policemen.
Chalchuápa has two Zones, which are policed as follows: _First_:
1 Director, 2 Inspectors, and 27 Policemen. _Second_: 1
Director, 2 Inspectors, and 18 Policemen.
Santa Ana: 1 Director, 1 Sub-Director, 1 Secrétario, 1
Guarda-Almacen, 2 Escribientes, 150 Policemen, 1 Comandante de
Dragones, 1 Sergeant, and 40 Mounted Men.
San Miguel: 1 Director, 1 Sub-Director, 4 Inspectors, and 57
Policemen.
La Unión: 1 Director, 1 Sub-Director, 3 Inspectors, and 40
Policemen.
Zacatecoluca: 1 Director, 2 Inspectors, and 18 Policemen.
The total _personnel_ of the Salvadorean Police Force is as follows:
In the Capital (including the Superior Officers above
mentioned) 454 men.
New San Salvador (Santa Tecla) 43 "
Sonsonate 38 "
Cojutepeque 28 "
Atiquizaya 18 "
San Vicente 25 "
Ahuachapán 32 "
Chalchuapa 20 "
Usulután 21 "
Santa Ana 174 "
San Miguel 63 "
La Unión 51 "
Zacatecoluca 21 "
------
Total 988 men.
The Government of Salvador are of opinion, and very rightly so to my
thinking, that inasmuch as education is compulsory it ought to be
free, since the State, by depriving parents of the labour of their
children, entails some sacrifices on them. It has also relieved
them of the burden of paying any kind of school fees; and this in a
country like Salvador, which possesses naturally a great proportion
of humble inhabitants, to whom the payment of even the lightest fees
would appear an immense taxation, means a great deal. To organize
a system of collecting fees from among the people living long
distances from the Capital would also have been onerous; and the
Government saves all this, and many other outlays, while procuring
the best results from its educational system. The benefits arising,
moreover, will be reaped by future generations, since a liberal
education is a matter in which all citizens are interested; and
there is certainly no hardship in calling upon all to contribute by
means of a moderate tax towards that end.
As I have said, the happiest results have been achieved by the
Government's broad and comprehensive system of education in
Salvador. The authorities combine with the municipalities in
carrying out their arrangements, and the teachers of both sexes are
drawn from among the best and most cultured classes of the community.
There has been established since July, 1907, a Board of Education
(Junta de Educación), which is subject to the directorship of
a specially-appointed Minister and Sub-Secretario of Public
Instruction. In the month of November, 1907, an important conference
was summoned, and held meetings at the Capital, at which the
curriculum to be adopted was fully discussed, and the plans for
the carrying on of all places of private and public education was
entirely reorganized. The whole system of conducting elementary,
normal, and advanced schools, holding day and night classes,
granting scholarships and holding periodical examinations, has now
been placed upon a thoroughly sound and comprehensive basis; and it
is only just to say that in this respect the Republic of Salvador
compares most favourably with any country in Europe, or with any
educational system in the United States of America.
The education of the sexes is conducted in the same elementary
schools, and not only is this found an economy, but the feminine
mind is found here (as in Scotland and elsewhere) to become
strengthened when put through the curriculum given to boys and men.
Competition is greater between the sexes than between rivals of the
same sex, and a correspondingly higher standard of achievement is
obtained. It has been found in Latin America, where until recent
years women were kept in ignorance and were denied the attainment
of any but social positions in the community, that constant
intercourse between the sexes had led to a more perfect development
of character, and had materially diminished shyness. Marriages are
now made of a safer kind, and a new and more intelligent class
of citizen is springing up, all of which facts will tend in due
course to bring about a more complete political settlement and the
introduction of permanent order among the people. Although by no
means as yet extinct, the conventual existence for the women of
Salvador is fast diminishing, and they are commencing to realize
the advantages and pleasures of living under freer and less morbid
conditions than formerly.
Santa Ana seems to be essentially the educational centre of the
Republic; for whereas schools, colleges, and Universities are to be
found in all of the Departments, in Santa Ana there are no fewer
than thirty-three such establishments, besides several private
schools and seminaries. San Salvador has between 6 and 7 important
educational institutes, and many small private schools; Cuscutlán
has 8 or 9; La Paz, 7 or 8; Sonsonate, 5 or 6; while Ahuachapán,
Chalatenango, Cabañas, San Vicente, La Unión, Morazán, and La
Libertad, are all similarly well provided.
The teaching staff at present employed under Government control
numbers something over 1,100, and is divided up into Directors,
Sub-Directors, Auxiliary Professors, these being composed of
both the male and the female sex. These latter are in a small
minority, but, still, there are over 278 Lady Directors, over 120
Sub-Directors, and 100 Professors.
[Illustration: THE 3RD COMPANY, SERGEANTS' SCHOOL, IN REVIEW ORDER.]
[Illustration: COMPANY IN LINE, SERGEANTS' SCHOOL.]
[Illustration: SECTION OF RIFLEMEN KNEELING, SERGEANTS' SCHOOL.]
The proportion of pupils matriculating is extremely high, and in
this respect the girls come very close in point of number, as
also in the number of marks obtained, to the boys. The Government
provides all the necessary books, stationery, models, apparatus,
etc., for the use of the pupils, and these latter are not put to
one penny expenditure for anything that they may require. It is
considered absolutely proper and consistent with the dignity of
the family for a Salvadorean child to receive a Government free
education; and as this is divorced from all compulsory religious
instruction, children of all denominations, or of none, can
participate. As a matter of fact, practically all attending are of
the Roman Catholic faith, but no dogmatic teaching is resorted to
in any establishment under Government control.
Mention should be made of the very useful and successful educational
establishments which the Government has organized and supported
since 1907, such as the Medical and Surgical College, Chemistry
and Dental Schools, Commerce and Industry College, as well as
the National University, which has been entirely remodelled and
reorganized since December 15, 1907.
Upon several occasions the Government has found the necessary money
to send a particularly promising pupil to Europe or to the United
States, for the purposes of study and receiving the finest training
that the world of art and letters can offer. The last pupil to be
sent to study music at the expense of the Government was Señorita
Natalia Ramos, who left for Italy in the month of May (1911), and
is now making good progress there. In every sense of the word
the Salvadorean Government has proved a "paternal Government" in
these respects; and many a genius has been rescued from probable
obscurity, and much dormant talent has been fostered and encouraged
for the benefit of the community at large as well as to the lasting
advantage of the individual.
Attention on the part of the Government is now being given to a
further modification in the system of primary instruction; and this
is being effected gradually, it being proposed as a preliminary to
establish several high schools throughout the country. A School
of Agriculture, with all necessary elements and machinery, was
inaugurated during the year 1908. Mixed primary schools in the
country now number 132, with a total number of registered pupils
amounting to 34,752. Expenditures for 1907 under this head were
nearly $400,000, and in addition there are many private institutions
where primary instruction only is given. Academic teaching is in the
charge of the National University of San Salvador, embracing schools
of law, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, civil engineering, etc.
In no other part of the Government service has greater improvement
been manifested than in the Department of Posts. This Department is
supported out of its own revenues, and the service during the past
few years has been extended to a very considerable extent, while the
credit of the Central Office has been maintained by punctuality in
the payments of the foreign postal service. Among the more notable
Conventions celebrated have been those with the Republic of Mexico
for the exchange of parcels and money orders, and a triweekly postal
service introduced to the neighbouring Republic of Guatemala via
Jerez; a postal service has also been established with the same
country via Zacapa. It is satisfactory to be able to state that
since the inauguration of these additional services, which took
place early in 1907, scarcely any interruptions have occurred, not
even in the rainiest weather, a fact which may be attributed to
the zeal and ability of the officials and employés of the Postal
Department.
The annual expenditure of this branch of the public service has
increased from $87,084 in 1902, $102,787 in 1903, $121,756 in 1904,
$142,855 in 1905, $161,662 in 1906, to over $200,000 in 1910.
The regularity and rapidity with which the house-to-house postal
deliveries take place in the Capital and principal cities of the
Republic have frequently been noticed, and favourably commented
upon, by foreigners sojourning in Salvador. Honesty among the
employés is no less a feature of the postal arrangements in this
Republic, where all public servants are reasonably paid and are as
diplomatically handled, so that general contentment obtains among
the large class of public servants employed.
The Parcel Post Department is also exhibiting from year to year
notable increases, as the following figures will show: $44,613.55 in
1901; $58,096.27 in 1902; $68,467.30 in 1903; $88,557.60 in 1904;
$90,662.72 in 1905; $93,295.80 in 1906; and for the first six months
in 1907 the figures given are $51,654.86, or at the rate of $103,000
for the whole year.
A Postal Convention for the exchange of money orders between
Salvador and Great Britain was signed in London on June 27, 1907,
in San Salvador on the following August 27, 1907, and, after
being approved by the President, General Figueroa, took effect
on September 5, 1907, the exchange offices being situated at San
Salvador and London respectively.
The telegraph and telephone service has also increased consistently,
especially since 1903, at which time as an economic measure, and
for the convenience of the public, a considerable reduction took
place in the amounts of the charges. There has been a large increase
in telephonic connections, and several new offices have been
established, while the old ones have been considerably improved,
necessitating large outlays for this purpose, as well as for works
and materials. Many hundreds of miles of new telephone and telegraph
lines have been added to the system, of late there has been a
marked increase in the telephone and telegraph apparatus, and the
_personnel_ of the system has been proportionately augmented. There
have been two handsome towers constructed at San Salvador, and
another at Santa Ana, for the introduction of wires to the Central
Offices, and the system in vogue leaves little to be desired either
in regard to efficiency or completeness. The general budget for
telegraphs and telephones has risen steadily, from a little over
$260,000, in 1902, to over $500,000, in 1910.
During the year 1910 the number of cablegrams received in the
Republic were as follows: Cables sent from Salvador, 7,877; received
in the Republic, 8,723. In those transmitted there were used 61,727
words, and in those received 75,950. Total of cables sent and
received, 16,600 = 137,677 words. The amount represented in cost was
$96,450.47, and of this the Government received $23,994.27.
Considerable progress has been made in Salvador in connection
with wireless telegraphy, this being one of the first--if not the
first--of the Central American Republics to adopt the new system
of communication. By the time these pages are in the hands of the
reading public, the Government will have completed two additional
wireless stations, one at Planes de Renderos, near the Capital
(San Salvador), and the other at the Port of La Libertad. With the
completion of these stations, wireless communication will have been
established between the Capital and all the ports of the Republic.
The electric light service used and supported by the Government
has also increased. In 1902 the total cost was barely $25,000,
whereas to-day it amounts to over $50,000, exclusive of the value of
subventions by which several of the electric light companies have
been aided by the Government.
In connection with the recently-held Central American Conference
convened in Guatemala City, and at which representatives of all
five Central American States were present, great improvements were
resolved upon in reference to the postal arrangements between
these States. It was determined, for instance, to introduce a much
more comprehensive parcels post; and although the dimensions of
articles which may be sent were not much extended, the character of
the commerce carried through the post was considerably broadened,
with beneficial results to all of the different States. It was,
among other things, decided to prevent any libellous or indecent
publications passing through the Post-Office; and here a distinct
improvement has been made upon British Post-Office methods, which
permit of the carrying of any sort of literature so long as it is
covered from inspection. The Central American postal authorities
reserve the right--and exercise it--to open and retain anything
which they suspect to be of a dangerous or wrongful nature, and thus
they act with more intelligence than some of their European brethren.
The Regulation for the Control of the Postal Service, as passed by
the Government on September 26, 1893, was found wholly unfit for
this important branch; and from that date to the present, continual
reforms have been introduced into the postal service, which now
stands among the best regulated in Central America. In the Fiscal
Estimate of the year 1907, passed by the National Congress, several
notable economies were introduced, such as the suppression of some
of the too numerous employés, and reduction of the salaries of
others; while these measures seemed opportune, they did not work
well in practice, neither did they give good results. The Ministry
was obliged, therefore, to again make alterations in order to insure
permanent order in the postal department.
By a resolution of September 28 and October 24 respectively, the
Government arranged to suppress the office of Administrator of the
Post-Offices in the different Capitals of the Departments, joining
the functions of that to those of the Administrator of Revenues,
but without augmenting the pay for this additional service. From
this arrangement, however, the offices of Santa Ana, Sonsonate,
and San Miguel, were excepted, while some others were annexed
to the Department of the Fiscal Receiver and to the respective
telegraph-offices.
At present the active staff of the Postal Service of the Republic is
composed of 327 individuals, organized in the following departments:
General Direction; Departmental Administrations; Postal Contractors.
The General Direction is subdivided thus: Sub-Direction; Secretary;
Bookkeeper and Cashier; Office of Postal Statistics; Keeper of
Stores; Amanuensis; and Keeper of the Archives. The Chiefs are those
of the Foreign Department, of the Interior, of Registered Letters,
of Parcels Post, and of Poste Restante and Unclaimed Letters
Department. There are besides five Assistants, two Transmitters of
Postal Specie, twenty-two letter-carriers, and forty-eight junior
postmen.
