Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries, Vol. 1
by Henry Hallam · English · Gutenberg #43868 · 2,369,516 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries, Vol. 1
Author: Henry Hallam
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_THE WORKS OF HENRY HALLAM._
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
LITERATURE OF EUROPE
IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH,
AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.
BY
HENRY HALLAM, F.R.A.S.,
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL
AND POLITICAL SCIENCES IN THE FRENCH INSTITUTE
_VOLUME I._
WARD, LOCK & CO.,
LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C.
NEW YORK: BOND STREET.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END
OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
Page
Retrospect of Learning in Middle Ages Necessary 1
Loss of learning in Fall of Roman Empire 1
Boethius--his Consolation of Philosophy 1
Rapid Decline of Learning in Sixth Century 2
A Portion remains in the Church 2
Prejudices of the Clergy against Profane Learning 2
Their Uselessness in preserving it 3
First Appearances of reviving Learning in Ireland and England 3
Few Schools before the Age of Charlemagne 3
Beneficial Effects of those Established by him 4
The Tenth Century more progressive than usually supposed 4
Want of Genius in the Dark Ages 5
Prevalence of bad Taste 5
Deficiency of poetical Talent 5
Imperfect State of Language may account for this 6
Improvement at beginning of Twelfth Century 6
Leading Circumstances in Progress of Learning 6
Origin of the University of Paris 6
Modes of treating the Science of Theology 6
Scholastic Philosophy--its Origin 7
Roscelin 7
Progress of Scholasticism; Increase of University of Paris 8
Universities founded 8
Oxford 8
Collegiate Foundations not derived from the Saracens 9
Scholastic Philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars 9
Character of this Philosophy 10
It prevails least in Italy 10
Literature in Modern Languages 10
Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian Languages 10
Corruption of colloquial Latin in the Lower Empire 11
Continuance of Latin in Seventh Century 12
It is changed to a new Language in Eighth and Ninth 12
Early Specimens of French 13
Poem on Boethius 13
Provençal Grammar 14
Latin retained in use longer in Italy 14
French of Eleventh Century 14
Metres of Modern Languages 15
Origin of Rhyme in Latin 16
Provençal and French Poetry 16
Metrical Romances--Havelok the Dane 18
Diffusion of French Language 19
German Poetry of Swabian Period 19
Decline of German Poetry 20
Poetry of France and Spain 21
Early Italian Language 22
Dante and Petrarch 22
Change of Anglo-Saxon to English 22
Layamon 23
Progress of English Language 23
English of the Fourteenth Century--Chaucer, Gower 24
General Disuse of French in England 24
State of European Languages about 1400 25
Ignorance of Reading and Writing in darker Ages 25
Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100 26
Increased Knowledge of Writing in Fourteenth Century 27
Average State of Knowledge in England 27
Invention of Paper 28
Linen Paper when first used 28
Cotton Paper 28
Linen Paper as old as 1100 28
Known to Peter of Clugni 29
And in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century 29
Paper of mixed Materials 29
Invention of Paper placed by some too low 29
Not at first very important 30
Importance of Legal Studies 30
Roman Laws never wholly unknown 31
Irnerius--his first Successors 31
Their Glosses 31
Abridgements of Law--Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum 31
Character of early Jurists 32
Decline of Jurists after Accursius 32
Respect paid to him at Bologna 33
Scholastic Jurists--Bartolus 33
Inferiority of Jurists in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 34
Classical Literature and Taste in dark Ages 34
Improvement in Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 34
Lanfranc and his Schools 35
Italy--Vocabulary of Papias 36
Influence of Italy upon Europe 36
Increased copying of Manuscripts 36
John of Salisbury 36
Improvement of Classical Taste in Twelfth Century 37
Influence of increased Number of Clergy 38
Decline of Classical Literature in Thirteenth Century 38
Relapse into Barbarism 38
No Improvement in Fourteenth Century--Richard of Bury 39
Library formed by Charles V. at Paris 39
Some Improvement in Italy during Thirteenth Century 40
Catholicon of Balbi 40
Imperfection of early Dictionaries 40
Restoration of Letters due to Petrarch 40
Character of his Style 41
His Latin Poetry 41
John of Ravenna 41
Gasparin of Barziza 42
CHAPTER II.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1400 TO 1440.
Zeal for Classical Literature in Italy 42
Poggio Bracciolini 42
Latin Style of that Age indifferent 43
Gasparin of Barziza 43
Merits of his Style 43
Victorin of Feltre 44
Leonard Aretin 44
Revival of Greek Language in Italy 44
Early Greek Scholars of Europe 44
Under Charlemagne and his Successors 45
In the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 45
In the Twelfth 46
In the Thirteenth 46
Little Appearance of it in the Fourteenth Century 47
Some Traces of Greek in Italy 47
Corruption of Greek Language itself 47
Character of Byzantine Literature 48
Petrarch and Boccace learn Greek 48
Few acquainted with the Language in their Time 49
It is taught by Chrysoloras about 1395 49
His Disciples 49
Translations from Greek into Latin 50
Public Encouragement delayed 51
But fully accorded before 1440 51
Emigration of learned Greeks to Italy 52
Causes of Enthusiasm for Antiquity in Italy 52
Advanced State of Society 52
Exclusive Study of Antiquity 53
Classical Learning in France low 53
Much more so in England 53
Library of Duke of Gloucester 54
Gerard Groot’s College at Deventer 54
Physical Sciences in Middle Ages 55
Arabian Numerals and Method 55
Proofs of them in Thirteenth Century 56
Mathematical Treatises 56
Roger Bacon 57
His Resemblance to Lord Bacon 57
English Mathematicians of Fourteenth Century 57
Astronomy 58
Alchemy 58
Medicine 58
Anatomy 58
Encyclopædic Works of Middle Ages 58
Vincent of Beauvais 59
Berchorius 59
Spanish Ballads 59
Metres of Spanish Poetry 60
Consonant and assonant Rhymes 60
Nature of the Glosa 61
The Cancionero General 61
Bouterwek’s Character of Spanish Songs 61
John II. 62
Poets of his Court 62
Charles, Duke of Orleans 62
English Poetry 62
Lydgate 63
James I. of Scotland 63
Restoration of Classical Learning due to Italy 63
Character of Classical Poetry lost in Middle Ages 64
New School of Criticism in Modern Languages 64
Effect of Chivalry on Poetry 64
Effect of Gallantry towards Women 64
Its probable Origin 64
It is shown in old Teutonic Poetry;
but appears in the Stories of Arthur 65
Romances of Chivalry of two Kinds 65
Effect of Difference of Religion upon Poetry 66
General Tone of Romance 66
Popular Moral Fictions 66
Exclusion of Politics from Literature 67
Religious Opinions 67
Attacks on the Church 67
Three Lines of Religious Opinions in Fifteenth Century 67
Treatise de Imitatione Christi 68
Scepticism--Defences of Christianity 69
Raimond de Sebonde 69
His Views misunderstood 69
His real Object 70
Nature of his Arguments 70
CHAPTER III.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1440 TO THE CLOSE
OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The year 1440 not chosen as an Epoch 71
Continual Progress of Learning 71
Nicolas V. 71
Justice due to his Character 72
Poggio on the Ruins of Rome 72
Account of the East, by Conti 72
Laurentius Valla 72
His Attack on the Court of Rome 72
His Treatise on the Latin Language 73
Its Defects 73
Heeren’s Praise of it 73
Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament 73
Fresh Arrival of Greeks in Italy 74
Platonists and Aristotelians 74
Their Controversy 74
Marsilius Ficinus 75
Invention of Printing 75
Block Books 75
Gutenberg and Costar’s Claims 75
Progress of the Invention 76
First printed Bible 76
Beauty of the Book 77
Early printed Sheets 77
Psalter of 1547--Other early Books 77
Bible of Pfister 77
Greek first taught at Paris 78
Leave unwillingly granted 78
Purbach--his Mathematical Discoveries 78
Other Mathematicians 78
Progress of Printing in Germany 79
Introduced into France 79
Caxton’s first Works 79
Printing exercised in Italy 79
Lorenzo de’ Medici 80
Italian Poetry of Fifteenth Century 80
Italian Prose of same Age 80
Giostra of Politian 80
Paul II. persecutes the Learned 81
Mathias Corvinus 81
His Library 81
Slight Signs of Literature in England 81
Paston Letters 82
Low Condition of Public Libraries 83
Rowley 83
Clotilde de Surville 83
Number of Books printed in Italy 83
First Greek printed 84
Study of Antiquities 84
Works on that Subject 84
Publications in Germany 85
In France 85
In England, by Caxton 85
In Spain 85
Translations of Scripture 85
Revival of Literature in Spain 86
Character of Labrixa 86
Library of Lorenzo 87
Classics corrected and explained 87
Character of Lorenzo 87
Prospect from his Villa at Fiesole 87
Platonic Academy 88
Disputationes Camaldulenses of Landino 88
Philosophical Dialogues 89
Paulus Cortesius 89
Schools in Germany 89
Study of Greek at Paris 91
Controversy of Realists and Nominalists 91
Scotus 91
Ockham 92
Nominalists in University of Paris 92
Low State of Learning in England 92
Mathematics 93
Regiomontanus 93
Arts of Delineation 93
Maps 94
Geography 94
Greek printed in Italy 94
Hebrew printed 95
Miscellanies of Politian 95
Their Character, by Heeren 95
His Version of Herodian 96
Cornucopia of Perotti 96
Latin Poetry of Politian 96
Italian Poetry of Lorenzo 97
Pulci 97
Character of Morgante Maggiore 97
Platonic Theology of Ficinus 98
Doctrine of Averroes on the Soul 98
Opposed by Ficinus 99
Desire of Man to explore Mysteries 99
Various Methods employed 99
Reason and Inspiration 99
Extended Inferences from Sacred Books 99
Confidence in Traditions 100
Confidence in Individuals as inspired 100
Jewish Cabbala 100
Picus of Mirandola 101
His Credulity in the Cabbala 101
His Literary Performances 102
State of Learning in Germany 102
Agricola 103
Renish Academy 103
Reuchlin 104
French Language and Poetry 104
European Drama 104
Latin 104
Orfeo of Politian 105
Origin of Dramatic Mysteries 105
Their early Stage 105
Extant English Mysteries 105
First French Theatre 106
Theatrical Machinery 107
Italian Religious Dramas 107
Moralities 107
Farces 107
Mathematical Works 107
Leo Baptista Alberti 108
Lionardo da Vinci 108
Aldine Greek Editions 109
Decline of Learning in Italy 110
Hermolaus Barbarus 111
Mantuan 111
Pontanus 111
Neapolitan Academy 112
Boiardo 112
Francesco Bello 113
Italian Poetry near the End of the Century 113
Progress of Learning in France and Germany 113
Erasmus--his Diligence 114
Budæus--his early Studies 114
Latin not well written in France 115
Dawn of Greek Learning in England 115
Erasmus comes to England 116
He publishes his Adages 116
Romantic Ballads of Spain 116
Pastoral Romances 117
Portuguese Lyric Poetry 117
German popular Books 117
Historical Works 118
Philip de Comines 118
Algebra 118
Events from 1490 to 1500 119
Close of Fifteenth Century 119
Its Literature nearly neglected 119
Summary of its Acquisitions 119
Their Imperfection 120
Number of Books printed 120
Advantages already reaped from Printing 120
Trade of Bookselling 121
Books sold by Printers 121
Price of Books 122
Form of Books 122
Exclusive Privileges 122
Power of Universities over Bookselling 123
Restraints on Sale of Printed Books 124
Effect of Printing on the Reformation 124
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1500 TO 1520.
