The Library of Work and Play: Working in Metals
by Charles Conrad Sleffel · English · Gutenberg #45004 · 387,998 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Library of Work and Play: Working in Metals
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: The Library of Work and Play: Working in Metals
Author: Charles Conrad Sleffel
Release date: February 24, 2014 [eBook #45004]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/45004
Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Chris Jordan and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
book was produced from images made available by the
HathiTrust Digital Library.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIBRARY OF WORK AND PLAY: WORKING IN METALS ***
THE LIBRARY OF WORK AND PLAY
CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
By Edwin W. Foster
ELECTRICITY AND ITS EVERYDAY USES
By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.
GARDENING AND FARMING
By Ellen Eddy Shaw
HOME DECORATION
By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.
HOUSEKEEPING
By Elizabeth Hale Gilman
MECHANICS, INDOORS AND OUT
By Fred T. Hodgson
NEEDLECRAFT
By Effie Archer Archer
OUTDOOR SPORTS, AND GAMES
By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.
OUTDOOR WORK
By Mary Rogers Miller
WORKING IN METALS
By Charles Conrad Sleffel.
[Illustration: Copyright 1911, by Underwood & Underwood
Even a Boy Can Learn How to Make a Horseshoe]
WORKING IN METALS
By CHARLES CONRAD SLEFFEL
_Wide Experience in Practical Shop Work and for 12 years
Instructor in Metal Work at the Horace Mann School,
Teachers' College, New York_
[Illustration]
Garden City New York
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1916
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION
INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN
COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The publishers wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the Teachers
College of Columbia University for their courtesy in permitting certain
of the photographs to be taken for this volume.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. Introductory 3
II. Tools 5
WORK IN COPPER
III. How to Make a Copper Bowl 19
IV. Copper Trays 26
V. Paper Cutter and Nut Set 34
VI. Hard and Soft Soldering 41
VII. Candlestick, Sconce, Rose Jar, and Chalice 47
VIII. How to Make a Hat Pin 64
IX. How to Rivet 73
X. Lamp (for Electricity), with Shade 92
XI. Hinges in Copper or Silver 100
XII. Jewel Box and Desk Set 107
BRASS WORK
XIII. Finger Bowl, Crumb Tray, Tea Caddy, Vase, Bell and
Bracket, Drawer Pulls, etc. 133
SILVER WORK
XIV. Finger Rings and Scarf Pins 151
XV. Necklaces, Brooches, Bracelets 166
XVI. Spoons and Picture Frame 178
XVII. Watch Fobs 187
XVIII. Napkin Rings, Silver Comb, Belt Buckles 191
XIX. Enamelling 197
THE BLACKSMITH'S SHOP
XX. Blacksmithing and Tools 215
XXI. First Problems in Forging 233
XXII. Welding 247
XXIII. Mild Steel or Soft Steel 264
XXIV. Hardening and Tempering. Tool Making 289
XXV. How to Harden, Soften and Stretch Steel 307
XXVI. Forging Hand Hammers 316
XXVII. Some General Forging Problems 327
ORNAMENTAL IRON WORK
XXVIII. Processes, Andirons, Fire Tools 361
XXIX. Candlesticks, Hinges, Iron Brackets 380
XXX. Lamps, Lanterns, Iron Kettle Stand, Umbrella Stand 396
XXXI. Door Knockers, Plates, Handles, etc. 410
ILLUSTRATIONS
Even a Boy Can Learn How to Make a Horseshoe _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
A Boy's Workshop 14
A Group of Boys at Copper Work 66
Some Problems in Copper and Brass Work Made by Boys 142
Boys from Eleven to Fourteen Years of Age Doing
Metal Work in the Country 194
Splitting and Shaping the Iron in the Making of Andirons 362
Finishing of an Ornamental Window Grill, and
Levelling up of an Old Dutch Candlestick 388
Making an Iron Lamp 396
Ornamental Work and the Straightening and
Finishing of an Umbrella Stand 408
WORKING IN METALS
I
INTRODUCTORY
"What a pretty copper box, John. Where did you get it?"
"I made it."
"You made it?"
"Yes, out of sheet copper in my room last night. That's the way I spend
my evenings. And such fun as it is! I enjoy every minute of the time.
Mother says I'd work all night if she didn't stop me.
"I'd like to do something like that. Do you think I could learn to do
it?"
"I'm sure you could. Do you know the blacksmith around the corner?
He taught me how to do this work, and ever so much more. He got me
the tools, too. He says every boy can learn to work with metals, so I
thought I'd try it. I'll take you around to see him sometime. Come up
to my room and I'll show my workshop and all the tools I use."
"It would be mighty nice to know how to do something else besides
running an elevator all day. I get so tired of that. How long would it
take me to make a box like this one?"
"Not very long if you begin in the right way. I've worked at it only
since I left school. The manual training I got there helped me to know
how to handle the tools. You had that training, too, and I know it will
help you. Here we are, this is my workshop and bedroom. Let's work here
together and I'll teach you all I know: how to use the tools and just
what to do."
So began two boys to do work that one had done--metal work which any
boy can do if he will but take the trouble to get the tools and have
the patience to learn the way step by step.
"You don't need a large room for your workshop, you see," said John.
"The table here is my work bench and all the tools can be put into a
box out of the way when you are not using them.
"Here are my sketches of the tools one needs to make almost anything
out of copper, brass, or silver. The blacksmith made the drawings for
me and taught me how to make some of the tools myself. He says every
boy should learn to make his own tools and I shan't be satisfied until
I can make them all. Then I can make them as I need them and only those
that fit the work best. But I had to buy most of them to start with.
Here they are."
II
TOOLS
These are my shears. They are sometimes called jewellers' snips. I use
them for cutting copper, wire, and my designs. You can buy them at any
hardware store. But be sure to get a good pair, as they are needed for
so many things.
[Illustration]
I do all my measuring with a steel square. You see it takes the place
of a two-foot rule. It's useful for squaring up, too. See, it has the
1/16, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, and 1-in. spaces.
My dividers are my compasses. I draw circles, mark pieces, and find
centres with them. The pliers are used to twist the binding wire and
to hold the metal when it is to be heated, or soldered, etc.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
You can get a wooden block like this anywhere. Hard wood is best. This
block is 6 × 4 × 4 ins. You see, I cut out a hollow bowl-shaped place
in the top. When I want to work a flat piece of copper into a rough
bowl shape, I hammer it into the depression. The opposite end of the
block, which is flat, is useful in many ways, too.
[Illustration: Bench vise]
I couldn't get along without my bench vise. Here it is; made of metal.
It can be fastened to a table as well as to a bench. It holds any
tool used for shaping and also the metal when I wish to file it.
[Illustration]
This piece of 3/8-in. hexagonal steel, 5 in. long, tapered at one end
down to 1/16-in., is a punch for making or pressing holes in copper
or silver. The size of the hole depends upon the length you drive the
punch into the metal.
[Illustration]
The centre-punch is made like this one, but the end is ground to a
point.
[Illustration: Raising hammer]
Here are my hammers. I have three and a wooden mallet. The raising
hammer is used for many things which you will learn as you get on. You
see one end is somewhat rounded. You can pound away on the copper with
this hammer and have no fear of driving holes into the metal. It's the
first hammer I use to shape up the metal bowl with.
The shaping or driving hammer is flat at one end and rounded at the
other. Its bent head is shaped so that you can use it in places where a
straight headed hammer won't go. It's the only hammer to use when you
work on the outside of boxes or bowls to shape them up.
[Illustration: Shaping hammer]
Sometimes lumps are left on the surface of the copper after the raising
hammer has been used. These are smoothed away with the planishing
hammer. Its broad end flattens these rough places and makes the surface
perfectly level before going on with the work.
[Illustration: Planishing hammer]
[Illustration: Wooden mallet]
A wooden mallet is often used in place of the heavier hammer. If a
light stroke is needed it can be used without danger of marring the
metal, as wood is so much softer than the metal itself.
You'll need some files to reduce the metal to certain sizes. I have
four: a bastard, 12-in.; a mill cut, 8-in.; a half round mill cut, and
one round 1/2-in. mill cut. Then I have one half dozen jewellers' files
of different sizes. Supply houses will always tell you the best kind to
buy.
[Illustration: Cold chisel]
The cold chisel is used in many places for cutting off material,
especially for metals that are too heavy for the shears.
[Illustration: Gouge]
A carpenter's gouge chisel will be found useful for cutting impressions
in wooden blocks.
[Illustration: Drill press]
The drill press is used to bore holes into the copper or silver when
you wish to rivet or saw. You will need a half dozen drills for your
work. The 1/16-in. drills are the size I like best.
With a jewellers' saw frame like this you can cut any design out of
copper or silver. The fine saws are very cheap and one will last you a
long time if you take care of it.
[Illustration: Jewellers' saw frame]
[Illustration: Round stake]
[Illustration: Round stake anvil]
Here are the tools I use to finish shaping my bowls on. This round top
stake is put into my bench vise, where it is held tight. Then I put my
bowl on it after I have shaped it as much as I can on the hard wood
block. I can then go on shaping it as I choose, but if the bowl is very
deep you must use the anvil stake instead of the round top stake.
[Illustration: Combination stake]
Here is a tool which is a combination of anvil stake and riveting
tool. I use it for drawing out pieces of copper into different shapes;
flattening round pieces, rounding up flat ones, and for riveting pieces
of metal together, as you must do when you make a piece of work like my
box.
[Illustration]
Here is a little fire screen I made myself. You need one, you know, to
put your metal in, at times, for annealing and soldering. It's a safe
way to prevent the blaze burning the table or setting fire to anything.
I take two pieces of board, each 6 × 12 × 7/8 ins. (any kind of lumber
will do). Nail the two 12-in. edges of the boards together, at right
angles to each other. Nail this to a base and line the whole inside
with asbestos. You can place any piece of metal you wish to heat in
this corner and direct a flame upon it with perfect safety.
All the heat I need comes from a gas burner. Here I have a bunsen
burner, and for such work as I do on rings, scarf pins, hat pins, etc.,
or for any work that doesn't need lots of heating in the process, the
bunsen burner will do. But for annealing, which you have to do when you
make bowls, or for soldering, when you make boxes, you must have a
stronger flame. Then I use the gas range in the kitchen or the bellows
blower and blow pipe. If you happen to be where you can't get a gas
flame, an alcohol lamp with a mouth blow pipe can be used.
[Illustration: Bunsen burner]
[Illustration: Bellows]
[Illustration: Blow pipe]
Fill the alcohol lamp with denatured alcohol (bought at any drug
store). Light it. With the large end of the blow pipe in your mouth
and the small end about 1/4 in. above and a little to the right of the
flame, blow gently. This little blue flame will give you heat enough to
solder small pieces. Even a small wood fire would give you heat enough
to anneal any size pieces you wish. "Must I learn to make all these
tools before beginning?"
"Oh, no, you'd better buy your tools; they don't cost very much. Then
we can start to make something right away. The first thing you must do
is to design the piece of work you are going to make. I made a bowl
first."
"But I can't design."
"Neither could I when I began. You won't find it hard after you have
once made a start."
"Let's begin now, John, I want to make something."
[Illustration]
"I know you do," said John. "That's the way I felt. Now, I'm the
teacher and you must do as I tell you until you can plan for yourself.
Here are pictures of a lot of things we can choose from: bowls, boxes,
trays, etc. If a boy can make all these models he can go on and make
nearly anything in copper, or even silver, he would like to make.
Here are the bowl designs I have drawn. Of course there are bowls of
different shapes, and some have covers to them. But we will try to get
the shape that's most pleasing. Let's take this wrapping paper and draw
a number of shapes on it, keeping the diameter and depth of each bowl
the same. This model is 4 ins. in diameter and 1-1/2 ins. deep. Let's
make all our drawings of bowls that size."
[Illustration: Bowls]
"Which do you like best?"
"I like the first one."
"Now that we've decided on the size and shape of the bowl, I must tell
you something about the copper to be used. All sheet copper is sold by
number, the higher the number the thinner the metal. Number 20 is a
good size to use for most bowls and boxes. I use size 20 for mine. If
you want a bowl to be lighter, use size 22 or 24. You can buy the
sheet copper at any hardware store."
[Illustration: This Boy Has a Well Equipped Shop--He is Just Finishing
a Copper Bowl. You See His Vise, Shears, Mallet, Hammers.]
"Now you know how to make your design and you know something, too,
about the tools and copper in general. We are ready now to begin the
bowl."
WORK IN COPPER
III
HOW TO MAKE A COPPER BOWL
Here are the tools and the material that we need to make our first
piece of work:
_Material:_ 1 Sheet of copper, 20 gauge. Powdered pumice stone.
_Tools:_ Hard wood block, dividers, shears, round headed hammer,
planishing hammer, round top stake, mallet, files.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Take the sheet of copper, and with the dividers mark on
the copper a circle having a diameter a little longer than the contour
of your bowl design. Cut this circle out with your shears.
With the round headed hammer, using the rounded end, beat the metal
disc into the hollow of the wooden block until it takes on a fairly
even bowl shape. Keep turning the metal with the left hand while you
hammer it with the right.
[Illustration: Wood block]
You soon have a rough shaped bowl full of bumps and wrinkles around the
outer edge.
[Illustration: The long even buckles are easily hammered out; the
short, sharp ones are the kind that cause the cracks]
[Illustration]
These wrinkles must come because the circumference of the metal disc
decreases as it takes on the bowl shape. So long as these wrinkles are
long regular curves, they will work out all right. If they should take
short, sharp shapes there is danger of the metal splitting. In order to
avoid this be sure to keep the wrinkles hammered out flat as you work
along.
[Illustration: Smoothing surface of bowl with the planishing hammer]
If you went on hammering too long after your bowl is shaped, the bowl
would crack or perhaps break, for hammering leaves copper hard and
springy. So you must soften it before you can safely hammer any more.
To do this I hold the bowl over a gas range until it is red all over,
then I plunge it into cold water. This heating to soften up the copper
is called annealing. Repeat the hammering until the bowl takes on the
shape of the design.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: In this way one can get the shape desired]
Now take your round top stake and put it into the vise. Place the
bowl over the round top stake, and with the planishing hammer, beat
the surface until it is perfectly smooth, driving the metal just hard
enough to flatten the bumps made by the hammering in the wooden block.
If carefully done the surface will be true and bright and covered over
with brilliant facets. A skillful hammer-man can really drive the metal
in any direction he may wish. In this way you make a bowl out of one
piece of copper. The top of the bowl will be ragged. Cut this rough
edge with a pair of shears. File the top with a smooth file until it
is perfectly true. A good test to make sure of this is to lay the bowl
down on a plate of glass, or hold it up against the window pane. If
there are still any tiny openings left in the edge the light will be
easily seen through them. More filing must be done until no light comes
through from the smallest space. This done, take a piece of emery cloth
and rub the edge of the bowl until the file marks disappear. If you lap
the cloth over the edge your rubbing will leave a rounded edge, which
is just the finish it should have.
[Illustration: Trimming off the top of the bowl]
[Illustration: Marking the edge of the bowl]
_To flatten the bottom of a bowl:_ Turn the bowl upside down on a
bench. With a pair of dividers find the centre of the bottom of the
bowl. This is done by placing one leg of the dividers against the side
of the bowl and with the other making a light scratch as near the
centre as you can. Change the position of the dividers to the opposite
side and do the same, but be careful that the scratch is light. Repeat
this until you have done it on the four sides.
Where these lines cross is the centre. With one leg of the dividers on
the centre draw a circle having a diameter of about two inches. Take a
wooden mallet and strike down on the centre of the circle. This will
flatten the bottom. Work from both sides of the circle and keep the
rounding edge just touching the circle made by the dividers. If the
strokes are too heavy the bottom will bend in like the dotted lines in
the sketch.
[Illustration: Flatten the bottom]
In that case, turn the bowl up and hammer from the inside. The bowl is
now ready for polishing. Mix some powdered pumice stone with water.
With a woollen cloth that has been wet and then dipped into the
mixture, rub the bowl. This both cleans and polishes and at the same
time gives a beautiful lustre to the surface of the metal.
IV
COPPER TRAYS
How to make copper trays (used for pins, hair pins, cards, etc.).
(1) Round. (2) Square or oblong.
[Illustration: ROUND TRAY]
_Material:_ Piece of copper about 7 ins. square, No. 20 gauge. A hard
wood block, 10 × 10 × 2 ins. thick. _Tools:_ Carpenters' gouge chisel,
dividers, steel punch, shears, round peg of wood, 6 ins. long and 1 in.
in diameter.
[Illustration]
_Design:_ Take a large sheet of plain paper. Draw on it a 3-in. circle.
Using the same centre, draw a 5-in. circle. This gives you the plan
or top view of the tray. Below this view on the same sheet, draw the
elevation, or edge view of the tray. You can make the tray as deep in
the centre as you wish. Let's make this one 1/2 in. deep, that's a good
proportion.
[Illustration: Hard wood peg]
This is what we call a working drawing. If you are pleased with the
design, you can go right on with the work, if not, you can change it
to suit. You can see by the design that the tray is made by driving
the centre of this square plate of copper down into a depression. In
order to do this we must make a mould the exact size and shape of the
tray centre. This is what the square hard wood block is used for.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Take your hard wood block. Draw diagonal lines across one face. Where
these lines intersect is the centre. With your dividers, using this
centre, draw a 3-in. circle. Place the carpenters' chisel anywhere on
the circle and strike with a hammer, driving the chisel down into the
wood about 3/8 in. Do this all around the circle. Gouge out the loose
wood until you have cleaned out the whole depression, being careful
not to go below 1/2 in. in depth (the depth of your design). Smooth
this up nicely with sand-paper. The mould is now ready for the metal
plate. With the steel punch, make holes in each corner of the copper
plate about 1/2 in. from the edge and just large enough to fit the wire
nails. Place this plate over the mould so that the centre of the plate
comes right over the centre of the mould. Fasten the four corners down
with the wire nails. To drive the metal into the depression we must use
something softer than a steel hammer. A hard wood peg has been found
to do this best. Cut a piece about 6 in. long from the end of a broom
handle. Round one end up, using a file or a carpenters' chisel to do so.
[Illustration]
Place the rounded end of the peg on the circle of the copper plate
and, with a hammer, drive the copper into the depression below it. As
constant hammering hardens copper so that it ceases to respond to the
blows, it is necessary to soften up the metal by annealing as the work
goes on. Take the sheet off the block. To do this, place the point of
the chisel under the copper sheet close to the nail head and pry the
nails out, lifting both copper and nail up at the same time.
After annealing, nail the copper plate in the same place as before.
With the wooden peg continue driving until you fill the depression, at
the same time flattening all parts of the metal that may push up. Be
careful not to mar the copper at any time. When everything is perfectly
flat and smooth take it off as before.
We are now ready to draw the 5-in. circle on the copper. The centre for
this circle is the centre of the depression; and that is found with
the dividers in the same way as you found the centre for the bottom
of the bowl. Make the circle on the copper. With the shears cut along
a little on the outside of this line. Smooth up and round the edges
of the tray with a mill file. Rub out file marks with a little piece
of emery cloth. If the hammering has been uneven some parts of the
copper will have stretched more than other parts and the tray will not
lie flat when placed on a table. To level this up, place the tray top
side down upon a bench or table and strike gently with a mallet on the
surface. Holding the mallet near the head one can control the blows
and be able to strike gently. But if it is held toward the end of the
handle the blows will not be uniform. This applies to all hammers,
whether of wood or steel. You will notice as you do your hammering the
high spots will settle down and gradually flatten. The tray is now
ready for cleaning and polishing. This is done in the same way as you
treated the bowl.
_Decoration:_ Round trays may be decorated in many simple ways by
drilling holes in the rim, and then sawing out designs to suit one's
fancy, or they may be notched at intervals. Nothing is more decorative
though, than the embossed or repoussé design, made by beating from
the back and raising the metal on the face above the level. One of
the designs given here shows the embossed, and the other shows a
combination of the embossed and sawed out work.
_The value of the mould:_ It may seem to you like a lot of work to make
a mould just for this round tray, but it can be used many times for
making this kind of tray and also for trays of similar shape, like bowl
covers, etc. Most of the jewellery nowadays is made in moulds, wood,
steel, or lead. Copper, silver, and gold medals, pins, rings, tea and
dinner sets are all made by the mould or die method. This mould you
have just made is only a simple one; however, complex ones are made in
the same way. The skill all lies in making a very good design first and
then in making a very smooth mould to fit the design. After one or two
trials it comes easy enough. The chapter at the end of the book will
explain die and mould making in modern copper, silver, and goldsmith
shops.
SQUARE TRAY
_Material:_ Copper, 6-1/2 × 4-1/2 ins. No. 20 gauge.
_Tools:_ Shears, square, bench vise, round hard wood peg; dividers,
copper vise jaws.
_Design:_ Determine first whether the tray is to be oblong or square.
This material makes a tray 6-1/2 × 4-1/2 in. Draw this size oblong on
a sheet of paper. The rim of the tray should be 3/8 in. wide. Draw an
inner line all around, 3/8 in. from the outside. Below this draw your
elevation, or edge view, showing the depth of the tray. In this design
it is 1/4 in. deep.