The Exchange Offices include three Administrators, three
Superintendents, and six letter-carriers. Those of the first
class are--six Administrators, six superintendents, sixteen
letter-carriers, and twenty-five postmen. Those of the second
class are--six Administrators and eight letter-carriers. Those of
the third class are--nineteen Administrators and an equal number
of letter-carriers. Those of the fourth class are--forty-three
Administrators and forty-three letter-carriers; and these are
again sub-administered by the respective municipalities. There are
seven Postal Contractors, who have in their service some forty or
fifty subordinates. Three Postal Agencies complete the service,
namely--one in Panama (Central America), one in the Sitio del Niño
(a station on the Salvador Railway), and the other in Parras Lempa.
CHAPTER III
Biographical--The President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo--The
ex-President, General Fernando Figueroa--The Cabinet--Dr.
Francisco Dueñas--Don Rafael Guirola, D.--Dr. Teodosio
Corranza--Dr. Manuel Castro, R.--Dr. Cecilio Bustamente--Señor
José Maria Peralta Lagos--Dr. José A. Castro, V.--Dr. E.
Bracamonte--Dr. Miguel Dueñas--Señor Carlos G. Prieto--Dr.
Artúro Ramón Ávila.
Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of the Republic of Salvador,
although a comparatively young man, has long been regarded as one
of the most distinguished scholars and politicians of his time.
Born at Jucuapa, he came at a very early age to the Capital, in
order to study medicine and surgery, and very soon he secured a
wide reputation--extending, indeed, beyond the confines of his own
country--as a great authority upon special medical and surgical
cases. While still quite young, Dr. Manuel Araujo was married to
Señorita Maria Peralta, the beautiful and accomplished daughter of a
former President of the Republic, Don José Maria Peralta, a man who
enjoyed universal respect and affection.
The young politician was always a strong Liberal in politics,
but he never permitted party spirit to prejudice him in respect
to his public actions, which have, both before and since his
occupancy of the Chief Magistracy, been characterized by complete
independence of judgment and commendable broad-mindedness.
Besides being the selected occupant of the Presidential Chair by
practically all political parties alike, Dr. Araujo is regarded
as the representative of both the culture and the scientific
professionalism of the country. As already mentioned, he is a very
distinguished surgeon; he has also invented some very delicate and
useful surgical instruments, many of which may be found in the
Paris and Continental hospitals. The Chief Executive occupies the
position of President of the Salvador Branch of the Spanish-American
University. In social as well as in educational circles, Dr.
Araujo is highly respected, apart from his exalted position; and
to foreigners he is especially _persona grata_, on account of his
broad sympathies and general charm of manner. It will be entirely
contrary to general expectations and present appearances if, during
his tenancy of the Chief Magistracy, Salvador fails to enjoy a
great industrial peace and prosperity, as well as a financial
regeneration, such as has long been devised to place this State in
the fore-rank of Latin-American countries.
While politics in Salvador, as in so many other countries north and
south of the Equator, have come to be regarded as a profession, Dr.
Araujo has shown that he has considered them as accessories rather
than expedients, and has carried out in principle the axiom that
"he serves his party best who serves his country best." Inasmuch as
Dr. Araujo occupied the position of Vice-President of the Republic
in the Government of General Fernando Figueroa, it may be assumed
that he has been in thorough accord with his policy; and now that
he himself occupies the same exalted office, no great change in the
Government's projects or methods of carrying them into effect will
result. That some of the youngest men have proved the greatest
statesmen history clearly shows; and the instance maybe cited of our
own brilliant countryman, William Pitt, himself a son of the great
Earl of Chatham, who made his first speech in the House of Commons
when he was but twenty-two years of age, and became Prime Minister
at the age of twenty-three. It is the young blood and youthful
activity which are helping to mould a successful future for the
Salvador of to-day.
By authority of Article 68 of the Constitution, the National
Legislative Assembly elected, last May, Señor Carlos Melendez,
Dr. Fernando Lopez, and General Juan Amaya, First, Second and
Third Designates respectively, to succeed to the Presidency of the
Republic in case of a vacancy occurring during the present term.
[Illustration: GENERAL FERNANDO FIGUEROA, PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC
OF SALVADOR 1907-1911.]
General Fernando Figueroa, President of the Republic from 1907 to
1911, was born in San Vicente. Even when a small boy his disposition
led him to a military career, and while still in his teens he
enlisted in the ranks of the Salvadorean Army, during the memorable
struggle with Guatemala of 1863. Under the command of General
Bracamonte, he became a Lieutenant, and speedily distinguished
himself in the field. He was on this occasion very severely wounded,
and also was specially mentioned in despatches. After the death
of General Gerardo Barrios, and the election of Dr. Dueñas as
President, young Fernando Figueroa was given his captaincy. He
was mainly instrumental in organizing the militia, and in 1871 he
put its capabilities to the test when the war in Honduras broke
out. Upon the overthrow of the Government of Dr. Dueñas, and the
selection of Marshal Santiago González as Provisional President,
peace was proclaimed with Honduras, General Medina being
recognized as legitimate President, and young Figueroa's services
were temporarily unneeded. In 1872, however, Captain Figueroa was
again fighting in territory belonging to Honduras, namely at Sábana
Grande and Santa Bárbara, his gallant services at the first-named
place gaining for him his lieutenant-colonelcy. In the following
year, 1873, Colonel Figueroa distinguished himself in a third
expedition against Honduras, at which time the President of the
Republic was Señor Celio Arias, but who, by Salvador's aid, was
dispossessed of the Chief Magistracy in favour of General Ponciano
Leiva. Colonel Figueroa's bravery at the Battle of Amapala, and his
gallant support of General Juan José Samayoa, have become important
facts in Salvadorean history.
This same year he was appointed Governor of his native Department,
San Vicente. In 1876, after fresh exploits in the field, the rising
young soldier became a General, and with this military advancement
he assisted the same year at the Battle of Pasaquina, in which he
was once again seriously wounded. The events of 1876 led to further
civil war, which continued with but few important intervals of peace
until 1885, and during which period Marshal Santiago González fell
from power, and Dr. Rafael Zaldívar replaced him as President. At
this time, also, General J. Rufino Barrios died on the battle-field
of Chalchuapa, and General Figueroa was given the supreme command of
the Government troops against the Revolutionists, who were headed by
General Francisco Menéndez. The latter having succeeded in attaining
position as head of the State, General Figueroa retired temporarily;
but he returned with the inauguration of the administration of
General Carlos Ezeta, and was again appointed to his former post
of Governor of San Vicente. Later on he was nominated Minister of
War, which position he resigned upon becoming candidate for the
Presidency. He was duly and constitutionally elected in November of
1906, took office on March 1, 1907, and retired automatically with
the fresh elections of 1910, to give place to Dr. Manuel Enrique
Araujo, the present Chief Magistrate.
During his long and honourable career, General Figueroa has been
distinguished as much for his brilliant soldier-like qualities as
for his personal work and high sense of probity. He has had--as have
all great men--his enemies and his detractors; but none among them
can bring--nor ever have brought--any charge against his personal
honour or integrity.
It was his keen patriotism and shrewd diplomacy which arrested the
three-cornered armed conflict in which Salvador, Honduras, and
Nicaragua, were concerned in 1907, and but for General Figueroa's
tact and good sense, coupled with his masterly grasp of the
situation, these three sister States would have exhausted themselves
over a dispute which was practically worthless, and would have
proved just as fruitless.
The Minister for Foreign Affairs is Dr. don Francisco Dueñas, a
barrister, and a very distinguished member of the profession. Born
in San Salvador, and forty-three years of age, Dr. Dueñas has
occupied several important positions in the legal profession, and he
is looked upon as one of the soundest authorities on commercial and
general law. The Minister is regarded as an extremely able man, who
is bound to rise to the highest position which the State can confer
upon him.
The Minister of Finance is Señor don Rafael Guirola, D., a
thoroughly sound, practical business man, with a wide knowledge
of finance and commerce in all its branches and a member of one
of the leading families. He may be depended upon to adopt a
comprehensive and intelligent view of all subjects pertaining to his
Department, and it may be accepted as certain that he will give wide
encouragement to such foreign enterprise as can be regarded as of
benefit to the State. Señor Rafael Guirola, D., is forty-five years
of age.
The Minister of the Interior, Industry ("Fomento"), Public
Instruction and Agriculture, Dr. don Teodosio Corranza, is also one
of the most prominent lawyers in the Republic. He was born in San
Salvador, and is about fifty-two years of age. He has occupied some
of the most important and responsible posts in the country, and is
considered by all alike as lending both distinction and prominence
to his high office.
Dr. don Manuel Castro, R., Sub-Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, is a barrister by profession, and a distinguished member of
the Salvador Academy. Although only twenty-seven years of age, Dr.
Castro has already filled with great distinction several important
positions in the legal profession, and he is regarded as a rising
"star" in the political firmament.
The portfolio for Home Affairs has been entrusted to the capable
hands of Dr. Cecilio Bustamente, who is also a distinguished lawyer,
as well as the writer of several books of more than ordinary merit.
On several occasions Dr. Bustamente has occupied a position on
the Bench, his judgments and rulings always having commanded deep
respect, and invariably being the outcome of calm consideration and
much forensic learning. Dr. Bustamente is about thirty-eight years
of age.
Public Instruction is under the direction of Dr. Gustavo Barón,
who is three years younger than Dr. Bustamente. By profession he
is a physician and surgeon, having taken high degrees at the Paris
University. Before entering the present Cabinet, Dr. Barón served
as teacher of, and lecturer upon, several subjects in the National
University of Salvador; and there is probably no man in the Republic
who enjoys a wider respect or a deeper regard, especially among
his colleagues, than the present Sub-Secretary of Instruction and
Promotion.
The important portfolio of Public Works has been entrusted to the
hands of Señor don José Maria Peralta Lagos, a civil engineer of
great reputation in Central America, although only forty-two years
of age. For many years past Señor Peralta Lagos has been interested
in engineering undertakings, and there can be no question that he
is admirably fitted both by experience and long study of current
engineering subjects for the high and responsible position which he
occupies.
The portfolio of Justice is in the hands of Dr. don José Antonio
Castro, V., a young but very brilliant man, his age being only
twenty-eight years, and who is a barrister by profession.
War and Marine are represented by Don Eusebio Bracamonte, a counsel
of great reputation, and who for a considerable time occupied
the position of Chief Justice of the High Court of Salvador. Dr.
Bracamonte is forty-three years of age.
The portfolio of Agriculture is in the hands of Don Miguel Dueñas,
who has devoted many years to a careful study of agriculture in
all its branches, and has, from his experience and the careful
observation of the methods employed in foreign countries, intimately
acquainted himself with all modern methods, many of which he has
personally introduced upon his own country estates. Señor Dueñas,
who is forty years of age, has travelled very considerably in the
United States and in Europe, and he speaks both English and French
with considerable facility. For some years past he has been a Member
of Congress, while he is also the Founder and the President of the
Salvadorean Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture, an institution
which has already conferred considerable benefits upon the State.
Señor Carlos G. Prieto, Sub-Secretary of Finance and Public Credit,
is forty-five years of age, and a sound authority upon finance and
commerce generally.
It is worthy of mention that the Ministry of Agriculture in Salvador
is an entirely new creation, and owes its existence to the ruling
President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo. Considering the immense interest
which Salvador has in agriculture, and bearing in mind the fact
that upon its intelligent pursuit depends, to a very large extent,
the prosperity of the country, it is surprising that a Department
for Agriculture should not have been previously instituted. This
is probably due to the fact that the late Ministry was disinclined
to add further to the burden of expenditure in connection with
the government of the country; but the additional expenditure
incurred in the establishment of this Department has been abundantly
justified by results, and there is very little question that, if
for nothing else, the Presidency of Dr. Araujo will stand out
prominently in connection with a governmental creation which has
long been needed, and which is already proving thoroughly useful.
A new branch of the Government service has been established within
the past few months in the form of an Information Bureau, which
should prove of great utility to manufacturers and shippers, if they
desire to avail themselves of it. Already several North American
firms have done so, and, as I understand, with some material
advantage, the existence of the department having been brought to
the attention of United States commercial men by the very up-to-date
and shrewd American Consul-General at San Salvador, Mr. Harold D.
Clum. I have not heard that any attention has been directed to the
institution by the British Board of Trade.
The Salvador Congress authorized, and the Ministry of Agriculture
maintains, this Information Bureau, to report upon the orders which
the various departments of the Government may consider it expedient
to place abroad or upon the home market. The law provides that
Government orders shall be placed only after, and presumably upon
the basis of, a report from this Bureau; so that it is a distinct
advantage to manufacturers and others, who desire to market goods in
which the Government might be interested, to send their catalogues
(but printed in Spanish, and _not_ in English) with price lists
(but calculated in decimal measurements and coinage, and _not_
in "£ s. d."), as well as their proposals, to the Bureau. All
such communications should be addressed: "Oficina de Informacíon,
Ministerio de Agricultura, San Salvador." And let it be remembered
that the postage upon letters is 2-1/2d.!