Decline of Learning in Italy 125
Press of Aldus 125
His Academy 126
Dictionary of Calepio 126
Books printed in Germany 126
First Greek Press at Paris 126
Early Studies of Melanchthon 127
Learning in England 127
Erasmus and Budæus 128
Study of Eastern Languages 128
Dramatic Works 128
Calisto and Melibœa 128
Its Character 129
Juan de la Enzina 129
Arcadia of Sanazzaro 129
Asolani of Bembo 130
Dunbar 130
Anatomy of Zerbi 130
Voyages of Cadamosto 130
Leo X., his Patronage of Letters 131
Roman Gymnasium 131
Latin Poetry 132
Italian Tragedy 132
Sophonisba of Trissino 132
Rosmunda of Rucellai 132
Comedies of Ariosto 132
Books printed in Italy 133
Cælius Rhodiginus 133
Greek printed in France and Germany 133
Greek Scholars in these Countries 134
College at Alcala and Louvain 134
Latin Style in France 135
Greek Scholars in England 135
Mode of Teaching in Schools 136
Few Classical Works printed here 137
State of Learning in Scotland 137
Utopia of More 137
Inconsistency in his Opinions 138
Learning restored in France 138
Jealousy of Erasmus and Budæus 138
Character of Erasmus 139
His Adages severe on Kings 139
Instances in illustration 140
His Greek Testament 142
Patrons of Letters in Germany 142
Resistance to Learning 143
Unpopularity of the Monks 145
The Book excites Odium 145
Erasmus attacks the Monks 145
Their Contention with Reuchlin 145
Origin of the Reformation 146
Popularity of Luther 147
Simultaneous Reform by Zwingle 147
Reformation prepared beforehand 147
Dangerous Tenets of Luther 148
Real Explanation of them 149
Orlando Furioso 150
Its Popularity 150
Want of Seriousness 150
A Continuation of Boiardo 150
In some Points inferior 151
Beauties of its Style 151
Accompanied with Faults 151
Its Place as a Poem 152
Amadis de Gaul 152
Gringore 152
Hans Sachs 152
Stephen Hawes 153
Change in English Language 153
Skelton 154
Oriental Languages 154
Pomponatius 155
Raymond Lully 155
His Method 155
Peter Martyr’s Epistles 156
CHAPTER V.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Superiority of Italy in Taste 157
Admiration of Antiquity 158
Sadolet 158
Bembo 159
Ciceronianus of Erasmus 159
Scaliger’s Invective against it 160
Editions of Cicero 160
Alexander ab Alexandro 160
Works on Roman Antiquities 161
Greek less Studied in Italy 161
Schools of Classical Learning 161
Budæus--his Commentaries on Greek 161
Their Character 162
Greek Grammars and Lexicons 162
Editions of Greek Authors 163
Latin Thesaurus of R. Stephens 163
Progress of Learning in France 164
Learning in Spain 165
Effects of Reformation on Learning 165
Sturm’s Account of German Schools 165
Learning in Germany 166
In England--Linacre 166
Lectures in the Universities 166
Greek perhaps Taught to Boys 167
Teaching of Smith at Cambridge 167
Succeeded by Cheke 168
Ascham’s Character of Cambridge 168
Wood’s Account of Oxford 168
Education of Edward and his Sisters 169
The Progress of Learning is still slow 169
Want of Books and Public Libraries 169
Destruction of Monasteries no Injury to Learning 169
Ravisius Textor 170
Conrad Gesner 170
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Progress of the Reformation 171
Interference of Civil Power 171
Excitement of Revolutionary Spirit 172
Growth of Fanaticism 172
Differences of Luther and Zwingle 172
Confession of Augsburg 173
Conduct of Erasmus 173
Estimate of it 174
His Controversy with Luther 174
Character of his Epistles 176
His Alienation from the Reformers increases 176
Appeal of the Reformers to the Ignorant 176
Parallel of those Times with the Present 177
Calvin 177
His Institutes 177
Increased Differences among Reformers 178
Reformed Tenets spread in England 178
In Italy 178
Italian Heterodoxy 179
Its Progress in the Literary Classes 180
Servetus 180
Arianism in Italy 181
Protestants in Spain and Low Countries 181
Order of Jesuits 181
Their Popularity 181
Council of Trent 182
Its Chief Difficulties 182
Character of Luther 182
Theological Writings--Erasmus 183
Melanchthon--Romish Writers 183
This Literature nearly forgotten 184
Sermons 184
Spirit of the Reformation 184
Limits of Private Judgment 185
Passions instrumental in Reformation 185
Establishment of new Dogmatism 186
Editions of Scripture 186
Translations of Scripture 186
In English 187
In Italy and Low Countries 187
Latin Translations 187
French Translations 188
CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF
JURISPRUDENCE, IN EUROPE, FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Logic included under this head 188
Slow Defeat of Scholastic Philosophy 188
It is sustained by the Universities and Regulars 188
Commentators on Aristotle 188
Attack of Vives on Scholastics 189
Contempt of them in England 189
Veneration for Aristotle 189
Melanchthon countenances him 189
His own Philosophical Treatises 190
Aristotelians of Italy 190
University of Paris 190
New Logic of Ramus 190
It meets with unfair treatment 191
Its Merits and Character 191
Buhle’s account of it 191
Paracelsus 191
His Impostures 192
And Extravagancies 192
Cornelius Agrippa 192
His pretended Philosophy 193
His Sceptical Treatise 193
Cardan 193
Influence of Moral Writers 194
Cortegiano of Castiglione 194
Marco Aurelio of Guevara 194
His Menosprecio di Corte 194
Perez d’Oliva 195
Ethical Writings of Erasmus and Melanchthon 195
Sir T. Elyot’s Governor 195
Severity of Education 196
He seems to avoid Politics 196
Nicholas Machiavel 196
His motives in writing the Prince 197
Some of his Rules not immoral 197
But many dangerous 197
Its only Palliation 198
His Discourses on Livy 198
Their leading Principles 198
Their Use and Influence 199
His History of Florence 199
Treatises on Venetian Government 199
Calvin’s Political Principles 199
Jurisprudence confined to Roman Law 200
The Laws not well arranged 200
Adoption of the entire System 200
Utility of General Learning to Lawyers 200
Alciati--his Reform of Law 201
Opposition to him 201
Agustino 201
CHAPTER VIII.
HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE OF TASTE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Poetry of Bembo 201
Its Beauties and Defects 202
Character of Italian Poetry 202
Alamanni 202
Vittoria Colonna 202
Satires of Ariosto and Alamanni 203
Alamanni 203
Rucellai 203
Trissino 203
Berni 203
Spanish Poets 204
Boscan and Garcilasso 204
Mendoza 204
Saa di Miranda 205
Ribeyro 205
French Poetry 205
Marot 206
Its Metrical Structure 206
German Poetry 206
Hans Sachs 206
German Hymn 206
Theuerdanks of Pfintzing 206
English Poetry--Lyndsay 206
Wyatt and Surrey 207
Dr. Nott’s Character of them 207
Perhaps rather exaggerated 208
Surrey improves our versification 208
Introduces Blank Verse 208
Dr. Nott’s Hypothesis as to his Metre 208
It seems too extensive 209
Politeness of Wyatt and Surrey 209
Latin Poetry 210
Sannazarius 210
Vida 210
Fracastorius 210
Latin Verse not to be disdained 210
Other Latin Poets in Italy 211
In Germany 211
Italian Comedy 211
Machiavel 211
Aretin 211
Tragedy 212
Sperone 212
Cinthio 212
Spanish Drama 212
Torres Naharro 212
Lope de Rueda 212
Gil Vicente 213
Mysteries and Moralities in France 213
German Theatre--Hans Sachs 213
Moralities and Similar Plays in England 214
They are turned to religious Satire 214
Latin Plays 214
First English Comedy 215
Romances of Chivalry 215
Novels 215
Rabelais 216
Contest of Latin and Italian Languages 216
Influence of Bembo in this 217
Apology for Latinists 217
Character of the Controversy 217
Life of Bembo 217
Character of Italian and Spanish Style 218
English Writers 218
More 218
Ascham 218
Italian Criticism 218
Bembo 218
Grammarians and Critics in France 219
Orthography of Meigret 219
Cox’s Art of Rhetoric 219
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE SCIENTIFIC AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE OF EUROPE
FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Geometrical Treatises 220
Fernel Rhœticus 220
Cardan and Tartaglia 220
Cubic Equations 220
Beauty of the Discovery 221
Cardan’s other Discoveries 221
Imperfections of Algebraic Language 222
Copernicus 222
Revival of Greek Medicine 223
Linacre and other Physicians 223
Medical Innovators 224
Paracelsus 224
Anatomy 224
Berenger 224
Vesalius 224
Portal’s Account of him 225
His Human Dissections 225
Fate of Vesalius 225
Other Anatomists 225
Imperfection of the Science 225
Botany--Botanical Gardens 226
Ruel 226
Fuchs 226
Matthioli 226
Low State of Zoology 226
Agricola 227
Hebrew 227
Elias Levita--Pellican 227
Arabic and Oriental Literature 227
Geography of Grynæus 228
Apianus 228
Munster 228
Voyages 228
Oviedo 228
Historical Works 228
Italian Academies 229
They pay regard to the Language 229
Their fondness for Petrarch 229
They become numerous 229
Their Distinctions 230
Evils connected with them 230
They succeed less in Germany 230
Libraries 230
CHAPTER X.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Progress of Philology 231
First Editions of Classics 231
Change in Character of Learning 232
Cultivation of Greek 232
Principal Scholars--Turnebus 232
Petrus Victorius 233
Muretus 233
Gruter’s Thesaurus Criticus 234
Editions of Greek and Latin Authors 235
Tacitus of Lipsius 235
Horace of Lambinus 235
Of Cruquius 236
Henry Stephens 236
Lexicon of Constantin 237
Thesaurus of Stephens 237
Abridged by Scapula 238
Hellenismus of Caninius 239
Vergara’s Grammar 239
Grammars of Ramus and Sylburgius 239
Camerarius--Canter--Robortellus 240
Editions by Sylburgius 241
Neander 241
Gesner 241
Decline of Taste in Germany 242
German Learning 242
Greek Verses of Rhodomanu 242
Learning Declines 243
Except in Catholic Germany 243
Philological Works of Stephens 243
Style of Lipsius 244
Minerva of Sanctius 244
Orations of Muretus 244
Panegyric of Ruhnkenius 244
Defects of his Style 245
Epistles of Manutius 245
Care of the Italian Latinists 245
Perpinianus--Osorius--Maphœus 246
Buchanan--Haddon 246
Sigonius, De Consolatione 246
Decline of Taste and Learning in Italy 247
Joseph Scaliger 247
Isaac Casaubon 248
General Result 249
Learning in England under Edward and Mary 249
Revival under Elizabeth 249
Greek Lectures at Cambridge 250
Few Greek Editions in England 250
School Books enumerated 250
Greek taught in Schools 251
Greek better known after 1580 251
Editions of Greek 252
And of Latin Classics 252
Learning lower than in Spain 252
Improvement at the End of the Century. 253
Learning in Scotland 253
Latin little used in Writing 253
Early Works on Antiquities 254
P. Manutius on Roman Laws 254
Manutius, De Civitate 254
Panvinius--Sigonius 255
Gruchius 255
Sigonius on Athenian Polity 256
Patrizzi and Lipsius on Roman Militia 256
Lipsius and other Antiquaries 256
Saville on Roman Militia 257