[Illustration]
First see that your 6-1/4 × 4-1/2-in. piece of copper is squared. Now
draw your inner rectangle on the metal. To do this, set the dividers
3/8 in., and with one leg against the edge of the copper, draw all
around the four sides, marking the lines on the metal. You now have a
flat sheet marked ready for bending. Place the sheet of copper between
the vise jaws, the inner line even and on a line with the vise.
[Illustration]
The hard wood peg should be cut to a flat tapered end. This flat end
of the peg is held at an angle of about 45° against the copper plate,
just above the vise jaw and against the line of the rectangle. With
the mallet drive gently. By doing this the body of the tray is pushed
in, but the rim is kept straight in the vise. Repeat this all around.
You'll have a tray like the sketch. If the body of the tray is not deep
enough put it into the vise again and keep driving it until you get the
depth you want. The inner corners will be found to be rounded, as they
should be. Round off the outside corners to match. File the edges round
and finish with an emery cloth, clean and polish as explained before.
V
PAPER CUTTER AND NUT SET
Let's make a paper cutter like this sketch. We can draw the design on
paper first and then cut it out. Here is what we need to make it.
[Illustration]
PAPER CUTTER
_Material:_ Heavy copper, No. 8 gauge, 10 inches long by 1-1/4 inches
wide.
_Tools:_ Drill press and drills, jewellers' saw frame, cold chisel,
files, vise, emery cloth, few wire nails (1/2 in.) two blocks of hard
wood, one, 10 × 1-1/4 × 1-1/4 ins., and the other, 6 × 2 × 1/2 ins.
[Illustration]
Cut out the design and paste it on the copper plate. If our shears
could cut copper as heavy as this we would have little trouble to cut
our design out. But the shears can't do this work, so we have to put
the copper into the vise and cut the design out with a cold chisel and
hammer. Place the copper into the vise with the line of design to be
cut flush with the top of the vise. With hammer and chisel, cut along
this line. The back part of the vise will act as a shear and help in
the cutting and will prevent the copper breaking away and leaving the
edge rough. When this is done, place the paper knife in the vise and
file all the edges smooth. Now that it's cut out and smoothed up we
are ready to saw out the design in the handle. To do this drill holes
in the design as a starting point for the sawing. Take the drill press
and put a 1/16-in. drill into the chuck. Drill a hole in any part of
the design. Take the jewellers' saw frame and fasten one end of the
small saw into one of the legs of the frame; push the loose end through
the hole made by the drill. Fasten the loose end to the other leg of
the saw frame so the saw is fairly tight. In order to saw properly,
we must have something to support the piece while we are working on
it. This is best done by taking a block of wood 6 × 2 × 1/2 ins. and
cutting out a V-shaped notch in one end. Place this in the vise, or
nail one end of it to a bench so that the V-shaped end will extend over
the bench or vise to be free to work upon. Put the handle to be sawed
out on this block so that it will be supported on both sides of the
parts to be sawed out (see sketch of work in vise). The saw will play
freely up and down in the notch. All sawed work is done in the same way.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Block for sawing metal]
_To file the edges sharp:_ Take your hard wood block, 10 × 1-1/4 ×
1-1/2 ins.; fasten the cutter down tight by driving two short wire
nails half their length into the wood at each end of the cutter. Place
the cutter between these nails, bend the ends over, and fasten down
(see sketch). Place all into the vise jaw and tighten it up. With a
rough flat file, file the edges down, working from the centre line both
ways. When one side is filed about half the thickness of the copper,
bend the nails, take off the cutter. Reverse it, put it back, and file
as before. Do this until the edges become sharp.
[Illustration: File the edges sharp]
To finish this piece of work as it should be done, we must do some draw
filing. The draw filing is done in this way: Take hold of both ends
of the flat file, the handle in one hand and the end of the file in
the other. Stand lengthwise of the piece. Place the file flat down on
the blade with the teeth of the file pointing in the same direction as
the blade. Push it from you and pull it toward you, at the same time
pressing down on the blade. This is draw filing and it is the only way
to make a piece of metal true, and free from the marks of the cross
filing which was done in the beginning. Repeat this on the other side
until the whole paper cutter including the handle is smooth. Wrap
a piece of emery cloth around a block and rub all over the surface.
Polish and finish as before described.
NUT SET: BOWL, PLATES, AND SPOON
[Illustration]
A very beautiful nut set consisting of a bowl, four plates, and a nut
spoon or a shovel, can be made out of copper. One uses the same tools
to make this set as were used for the copper bowl, and the work of
making it is done in much the same way.
_Material:_ 9-in. disc of No. 20 copper (bowl). Four 5-in. discs (for
plates). Piece of copper 2 × 3 ins. (No. 8).
[Illustration: Flat-iron]
Take the 9-in. disc and hammer it into the desired bowl shape, on the
hard wood block. The plate should be hammered up in the same way,
keeping the depression in the centre of the plates about 1/2 in. deep.
A very beautiful finish can be made on these bowls and plates by the
use of the round end of the raising hammer and a flat-iron. Place the
handle of the iron between your knees, face up. Put the bowl or plate,
face up on the flat-iron and go over every part with the rounded end of
the hammer. This produces a surface covered with oval facets, giving a
mottled effect. The edges of the bowl and plates may be left straight
or they may be rounded, according to the design.
NUT SPOON
[Illustration]
Draw the design on paper. Cut the design out and paste it on the
copper. This piece of No. 8 copper is too heavy to be cut with the
shears, so it must be placed in the vise. See that the outline is even
with the top of the vise jaws. With the cold chisel and hammer cut
along the top of the vise as you did when making the paper knife. Now
you have a shovel-shaped metal of the same thickness all over. Where
the handle joins the bowl the metal should be left thicker than in
any other place, otherwise the spoon will bend in the using. To thin
out the metal of the bowl, hammer it. Begin where the handle joins the
bowl and thin out to the edge. The handle is shaped by working from
the bowl out toward the handle end, constantly widening and flattening
it. Cut off the surplus metal, keeping to the original design. The
handle may be left plain or some simple sawed out design may be put on.
File up, rounding the edges off so that the spoon feels smooth and is
comfortable to handle. Place the whole on a hard wood block and beat
the bowl and handle into shape. Many nut spoons have designs sawed out
in the bowl to lighten the weight.
[Illustration]
VI
HARD AND SOFT SOLDERING
Soldering is a process of joining two metals together. It is not hard
to learn to do. If you are careful when you do the work to have the
materials to be used perfectly clean, you may be sure of success, for,
after all, it's one of the easiest and simplest of all the operations
done with metals.
HARD SOLDERING
_Material:_ 1. Borax: bought in lumps, wrapped in tin foil, or
pulverized.
[Illustration]
2. Borax slate: a square piece of slate with a small depression in one
side. Any piece of clean slate will do. This is used to grind the lump
borax, or to mix the pulverized borax to a pasty condition on.
3. Solder: silver solder, sometimes called hard solder. It can be
bought by the sheet in large or small quantities. Bunsen burner, or
either one of the following: blowpipe and foot bellows with gas flame,
a blacksmiths' fire with coke or charcoal.
_Directions:_ The parts of the metals to be joined should, first of
all, be scraped or filed bright. This prepares them best for the
solder. Take a lump of borax, grind it up and mix with a little
water, on the slate, until it is like a paste. Take a sheet of silver
solder, cut a number of slits lengthwise down the sheet and then
cut them crosswise. You will have a number of pieces about 1/16 in.
square. These bits are dropped into the borax solution until they are
completely covered with the paste. With a camels' hair brush, wash the
edges of the metal to be joined, with the solution of the borax. Tie
the pieces together with an iron binding wire, taking care to have the
edges to be joined close together and in the proper position. If you
don't, the solder will not fill up all the openings and cracks, and
parts will be left unsoldered. Now, wash all around the joint with the
borax solution. Place bits of solder at intervals along the joint,
fairly close. Warm the work gently in the flame. This drives off the
water in the borax solution. When the borax is quite dry in the joint
direct a stronger flame over the whole work. Heat it gradually, but
be careful that no part of the metal, except that around the joint,
becomes red-hot, and that both sides of the joint get red-hot at the
same time. If you don't guard this, the solder will climb to the hotter
side and leave the other, and the edges will not unite. Cool it off in
water and file the joint perfectly smooth.
SOFT SOLDERING
For mending teakettles, tin cans, tin cups, or anything made of tin,
galvanized iron, or lead.
_Material:_ Lead solder, comes in small bars. Flux (1.) Resin and sweet
oil. (2.) Muriatic acid. (3.) Tallow candle.
_Tool:_ Soldering iron (can be made out of a piece of half-inch round
copper.)
_How to solder:_ Soft solder is a mixture of tin and lead in even
proportions. This solder melts at a very low temperature. That is why
we can do the work with the soldering iron. I find I can solder many
things at home with the soft solder, and I'm going to tell you how I
mended a leak in the teakettle the other day. First, I took a pocket
knife and cleaned all around the hole or leak, scraping the dirt off
both inside and out. Then I mashed a little resin up fine and mixed a
little sweet oil with it. Then I washed inside and outside of this
leak with the mixture. After heating my soldering iron in a stove (any
kind of fire will do) I took a bar of solder, held it over the leak,
and melted off a bit with the hot iron. You can make the solder flow
over the leak by pressing the iron right on the hole. You see, the heat
of the iron melts the solder and at the same time it heats the tin
hot enough to make the solder cling to it. Before the part got cold I
rubbed off the oil and resin with a woollen cloth. This left the work
nicely cleaned. You can mend any leak in anything made of tin, in this
way.
Galvanized iron utensils are soldered in exactly the same way, but you
must use muriatic acid in place of the resin and sweet oil. But if
you wish to solder anything made of lead or pewter a tallow candle is
rubbed over the place to be mended, instead of resin and sweet oil or
muriatic acid. In every other way the work is just the same. But lead,
you know, melts at a very low temperature, so you must be careful when
working on it that your soldering iron is just hot enough to melt the
solder and not hot enough to melt the lead. And now I am going to tell
you how you can make your own soldering iron out of copper.
HOW TO MAKE A SMALL SOLDERING IRON
_Material:_ A piece of 1/2-in. round copper, 3 ins. long, a piece of
No. 8 wire, 18 ins. long, or a piece of light telephone or telegraph
wire will do. Some soft solder. Resin and sweet oil. Small piece of
clean tin. Manufactured fluid for soldering (used sometimes in place of
muriatic acid).
_Tools:_ Punch, vise, file, hammer.
[Illustration: Soldering iron]
Place the end of the copper rod in the fire and heat it red-hot. Take
it out of the fire and punch a hole about 1/2 in. from the end of the
rod, large enough to allow the No. 8 wire to go through. Push the wire
through this hole until half is on one side and half is on the other.
Bend the wire close up to the sides to form the handle. In order to
make this rigid, place the rod into the jaws of the vise and pinch the
wire into the copper rod. This prevents any swinging motion. Take hold
of both ends of the wire with the pincers and twist them close to the
copper rod. This makes a good handle. Heat the copper end of the rod
red-hot, and with a hammer flatten it to a four-sided tapering end
about one inch long and ending in a blunt point. (See picture.) Cool
off in water and file the end of soldering iron smooth.
Now it must be tinned. On your piece of tin place some soft solder,
oil, and resin. Heat the soldering iron hot enough to melt the solder,
rubbing it up and down on the tin, mixing all together. Do this on all
four sides, and in a little while you'll find the solder has covered
the end of the soldering iron. When this is done the iron is ready to
be used.
VII
CANDLESTICK, SCONCE, ROSE JAR, AND CHALICE
There are many forms of candle holders. Perhaps the one we are all
most familiar with is the candlestick. Before the days of lamps and
electricity the candle was everywhere. Many different designs of
candlesticks have come down to us. Some were large, some small, some
plain, while others were highly decorated. But however much the designs
vary, there are many points that all have in common. There is the base,
large or small, and a cylindrical shaft which rises from the centre of
the base. This holds the candle. The drip pan is fastened to this shaft
close to the top. It catches the wax as the candle melts. Handles are
sometimes soldered on, and sometimes the candlestick is made without
one. They are attached to the rim or to the shaft.
CANDLESTICK
_Material:_ Disc of copper, No. 20, 5 ins. in diameter. One piece 3 ×
2-1/2 ins., No. 20, (for stem). Disc, 2 ins. in diameter (drip pan).
One piece, 3/4 × 6 ins. long, No. 16, (for handle).
[Illustration]
_Tools:_ Hard wood block, raising hammer, smooth file, dividers, saw,
round wood peg, 3/4 × 6 ins.
_Directions:_ Beat the copper disc into a saucer shape, for the base.
Take the sheet of copper for the stem, fold it around the wooden peg
till the edges come together. Scrape and solder the joint with silver
solder.
[Illustration]
_Drip pan:_ Take the small disc; with the raising hammer, curve it
slightly to make a drip pan. With the dividers, describe a circle 3/4
in. in diameter in the centre of the drip pan. Cut out this centre
circle and make it fit tightly on the stem. Push it down about one
inch, scrape the stem, and solder the drip pan to it.
[Illustration: Shaping the base]
[Illustration]
_Handle:_ A strip of copper 3/4 × 6 in. long. Cut a tapering slip off
each side so that one end will measure 3/4 in. and the other 1/2 in.
Shape with the fingers over the round peg (place the peg in the vise to
do this) until you have the shape you wish (see design). The wide end
of the handle should fit down on the outside of the rounding part of
the base, and the other end against the stem under the drip pan. Bore
a hole in each end and rivet the handle in place. If a round handle
is desired, take a strip of copper 3/4 in. wide and 1-1/2 ins. long,
shape round with the fingers. Scrape and solder at the joints, and
then solder on the edge of the base. Place and finish up each part as
described. This candle design can be greatly varied. It can be made
taller, shorter, with various kinds of handles, or with no handle at
all.
DESIGNS FOR NIGHT CANDLE HOLDER
[Illustration]
This kind of candle holder, or night light, is made to hold a short,
thick candle about 2 ins. in diameter, which will burn from 6 to 10
hours. A round base supports the candle, and a shade with a handle on
the back is fastened to the base. It can be adjusted so that the candle
burns freely all night, while the shade protects the eyes from the
light. Nothing is more convenient than one of these holders, for summer
homes or for camping.
_Material:_ Brass, No. 24, 3-1/2 × 4 ins. for reflector. 6-1/4 × 7/8
ins. for cylinder. 2-in. disc for base. No. 20, 6 × 1/4 ins. for handle.
_Directions:_ Picture shows a small night candle made of brass. Cut
out a 2-in. disc. Bend the 6-1/4 × 7/8-in. strip to fit it. Solder
the two ends of the ring and make it perfectly round. Be careful when
rounding it up not to stretch it larger than the disc. Push disc into
the ring flush with the bottom. Solder the bottom into the ring. Draw
the outline of the reflector on the 3-1/2 × 4-in. piece and cut away
the corners. Bend it to fit the holder. It should cover about one half
of the circle. Solder the reflector on. Soft solder is strong enough
for this work. Now bend the handle piece according to the sketch. Rivet
or solder it to the back of the reflector. Polish and finish.
NIGHT CANDLE HOLDER
The ordinary tallow or wax candle is used in this night candle holder.
You will notice from the sketch that the general style is much like
that of the small holder. However, in this design, a small cup or stand
to fit the candle is soldered on to the base, a little toward the front.
_Material:_ No. 24 brass--A 4-in. disc. 12 × 1/2 ins., for band to go
around the disc. Reflector, 7 × 7 ins. Cup, 7/8 × 2-3/4 ins., and
handle piece, 6 × 1/4 in.
[Illustration]
The reflectors are sometimes left plain, though the facets made by
a flat placed hammer reflect the light when the candles are lighted
and soften the light by day. The greater the reflecting power of the
surface, the better is the effect. If each part is carefully filed and
finished before they are all put together there will be nothing but the
polishing needed.
SCONCE (WITH ONE CANDLE)
[Illustration]
The sconce is a candle holder made to fasten upon any wall. It is both
useful and decorative. Some are made to hold but one candle; they can
be made, however, for two, three, or four candles. All sconces should
have a reflector, a bowl, shaft, and drip pan. But the designs vary to
suit the individual taste and surroundings. The design given here is a
very simple one and one that works out well in copper or brass.
_Material:_ One piece of No. 20 copper, 10 × 3-1/4 ins., for the
reflector. One piece of No. 20, 2-1/2 × 1 in., for candle socket. One
piece of No. 20 copper, 1-1/2-in. disc. One piece of 1/4-in. round
copper 4 ins. long.
_Directions:_ Make a drawing like sketch shown here. Place this drawing
upon the 10 × 3-1/4-in. sheet of copper and cut the metal to fit the
outline. Mark on this sheet of metal the embossed line shown in the
sketch. Place the sheet of the copper on the hard wood block and with a
chasing tool placed on the line, strike with the planishing hammer on
the end of the chasing tool. This, in turn, will drive the metal into
the wood. Repeat this till the outline stands out above the face of
the reflector about 1/32 in. If this is done carefully the raised part
will be a true smooth line. The same tool will widen the line any width
desired. Cut into a wood block a form like the impression you see back
of the candle. Place the sconce over this impression and with a wooden
peg drive the metal into it. The dotted line on the sketch will show
how deep this should be. Drive out any buckles that may have formed
during the working of the metal. This is done by placing the sconce
face down on the bench and striking down on the raised parts until it
lies flat.
_Candle holder:_ Bend the stock for the holder around a 3/4-in. mandrel
or wood peg till the two ends meet. Clean and solder these ends. Cut a
3/4-in. disc to fit the inside of this and solder in. Place this on the
1-1/2-in. disc and drill a hole through the centre of both.
_Bracket for candle:_ Take the 1/4-in. round stock. Put it in the vise
with one end projecting above, about 1/2 in. Drive down on this end,
at the same time bend it as shown in the drawing. File the end flat.
Cut a piece of No. 20 copper 1/2 in. × 3/8 in. and solder it on the end
just filed. This plate is drilled with two 1/8-in. holes, and filed
around. Bend the shape as shown in the drawing and on the other end
file a shoulder and 1/8-in. pin. This is now placed through the hole of
the disc and the candle holder, and both riveted to the bracket. The
bracket now is placed on the bottom of the sconce (see drawing), and
riveted on. The whole sconce may now be nailed with round head nails
to a flat 1/4-in. board to give weight, or there may be riveted to the
back, angles made of No. 20 metal, 5/8 in. wide and bent 3/8 in. one
way and 1/4 in. the other way. These angle pieces are riveted on the
sides and on the two ends.
Rivets add much to the decoration of the work if they are placed at
intervals and properly spaced. They make a nice finish. A hole can be
drilled at the top of the reflector, to hang it upon the wall.
HOW TO MAKE A VASE, OR ROSE JAR (WITH LID)
[Illustration]
_Material:_ One piece of copper, No. 20, 7 × 7 ins. One piece 4 × 4
ins. (for lid). One piece 3/8 in. wide and long enough to go around the
opening of the vase or jar.
_Tools:_ Round stake, anvil stake, driving and planishing hammers,
dividers, and shears.
_Design:_ Vase, having a base 2-1/2 ins. in diameter, height 3 ins.,
3-1/2-in. opening at the top, and lid to fit. The full height of the
vase is 4-1/2 ins.
[Illustration: First operation]
[Illustration: Second operation]
[Illustration: Third operation]
_Directions:_ Take the 7 × 7-in. piece of copper and draw a 7-in.
circle. With the dividers set 1-1/4 in., using the same centre,
describe a circle. This outlines the 2-1/2-in. circle for the base.
Drive up this disc as you did the one for the copper bowl on the wood
block, making it as deep as possible. In the same way as you flattened
the bottom of the copper bowl, flatten the bottom of this piece of
work. Place the bowl over the round head stake. With your hammer drive
on the outside. This driving with the hammer on the outside decreases
the diameter and increases the length. You will remember that the
copper bowl was driven up almost entirely by the use of the raising
hammer on the _inside_ and finished by work on the outside with the
planishing hammer. This vase or jar calls for the shaping hammer. The
vase is placed over the round stake and driven into shape by work on
the _outside_ with the shaping hammer. When the rough bowl shape is
on the round head stake, drive the sides straight, beginning the
strokes at the line of the base circle. Repeat till the sides begin
to straighten and take the shape of the design. Take it off the round
stake and place it on the anvil stake.
When the sides are symmetrical, mark with lead-pencil a line 3/4 of an
inch from the top. Work the copper above this line, over toward the
centre, until the opening of the vase is about 3-1/2 ins. in diameter.
Smooth the work up with a planishing hammer. If the hammer marks made
by driving the bowl into shape are carefully done they leave a very
beautiful mottled surface of themselves.
[Illustration: Rim]
[Illustration: Binding the flange to rim to solder]
_To make the rim for the lid to rest upon:_ Take the 3/8-in. strip of
metal. Bend it into a circle small enough to fit on the opening left
at the top of the vase. Be careful to have this just to fit, otherwise
much filing will have to be done, and in this position filing is almost
impossible. Cut it the right length, scrape both ends, and solder. Make
it perfectly level so that it lies flat when placed upon the bench.
Test it by placing it upon the top of the vase. File the top flat,
bind the rim in place. Wash, then place bits of solder all around it
and heat it until the solder runs. Cool off in water, file off all
rough edges left by the solder, clean and polish.