The young and vigorous blood of which the Salvadorean Cabinet
is composed is perhaps one of its strongest and most promising
features, and the excellent impression which its formation created
last March has been confirmed in every way since it got to work and
proved the quality of its members for governing the country wisely
and economically.
It would, under ordinary circumstances, perhaps be difficult to
replace the valuable services which, for fifteen years past,
have been rendered by Mr. Mark Jamestown Kelly, F.R.G.S., as
Consul-General for the Republic of Salvador to the United Kingdom,
with residence in London, and to whom full reference has been made
in a preceding page; but it will be generally admitted that the
Government has made a very wise and a very acceptable selection in
Dr. Artúro Ramón Ávila. The new Consul-General is a native of San
Miguel, and belongs to one of the leading families of the country,
and occupying a very high social position in the Republic.
Although only twenty-seven years of age, Dr. Ávila has already
attained some celebrity in his own country, and has received the
degree of Doctor of the Faculty of Jurisprudence, a title which was
conferred upon him by the National University of Salvador. In 1907
one of Dr. Ávila's most notable achievements was the composition of
a "paper" which he read before the Tribunal of Examination, this
being a learned thesis upon the subject of "The Duel" ("El Duelo"),
consisting of 100 pages, and pronounced by literary critics as about
the most clever and most convincing essay which had been written
upon the subject.
Previous to entering upon his profession as an advocate, Dr. Ávila
served as a Justice of the Peace for one year in the Capital of
Salvador, being later on appointed Judge of the First Instance.
He occupied a similar position in the Civil and Criminal Courts of
Santa Tecla (New San Salvador), and held that post for two years.
Dr. Ávila had also for some time been advocate-in-chief for the
Banco Salvadoréno, of Salvador, and he represented legally various
other reputable houses of commerce. Dr. Ávila holds the position of
Consul-General of the Republic of Salvador for Great Britain and
Ireland, and has taken convenient offices at 8, Union Court, Old
Broad Street, London, E.C.
Señor Santiago Perez Triana, who has for some time been a resident
in London, entered the service of the Salvadorean Government
as Secretary of the Legation in 1900, under Dr. Zaldívar, and
accompanied him to the Spanish-American Congress which met in Madrid
in December of that year. Señor Perez Triana's capacity was that
of second delegate of Salvador, Dr. Zaldívar being chief of the
Mission, the third Attaché, who occupied a similar position to that
of Señor Perez Triana, being Señor M. Rodriguez. Subsequently Señor
Perez Triana was appointed Secretary of the Legation of Salvador
in Spain. Since 1901, when he went to the last-named country to
reside, he occupied the dual position of Chargé d'Affaires both in
Madrid and in London; and he still occupies a similar position in
the latter city, but not in Spain. In 1907 Señor Perez Triana was
appointed Delegate to the Hague Conference for Salvador, jointly
with Mr. P. J. Matheu. He is a quite remarkable orator and a man of
great culture, speaking English with complete accuracy and writing
it with equal facility.
[Illustration: DR. ARTÚRO RAMÓN ÁVILA;
CONSUL-GENERAL FOR THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR TO GREAT BRITAIN.
APPOINTED MAY, 1911.]
In connection with the Coronation of Their Majesties King George and
Queen Mary, in the month of June last, the Salvadorean Government
sent to London an Extraordinary Mission to represent the Republic,
selecting for the purpose Señor J. Miguel Dueñas who by birth and
education was well fitted to fill so important a position. Señor
Dueñas was born in the city of San Salvador on August 28, 1871, and
is a son of an ex-President of Salvador, Dr. Francisco Dueñas, and
Donna Térésa Dardano. After a brilliant college career, pursued
both in his own country, in the United States, and in Europe, Señor
Dueñas returned in 1895 to Salvador, where he was soon afterwards
elected by popular vote as Deputy to the National Congress of
the Republic. He also became an active member of the Municipal
Council, and is the Founder and President of the Salvador Chamber
of Commerce and Agriculture in Salvador. He retains his position
as Secretary of State for the Department of Agriculture, which, as
mentioned previously in this volume, was brought into existence
upon the initiative of the present President of the Republic, Dr.
Manuel Enrique Araujo, this being one of his first official acts
after assuming the Presidential chair, in the month of March last.
Accompanying Señor Dueñas was his wife, Señora Donna Maria Eugénia
Palomo.
The new Minister of Salvador in Spain and Italy, with residence
at Madrid, is Dr. don J. Gustavo Guerrero, who was for many years
Consul-General for Salvador at Genoa, and acted as First Secretary
of the Special Diplomatic Mission of Salvador to the Court of St.
James in connection with the Coronation of King George V. He is
one of the several young men of great promise in Salvador, and is
destined to go far. He is, moreover, a distinguished advocate,
having taken high degrees at the Universities of San Salvador and
Guatemala City. He has acted as Deputy Governor at the first-named
Capital, as well as Consul at Burdeos, Consul at Genoa, Secretary of
Legation at Washington, and Chargé d'Affaires at Rome and Madrid.
In the month of May last (1911) Señor don Nicolás Leiva was
appointed Consul for Salvador at Liverpool, which port carries on a
fair amount of trade with the Republic.
CHAPTER IV
Government finances--London Market appreciation of
Salvador bonds--History of foreign debt--Salvador Railway
security--Central American Public Works Company--Changing the
guarantee--Financial conditions to-day--Public debt at end of
1909--Budget for 1910-11--Small deficit may be converted into a
surplus--Summary.
The high opinion which the London Market entertains regarding
Salvadorean Government securities is shown by the price at which
they are quoted; and although judged upon their merits, these
same securities are rather too cheaply priced, they form a marked
contrast to some of the neighbouring States' foreign loans, such,
for instance, as Costa Rica and Honduras. As a matter of fact,
the Salvadorean Governments of successive years have strictly and
faithfully performed their foreign obligations; and it has been the
firm policy of past Presidents, as it is of the present Executive,
to maintain their foreign credit upon an unassailable basis. It
is possible to speak very encouragingly of the Salvador 6 per
cent. Sterling Bonds, which were issued in March, 1908, at 86 per
cent., and which are at the present time of writing quoted at or
a little above par. Their desirability as an investment depends
upon the standard of security they afford--on the probability,
that is, that Salvador will faithfully fulfil its obligations. The
Salvador Government 6 per cent. Sterling Bonds (1908), amounting to
£1,000,000, were issued to meet the cost of certain public works
and to repay certain local loans contracted at a higher rate of
interest. The loan is redeemable by an accumulative sinking fund of
2-1/2 per cent., by purchase or drawing, and is secured by a first
charge on--(_a_) the special Customs duty of $3.60 (U.S. gold) per
100 kilogrammes of imported merchandise; and (_b_) the duty of 40
cents (U.S. gold) per quintal (up to 500,000 quintals) of the annual
export of coffee, the proceeds of which are remitted fortnightly to
the London Bank of Mexico and South America, whose Chairman stated
recently that "the rapid way in which the remittances are coming
forward is very satisfactory, and will, no doubt, in time improve
the credit of this small but hard-working country." The bonds
constitute the whole External Debt of the country, previous loans
having been commuted in 1899 for debentures of the Salvador Railway
Company, to which the Government pays an annual subsidy of £24,000.
This subsidy has now been punctually remitted for over nine years.
It is on such grounds as these that the friends of Salvador maintain
that the value of the bonds should not be gauged by the financial
reputation of some of the other Central American Republics.
It may be interesting to trace the whole history of Salvador's
foreign indebtedness, which commenced as far back as 1827. The
record--by no means an unworthy one--is as follows:
1827: Of the debt of the Central American Federation--which
was composed of Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, and
Nicaragua, and amounting to £163,000--the proportion which was
assumed by Salvador was one-sixth, £27,200.
1828-1859: No interest was paid during this long period of
turbulence and strife.
1860: Salvador compromised her share of the debt for 90 per cent.
paid in cash.
1889: A loan for £300,000 was issued, bearing 6 per cent. interest
and 2 per cent. accumulative sinking fund. It was offered by the
London and South-Western Bank at 95-1/2 per cent., and was specially
secured on 10 per cent. of the Customs duties and the rights of
the Government on the railway from Acajutla to Ateos (thirty-five
miles), and in the proposed extension to San Salvador. Out of the
proceeds of the loan a mortgage of the Government's interest in the
portion of the railroad already constructed (Acajutla to Sonsonate),
amounting to £183,000, was paid off. The extension of the railway
was only continued for a distance of seven miles from Ateos to La
Ceiba.
1892: Bonds for an amount of £500,000, bearing 6 per cent. interest
and 1 per cent. accumulative sinking fund, were created by the
Government and issued by Messrs. Brown, Janson and Co. to the
contractor Mr. A. J. Scherzer, in pursuance of a contract made by
the Government with Mr. Scherzer in 1891, for the purpose of the
extension of the railway. These bonds were specially secured on 10
per cent. of the Customs duties, and also by a first mortgage on
the railway line from Ateos to Santa Ana (thirty miles) when built.
These bonds were not issued to the public, but were delivered from
time to time to the contractor, against the engineer's certificates,
as the works proceeded.
1894: A company called the Central American Public Works Company
was registered by Mr. Mark J. Kelly in London, and Mr. Kelly was
associated with Mr. Scherzer in carrying out this contract, and in
the month of April a concession was obtained from the Government
under which the contract of 1891 was cancelled. The Central American
Public Works Company undertook to complete the line to Santa Ana;
to build a branch from Sitio del Niño to San Salvador (twenty-four
miles), together with a deviation of one and a half miles at the
port of Acajutla; to give the Government £70,000 in fully-paid
ordinary shares of the company when issued; and to redeem the loans
of 1889 and 1892. The Government, on its part, agreed to hand over
to the Company the whole of the railways for a period of ninety-nine
years, and to guarantee the Company for fifty years a net annual
profit on working the railways of 6 per cent. upon the sum of
£800,000, secured by a charge of 10 per cent. on the import duties.
A change of Government took place almost immediately afterwards,
and, owing to the differences which then arose between the
Government and the Company, the concession was declared void.
But in December a supplementary contract was entered into between
the Company and the new Government, by which it was agreed that--(1)
The £70,000 of shares of the Public Works Company were to be
delivered to the Government by May 31, 1895 (this was done, and the
Company took possession of the completed portion of the line and
commenced the construction of the remainder); (2) the duration of
the concession was shortened from ninety-nine to eighty years; (3)
the guarantee was reduced from £48,000 a year to £24,000 during
the construction of the line to Santa Ana, £36,000 during the
construction to San Salvador, and the full £48,000 was not to be
paid until the railway was entirely finished.
1898: In this year a new company, called the Salvador Railway
Company, Limited, was formed to take over the concession from the
Central American Public Works Company. Proposals were laid before
the holders of the 1889 and 1892 loans to convert their bonds into
mortgage debentures of the railway company. Some of the 1889
bondholders, however, declined to signify their adherence to the
scheme, and it was thus found impossible to arrange for the release
of the mortgage on the first section of the railway. The Central
American Public Works Company had, moreover, undertaken to deliver
to the Government all the bonds by December, 1898; they therefore
approached the Government with the object of securing further
legislation in order to get over the difficulty. In this they were
not at the time successful, and the Government declined to remit to
the company the sum due under the guarantee for the half-year ending
December 31, 1898. The funds for the payment of the February and
August, 1898, coupons on the 1889 bonds were sent by the Government
direct to the London and South-Western Bank. The November 1897
drawing and May 1898 coupons on the 1892 bonds, and the July 1898
drawing and February 1899 coupons on the 1889 bonds, were not paid.
1899: On February 8 of this year a further contract was entered
into between the Government and Mr. Kelly, representing the Central
American Public Works Company, of which the following were the
principal provisions: (1) The company was to hand over to the
Government for cancellation the outstanding 1889 and 1892 bonds (in
round figures amounting to £725,000) within six months from the date
of ratification of the contract by Congress. The company might,
however, leave outstanding £60,000 of the bonds if they could not
make delivery of the whole of them, but on these they were to pay on
their own account the same interest (6 per cent.) and amortization
(2 per cent.), as the Government was under obligation to do. (2) The
Government was to pay the company for eighteen years from January
1, 1899, a fixed annual subsidy of £24,000 in lieu of the previous
guarantee, and to hand over all the railways free of charge. The
subsidy was to be secured on 15 per cent. of the import duties, in
respect of which the Government was to issue special Customs notes.
These notes were to be handed to a bank named by the company, who
were to sell them and collect the proceeds.
The railway company engaged themselves to complete the line to the
Capital by June 30, 1900. If the bonds of the external debt were not
handed over within the period stipulated, the Government was to have
the right, subject to existing hypothecations, to take possession of
the railways.
