Carpentry and Woodwork
by Edwin W. Foster · English · Gutenberg #43574 · 540,357 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: Carpentry and Woodwork
Author: Edwin W. Foster
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CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
* * * * * *
THE CHILDREN'S LIBRARY OF WORK AND PLAY
CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
By Edwin W. Foster
ELECTRICITY AND ITS EVERYDAY USES
By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.
GARDENING AND FARMING
By Ellen Eddy Shaw
HOME DECORATION
By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.
HOUSEKEEPING
By Elizabeth Hale Gilman
MECHANICS, INDOORS AND OUT
By Fred T. Hodgson
NEEDLECRAFT
By Effie Archer Archer
OUTDOOR SPORTS, AND GAMES
By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.
OUTDOOR WORK
By Mary Rogers Miller
WORKING IN METALS
By Charles Conrad Sleffel
* * * * * *
[Illustration: Photograph by Helen W. Cooke. The Shop--the Most
Interesting Place in the World on a Stormy Day]
The Library of Work and Play
CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
by
EDWIN W. FOSTER
[Illustration]
Garden City New York
Doubleday, Page & Company
1911
All Rights Reserved, Including That of Translation
into Foreign Languages, Including the Scandinavian
Copyright, 1911, by Doubleday, Page & Company
PREFACE
There is a period in a boy's life, roughly speaking between the ages of
ten and sixteen, when his interests and energy turn in the direction
of making things. It may be called the creative period, and with many
of us it ends nearer sixty than sixteen. At one time it will take the
form of a mania for building boats; again it may be automobiles or
aeroplanes.
The boy is very susceptible to suggestion. A great automobile race
occurs, and for weeks the building and racing of toy automobiles
goes on apace. The papers are filled with accounts of an aero meet.
Immediately the boy's energy turns to the study and manufacture of
aeroplanes. This abounding interest in the real things of life is
perfectly normal and should be encouraged rather than discouraged; but
the boy needs guidance, if this energy is to be properly directed.
He needs strengthening in his weak points, otherwise he may become
superficial and "scattering" in his work, and fail to stick to a thing
until, overcoming all obstacles, he succeeds in doing the one thing
he set out to do. He may acquire the bad habit of never finishing
anything, though continually starting new schemes.
The ability of the average boy is far beyond the general estimate, but
intelligent supervision is needed. The pocket knife is his natural
tool, yet not one boy out of a thousand realizes its possibilities.
An attempt has been made in this volume to suggest some of these,
especially for boys living in the city, where a little work shop for
himself, unfortunately, is too often a luxury.
The two boys here depicted form a composite picture of several thousand
American boys whom it has been the pleasure of the author to guide.
The ability to design new things, and to adapt general rules to
personal requirements, is to be encouraged at all times, and this idea
has been exemplified in the following pages.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. Introductory 3
II. The Knife and Its Possibilities--First Experiments 6
III. Mechanical Drawing 23
IV. Mechanical Drawing (Continued) 31
V. Toys 40
VI. Moving Toys 50
VII. Designing Moving Toys 58
VIII. The Model Aeroplane 68
IX. The Monoplane 75
X. Kites 84
XI. Chip Carving and Knife Work 97
XII. Chip Carving (Continued) 109
XIII. Chip Carving (Continued) 120
XIV. The Shop 133
XV. The Equipment for a Shop 143
XVI. Building a Lumber Rack 150
XVII. Mills and Weather Vanes 157
XVIII. Tools--Saws 169
XIX. Tools--Planes 176
XX. Squaring up Stock 185
XXI. Boring Tools 193
XXII. Miscellaneous Tools 199
XXIII. Making Nail Boxes 206
XXIV. Bird Houses 213
XXV. Simple Articles for Household Use 221
XXVI. The Mitre Box and Picture Frame 228
XXVII. Making Toilet Boxes 235
XXVIII. Brackets and Book Racks 242
XXIX. Construction 250
XXX. The Use of the Gouge 258
XXXI. Coat Hanger and Towel Rollers 266
XXXII. Clock Cases 276
XXXIII. Foot Stools 291
XXXIV. The Tabourette 301
XXXV. The Dovetail Joint 313
XXXVI. Inlaying 319
XXXVII. The Checkerboard 332
XXXVIII. Tool Cases and Chests 339
XXXIX. Book Cases and Magazine Racks 347
XL. The Medicine Cabinet 354
XLI. Mission Furniture 361
XLII. The Chest 377
XLIII. The Drawing Outfit 381
XLIV. Woodwork for Outdoor Sports--The Tennis
Court, Tennis Court Accessories 399
XLV. The Pergola 426
XLVI. Poultry Houses 441
XLVII. Housing of Outdoor Pets 451
XLVIII. Outdoor Carpentry 457
XLIX. Staining, Polishing, and Finishing 481
L. Durability: Decay and Preservation of Wood 492