[Illustration: Bending flange on the lid]
_Lid:_ Take the 4 × 4-in. piece. Cut a 4-in. circle. Place the bowl
upside down upon this disc, draw with a pencil all around the rim on
this copper plate. This marks the diameter of the rim on the plate,
also the line where the copper should be bent to form the lid to fit
the rim.
With the anvil stake in the vise, place the disc against the sharp end
of the stake, with the line on the edge. Drive with the raising hammer
against the part projecting above the stake. Turn the disc, keeping the
circle line on the sharp edge of the stake. Repeat this till the sides
are at right angles to the top. Place the lid upside down on a wooden
block, drive on the inside, shaping it like the drawing. Make it fit
the rim, trim off the rough edges, file up smooth, and polish.
Do not forget constant annealing, for you know hammering always makes
the metal hard.
CHALICE
[Illustration]
_Material:_ 3 pieces of copper, 6 × 6 ins., No. 20. One piece of round
rod copper, 1 in. long. One piece of copper, 12 × 1/4 ins. (for rim).
Solder.
_Tools:_ Hard wood block, round head and anvil stakes, combination
stake, shears, dividers, planishing hammer, raising hammer, and shaping
hammer, files, emery cloth.
_Parts:_ Bowl, stem, base, lid, ornamental top of the lid.
_Directions:_ Make a working drawing (full size) on drawing paper, plan
and elevation.
_Bowl:_ Take the 6 × 6-in. piece of copper. Cut out a 6-in. disc.
Drive the bowl up as you did the copper bowl. It should be the same
shape as the copper bowl. Do not flatten the bottom. The drawing shows
that the bottom should be rounding, to fit the stem.
[Illustration: Lid]
[Illustration: Bowl]
[Illustration: Stem]
_Stem and base:_ Take another piece of 6 × 6-in. copper. Cut 6-in.
disc. With the dividers make a 1-in. circle in the centre of the disc.
This inner circle must be beaten up until it becomes the stem. To do
this place the disc on the round top stake, with the marked circle
touching the edge of the round top. Strike with the raising hammer just
above the circle line, turning the disc each time. When you have made
one turn of the disc, repeat this twice, hammering just above the part
driven up before. Keep repeating this until you have reached within an
inch and a half of the outer edge of the disc.
[Illustration]
The drawings numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, show the steps in the working up of
the copper disc into the stem.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
You now have a bell-shaped piece. Anneal the metal and repeat the
hammering, beginning at the same place and working up to the same
place as before. Anneal whenever the metal seems springy and keep
working until the stem is tapered about 3/4 in. at the small end,
gradually widening into the vase. Place the bell-like stem on the
table and flatten it so that it lies perfectly smooth, with the stem
perpendicular to the base. Find the centre of the bowl, describe a
3/4-in. circle. Scrape both the circle and the small end of the stem.
Turn the bowl upside down, place the stem end of the base on the bowl,
and solder in the usual way.
_To make the lid:_ Take the 6 × 6-in. piece. Cut a 6-in. disc. Find the
centre. Drive the centre down by using the small end of the planishing
hammer. This makes a cone-shaped centre, with the sides gradually
widening to the edge of the lid. The highest point of the cone is one
inch above the level of the lid. Place the lid on the table and tap
gently on the outside until it lies flat. Take the small 3/8-in. piece
of round rod, file a small shaped ornament (to taste) on one end of the
rod and a shoulder on the other end. Drill a hole in the cone-shaped
part of the lid, push the rod 1/8 in. through this hole and rivet it on
the inside.
[Illustration: Russian coffee pot in copper]
_Rim:_ Strip of copper, 12 × 1/4 ins. Bend it into a circle just to fit
the outside of the lid. Cut off the proper length and solder. Make it
perfectly round and perfectly flat. Place the lid on the chalice bowl
so that it overlaps a little all around, evenly. Draw a pencil line all
around the edge of the bowl on the under side of the lid. This is where
the rim is to go. Before soldering, test, by placing the rim on the
face of the lid. Any openings seen must be closed by pressing the rim
down to the lid. Bind tightly with binding wire, scrape, and solder.
File and finish.
VIII
HOW TO MAKE A HAT PIN
By this time you will have many pieces of scrap copper on hand. These
should be kept in a small box and used whenever suitable.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
_Material:_ A piece No. 20 gauge, 1-1/2 × 1/2 ins., is enough to make
the head of a hat pin. The pin part must be of steel, copper is too
soft. Buy any cheap hat pin in a dry goods store. (A cent apiece.)
Break the glass top or black top and use the pin for the copper head.
_Tools:_ One chasing tool, half moon; shears, dividers, planishing
hammer.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Designs for hat pin heads]
_Design:_ Hat pin with hexagonal top (6 sides) 1-1/2 ins. across. With
your dividers draw a circle on the piece of copper, having a diameter
of 1-1/2 in. With the radius of the circle, mark off the circumference
into 6 equal parts. Draw lead-pencil lines from one point to another,
just touching the circle at these points. With your shears cut along
these straight lines. Now you have a 6-sided piece of copper 1-1/2 ins.
across. Place this piece of copper on the flat end of the hard wood
block (the grain end of the wood), and make impressions on it with the
half moon tool like your designs. This tool you can make yourself.
Take a piece of steel, 5/16 in. square or round, heat one end to a red
heat and flatten it, like the flat end of a chisel. File the end just
flattened blunt and rounding. This end should be hardened to prevent it
from wearing rough. To do this heat it to a dark red heat and plunge
it into cold water. Place your tool on the upper sides of this plate
and drive it with a hammer into the copper, being careful not to drive
it through into the wood. If you drive the tool through you will spoil
the design and have rough edges. This makes a simple raised or embossed
design and is quite easily done.
[Illustration: Hat pin. Driving the design]
When this pattern has been stamped in, curve the piece of copper any
shape you wish by placing it in the depression in the hard wood block.
Place the embossed side down, and with the round end of the planishing
hammer, drive with light blows so as not to flatten the design. In
this way, you can shape it as you wish. The top could now be soldered
right on to the pin itself, but that would not make a strong hat pin.
It would be weak and too easily broken from the head. In order to have
a strong hat pin we make a little mushroom shaped pin holder which is
fastened on the under part of the head of the hat pin and in which
the pin itself fits.
[Illustration: A GROUP OF BOYS AT COPPER WORK
Their Shop is a Barn, and Tree Stumps Furnish the Hard Wood Blocks.]
HOW TO MAKE THE PIN HOLDER
_Material:_ Copper, No. 24, 3/8 in. square to make the flat disc.
Copper No. 24, 3/8 in. length and about 5/16 in. wide to make the
cylinder.
[Illustration]
With a pair of dividers draw a circle 3/8 in. in diameter. Cut out
the circle. Place this little disc on the flat end of the hard wood
block and with a punch make a hole 1/8 in. in diameter in the middle
of the disc. On the same end of the block, file (using round file) a
groove right across the corner, about 1/8 in. deep. Place the small
piece of copper (3/4 × 5/16 ins.), over the groove. Take the steel wire
belonging to the hat pin and place it on top of the copper and over the
groove. With the hammer, strike so as to drive the pin, and at the same
time the copper, into the depression. The copper sinks into the groove
and the two sides lap up on each side of the pin. Drive the two sides
down until they lap around the wire, the edges meeting. This makes a
copper cylinder which fits exactly around the wire of the pin. Take the
cylinder off, fit it into the holes of the small disc. Wash the two
pieces with a borax solution, place a little solder on, and solder the
disc to the cylinder. After cooling the piece in water, shape the disc
so that it fits the under side of the hat pin top. Polish the end of
the wire pin with an emery cloth, also the top of the pin holder and
the inside of the hat pin top. Push the wire into the little cylinder
so that it comes flush with the disc.
[Illustration: Bending the cylinder]
Now the pin is all ready to solder to the head, but there is great
difficulty in getting it in straight. In order to do this I make a
little device out of copper, which helps me in getting things on
straight. Take a piece of copper 1 in. wide and 5 ins. long. Bend each
end, one 2 ins. and the other 3/4 in., both in the same direction at
right angles. With the shears cut a V-shaped piece in the short end.
This little stand is good for soldering any upright piece to a flat
piece, when they should be at right angles to each other.
Place the top of the pin on the long leg of the stand and, with the pin
in the slot, place in proper position and solder.
HAT PIN HOLDER
[Illustration: Holder]
Here is a good design for a hat pin holder, a welcome addition to any
dresser. The design is very simple and the holder is easily made if one
follows out the directions carefully.
_Material:_ Disc 3-1/2 ins. of No. 20 gauge, for the base. One piece
of 3/4-in. copper tubing, 4 ins. long for the body. Solder.
_Tools:_ Iron rod, 3/8-in. round, 8 ins. long. Hard wood block.
Planishing hammer.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Bore a 3/4-in. hole one inch deep in the wooden block.
Place the 3-1/2-in. disc over this hole and, with the round end of the
planishing hammer, drive the centre of the disc into the hole 1/4 in.
Be careful not to drive a hole through the copper disc. Turn the piece
upside down. Place the iron rod in the vise. Put the bossed end of the
disc on the end of the iron rod and flatten the boss down. Shape the
base by rounding the edge down all around. See that it lies flat on the
table, without rocking.
[Illustration: Shaping base for stem]
_Stem:_ All copper tubing should be annealed before any work is done
on it. After annealing, place the 3/8-in. rod through the hole of the
tube and with the wooden mallet drive down on the tubing, beginning two
inches from the end and using the hard wood block for an anvil. This
constant driving and turning reduces the copper to any size required.
We must make the end of this tubing fit the 3/8-in. rod. The tube must
widen toward the other end, which is beaten out. Place it on the small
end of the anvil stake. Drive with the raising hammer, turning it all
the time. In this way you constantly increase the diameter, making the
cup-shaped top like the design. Now the stem and base are ready for
soldering. File the ends perfectly smooth and level. Bind in places
and solder, as before. The filing, finishing, and polishing must be
done as with other copper pieces.
Hat pin holders are usually filled with some soft material. The hat
pins are pushed down into this, which helps to keep them in place. Some
are covered on the top with a metal disc which has five or six holes
bored through, a little larger than the bar of the hat pin. These holes
are drilled into the disc and then the disc is soldered on to the top
of the holder. The pins cannot fall out with such an arrangement, and
they are not likely to gather on one side and tip the holder over.
IX
HOW TO RIVET
Riveting is one of the processes of joining two pieces of metal
together without the use of solder. To rivet, you must first punch or
bore holes into the metals along the edges to be joined. Place a rivet
through these holes, and either with the hand hammer or rivet set,
flatten down the projecting end of the rivet, forming a head similar to
the head of the rivet itself. Be careful to have the rivet holes just
large enough to let the rivet slip in and leave no extra space. If the
holes are too large the rivet will bend instead of flattening.
[Illustration: Punching metal]
_Use of the rivet set:_ A rivet set is a piece of steel 5 ins. long,
3/4 in. wide and 3/8 in. thick, tapering a little toward the top end.
In the large end of this tool, and to one side, is a 1/8-in. hole
drilled about 3/8 in. deep; on the other side is a counter-sunk hole
about 1/4 in. in diameter and 1/16 in. deep. This hole is used for
drawing the rivet up through and closing the openings between the
parts to be riveted, previous to flattening the end. (See picture of
stove pipe.) The counter-sunk hole is made to shape the head after it
is flattened. Tinners use it often for punching holes in thin metal,
such as tin and galvanized iron, and it's one of the methods used for
punching holes when making or mending stove pipes, and similar shaped
pieces.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Rivet set. Punching holes in a stove pipe and riveting]
_To rivet a stove pipe:_ Place the rivet on the stake and put the iron
pipe over the rivet about where the hole should be. Tip the pipe so
it will rest on the rivet. Tap lightly over the rivet. This will mark
the spot where the rivet is to go. Drive down the rivet set over this
mark and the rivet will be forced through the pipes into the hole of
the rivet set. The hole is made and the rivet placed at the same time.
Flatten the projecting end, put the counter-sunk hole on the top of
this flattened end, and you can shape it up like a round button.
LARGE SERVING TRAY WITH RIVETED HANDLES
A tray as large as this one is most useful in the home for serving tea,
ice cream, etc.
[Illustration]
_Material:_ No. 20 copper, 12 × 18 ins. Four pieces of copper, 3-1/2 ×
2 ins. Silver wire for rivets 4 × 1/8 in. in diameter.
_Directions:_ Perhaps the easiest and simplest way to make this tray
is to get a large block of wood, like the end of a building joist, a
little longer and wider than the 18 × 12-in. copper sheet. Out of it
make a mould the shape of the body of the tray, by cutting the wood
away. This mould is made similar to the one you made when making the
round tray. If the mould is made carefully and according to the pattern
it is a simple matter to nail the sheet of copper over the depression,
and drive it in with a wooden peg and mallet, making it fit every part
of the mould. Before this is done it may be necessary to anneal the
metal two or three times. Do so as often as you need to, it doesn't
matter how often it must be done. When the surface is smooth to the
touch, take the metal off the mould, and turn up the edges like the
design. File off the outer edges perfectly smooth and rub them down
with emery cloth. If your wooden peg has made small dents or flat
places, leave them as a finish unless they seem too high or too low.
The marks made by any wooden tool usually make a beautiful finish.
_Handles:_ The handles are hollow. They are made by taking one piece
of the 3-1/2 × 2-in. and drawing on this the outline of the handle.
Repeat this on the four pieces. This makes four halves. With a pair of
shears cut along the sides. Cut the rest out with a chisel. Snip the
corners. Put four pieces together and place between the jaws of the
vise. File into shape. This makes each piece a duplicate of the others.
Place each piece of copper on a hard wood block and with the round end
of the raising hammer drive into the block, hollowing it out. Make them
in pairs so that when the two parts are put together they make the
handles hollow on the inside and oval on the outside. File the edges of
the handle so that they meet close. Bind, solder, and file and round
them up.
_Fastening handles on the tray:_ Saw the two ends along the soldered
joints about 3/8 in. Open these out so that they fit over the edge of
the tray. Finish the ends off either rounding or square. Now drill a
hole through the handle about 3/16 in. from the end. Place them again
on the tray just where they should be and mark for the hole to be
drilled through the tray.
_Rivets:_ Take a piece of silver wire the size of the hole. Place one
end of it on the vise so it will stick up about 1/8 in. above the
surface. With the planishing hammer, hammer a small rounded head on the
end of the wire. Cut it off 3/8 in. from the head in length. This makes
a rivet. You will need four. Place these rivets with the head toward
the front part of the tray and fasten the handle on. Polish and finish
as you did other pieces of work.
DUTCH BOWL (MADE IN SILVER OR COPPER)
This Dutch bowl looks well made of either silver or copper. It is
worked up in the same way as the other bowls described here, the
little sawed out handle on the side being an addition which gives to
the bowl its Dutch characteristic.
[Illustration: Dutch bowls]
_To make the handles:_ If the bowl is made of copper select a piece of
metal thicker than the copper used for the bowl. This piece is 3 × 4
ins. long. Shape it as shown in the sketch. Mark the design and saw it
out. Now bend it at right angles about 1/2 in. from the end. Before the
corners are squared up, round the handle to fit the shape of the bowl.
This is best done on a round iron stake. File into shape, drill three
holes, and rivet the handles in place. A soldered handle if desired
makes a neater piece of work than one riveted in place. Material used
is a piece of 3 × 3 ins. The design is sawed out and shaped as before.
However, in place of bending the end down we file the circle to fit the
bowl. Clean the parts to be soldered, bind the handle in place, wash
with borax. Place bits of solder about the joint, heat, and finish.
If this soldering makes the bowl very soft stiffen it by hammering it
lightly all over the surface.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: A SMOKERS' SET]
A smokers' set makes a very useful birthday gift or Christmas present
and is not hard to make. All the principles involved in the making
have been worked out in other problems that have been given. The set
consists of five pieces: a large tray, a tobacco jar, match safe, cigar
box, and ash tray.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Tray]
_Large tray (copper or brass) oblong:_ This design shows a large oblong
tray with handles sawed out of the sheet metal, not riveted as the
handles were on the large serving tray. Draw the design for this tray
on a sheet of paper. Mark out the handles like those in the picture.
Place the pattern on the copper or brass sheet, and cut out the outline
according to the drawing. The handles are not sawed out until the tray
has been shaped up and finished. This tray is made out of a piece of
No. 20 copper or brass, and is 10 × 12 ins. With the dividers make a
half-inch line on the four sides of the sheet as shown by the dotted
lines in the sketch. Place this sheet in the vise, the dotted line even
with the jaws of the vise. With the wooden peg, drive the sides up as
you did the small square tray. Drill the holes in the slot and saw out
for the hand-holds. File all around and finish.
MATCH SAFE
This design shows a very simple arrangement of a match safe holding a
match box and a tray to catch the burnt matches.
_Material:_ Copper or brass--No. 20, 5 × 5 ins., for the tray. No. 20,
1-3/4 × 5 ins., for the holder. No. 24, 1/2 × 3 ins., for the centre
piece. No. 20, 1/8 × 5-1/2 ins., for the bar. No. 24, 1-1/2 × 2 ins.,
for the stem.
This little holder is made up of five parts: base, stem, holder, band,
and centre piece for pushing up the matches when the box is pushed down
into it.
The base is made by bending all four sides up 1/4 in.; corners are made
rounding. The stem piece is bent into a cylinder tapered by wrapping it
around a 1/2-in. tapered stick. Solder the edges, when this is done.
[Illustration]
The holder itself is made by taking the 1-3/4 × 5-in. strip and bending
it up like the shape of a letter U, so that it is a little longer
than the match box itself. The band holds the sides in place. All is
soldered together, the stem in the base first, then the holder on the
stem, etc. Hard solder is used. The little centre piece is bent, placed
in position, and soldered with soft solder. Polish and finish.
TOBACCO JAR
This straight-sided jar is made in three pieces. A disc 5 ins. in
diameter is needed for the bottom, a cylinder, 5 ins. deep, to fit the
disc, and a lid made from a 5-in. disc turned over to fit the outside.
[Illustration]
The disc for the bottom is bent up like the base of the tea caddy. Fit
the cylindrical piece around this base and solder where the edges meet.
_The lid:_ Cut a disc out of No. 20 copper, 5 ins. in diameter. Find
the centre. With the small end of the planishing hammer drive a boss
into a hollow wooden block, about 3/4 in. in diameter and 1/2 in. deep.
Out of this boss the knob is made in the following way: Take a piece
of 5/8-in. square iron and draw about 4 ins. of the end tapered to a
3/8-in. round. Bend this up about 1/4 in. as shown in the sketch. This
is the tool that the knob must be shaped upon. Place this tool in the
vise and place the hollow of the lid on this tool. With the thin end
of the driving hammer work the knob in shape from the outside. (See
sketch.) During the working of this metal it should be annealed three
or four times so that it will yield to the extreme tension required to
make the knob.
[Illustration]
The lid is rounded in the same way as the bottom piece was. There
is some shaping to be done on the top of the lid. The picture here
shows that plainly. On the inside of the lid are two wires soldered
crosswise to hold a damp sponge in place. This sponge keeps the tobacco
moist. Finish and polish.
CIGAR BOX
Any wooden cigar box may be decorated very effectively. This picture
shows an ordinary cigar box with copper (or brass) trimmings. Corners
are sawed out and riveted hinges are placed on the top. Boxes decorated
in this way make splendid Christmas gifts. A heavy sheet of brass or
copper can take the place of the wooden lid.
ASH TRAY
[Illustration]
Ash trays are of various shapes and sizes. Some are merely a square
tray, some are round, while others are half-bowl shaped. Sometimes
two or three half-round tube-shaped pieces for holding the cigar are
soldered on to the rim of the tray. All ash trays of this style are
driven up in the same way as you drive up a square tray or a round
one, or a copper bowl. To make the cigar holders, cut a piece of thin
copper or brass 1 × 2 ins. rounding on the ends. Place them on a block
and round them up in a depression cut out of the wood with a gouge
chisel. These are soldered on to the rim of the bowl or tray with soft
solder. Polish and finish.
LOVING CUP WITH TWO OR THREE HANDLES
[Illustration]
_Material:_ For bowl, copper 12-3/4 × 6 ins., No. 20. For base, copper
4-1/2 × 4-1/2 ins., No. 20. For handles, 2 pieces or 3 pieces of copper
8 × 1 in., No. 20. Solder.
_Tools:_ Combination stake, anvil stake, shears, drill press, drills,
rivets, shaping hammer.
_Directions--Bowl:_ Bend the 12-3/4 × 6-in. piece of copper into a
cylinder over the combination stake. The two edges should just meet,
and fit perfectly along the line. Scrape inside and outside the joint.
Wash with borax, bind with binding wire, and solder. Be careful to heat
it all over the fire till the solder runs freely and fills every part
of the joint. Cool off, then round it up again in the stake, filing off
the surplus silver solder inside and outside. Hammer the joint down
till flat and true. If carefully done this will show a thin even line
of silver.
_Base:_ 4-1/2 × 4-1/2 ins. Cut a 4-1/2-in. disc. Place the cylinder
just made on the disc, allowing the surplus to extend out evenly all
around. Draw with a pencil the outline of the cylinder on the disc. The
rim must be turned up at right angles to the circle so that it fits
exactly over the cylinder. To do this, place the edge of the disc on
the sharp edge of the anvil stake, driving the edge over. Anneal and
repeat until the sides are at right angles to the base. File off the
top perfectly even, rounding out the edges. This makes a finish and
border to the base. Push the cylinder into the bottom. Prepare, as
usual, for soldering. Be careful to put bits of solder both around the
edge of the turned up flange, and on the inside bottom edge. Heat and
finish.