In April, 1899, an agreement was entered into between the Council
of Foreign Bondholders, acting in conjunction with the Committee of
1889 bondholders, and the Central American Public Works Company,
for the transfer to the Salvador Railway Company of the railways
and concessions held by the Works Company, including the subsidy
payable under the contract of February 8, 1899, on such terms as
might be agreed between the Works Company and the railway company.
The railway company were to issue (1) Prior lien debentures to
the amount of £163,000, forming part of a total authorized issue
of £250,000, and bearing 5 per cent. interest and 1 per cent.
accumulative sinking fund, to be applied by purchase or drawings at
par. Such issue to be for the purpose of providing the funds for the
completion of railway, repairs, working capital, and expenses; (2) 5
per cent. mortgage debentures to the amount of £660,000, to provide
for the cancellation of the outstanding bonds of the 1889 and 1892
loans, the debentures of the Public Works Company (£150,000), and
other claims.
These debentures were to be redeemable by an accumulative sinking
fund of 1 per cent. per annum, commencing from August 15, 1906, to
be applied by purchases or drawings, at the price, in the case of
drawings, of £103 for each £100 of debentures. The holders of the
1889 bonds were to receive, in respect of each £100 bond, £100 in
mortgage debentures of the railway company, bearing interest from
August 15, 1899. The 1889 bonds were deposited with the Council
against the issue of negotiable receipts, with two coupons of £2
10s. each attached, payable out of the first two instalments of the
subsidy in respect of the coupons on each bond of £100, due February
15 and August 15, 1899.
This arrangement was accepted by the holders of the bonds of the
1889 and 1892 loans, who by the necessary majorities authorized the
trustees of the loans to release the respective mortgages. It was
also approved by the holders of the debentures of the Public Works
Company, and was duly carried into effect.
STATEMENT OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR THE LAST TEN YEARS.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Year. | Revenue. | Expenditure. | Deficit. |
---------|-----------------|------------------|-----------------|
| $ | $ | $ |
1901 | 7,556,721.56 | 7,284,264.51 | 727,542.95 |
1902 | 6,702,021.70 | 8,459,460.84 | 1,757,439.14 |
1903 | 6,792,045.69 | 7,704,756.34 | 912,710.65 |
1904 | 8,060,689.05 | 8,759,404.63 | 698,715.58 |
1905 | 8,536,443.07 | 10,045,413.03 | 1,508,969.96 |
1906 | 8,484,419.78 | 12,246,825.76 | 3,762,405.98 |
1907 | 8,669,189.12 | 11,389,642.40 | 2,720,453.28 |
1908 | 10,676,338.92 | 12,656,656.61 | 1,980,317.69 |
1909 | 10,776,028.65 | 11,856,002.21 | 1,139,903.56 |
1910 | 10,620,865.57 | 13,027,546.96 | 2,406,681.39 |
---------|-----------------|------------------|-----------------|
| $85,814,833.11 | $103,429,973.49 | $17,615,140.28 |
-----------------------------------------------------------------
It will be observed that, while the general revenue of the Republic
had expanded considerably during the past decade, having, indeed,
increased about 50 per cent., the expenditure had, unfortunately,
expanded also, and to a greater degree, leaving an annually
increasing deficit to be met. The reason for this during the latter
few years is clear--the unfortunate political troubles which were
thrust upon the Republic by the acts of certain revolutionists
instigated by the evil genius of Central America, ex-President
J. Santos Zelaya, and which turned what might have been a fairly
profitable period into a disastrous one, from a financial aspect.
Nevertheless, there is no reason to adopt a despairing view of the
Salvadorean national finances, since the resources of the country
are very elastic, and their development is but in its infancy.
It is much to the credit of the Government, both the present and
that which was lately in office, that the situation should have
been so boldly and frankly met, the whole position being explained
and true reasons given. Everyone must think the better of the
authorities for their honesty in dealing with the nation, an honesty
which is, unfortunately, rare, not alone among Latin-American
States, but also among European Governments of much older growth
and wider experience. Don Manuel Lopez Mencia, the ex-Minister of
Finance, who is a thoroughly capable and experienced financier,
fully grasped the necessities of the situation, and before retiring
from office freely criticized his own Department, offering many
valuable and timely suggestions for improving it and for placing the
finances of the country upon a more satisfactory basis. I believe
that the present year (1911) is destined to afford a much more
encouraging condition, and a continuation of the present economical
and severe retrenchment policy in force; the deficit, which has made
an unwelcome appearance in each year's accounts over a period of a
whole decade, will gradually give place to a surplus. Naturally, all
depends upon internal peace being preserved and freedom from foreign
political troubles; both of which, happily, at the time of writing
seem to be well assured.
In regard to the general financial conditions of Salvador, which are
at the present time in a much more satisfactory state, the following
particulars will be of interest:
PUBLIC DEBT.
The composition of the Public Debt on December 31, 1909, stood as
follows:
GOLD LIABILITIES.
$ Gold. $ Gold.
Sundry cash creditors 906,585
Bills payable 363,545
National indemnity bonds 73,656
External loan principal 4,744,000
External loan interest and expenses 3,657,694
--------- 8,401,694
---------
$9,745,480 Gold.
= at 150 premium, $24,363,700 Silver.
SILVER LIABILITIES.
$ Silver.
Sundry creditors 930,550
Salvador bonds (principal and
interest) 3,564,207
Administrative salaries, expenses,
etc. 836,299
Deposits 2,629
Funds to be applied to special purposes 88,022
Various bonds 113,140
------- 5,534,848
----------
Total $29,898,548 Silver.
The Public Debt of the Republic of Salvador on December 31, 1901,
amounted to $10,666,584 (_gold_) = £2,133,517, and $6,207,059
(_silver_) = £517,256. Reduced to the silver unit, the total Debt
amounted to $32,873,520.
The Customs Revenues for 1910 show a small decline over those of
1909, the difference being $3,784.00.
IMPORT DUTIES. EXPORT DUTIES.
Sonsonate $3,522,875.05 $430,359.84
La Unión $1,086,766.03 $114,528.03
La Libertad $554,400.57 $125,926.49
_Import Duties_ at the General _Imports_ at El
Treasury (parcels post) $169,638.59 Triunfo $215,835.19
------------- ------------
Totals[2] $5,333,680.24 $886,649.55
[2] These figures are in Salvadorean pesos=$0.403 U.S. _gold_.
The Government's whole Revenue during the first half of 1910
amounted to $2,972,501 (_gold_), and its expenditure to $2,677,431
(_gold_).
The total import and export duties for the two years 1909 and 1910
are as follows:
1909. 1910.
Imports $4,176,931.56 | Imports $3,745,249.19
Exports $8,481,787.65 | Exports $9,122,295.09
(These figures are in U.S. _gold_ currency.)
BUDGET FOR 1910-11.
The estimates for the financial year 1910-11, approved by the
National Assembly, and published in the _Diario Oficial_ of June 6,
1910,[3] were practically identical with those for the preceding
year.
[3] This volume having to go to press a few weeks before the Return
of 1910 will have been issued, the figures for the preceding year
only are available.
The details are shown below:
ESTIMATES OF REVENUE, 1910-11.
CUSTOMS REVENUE.
_Imports_:
$ Silver.
Import duties 3,100,000
Fiscal tax of 30 per cent. 600,000
Taxes of $3.60, $2.40, and $0.50 gold per 100
kilos 1,952,500
Storage, etc. 285,000
Sundry receipts 148,500
_Exports_:
Coffee export duty of $0.40 gold per 46 kilos 600,000
Coffee export duty of $0.12-1/2 for internal
development in the Capital 75,000
Coffee transit permits 80,175
Tax of $1.50 per 100 kilos in favour of Central
Railway 4,000
Sundry receipts 66,557
INTERNAL REVENUE.
Liquor tax 2,500,000
Stamps and stamped paper 264,500
Internal Excise 126,500
Post-Offices, Telegraphs, and Telephones 270,250
National Printing-Office 25,000
Penitentiaries 30,000
Powder, saltpetre, and cartridges 65,000
Public Registry 38,000
Sundry receipts 88,800
-----------
Total $10,319,782
ESTIMATES OF EXPENDITURE, 1910-11.
$ Silver.
National Assembly 40,980
Presidency of the Republic 41,340
Department of Finance 670,256
" Internal Development 636,800
" Government 1,250,463
" Foreign Affairs 116,080
" Justice 507,192
" Public Instruction 714,652
" Beneficence 529,336
" War and Marine 2,573,510
" Public Credit 3,291,260
-----------
Total $10,371,869
SUMMARY.
Revenue $10,319,782
Expenditure 10,371,869
-----------
Estimated deficit $52,087
In regard to this Estimated Deficit, which in any case is very
small, it is to be mentioned that in November of this year (1911)
an additional export tax upon coffee, of 30 cents (_gold_) per
100 kilogrammes comes into effect, although only for two years,
and it is expected to produce $180,000 (_gold_). This additional
revenue will wipe out the small anticipated deficit, and leave a
considerable surplus, for the present year.
[Illustration: ARTILLERY ON PARADE GROUND, SAN SALVADOR BARRACKS.]
CHAPTER V
Salvador _versus_ Honduras and Nicaragua--Attitude of the
President--Proclamation to the people--Generals Rivas
and Alfaro--Invasion of Salvador--Ignominious retreat of
enemy--Conciliatory conduct of General Figueroa--Character of
Salvadorean people--Treachery of Zelaya.
There is no question that but for the prompt and conciliatory action
of General Figueroa the events which took place in the last months
of 1907 might well have involved the whole of the States of Central
America in a long, serious, and sanguinary conflict. As it was,
sufficient provocation was given to Salvador, whose territory was
invaded, and many of whose citizens were either injured or robbed.
In this month, the invaders who came from Honduras were largely
composed of Honduraneans, Nicaraguans, Salvadorean revolutionists,
and American filibusters, who actually seized the port of Acajutla,
and taking forcible possession of engines and cars belonging to the
Salvador Railway Company, reached as far as the city of Sonsonate.
The invading forces were led by Generals Manuel Rivas and Prudencio
Alfaro, the latter being General Santos Zelaya's candidate for the
Presidency of Salvador.
It was at this time that General Figueroa issued a fervent and
eloquent appeal to the loyalty of his troops and his countrymen.
In exhorting them to deeds of valour, he declared that he himself
would lead his army in defence of the national honour even to
death, and his previous military experience would certainly have
enabled him to have carried them to success. General Figueroa's
"Proclamation to the Salvadorean People" is worth quotation in these
pages, and I therefore give it in full as follows:
"Compatriots: General J. Santos Zelaya, in violation of the
faith imposed in international agreements, has broken his
solemn obligations contracted through the intervention of the
Governments of the United States and Mexico. At daybreak this
morning he surprised the small military force at Acajutla,
and has landed Nicaraguan forces with the object of conquest.
Before this brutal offence which the Nicaraguan Government has
committed against us, we should all, as one man, gather round
the flag of our country and defend it, letting our blood flow
rather than allow it to be stained by the adventurers who,
in an evil hour, seek to defile it. The national honour, the
deeds of our forefathers, the future of our children, and the
lofty legends of our people, cry to us to arise and punish the
insolence of the Nicaraguan President, and to preserve, not only
our military glory and our interests, which recent events in
Honduras have shown to be in danger, but the respect that our
heroic army has inspired whenever it has been called upon in
defence of our country.
"Soldiers: Do not permit the consummation of this insolent
attempt in the annals of an enlightened people which would fill
us with shame and opprobrium, rendering us unworthy to preserve
intact the sacred treasure of our autonomy, the honour of our
victorious banner and our sovereignty. Before permitting the
arms of an audacious adventurer to violate the soil of our
beloved country, whose safeguard is entrusted to the national
army and to your undoubted patriotism, prefer yes, a thousand
times, death with honour on the battle-field, where I will
accompany you even to death.
"I have full confidence in your loyalty and in your military
honour, and I therefore place in your hands the sacred trust of
the national defence.
"Free and heroic peoples never retreat before the enemy, for
they carry in their hearts the conscience of doing their duties
and confidence in the right, which assist all worthy and
independent peoples to repel aggression against their autonomy.
"Salvadoreans: In this movement be assured that I shall save,
untarnished, the honour of the country and the security of your
homes, which are now threatened by the mercenary soldiery of the
Nicaraguan ruler.
"Your chief and friend,
"F. FIGUEROA.
"SAN SALVADOR,
"_June 11, 1907_."
It is satisfactory to know that the Presidential call to arms, in
addition to the strong personal influence which General Figueroa
wielded, shortly afterwards put an end to the trouble that had
threatened at one time to assume the most serious aspects, and to
have involved the whole of the five States in a fierce struggle. Now
that the threatening cloud has been dispersed--it may be hoped for
all time--it is possible to smile at some of the incidents which
have been related in connection with the embroilment. It is, for
instance, related that the invasion of Salvadorean territory, the
first step of which took place in the month of June, 1907, failed of
achievement principally on account of a personal dispute which broke
out between the two Revolutionary Generals, Rivas and Alfaro.