Numismatics 257
Mythology 257
Scaliger’s Chronology 258
Julian Period 258
CHAPTER XI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Diet of Augsburg in 1555 259
Progress of Protestantism 259
Its Causes 260
Wavering of Catholic Princes 260
Extinguished in Italy and Spain 260
Reaction of Catholicity 260
Especially in Germany 261
Discipline of the Clergy 261
Influence of Jesuits 261
Their Progress 262
Their Colleges 262
Jesuit Seminary at Rome 262
Patronage of Gregory XIII. 262
Conversions in Germany and France 263
Causes of this Reaction 263
A rigid Party in the Church 264
Its Efforts at Trent 264
No Compromise in Doctrine 265
Consultation of Cassander 265
Bigotry of Protestant Churches 266
Tenets of Melanchthon 266
A Party hostile to him 267
Form of Concord, 1576 267
Controversy raised by Baius 267
Treatise of Molina on Free will 268
Protestant Tenets 268
Trinitarian Controversy 268
Religious Intolerance 270
Castalio 270
Answered by Beza 271
Aconcio 271
Minus Celsus, Koornhert 271
Decline of Protestantism 272
Desertion of Lipsius 272
Jewell’s Apology 272
English Theologians 272
Bellarmin 273
Topics of Controversy changed 273
It turns on Papal Power 274
This upheld by the Jesuits 274
Claim to depose Princes 274
Bull against Elizabeth 274
And Henry IV. 275
Deposing Power owned in Spain 275
Asserted by Bellarmin 275
Methods of Theological Doctrine 275
Loci Communes 275
In the Protestant and Catholic Church 276
Catharin 276
Critical and Expository Writings 276
Ecclesiastical Historians 277
Le Clerc’s Character of them 277
Deistical Writers 277
Wierus, De Præstigiis 278
Scot on Witchcraft 278
Authenticity of Vulgate 278
Latin Versions and Editions by Catholics 278
By Protestants 279
Versions into Modern Languages 279
CHAPTER XII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Predominance of Aristotelian Philosophy 279
Scholastic and genuine Aristotelians 280
The former class little remembered 280
The others not much better known 280
Schools of Pisa and Padua 280
Cesalpini 280
Sketch of his System 280
Cremonini 281
Opponents of Aristotle 281
Patrizzi 281
System of Telesio 281
Jordano Bruno 282
His Italian Works--Cena de li Ceneri 282
Della Causa, Principio ed Uno 282
Pantheism of Bruno 283
Bruno’s other Writings 284
General Character of his Philosophy 285
Sceptical Theory of Sanchez 286
Logic of Aconcio 286
Nizolius on the Principles of Philosophy 286
Margarita Antoniana of Pereira 287
Logic of Ramus--its Success 288
CHAPTER XIII.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE
FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Soto, De Justitia 289
Hooker 290
His Theory of Natural Law 290
Doubts felt by others 290
Essays of Montaigne 290
Their Characteristics 290
Writers on Morals in Italy 293
In England 293
Bacon’s Essays 293
Number of Political Writers 294
Oppression of Governments 294
And Spirit generated by it 294
Derived from Classic History 294
From their own and the Jewish 294
Franco Gallia of Hossoman 295
Vindiciæ of Languet 295
Contr’Un of Boetie 295
Buchanan, De Jure Regni 296
Poynet, on Politique Power 296
Its liberal Theory 296
Argues for Tyrannicide 297
The Tenets of Parties swayed by Circumstances 297
Similar Tenets among the Leaguers 298
Rose on the Authority of Christian States over Kings 298
Treatise of Boucher in the same Spirit 299
Answered by Barclay 299
The Jesuits adopt these Tenets 299
Mariana, De Rege 299
Popular Theories in England 300
Hooker 300
Political Memoirs 301
La Noue 301
Lipsius 301
Botero 301
His Remarks on Population 301
Paruta 302
Bodin 302
Analysis of his Treatise called the Republic 302
Authority of Heads of Families 302
Domestic Servitude 303
Origin of Commonwealths 303
Privileges of Citizens 303
Nature of Sovereign Power 304
Forms of Government 304
Despotism and Monarchy 304
Aristocracy 305
Senates and Councils of State 305
Duties of Magistrates 305
Corporations 305
Slaves, part of the State 305
Rise and Fall of States 306
Causes of Revolution 306
Astrological Fancies of Bodin 306
Danger of sudden Changes 307
Judicial Power of the Sovereign 307
Toleration of Religions 307
Influence of Climate on Government 307
Means of obviating Inequality 308
Confiscations--Rewards 308
Fortresses 308
Necessity of Good Faith 309
Census of Property 309
Public Revenues 309
Taxation 309
Adulteration of Coin 310
Superiority of Monarchy 310
Conclusion of the Work 310
Bodin compared with Aristotle and Machiavel 310
And with Montesquieu 310
Golden Age of Jurisprudence 311
Cujacius 311
Eulogies bestowed upon him 311
Cujacius, an Interpreter of Law rather than a Lawyer 312
French Lawyers below Cujacius--Govca and others 312
Opponents of the Roman Law 313
Faber of Savoy 313
Anti-Tribonianus of Hottoman 313
Civil Law not countenanced in France 314
Turamini 314
Cau Law 314
Law of Nations; its early State 314
Francis a Victoria 314
His Opinions on Public Law 315
Ayala, on the Rights of War 315
Albericus Gentilis on Embassies 316
His Treatise on the Rights of War 317
CHAPTER XIV.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
General Character of Italian Poets in this Age 318
Their usual Faults 318
Their Beauties 318
Character given by Muratori 318
Poetry of Casa 318
Of Costanzo 319
Baldi 319
Caro 319
Odes of Celio Magus 319
Coldness of the Amatory Sonnets 320
Studied Imitation of Petrarch 320
Their Fondness for Description 320
Judgment of Italian Critics 320
Bernardino Rota 320
Gaspara Stampa; her Love for Collalto 321
Is ill-requited 322
Her Second Love 322
Style of Gaspara Stampa 322
La Nautica of Baldi 322
Amadigi of Bernardo Tasso 323
Satirical and burlesque Poetry; Aretin 323
Other burlesque Writers 324
Attempts at Latin Metres 324
Poetical Translations 324
Torquato Tasso 324
The Jerusalem excellent in Choice of Subject 324
Superior to Homer and Virgil in some Points 324
Its Characters 325
Excellence of its Style 325
Some Faults in it 325
Defects of the Poem 326
It indicates the peculiar Genius of Tasso 326
Tasso compared to Virgil 326
To Ariosto 326
To the Bolognese Painters 327
Poetry Cultivated under Charles and Philip 327
Luis de Leon 328
Herrera 328
General Tone of Castilian Poetry 329
Castillejo 329
Araucana of Ercilla 329
Many epic Poems in Spain 329
Camœns 330
Defects of the Lusiad 330
Its Excellencies 330
Mickle’s Translation 330
Celebrated Passage in the Lusiad 331
Minor Poems of Camœns 331
Ferreira 331
Spanish Ballads 331
French Poets numerous 332
Change in the Tone of French Poetry 333
Ronsard 333
Other French Poets 334
Du Bartas 334
Pibrac; Desportes 335
French Metre and Versification 335
General character of French Poetry 335
German Poetry 336
Paradise of Dainty Devices 336
Character of this Collection 336
Sackville’s Induction 336
Inferiority of Poets in early years of Elizabeth 337
Gascoyne 337
Spenser’s Shepherd’s Kalendar 337
Sydney’s Character of Contemporary Poets 338
Improvement soon after this Time 338
Relaxation of Moral Austerity 339
Serious Poetry 339
Poetry of Sydney 339
Epithalanium of Spenser 340
Poems of Shakspeare 340
Daniel and Drayton 340
Nosce Teipsum of Davies 340
Satires of Hall, Marston, and Donne 341
Modulation of English Verse 341
Translations of Homer by Chapman 341
Of Tasso by Fairfax 342
Employment of Ancient Measures 342
Number of Poets in this Age 342
Scots and English Ballads 343
The Faery Queen 343
Superiority of the First Book 343
The succeeding Books 344
Spenser’s Sense of Beauty 344
Compared to Ariosto 344
Style of Spenser 345
Inferiority of the latter Books 345
Allegories of the Faery Queen 346
Blemishes in the Diction 346
Admiration of the Faery Queen 346
General Parallel of Italian and English Poetry 347
Decline of Latin Poetry in Italy 347
Compensated in other Countries 347
Lotichius 347
Collections of Latin Poetry by Gruter 348
Characters of some Gallo-Latin Poets 348
Sammarthanus 349
Belgic Poets 349
Scots Poets--Buchanan 349
CHAPTER XV.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Tragedy 350
Pastoral Drama 351
Aminta of Tasso 351
Pastor Fido of Guarini 352
Italian Opera 352
The National Taste revives in the Spanish Drama 353
Lope de Vega 353
His Extraordinary Fertility 353
His Versification 354
His Popularity 354
Character of his Comedies 354
Tragedy of Don Sancho Ortiz 355
His Spiritual Plays 356
Numancia of Cervantes 356
French Theatre--Jodelle 357
Garnier 357
Comedies of Larivey 358
Theatres in Paris 358
English Stage 359
Gammar Gurton’s Needle 359
Gorboduc of Sackville 359
Preference given to the Irregular Form 359
First Theatres 360
Plays of Whetstone and Others 360
Marlowe and his Contemporaries 360
Tamburlaine 361
Blank Verse of Marlowe 361
Marlowe’s Jew of Malta 361
And Faustus 361
His Edward II. 361
Plays whence Henry VI. was taken 361
Peele 362
Greene 362
Other Writers of this Age 363
Heywood’s Woman Killed with Kindness 363
William Shakspeare 364
His First Writings for the Stage 364
Comedy of Errors 365
Love’s Labour Lost 365
Taming of the Shrew 365
Midsummer Night’s Dream 365
Its Machinery 366
Its Language 366
Romeo and Juliet 366
Its Plot 367
Its Beauties and Blemishes 367
The Characters 367
The Language 367
Second Period of Shakspeare 368
The Historical Plays 368
Merchant of Venice 368
As You Like It 369
Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour 369
CHAPTER XVI.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Writers 369
Casa 369
Tasso 370
Firenzuola 370
Character of Italian Prose 370
Italian Letter Writers 370
Davanzati’s Tacitus 371
Jordano Bruno 371
French Writers--Amyot 371
Montaigne; Du Vair 371
Satire Menippée 372
English Writers 372
Ascham 372
Euphues of Lilly 373
Its Popularity 373
Sydney’s Arcadia 374
His Defence of Poesie 374
Hooker 374
Character of Elizabethan Writers 374
State of Criticism 375
Scaliger’s Poetics 375
His Preference of Virgil to Homer 375
His Critique on Modern Latin Poets 376
Critical Influence of the Academics 376
Dispute of Caro and Castelvetro 377
Castelvetro on Aristotle’s Poetics 377
Severity of Castelvetro’s Criticism 377
Ercolano of Varchi 378
Controversy about Dante 378
Academy of Florence 378
Salviati’s Attack on Tasso 379
Pinciano’s Art of Poetry 379
French Treatises of Criticism 379
Wilson’s Art of Rhetorique 379
Gascoyne; Webbe 380
Puttenham’s Art of Poesie 380
Sydney’s Defence of Poesy 380
Novels of Bandello 380
Of Cinthio 381
Of the Queen of Navarre 381
Spanish Romances of Chivalry 381
Diana of Monte-Mayor 382
Novels in the Picaresque Style 382
Guzman d’Alfarache 382
Las Guerras de Granada 383
Sydney’s Arcadia 383
Its Character 383
Inferiority of other English Fictions 384
CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE FROM 1500 TO 1600.