_Handles:_ Copper pieces, 8 × 1 in. Cut a tapered slip off each side of
the handle pieces, until the large end is one inch wide and the small
end 3/4 in. With dividers draw 1/8-in. line parallel to those sides.
Bend each side back on this line. Shape the handle (see design) over
the combination stake, using the fingers or mallet to do so. The top
of the handles should fit up close against the top of the cylinder and
should extend down about 2/3 of the depth of the bowl. The ends may be
rounded off nicely with the shears, and filed. A 1/8-in. hole must now
be drilled in each side. Place the handle in the proper position on the
bowl. Mark the holes and drill them where the marks are made. Place
rivets and rivet the handles on. A touch of soft solder will help keep
these handles in place and at the same time will prevent any possible
chance for leakage through rivet holes, for where you have rivets you
are apt to have a leak. Clean, polish, and finish.
COPPER BELT BUCKLE
Buckles may be made of copper, silver, or brass, and the process of
making them is very simple. This design shows a buckle for a man or a
boy.
_Material:_ Copper (or brass or silver) 5/16 in. square × 8 ins. long
for the frame of the belt. One piece 1/8-in. round rod × 1-3/4 in. long
for the cross piece. One piece 3/16-in. square × 2 in. long (pin).
Borax and solder.
[Illustration]
_Tools:_ Mallet, file, pliers, combination stake, and vise.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Take the 5/16 × 8-in. piece of copper. Put it into the
vise and bend it into a rectangular frame like the design. Be careful
to make rounding corners and the sides parallel to each other. Cut off
the surplus metal. Make the joint in one corner. Solder and file the
corner the same shape as the other three.
[Illustration]
_Cross bar:_ Take the piece of copper, 1-3/4 × 1/8 in. Bend the two
ends down 1/8 in. in the same direction. (See picture.)
[Illustration: Cross piece]
Solder this piece to the under side of the frame. The projections throw
the cross bar down low enough below the level of the frame to allow the
leather strap to come flush with the buckle top.
_Pin or tongue:_ Take the metal set aside for making the pin. Flatten
one end of this out to 1/16 of an inch thick and long enough to go
around the cross bar. (See design.)
[Illustration: Tongue]
Flattening the end piece hardens it so that it must be annealed. With
the round pliers, bend this end so it will loop over the cross bar.
Shape over the whole buckle according to the design. File, finish, and
polish. These buckles may be made very attractive by giving them a
smooth finish, or a mottled surface, or by making a sawed out design
around the frame.
X
LAMP (FOR ELECTRICITY) WITH SHADE
[Illustration]
_Material:_ Piece of copper, No. 16, 8 ins. square (base). Piece of
copper, No. 24, 10 × 5 ins. (post). Piece of copper, No. 20, 2-1/4 ×
2-1/4 ins. (cap). 3 pieces of 1/4-in. round copper, 7 ins. long (for
shade holder). Solder. Borax.
_Tools:_ Raising hammer, hard wood block, anvil stake, drill press,
piece of discarded broom handle, dividers.
_Directions:_ Make a 2-1/2-in. circle in the centre of the 8-in. square
plate. Drive this centre up about 1/2 in. above the level, tapering on
the top to about 1-1/2 in. in diameter. To do this, place the centre
over a hole in the wooden block 1-1/2 in. in diameter and drive the
metal into the hole to the required depth. (See design.)
Draw a line with the dividers 1/2 in. all around the edge. Be sure the
line is an equal distance from the centre. Bend the sides down 1/2 in.
all along this line at almost right angles to the surface. This bending
is done in the vise. Measure off 1/2 in. in either direction from each
corner for the feet, file out a section 1/4 in. deep and 7 ins. long,
as was done in making the feet for the square box.
[Illustration: Base of lamp]
[Illustration: Base]
[Illustration]
_Centre post:_ Take the 10 × 5-in. piece and bend it around the piece
of broom handle (or any other piece of round wood the size you wish).
The two edges must meet. Scrape and solder, being careful that the
solder runs into the joint. File it off flush with the top of the
metal and make the column perfectly round. Place the column on the
raised part of the base and mark around the column on the base with
a pencil. Saw out a hole along the marked line. Push the end of the
column in so that it is perpendicular to the base and perfectly true
all around. Tie it in place for soldering, with the binding wire, by
fastening the wire on the extreme top of the column, and carrying it
to the four corners of the base. This centres the column ready for
soldering. Wash the joint well, place pieces of silver around the base
and column, and heat. The base should be crowned from the centre to the
outer edge. To do this, place the centre on any round top wood block.
Strike on the outer edges with the wooden mallet until the desired
crown is formed. See that it stands plumb and does not rock. If it does
rock, tap the base gently on the outer edges with the mallet until it
stands firm. File and polish until the surface is perfectly smooth and
free from marks of all kinds. The beautiful colours that form on the
surface of copper depend much upon the finish. The body of the lamp is
now ready for the cap and arms that hold the shade.
[Illustration]
_Cap:_ Take a 2-1/4-in. disc. Draw a circle in the centre of this disc,
having a diameter equal to the diameter of the top of the column. Place
this disc on the edge of an anvil stake and drive the edges of the
metal over, forming a cap as described in the making of the lid of
the rose jar. Divide this flange equally into three parts, drilling a
1/8-in. hole in each one of the three divisions. Take the three pieces
of 1/4-in. round copper. File the ends of each one, making a shoulder
on the end 1/8 in. and 1/8 in. in diameter to fit the holes in the
flange. Put the end of these rods into the vise with the shoulder close
to the top of the vise. Put the cap on the projecting pin, and rivet.
Repeat this for all three rods. Wash the rivet joints with borax, and
solder. File off any projecting parts so that the inside is flush, as
this cap must fit over the column. Place the cap over the column and
between the projecting arms drill a small hole through both the cap and
the column, and rivet as before.
[Illustration]
_Shade, 4-sided or 6-sided:_ This design is for 6 sides. That gives a
good proportion.
_Dimensions of each side:_ Side (on a slant) 9 ins., top, 2-1/2 ins.
Bottom, 8 ins. (See drawing.) Cut out a pattern for one side. Use
stiff card board. Lay this design on a piece of copper large enough to
cut out the whole lamp shade. Mark around the pattern. Lay the same
pattern against one side of the marked design. Make it fit exactly
along the margin line. Repeat until you have done six sides. You have
now a fan shaped pattern with six divisions. Cut this along the top and
bottom lines.
[Illustration]
If folded up along these division lines it would shape up into a lamp
shade. All lamp shades have glass for light. We provide for the glass
by cutting out a section of each of the six faces. Take your card
board pattern. Mark a line all around from 3/4 in. and parallel to the
sides, 1 in. from the top and 1 in. from the bottom. Cut out the inner
section made by these lines. Place the pattern on the copper and mark
each section. Cut it out with the cold chisel on the wooden block.
File up the rough places left, make the edges square and smooth. Bend
up each section along the centre line in the following way: Get two
pieces of wood, 2 × 1/2 × 20 ins. Place the two pieces in a vise and
slip the copper between the pieces down to the line where it should be
bent. Tighten up on the vise, press the copper over with the hands and
tap gently along the lines with the mallet, keeping the angles about
60°. Do this on each of the six sides. If carefully done the shade will
have a hexagonal shape. The open parts should come together, one side
overlapping about 1/4 in. Hammer down the overlapping part and rivet.
[Illustration]
_Glass:_ Cut a piece of card board 1/4 in. larger all around than the
opening in the sections for the glass. Take this to a glazier. Tell the
dealer just what is wanted and he will make suggestions as to colour,
kinds of glass, etc. Cathedral or opalescent glass is very decorative.
[Illustration]
_To set the glass:_ Place one of the panes of glass on the inside of
the section, over the open space. Mark all around it. Take 4 pieces of
copper (3/4 × 3/8 in.) and bend them in a double angle.
These are to be soldered or riveted on the rim. One is placed on either
side, one at the top and one at the bottom. This glass rests in these
brackets and keeps it in place. Repeat for the six sections. Push the
brackets down against the glass after it is in place. They hold it firm
against the side of the shade.
The design for this shade lends itself to many variations. It may be
square, five-sided, six-sided. The edges can be escalloped both top and
bottom, and a sawed out design may be made to fit over the glass.
XI
HINGES IN COPPER OR SILVER
TUBE DRAWING AND WIRE DRAWING
_Material:_ Copper or Silver.
_Tools:_ Hardwood block, 6 × 3 × 1 in. draw plate, tongs, sharp peen
hammer, saw frame and saw, round file, shears, small piece of soap.
[Illustration: Stamp box, or jewel box with tube hinge]
_Directions:_ To make a good hinge for jewel boxes or jewellery
requires some knowledge of how to make wire and tubes out of sheet
metal. In order to do this you must have a draw plate and that you can
make yourself, in the following way: Take a piece of iron 1/4 × 1-1/2
× 3 ins. or 4 ins. long. Drill a number of graduated holes through the
piece along the centre. The smallest hole should be about 1/32 in.
in diameter and the largest, about 1/8 in. Take your steel punch and
file the end down, tapering so that the point will go into the smallest
hole. Drive the punch into the hole until it just goes through. These
holes take the shape of the tapered punch. Repeat this in each hole
until the draw plate is made up of a number of graduated tapering
holes. Your draw plate is used for reducing wires from a large size to
any size you have holes for and for making hollow tubing for hinges.
_To reduce wire:_ You can always buy the wire any thickness you wish,
but many times a small piece of wire is needed quickly and can be made
with little trouble.
If you should wish to reduce a piece of wire 1/8 in. thick to any size
smaller than 1/8 in., file the end of the piece so it just goes through
the hole far enough to grasp with the tongs. Rub a little soap over the
surface of the wire, draw it through the hole. It is reduced to the
size of the hole it goes through. After the first or second operation
the wire must be annealed, as pulling it through the draw plate hardens
it.
_Tubing for hinges:_ Cut a strip of No. 28, copper (or silver) any
length. Cut the width of it three times the diameter of the tube you
wish to make, and cut the end of this piece to a point. Place your 6
× 1 × 3-in. block in the vise. With a round file, file a groove across
the block.
[Illustration: Shaping tube before drawing in plate]
Place the strip of copper or silver over the groove and, using the
hammer, drive the metal into the groove, forming a gutter.
Repeat this until you have driven the copper into a cylindrical shape.
Put the pointed end through the largest hole in the draw plate. Rub
well with soap. Clasp the end sticking through with the tongs and pull
it through. Repeat as you did when drawing wire through. Anneal when
necessary. Continue to put the tube in one reducing hole after another
until the tube is the size you wish. This tube with a small hole
through the entire length is used for fine hinges.
[Illustration: Draw plate and tongs with tube going through]
[Illustration: Sawing off pieces of tubing for hinges]
_Fine hinges:_ To make a hinge for a box, bracelet, or any small
dainty article that requires hinges, take a piece of the tube made as
described. After you have decided just how long the hinge must be to
fit the article you are making, saw the tube into three pieces, or five
pieces, of equal length by placing the tube in a vise. If it is to be a
three-piece hinge, two will be soldered on the one side and one on the
other, the two just far enough apart so that the one is in position to
fit exactly in between them. When the three pieces are in place, a wire
is pushed through the hole, and the hinge is made.
[Illustration: Filing half round groove in hinge, for tube]
_To make the wings of the hinge:_ Take a piece of silver or copper, No.
10, the length and width to be determined by the size of the hinge.
Place this copper plate in the vise, file a groove through the centre,
just large enough for the copper or silver tube to fit in about half
its depth.
Saw the piece through the middle of the groove.
[Illustration: Bind in place with binding wire, and solder]
Take two of the three short tube pieces, bind them on the groove ends
of one wing. Bind the third piece of tubing in the middle of the groove
end of the other wing. Place the two wings together and see that they
fit closely. Do this with the greatest care, as there is no possible
chance for filing after the tubes are soldered on the wings. Wash with
borax, put some silver solder on the joints, and solder as before
explained. When binding the tubes for soldering do not put the binding
wire through the holes of the tubes. This wire makes a good conductor
for the solder which is apt to fill up the small holes in the tubes.
All binding should be done on the outside.
The wings of the hinges should be filed to a taper, or any shape that
will add to the appearance of the hinge. The hinge lends itself very
well for decorative purposes and can always be made so that it adds to
the attractiveness of the piece of work. Lock plates can be made by the
same method. They, too, can be finished up to add to the ornamental
side of the article. _Cabinet hinges:_ Cabinet hinges are made either
of brass or copper. The hinge must be made in proportion to the design,
thus adding to the decoration.
[Illustration]
_Material:_ Strip of copper, No. 10. Cut out according to the design.
The two ends of one are turned over a wire nail 1/8 in. in diameter.
The one end of the other is treated in the same way. Test if they are
true by placing a wire through the three tubes. Cabinet hinges may be
finished by using the round head hammer and driving down a number of
hammer marks, going all over the surface of the hinge. Or they may be
embossed from the under side. The spacing of screws and rivets plays an
important part in the design of the hinge.
XII
JEWEL BOX AND DESK SET
HOW TO MAKE A COPPER JEWEL BOX (RECTANGULAR)
_Materials:_ A narrow piece of No. 20 copper, 20 ins. long × 1-1/4 ins.
wide: this is used for the sides. One piece of No. 20 copper, 6-3/8
× 4-1/8 ins. for the lid. One piece of No. 24 copper, 6-3/8 × 4-3/8
ins. for the bottom. Two pieces of copper No. 24, 6 × 1/2 in., for the
hinges. Copper nails 1/16 in. in diameter, for rivets.
_Tools:_ Vise, shears, mallet, hard solder, borax, rivet set (steel
tool), dividers, and centre punch.
[Illustration: Top view]
[Illustration: Front]
[Illustration: Sheet developed for sides and ends. Bend on division
lines]
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Make a working drawing of a box, 6 × 4 × 1/4 ins.,
(inside measurements). The box is to have feet, and a lid with
hinges is to be fastened to it. Take the strip of copper, 20 × 1-1/4
ins., measure it off into sections of 4 ins. and 6 ins. alternately.
Beginning on one end mark a point 3/8 in. from the end. (Point G.) Draw
a line (E G) 1/8 in. long, perpendicular to the base line. With the
dividers set 1/8 in. apart, and one leg placed against the base line,
draw a line 3-1/4 ins. long paralleled to the base. (Line E F). Draw F
H. In the section D C M S, mark the point O 3/8 of an inch from D. Draw
K O equal to 1/8 of an inch. With the dividers set at 1/8 in., draw a
line 5-1/4 ins. long (K L). Join L and N. Repeat this in the other two
sections. With the shears, cut along lines G, G E, E F, F H, H O, O
K, K L, L N, etc. The projections left form the four feet for the box
to rest upon. To bend the corners, mark with lead-pencil C D, M S, R
T. Place these division lines, in turn, between the jaws of the vise,
and bend down at right angles. You now have a rectangular box like the
picture, with one corner open.
[Illustration]
To close the side, solder the open end. Clean thoroughly the parts
to be joined. Place the parts in their proper positions and bind the
corner with binding wire. Wash the joint with borax. Place some small
pieces of silver solder on the inside corner. Hold it over a fire and
heat until the solder runs into the joint. Cool off in water and take
off the binding wire. If the solder should run through and fasten the
wire to the side of the box, the wire can be peeled off and the solder
filed down to the copper. But care must be taken not to let the binding
wire sink into the copper. File up the corners smooth and square up the
box with a steel square. _To make the bottom of the box:_ Take the
piece of No. 24 copper, 6-3/8 × 4-3/8 ins. Set the dividers 3/16 in.
wide. With one leg on the edge of this plate, draw lines on the four
sides.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Cut out the small square made in each corner by the crossing lines. Put
the plate into the vise and bend the four sides up along these lines.
Try it, to see if it just fits the inside of the box. It is the bottom
and must be exactly right or the box will be out of square. Now take it
out for drilling and riveting. With the centre-punch prick points one
inch apart and midway between the edge and the base. Holes are bored
through these punch marks, with the drill press and a 1/16-in. drill.
The bottom is now ready to slip into the box and to place for riveting.
Put it in, the bent edge turned down and flush with the lower edge
of the box. It is necessary first to fix the bottom securely in place
before all the rivets can be put in. To do this we put one rivet on
each side. Take a sharp-pointed instrument, stick it into the centre
hole on each of the four sides, whirl it round, and mark the place
where the hole should be drilled through. Take the bottom out and prick
punch these holes. Drill the four holes, place the bottom back, and
push the copper nails through from the outside in, leaving the head on
the outside as decoration. If the head should seem too large, reduce
it by filing before riveting. Cut the nail off, leaving about 1/16
in. of it projecting. With the hammer strike on this projecting end,
flatten it down until it covers up the holes. This is called riveting.
Now the bottom is made firm so that any amount of drilling can be done
without throwing it out of place. Drill all the rest of the holes and
put a rivet in each one of them. The heads of these nails add to the
decoration if they are put in carefully and at regular intervals.
_To make the lid:_ If you look at your design you will see that the
lid is raised a little in the centre and that the edges extend 1/8
in. over the four sides of the box. Take the 6-1/4 × 4-1/4 in. piece
of copper. With lead pencil mark the 1/8-in. lap over all around the
lid. Place the lid on the end of the square block. With the round end
of the raising hammer drive down lightly all around the inside of the
lead-pencil mark, increasing the blows toward the centre. This will
make an oval-topped shape. The hammering is bound to distort the edge
of the copper. Turn the lid upside down on the bench; with the mallet
strike down on the top of the raised part until the edges flatten down
on the bench. If any kinks should come from the hammering flatten them
by driving directly over them. The lid should rest on the box without
rocking.
[Illustration]
_To make the hinges:_ Take the two pieces of copper 6 × 1/2 in. (No.
24). Lay a piece of No. 8 wire lengthwise in the piece of copper,
and, using your fingers, bend the copper up on each side of the wire,
keeping the two edges the same length.
Place this between the vise jaws, pressing the two open sides
together, forming a hinge right on the wire. Fix both pieces of copper
this way. Draw the wire out. You have two cylindrical pieces of copper
6 ins. long with wings attached. Divide one of the pieces into six
one-inch sections. Put this between the vise jaws down to the rounding
part. With your jewellers' saw, saw close to the vise and along the
division lines, cutting out sections 2, 4, 6.
[Illustration: The copper is to be pressed together along dotted line]
[Illustration: The copper cylinder must be sawn out in sections, as
where the arrow points]
[Illustration: Section of hinge]
[Illustration: This sketch shows the method of riveting the hinge to
the jewel box]
File up all open parts so that the joints will be at right angles to
the hinge. Do this carefully or else they will not swing true when
hinged together. Use the cut hinge to measure off the sections on the
other hinge. Cut out sections 1, 3, 5 on the second hinge, allowing
a little on each section for filing. Fit the two parts together and
fasten by pushing a wire through. Try the hinge to see that it works
true and snug. Select one of the sides as the back of the box, put the
lid on, with the hinge in place. You will notice that the thickness
of the hinge prevents the lid from fitting down on the box. File the
side of the box down so the hinge sets flush with the top, and file the
wings of the hinge down to a taper. The wings are to be riveted, one
flat to the under side of the lid, and the other to the back, after
bending it down on the inside of the box. See section view. Hinges are
sometimes soldered in place. To do this, wash the joints with a little
soft-solder fluid. Heat the box in the bunsen flame hot enough to make
the solder run in between the joints. File any rough edges off, smooth
down carefully, and polish.
CEDAR CHEST (WITH BRASS TRIMMINGS)
A plain cedar chest is much improved by the addition of copper or brass
trimmings. They add strength, too, to the box.
[Illustration]
The design shows a cedar chest with hinges, corner plates, handles, and
lock plate. The screws can be bought with pyramid-shaped heads, which
resemble hand-made rivets. They add very much to the general effect of
the whole. One must be guided by the size of the box in selecting the
appropriate screw decorations. This box is 12 × 20 × 36 ins. The lid is
2 ins. deep.
_Hinges:_ The hinges should be made of No. 10 copper or brass, 3 ins.
wide, and should extend two-thirds of the way across the top and half
way down the back. This tends to keep the lid straight and support the
back of the box.
_Lock plate:_ The plate is made of a piece of 8 × 3 in. metal, the
same thickness as the material used in the hinges. The design should
correspond to the design of the hinges. The key way is in the lock
plate, toward the top.
_Handles and handle plate:_ The handles are made of 1/2-in. round
copper or brass, large in the middle, tapering toward the ends. These
ends are turned up, fitted into eye bolts and riveted into the handles.
The handles should be 10 × 4 ins., with the design of the hinges and
the lock plate carried out.
_Corner plates:_ These plates go on the four corners of the chest.
They are made of No. 14 metal. Perhaps the simplest way to make them
is to take a piece of No. 14 metal and cut a 6-in. square. Draw the
diagonals. Cut out one of the four triangles from this square. Now bend
the piece along the diagonal lines and you make a corner to fit on the
box. Solder this open corner to the box. In making corners for the lid,
make the same pattern and trim it down to suit the depth of the lid.