It is alleged that the former, on reaching the town of Sonsonate,
after landing successfully at Acajutla, proceeded to the National
Bank in that town, where he overawed the cashier (not a very
brilliant achievement, since he was only a boy) and raised what is
known as "a forced loan," departing heroically with the sum of
$20,000 in silver, and nobly handing over to the bewildered and
trembling bank official a receipt for that amount signed by himself
as the "General of the new Salvadorean Army." On learning what his
brother-commander had done, Alfaro, it is said, strongly objected
to raising--"stealing," he described it--money in this manner; and
so emphatic was his language, and so indomitable his decision to
have none of it, that General Rivas refused on his part any longer
to act with him, and the two leaders parted there and then, Rivas
proceeding on his way to the Capital at the head of his following,
and Alfaro marching with his to Santa Ana.
Before leaving one another, it was arranged, however, that the
Republic of Salvador should be divided in half, General Rivas to
rule the Eastern zone, with headquarters at San Salvador, and
General Alfaro to rule the Western zone, with headquarters at
Sonsonate. To this proposition General Alfaro also strongly objected
at first, but consented reluctantly later; and while the two future
victors were quarrelling as to what they would do with the territory
which was not yet theirs, a messenger arrived hot-haste from the
Capital with the unpleasant tidings that General Figueroa was coming
in person with a train-load of troops to Sonsonate.
Thereupon followed a hasty and most undignified retreat to Acajutla,
and an eyewitness has left a humorous description of how the
brave invaders, in their desire to get out as soon as possible,
precipitated themselves into small boats, barges, and lighters, or
any kind of thing that floated, making their way to the gunboat
_Momotombo_, up the sides of which they scrambled helter-skelter,
glad enough to be safely off Salvadorean territory and once more on
their way to the refuge of the Nicaraguan port of Corinto.
The gunboat was obliged, as all vessels are, to anchor a half-mile
from the Acajutla pier, men, arms, and ammunition having to be
conveyed over that distance in any kind of boat of which they could
command the use.
At an early period of the invasion it is certain that General
Figueroa had the situation well in hand. He was always popular with
the army, and he likewise possessed the complete confidence of the
Salvadorean people, who felt that in his strong hands the safety of
the Republic lay. Moreover, by his excellent system of organizing
the Intelligence Department of his army, and the care with which he
had selected his officers, General Figueroa was always in complete
possession of the plans and actions of the opposing force; and even
when these latter fatuously supposed that he knew nothing, and
was doing nothing, to check their advance, General Figueroa was
laying his plans with consummate ability, and, as we now know, he
ultimately executed them with complete success.
Dr. Alfaro, who for the nonce had become a "General," was never
an opponent worth much consideration; while General Rivas only
displayed any marked ability when conspiring and organizing foreign
troops, destined to be led to battle, when led at all, by others
than himself. The only man who had any chance of making serious
difficulty, and who might have fostered formidable trouble, was
Barahona, of whose actions and intentions the President was always
fully aware, and who at the psychological moment consigned him to
the security of a prison. And there he kept him until the worst
trouble was over.
The conciliatory measures which were adopted at the beginning by
General Figueroa and his Government were adhered to throughout the
upheaval, and it is only right that impartial history should record
the dignified and sane proceedings which characterized the attitude
of the Republic of Salvador at this period. The views which General
Figueroa entertained and acted upon throughout are clearly reflected
in an official communication addressed to a well-known American,
the then Consul-General for Salvador in the United States. General
Figueroa said:
"Untiring enemies of the peace and repose of our people have
once more endeavoured to create disturbances; for some time past
my Government has received notices of what was transpiring, and
of the progress of the conspiracy, together with considerable
data. This Government did not, however, act hastily, assuming,
rather, an expectative attitude, but nevertheless following
closely the trend of affairs, until the moment had arrived when
active work was to be begun.
"This Government early received advices from various parts of
the country, notifying it of suspicious movements on the part
of the enemies of the Republic. It was also noted that many
of these left the Capital two or three days before for other
towns, and all of them were closely followed. The Government
was prepared for all emergencies; barracks were ready, and
the proper orders given to crush any movements on their part.
Consequently, when numbers of these conspirators formed in
groups around such towns as Sonsonate and Ahuachapán, many were
captured. The Government is now in possession of the persons of
most of the authors of the conspiracy, and the guilty ones are
being proceeded against legally. Fortunately, the trouble has
not interfered with the progress of the country, nor with the
gathering of the coffee crop which is now in progress; while
the Government has received assurances of sympathy and support
from the great majority of law-abiding citizens throughout the
country."
In this reference to the trifling effect occasioned to the coffee
crop by the political disturbances, the President was a little
premature. The subsequent depression which was experienced in
commercial circles generally was undoubtedly occasioned by these
disturbances, although the consequence only proved transient.
All travellers, foreigners and natives alike, who happened to be in
Central America at this time, were well aware of the provocative
part which President Santos Zelaya of Nicaragua was playing; for
many years he had been acting as the evil genius of this Republic,
and his misgovernment and brutalities to his own people met with
general condemnation.
There can be no question that the revolution which was started in
Salvador, but which was so promptly and effectually suppressed, was
promoted by Zelaya, who, rightly or wrongly, imagined that at the
psychological moment he would meet with support, not alone from
Honduras, but from the United States, either directly or indirectly.
There is sufficient evidence on record to prove that Dr. Prudencio
Alfaro, who, since the death of General Regalado during the war with
Guatemala in 1906, had attained some slight popularity in Salvador,
was the instrument through whom General Zelaya hoped, and indeed
endeavoured, to carry out his plans. The conquest of Salvador was
only one of them, since, as I have mentioned in another part of
this volume, it was the ambition of Santos Zelaya to reconstitute a
Federation of the five Central American States, and then to elect
himself first President.
It was with the financial and physical assistance of Zelaya that
Dr. Alfaro engaged the Nicaraguan gunboat to convey him and other
conspirators from Corinto to Acajutla in order to spy out the land,
and to industriously lay the seeds of revolution. It was nothing
to Zelaya that he should allow one of the Government gunboats to
be employed in making warfare against a friendly power, with which
he had signed a treaty of peace only a very few weeks before, or
to supply from the national treasury the funds for letting loose a
horde of armed ruffians upon a neighbour's territory.
I have been shown documentary proofs of the arrangements upon
which Zelaya had been employed for many months previous, and which
provided for the invasion of Salvador at four different points. From
time to time changes were made in the _personnel_ of the Nicaraguan
commanders, but the names upon the lists which were shown to me were
not in all cases the same as those of the men who actually took part
in the abortive invasion.
I remember, for instance, observing the name of General Salvador
Toledo, who had previously been deputed to command the invading
army which was to enter Salvador from Honduras, near the Guatemalan
frontier; and also that of General Estrada, who had been nominated
to strike at the enemy with the Northern forces at the proper time.
This General Estrada had been in command of the Honduranean forces
between Puerto Cortes and the Salvadorean line, and he it was who
numbered among his followers all the scum of the population, mostly
consisting of ex-prisoners and exiles, who were willing enough
to fight against their own country's soldiers, side by side with
Honduraneans.
Another name which was on the officers' list was that of General
Cierra, who was to have entered the Republic of Salvador from the
south, with the intention of capturing the port of La Unión, and of
meeting the forces of Generals Cristales and Presa. According to
the calculations which were then made, it was believed that General
Cierra had only 3,000 men with him.
General Figueroa at this time wisely declared the City of Salvador
"in a state of siege," which is the equivalent of suspension of
political guarantees, to enable summary action to be taken against
political offenders or even suspects; a condition afterwards
extended to the whole country; and his instructions to the Governors
of the several Departments no doubt saved the Central Government
from considerable embarrassment as the result of the rising. Those
who led the insurrection had counted upon receiving support from
the public, which, however, they did not realize, and the lack of
this made the capture of the leaders by the Government troops a
matter of comparative facility. Secondly, much of the inconvenience
which would have followed a general disturbance of the affairs of
the country at that time, and which would have caused both the
Government and the people losses upon coffee shipments, was spared
them, but not altogether obviated.
As we have seen, it was altogether a clumsy attack which had been
planned, and had better local knowledge prevailed it would have been
ascertained that the prestige of the existing Government stood too
high, and the personal popularity of General Figueroa was too great,
to have ever endowed this rising with any great chances of success.
In this connection I think I may well quote an extract from an
official statement which was made in _El Diario de Salvador_, one
of the most powerful papers in the Republic, of which I attach the
following translation:
"In our edition of yesterday we published the decree of the
Supreme Executive power declaring the Republic to be in a state
of siege. According to the terms of this decree, the Government
has been obliged to take extreme measures, owing to the attempt
of its enemies to create a revolutionary movement calculated to
cause a radical change in this Government.
"Fortunately for the Administration, the plot was discovered
in time, and repressive measures were at once adopted which
rendered the movement impossible of consummation. But, if it is
certain that the internal peace has not been disturbed, such is
not the case with the credit of the country. Furthermore, the
fact that the attempt was made at the time for harvesting coffee
aggravated the situation somewhat for the moment, and threatened
to interfere with the gathering of this important crop on which
much of the prosperity of the country depends; but the action of
the Chief Executive in issuing orders to the Governors of the
several Departments has reduced this evil to a minimum.
"In his instructions to the Governors, the Minister of the
Interior provided in part that, notwithstanding the state of
siege, the greatest latitude must be given persons and workmen
who were not actually under suspicion, but insisted on the
strict guarding of public order. Men in the discharge of their
duties, however, were allowed to pass toward the Capital of the
country without the necessity of presenting passports. This
referred particularly to merchants, managers of plantations, and
day labourers.
"As will be seen," continued the journal referred to, "the
circular does not mention the municipal elections which are soon
to take place throughout the interior, but the President of the
Republic has authorized us to make known his desires that these
elections be held with perfect freedom, and be unhampered by the
decree of the Executive."
[Illustration: COLONEL'S QUARTERS, SCHOOL OF SERGEANTS.]
[Illustration: OFFICERS' CLUB ROOM, SCHOOL OF SERGEANTS.]
The extract which I am quoting continues as follows:
"Whatever reasons the enemies of the Government may set forth
in justification of their conduct, it cannot be doubted that
the country has resisted the movement grandly, and has caused
the failure of another attempt, which adds one more to the
number which have aided to discredit the country abroad, and
characterized our land as one of convulsive nations, incapable
of making reasonable use of their Governments, such as we now
enjoy. We must not lose sight of the fact that the eyes of
Europe are upon us, thanks to the important rôle which Salvador
is destined to play in uniting the civilizations of the East
with the West."
It cannot be too emphatically pointed out that the Salvadoreans
are not naturally a rebellious or warlike people, and, except when
compelled to take up arms in their own defence or in favour of a
righteous cause, they ask nothing better than to be permitted to
devote themselves to the congenial and profitable occupation of
cultivating the bounteous land which is theirs by inheritance. In
the troubles which afflicted the country in the years 1907-08,
the whole cause was the incitement which was offered to them by
their turbulent and troublesome neighbours the Nicaraguans and
the Honduraneans. As I have shown very conclusively, it was the
long-established policy of Santos Zelaya to foster an outbreak in
Salvador which should broaden into a revolution, in the course of
which Salvadorean troops would be compelled innocently to commit
some overt act which would give Honduras or Nicaragua a cause for
the initiation of a movement against the Republic. This, it was
hoped, would ultimately result in the election to the Presidency
of Salvador of Dr. Prudencio Alfaro, who was always a creature of
Santos Zelaya, and who for many months was his guest at Managua,
where he formed all his plans, for the execution of which President
Zelaya was ready to pay. As we have seen, the agitators did not
wait for the _casus belli_ on the part of Salvador, but most
unwarrantably invaded that country and committed certain outrages,
only, however, to have to execute a most humiliating retreat before
any beneficial results could possibly have accrued to them. Had
it come to an actual encounter or series of encounters between
the allied forces of Honduras and Nicaragua on the one hand and
the Salvadoreans on the other, there can be no question that the
latter would in the long-run have emerged victorious; out of a
population of 1,100,000, the Salvadoreans can claim a fighting
force of at least 100,000. The Salvadoreans are the best and most
plucky fighters in South or Central America, as has been proved upon
several occasions, displaying great intelligence on the battle-field
and in the conduct of their campaigns. At the memorable battle of
Jutiapa, fought between the Salvadorean troops and the Guatemalans
in the previous year (1906), and in spite of the fact that the
latter numbered over 40,000 as against little more than half that
force arrayed on the side of Salvador, the former gave an extremely
good account of themselves, and showed that the excellent military
training which they had received had not been thrown away.