Tartaglia and Cardan 385
Algebra of Pelletier 385
Record’s Whetstone of Wit 385
Vieta 385
His Discoveries 386
Geometers of this Period 388
Joachim Rhœticus 388
Copernican Theory 388
Tycho Brahe 389
His System 389
Gregorian Calendar 390
Optics 390
Mechanics 390
Statics of Stevinus 391
Hydrostatics 392
Gilbert on the Magnet 392
Gesner’s Zoology 392
Its Character by Cuvier 392
Gesner’s Arrangement 393
His Additions to known Quadrupeds 393
Belon 394
Salviani and Rondelet’s Ichthyology 394
Aldrovandus 394
Botany--Turner 395
Maranta--Botanical Gardens 395
Gesner 396
Dodœns 396
Lobel 396
Clusius 396
Cæsalpin 396
Dalechamps--Bauhin 397
Gerard’s Herbal 397
Anatomy--Fallopius 397
Eustachius 397
Coiter 398
Columbus 398
Circulation of the Blood 398
Medicinal Science 398
Syriac Version of New Testament 399
Hebrew Critics 399
Its Study in England 399
Arabic begins to be Studied 399
Collection of Voyages by Ramusio 400
Curiosity they awakened 400
Other Voyages 401
Accounts of China 401
India and Russia 401
English Discoveries in the Northern Seas 401
Geographical Books--Ortelius 401
Guicciardini 402
French Memoirs 403
Universities in Italy 403
In other Countries 403
Libraries 403
Collections of Antiquities in Italy 404
Pinelli 404
Italian Academies 405
Society of Antiquaries in England 405
New Books and Catalogues of them 406
Literary Correspondence 406
Bibliographical Works 406
Restraints on the Press 407
Index Expurgatorius 407
Its Effects 407
Restrictions in England 407
Latin more employed on this account 408
Influence of Literature 408
CHAPTER XVIII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Learning of 17th Century less Philological 409
Popularity of Comenius 409
Decline of Greek Learning 410
Casaubon 410
Viger de Idiotismis 411
Weller’s Greek Grammar 411
Labbe and Others 411
Salmasius de Lingua Hellenistica 412
Greek Editions--Savile’s Chrysostom 412
Greek Learning in England 413
Latin Editions--Torrentius 413
Gruter 413
Heinsius 413
Grotius 414
Rutgersius--Reinesius--Barthius 414
Other Critics--English 414
Salmasius 415
Good Writers of Latin 415
Scioppius 416
His Philosophical Grammar 416
His Infamia Famiani 416
Judicium de Stylo Historico 416
Gerard Vossius, de Vitiis Sermonis 417
His Aristarchus 417
Progress of Latin Style 418
Gruter’s Collection of Inscriptions 418
Assisted by Scaliger 419
Works on Roman Antiquity 419
Geography of Cluversius 420
Meursius 420
Ubbo Emmius 420
Chronology of Lydiat--Calvisius 420
Petavius 421
Character of this Work 421
CHAPTER XIX.
HISTORY Of THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Temporal Supremacy of Rome 422
Contest with Venice 423
Father Paul Sarpi 423
History of Council of Trent 424
Gallican Liberties--Richter 424
Perron 425
Decline of Papal Power 425
Unpopularity of the Jesuits 426
Richelieu’s Care of Gallican Liberties 426
Controversy of Catholics and Protestants 426
Increased respect for the Fathers 426
Especially in England--Laud 427
Defections to the Catholic Church 427
Wavering of Casaubon 428
And of Grotius 429
Calixtus 434
His Attempts at Concord 434
High Church Party in England 435
Daillé on the Right Use of the Fathers 435
Chillingworth’s Religion of Protestants 436
Character of this Work 436
Hales on Schism 438
Controversies on Grace and Free will--Augustinian Scheme 438
Semi-pelagian Hypothesis 439
Tenets of the Reformers 439
Rise of Arminianism 440
Episcopius 440
His Writings 440
Their Spirit and Tendency 440
Great Latitude allowed by them 441
Progress of Arminianism 441
Cameron 441
Rise of Jansenism 441
Socinus--Volkelius 442
Crellius--Ruarus 442
Erastianism maintained by Hooker 443
And Grotius 444
His Treatise on Ecclesiastical Power of the State 444
Remark upon this Theory 446
Toleration of Religious Tenets 446
Claimed by the Arminians 446
By the Independents 447
And by Jeremy Taylor 447
His Liberty of Prophesying 447
Boldness of his Doctrines 447
His Notions of Uncertainty in Theological Tenets 448
His low Opinion of the Fathers 448
Difficulty of Finding out Truth 449
Grounds of Toleration 449
Inconsistency of One Chapter 450
His General Defence of Toleration 450
Effect of this Treatise 451
Its Defects 451
Great Erudition of this Period 452
Usher--Petavius 452
Sacred Criticism 452
Grotius--Coccejus 452
English Commentators 453
Style of Preaching 453
English Sermons 453
Of Donne 454
Of Jeremy Taylor 454
Devotional Writings of Taylor and Hall 454
In the Roman 455
And Lutheran Church 455
Infidelity of some Writers--Charron--Vanini 455
Lord Herbert of Cherbury 456
Grotius de Veritate 457
English Translation of the Bible 457
Its Style 457
CHAPTER XX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Subjects of this Chapter 458
Aristotelians and Ramists 458
No improvement till near the End of the Century 459
Methods of the Universities 459
Scholastic Writers 459
Treatises on Logic 460
Campanella 460
His Theory taken from Telesio 460
Notion of Universal Sensibility 461
His Imagination and Eloquence 461
His Works Published by Admai 462
Basson 463
Berigard 463
Magnen 463
Paracelsists 463
And Theosophists 463
Fludd 464
Jacob Behmen 464
Lord Herbert de Veritate 464
His Axioms 465
Conditions of Truth 465
Instinctive Truths 466
Internal Perceptions 466
Five Notions of Natural Religion 466
Remarks of Gassendi on Herbert 467
Gassendi’s Defence of Epicurus 468
His chief Works after 1650 468
Preparation for the Philosophy of Lord Bacon 468
His Plan of Philosophy 468
Time of its Conception 469
Instauratio Magna 470
First Part--Partitiones Scientiarum 470
Second Part--Novum Organum 470
Third Part--Natural History 470
Fourth Part--Scala Intellectûs 471
Fifth Part--Anticipationes Philosophiæ 471
Sixth Part--Philosophia Secunda 471
Course of studying Lord Bacon 472
Nature of the Baconian Induction 472
His Dislike of Aristotle 474
His Method much required 474
Its Objects 474
Sketch of the Treatise De Augmentis 474
History 474
Poetry 475
Fine Passage on Poetry 475
Natural Theology and Metaphysics 475
Form of Bodies might sometimes be inquired into 475
Final Causes too much slighted 476
Man not included by him in Physics 476
Man--in Body and Mind 476
Logic 476
Extent given it by Bacon 476
Grammar and Rhetoric 477
Ethics 477
Politics 477
Theology 478
Desiderata enumerated by him 478
Novum Organum--First Book 478
Fallacies--Idola 478
Confounded with Idols 478
Second Book of Novum Organum 479
Confidence of Bacon 479
Almost justified of late 480
But should be kept within Bounds 481
Limits to our Knowledge by Sense 481
Inductive Logic--whether confined to Physics 481
Baconian Philosophy built on Observation and Experiment 482
Advantages of the latter 482
Sometimes applicable to Philosophy of Human Mind 483
Less so to Politics and Morals 483
Induction less conclusive on these Subjects 483
Reasons for this Difference 484
Considerations on the other Side 484
Result of the whole 485
Bacon’s Aptitude for Moral Subjects 486
Comparison of Bacon and Galileo 487
His Prejudice against Mathematics 488
Bacon’s Excess of Wit 488
Fame of Bacon on the Continent 489
Early Life of Descartes 491
His beginning to philosophise 491
He retires to Holland 491
His Publications 492
He begins by doubting all 492
His First Step in Knowledge 492
His Mind not Sceptical 493
He arrives at more Certainty 493
His Proof of a Deity 493
Another Proof of it 494
His Deductions from this 494
Primary and Secondary Qualities 495
Objections made to his Meditations 495
Theory of Memory and Imagination 496
Seat of Soul in Pineal Gland 497
Gassendi’s Attacks on the Meditations 497
Superiority of Descartes 497
Stewart’s Remarks on Descartes 498
Paradoxes of Descartes 499
His Just Notions and Definitions 500
His Notion of Substances 501
Not Quite Correct 501
His Notions of Intuitive Truth 501
Treatise on Art of Logic 502
Merits of his Writings 502
His Notions of Free will 502
Fame of his System, and Attacks upon it 503
Controversy with Voet 503
Charges of Plagiarism 504
Recent Increase of his Fame 505
Metaphysical Treatises of Hobbes 505
His Theory of Sensation 506
Coincident with Descartes 506
Imagination and Memory 506
Discourse or Train of Imagination 507
Experience 507
Unconceivableness of Infinity 507
Origin of Language 508
His Political Theory interferes 508
Necessity of Speech exaggerated 509
Use of Names 509
Names Universal not Realities 509
How imposed 510
The Subject continued 510
Names differently imposed 511
Knowledge 511
Reasoning 512
False Reasoning 512
Its frequency 513
Knowledge of Fact not derived from Reasoning 514
Belief 514
Chart of Science 515
Analysis of Passions 515
Good and Evil relative Terms 515
His Paradoxes 515
His Notion of Love 516
Curiosity 516
Difference of Intellectual Capacities 516
Wit and Fancy 517
Differences in the Passions 517
Madness 517
Unmeaning Language 517
Manners 517
Ignorances and Prejudice 518
His Theory of Religion 518
Its supposed Sources 518
CHAPTER XXI.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE
FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Casuistical Writers 521
Importance of Confession 521
Necessity of Rules for the Confessor 521
Increase of Casuistical Literature 521
Distinction of subjective and objective Morality 522
Directory Office of the Confessor 522
Difficulties of Casuistry 522
Strict and Lax Schemes of it 523
Convenience of the latter 523
Favoured by the Jesuits 523
The Causes of this 523
Extravagance of the strict Casuists 524
Opposite Faults of Jesuits 524
Suarez, De Legibus 524
Titles of his Ten Books 524
Heads of the Second Book 525
Character of such Scholastic Treatises 525
Quotations of Suarez 525
His Definition of Eternal Law 526
Whether God is a Legislator 526
Whether God could permit or commend wrong Actions 527
English Casuists--Perkins--Hall 527
Selden, De Jure Naturali Juxta Hebræos 528
Jewish Theory of Natural Law 528
Seven Precepts of the Sons of Noah 528
Character of Selden’s Work 528