The trimmings on the box can be left smooth or they can be treated
with the peen of the hammer and a facet surface put on, which is done
quickly and is very decorative in effect.
The hinge part of the hinge is made as explained in the article on
hinge making. The metal used here would be quite strong enough just
to turn over in the pin without soldering it first to the body of the
hinge piece.
Put the lock on the chest before the lock plate is placed. This fixes
the place for the key-hole; otherwise one might get the key way too
close to the opening and find no lock that would fit it. The handles
are put in by means of screws, but a much stronger one is made by using
bolts and screws. The bolts that hold the handle on the plate are
carried through the box, and a nut and washer fasten them tight on the
inside.
DESK SET IN COPPER
Ink well holder and pen tray. Book rack. Corners for desk pad. Letter
file. Bill file. Stamp box. Paper cutter, letter opener, and book mark.
INK WELL HOLDER AND PEN TRAY
_Material:_ No. 16 copper, 10-1/2 × 5-1/2 ins., for the tray. No. 16
copper, 1-1/2 × 8 ins., for the box. No. 16 copper, 3 ins. square, for
lid.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Tray: You will notice, in the design of the tray given,
a 3/8-in. ledge all around. The inside of the tray is lowered 1/4 in.
except a square place in the centre toward the back large enough for
the box to set upon. The depression in the tray is made in the same
way as described before in making the small square tray. You put it
into the vise and with a round wooden peg drive it in according to the
design. The ledge must remain parallel to the bottom of the tray. Round
it off by placing the tray on the anvil stake and driving the proper
curve in it with the wooden mallet.
[Illustration]
_Box or holder--Sides:_ Take the copper piece, 8 × 1-1/2 ins. and
divide it into 2-in. spaces. Bend these at right angles to form a
square box, the open ends meeting at one side. Solder with hard
solder. _Lid:_ Take the 3-in. square piece. Over a square block the
exact size of the inside of the box drive the piece for the lid. The
corners must be driven down even so that the lid will fit on the top of
the box; otherwise the ink will evaporate. The hinge on the lid is made
with a drawn tube in the same way as was described in the article on
the making of hinges. The box is now ready to be put on the tray. File
the surface of the projecting square flat, so that the box will set
level. Bind it down with binding wire, and solder in the usual way.
_Ring and ring post fastened to the box:_ The post is made of a piece
of 3/8-in. square copper. At a distance of 5/16 in. from the end a
shoulder is filed on it, with the stem long enough to go through the
thickness of the lid. A hole, too, is drilled through one end of this
post large enough for a 1/8-in. copper ring to be pushed through.
This copper ring is made by turning a piece of copper wire around a
1/2-in. round rod in a spiral shape. Cut off the ring or rings as you
need them. This ring is opened out, pushed into the hole, and squeezed
together. It acts as a little handle to lift up the lid. A piece of
blotting paper the exact size of the lid is pushed into the inside of
it. This helps to keep the ink from evaporating. If the piece of work
has been carefully done there will be little finishing and filing to
do. You can readily see that the beauty of metal work depends as much
upon the finish as upon the design.
BOOK-RACK
[Illustration]
Book-racks are most useful for holding choice books on one's desk. They
are made of heavy copper. This design is made so that one can place
any number of books between them, by pushing the side pieces out. All
book-racks are made in the same way. The design on the side pieces can
be sawed out (or pierced) or embossed, or the facets left by the hammer
will make a beautiful decoration. Any design work, however, must be
done while the copper is in a straight piece, otherwise the bending is
apt to spoil the work.
_Material:_ Two pieces of copper, No. 14, 12 × 6 ins.
_Directions:_ In the design shown here the edge of the upright ends
are rounded. Some have just the corners rounded off. Decide upon the
design you wish. Cut it out, and file the copper sheet accordingly.
Make the edges of the whole rack perfectly smooth and rounded. Mark off
6 ins. from one end. Bend this at the 6-in. line at right angles to the
8-in. piece. It is well to do the bending over a wooden block in the
vise, using a mallet so as not to mar the metal. Polish and finish as
before.
METAL CORNERS FOR A DESK PAD
[Illustration]
Metal corners made of brass, copper, or silver are found very useful
for protecting the corners of blotters upon desks. They keep the
corners from curling up and add much to the general appearance of any
desk. The designs are many, but for all practical purposes the plain
corners seem best, as they are more sanitary.
[Illustration]
_Material:_ The pieces of metal 6 × 2-1/2 ins. No. 22.
[Illustration: Fold on dotted lines. Corners for blotter]
_Directions:_ Mark your copper sheet off like this pattern. Now get
a piece of wood, iron, or copper about 3/16 in. thick and just the
shape of one of these corner designs. This 3/16 in. thickness will be
about equal to the thickness of your blotter and the thickness of the
card-board. Take your copper sheet and bend the ends along the lines
marked on the pattern, over the iron or wood form, driving them down
to fit the shape well. You now have a triangular piece with an opening
on one side. This piece would slide over the corner of a card-board
pad usually cut about 24 × 18 ins. Solder the edges together. It is
necessary to rivet these corners to the card-board to prevent their
slipping off easily. To do this drill a small hole down through the
under side close to the edge, slip these corners on the card-board,
push the iron form in, and drive the rivet through the hole, through
the card-board against the iron plate, thus riveting the corners
to the card-board. Take out the iron plate and repeat on the four
corners. If designs are to be made on metal, they must be sawed out or
pierced while the metal is in the straight piece. Polish free from all
roughness. A piece of soft flannel or woollen cloth is glued on the
under side of these corners, so that the metal cannot scratch the desk,
or any polished surface it rests upon.
BILL FILE
This is a useful article for filing notes or memoranda of things that
need immediate attention. There is very little variety in design. The
base can be made square, circular, six-sided, etc., and decorated in
many ways. It looks well either in copper or brass. Only heavy copper
should be used, in order to give weight to the base.
[Illustration]
_Material:_ A 3-1/2-in. square of No. 10 copper. Rod of sharpened steel.
_Directions:_ Take a piece of iron 1/2 × 2-1/2 × 2-1/2 ins. Go to any
scrap heap for this. Place the copper sheet over this block of iron,
letting the surplus metal extend evenly all around. Put it into the
vise with the corner vertical. Tighten it up and drive the metal over
the corner till it touches the sides of the iron. Do this on all the
corners. Make the outside of the metal fit tightly over this iron,
acting as a shape or form. If the metal should feel springy before
driving it up close, anneal it. Notice that in driving these corners
down they are longer than the four sides, and they suggest feet. If
filed flat and smoothed up you have a square box with a foot on each
corner. Take it off the iron form and make the top rounding by driving
it over the hollow block. Now drill a 1/8-in. hole through the middle.
Place the copper rod in the hole and solder with hard solder.
PAPER CUTTER, LETTER OPENER, BOOK MARK
[Illustration]
_Paper cutter:_ No article on a desk is more useful than a good paper
cutter. It may be one with a plain flat blade, no marked handle and
without decoration aside from that of the metal itself with its hammer
marks left upon it. Again we may have one with blade and handle, the
blade either pointed (sharp edged or blunt), the handle plain or with
sawed-out design. Those with pointed blades are serviceable as letter
openers too. Then some designs have handles made long enough to turn
the end over, forming a raised handle.
_Material:_ Piece of No. 20 copper, 7/8 × 9 ins.
[Illustration: Paper knife. Cut on dotted lines]
_Directions:_ If the blade is to be pointed, take your strip of copper
and draw a line right through the centre. Mark a point 1/8 in. on the
end, either side of the centre line. Draw lines from these points to
the extreme ends of the other side. See dotted lines in the sketch.
File up the edges rounding, and polish the whole. Select a piece of
copper free from scratches and marks of any kind for this work. This
paper cutter can be left smooth, or it can be decorated by the marks
left by the planishing hammer. These marks give a good finish and look
well.
PAPER CUTTER WITH TURNED HANDLE
_Material:_ Piece of No. 20 copper, 7/8 × 16 ins.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Mark off lines on the copper strip as you did to make the
plain paper cutter. Carry the tapering lines back 7 ins. Cut off these
side pieces with shears. File the edges for the whole length smooth.
If any decorating is to be done, do it while the copper is in the
straight piece, as it can't be done easily after the handle is turned.
All filing, too, must be done before the handle is turned. When filed
and smoothed up or decorated as you wish, bend half the remaining 9
inches of the copper over and on to the blade, in this way forming
the handle. The size of the handle will depend upon one's feeling of
comfort or discomfort about it. If the edges still feel a little rough
a piece of emery cloth will smooth them down.
LETTER OPENERS
Letter openers are really small paper cutters and are made in exactly
the same way. They are shorter and narrower than the paper cutter,
but almost always have a sharp pointed blade. Many scraps of copper
left over after the making of large pieces can be used to make letter
openers.
BOOK MARK
[Illustration]
Book marks are very handy to have on one's desk. They are easily made
and if very light copper is used need not be heavy or clumsy. They
should be made very smooth, for they must slip easily into place in the
book.
_Material:_ No. 30 copper, 3 × 3/4 in. _Directions:_ This drawing can
be used as the guide. Make it the required size and work just as you
did when making the paper cutter. The little tongue on the inside is
sawed out. It should swing easily to and fro, as it must be pushed open
to catch the pages of a book and clamp them down. File and finish very
smooth. If it is left the least bit rough it would tear the paper as it
is pushed in.
BRASS WORK
XIII
FINGER BOWL, CRUMB TRAY, TEA CADDY, VASE, BELL AND BRACKET, DRAWER
PULLS, ETC.
_Brass:_ Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. The zinc colours the
copper and gives it the yellowish or brassy look, depending upon the
amount of zinc melted with it. While the operations are the same
whether you are working with brass, copper, or silver, the presence of
the zinc in brass makes it less pliable than the pure metals. That is
why brass hardens so quickly under hammering, making it necessary to
anneal the metal very often in order to work it. But zinc and copper
combined melt at a lower temperature than copper or silver pure, so
that great care must be taken when preparing the metal for soldering or
annealing that you do not heat it over a dull red heat before plunging
it into water.
TO MAKE A BRASS FINGER BOWL
Finger bowls of brass are very ornamental and useful and can be made
of the simplest designs. A half dozen are a welcome addition to any
table. Design the bowl and proceed exactly as you did with the copper
bowl, working the sheet of brass up into a rough bowl shape on the hard
wood block. Using the same tools, finish the bowl on the round stake.
The surface of the bowl may be left mottled, or it can be smoothed up,
as one wishes.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
These sketches suggest a number of articles that can be made out of
brass.
CRUMB TRAY AND SCRAPER
_Material:_ One piece of brass, 10 × 6 ins., No. 16. One piece of
brass, 12 × 4 ins., No. 16.
[Illustration]
_Tools:_ Anvil stake, mallet, shears, dividers.
_Directions:_ With the dividers set at 5 ins., one leg of the dividers
tangent with the top of the brass plate and the other in the centre
lengthwise of the piece, draw a circle. Cut around the circle with the
shears. Beat over 3/4 in. of the centre part of the circle, tapering
along the circle line toward each end. Round up this edge and curve it
a little inward on wood block so that when grasped by the fingers it
will be comfortable. Smooth off edge and make the flat part perfectly
straight, so that when placed on the table to receive the crumbs it
will lie perfectly flat.
CRUMB SCRAPER
A very simple design is given here. Mark out the dimensions on a sheet
of paper and lay the design on a sheet of brass. Cut the brass out to
fit the design. Using the mallet, drive up the rounding part on the
anvil stake to match the rounding part on the tray.
[Illustration]
_Handle of scraper:_ Place the handle part on a hard wood block and
with the small end of the raising hammer drive down on the handle,
embossing it from the outside toward the front. Give it a half hollow
shape. If the edge of the handle is smoothed off with a file and made
rounding, it makes a good handle for the scraper. Flatten the scraping
edge so that it lies flat on the table and picks up all the crumbs on
its way to the tray. Polish and finish as you did the tray.
[Illustration]
TEA CADDY
_Material:_ One piece 24-gauge soft brass (yellow), 11 × 3-1/4 ins.
(for body). Disc 3-7/8 ins. in diameter (for bottom). Square: 4-3/4
ins. for lid. Two strips, 11 × 3/4 ins., one for rim of lid and one for
rim of body.
_Tools:_ Block used to make round tray (copper), drilling hammer,
mallet, wooden peg, iron stake, silver solder, steel stippling tool.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Take the piece of brass 11 × 3-1/4 ins. Bend it till the
edges meet to make a cylinder. Bind it round with a piece of binding
wire. See that the edges come together tight. Wash with borax. Use
silver solder and proceed as before with soldering. Cool in water,
clean off the joint both inside and outside till the surplus silver
is filed off smooth. This leaves a fine joint line which will take on
the colour of brass in time and will scarcely be noticed. Round the
cylinder up by placing it on a round stake or on a round wood block.
Tap gently with your mallet to do this.
_Bottom:_ Take the 3-7/8-in. disc. Draw a circle on it equal to the
bottom of the cylinder. Put the anvil stake into the vise. With the
edge of the circle on the square end of the stake, drive the metal with
the driving hammer, so that the upturned rim is at right angles to the
disc. Test this to see that the rim stands up all round and fits the
outside of the cylinder close. File the top edge of this smooth and
a little rounding. Shape up and solder as you would a copper piece,
keeping in mind the low melting point of brass. The heating of the
bottom for soldering must heat the body of the caddy to a red heat and
there is danger of unsoldering the part done. To prevent this melting,
the soldered joint should be painted both inside and outside with rouge
or ordinary clay wash. Mix a little clay in a saucer to a liquid and
rub it over the joint. If the soldering is carefully done there will be
little filing to do afterward.
_Rim (for the body):_ Take your 11 × 3/4-in. piece. Bend it into a
circle to fit the inside of the body. Cut it off the right length, bind
and solder the two ends together. Clean off, round up on the stake,
and make it just large enough to drive it into the top, pushing it
down until about 3/8 in. extends above the cylinder. This supports the
rim of the lid. If it is driven down tight it will hold of itself in
place. If not, use a little soft solder to make it secure.
_Lid:_ One square piece, 4-3/4 ins. Take the mould used for your round
tray. Punch holes in each corner of the brass plate, and nail it right
over the depression as you did when you made the round tray. With
your round peg drive the metal into the depression. When the metal is
perfectly smooth and fits the impression take it out. Place the body
of the caddy over the top of this lid piece and mark around it. Make a
second circle 3/8 in. beyond the one just made. Cut out along the outer
circle. Now draw a circle on the inside of the lid equal to the body of
the tea caddy. Place the lid on the anvil stake and turn it up as you
did the bottom piece. This should be made the same size as the bottom,
as it must fit over the same diameter. Make the rim for the lid in the
same way as you did the rim for the body. Round it up. Be careful that
the rim of the lid fits over the rim of the body and that the diameter
of the rim on the lid equals the diameter of the body of the caddy.
Place the rim on the lid and soft solder it.
_To decorate:_ With the steel stippling tool mark any little design
on the surface of the lid or body, or both, pricking up the design.
Finish the work by polishing the same way as copper is polished. You
can prevent its tarnishing by the use of lacquer. This lacquer can be
bought at any paint shop. It is put on with a brush and left to dry.
The lacquer being transparent does not cover up any of the design.
VASE (IN BRASS)
_Material:_ Yellow brass, No. 20. One piece, 7-1/4 × 9 ins. (for the
body). One piece, 5-in. disc (for base). Handles, 2 pieces, 5-1/2 ×
5/16 ins. square.
[Illustration]
_Tools:_ Hard wood block, shears, anvil stake, files, raising hammer,
carpenters' gouge, chisel.
_Design:_ Vase, 7-1/4 ins. high, with a diameter at the top of 2-1/2
in. The body tapers toward the base. Two handles, one on each side, to
be designed according to taste. The base is to be weighted in order to
insure safety when in use for flowers, etc.
_Directions:_ Make a pattern for the vase in the following way: Draw a
2-1/2-in. circle. Using the same centre, draw a 1-in. circle inside the
2-1/2-in.
[Illustration]
Through the centre of these circles draw a line 9 ins. long; 3/4 in.
below the outer circle, over this centre line draw a line 1 in. long,
1/2 in. on one side and 1/2 in. on the other. Seven inches below this
1-in. line draw a 2-1/2-in. line, 1-1/4 in. on one side and 1-1/4 in.
on the other. Connect the inside points of each line with the top line
(see design), drawing lines between the two points. If the pattern is
carefully developed from the drawing the metal will fold up in the
right way for a vase. To do this, continue the tapering lines beyond
the circle until the two lines intersect. With the point of the compass
on the point of intersection, and the pencil point where the sides
meet the 1-in. line, draw an arc of a circle any length. Using the
same centre, open the compass until the pencil reaches the base lines.
Draw an arc of a circle any length. Use your 30° and 60° angle and
divide the half of the circle into 6 equal parts. Take one of these 6
divisions with your compass, and step off their distance on the large
circle 12 times. You now have the exact circumference for the top of
the vase. Draw lines from these points to the point of intersection.
This marks off the small circle or base. Connect the 12-in. point on
the top and bottom with solid lines. Cut this pattern out and lay it on
the metal. Cut out the metal and fold up. It should fit the drawing.
The edges should meet close. Clean, bind, and solder as you did with
the copper work.
_Base:_ Use the hard wood block and drive up the 5-in. disc over the
depression. Shape it as nearly as you can like the design, using the
same method as you did with the copper bowl. Keep annealing this brass
whenever it feels springy. Place it on the anvil stake. Use the driving
hammer and shape it.
[Illustration: Some Problems in Copper and Brass Work Made by Boys]
Repeat the annealing and hammering until the desired shape is gotten.
Notice in the design that the neck is a little smaller than the
bottom of the vase. Place this small end on the point of the anvil
stake and swell it out, forming a little rounding collar so that the
end of the vase will slip in and fit tight. When the end of the vase is
in position, wash the joint with a little soft-soldering fluid, place
a little soft solder in the joint and heat until it melts. Be careful
that the solder does not run over the collar. It is so hard to file off
the brass.
[Illustration: Drawn to scale 1/2 inch = 1 inch]
_To weigh down the base:_ Turn the base upside down. Melt enough soft
lead to fill up the opening level with the bottom. A circular piece of
brass is made to fit over the lead to hide it. Lap the edges of the
base over the piece just enough to hold this and the lead in place.
_Handles:_ Handles are a matter of individual taste. The vase can be
left without handles if desired.
[Illustration: Suggestions for drawer pulls to be worked out in copper,
brass, wrought iron, or soft steel]
Take two pieces of 5 × 5/16 ins. square; file into shape according to
the design. Bind the handles on the body of the vase. Place a little
silver solder wherever the handles touch. Be careful to guard the
joint made by soldering the body of the vase with clay or rouge, as was
done when making the tea caddy. Now you are ready to solder the body
of the vase and the base together. Push it in place, see that it is
perfectly straight, bind and solder. If not well soldered it will not
hold water. File off the surplus solder, polish and lacquer as you did
the tea caddy.
BELL AND BRACKET FOR A WALL DECORATION
This stationary bell is very useful for any purpose that a small bell
serves. It has the advantage of being always in one place.
_Material:_ No. 20 brass, used for both the bowl and bracket. The size
of the design determines the amount of material used.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Make the bowl in the same way as you did the copper bowl,
raising hammer, wood block, etc. The last work done on this bell should
be of such a nature as to harden the metal so that the ring is clear.
This clearness of the sound depends upon the hardness of the metal.
The harder you can get the metal without splitting it, the better the
bell's tone.
[Illustration]
_Bracket:_ The bracket is made of two pieces, the plate and the hanger.
The plate can be made of any design or shape suitable--square, oblong,
oval, or round.
Decide upon your design, mark this on the plate, and cut out. Drill
small hole for the nails to fasten it, either to the wall or to a
small piece of hard wood 1/4 in. thick for a backing.
_Hanger:_ The hanger can be made of flat, square, or round material.
This picture shows a design made of No. 20 brass. It is cut tapering
and shaped over a round wood block in the vise. The slots are sawed out
as shown. The bell is fastened to the hanger by means of two or three
links formed together in a chain, one large enough to hook over the
hanger, and connected to the bell with a little eye bolt made of brass,
which is pushed through the bell and riveted on the inside.
The ringing of the bell is done by a small brass rod fastened to the
hanger with a small chain. The work is finished up by the use of pumice
stone.
SILVER WORK
XIV
FINGER RINGS, SCARF PINS
_Silver:_ There is very little difference in the handling and working
of silver from that of brass and copper. The same operations are
carried out and the same tools are used. Silver is more pliable than
either one of the other metals, though copper is softer. However,
silver melts at a lower temperature than copper or brass, and for that
reason greater care must be taken during the process of annealing,
soldering, and enamelling.
Silver, of course, is the most precious metal you have worked with.
So then the cost of the material limits one to the working out of
comparatively small problems. When buying silver, always buy sterling.
The sterling silver is made especially for silversmiths and is used in
all silver work, pure silver being too soft to stand the wear that is
required.
While copper is sold by the pound, silver is sold by the ounce, and
rolled out to any thickness you wish. But the gauge is the same as that
of copper, a No. 20 in silver being the same as No. 20 in copper. If
the problems given here are carefully worked out, enough practice in
the handicraft of silver will be given to enable you to work out much
larger problems in the metal.