The invasion of Salvadorean territory in the month of June, 1907, by
the Nicaraguans was a direct and unprovoked violation of the Treaty
of Peace and Amity of Amapala, only signed on the previous April 23,
and ratified on May 8, by which the Governments of the two countries
agreed to submit their grievances to the Presidents of the United
States and Mexico for arbitration. The news was first received
through the telegram sent by President Figueroa, dated June 11,
1907, and addressed to Dr. Manuel Delgado, the Salvadorean Minister
at Washington. In this despatch, General Figueroa says:
"This morning the revolutionists bombarded and captured the port
of Acajutla. The forces were commanded by General Manuel Rivas,
and came from Corinto in the warship _Momotombo_, armed by the
President of Nicaragua. It is in this manner that President
Zelaya complies with the terms of the Treaty of Amapala, which
was the result of the intervention of the American Government."
The gunboat mentioned was one of six warships which Nicaragua at
that date possessed, and which composed the whole of the Nicaraguan
"Navy." The vessel was capable of transporting 1,000 troops, and the
facility with which these landed and seized the port of Acajutla
is explained by the fact that the Salvadoreans were entirely
unsuspicious and unprepared for such an outrageous act upon the
part of the treacherous Zelaya, with whom they had every reason to
consider themselves at peace. The civilized world has denounced the
Nicaraguans' act of aggression, and unhesitatingly expressed the
opinion that President Zelaya had committed a grave violation of
international ethics in opening hostilities against Salvador without
having made a preliminary declaration of war or giving any reasons
for such an action.
CHAPTER VI
Outbreak of hostilities between Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Guatemala--Discreditable conduct of
Nicaragua proved--Failure of United States and Mexican
intervention--Dignified and loyal attitude of General
Figueroa--Warning to Honduras--President Dávila used as
Zelaya's cat's-paw--The latter's subsequent regret--Central
American Court of Justice trial of claim for damages, and
result of judgment.
The true friends of interstate peace, of whom there are as many
in Latin America as other parts of the world--although, from the
frequent turmoils which occur in that part of the globe, one might
be excused for doubting it--were much distressed by the serious
quarrel which broke out between the neighbouring Republics of
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, in the years 1907-08.
This was not by any means the first conflict which arose between
Salvador and Honduras, for the two States were at war in 1871, when
General Miranda invaded Honduras with the object of proclaiming
General Xatruch as President in place of General Medina; again in
1872, when were fought the famous battles of Sabana Grande and Santa
Bárbara; and in 1873, when Salvador sent an armed expedition against
President Celio Arias, and in order to restore General Ponciano
Leiva to the Presidency of the neighbouring Republic. Although the
relations between Nicaragua and its adjoining States had long been
on a questionable basis owing to the ambitious projects of General
J. Santos Zelaya, its President, there was no reason to anticipate
any disturbance, more especially as at the most critical time, owing
to the intervention of the United States and Mexico, the cloud had
blown over, and to all appearances peace reigned.
The worthlessness of the intervention, and the absolute ineptitude
of the United States to effect any permanent improvement in the
prevailing conditions, was, however, proved conclusively a few
months after the Treaty of Peace and Amity had been signed, amid
somewhat premature rejoicings at Washington, on December 20, 1907.
Almost before the ink was dry upon the document, Honduranean and
Nicaraguan troops had violated the terms and conditions, and
continued, moreover, to do so in spite of all diplomatic reminders
and serious warnings from the United States. In these "warnings,"
however, Mexico took no part, merely using the good offices of
President Diaz to effect what the threat of the Big Stick had failed
to accomplish. Eventually peace was proclaimed, and since then it
has been strictly maintained as between the different Republics,
although not by any means so within their own borders, as witness
what has recently occurred, and is still occurring, in Honduras,
and, alas! within Mexican territory, also. It seems a cruel irony
that Diaz the Dictator should so soon have become the Deposed. The
fact recalls forcibly the poet Burns's well-known words:
"And may you better reck the rede,
Than ever did th' adviser!"
The true history of these Republics' quarrels of recent times
would at this stage be somewhat difficult to record, since an
immense quantity of official documents would have to be translated
and given in full. To do this, however interesting, would prove
impracticable within the limits of a single volume. The matter has
been sketched by me from personal knowledge, and I trust that I
shall escape the charge of prejudice or unfairness to any of the
parties involved.
For the facts set forth abundant evidence can be procured, and
possibly, if my account be compared with the many versions which
have been from time to time adduced by others, who have spoken and
written from authoritative or personal information, it will not be
found to vary very much in the main particulars. I have patiently
listened to the accounts of all that took place both on Salvadorean
and on Nicaraguan territory, and, furthermore, the incidents which
both led up to and followed the clash of arms were related to me
by the participants when all feeling of animosity and bitterness
had disappeared, and the usual friendliness between the members
of this strangely mercurial people had been restored. Thus very
little for spirit of resentment--although perhaps something for the
vainglorious spirit of the individuals concerned--need be allowed.
_Il est difficile toujours d'estimer quelqu'un comme il veut l'être._
Considerable as is the space which I have given up in this volume
to the relations of the Salvadorean, Honduranean, and Nicaraguan
troubles, I find it impossible to publish in its entirety, as I
should have liked to have done, the text of the complaints presented
by the Governments of Honduras and Nicaragua against that of
Salvador, and which were heard before and decided by the Central
American Court of Justice, as well as the final answer and arguments
which were later on issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Salvador. All these documents, which fill two substantial and
closely-printed pamphlets, the one consisting of 84 pages and the
other of 108 pages, are extremely interesting and instructive,
serving as they do to throw a particularly clear light upon the
methods of some of the Central American States, which imagine
that they are acting in an "honourable" manner and fulfilling a
respectable destiny.
It is significant that these publications, which are complete and
official, were issued by the Government of Salvador, from which
it is clear at least that this country had nothing to fear from
the world at large being made acquainted with the history of the
troubles. No less worthy of comment is it that neither Honduras
nor Nicaragua has ever made any rejoinder to the arguments
and conclusions of the Court of Justice or of the Salvadorean
Government, and in this action, perhaps, they have for the first
time shown some intelligent discretion.
The impartial reader of these publications can only arrive at one
conclusion, nor, indeed, is it even necessary that he should know
anything of either the countries or their inhabitants to be able
to form some sensible deduction from the actual position. The
correspondence, the genuineness of which is unchallenged, speaks
for itself. It seems clear that the Government of Salvador, while
subscribing in Washington the Central American Treaty of Peace,
swore faithfully to fulfil the International Agreement which bound
it to its sister Republics, and at the same time opened for itself
and for them, as it had every reason to hope and believe, a new era
of confraternity to be maintained in dignity and mutual advantage.
To the principles of that Treaty, Salvador adhered with the utmost
rigour; and, in the face of the most intense provocation, refused to
depart one inch from its solemn obligations. The attitude which this
small but high-principled State showed at this time of trouble and
trial has evoked the admiration and commendation of all statesmen,
independently of country, or creed, or political belief.
[Illustration: PENITENTIARY AT SAN SALVADOR.]
[Illustration: OFFICERS' CLUB ROOM, MILITARY POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL.]
To particularize more minutely from the abundant evidence which
exists to this effect, and which may be gathered from every page of
these two pamphlets, is unnecessary in this volume; but one fact
at least I may call attention to, as exemplifying the honesty of
purpose and the good faith of the Salvadorean Government towards
the Republic of Honduras, at a time, moreover, when only armed
retaliation could reasonably have been looked for.
In all probability the friendliness of President Figueroa for his
neighbours would never have been questioned, nor their relations
have been in any way embittered, but for the Machiavellian
interference of Santos Zelaya. It is an eloquent fact of the
sympathy felt for Honduras, that President Figueroa of Salvador
wrote personally, and almost affectionately, to President Dávila,
on June 10, 1907, drawing his attention to the revolutionary plans
of certain Honduranean exiles who were making Salvadorean territory
their temporary headquarters. Only feelings of friendship and
good-nature could have prompted a neighbourly action of this kind,
which, however, some few months afterwards was rewarded by President
Dávila allowing his troops to join forces with the Nicaraguans in
their invasion of Salvadorean territory.
This I may say in defence of ex-President Miguel R. Dávila, whom I
know quite well, and with whom I have had many long and interesting
conversations: he is a man of great honesty of purpose, but of
singularly weak will; in fact, he has neither initiative nor power
of moral resistance. Quiet and modest to an extraordinary degree,
speaking very little above a whisper, and with the manners of a
curate rather than those of a soldier, one is inclined to rather
wonder _que diable fait-il dans cette galère_ of President of an
unruly and half-savage Republic.
In agreeing to join Zelaya upon his mad and mendacious enterprise,
President Miguel Dávila, who had only assumed the Presidency in the
month of April of that year (1907), undoubtedly allowed his better
judgment and sense of decency to be overruled. This do I know, also:
he has deeply and sincerely repented of his action, not because it
failed and he lost the game at which he had consented to try his
hand, but because, being a man, as I have said, of innate honesty of
purpose, he perceived when too late that he had committed what is a
worse offence than a mistake--a crime against personal honour.
General Fernando Figueroa, however, did something more than
merely warn President Dávila of the plotting going on against his
government and his life, and which was proceeding beyond his own
jurisdiction. He actually prevented the leader of the Honduranean
revolutionists, General Téofilo Cárcamo, from leaving Salvadorean
territory, keeping him, with many other conspirators, in prison,
and thus helping to quell an uprising against President Dávila's
government.
The magnanimity of the Salvadorean Government continued to the
end. Notwithstanding the finding of the Central American Court of
Justice, (delivered on December 19, 1908), and which, being in
favour of Salvador upon all points raised, should _sequentia_ have
carried costs, the Government forewent any such claims, which by the
terms usually prevailing under International Law could have been
insisted upon, and found its share of the expenses incurred by the
inquiry.
Subsequent to the troubles related in the foregoing pages, the
Honduranean Government stupidly courted fresh disasters by
prosecuting a claim for damages against the two Republics of
Salvador and Guatemala for injuries which it declared it had
sustained as a result of those two sister-States having harboured
Honduranean agitators and conspirators within their borders. The
exact value of this claim can best be judged by perusing the
following questions that were considered and determined by the
Special Court of Justice which was formed in Costa Rica (the only
State which stood aside and refused to be concerned in this Central
American squabble), and the members of which were made up of five
different nationalities. Attached is a faithful translation of what
transpired on this occasion:
IN THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COURT OF JUSTICE AT CARTAGO, COSTA RICA.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS VERSUS THE
GOVERNMENTS OF THE REPUBLICS OF EL SALVADOR AND GUATEMALA.
DECISION: IN THE CITY OF CARTAGO, COSTA RICA, AT MIDNIGHT OF THE
19TH OF DECEMBER, 1908.
Upon the closing of the deliberations of the Court for
pronouncing judgment in the complaint filed by the Government
of the Republic of Honduras against the Governments of the
Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala, charging responsibility
that took place in the first-mentioned Republic in the month of
June last, the Chief Justice submitted the following queries to
be voted upon in rendering the decision that is to settle the
controversy:
_First Question._--Should the Court sustain the exception taken
by the representative of the Government of Guatemala as to
the inadmissibility of the complaint, on grounds that it was
filed before all negotiations for settlement, between the two
respective Departments of Foreign Affairs, had been resorted to
without success?
The result of the vote cast was as follows:
_First Question._--The five justices answered in the negative.
_Second Question._--Should the Court sustain the exception
taken by the same party, as to the insufficiency of basis of
action, considering that no evidence was filed together with the
complaint?
_Second Question._--The five justices answered in the negative.
_Third Question._--Is it proven, and should it thus be held,
that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has
violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed
at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the
Capital and to submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered
the peace of their country?
_Third Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua
answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the
affirmative.
_Fourth Question._--Is it proven, and should it thus be held,
that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated
Article 2 of the additional convention to said treaty by
fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?
_Fourth Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Astua, and
Madriz answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the
affirmative.
_Fifth Question._--Is it proven, and should it be held, that the
Government of the Republic of El Salvador has contributed to the
realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable
negligence?
_Fifth Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua
answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the
affirmative.
_Sixth Question._--In consequence, should the Court hold that
the action instituted against the Government of the Republic
of El Salvador is according to law, and, if so, should that
Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages that
the complainant prays for?
_Sixth Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua
answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the
affirmative.
_Seventh Question._--Is it proven, and should it be held, that
the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article
17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on
December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and submit
to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their
country?
_Seventh Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz,
and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the
affirmative.
_Eighth Question._--Is it proven, and should it be held, that
the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article
2 of the additional convention to the said treaty by fostering
and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?
_Eighth Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz,
and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the
affirmative.
_Ninth Question._--Is it proven, and should it be held, that the
Government of the Republic of Guatemala has contributed to the
realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable
negligence?
_Ninth Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and
Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the
affirmative.
_Tenth Question._--In consequence, should the Court hold that
the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of
Guatemala is according to law, and, if so, should the Government
be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages the complainant
prays for?
_Tenth Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and
Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the
affirmative.
_Eleventh Question._--Should costs be awarded against the losing
parties?
_Eleventh Question._--Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and
Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the sense
that costs be awarded against the Governments of the Republics
of El Salvador and Guatemala.