Grotius and Hobbes 528
Charron on Wisdom 529
La Mothe le Vayer--his Dialogues 529
Bacon’s Essays 529
Their Excellence 530
Feltham’s Resolves 530
Browne’s Religio Medici 531
Selden’s Table Talk 532
Osborn’s Advice to his Son 532
John Valentine Andrax 532
Abandonment of Anti-Monarchical Theories 533
Political Literature becomes historical 533
Bellenden De Statu 534
Campanella’s Politics 534
La Mothe le Vayer 534
Naude’s Coups d’Etat 534
Patriarchal Theory of Government 534
Refuted by Suarez 535
His Opinion of Law 535
Bacon 536
Political Economy 536
Serra on the Means of obtaining Money without Mines 537
His Causes of Wealth 537
His Praise of Venice 537
Low Rate of Exchange not essential to wealth 587
Hobbes.--His Political Works 538
Analysis of his Three Treatises 538
Civil Jurists of this period 543
Suarez on Laws 544
Grotius--De Jure Belli et Pacis 544
Success of this Work 544
Its Originality 545
Its Motive and Object 545
His Authorities 545
Foundation of Natural Law 546
Positive Law 546
Perfect and Imperfect Rights 546
Lawful Cases of War 546
Resistance by Subjects unlawful 547
All Men naturally have Right of War 547
Right of Self-Defence 548
Its Origin and Limitations 548
Right of Occupancy 549
Relinquishment of it 549
Right over Persons--By Generation 549
By Consent 549
In Marriage 549
In Commonwealths 549
Right of Alienating Subjects 549
Alienation by Testament 550
Rights of Property by Positive Law 550
Extinction of Rights 550
Some Casuistical Questions 550
Promises 550
Contracts 551
Considered ethically 551
Promissory Oaths 552
Engagements of Kings towards Subjects 552
Public Treaties 552
Their Interpretation 553
Obligation to repair Injury 553
Rights by Law of Nations 554
Those of Ambassadors 554
Right of Sepulture 554
Punishments 554
Their Responsibility 555
Insufficient Causes of War 556
Duty of avoiding it 556
And Expediency 556
War for the sake of other Subjects 556
Allies 556
Strangers 556
None to Serve in an Unjust War 556
Rights in War 557
Use of Deceit 557
Rules and Customs of Nations 557
Reprisals 557
Declarations of War 557
Rights by law of nations over Enemies 558
Prisoners become Slaves 558
Rights of Postliminium 558
Moral Limitation of Rights in War 558
Moderation required as to spoil 559
And as to Prisoners 559
Also in Conquest 559
And in Restitution to right Owners 559
Promises to Enemies and Pirates 559
Treaties concluded by competent Authority 560
Matters relating to them 561
Truces and Conventions 561
Those of Private persons 561
Objections to Grotius made by Paley unreasonable 561
Reply of Mackintosh 561
Censures of Stewart 562
Answer to them 562
Grotius vindicated against Rousseau 565
His Arrangement 565
His Defects 565
CHAPTER XXII.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Low Estimation of the Seicentisti 566
Not quite so great as formerly 566
Praise of them by Rubbi 566
Also by Salfi 566
Adone of Marini 567
Its Character 567
And Popularity 567
Secchia Rapita of Tassoni 568
Chiabrera 569
His Followers 569
The Styles of Spanish Poetry 570
The Romances 570
The Brothers Argensola 570
Villegas 571
Quevedo 571
Defects of Taste in Spanish Verse 571
Pedantry and far-fetched Allusions 572
Gongora 572
The Schools formed by him 573
Malherbe 573
Criticisms upon his Poetry 574
Satires of Regnier 574
Racan--Maynard 574
Voiture 574
Sarrasin 575
Low state of German Literature 575
Literary Societies 575
Opitz 575
His Followers 576
Dutch Poetry 576
Spiegel 576
Hooft-Cats-Vondel 577
Danish Poetry 577
English Poets numerous in this age 577
Phineas Fletcher 577
Giles Fletcher 578
Philosophical Poetry 578
Lord Brooke 578
Denham’s Cooper’s Hill 579
Poets called Metaphysical 579
Donne 580
Crashaw 580
Cowley 580
Johnson’s Character of him 580
Narrative Poets--Daniel 580
Drayton’s Polyolbion 581
Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals 581
Sir John Beaumont 582
Davenant’s Gondibert 582
Sonnets of Shakspeare 582
The person whom they address 583
Sonnets of Drummond and others 584
Carew 584
Ben Jonson 585
Wither 585
Habington 585
Earl of Pembroke 585
Suckling 586
Lovelace 586
Herrick 586
Milton 586
His Comus 586
Lycidas 587
Allegro and Penseroso 587
Ode on the Nativity 588
His Sonnets 588
Anonymous Poetry 588
Latin Poets of France 588
In Germany and Italy 588
In Holland--Heinsius 589
Casimir Sarbievius 589
Barlæus 589
Balde--Greek Poems of Heinsius 590
Latin Poets of Scotland--Jonston’s Psalms 590
Owen’s Epigrams 590
Alabaster’s Roxana 590
May’s Supplement to Lucan 590
Milton’s Latin Poems 591
CHAPTER XXIII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of the Italian Theatre 591
Filli de Sciro 592
Translations of Spanish Dramas 592
Extemporaneous Comedy 593
Spanish Stage 593
Calderon--Number of his Pieces 593
His Comedies 593
La Vida es Sueno 594
A Secreto agravio secreta vengança 595
Style of Calderon 595
His Merits sometimes overrated 596
Plays of Hardy 596
The Cid 597
Style of Corneille 598
Les Horaces 598
Cimia 598
Polyeucte 599
Rodogune 599
Pompey 599
Heraclius 599
Nicomède 600
Faults and Beauties of Corneille 600
Le Menteur 600
Other French Tragedies 600
Wenceslas of Rotron 600
Popularity of the Stage under Elizabeth 601
Number of Theatres 601
Encouraged by James 601
General Taste for the Stage 601
Theatres closed by the Parliament 602
Shakspeare’s Twelfth Night 602
Merry Wives of Windsor 603
Measure for Measure 604
Lear 604
Timon of Athens 604
Pericles 605
His Roman Tragedies--Julius Cæsar 606
Antony and Cleopatra 606
Coriolanus 606
His Retirement and Death 607
Greatness of his Genius 607
His Judgment 607
His Obscurity 608
His Popularity 608
Critics on Shakspeare 609
Ben Jonson 609
The Alchemist 609
Volpone, or The Fox 610
The Silent Woman 610
Sad Shepherd 611
Beaumont and Fletcher 611
Corrupt State of their Text 611
The Maid’s Tragedy 611
Philaster 612
King and no King 613
The Elder Brother 613
The Spanish Curate 613
The Custom of the Country 613
The Loyal Subject 613
Beggar’s Bush 613
The Scornful Lady 614
Valentinian 614
The Two Noble Kinsmen 615
The Faithful Shepherdess 615
Rule a Wife, and have a Wife 616
Some other Plays 616
Origin of Fletcher’s Plays 616
Defects of their plots 616
Their Sentiments and Style Dramatic 617
Their Characters 617
Their Tragedies 617
Inferior to their Comedies 618
Their Female Characters 618
Massinger--Nature of his Dramas 619
His Delineations of Character 619
His Subjects 619
Beauty of His Style 620
Inferiority of his Comic Powers 620
Some of his Tragedies particularized 620
And of his other Plays 620
Ford 621
Shirley 621
Heywood 622
Webster 622
His Duchess of Malfy 622
Vittoria Corombona 622
CHAPTER XXIV.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of Taste in Italy 623
Style of Galileo 624
Bentivoglio 624
Boccalini’s News from Parnassus 624
His Pietra del Paragone 625
Terrante Pallavicino 625
Dictionary Delia Crusca 625
Grammatical Works--Buonmattei--Bartoli 626
Tassoni’s Remarks on Petrarch 626
Galileo’s Remarks on Tasso 626
Sforza Pallavicino 626
And other Critical Writers 626
Prolusiones of Strada 627
Spanish Prose--Gracian 627
French Prose--Du Vair 627
Balzac 628
Character of his Writings 628
His Letters 628
Voiture--Hotel Rambouillet 629
Establishment of French Academy 630
Its objects and Constitution 630
It publishes a Critique on the Cid 631
Vaugelas’s Remarks on the French Language 631
La Mothe le Vayer 632
Legal Speeches of Patru 632
And of Le Maistre 632
Improvement in English Style 633
Earl of Essex 633
Knolles’s History of the Turks 634
Raleigh’s History of the World 635
Daniel’s History of England 635
Bacon 635
Milton 636
Clarendon 636
The Icon Basilice 636
Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy 637
Earle’s Characters 637
Overbury’s Characters 637
Jonson’s Discoveries 637
Publication of Don Quixote 638
Its Reputation 638
New Views of its Design 638
Probably erroneous 638
Difference between the two Parts 639
Excellence of this Romance 639
Minor Novels of Cervantes 639
Other Novels--Spanish 639
And Italian 639
French Romances--Astrée 639
Heroic Romances--Gomberville 640
Calprenède 640
Scuderi 641
Argenis of Barclay 641
His Euphormis 643
Campanella’s City of the Sun 643
Few Books of Fiction in England 643
Mundus Alter et Idem of Hall 644
Godwin’s Journey to the Moon 644
Howell’s Dodona’s Grove 644
Adventures of Baron de Fænesle 644
CHAPTER XXV.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
State of Science in 16th Century 645
Tediousness of Calculations 645
Napier’s Invention of Logarithms 645
Their Nature 645
Property of Numbers discovered by Stifelius 645
Extended to Magnitudes 646
By Napier 646
Tables of Napier and Briggs 646
Kepler’s New Geometry 647
Its Difference from the Ancient 647
Adopted by Galileo 648
Extended by Cavalieri 648
Applied to the Ratios of Solids 648
Problem of the Cycloid 648
Progress of Algebra 649
Briggs--Girard 649
Harriott 649
Descartes 650
His Application of Algebra to Curves 650
Suspected Plagiarism from Harriot 650
Fermat 651
Algebraic Geometry not successful at first 652
Astronomy--Kepler 652
Conjectures as to Comets 652
Galileo’s Discovery of Jupiter’s Satellites 653
Other Discoveries by him 653
Spots of the Sun discovered 653
Copernican System held by Galileo 654
His Dialogues, and Persecution 654
Descartes alarmed by this 655
Progress of Copernican System 655
Descartes denies General Gravitation 655
Cartesian Theory of the World 655
Transits of Mercury and Venus 656
Laws of Mechanics 656
Statics of Galileo 657
His Dynamics 657
Mechanics of Descartes 658
Law of Motion laid down by Descartes 658
Also those of Compound Forces 659
Other Discoveries in Mechanics 659
In Hydrostatics and Pneumatics 659
Optics--Discoveries of Kepler 660
Invention of the Telescope 660
Of the Microscope 660
Antonio de Dominis 660
Dioptrics of Descartes--Law of Refraction 661
Disputed by Fermat 661
Curves of Descartes 661
Theory of the Rainbow 661
CHAPTER XXVI.