_Selecting stones for rings, pins, brooches, or bracelets:_ Choose the
stones that are round or oval in shape, and pick those that have a
fairly level bed and are well bevelled. This is necessary so that the
bezel will hold tight when rubbed against the stone. Semi-precious and
precious stones can be bought at any dealer in stones, and one has his
choice out of many to pick from.
FINGER RINGS
Bands for finger rings are all made, practically, in the same way. But
there is a great difference in the way stones are set in these bands.
Perhaps the three ways most generally used are: setting by means of a
bezel, or small band; prong setting, and setting the stone down in a
cavity cut in the metal, just large enough to hold the stone.
_Finger ring, stone set with a bezel:_
_Material:_ One piece of silver, 2-3/8 × 1/2 ins., No. 20, for ring.
One piece of silver, 1/8 × 1-1/2 ins., No. 28, for bezel. Stone. Silver
solder. Borax.
_Tools:_ Ring mandrel (you can make one yourself), small wood mallet,
drill press and 1/16 in. drill, saw frame and saw, centre-punch, small
Swiss files.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
_Directions--Pattern:_ To make a ring of this kind first cut a piece
of paper 1/4 in. wide and long enough to go around the finger which
the ring is to fit. Straighten this piece of paper out. This gives the
length of the piece of silver needed for a ring. Cut another piece of
paper 1/2 in. wide to this length. Draw with ink the pattern of the
ring on this second paper.
Cut the design out and paste it on the piece of silver. With the
centre-punch mark the centre of each spot. Drill holes into each one.
Saw out the design. With a pair of shears cut off the surplus metal. Be
careful to save all the scraps. They can all be returned and exchanged
for silver plate. File close to the design. You now have the band ready
for bending.
[Illustration]
_To bend the ring:_ A ring mandrel is needed. This is merely a tapering
rod. One can buy steel mandrels which are graduated for all sizes of
rings. A small tapered square punch which you can make yourself, will
be found helpful. Take a piece of 3/16-in. round or square steel. File
the end, tapering to a square point, 1 in. long. Harden it the same as
you did the half moon punch used to make the hat pin. This punch is
used for design work. Round holes can be squared by driving the square
punch into the hole to any depth. This saves filing.
Place the ring mandrel in the vise. Using a wooden mallet, bend the
ring in a circular shape over this mandrel till the two ends meet. Try
the ring on the finger. Snip off the ends so that the ring fits rather
tightly. This will allow for stretching the ring after it is soldered.
_To put on the bezel:_ Bend a piece of No. 28 silver, 1/8 × 1-1/2 ins.,
around the stone. This can be done with the thumb and finger. Make the
silver fit around the largest part of the stone. Snip off the ends.
Bind the two ends with binding wire, wash with borax, put a little
piece of silver on the inside and heat over the bunsen burner; which is
hot enough for this kind of work. Cool off in water, remove the binding
wire. Each end of this bezel must be filed to fit the circle of the
ring.
[Illustration: Bezel for ring]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
When this is done bind the bezel on, and at the same time bind the
lower part of the ring so that the open ends fit tightly together.
Solder the bezel and the open part of the ring at the same time. Wash
all the joints. Place silver solder on the inside of the bezel, say
one half-dozen pieces (small), round on the inside, and also one or two
small pieces on the joint of the ring itself. Place the whole ring in
the bunsen flame. It will all heat up about the same time. Watch the
solder carefully. See that it runs all around between the bezel and the
body of the ring. Cool off. Take off all the binding wire. File the
inside and outside of the bottom part of the ring.
Place the ring on the mandrel and go over it gently with a steel
hammer, shaping it around and making it to fit the finger. File the
edges around smoothly. Go over it all with a small square file and file
out all imperfections in the slots. Place a piece of fine emery cloth
on a tapered round wood peg. By revolving it around this you polish
and trim up the inside of the ring. Using the same emery cloth twisted
around a flat stake or file, go over the outside until the ring is free
from scratches.
_Stone:_ If the bezel has been carefully made the stone should drop
right into place. If by chance some of the solder should have filled up
the bezel space and made it smaller, take a sharp tool like a pocket
knife blade and scrape the inside of the bezel till the stone fits.
Place the stone. With a smooth piece of steel or very hard wood press
the bezel against the stone. The bezel is thin enough to yield to this
pressing process. It will cling to the sides of the stone and prevent
its falling out. Polish the ring by rubbing it with pumice stone and a
piece of cloth. This finishes the work.
_Finger rings, silver cut away to set stone in:_
_Material:_ For this class of work we require much heavier silver than
for the other rings.
[Illustration]
One piece of silver, No. 10, 1/2 × 2-3/8 ins. Solder. Borax.
_Tools:_ Same as were used for the bezel setting. In addition we shall
need one or two small chisels, which you can make yourself. Chasing
tool.
_Directions:_ Make the pattern of your ring as you did before. Paste
it on the silver piece, and cut out. Bend the silver around the ring
mandrel so that it will fit the finger it is intended for, and solder.
Place the stone in its proper position and mark the outline of it on
the silver. Now you will need a small chisel to chip away the silver
and make the space for the stone.
_To make chisel:_ Take two pieces of 3/16-in. round steel 5 ins. long.
One piece is to make a flat chisel and the other for an oval chisel.
File the ends to a chisel shape.
[Illustration]
This steel must be tempered before it can be used. To do this place the
ends just filed into the fire. Heat about 1 in. of the end red hot.
Cool 1/2 in. of this hot end in the water till quite cold. Take it out
and rub the end with a piece of emery cloth till it shines.
The colour will begin to flow toward the end. When the blue colour
reaches the end plunge the whole piece into water. The oval chisel
is used for outlining the depression. The flat chisel is used for
levelling the bed to receive the stone. With this chisel cut away the
material inside the marked outline, keeping a little inside the border
line. Cut away the silver to about the depth of 1/32 in. You will find
the opening a little smaller than the stone. With your chasing tool
drive around the inside of the oval, undercutting until the stone
fits in. This undercutting drives up a little silver rim, which does
the work of a bezel on the stone. When this rim is forced against the
stone, the stone is held in place. The ring is now ready for the
stone, but the thickness of silver makes it large and clumsy. Before
putting the stone in, the ring should be filed down to the proper
dimensions. This requires a great deal of filing. Use a rough file at
first and finish with a fine one. When the ring is shaped as you wish
polish up the inside and outside.
_To place the stone:_ With the ring mandrel on the vise, put the stone
in place and put the ring on the mandrel. Tap gently on the silver rim,
driving it against the stone. Do not drive it too hard or else you may
crack the stone. Finish up and polish as explained before.
_Finger ring, stone set with prongs:_
_Material:_ One piece of silver, No. 14, width and length the same as
the others. Stone--in the design, square.
[Illustration]
_Tools:_ Same as used in making the other rings.
_Directions:_ Draw design, cut pattern, place it on the silver, and
cut out as before. Bend the ring to fit the finger, and solder. After
the silver band has been cooled off and the wire has been removed, put
the band back on the mandrel. With the planishing hammer strike down,
flattening the top. This reduces the thickness of the ring and gives
us a flat surface, to which the prongs are soldered.
_To make the prongs:_ Place the stone on a No. 24 piece of silver. Draw
the outline of the stone on it. The square piece of silver should be
1/8 in. larger all round than the size of the stone. A stone may be set
with 4 prongs, or 6 or 8, according to one's taste. In this setting we
have the 4 prongs. Mark the outline of the prongs on the square piece
of silver according to this picture.
[Illustration: Drawings showing prongs, unfinished, and soldered on
ring at point marked by arrow.]
Saw out on the dotted lines. Cut a piece of copper the exact size of
the stone. Place the copper on the silver and bend up the prongs at
right angles to the silver plate. Take away the copper, and file the
under part of the silver piece flat, and prepare the upper part of
the ring in the same way. Bind the flat part of the prong piece to
the flattened part of the ring, and solder. If the flattening in the
first place has made the ring too large for the finger, cut a piece out
along the soldered joint. Fit it to the finger and resolder. File all
joints perfectly smooth. The prongs should be filed carefully and made
perfectly even and of the exact size and shape. Place the stone in and
push the prongs against it. Rub each separate prong down until it fits
close against the stone. This prevents their catching on anything like
cloth, etc. Polish and finish as explained before.
_Finger ring, made of twisted silver wire:_
[Illustration]
_Material:_ No. 30 fine silver wire; length depends upon the design of
the ring.
_Tools:_ Same as those used in making the other rings described.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Cut off a piece of No. 30 wire about 6 ins. long. Bend
it in the middle, place the two ends in the vise and, with a pair of
pliers, grasp the other end. Twist the wire into an even twist. Select
the stone. The round stones are best for this wire setting. In making
this wire ring it is best to make the setting for the stone first. Cut
a piece of wood the exact shape of the largest part of the stone. Bend
a piece of No. 30 silver 1/8 in. wide around the wood peg, till the
two ends just meet. Coil around this the twisted wire, one strand upon
the other, until you have about three coils. Wash with a little borax;
place a little silver solder upon the under side of this coil. Heat and
solder the strands together; at the same time solder the band on the
inside. Place it on the ring mandrel, and curve it to fit the shape of
the finger. Either press it with your fingers or use a mallet.
_The setting is now ready for the ring:_ The ring can be made either by
twisting a piece of wire to fit the finger or by using just the plain
wire itself for the ring band. In either case, the piece of silver used
for the band, plus the size of the setting, must equal the size of
the finger. Solder the two ends of the ring band to the sides of the
setting. File the inside opening of the setting to a level; place the
stone in as you did the others. Clean and polish up as usual.
SCARF PIN
[Illustration]
_Material:_ A piece of No. 20 silver for the body of the pin; the size
is determined by the size of the stone to be set. A piece of No. 24
for the bezel. A piece of No. 20 silver wire for the pin. The pin piece
can be bought at any jewellery store, if you do not wish to make your
own. They are better, too, than those you make yourself. Solder and
borax.
_Tools:_ Shears, files, draw plate.
_Directions:_ Cut a piece of silver, No. 20, the size of any one of the
above designs. Cut a piece of No. 24, 1/16 in. wide and long enough
to go around the stone, to make a bezel. Be sure that this bezel fits
close and tight around the stone. Bind the bezel, and solder. After
soldering, fit the bezel again to the stone, for the soldering is apt
to change the shape. File the bottom off perfectly flat; clean the
surface of that part to be used for the back of the pin. Bind the bezel
on this piece, wash with borax, and solder it in place.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
_Pin:_ This can be bought at any jewellery store. However, if you wish
to make your own, you can do so in the following manner: Place a piece
of No. 16 wire in the draw plate and reduce it a little. This drawing
through the plate stiffens the wire, and this is just what is needed in
a pin; otherwise it would bend when pushing it into the scarf. When you
think it is stiff enough, file the end to a long needle point. Cut it
off about 3 ins. long. Bend the blunt end down at right angles 1/8 in.
Place this end against the back of the pin in such a way that the bent
end will be against the plate and a little above the centre. Bind it in
place and solder it on tight. Be careful to heat just as little of this
pin as possible, for you remember that heating a piece of silver red
hot softens it, and you must heat it red hot to solder. So confine the
heating to as small a space as possible. Sometimes I soak a piece of
cloth in water and wrap it around the pin, covering up all except the
part to be soldered. This prevents it from softening.
[Illustration]
_To place the stone:_ The stone is put in and the bezel is pushed
against it and holds it in place.
This is a very plain scarf pin without any pretence at design. Scarf
pins can be made in all shapes, sizes, and all sorts of cut out designs.
All silver should be polished smooth and made free from scratches.
The polishing hardens the surface of the metal. This is why silver
jewellery of all kinds becomes brighter and smoother the longer it is
worn.
_Setting of stones in scarf pins:_ There are many ways of setting
stones for scarf pins. The setting just described is called a box
setting, the bezel forming the box to receive the stone. The open or
prong setting is made in the same way as that kind of setting is made
for the stone in the ring.
XV
NECKLACES, BROOCHES, BRACELETS
NECKLACE
[Illustration]
This necklace is made on the basis of a circle 7 ins. in diameter.
Most necklaces having pendants are about this size. The design of this
necklace is very simple. One stone is set in the pendant and this shows
on both sides. The whole is connected by silver links. The stones, one
either side of the pendant, between the links of the chain, are set in
the same way as you set the stones in the scarf pin and rings. The only
work to be done which is different from any you have done before is the
making of chain links.
_Material:_ No. 20 or 22 round silver wire, the amount depending upon
the size of the chain. Stones, carefully selected.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Draw the design of your necklace on a piece of paper.
Place the stones at intervals. When they seem well proportioned draw
the chain links between them. The length of the links will depend
entirely upon your setting. When you have decided just how many links
go between the stones on your design, measure off the length of one of
those links. Round links do not hang as well as oval links, neither do
they look so well.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
_To make the links:_ Take a piece of iron 3/16 in. in diameter and
file the two sides oval in shape. This is a bar on which you can bend
the links. One end of the silver wire is placed against this mandrel
and both put into the vise and fastened. Bend the wire round and round
this iron rod, making the coils as close as you can get them. Count
each revolution as one link. You can easily count the number of links
in your necklace. When you get the number of turns needed, unfasten it
all from the vise and pull the rod out. You have a spiral-shaped coil.
With a jewellers' saw, saw the length of the spiral on the end of the
links. Each one will drop off in the shape of a link. This is the very
best way to bend up a number of links that will be uniform in size. You
will notice that the ends of the link, after it is sawed off, are not
opposite each other. Push these ends together, using the fingers or a
pair of pliers. If the sawing is carefully done the links will be ready
to solder. Solder first one link in the usual way. Hook the other link
into it. Repeat until the chain is the desired length. If the proper
amount of solder is placed on the joint it will run in without making
lumps to be filed off later.
_Pendant:_ The pendant is made in the same way as the watch fob, which
is explained in a later chapter. The setting of the stones in the chain
is done as other stone setting, except that the ends are filed into
shape to receive the links for joining. Fastenings for the necklace can
be bought at any jewellery store. It is much better to buy them than to
attempt to make them.
Square silver wire can be used to mark out the design, or any design,
instead of round wire, and great variety can be secured merely by a
change in the shape of the wire used for the links. Again, you may have
a necklace with or without the pendant; the so-called bar necklace, the
dog collar, or the chain may be lengthened until it becomes the watch
chain.
In the group picture of necklaces there is one necklace made up of long
flat links joined together by small links soldered on. The design for
the necklace is sawed out. It is used for a necklace and watch chain.
This is only one of many suggestions for sawed out design work applied
in this way.
COLLAR SLIDE
[Illustration]
Collar slides make very pretty pieces of jewellery. Three form a set,
and they are easily made. These given here are all made of silver with
turquoise setting. The centre slide is usually a trifle larger than
the other two. A piece of ribbon is slipped through a little wire slot
put on the back of each slide for that purpose. Any colour ribbon that
blends with the silver and turquoise looks well.
_Material:_ One piece silver, 5/8 × 1-1/8 ins. (for centre slide). Two
pieces silver, 9/16 × 1-1/8 ins. (for other two). Three stones well
matched. Piece of No. 20 silver wire, 5 ins. long.
_Directions:_ Cut out the shape as the picture shows and saw out the
inside according to the design, leaving a flat space at the top large
enough for the stones you have selected. Set the stone the same as you
did stones for rings, scarf pins, etc. After the bezel is in place for
soldering, cut off a piece of No. 20 wire, and bend it in the shape of
the sketch given here.
This is soldered on the back of the slides. Bind this on at the same
time you bind on your bezel, wash with borax, and solder both. Do same
on each one. File down the bezel, put the stone in place and push the
bezel against the stone by rubbing. Polish and finish. This design will
no doubt suggest many ways of making slides.
[Illustration: Collar slide]
BROOCHES AND BAR PINS
[Illustration]
Brooches and bar pins are made in much the same way as scarf pins. The
bezel is soldered as to a flat bar of silver to receive the stone.
But, in place of the stick pin, brooches have a bar, hinged on one end,
and a little catch hook on the other. These bars and catch hooks can be
bought very cheaply at almost any jewellery store, and cheaper than one
can make them. However, if you wish to make that part of the brooch or
bar pin yourself you can do so in the following way: Take a piece of
silver 2 ins. long and 1/8 in. wide, No. 20. Round this piece of silver
up by driving on the wide side about one inch from the end. Keep doing
this till the piece of silver is about 1/16 in. square. Drive the four
corners down, and you have an 8-sided bar. If these corners in turn
are hammered down you have a 16-sided piece, etc. Continuous hammering
reduces this bar to a round piece of silver about one inch long. The
end should be flattened down according to the sketch (1).
[Illustration]
_To make the hinge (staple and hook):_ Take a piece of
silver, No. 24, 1/8 in. wide and 3/8 in. long. Bend it up in the shape
of a staple, square at the end (2). The piece for the hook can be made
at the same time you make the piece for the pin. Use a piece of wire
1/16 in. × 3/8 in. long. After hammering, bend it like the sketch (3).
[Illustration]
_To put the staple and hook together:_ Drill a 1/16-in. hole in the
staple very close to the top. Drill one in the flat shank of the pin
also close to the top. (See sketch.)
Put a silver rivet in and rivet the two together, making a hinge. Place
this on the bar pin or brooch and then put the hook in its proper
position. Now you can get the exact length the pin should be. Cut it
off long enough to let the end project through the hook about 1/8 in.
File this to a needle point and polish very smooth. If it is rough it
will not push through any kind of cloth easily. To solder, bind the pin
and hook to the brooch or bar pin, and solder as you would any other
piece. Polish and finish up as you have done before.
BRACELET WITH SAWED OUT DESIGN AND STONE SETTINGS
_Material:_ One piece of No. 20 silver, 8 × 3/8 ins. One piece of No.
24, 1/6 in. by any length needed for the number of bezels required.
Three or five stones (turquoises blend well with silver).
[Illustration: Bracelet with stone]
_Tools:_ Saws, saw frame, drill press and drills, small files, borax
and solder.
_Directions:_ Secure small stones of uniform size and the same colour,
or colours that blend well together. If the stones selected are too
large the bracelet is apt to have a heavy or clumsy look. Bracelets
should be fine, and above everything else dainty looking. Take your
8-in. piece of silver and divide it into five equal parts if there are
to be five stones, and three equal parts if three stones are to be
used. Lay each stone in its section and mark the outline with pencil on
the silver.
The sawed out design is a matter of spacing between the stones. The
design shown here is a good one for this. You will see that the spaces
between the stones are cut away so that the stones stand out as the
design rather than the bracelet itself.
[Illustration: Section of bracelet]
If you are working out the design given here, drill holes and saw out
the spaces. Do this while the silver is in a straight piece, also file
these slots or spaces true and straight, rounding the edges both ways.
At the same time round the outside edges both ways, too. This makes
the bracelet free from sharp edges and it will feel comfortable to the
touch.
Shape the bracelet, bending it as you have bent other bands. There is
danger, when bending this, of the weak places, where the open spaces
come, bending in sharp angles. To avoid this put the greatest strain
on the solid places and bend these first. Bring the two ends tight
together, then bind and solder. When you have taken off the binding
wire, file down any thickness left at this joint flush with the silver
band. Bracelets are both oval and round in shape. Choose one of the two
shapes and round the bracelet up in that form.
Now cut the silver for the bezels long enough to go around each stone.
These are all soldered in the usual way, then filed to fit and lie flat
on the bracelet. Place the bezels on the solid places and bind each one
separately. Place a little bit of silver solder on the inside of each.
Be careful to wash the joint made in the band with a little clay to
prevent its melting during the soldering of the bezels. If the bracelet
during the soldering has lost its shape round it up again. File all the
bezels down so that the tops are perfectly smooth. File off any rough
spots in the circle or bracelet and polish it all inside and outside.
Shape a soft piece of pine wood to fit the inside of the bracelet. Put
this wood into the vise and put the bracelet on it. Now set the stones,
one by one, and rub the bezels tight against them. Polish with rouge or
pumice.
THE INDIAN BRACELET
The open bracelet is really an Indian design. Take a piece of silver
wire, 3/16 × 8 ins. long. Hardened silver is best. It can be gotten
just as silver wire that has been softened can be bought. Cut a piece
3/8 in. long from each end. Place these pieces on a piece of charcoal.
With the blow pipe melt these pieces. Each will run into a little
silver ball. Solder the balls to the end of the silver wire, one on
each end. Bend the wire now in the shape of a bracelet. You can make
the two balls just touch or you can leave them about an inch apart.
Polish in the usual way. If the balls are carefully soldered on to the
ends of the wire they make a very effective decoration.
[Illustration: Indian bracelet]
XVI
SPOONS AND PICTURE FRAME
Silver spoons: (1) Teaspoon, (2) Sugar tongs, (3) Mustard spoon, (4)
Salt spoon and salt-cellar.
_Material:_ No. 8 sterling silver 6 × 1-1/4 ins.
_Tools:_ Hard wood block, drill press and 1/16-in. drills, jewellers'
saw and frame, files, shears, and raising hammer.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Examine carefully any teaspoons you have at home. These
will suggest ideas for designs. They will give you a clearer notion
of how teaspoons are made than any sketch you may see. When you have
decided upon your design, draw it on paper and cut out your pattern.