From the above-stated result, judgment is rendered dismissing
the action instituted against the Governments of the Republics
of El Salvador and Guatemala without costs.
JOSÉ ASTUA AGUILAR.
SALVADOR GALLEGOS.
ANGEL M. BOCANEGRA.
ALBERTO UCLÉS.
JOSÉ MADRIZ.
_Witness_: ERNESTO MARTIN, Secretary.
A more impudent or baseless claim than that put forward by Honduras,
and decided by the Central American Court of Justice, can hardly be
imagined. That the Honduranean Government would ever have thought
of prosecuting it at all but for the instigation from its immediate
neighbour seems hardly probable.
That the Court should have found a decision overwhelmingly in favour
of Salvador and Guatemala was only natural, but it seems unfair
that, having come to that inevitable conclusion, costs should not
have followed the event, and that Honduras should not have been
condemned to pay them.
There is but one consolation (a poor one, I am afraid) open to the
Republics of Guatemala and Salvador in this connection--namely, that
had the Court ordered Honduras to pay the costs of the inquiry, it
would never have done so, any more than it has paid back to its
foreign creditors either the principal of, or, even the interest
upon, the money which it borrowed.
Were the creditors American instead of British, some satisfactory
settlement would have been arrived at long ago. Even as it is, the
British bondholders will be unable to obtain a settlement of any
kind without recourse to American interference, and, as may be well
believed, it will be upon such terms as the Americans choose to
approve of, and subject to such profits out of the transactions as
the Americans choose to demand.
It is satisfactory at least to observe that Honduranean impudence
did not succeed in the above instance in getting "any rise" out of
either Salvador or Guatemala.
That the relations existing to-day between the two Republics of
Salvador and Honduras are upon a more friendly basis, and that they
are destined to so remain as long as the present Governments of
the two countries remain in power, is proved from the interchange
of congratulatory despatches made by Dr. Bertrand, President of
Honduras, and Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of Salvador, in
the month of March last, and copies of which I am enabled to give
in this volume. The correspondence, conducted by telegraph, was as
follows:
"TEGUCIGALPA,
"_March 28, 1911_.
"To _H.E. the President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo,
San Salvador._
"I have the honour to bring to the knowledge of Your Excellency that
I have to-day taken possession of the Presidency of the Republic
before the National Congress. In communicating this to you, I take
pleasure in anticipating the good sentiments that animate me for
the cultivation of better relations with the Government over which
Your Excellency so worthily presides, presenting to you at the same
time my good wishes for the well-being of the Republic and for Your
Excellency's personal happiness.
"I am, Your Excellency's sincere
and devoted servant,
"F. BERTRAND."
REPLY FROM THE PRESIDENT OF SALVADOR.
"SAN SALVADOR,
"_March 28, 1911_.
"_To H.E. President Dr. Bertrand, Tegucigalpa._
"I am delighted to receive Your Excellency's important message,
which conveys to me the flattering news that such a distinguished
citizen, to whom I am bound by chains of fraternal sympathy, has
to-day taken possession of the elevated office of President of that
Republic. Such a happy event is received with immense rejoicing by
my Government and the general public, because it implies for the
sister-Republic of Honduras peace and progress. I send good wishes
for the well-being of Your Excellency, to whom I am pleased to offer
the testimony of my perfect friendship and sympathy.
"MANUEL E. ARAUJO."
CHAPTER VII
The army--Division of forces--Active reserve--Auxiliary--
Republic's fighting strength--Military education--Strict
training--Excellent discipline--Schools and polytechnics--
Manual training--Workshops and output--Economies in
equipments--Garrison services--Barracks--Destruction of
Zapote Barracks--New constructions at Capital, Santa Ana,
Santa Tecla, Sitio del Niño, Ahuachapán, Cojutepeque, San
Miguel--Annual expenditure.
The National Army of the Republic of Salvador is divided into three
main sections, each of which is under the orders of a Departmental
Commander, the only superior to whom is the Minister of War. In
the Department of San Salvador, which comprises the Capital, the
command of the troops is vested in the hands of the Minister, and
special commissions are held in connection with this command. The
first of these commissions covers the Attached and Reserve Forces
of the whole Department; the second relates to the Active Forces of
the Department quartered outside the Capital; and the third deals
with the two military zones into which the Military District of San
Salvador is divided.
The entire strength of the Salvadorean Army is, approximately, as
follows:
Active Force consists of 78 Staff Officers, 512 Officers, 15,554
Troops, or, approximately, 26 Battalions.
Auxiliary Force consists of 49 Staff Officers, 356 Officers,
11,176 Troops, or 18-1/2 Battalions.
Reserve Force amounts to 251 Senior Officers, 1,743 Officers,
56,151 Troops, or 93-1/2 Battalions.
[Illustration: COLONEL, ADJUTANT, AND CAPTAINS OF COMPANY.]
[Illustration: CADET CORPS, SCHOOL OF SERGEANTS.]
This gives the total strength of the Effective Army as--378 Senior
Officers, 2,611 Officers, and 82,881 Troops, or 138 Battalions, more
or less.
The Government, on the advice of the late President, General
Figueroa, have devoted the closest care and attention to the
question of military instruction, and the system at present in force
is the outcome of the intelligent study of similar systems in force
in other countries, and the adaptation of the best features existing
in each. A very high _esprit de corps_ exists among the Salvadorean
troops, and, for the most part, they enter upon their schooling and
training with both zeal and interest. It must be remembered that a
great proportion of the troops are merely Indians; and it speaks
well for them that they should take so kindly to a course of what
really amounts to mental and physical restriction, which, after all,
is an experience somewhat different to what they and their ancestors
have been accustomed, except when serving as serfs under a brutal
Spanish dominion.
Conspicuous success has attended these courses of military
instruction, especially in regard to the 1st Infantry Regiment,
which is quartered at San Salvador, and to the 1st Artillery, which
is quartered at Santa Ana. Here the men punctiliously attend the
lectures upon military subjects which are delivered by the regular
officers, as well as by means of ordinary instruction classes. In
other garrison towns night classes are held regularly each evening
of the week, the instructors in these cases being the officers
quartered with the garrison, as well as an eminent German Professor
(Herr Alfred Vischer) who was engaged from Germany especially to
impart military education to the Salvadorean troops.
A School for Sergeants and Corporals has also been established,
with the idea of training these non-commissioned officers for
appointments to higher rank in the army. This school was some time
ago joined to the Polytechnic Institute, and placed under the
command of the Director and Sub-Director of the latter institution;
but subsequently, owing to a disastrous fire which broke out and
destroyed a portion of the Zapote Barracks, in which the classes
were customarily held, the two schools had to be separated and
conducted in separate establishments.
It is characteristic of the broad-mindedness of the Salvadorean
Government that among the instructors engaged was Colonel Armando
Llanos, of the Chilian Mission, who for a considerable time had been
Instructor of the Polytechnic, and later was appointed Director
and Commandant of that school. In addition to the Director and
Sub-Director, the School for Sergeants and Corporals has a Doctor, a
Paymaster, two Captain Instructors, eight official Company Ensigns,
and two Civilian Professors. All of the officers who serve in this
corps have to enter through the Polytechnic School, and among them
have been many distinguished cadets.
For the use of the officers there exists a very agreeable Club,
at which they can procure their full meals and all kinds of light
refreshments at moderate prices; while the usual amusements, such
as drafts, cards, billiards, etc., are provided for them. So
comfortable is this Club made that the officers, as a rule, find
very little inducement to visit the larger towns in search of their
amusements; a matter of great importance is this to them, in view of
the fact that the barracks are, as a rule, situated at some distance
from the City, and railway travelling is, under any circumstances,
rather expensive.
In addition, this school has a number of workshops attached, where
shoemaking, blacksmithing, tailoring, beltmaking, etc., are carried
on, the output providing the principal requirements of the garrison,
including the supply of uniforms for the officers.
The staff of officers and cadets of this school, together with the
troops who occupy the annex, take part in periodical reviews and
manoeuvres; and even severe military critics have been obliged to
admit that the smartness and orderliness of the troops are in the
highest sense of the word praiseworthy.
The course of instruction which is followed appears, indeed, to
be very thorough, while the examinations through which officers
have to pass are in every way drastic and thoroughly "stiff." The
Polytechnic has turned out some very smart officers, the supply
being fully equal to the demand.
Of late the Polytechnic School has been provided with a first-class
physical and chemical laboratory, equipped with most modern
apparatus. The annual expenditure upon this establishment may be put
at between $65,000 and $70,000, which includes all the salaries paid
to the Professors and the fees to the officers who deliver lectures,
the maintenance of the cadets and troops, forage for their horses,
and all general expenses.
It is the practice at these schools to have field-days, when the
troops, as well as the cadets undergoing instruction, take part.
Upon these occasions they go through most of the features of an
ordinary campaign, including embarking and disembarking upon the
various lakes and inland watercourses, shooting and camp-pitching,
bridge-building, and a thorough training in the evolutions of field
artillery. The various cadets who are attached to the Engineers
Corps, Telephone and Telegraph Sections, and Medical Staff, have
to go through courses in the duties of these particular branches
of the army; and it is, therefore, quite easy to understand--when
one considers the thoroughness of the training in all branches of
its service--why the Salvadorean Army should stand first among
the five Central American Republics for military efficiency. That
such training is thoroughly effective and conducted with the
best _morale_ results was proved in connection with the earlier
unfortunate trouble, when many of the officers from the Polytechnic
Schools distinguished themselves not only by fighting gallantly,
and in some cases meeting their death with bravery, on the field of
battle, but also in regard to the skill and ability with which they
handled their troops, both in defence and in attack.
In regard to the garrison services, the infantry and cavalry are
almost exclusively employed, the artillery being quartered both
in the Capital and the City of Santa Ana. The officers serve for
one year certain, and they are thus afforded every opportunity
of acquiring a sound and finished instruction, and of becoming
thoroughly disciplined. The 1st Infantry Regiment occupy commodious
and suitable quarters, and they are generally noticeable for their
smartness and soldierly appearance, when both on and off duty. Santa
Ana is garrisoned by the 1st Artillery Regiment; and here, again,
the troops are comfortably quartered, and the strictest discipline
is maintained. The barracks are located at the Casa Mata, an old
but commodious building, which has been remodelled and adapted to
present-day requirements. A new story has been added, and this is
used as offices for the Commanders and Majors of the corps, while
one side of the building has been converted into extensive stabling
for twice the number of animals that are actually needed.
In point of cleanliness and comfort the Casa Mata Barracks, as well
as those at the Capital, which I was invited to inspect, leave
little room for improvement; and it is worthy of remark that no
epidemic of any kind has broken out in these barracks for many
years past, these having remained perfectly free from contagion
even when smallpox was raging in some other parts of the Republic.
The Military Authorities are commendably particular in regard to
vaccination and re-vaccination, not only when the troops go on
active service, but at all times. There is a well-maintained army
dispensary attached to all the barracks, and every regiment in
the Republic is entitled to free supplies of medicine, drugs, and
attendance.
While duly economical in regard to its expenditure, and zealous in
seeing that nothing is wasted, the Government has done everything
that is necessary to keep the troops adequately equipped both in
arms and ammunition, uniforms and supplies. The extensive and
efficiently-equipped Government workshops are in the charge of a
German mechanic, and here many of the military criminals, who are
confined in the Central Prison, are taught useful trades, and their
services as masons, tailors, and mechanics, are employed to good
purpose. Some capital work is turned out in these workshops, such,
for instance, as military equipments, uniforms, etc. I was informed
that during the year there had been made there 2,710 complete
uniforms for the infantry and artillery, 890 for the cavalry, 545
for colour sergeants, 200 for the port police, 258 for marines; 931
soldiers' caps, 537 cartridge-holders, 2,023 putties, and 2,378
rifle-slings. Special orders had been executed in regard to 22,914
uniforms and 11,311 caps, giving the considerable total of 27,447
uniforms of all kinds, besides a large number of heterogeneous
military uniform fittings.
During this period there had been delivered to the different
garrisons of the Republic 27,223 uniforms of various kinds; 14,299
caps; 5,840 scabbards with their ferrules; 2,550 kitbags; 1,200
blankets; 1,550 pairs of cotton gloves; 562 cartridge-belts;
1,790 pairs of canvas putties; 200 pairs of leather spats; 2,040
rifle-slings; 271 pallets for soldiers; 354 cloaks; 600 pairs of
gaiters; 1,350 water-coolers; 450 canvas nosebags, etc. Although the
not inconsiderable sum of $151,723 was expended upon these and other
equipments, it will be readily recognized that the Government must
have saved enormously in its expenditure by employing the services
of its own workshops.
It is desirable to say something in regard to the character of
the buildings which the Government uses for military purposes.