HISTORY OF SOME OTHER PROVINCES OF LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Aldrovandus 662
Clusius 662
Rio and Marcgraf 662
Jonston 662
Fabricius on the Language of Brutes 663
Botany--Columna 664
John and Gaspar Bauhin 664
Parkinson 664
Valves of the Veins discovered 665
Theory of the Blood’s Circulation 665
Sometimes ascribed to Servetus 665
To Columbus 666
And to Cæsalpin 666
Generally unknown before Harvey 667
His Discovery 667
Unjustly doubted to be Original 667
Harvey’s Treatise on Generation 668
Lacteals discovered by Asellius 668
Optical Discoveries of Scheiner 669
Medicine--Van Helmont 669
Diffusion of Hebrew 669
Language not studied in the best method 669
The Buxtorfs 670
Vowel Points rejected by Cappel 670
Hebrew Scholars 671
Chaldee and Syriac 671
Arabic 671
Erpenius 671
Golius 671
Other Eastern Languages 672
Purchas’s Pilgrim 672
Olearius and Pietro della Valle 672
Lexicon of Ferrari 672
Maps of Blaew 672
Davila and Bentivoglio 673
Mendoza’s Wars of Granada 673
Mezeray 673
English Historians 673
English Histories 673
Universities 673
Bodleian Library founded 674
Casaubon’s Account of Oxford 674
Catalogue of Bodleian Library 674
Continental Libraries 675
Italian Academies 675
The Lincei 675
Prejudice for Antiquity diminished 676
Browne’s Vulgar Errors 677
Life and Character of Peiresc 677
CHAPTER XXVII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
James Frederic Gronovius 678
James Gronovius 679
Grævius 679
Isaac Vossius 679
Decline of German Learning 679
Spanheim 679
Jesuit Colleges in France 679
Port-Royal Writers--Lancelot 679
Latin Writers--Perizonius 680
Delphin Editions 680
Le Fevre and the Daciers 680
Henry Valois--Complaints of Decay of Learning 680
English Learning--Duport 681
Greek not much studied 681
Gataker’s Cinnus and Antoninus 681
Stanley’sÆschylus 682
Other English Philologers 682
Bentley 682
His Epistle to Mill 682
Dissertation on Phalaris 682
Disadvantages of Scholars in that Age 683
Thesauri of Grævius and of Gronovius 683
Fabretti 684
Numismatics, Spanheim--Vaillant 684
Chronology--Usher 684
Pezron 685
Marsham 685
CHAPTER XXVIII.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Decline of Papal Influence 685
Dispute of Louis XIV. with Innocent XI. 686
Four Articles of 1682 686
Dupin on the ancient Discipline 686
Dupin’s Ecclesiastical Library 687
Fleury’s Ecclesiastical History 687
His Dissertations 687
Protestant Controversy in France 688
Bossuet’s Exposition of Catholic Faith 688
His Conference with Claude 688
Correspondence with Molanus and Leibnitz 689
His Variations of Protestant Churches 690
Anglican Writings against Popery 690
Taylor’s Dissuasive 690
Barrow--Stillingfleet 690
Jansenius 691
Condemnation of his Augustinus in France 691
And at Rome 691
The Jansenists take a Distinction 692
And are Persecuted 692
Progress of Arminianism 692
Courcelles 693
Limborch 693
Le Clerc 693
Sancroft’s Fur Prædestinatus 693
Arminianism in England 694
Bull’s Harmonia Apostolica 694
Hammond--Locke--Wilkins 694
Socinians in England 695
Bull’s Defensio Fidei Nicenæ 695
Not Satisfactory to all 695
Mystics 696
Fenelon 696
Change in the Character of Theological Literature 696
Freedom of many Writings 696
Thoughts of Pascal 697
Vindications of Christianity 699
Progress of Tolerant Principles 700
Bayle’s Philosophical Commentary 700
Locke’s Letter on Toleration 700
French Sermons 701
Bourdaloue 701
Compared with Bossuet 702
Funeral Discourses of Bossuet 702
Fléchier 703
English Sermons--Barrow 703
South 704
Tillotson 704
Expository Theology 704
Pearson on the Creed 704
Simon’s Critical Histories 705
CHAPTER XXIX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Aristotelian Metaphysics 705
Their Decline. Thomas White 706
Logic 706
Stanley’s History of Philosophy 707
Gale’s Court of Gentiles 707
Cudworth’s Intellectual System 707
Its object 708
Sketch of it 708
His plastic nature 708
His account of old Philosophy 708
His Arguments against Atheism 709
More 709
Gassendi 710
His Logic 710
His Theory of Ideas 710
And of the Nature of the Soul 710
Distinguishes Ideas of Reflection 711
Also Intellect from Imagination 711
His Philosophy misunderstood by Stewart 712
Bernier’s Epitome of Gassendi 713
Process of Cartesian Philosophy 713
La Forge--Regis 714
Huet’s Censure of Cartesianism 715
Port-Royal Logic 716
Malebranche 717
His Style 717
Sketch of his Theory 717
Character of Malebranche 724
Compared with Pascal 724
Arnauld on True and False ideas 725
Norris 725
Pascal 725
Spinosa’s Ethics 726
Its general Originality 726
View of his Metaphysical Theory 727
Spinosa’s Theory of action and Passion 731
Character of Spinosism 732
Glanvil’s Scepsis Scientifica 733
His Plus Ultra 734
Dalgarno 735
Wilkins 736
Locke on Human Understanding 736
Its merits 736
Its Defects 737
Origin of Ideas according to Locke 737
Vague Use of the Word Idea 738
An Error as to Geometrical Figure 739
His Notions as to the Soul 740
And its Immateriality 740
His Love of Truth and Originality 741
Defended in two cases 742
His View of Lunatic Ideas 742
General Praise 743
Locke’s Conduct of Understanding 743
CHAPTER XXX.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE
FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Casuistry of the Jesuits 744
Pascal’s Provincial Letters 744
Their Truth questioned by some 744
Taylor’s Ductor Dubitantium 745
Its Character and Defects 745
Cudworth’s immutable Morality 745
Nicole--La Placette 746
Other Writers 746
Moral System of Spinosa 746
Cumberland’s De Legibus Naturæ 747
Analysis of Prolegomena 748
His Theory expanded afterwards 749
Remarks on Cumberland’s Theory 752
Puffendorf’s Law of Nature and Nations 753
Analysis of this Work 754
Puffendorf and Paley compared 757
Rochefoucault 757
La Bruyère 758
Education--Milton’s Tractrate 758
Locke on Education--Its merits 759
And Defects 759
Fenelon on Female Education 761
Puffendorf’s Theory of Politics 762
Politics of Spinosa 764
His Theory of a Monarchy 766
Amelot de la Houssaye 766
Harrington’s Oceana 766
Patriarcha of Filmer 767
Sydney’s Discourses on Government 767
Locke on Government 768
Observations on this Treatise 771
Avis auz Refugiéz, perhaps by Bayle 772
Political Economist’s 772
Mun on Foreign Trade 773
Child on Trade 773
Locke on the Coin 773
Statistical Tracts 774
Works of Leibnitz on Roman Law 775
Civil Jurists--Godefroy--Domat 775
Noodt of Usury 776
Law of Nations--Puffendorf 776
CHAPTER XXXI.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Improved Tone of Italian Poetry 776
Filicaja 777
Guidi 777
Menzini 778
Salvator Rosa--Redi 778
Other Poets 778
Christina’s Patronage of Letters 778
Society of Arcadians 778
La Fontaine 779
Character of his Fables 779
Boileau: His Epistles 780
His Art of Poetry 780
Comparison with Horace 780
The Lutrin 780
General Character of his Poetry 780
Lyric Poetry lighter than before 781
Benserade 781
Chaulieu 781
Pastoral Poetry 781
Segrais 781
Deshouliéres 781
Fontenelle 782
Bad Epic Poems 782
German Poetry 782
Waller 782
Butler’s Hudibras 783
Paradise Lost--Choice of Subject 783
Open to some Difficulties 783
Its Arrangement 783
Characters of Adam and Eve 784
He owes less to Homer than the Tragedians 784
Compared with Dante 784
Elevation of his Style 785
His Blindness 786
His Passion for Music 786
Faults in Paradise Lost 786
Its Progress to Fame 786
Paradise Regained 787
Samson Agonistes 787
Dryden--His earlier Poems 787
Absalom and Achitophel 788
Mac Flecknoe 788
The Hind and Panther 789
Its Singular Fable 789
Its Reasoning 789
The Fables 789
His Odes--Alexander’s Feast 790
His Translation of Virgil 790
Decline of Poetry from the Restoration 790
Some Minor Poets enumerated 790
Latin Poets of Italy 791
Ceva 791
Sergardi 791
Of France--Quillet 791
Menage 792
Rapin on Gardens 792
Santeul 793
Latin Poetry in England 793
CHAPTER XXXII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Italian and Spanish Drama 793
Racine’s first Tragedies 793
Andromaque 794
Britannicus 795
Berenice 795
Bajazet 795
Mithridate 796
Iphigénie 796
Phédre 797
Esther 797
Athalie 797
Racine’s Female Characters 798
Racine compared with Corneille 798
Beauty of his Style 798
Thomas Corneille--His Ariane 799
Manlius of La Fosse 799
Molière 799
L’Avare 799
L’Ecole des Femmes 800
Le Misanthrope 800
Les Femmes Savantes 801
Tartuffe 801
Bourgeois Gentilhomme--George Dandin 801
Character of Molière 802
Les Plaideurs of Racine 802
Regnard--Le Joueur 802
His Other Plays 803
Quinault--Boursault 803
Dancourt 803
Brueys 804
Operas of Quinault 804
Revival of the English Theatre 804
Change of Public Taste 804
Its Causes 805
Heroic Tragedies of Dryden 805
His later Tragedies 805
Don Sebastian 806
Spanish Friar 806
Otway 806
Southern 807
Lee 807
Congreve 807
Comedies of Charles II.’s Reign 807
Wycherley 808
Improvement after the Revolution 808
Congreve 808
Love for Love 808
His other Comedies 808
Farquhar--Vanbrugh 809
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Low State of Literature in Italy 809
Crescimbeni 810
Age of Louis XIV. in France 810
Fontenelle--his Character 810
His Dialogues of the Dead 811
Those of Fenelon 811
Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds 811
His History of Oracles 811
St. Evremond 812
Madame de Sevigné 812
The French Academy 812
French Grammars 813
Bouhour’s Entretiens d’Ariste et d’Eugène 813
Attacked by Barbier d’Ancour 814
La Manière de Bien Penser 815
Rapin’s Reflections on Eloquence and Poetry 815
His Parallel’s of Great Men 815
Bossu on Epic Poetry 816
Fontenelle’s Critical Writings 816
Preference of French Language to Latin 816
General Superiority of Ancients disputed 816
Charles Perrault 816
Fontenelle 817
Boileau’s Defence of Antiquity 817
First Reviews--Journal des Sçavans 817
Reviews Established by Bayle 818
Reviews Established by Le Clerc 818
Leipsic Acts 819
Bayle’s Thoughts on the Comet 819
His Dictionary 819
Baillet--Morhof 820
The Ana 820
English Style in this Period 820
Hobbes 821
Cowley 821
Evelyn 821
Dryden 821
His Essay on Dramatic Poesy 822
Improvements in his Style 823
His Critical Character 823
Rymer on Tragedy 823
Sir William Temple’s Essays 824
Style of Locke 824
Sir George Mackenzie’s Essays 824
Andrew Fletcher 824
Walton’s Complete Angler 824
Wilkins’ New World 824
Antiquity defended by Temple 825
Wotton’s Reflection’s 825
Quevedo’s Visions 825
French Heroic Romances 826
Novels of Madame La Fayette 826
Scarron’s Roman Comique 826
Cyrano de Bergerac 827
Segrais 827
Perrault 827
Hamilton 827
Télémaque of Fenelon 827
Deficiency of English Romances 828
Pilgrim’s Progress 828
Turkish Spy 829
Chiefly of English Origin 830
Swift’s Tale of a Tub 831
CHAPTER XXXIV.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND OTHER LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Reasons for omitting Mathematics 831
Academy del Cimento 831
Royal Society 832
Academy of Sciences at Paris 832
State of Chemistry 832
Becker 833
Boyle 833
His Metaphysical Works 833
Extract from one of them 833
His Merits in Physics and Chemistry 834
General Character of Boyle 834
Of Hooke and Others 834
Lemery 835
Slow Progress of Zoology 835
Before Ray 835
His Synopsis of Quadrupeds 835
Merits of this Work 835
Redi 836
Swammerdam 836
Lister 836
Comparative Anatomy 836
Botany 837
Jungius 837
Morison 837
Ray 837
Rivinus 838
Tournefort 838
Vegetable Physiology 839
Grew 839
His Anatomy of Plants 840
He discovers the Sexual System 840
Camerarius confirms this 840
Predecessors of Grew 840
Malpighi 840
Early Notions of Geology 840
Burnet’s Theory of Earth 840
Other Geologists 841
Protogæa of Leibnitz 841
Circulation of Blood Established 842
Willis--Vieussens 842
Malpighi 842
Other Anatomists 842
Medical Theories 843
Polyglott of Walton 843
Hottinger 844
Spencer 844
Bochart 844
Pococke 844
D’Herbelot 844
Hyde 844
Maps of the Sansons 844
De Lisle’s Map of the World 845
Voyages and Travels 845
Historians 845
De Solis 845
Memoirs of De Retz 845
Bossuet on Universal History 846
English Historical Works 846
Burnet 846
General Character of 17th Century 846
Conclusion 847
PREFACE.
The advantages of such a synoptical view of literature as displays its
various departments in their simultaneous condition through an extensive
period, and in their mutual dependency, seem too manifest to be
disputed. And, as we possess little of this kind in our own language, I
have been induced to undertake that to which I am in some respects, at
least, very unequal, but which no more capable person, as far as I could
judge, was likely to perform. In offering to the public this
introduction to the literary history of three centuries--for I cannot
venture to give it a title of more pretension--it is convenient to state
my general secondary sources of information, exclusive of the
acquaintance I possess with original writers; and, at the same time, by
showing what has already been done, and what is left undone, to furnish
a justification of my own undertaking.