Paste this pattern upon the piece of silver. You cannot cut this metal
with a pair of shears. Put it into the vise and cut it out with a cold
chisel as you did the paper knife, or you can cut it out by placing
it upon the flat stake and, with the chisel held vertically, driving
the chisel into the silver. You will find the vise best, however. Now
you have the outline of a spoon with the same thickness all the way
through. If you have examined a teaspoon carefully you will see that
the bowl of the spoon itself is thinned toward the outer edge, and
that the handle is tapered toward the end. The thickness of the metal
is left at the short bend of the spoon where it meets the bowl. Now
place the large end on the anvil stake and with the raising hammer
(round end) drive down on the metal, thinning it out and at the same
time shaping it into a spoon bowl. Your silver widens out and makes the
bowl larger than it should be. Cut off the surplus silver. It is much
better to have to cut down to the size than to be compelled to stretch
the silver out, as it were, to a certain size. In one case you can stop
when you have the proper thickness, but in the other you might make the
metal too thin for practical purposes, in order to get it wide enough.
_Handle:_ Handles should be tapered out from the thickest part to the
end, and left large enough on the end to saw out or file into shape
any design you may wish to make. Don't work your problem too close
so far as material is concerned. Any waste material in silver can be
returned and exchanged for full value.
Hammering any metal hardens it. When this silver becomes hardened
anneal it, but just enough to allow you to shape it up. However,
the last annealing should be done some time before the hammering is
finished so that the last work on it will harden it sufficiently to
prevent its bending when in use. Hand made spoons have a beauty about
them not matched by those mechanically made. If this handle is to
have a sawed out design, the drilling and sawing are done as before
described.
The finishing should be carefully done. Round the edges so that they
feel smooth and comfortable. After polishing, the spoon is ready for
use.
SUGAR TONGS WITH CLAWS
[Illustration]
_Material:_ No. 16 gauge silver, 9 × 3/8 in.
_Directions:_ Make your pattern and mark it off on the strip of silver.
Either saw or cut off the surplus material. Drill two holes where the
holes are shown, for the claws. Saw down to these holes. Do this on
either end. You now have three prongs, the middle one a little wider
than the other two. Take the pliers, grasp the points of the outer two
and turn them outward, forming a claw. File them until they have the
shape shown by the design. Do the same on both ends. File the whole
piece up, rounding the edges nicely. Notice that the edge view given
in the drawing shows the centre thinner than either side. This is
flattened down and the flattening of the silver hardens it, so that
when it is turned it acts like a spring. When you have flattened the
centre part out to the thickness of the drawing, place it on a wood
block and with a chisel-shaped wood peg drive in the centre, making the
inside slightly concave, and rounding the top side a little. This will
bend the tongs like the design. Shape the claw ends to fit the sketch
on a hard wood block, using a mallet. Before bending the silver into
shape take the wood peg, place the claws on the wood block, and with
the wood peg drive down and slightly concave the centre of the claws.
All design work must be put in when the metal is in a straight piece.
SUGAR TONGS WITH BOWLS
These are made in the same way as the tongs with claws. In the place
of claws you make the bowl spoon shaped on the wooden block, using a
mallet. The spoon bowl should not be larger than 1/2 × 7/8 in. Finish
and treat in the same way as the sugar tongs with claws.
MUSTARD SPOON, SALT SPOON AND CELLAR
[Illustration]
_Material--Mustard spoon:_ No. 14 silver, 3/16 × 3 ins.
_Directions:_ To make a mustard spoon like the sketch given here,
measure 1/2 in. off the end of the silver stock. This makes the bowl of
the spoon. Flatten the end down, thinning it out toward the edge. File
the bowl round. Place it on a block and hammer it into a plain simple
bowl shape very deep. One inch from the handle end flatten it out,
thinning it out toward the end. File to shape, and bend as shown in the
sketch, similar to a teaspoon.
SALT SPOON AND CELLAR
[Illustration]
_Material--Spoon:_ 3/16 × 2-1/2 ins., No. 14.
_Directions:_ Salt spoons are made in the same way as mustard spoons.
However, the handle is shorter, and the bowl is oval shaped and not
quite so deep. Any little sawed out design may be placed on the handle,
same as the teaspoon design. Using the same design, a set can be made
to match.
[Illustration]
_Material--Salt-cellar:_ Silver No. 24, disc 3 ins. in diameter.
_Directions:_ Take the 3-in. silver disc. Draw on it a 1-in. circle in
the middle. Place it on an anvil stake and drive it into shape like
the sketch given here. This is done in the same way as the base of the
chalice was hammered up. Hammer marks should be left. They add to the
design itself. When you have driven it up, see that the bottom is flat,
so that it sits level on the table. Trim the top off and file the edges
round.
_Salt-cellars with fluted sides:_ There are many ways of making
salt-cellars. Some have straight sides, some have tops bent over, some
are saucer shaped, and some have fluted sides. Take the 3-in. disc,
and divide it into 12 equal parts. File out in a hollow block a round
depression and with the mallet and a wood peg to fit the depressions
drive each of the divisions into the depression. Narrow the scallops
toward the bottom, both in width and depth. Keep within the angle
formed by the divisions. As you repeat one after the other you will
notice the sides beginning to turn up and shape themselves into a cup
similar to the first salt-cellar. The base of this should be one inch
in diameter. Finish up and file as you did the others.
[Illustration]
SMALL SILVER PICTURE FRAME
_Material:_ One piece No. 24, 1/4 × 13 ins. One piece No. 24, 3-in.
disc (2-in. hole sawed out of centre). One piece No. 24, 1-1/2 × 1/2
ins., for feet.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Bend the strip of silver, 1/4 × 13 ins., to fit the
outside edge of the disc. Cut off the ends, and solder. Push the disc
into the ring made and solder the ring into the disc, keeping the
edges flush with the surface of the disc. File off the soldered joints
smoothly.
_Feet:_ Saw out the design for the feet according to the drawing, and
solder them on to the back edge of any part of the circle. This must be
done with hard solder. Before soldering the feet on, paint the joints
already soldered with clay, wash and paint the opening where the heat
is applied for soldering on the feet. The edge of the 2-in. circle is
bevelled slightly. To do this place the edge on an anvil stake and with
a very light hammer drive gently down, bending inwardly. If this is
carefully done it will require no finishing except the polishing.
The frame is now ready for the glass. Any kind of window glass may be
cut to fit the inside. A little card board frame is made to hold the
glass and picture into place. Take a strip of card board 1/4 in. wide,
long enough to bend into a circle to fit the inside of the silver frame
tightly. Cut a disc of card board to fit the card board circle. Glue
the disc and circle together. Cover with velvet, so as to hide the card
board. Fasten to the back a little stand for holding the picture in
proper position. This, too, is made of card board and covered with the
same material.
XVII
WATCH FOBS
WATCH FOBS OF SILVER OR COPPER BACKGROUND, WITH SILVER INITIALS
[Illustration]
The few designs shown here are easily worked out in either metal. Many
handsome watch fobs of silver alone, or copper plain, or copper and
silver lettering can be made from an elaboration of these designs.
College students delight in copper fobs with silver lettering,
symbols of their fraternities, or figures representing their class
year. The white of the silver and red brown of the copper blend very
well together. The fobs may be set with a single stone, or a number of
stones, and, again, symbols may be sawed out of the silver sheet.
[Illustration]
_Material:_ Silver, No. 16 gauge. Copper, No. 14 gauge. The size of the
piece of metal depends upon the size you wish to make the fob.
_Tools:_ Solder, rivets, shears, drill press and drills, saw frame and
saw.
_Directions:_ After deciding upon the design, draw it on paper and cut
it out. Paste this pattern on the silver sheet and cut out along the
outline. If there is any cut out work to be done, drill the holes and
saw the design out. If you are making a silver fob and you wish to
enrich it by setting stones, decide upon your stone, make a bezel out
of No. 24 silver, and proceed to set the stone as you did in the ring.
If the background is copper with silver initials riveted upon it, saw
out the slot for the strap to go through, and polish the surface free
from all scratches and lines. File the slot round so it will not cut
the leather strap. Polish by tearing a little narrow strip of emery
cloth the length of the sheet and pushing it through the slot backward
and forward, pressing down on the top and bottom of the slot. This
tends to round it and to polish out the file marks. Mark the initials
on the silver and saw them out. Be sure that the stems of the letters
are wide enough to allow holes for riveting. Put only enough rivets
in to hold the letters in place. Two are usually enough, except with
the letters V and W. The more carefully you follow the lines of the
letters, the less filing you will have to do later. However, even with
the greatest care some filing must be done and since these letters are
the principal part of the decoration, they should be filed square,
smooth, and a little rounding on the edges of the face side. Keep the
side to be riveted against the plate flat, so it will fit snugly when
fastened.
When the holes have been drilled in the letters, place them on the
copper plate in the proper position and scratch through one hole with a
sharp instrument. Drill a hole through this point the same size as the
holes in the letters. Rivet these on with silver rivets. Square the
letters up on the plate, drill the remaining holes, and rivet. If the
rivet is driven down good and snug the end of the rivet can be filed
flush with the top of the silver. If one should wish to use rivets for
decorative purposes they should be arranged in a definite way. While
riveting the ends be careful to round them up instead of making them
flush.
XVIII
NAPKIN RING, SILVER COMB, BELT BUCKLES
NAPKIN RING (SILVER OR COPPER)
_Materials:_ No. 20 gauge (either material), 5 × 1-1/4 ins. Individual
napkin rings may be made either of silver or copper. Most rings are
made of the silver, but copper lends itself very well for them. The
design may be pierced, or etched out with acid. But the design work
should always be done while the metal is in a straight piece. All
napkin rings are made in this way.
[Illustration]
_Directions:_ Take the silver or copper sheet and round the edges.
File the two ends that are to be soldered together perfectly flat so
that they will meet with the least possible opening. Bend the metal in
shape around a hard wood peg. Bind with binding wire, wash with borax.
Then place bits of silver solder along the inside and solder. After
soldering, remove the binding wire and file the joint on the inside and
outside, until it is all perfectly smooth. Polish and finish. Make a
copper napkin ring in the same way.
[Illustration: Napkin ring]
CUFF LINKS
[Illustration]
Cuff links may be made of gold, silver, copper, or brass. Often the
design is worked out in the metal alone, again engraving is added, or
enamel or stones. The designs given here are merely suggestions. Any
one of them works out well in the metal. You will notice that some
have a ball on one end of the link and a plate on the other, while
some have the double plates. Again, some are made with loose links
joining the two heads. The link is loosened and pushed through the hole
in the cuff and then hooked on to the plate. One must be careful to
make the plates on a pair of cuff links small enough to go through the
buttonhole of a cuff.
_Material:_ For plain oval pair of cuff links. Two pieces of No. 20
silver, 7/8 × 1/2 in. Two pieces of silver wire, No. 14, 3/4 in.
_Directions:_ Mark the design by drawing an oval on the two plates of
silver. Keep length and diameter of both the same. Clip off the sides
and shape to design. Save the small pieces of silver clipped off, as
they will be used to make the balls at the other end of the cuff link.
With the file, bevel the edge and smooth all down. Place the plates
on a wooden block and curve them a little. Take the scraps of silver
you cut from the plates, place them in two separate groups on a piece
of charcoal, and heat it until they melt. When the pieces melt they
form themselves into balls. When these silver balls are cool enough to
handle with a pair of pincers, cool them off in water. File away any
part of the ball a little flat and solder the silver rod to the ball.
Solder the other end of the silver rod to the curved side of the oval
piece. Bend the connecting rod, like the picture. This forms the link.
Do the same with the other link. Then file, polish, and finish. If
stones are to be set, the bezels are made and put on the flat plates
and soldered on at the same time the plate is soldered to the link. The
stone is placed in position after it is all finished.
SILVER COMB
The comb described here is of medium size. It can be made larger, or
smaller, as the working principle is the same.
[Illustration]
_Material:_ No. 20, silver, 4-1/2 × 2-1/2 ins. Three pieces of No. 24
silver for the bezels. The size of the pieces depends upon the size of
the stones. Three turquoise stones.
[Illustration: BOYS FROM ELEVEN TO FOURTEEN YEARS OF AGE DOING METAL
WORK IN THE COUNTRY
A Great Variety of Work is Going On. Some Boys are Making Square Copper
Trays, Some are Working on Bowls, While a Number are Doing Jewelry
Work.]
_Directions:_ Take the silver plate, 4-1/2 × 2-1/2 ins., and divide it
across the shorter dimension into places corresponding to the number
of teeth in the design. Be extremely careful about the spacing. Centre
punch these divisions and drill holes about 1 in. from the edge through
each one equal to the thickness of each tooth. Here the thickness would
be about 1/16 in.
[Illustration: Suggestions for belt buckle for a lady. Can be worked in
brass, copper, or silver stone setting]
With a sharp tool draw lines from these holes to the outer edge. Be
careful to have all the lines running parallel to each other. Place
the saw through the holes and saw the divisions out, keeping as close
to the line as possible. When they are all sawed out, file each tooth
separately, rounding each one a little. Do this filing most carefully,
for the least roughness left will pull the hair when the comb is put
in place. The extreme point of each tooth should be sharp, after a
gradual taper from about 1/3 the length of the tooth to the end. This
can all be done with a file. The comb is now ready to bend in shape.
Place it on the round stake and with a hammer curve it until it forms
an arc of a 5-in. circle. Most combs are curved to that degree.
_Stones:_ Cut strips of silver for the bezels, long enough to fit
exactly around the stone. Set the stones on the same way as you did
those for rings and pins. Polish and finish.
XIX
ENAMELLING
Enamel is a glass fused to the surface of metals, for decorative
purposes. It is bought in flat discs about 1/4 in. thick and weighing
from 5 to 6 ounces. These discs are broken up so that one is able to
buy enamel in small quantities. It comes in any colour and when put
upon the surface correctly the colour does not change and it is not
affected afterward by atmospheric influences.
_Tools:_ One needs few tools for this work. A wooden mallet, a mortar
and pestle, and a small spoon used to put the enamel on the metal when
filling the design will be found sufficient. The spoon may be made by
taking a 1/8-in. piece of silver or copper wire with about 1/2 in. of
the end flattened down spoon shaped. File this end round and smooth so
there will be no ragged edges.
_Process:_ When you have decided upon the colour which you wish, put as
much enamel as you will need into the mortar and cover it with clear
water. The water washes the enamel and prevents it from flying out
as it is broken up. Place the pestle on the pieces of enamel and tap
gently upon the end of the pestle with the wooden mallet, till the
enamel is broken up into fine pieces. While doing this the water will
become discoloured. Drain the water off and pour fresh water on. Repeat
this so long as the water becomes discoloured. With the pestle grind
the enamel to a fine paste. Press down upon the pestle, at the same
time give it a twisting movement with the wrist. When the water remains
clear and the enamel is pasty and free from lumps it is ready for use.
While using it keep it just covered with clear water. This prevents its
drying and in this dampened state it is in the best working condition.
_How to place the enamel on the metal:_ With the small spoon pick the
enamel up out of the mortar, place it on the metal and press it down
into any depression. Keep it well moistened all the time. Repeat this
until the whole depression is covered. If any part is left uncovered,
that part will show black after firing. Then each black spot must be
scraped clean, covered with enamel again and refired, which makes
much unnecessary work, so be careful at the first to place the enamel
just where it should be on the metal, and so avoid the extra work and
firing. _The muffle furnace:_ This is a small furnace made for the
purpose of melting enamels by what is called a reflected heat. The
muffle is a half rounded, shaped clay form open only at one end, into
which the piece to be fired is put. The flame of the furnace plays on
the outside of this muffle. The temperature is raised to the required
heat and the piece inside the muffle is fired without having any flame
playing directly upon it. The reflected heat does the work. These
furnaces can be bought in almost any general supply store. They come
in all sizes. Natural or artificial gas can be used for heating; the
regular hose or tube attachment is all that is necessary.
_The piece in place for firing:_ It is usually best to light the oven
before you begin to place the enamel on the work to be fired. The
furnace heats up in the meantime. Place the piece on the top ledge
of the furnace close to the chimney. This is a good place to dry the
moisture out of the enamel. If this is not done the steam generated by
the moisture and the heat causes explosions, which in turn disturb the
enamel surface and dislodge small particles of the enamel. When the
steam has stopped rising from the enamel--which you can tell by holding
the piece between you and the light--the moisture has dried out and the
work can be put into the muffle by use of a long pair of muffle tongs.
Extreme care must be taken when placing the piece to be fired into the
furnace. The enamel is now very dry. The particles are no longer held
together by the moisture and the least jar will dislodge them. The
doors of the furnace are usually in two pieces, so that the upper half
can be lifted away from time to time. One can look in and watch the
process of melting. When the enamel is first put into the furnace and
the heat begins to melt it, it rapidly changes colour. As it begins to
melt it settles down and takes on a glassy, soft, smooth surface. At
this point it is ready to take out. It is placed again on the top of
this furnace, where it cools off slowly, otherwise the difference in
expansion between the metal and the glass would cause the surface to
crack. After one or two trials one easily recognizes the critical time
when the enamel is well baked. These directions are only for enamelling
flat surfaces. If one should wish to enamel both the inside and outside
of a box lid rounded on the top and curved on the under side, a few
large drops of gum arabic should be mixed with the enamel used for the
under side. This prevents it from dropping off when in position for
firing.
When the work has cooled off so that it can be handled, it will show a
surface every part of which is covered, if carefully done. If not the
black spots will appear. These are copper spots oxidized by the heat,
and must be thoroughly scrubbed and scraped. The enamel edges around
these spots must be scraped away, covered with enamel, and refired.
If there are no spots shown, the work is ready for finishing. You will
find on the upper edge of the enamel line a black line caused by the
impurities in the enamel which rise to the top edge. Scrape this off
with a fine file until it entirely disappears.
The copper, too, usually takes on beautiful colours during the heating
process. Many like to leave the colours just as they happen to come
by the heat, others prefer to polish the surface to bring out the
real copper colours rather than the oxide colours. To clean the oxide
off one must put the piece into a pickling bath made up of one part
of sulphuric acid to eight parts of water. This softens the scum on
the surface of the metal so that a soft rag dipped into any cleaning
material like pumice stone will easily clean it off.
TWO METHODS OF ENAMELLING
_Cloisonné:_ In this work the design is done usually in coloured
enamels, which are separated one from another by means of ribs of
metal bent so as to follow the outlines of the design. These ribs are
placed on the plaque, and a drop of solder here and there keeps them in
place. The coloured enamels are filled in between these ribs and fired
as before explained.
_Champlevé:_ In this method the partitions between one colour and
another are formed by ridges of the base and not by separated ribs of
metal. These ridges are made by driving the metal with chasing tools
from the under side up and raising it above the surface. The spaces
between these walls are filled in with enamel, and it is all fired as
explained before.
The lid on the rose jar as shown in the group is an example of this
kind of enamelling.
IMITATION PATINA (GREEN TINT ON COPPER)
The best method of obtaining a coating resembling patina is to immerse
the article in a solution of nitrate of copper, and then to place it
while still wet in a chamber containing an abundance of carbolic acid.
In this case the development of the green incrustation may be observed
from day to day. If after a week the object has not yet obtained the
proper colour, it must be again dipped in the above solution, and this
operation is repeated till the desired shade has been acquired. As the
formation of this green colour proceeds in the same way as in the open
air, but more rapidly, a handsome and permanent coating of green can be
produced by this means.
CHEMICAL METAL COLOURING
_How to put a thin coating of colouring on the surface of metals by
chemicals:_ A great variety of shades may be obtained simply through
heat. The colours ordinarily produced on copper articles by means of
heat come through the polishing. Any metal whose surface is highly
polished will take on a number of different colours, beginning at a
straw colour and changing to a dark straw, purple, dark blue, light
blue, and steel or gray, by heating the piece to be coloured to a
temperature of 630° F.
_Barium sulphide and water (a very good composition for colouring
metal):_ Immerse object until it assumes desired tint from light
brown to violet to black. Heat gently over bunsen flame until a rich
deep violet appears. After it is cool rub with soft cloth.
_Patina imitation (a very good composition for the greening of copper):_
1 part sal. ammoniac,
3 parts cream tartar,
6 parts salt,
12 parts hot water,
2 parts nitrate of copper.
Saturate soft cloth and rub or sprinkle the solution on the copper. Let
stand in the open air ten or twelve hours. Wash the colour off with
clear cold water. Tone down to suit.
Another way of colouring metal.
Silver.
_To oxidize silver:_ The following is a solution commonly used for
oxidizing silver:
Potassium sulphide, 5 grains,
Water, 10 fluid ounces.
The variety known as liver or sulphur is generally used, and imparts a
reddish brown colour to the silver, the colour being darker the darker
the solution. It should be worked at 60 or 70 per cent. The stronger
the solution the blacker the colour. If ammonium carbonate (20 grains)
is added to the above formula and is worked hot, a black colour appears
upon rubbing with a very fine wire brush. It takes on the colour of
black lead.
_Colouring of brass:_
Copper sulphate, 2 ounces;
Water, just sufficient to dissolve the copper sulphate;
Ammonia, to neutralize and make slightly alkaline.
This will turn brass a very beautiful blue-black colour. Copper assumes
a very beautiful tint from this solution.