References have already been made to the serious conflagration which
destroyed the handsomest and most generally used barracks in the
Republic--viz., the Zapote building. The fire broke out on March 27,
1908, the actual cause being a mystery, although it was supposed
that the disaster had its origin in the defective installation of
the electric light, a badly insulated wire having been allowed
to get into contact with one of the wooden turrets. The building
had been almost completed when this accident took place; but
fortunately, owing to the quick services which were rendered by the
garrison staff, the police, and some volunteer helpers, the total
destruction of the barracks was prevented, and the greater part of
the war material stored therein for use was saved. The barracks
have now been completed, and form one of the handsomest blocks of
Government buildings in the Capital.
In Santa Tecla, which is situated but ten miles distant from
the Capital, a large and handsome block of barracks has been
constructed, and is also practically complete, the work having been
in hand since the year 1905, but progress being considerably impeded
from time to time through various causes. It seemed, indeed, that
these barracks would prove something like Cologne Cathedral, and
never see completion; for as soon as one part was finished the work
was arrested, and before any new addition had been made the old
part had fallen into decay. Neighbouring wars, earthquake shocks,
and lack of necessary funds, all played their part in occasioning
these delays; but at length the building may be pronounced complete.
The front is constructed in two stories, the three other sides
being in one story only; and, while the exterior of the building
is constituted of handsome cut stone, the interior is of a lighter
material suitable for tropical residence. There have been over
50,000 blocks of stone cut and laid for the frontage; the total cost
will doubtless prove to be heavy, but the result achieved will have
been worth it.
In the town of Sitio del Niño new barracks have been built for the
garrison, an expenditure which has been rendered necessary in view
of the advent of the railway between Acajutla and Santa Ana, which
crosses here, and forms an important junction and stopping-place
for travellers. The barracks took several months to complete, and
they now form a very substantial addition to the town's notable
structures. The principal block of buildings has 27 yards of
frontage by 15 yards of width, including the corridors and other
buildings. The extent of frontage, which faces the railway-station,
has a notable elevation, and rests on 2 metres of stone foundation,
one course below the ground, and the other above the ground level,
which is considered to have been the most healthful style to have
adopted, the residential part of the building thus being elevated
appreciably above its foundation.
In Ahuachapán a substantial and handsome building for barracks is
also being erected, the chief material employed being masonry, while
the whole structure has been planned with a view to defence in case
of necessity. The building has four turrets, one situated at each
corner, in addition to two smaller turrets which are placed on
either side of the principal gateway. The thickness of the walls has
been decided upon with the idea of resisting the attack of artillery
of the kind usually employed in these countries. The interior of the
building is constructed of unburnt bricks, the arrangement being
of the utmost simplicity, the architect bearing in mind that the
building is destined to be used entirely for troops, workmen, etc.
In Cojutepeque a block of barracks is about to be erected, but
active construction will be postponed until the water-pipes, which
are now being laid to convey water to the city, have been completed.
In San Miguel various additional defence works have been executed
at the existing barracks, while others have been commenced, the
Government having resolved to make San Miguel a strongly fortified
town. New military stables have been added to the cavalry barracks
at Santa Ana; while in other Departments of the Republic a
considerable number of important repairs and additions to military
buildings have been completed.
From first to last the annual upkeep of the Salvadorean Army,
including both equipment and maintenance, as well as the expenditure
upon all the military educational establishments, payments for
the services of the national steamer, contributions to volunteer
regiments, reserve squadrons, etc., amounts to nearly $1,220,000;
and taking the whole of this expenditure for both War and Marine,
the total disbursement for the year 1908-09 stood as follows:
$
Private staff of the President 73,113.73
1st Artillery Regiment 155,155.69
1st Infantry Regiment 461,596.39
Cavalry Regiment 125,670.58
Polytechnic School (including subs.) 106,554.71
School of Corporals and Sergeants 100,887.38
Volunteers of the Capital 90,602.04
Reserve Squadron 52,393.87
Band of Supreme Power 45,741.59
National steamer _President_ (from January to
March) 3,943.84
-------------
$1,215,659.92
CHAPTER VIII
British Minister to Salvador--Lionel Edward Gresley
Carden--British Legation hospitality--Mrs. Carden--Government
indifference to valuable services--British Consul--No report
for twenty years--Foreign Office neglect--Salvadorean
Consuls and their duties defined--Correspondence with the
Foreign Office--Imports and Exports--British Supremacy in
1904--Germany's position.
For some reason known to the Foreign Office, but understood and
appreciated by no one else, Salvador is incorporated with Guatemala,
Nicaragua, and Honduras in its representation by a Minister-Resident
and Consul-General combined. Other nations in Europe of less
importance, and the United States of America, are represented by
separate Ministers and Consuls-General, and in some instances by
both. The niggardly Foreign Office, however, when it has contributed
the munificent sum of £2,000 for the Minister-Resident's salary,
and a further £300 as office allowance as well as £200 for the
Consul's office expenses, has done all that it thinks necessary to
sustain the dignity of Great Britain in a foreign country whose
people are peculiarly susceptible to compliments of this kind, and
leaves Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Honduras--separated from
one another not alone by hundreds of miles in actual distance, but
by many days' travel on horseback or by steamship--to make the
best they can of the arrangement. The inconvenience alike to the
particular Minister, to the British subjects living in these
Republics, and to the Governments concerned, is considerable, and at
times becomes of very serious import.
The British Minister to Salvador is Mr. Lionel Edward Gresley
Carden, a man of altogether exceptional ability and culture, a
born diplomat, and one of the most attractive personalities that
one could meet with. He was born in 1851, and is a son of the Rev.
Lionel Carden, of Barnane, Co. Tipperary, his mother being the
beautiful Miss Lucy Lawrence Ottley; and from her Mr. Carden has
doubtless inherited much of his physical attractiveness. Educated
at Eton, he was at the age of twenty-six given his first Government
appointment, namely, that of Vice-Consul at Havana, Cuba, in 1877.
A few years afterwards--namely, in 1883--Mr. Carden was attached to
Sir S. St. John's Special Mission to Mexico, and two years later
he was appointed H.B.M.'s Consul at Mexico City. It was then that
his valuable services as the British Commissioner at the Mexican
Mixed Claims Court were rendered, the Commission sitting on and off
between 1885 and 1889. While in Mexico Mr. Carden upon two occasions
took entire charge of the Legation, and in 1898 he went back to
Cuba, this time as Consul-General, remaining there until 1902.
Mr. Carden created a profoundly friendly feeling for the British
during these four years, and he is still spoken of with the greatest
esteem, not only by members of the British community, but by the
Cubans themselves, with whom he was always _persona grata_. In 1902
he was created Minister at Havana, and he remained there until 1905,
when he took up his present post as H.B.M. Minister-Resident and
Consul-General to Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.
Mr. Carden married Miss Anne Eliza Lefferts, a daughter of Mr.
John Lefferts, of "Flatbush," New York, U.S.A., a gracious and
talented lady who, by her kindness of heart and refined hospitality,
has endeared herself to all foreigners resident or travelling in
Guatemala. The British Legation, one of the handsomest residences
in Guatemala City, is the centre of much friendly and cultured
intercourse, not only among the British and American colonies, but
with many of the Guatemalan notabilities and families.
The only recognition that has been paid by the British Government to
Mr. Carden so far, in connection with his long and valuable services
in Latin America, has been the bestowal of the Coronation Medal in
1902. Beyond relieving him in 1908 of the burden of representing
the Government in Costa Rica in addition to Salvador, Honduras,
and Guatemala, the King's advisers have done nothing to show that
they appreciate Mr. Carden or recognize the onerous and responsible
mission which he has had to fulfil. And yet he is both by education
and temperament essentially one of the most useful and reliable
diplomats that the Government can call upon. His proper sphere would
be at one of the European Courts, or, better still, at Washington,
where his valuable and unique knowledge of Latin-American
countries and Governments would enable him to more adequately and
advantageously represent and protect British commercial interests
than does the present complacent Minister, who suggests the idea of
being more of an American in his sympathies than a Britisher.
[Illustration: MR. LIONEL EDWARD GRESLEY CARDEN, C.M.G.
H.B.M. MINISTER-RESIDENT AT SALVADOR (AS WELL AS AT GUATEMALA,
NICARAGUA AND HONDURAS.)]
It will be scarcely credible, but it is none the less a fact, that
the British Government has issued no Consular Trade Report upon the
Republic of Salvador for nearly twenty years! This fact is set
forth in the following correspondence which I attach:
"PONDTAIL LODGE,
"FLEET, NORTH HANTS,
"_April 23, 1911_.
"_To the Right Hon. Sir Edward Grey, Bart., Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign Office, Downing Street,
London, W._
"SIR,--I should esteem it a great courtesy if you would let
me know whether any Consular Report has been published by the
Foreign Office in connection with the Republic of Salvador; what
was the date of such report; and whether any other report of a
later period is likely to be published--and if so, when? I have
been making diligent inquiries with regard to this matter, but
can obtain absolutely no information, a fact which seems more
remarkable in view of the trade relations which prevail, and
have for so many years prevailed, between Great Britain and the
Republic of Salvador.
"My interest in the matter must plead my excuses for troubling
you, and awaiting your courteous reply,
"I remain, sir,
"Yours obediently,
"PERCY F. MARTIN."
"FOREIGN OFFICE,
"_April 25, 1911_.
"The Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs presents
his compliments to Mr. P. F. Martin, and, by direction of the
Secretary of State, acknowledges the receipt of his letter of
the 23rd inst., which is receiving attention."
"FOREIGN OFFICE,
"_May 8, 1911_.
"SIR,--With reference to your letter of the 23rd ultimo, I am
directed by Secretary Sir E. Grey to transmit to you herewith,
a copy of the Consular Trade Report for Salvador for the year
1892, which is the last received.
"I am, sir,
"Your most obedient humble servant,
"(Signed) W. LANGLEY."
"PONDTAIL LODGE,
"FLEET, NORTH HANTS,
"_May 9, 1911_.
"_To the Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign
Office, London, W._
"Mr. Percy F. Martin presents his compliments to the
Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, and begs to
acknowledge the receipt of a copy of the Consular Report
concerning trade in Salvador for the year 1892, which he notes
is the last which has been issued."
It may be asked why the Foreign Office grants an office allowance of
£200 to the Consul at San Salvador if the services of that gentleman
do not include the supply of at least an occasional report upon the
trade conditions of that important country? In view of the fact
that the share of the Republic's trade with Great Britain is still
of some moment, even if it has shrunk considerably in magnitude
from what it formerly was, it seems astonishing that not a word
concerning the conditions prevailing, nor of the opportunities which
exist for promoting trade in that country, should have emanated
from a Department of State which presumably exists to protect the
interests of the nation's trade and commerce abroad.
Assuredly, never at any time were the stinging sarcasms uttered
by Burke, concerning Government services of this kind, in 1780,
more deserved than to-day. In his memorable speech on "Economical
Reform," Burke observed that the Board of Trade was "a sort of
gently ripening hothouse where members received salaries of £1,000
a year in order to mature at a proper season a claim for £2,000."
If our Consuls are expected to do nothing more than sit in their
offices in order to qualify eventually for a pension, the sooner
they are abolished altogether the better for the country's pocket.
It is to be observed that certain among the Latin-American States
have a much clearer idea of the proper qualifications for, and
the functions of, a Consul and a Vice-Consul than our own Foreign
Office, which has challenged criticism and earned condemnation
on account of the ridiculous appointments which it has made, and
continues to make, to such offices. Quite recently the Government of
Salvador published a very important Regulation relative to Consular
appointments, and this contains so much good sense, and offers
so many points which might be adopted with advantage by our own
"Circumlocution Office," that I make no apology for reproducing the
gist of it here.
According to Article I., Clause (_b_), of this Regulation, the
Consular career "has for its aim above all to promote and increase
the commerce of the country, and also to insure for it social and
political representation." Then this official Regulation gives
a general review of the obligations imposed upon members of the
Diplomatic and Consular Corps, and adds: "Certainly, in order
to fulfil these, special knowledge is needed, which can only be
acquired by patient and careful study. Diplomats and Consuls, who
go to represent Salvador in foreign lands, must especially be
presentable and must possess individuality. If any unfortunate
circumstance makes them appear ridiculous, discredit will fall, not
only on themselves, but on their fellow-countrymen." The Regulation
continues:
"Travellers have been heard to say that they have sometimes found
the Salvador coat of arms lying in a dark, dirty hovel, or in close
proximity to a pawnshop; whilst some diplomatists have been rendered
conspicuous by their ignorance of the language and customs of the
country to which they have been sent, and, above all, by their
absolute lack of patriotism. A Professor of International Law has
related of an Envoy Extraordinary of the Republic of Salvador, that
he once had to be arrested by the police in the centre of the City
of Mexico for drunkenness."
I have heard of at least one British diplomatic representative in
South America who ought to have been arrested for a similar offence,
but who escaped the indignity by reason of the wholesome respect
which the Government had for the country which he represented, even
if it had none for the representative.
"Consuls and diplomatists," goes on this document, "must not only
possess special knowledge,
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