The history of literature belongs to modern, and chiefly to almost
recent times. The nearest approach to it that the ancients have left us
is contained in a single chapter of Quintilian, the first of the tenth
book, wherein he passes rapidly over the names and characters of the
poets, orators, and historians of Greece and Rome. This, however, is but
a sketch; and the valuable work of Diogenes Laertius preserves too
little of chronological order to pass for a history of ancient
philosophy, though it has supplied much of the materials for all that
has been written on the subject.
In the sixteenth century, the great increase of publications, and the
devotion to learning which distinguished that period, might suggest the
scheme of a universal literary history. Conrad Gesner, than whom no one,
by extent and variety of erudition, was more fitted for the labour,
appears to have framed a plan of this kind. What he has published, the
Bibliotheca Universalis, and the Pandectæ Universales, are, taken
together, the materials that might have been thrown into an historical
form; the one being an alphabetical catalogue of authors and their
writings; the other a digested and minute index to all departments of
knowledge, in twenty-one books, each divided into titles, with short
references to the texts of works on every head in his comprehensive
classification. The order of time is therefore altogether disregarded.
Possevin, an Italian Jesuit, made somewhat a nearer approach to this in
his Bibliotheca Selecta, published at Rome in 1593. Though his
partitions are rather encyclopædic than historical, and his method,
especially in the first volume, is chiefly argumentative, he gives under
each chapter a nearly chronological catalogue of authors, and sometimes
a short account of their works.
Lord Bacon, in the second book De Augmentis Scientiarum, might justly
deny, notwithstanding these defective works of the preceding century,
that any real history of letters had been written; and he
compares that of the world, wanting this, to a statue of Polypheme
deprived of his single eye. He traces the method of supplying this
deficiency in one of those luminous and comprehensive passages which
bear the stamp of his vast mind: the origin and antiquities of every
science, the methods by which it has been taught, the sects and
controversies it has occasioned, the colleges and academies in which it
has been cultivated, its relation to civil government and common
society, the physical or temporary causes which have influenced its
condition, form, in his plan, as essential a part of such a history, as
the lives of famous authors, and the books they have produced.
No one has presumed to fill up the outline which Bacon himself could but
sketch; and most part of the seventeenth century passed away with few
efforts on the part of the learned to do justice to their own
occupation; for we can hardly make an exception for the Prodromus
Historiæ Literariæ (Hamburg, 1659) of Lambecius, a very learned German,
who, having framed a magnificent scheme of a universal history of
letters, was able to carry it no farther than the times of Moses and
Cadmus. But, in 1688, Daniel Morhof, professor at Kiel in Holstein,
published his well-known Polyhistor, which received considerable
additions in the next age at the hands of Fabricius, and is still found
in every considerable library.
Morhof appears to have had the method of Possevin in some measure before
his eyes; but the lapse of a century, so rich in erudition as the
seventeenth, had prodigiously enlarged the sphere of literary history.
The precise object, however, of the Polyhistor, as the word imports, is
to direct, on the most ample plan, the studies of a single scholar.
Several chapters, that seem digressive in an historical light, are to be
defended by this consideration. In his review of books in every province
of literature, Morhof adopts a sufficiently chronological order; his
judgments are short, but usually judicious; his erudition so copious,
that later writers have freely borrowed from, and, in many parts, added
little to the enumeration of the Polyhistor. But he is far more
conversant with writers in Latin than the modern languages; and, in
particular, shows a scanty acquaintance with English literature.
Another century had elapsed, when the honour of first accomplishing a
comprehensive synopsis of literary history in a more regular form than
Morhof, was the reward of Andrès, a Spanish Jesuit, who, after the
dissolution of his order, passed the remainder of his life in Italy. He
published at Parma, in different years, from 1782 to 1799, his Origine
Progresso e Stato attuale d’ogni Litteratura. The first edition is in
five volumes quarto; but I have made use of that printed at Prato, 1806,
in twenty octavo volumes. Andrès, though a Jesuit, or perhaps because a
Jesuit, accommodated himself in some measure to the tone of the age
wherein his book appeared, and is always temperate, and often candid.
His learning is very extensive in surface, and sometimes minute and
curious, but not, generally speaking, profound; his style is flowing,
but diffuse and indefinite; his characters of books have a vagueness
unpleasant to those who seek for precise notions; his taste is correct,
but frigid; his general views are not injudicious, but display a
moderate degree of luminousness or philosophy. This work is, however, an
extraordinary performance, embracing both ancient and modern literature
in its full extent, and, in many parts, with little assistance from any
former publication of the kind. It is far better known on the
Continent than in England, where I have not frequently seen it quoted;
nor do I believe it is common in our private libraries.
A few years after the appearance of the first volumes of Andrès, some of
the most eminent among the learned of Germany projected a universal
history of modern arts and sciences on a much larger scale. Each single
province, out of eleven, was deemed sufficient for the labours of one
man, if they were to be minute and exhaustive of the subject: among
others, Bouterwek undertook poetry and polite letters; Buhle speculative
philosophy; Kästner the mathematical sciences; Sprengel anatomy and
medicine; Heeren classical philology. The general survey of the whole
seems to have been assigned to Eichhorn. So vast a scheme was not fully
executed; but we owe to it some standard works, to which I have been
considerably indebted. Eichhorn published, in 1796 and 1799, two
volumes, intended as the beginning of a General History of the
Cultivation and Literature of modern Europe, from the twelfth to the
eighteenth century. But he did not confine himself within the remoter
limit; and his second volume, especially, expatiates on the dark ages
that succeeded the fall of the Roman empire. In consequence, perhaps, of
this diffuseness, and also of the abandonment, for some reason with
which I am unacquainted, of a large portion of the original undertaking,
Eichhorn prosecuted this work no farther in its original form. But,
altering slightly its title, he published, some years afterwards, an
independent universal “History of Literature” from the earliest ages to
his own. This is comprised in six volumes, the first having appeared in
1805, the last in 1811.
The execution of these volumes is very unequal. Eichhorn was conversant
with oriental, with theological literature, especially of his own
country, and in general with that contained in the Latin language. But
he seems to have been slightly acquainted with that of the modern
languages, and with most branches of science. He is more specific, more
chronological, more methodical in his distribution than Andrès: his
reach of knowledge, on the other hand, is less comprehensive; and though
I could praise neither highly for eloquence, for taste, or for
philosophy, I should incline to give the preference in all these to the
Spanish Jesuit. But the qualities above mentioned render Eichhorn, on
the whole, more satisfactory to the student.
These are the only works, as far as I know, which deserve the name of
general histories of literature, embracing all subjects, all ages, and
all nations. If there are others, they must, I conceive, be too
superficial to demand attention. But in one country of Europe, and only
in one, we find a national history so comprehensive as to leave
uncommemorated no part of its literary labour. This was first executed
by Tiraboschi, a Jesuit born at Bergamo, and, in his later years,
librarian of the Duke of Modena, in twelve volumes quarto: I have used
the edition published at Rome in 1785. It descends to the close of the
seventeenth century. In full and clear exposition, in minute and exact
investigation of facts, Tiraboschi has few superiors; and such is his
good sense in criticism, that we must regret the sparing use he has made
of it. But the principal object of Tiraboschi was biography. A writer of
inferior reputation, Corniani, in his Secoli della litteratura Italiana
dopo il suo risorgimento (Brescia, 9 vols., 1804-1813), has gone more
closely to an appreciation of the numerous writers whom he passes in
review before our eyes. Though his method is biographical, he
pursues sufficiently the order of chronology to come into the class of
literary historians. Corniani is not much esteemed by some of his
countrymen, and does not rise to a very elevated point of philosophy;
but his erudition appears to me considerable, his judgments generally
reasonable; and his frequent analyses of books gives him one superiority
over Tiraboschi.
The Histoire Littéraire de l’Italie, by Ginguéné, is well known: he had
the advantage of following Tiraboschi; and could not so well, without
his aid, have gone over a portion of the ground, including in his
scheme, as he did, the Latin learning of Italy; but he was very
conversant with the native literature of the language, and has, not a
little prolixly, doubtless, but very usefully, rendered much of easy
access to Europe, which must have been sought in scarce volumes, and
was, in fact, known by name to a small part of the world. The Italians
are ungrateful if they deny their obligations to Ginguéné.
France has, I believe, no work of any sort, even an indifferent one, on
the universal history of her own literature; nor can we claim for
ourselves a single attempt of the most superficial kind. Warton’s
History of Poetry contains much that bears on our general learning; but
it leaves us about the accession of Elizabeth.
Far more has been accomplished in the history of particular departments
of literature. In the general history of philosophy, omitting a few
older writers, Brucker deserves to lead the way. There has been, of late
years, some disposition to depreciate his laborious performance, as not
sufficiently imbued with a metaphysical spirit, and as not rendering,
with clearness and truth, the tenets of the philosophers whom he
exhibits. But the Germany of 1744 was not the Germany of Kant and
Fichte; and possibly Brucker may not have proved the worse historian for
having known little of recent theories. The latter objection is more
material; in some instances he seems to me not quite equal to his
subject. But, upon the whole, he is of eminent usefulness; copious in
his extracts, impartial and candid in his judgments.
In the next age after Brucker, the great fondness of the German learned
both for historical and philosophical investigation produced more works
of this class than I know by name, and many more than I have read. The
most celebrated, perhaps, is that of Tennemann; but of which I only know
the abridgment, translated into French by M. Victor Cousin, with the
title Manuel de l’Histoire de Philosophie. Buhle, one of the society
above mentioned, whose focus was at Göttingen, contributed his share to
their scheme in a History of Philosophy from the revival of letters.
This I have employed through the French translation in six volumes.
Buhle, like Tennemann, has very evident obligations to Brucker; but his
own erudition was extensive, and his philosophical acuteness not
inconsiderable.
The history of poetry and eloquence, or fine writing, was published by
Bouterwek, in twelve volumes octavo. Those parts which relate to his own
country, and to Spain and Portugal, have been of more use to me than the
rest. Many of my readers must be acquainted with the Littérature du
Midi, by M. Sismondi; a work written in that flowing and graceful style
which distinguishes the author, and succeeding in all that it seeks to
give--a pleasing and popular, yet not superficial or unsatisfactory,
account of the best authors in the southern languages. We have nothing
historical as to our own poetry but the prolix volumes of Warton. They
have obtained, in my opinion, full as much credit as they deserve.
Without depreciating a book in which so much may be found and which has
been so great a favourite with the literary part of the public, it may
be observed that its errors as to fact, especially in names and dates,
are extraordinarily frequent, and that the criticism, in points of
taste, is not of a very superior kind.
Heeren undertook the history of classical literature--a great
desideratum, which no one had attempted to supply. But, unfortunately,
he has only given an introduction, carrying us down to the close of the
fourteenth century, and a history of the fifteenth. These are so good,
that we must much lament the want of the rest; especially as I am aware
of nothing to fill up the vacuity. Eichhorn, however, is here of
considerable use.
In the history of mathematical science, I have had recourse chiefly to
Montucla and, as far as he conducts us, to Kästner, whose catalogue and
analysis of mathematical works is far more complete, but his own
observations less perspicuous and philosophical. Portal’s History of
Anatomy, and some other books, to which I have always referred, and
which it might be tedious to enumerate, have enabled me to fill a few
pages with what I could not be expected to give from any original
research. But several branches of literature, using the word, as I
generally do, in the most general sense for the knowledge imparted
through books, are as yet deficient in anything that approaches to a
real history of their progress.