_Cement for engravers:_ Melt best pitch in an iron pot and when
completely liquid stir in a mixture composed of two thirds of raw pitch
and one third plaster of paris. Make a lot of ten pounds. Add one half
pound mutton tallow, boil and mix thoroughly. Should this be too soft,
add plaster of paris until you get the desired hardness:
5 lbs. black raw pitch,
5 lbs. plaster of paris,
1-1/2 lbs. mutton tallow.
_To polish enamel:_ After rubbing it down with the corundum file, take
a small rod of tin or pewter and after anointing it with fine Tripoli
or rotten-stone, grind the surface of the enamel evenly with the tin
or pewter rod. Next take a stick of lime wood and use that with the
rotten-stone in the same way and finish with putty powder and stick
covered with chamois skin.
_To unsolder a piece of work:_ Paint those joints which are not to be
unsoldered with a mixture of clay water, to which add a little common
salt. When dry, scrape the part to be unsoldered and paint it with
borax. Now heat till solder melts, pick off with pliers or knock it off
with a gentle tap. The borax adds flux, thus helping the solder to run
at a melting temperature.
MACHINERY IN METAL WORK: DIE MAKING
Most of the jewellery that we see nowadays and also much of the metal
work is made under presses or drop hammers. As was shown in the making
of the mould for the round copper tray, the skill lies in the making of
the design and the making of a mould to fit the design.
The description of the making of a match safe by means of die sinking
will explain how all die work is done: The design for the match safe is
made by the artist, who turns it over to the die sinker. He, in turn,
chisels out of a steel block, about 7 ins. square, a depression in
which the design fits. If the match safe has an embossed design, this
is all chiselled out carefully with small chisels and filed up smoothly
so that when a piece of soft lead is driven into the depression it will
take the shape of the match safe as designed by the artist. The lead
is so soft that it takes the print readily. This lead reproduction
shows to the die sinker any imperfection in the die. The imperfections,
if there are any, are smoothed down. The driving in of the lead into
the depression is repeated from time to time, until the mould is the
exact reproduction of the artist's design.
The die is now hardened by heating it red hot and cooling in water.
When taken out of the water it is placed in the hammer or press. On
the ram of the hammer is keyed, directly above this die, a square
block of lead. When the hammer falls, the impact of the lead upon the
impression produces a reproduction of the impression. This lead piece
makes the top die. A piece of thin silver is placed in the steel die
over the impression. If the ram is now dropped upon the silver plate
it will force the plate into the impression and will stamp the design
on the silver. One half of the match box is made in this way. When two
of these are made, put together, and soldered, they make a whole match
box. Thousands of match boxes would be made from this one die. That is
the reason why this class of work can be sold so cheaply.
The principle explained here is used for the making of tea sets, dinner
sets, etc. The same thing is true of the round wood mould you made to
make the copper tray in. It can be used to make dozens of trays, all
the same size and shape.
GLOSSARY
_Alloy:_ Base metal added to silver or gold for hardness or colour.
Also any combination of different metals by fusion.
_Annealing:_ Softening metal by making it red-hot and cooling slowly;
for steel, brass, copper, silver, cooling quickly in water.
_Backing:_ The coating of enamel on the back surface of box lids, to
neutralize expanse and contraction, thus preventing top enamel from
cracking.
_Basse-taille:_ Low cutting of metal beneath the line of the surface,
used in enamelling. The drawing or modelling of the subject is given by
the different depths of cutting.
_Beck iron:_ T-shaped anvil or stake used in hammer work. The arms of
the T are long; one is round and slender, and tapering; the other has a
flat upper surface.
_Bossing up:_ Beating out sheet metal in the back into rough forms
required.
_Champlevé:_ A process of enamelling on metal in which the ground of
the pattern is cut away with a chisel into a series of shallow troughs
into which the enamel is melted, the surface being afterward ground
smooth and polished.
_Chasing:_ Surface modelling of metal with hammer and punch or chasing
tools.
_Cloisonné:_ An enclosing ribbon wire, which being soldered edgewise on
a metal ground makes a trough into which enamel is melted, the ribbon
making the division. Thus the design is separated.
_Collar:_ A ring made of stout leather filled with sand or some other
soft material used to support the pitch block.
_Draw Plate:_ A flat plate of steel or iron with rows of graduated
holes, used for drawing or reducing wire.
_Face Plate:_ A square thick iron plate with the surface perfectly
smooth and level to test work on.
_Flux:_ Any material used to protect the surface of metal from
oxidation when exposed to heat. Borax and water mixed, etc.
_Graver:_ A kind of small chisel used for cutting metal, or lines on
surfaces.
_Mandrel:_ A rod of wood or iron of any section used either for coiling
wire for chains or the making of rings. _Matt tool:_ A punch, flat and
graduated on one end, used for making groined surfaces on metal.
_Pickle:_ Solutions of various acids in water used for removing the
film of oxide and sulphide surface of metal. The acids used are nitric
acid, hydrochloric acid, and sulphuric acid, about 8 to 1. This is
strong enough for ordinary work.
_Pin:_ The hard wood peg fixed in the bench to hold work against to
file and fit.
_Pitch block:_ Some iron blocks and wood blocks covered with pitch used
as a support for metal in repoussé work or chasing.
_Planishing:_ Beating a plane or level surface to a sheet of metal by
the use of a broad smooth-faced hammer on a stake or anvil. Also used
to give smoothed face to a bowl or cup or other object in sheet metal.
_Repoussé:_ The method of beating out sheet metal from the back with
hammer and punches.
_Sand bag:_ A flat circular or square bag of leather filled with sand
used for bossing up metal upon.
_Scraper:_ A tool made from an old file by sharpening the point on
a stone to a three-sided pyramid; used for scraping clear edges and
surfaces to be soldered and for cleaning up work generally.
_Snarling iron:_ Long Z-shaped bar of iron fixed in a vise and used
for bossing out the surface of vessels from the inside. They act by
rebounding from the blow of the hammer near the end fixed in the vise.
_Tracer:_ A chisel-shaped punch used for cutting for any design or work
that requires deep lines.
THE BLACKSMITH'S SHOP
XX
BLACKSMITHING AND TOOLS
Let's go to the blacksmith's shop and tell the blacksmith what we have
done. You see I've shown you all he taught me about copper, brass, and
silver. I promised to take you there when we got through. Come on. Here
we are! This is his shop. Mr. Blacksmith, this is my friend. I've shown
him how to do work in metal and he can do all that you taught me. We
both want to learn how to make things out of steel and iron. Are you
ready to take us on?
Yes, boys, you are just in time to help me out. And while you are
lending a hand I can show you how to make many things that every boy
can learn to do with iron and steel. Come into the shop. First I'll
tell you about the blacksmith shop equipment. This is my forge and
bellows, with the coal heap at the side; here is the anvil and here are
my tools. You see it doesn't take a blacksmith long to name the things
he needs to equip his shop. But you must know how each thing is used
and what it is used for. Let me draw you a picture of the forge on
this board and explain to you how it is built.
[Illustration]
_A_ is the chimney. You see it has an opening in the bottom to let
the smoke go up. _B_ is a leather bellows. It is placed back of the
chimney out of the way of sparks from the forge fire. The nozzle of
the bellows goes through a hole ending on the hearth of the forge. _C_
is the hearth where the coal is placed. _D_ is a nest in the centre of
the hearth, called a tuyere. Through this opening the blast from the
bellows enters the coal heap.
The whole forge is built of brick and mortar. Modern forges are made of
iron and steel and have a sheet iron hood in place of a brick chimney.
But the principle of the tuyere, where the blast enters the forge, is
the same as we blacksmiths have always used. Now I'll build the fire in
the forge. Here in this box are some shavings. I save all my shavings
and put them here to start my fire with. Place the shavings over the
tuyere and light them. Let them burn for a little while, then cover the
whole with this soft bituminous coal. This kind of coal is free from
sulphur and phosphorus, and it cokes very nicely when the gas and tar
are burnt out. Now it's time to use the bellows. You can take hold of
this handle and pull down. The weights on the bottom pull the handle
up again. Sometimes weights are placed on the top board. This helps
to increase the air pressure. Notice that the bellows hang in a frame
and the centre axis is fastened to the upright, allowing the upper and
lower half to rise and fall. When the lower half falls it sucks the air
in through a little trap door on the bottom, and when raised the trap
door closes and the air is forced through the nozzle into the tuyere on
the forge. This alternates, first taking the air in and then forcing
the air out. Pump gently at first, then the coal will not smother
the fire. That volume of smoke coming up is mostly from the burning
shavings and it goes right up the flue. This blue flame that you see
now shows that the gases are burning in the coal. When they are burnt
out the coals give a red glow. Now the bright fire is shown through
the coal. Put your poker into the coal heap and raise it gently. The
opening made on the top is a vent for the heat to escape and prevents
the fire blowing into the shop. An opening like this should always be
left at the top, on account of the oxygen which is being pumped in
constantly. Sprinkle a little water on the coal around the outside of
the fire. This helps to pack the coal down tight and keep the fire in a
confined space, for it is apt to spread and use up much more coal than
is needed.
You see, boys, this is an old-fashioned blacksmith shop. Most of the
work done here is horseshoeing, though we have many complex things
brought in for us to repair, none of which can be turned away. All
these shoes hanging on the rafters are for horses and mules. The mule's
shoe, you see, is a different shape from the horse's shoe. I make these
in my spare moments and we call them stock shoes. Notice that the stock
shoes have no heels or toes on them. These are put on when the shoe is
made to fit the horse's foot.
Shoes are now made by machinery and I buy them when I haven't time to
make them. But they, too, must be fitted to the foot, for they come
only in stock form.
Now I'm going to show you how to make a horseshoe. I'll make it out of
this piece of steel tire from a wagon wheel. We use all this kind of
scrap to make the stock shoes. That's why our made shoes can be sold
cheaper than the manufactured shoes, if we have the time to make them.
Steel is being used in place of iron in all branches of industry. A
steel shoe weighing half a pound will wear as long as an iron shoe
weighing one pound.
This piece of steel tire which I am using is 1 in. wide and 1/2 in.
thick. I want to keep the thickness 1/2 in., but reduce the width to
3/4 in. To do this the end of the piece of metal is put into the forge
fire. As soon as it is hot enough, I take it out and place it, edge up,
on the anvil, and with the hand hammer draw it out any length I wish.
You see that driving down on the edge of the hot bar thickens it. Now
turn it over and drive on the flat side. You must keep driving first
on the edge and then on the side until it is the right size. This is
called stretching the metal out. Now the bar is long enough to bend in
the shape of a letter U. Heat about 6 ins. of this bar and then place
it on the largest part of the anvil horn. Strike on the projecting end
with a hand hammer. It bends easily into the shape.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Take the chisel-shaped tool. The edge of this tool makes the groove to
fit the nail heads. Every horseshoe has eight rectangular holes for
nails, four on each side. These are punched through with this punch,
and are made just large enough to fit the horseshoe nail heads. Now you
see a stock shoe, and it is just like the dozens I have hanging on the
rafters. But before the shoe is placed on the horse's foot it must
have the front piece, called the toe calk, welded on and the ends of
the shoe turned up for heels. To make the toe calk I take a piece of
iron or steel about 2 × 3/4 × 1/2 in. The end of this piece is prepared
like this:
[Illustration]
The little projection is made very sharp so that it can stick into
the hot iron. In this way it is kept in place during the process of
welding. When the calk is made I heat the shoe and place the calk in
the proper position. The calk is cold and the little projecting point
is easily driven into the hot iron. Now that it is held in place it
must be welded on. Iron and steel are welded together only by the
use of a flux. There are many kinds of fluxes used. For this I shall
use _borax_. I buy it by the pound and it comes in boxes like this.
Sprinkle a little on the calk, heat it in the fire, watch the fire.
When the metal is hot enough to weld you will notice a brown smoke
coming from the fire. That tells you the borax is burning. There, see
the smoke! Now I must take the shoe out quickly and place it on the
anvil. A few quick, light blows upon the calk and the welding is done!
The hammering must be done quickly after the shoe has been taken out
of the fire, or the cold air will lower the temperature and prevent
the metal from uniting. There, it's welded! Now I shape it and fit it
to the horse's foot. The heels can't be bent up until I know just how
long the horse's foot is. I measure by placing it on the hoof. Then the
two ends of the shoe are bent and driven down so that the height of the
heels equals the height of the calk. Now, boys, this is a hand made
shoe. When you know how to use the fire and the tools it is an easy
problem to make a horseshoe.
[Illustration: The modern forge. An ideal forge for use when electric
power is available]
[Illustration]
So it is with all blacksmiths' work. There is not anything about it you
can't do. Any boy can build his own blacksmith shop if he has a shed
or shelter large enough to keep the rain from a forge, anvil, and some
tools. You needn't have the big, old-fashioned brick forge like mine.
Here is a picture of a portable forge that I can recommend. It can be
bought at almost any store that deals in hardware supplies. It is
small and handy and can be easily taken from place to place. You can
buy any size anvil you wish. They come in all sizes, weighing from
five pounds to five hundred pounds. Here is a list of tools which will
do all the work, both ornamental and plain, which you may wish to do.
Get this equipment, then build your shop.
BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS
Some of these tools you have used in your copper, brass, and silver
work. You will need your vise, files, your various punches, dividers,
hand cold chisel, and square. In addition, you should have the
following:
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Position of fullers]
[Illustration: Top fuller]
[Illustration: Bottom fuller]
[Illustration: Bottom swage]
[Illustration: Top swage]
[Illustration: Swages in position]
_Hand hammer:_ A hand hammer is used more than any other tool in the
shop. The flat face is used for shaping material and the round plain
for riveting, etc. The top and bottom fullers are used for making
depressions in iron and steel. This process is called fullering. The
top and bottom swages are used for rounding square iron or steel or
reducing large sizes to smaller ones. Hot and cold chisels are both
used for cutting iron. As the name shows, one is used for hot iron and
one for cold iron. Gouges are for cutting ornamental shapes on sheet
iron or steel, hot or cold. Calipers are used for measuring diameters.
The broad flat surface of the flatter smoothes rough places. The set
hammer is used to make square shoulders. It is a small hammer and
does the work in narrow places which larger tools cannot reach. This
sledge weighs about eight pounds. It is used where heavy hammering
or driving is needed, and in conjunction with such tools as swages,
fullers, set hammers, etc. The hardie is a sharp cutting tool used to
cut small pieces of iron and soft steel while hot or cold. Tongs are of
all sizes. Those most called into use have the following shapes: The
shovel for the fire must be small and strong so the clinker formed on
the bottom can be shoveled out without carrying too much coal with it.
A poker, rake, and dipper also are needed for use about the fire.
[Illustration: Hot chisel]
[Illustration: Cold chisel]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Set hammer]
You know now all the tools needed to equip a shop. I want to tell you
about the fuels, such as coal and charcoal, which you will use, and
something about pig iron and wrought iron which I think you ought to
know.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: Hardie]
[Illustration: Tongs]
The smoke is the most troublesome thing in a blacksmith's shop. The
old-fashioned forge is perhaps the best made to draw the gases and
smoke out, except when exhaust fans are used for that purpose. Hoods
are fitted to pull down over the fire, completely covering the smoke
area, and the suction made by the fan will draw all the smoke from
the fire. This, of course, is possible only in modern equipped shops.
The portable forges that we use have none of this drawing-out system,
except through a natural draft chimney, made either of bricks or by
extending an iron pipe from the hood through the side of the shed or
through the roof. The down-draft system is a hood placed to one side
of the fire. It falls over the fire by means of a hinge placed on the
hood. This is not as effective as the overhead system on account of the
smallness of the hood. The pipes are all underground, otherwise the
system is the same as the overhead system.
[Illustration: Water dipper]
[Illustration: Fire tools]
_Danger of explosion:_ Coal gases leak into the tuyere when the blast
is shut off. When the blast is put on these gases are blown up into the
hot fire and they explode from the heat. They do no harm, except the
noise made by the explosion.
_Fuels:_ The coal used in a blacksmiths' shop is a soft coal called
bituminous coal. It is supposed to have less phosphorus and sulphur
than any other kind of coal. Coal containing either of these
ingredients should not be used. Sulphur makes iron hot short and
phosphorus makes the iron cold short that is, the iron is made brittle
while hot by means of the sulphur, and brittle when cold through the
effect of the phosphorus. When this soft coal is heated the coal tar
is burned out and the coal burns into a coke.
_Charcoal:_ Charcoal is a solid fuel and the very best fuel for heating
purposes. It is free from the impurities mentioned here. It is made by
burning hard wood in a closed oven or kiln. This kiln in turn burns the
wood into lumps of charcoal. The cost makes the only real objection to
the use of charcoal as fuel.
PIG IRON
Iron ore is an oxide of iron containing from 35 per cent. to 65 per
cent. iron. The rest is oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, silica, and other
impurities. Iron ore is charged into a blast furnace, mixed with
limestone as a flux, and melted down, with coke as fuel. The metal
which results from this melting is known as commercial pig iron.
WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is made from pig iron. The pig iron is remelted in a
so-called puddling furnace by charging about half a ton at one time
into the furnace. While in a molten state it is stirred up with large
iron hooks by the puddler. It is kept boiling so as to expose every
part of the iron bath to the action of the flame in order to burn out
the carbon. The other impurities will separate from the iron and run
out of the furnace as slag.
The temperature in the puddling furnace is high enough to melt pig iron
but not high enough to keep wrought iron in a liquid state. So, as soon
as the small particles of iron become purified the partially congealed
portion forms a spongy mass, in which small globules of iron ore are
in a semi-plastic state. These are gathered up by the puddler and his
helper and are formed into a ball on the bottom of the furnace by means
of long rabble bars used for this purpose. The ball is about 150 to 200
pounds in weight. These lumps of iron are taken to a large hammer or
squeezer.
There they are shaped into long blooms to fit the rolls. They are taken
right from the squeezer to the rolling mill and rolled out into bars
4 ins. or 5 ins. wide and 3/4 in. thick. These bars are called muck
bars owing to their spongy-like appearance and the large quantity of
cinders which they contain. The muck bars are now cut into lengths of
3 ft. and 4 ft. and are piled on top of each other in blocks of 200
lbs. The blocks are put into a heating furnace and heated to a welding
heat. While at this heat they are put through the rolls, thus welding
the whole mass together, at the same time reducing the pile to sizes
required by the market. When cold these are cut into lengths for use.
This is the iron used in most blacksmiths' shops.
XXI
FIRST PROBLEMS IN FORGING
HOW TO MAKE A STAKE PIN
Stake pins are used for holding ropes in place, such as those on tents,
etc.
_Material:_ 1/2 in. round × 18 ins. long of wrought iron.
_Tool:_ Hand hammer.
[Illustration: Stake Pin]
_Directions:_ This sketch is made full size and it shows a round stake
pin with a four-sided tapering end about 3 ins. long. Place one end of
the bar of iron into the fire. It should be placed so that the iron
will be parallel to the bottom of the hearth.
All the heating done for this kind of work must be done in a reducing
fire. There are two kinds of fires, the oxidizing fire and the reducing
fire. The oxidizing fire is one where the quantity of air blown in is
not all consumed by the fire. There is an excess of air and an oxide
is formed on the iron. This prevents it from heating sufficiently. The
reducing fire is one where the blast is in proportion to the consuming
power of the fire--that is, just enough air is blown in to be used up
by the fire.
The greater the temperature the more coal and likewise the more blast
required. So that a temperature of 2500° Fahrenheit can be easily
gotten on an ordinary forge fire. While the iron is heating it should
be drawn out of the forge fire once in a while to be examined. When it
has reached a white heat, not sparkling, place it on the anvil, and
with a hand hammer begin at the end and drive it into shape according
to your sketch. Hammer this until the iron begins to darken. Place it
again in the fire and repeat as before until the thing is finished. A
piece of iron may be heated a dozen times while working it into shape.
All depends upon the skill and experience of the worker.
You will probably learn in this problem that metal will burn in this
high temperature the same as a piece of wood and very much quicker. It
does not smoulder like wood; it just melts away. It would be well to
have the point of the iron stake melt or burn off in this particular
case so that you can learn all about the heating, melting, and burning
of iron. The fine point on the stake is made by keeping the metal on
the extreme outer edge of the anvil, so that the outer half of the
hammer face will project over the anvil edge, thus reducing any metal
between the two into a very small space. (See position of hand hammer
in the article on tools.)
When the work is finished the temperature of the metal should be low.
This prevents the metal from scaling and gives an opportunity for a
smooth finished surface.
[Illustration: HOW TO MAKE A STAPLE]
Staples are small U-shaped pieces of iron with pointed ends. They are
driven into wood for the purpose of holding some attachment in place.
We have staples for barn doors, to catch the gate hook, to fasten
chains, etc.
_Material:_ One piece of 1/4-in. round iron 4-1/2 ins. long.
_Directions:_ Heat one end of the iron piece. Draw it to a square point
as was done on the staple pin. Flatten this point as shown in the
drawing. Cut it off square at the extreme end so that it will be quite
sharp when finished. Repeat on the other end. The piece will now be
about 6-1/4 ins. long, about 1/4 in. round in the middle, with square,
tapering points. The centre is now heated and the piece is bent over
the horn of the anvil to the shape shown in the drawing.
In bending this over the horn of the anvil strike with light blows so
that the two ends will be the same length. If it is warped or twisted,
flatten it out again on the anvil till
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/45004