The materials of literary history must always be derived in great
measure from biographical collections, those especially which intermix a
certain portion of criticism with mere facts. There are some, indeed,
which are almost entirely of this description. Adrian Baillet, in his
Jugemens des Sçavans, published in 1685, endeavoured to collect the
suffrages of former critics on the merits of all past authors. His
design was only executed in a small part, and hardly extends beyond
grammarians, translators, and poets; the latter but imperfectly. Baillet
gives his quotations in French, and sometimes mingles enough of his own
to raise him above a mere compiler, and to have drawn down the animosity
of some contemporaries. Sir Thomas Pope Blount is a perfectly
unambitious writer of the same class. His Censura Celebriorum Autorum,
published in 1690, contains nothing of his own, except a few short dates
of each author’s life, but diligently brings together the testimonies of
preceding critics. Blount omits no class, nor any age; his arrangement
is nearly chronological, and leads the reader from the earliest records
of literature to his own time. The polite writers of modern Europe, and
the men of science, do not receive their full share of attention; but
this volume, though not, I think, much in request at present, is a very
convenient accession to any scholar’s library.
Bayle’s Dictionary, published in 1697, seems at first sight an
inexhaustible magazine of literary history. Those who are conversant
with it know that it frequently disappoints their curiosity; names of
great eminence are sought in vain, or are very slightly treated; the
reader is lost in episodical notes, perpetually frivolous, and disgusted
with an author who turns away at every moment from what is truly
interesting to some idle dispute of his own time, or some contemptible
indecency. Yet the numerous quotations contained in Bayle, the
miscellaneous copiousness of his erudition, as well as the good
sense and acuteness he can always display when it is his inclination to
do so, render his Dictionary of great value, though, I think, chiefly to
those who have made a tolerable progress in general literature.
The title of a later work by Père Niceron, Mémoires Pour Servir à
l’Histoire des Hommes Illustres de la République des Lettres, avec un
Catalogue Raisonné de leurs Ouvrages, in forty-three volumes 12mo,
published at Paris from 1727 to 1745, announces something rather
different from what it contains. The number of “illustrious men”
recorded by Niceron is about 1600, chiefly of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. The names, as may be anticipated, are frequently
very insignificant; and, in return, not a few of real eminence,
especially when Protestant, and, above all, English, are overlooked, or
erroneously mentioned. No kind of arrangement is observed; it is utterly
impossible to conjecture in what volume of Niceron any article will be
discovered. A succinct biography, though fuller than the mere dates of
Blount, is followed by short judgments on the author’s works, and by a
catalogue of them far more copious, at least, than had been given by any
preceding bibliographer. It is a work of much utility; but the more
valuable parts have been transfused into later publications.
The English Biographical Dictionary was first published in 1761. I speak
of this edition with some regard from its having been the companion of
many youthful hours; but it is rather careless in its general execution.
It is sometimes ascribed to Birch; but I suspect that Heathcote had more
to do with it. After several successive enlargements, an edition of this
Dictionary was published in thirty-two volumes from 1812 to 1817, by
Alexander Chalmers, whose name it now commonly bears. Chalmers was a man
of very slender powers, relatively to the magnitude of such a work; but
his life had been passed in collecting small matters of fact, and he has
added much of this kind to British biography. He inserts, beyond any one
else, the most insignificant names, and quotes the most wretched
authorities. But as the faults of excess, in such collections, are more
pardonable than those of omission, we cannot deny the value of his
Biographical Dictionary, especially as to our own country, which has not
fared well at the hands of foreigners.
Coincident nearly in order of time with Chalmers, but more distinguished
in merit, is the Biographie Universelle. The eminent names appended to a
large proportion of the articles contained in its fifty-two volumes, are
vouchers for the ability and erudition it displays. There is, doubtless,
much inequality in the performance; and we are sometimes disappointed by
a superficial notice where we had a right to expect most. English
literature, though more amply treated than had been usual on the
Continent, and with the benefit of Chalmer’s contemporaneous volumes, is
still not fully appreciated: our chief theological writers, especially,
are passed over almost in silence. There seems, on the other hand, a
redundancy of modern French names; those, above all, who have, even
obscurely and insignificantly been connected with the history of the
Revolution: a fault, if it be one, which is evidently gaining ground in
the supplementary volumes. But I must speak respectfully of a work to
which I owe so much, and without which, probably, I should never have
undertaken the present.
I will not here characterise several works of more limited biography;
among which are the Bibliotheca Hispana Nova of Antonio, the
Biographia Britannica, the Bibliothèque Française of Goujet; still less
is there time to enumerate particular lives, or those histories which
relate to short periods, among the sources of literary knowledge. It
will be presumed, and will appear by my references, that I have employed
such of them as came within my reach. But I am sensible that, in the
great multiplicity of books of this kind, and especially in their
prodigious increase on the Continent of late years, many have been
overlooked from which I might have improved these volumes. The press is
indeed so active, that no year passes without accessions to our
knowledge, even historically considered upon some of the multifarious
subjects which the present volumes embrace. An author who waits till all
requisite materials are accumulated to his hands, is but watching the
stream that will run on for ever; and though I am fully sensible that I
could have much improved what is now offered to the public by keeping it
back for a longer time, I should but then have had to lament the
impossibility of exhausting my subject. Epoiei, the modest phrase of the
Grecian sculptors, but expresses the imperfection that attaches to every
work of literary industry or of philosophical investigation. But I have
other warnings to bind up my sheaves while I may--my own advancing
years, and the gathering in the heavens.
I have quoted, to my recollection, no passage which I have not seen in
its own place; though I may possibly have transcribed in some instances,
for the sake of convenience, from a secondary authority. Without
censuring those who suppress the immediate source of their quotations, I
may justly say that in nothing I have given to the public has it been
practised by myself. But I have now and then inserted in the text
characters of books that I have not read, on the faith of my guides; and
it may be the case that intimation of this has not been always given to
the reader.
It is very likely that omissions, not, I trust, of great consequence,
will be detected; I might in fact say that I am already aware of them;
but perhaps these will be candidly ascribed to the numerous
ramifications of the subject, and the necessity of writing in a
different order from that in which the pages are printed. And I must add
that some omissions have been intentional: an accumulation of petty
facts, and especially of names to which little is attached, fatigues
unprofitably the attention; and as this is very frequent in works that
necessarily demand condensation, and cannot altogether be avoided, it
was desirable to make some sacrifice in order to palliate the
inconvenience. This will be found, among many other instances, in the
account of the Italian learned of the fifteenth century where I might
easily have doubled the enumeration, but with little satisfaction to the
reader.
But, independently of such slight omissions, it will appear that a good
deal is wanting in these volumes which some might expect in a history of
literature. Such a history has often contained so large a proportion of
biography, that a work in which it appears very scantily, or hardly at
all, may seem deficient in necessary information. It might be replied,
that the limits to which I have confined myself, and beyond which it is
not easy perhaps in the present age to obtain readers, would not admit
to this extension; but I may add, that any biography of the authors of
these centuries, which is not servilely compiled from a few known books
of that class, must be far too immense an undertaking for one man,
and besides its extent and difficulty, would have been particularly
irksome to myself, from the waste of time, as I deem it, which an
inquiry into trifling facts entails. I have more scruple about the
omission of extracts from some of the poets and best writers in prose,
without which they can be judged very unsatisfactorily: but in this also
I have been influenced by an unwillingness to multiply my pages beyond a
reasonable limit. But I have, in some instances, at least in the later
periods, gone more largely into analysis of considerable works than has
hitherto been usual. These are not designed to serve as complete
abstracts, or to supersede, instead of exciting, the reader’s industry;
but I have felt that some books of traditional reputation are less fully
known than they deserve.
Some departments of literature are passed over, or partially touched.
Among the former are books relating to particular arts, as agriculture
or painting, or to subjects of merely local interest, as those of
English law. Among the latter is the great and extensive portion of
every library, the historical. Unless where history has been written
with peculiar beauty of language, or philosophical spirit, I have
generally omitted all mention of it: in our researches after truth of
fact, the number of books that possess some value is exceedingly great,
and would occupy a disproportionate space in such a general view of
literature as the present. For a similar reason, I have not given its
numerical share to theology.
It were an impertinence to anticipate, for the sake of obviating, the
possible criticism of the public which has a right to judge, and for
those judgments I have had so much cause to be grateful, nor less so to
dictate how it should read what it is not bound to read at all; but
perhaps I may be allowed to say, that I do not wish this to be
considered as a book of reference on particular topics, in which point
of view it must often appear to disadvantage; and that, if it proves of
any value, it will be as an entire and synoptical work.
INTRODUCTION
TO THE
LITERATURE OF EUROPE
IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH,
AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF
THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
_Loss of Ancient Learning in the Fall of the Roman Empire--First
Symptoms of its Revival--Improvement in the Twelfth
Century--Universities and Scholastic Philosophy--Origin of Modern
Languages--Early Poetry--Provençal, French, German, and
Spanish--English Language and Literature--Increase of Elementary
Knowledge--Invention of Paper--Roman Jurisprudence--Cultivation of
Classical Literature--Its Decline after the Twelfth Century--Less
visible in Italy--Petrarch._
|Retrospect of learning in middle ages necessary.|
1. Although the subject of these volumes does not comprehend the
literary history of Europe, anterior to the commencement of the
fifteenth century, a period as nearly coinciding as can be expected in
any arbitrary division of time, with what is usually denominated the
revival of letters, it appears necessary to prefix such a general
retrospect of the state of knowledge for some preceding ages, as will
illustrate its subsequent progress. In this, however, the reader is not
to expect a regular history of mediæval literature, which would be
nothing less than the extension of a scheme already, perhaps, too much
beyond my powers of execution.[1]
[1] The subject of the following chapter has been already
treated by me in another work, the History of Europe during the
Middle Ages. I have not thought it necessary to repeat all that is
there said: the reader, if he is acquainted with those volumes, may
consider the ensuing pages partly as supplemental, and partly as
correcting the former where they contain anything inconsistent.
|Loss of learning in fall of Roman empire.|
|Boethius--his Consolation of Philosophy.|
2. Every one is well aware, that the establishment of the barbarian
nations on the ruins of the Roman empire in the West, was accompanied or
followed by an almost universal loss of that learning which had been
accumulated in the Latin and Greek languages, and which we call ancient
or classical; a revolution long prepared by the decline of taste and
knowledge for several preceding ages, but accelerated by public
calamities in the fifth century with overwhelming rapidity. The last of
the ancients, and one who forms a link between the classical period of
literature and that of the Middle Ages, in which he was a favourite
author, is Boethius, a man of fine genius, and interesting both from his
character and his death. It is well known, that, after filling the
dignities of Consul and Senator in the court of Theodoric, he fell a
victim to the jealousy of a sovereign, from whose memory, in many
respects glorious, the stain of that blood has never been effaced. The
Consolation of Philosophy, the chief work of Boethius, was written in
his prison. Few books are more striking from the circumstances of their
production. Last of the classic writers, in style not impure, though
displaying too lavishly that poetic exuberance which had distinguished
the two or three preceding centuries, in elevation of sentiment equal to
any of the philosophers, and mingling a Christian sanctity with
their lessons, he speaks from his prison in the swan-like tones of dying
eloquence. The philosophy that consoled him in bonds, was soon required
in the sufferings of a cruel death. Quenched in his blood, the lamp he
had trimmed with a skilful hand gave no more light; the language of
Tully and Virgil soon ceased to be spoken; and many ages were to pass
away, before learned diligence restored its purity, and the union of
genius with imitation taught a few modern writers to surpass in
eloquence the latinity of Boethius.
|Rapid decline of learning in sixth century.|
3. The downfall of learning and eloquence, after the death of Boethius
in 524, was inconceivably rapid. His contemporary Cassiodorus, Isidore
of Seville, and Martianus Capella, the earliest, but worst, of the
three, by very indifferent compilations, and that encyclopedic method
which Heeren observes to be an usual concomitant of declining
literature, superseded the use of the great ancient writers, with whom,
indeed, in the opinion of Meiners, they were themselves acquainted only
through similar productions of the fourth and fifth centuries. Isidore
speaks of the rhetorical works of Cicero and Quintilian as too diffuse
to be read.[2] The authorities
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