LI. Mathematics of Woodwork 498
LII. Lumber No. 1 510
LIII. Lumber No. 2 517
LIV. Lumber No. 3 524
LV. Lumber No. 4 532
LVI. Broad-leaved Trees 543
LVII. Trees with Simple Leaves 556
ILLUSTRATIONS
The Shop--The Most Interesting Place in the
World on a Stormy Day _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
The Boy and his Jack Knife 8
Using the Veining Tool 118
Using the Jack Plane 146
Learning to Use the Crosscut Saw 170
Tools of the Seventeenth Century 178
The Correct Way to Hold the Chisel 208
Assembling and Finishing 374
Staining and Polishing 484
CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
I
INTRODUCTORY
Two boys sat on a log whittling. Conversation had ceased and they both
seemed absorbed in their work. Presently the younger one became aware
of the silence and glanced at the older boy. He gave an exclamation and
jumped to his feet. "Why," he cried, "you are making a knife out of
wood. Isn't it a beauty! Is it a dagger?"
"No" replied the other, "it is a paper-knife for opening letters and
cutting the pages of magazines. It is for father's desk, for his
birthday."
"It's a dandy!" continued the youngster. "How can you make such fine
things? Why can't I do that kind of work?"
"You can do it," replied Ralph, "but just now there are several reasons
why you don't."
"What are they?"
"Well, in the first place you start to whittle without having any clear
idea of what you are at work on. It's for all the world like setting
out to walk without knowing where you are going. If you start that
way, the probabilities are that you will get nowhere, and when you get
back and father asks where you have been, you say, 'Oh, nowhere; just
took a walk.' That's the way with your knife work. You just whittle and
make a lot of chips, and when you get through you have nothing to show
for your time and labour. If you want to know a secret--I never start
to cut without first making a careful sketch of just what I want to
make, with all the important dimensions on it.
"Another reason you don't get any results is that you don't know how to
hold your knife, and still another is that you work with a dull tool.
Why, that knife of yours is hardly sharp enough to cut butter."
"Will you show me how to do that kind of work?" asked the youngster
humbly.
"Yes; on certain conditions."
"What are they?"
"That you will do just as I tell you."
"Will you show me how to make a paper-cutter now?"
"There you go, right off the handle! You are like a young man learning
carpentry; you want to start right in to build a house instead of first
learning how to use your tools. Why, it has taken me two years in the
manual training school to learn how to do this work. No, indeed,
if you want to learn how to do woodwork like this you must begin on
something simple, learn how to handle wood, and how to keep your tools
sharp."
"All right," sighed the younger boy; "I am willing to take lessons and
begin at the beginning. What shall we do first?"
"The first thing to do is to throw away your folding penknife. That
kind is of very little use. The steel is so poor it won't hold a
cutting edge for any time at all, and the knife has a treacherous habit
of closing up on your fingers. I will give you a good Swedish whittling
knife like mine, and we will start by putting a good cutting edge on
it."
So the boys began the first lesson. The fun they had and the things
they made, their many experiences, the patience required, and the great
skill developed with tools are described in the following pages. What
they accomplished, any other boy may do if he will but apply himself
with all his energy.
II
FIRST EXPERIMENTS--THE KNIFE AND ITS POSSIBILITIES
The older boy, after a search through his treasure chest, selected a
knife with a blade about two and a half inches long.
Incidentally, the smaller boy caught a glimpse of the inside of that
chest and it made his eyes bulge--but that is another story.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. The whittling knife]
"This knife," explained Ralph, "is one I used for over a year in school
and it's the most perfectly shaped tool for whittling that I have
ever seen. Of course knives come in hundreds of shapes for different
purposes, and later on, when you have become skilled in using this one,
we will try some others, but our first motto must be 'one thing at a
time.' A knife with either blade or handle too long or too short is
awkward, but this one seems to fit my hand, and undoubtedly will fit
yours. Try it."
Harry took it and went through the motions of whittling an imaginary
stick.
"Now," said Ralph, "we will go out to the wood pile and see what we can
find. White pine makes the best wood to start on, because it is usually
straight grained, soft, and free from sap; but it is getting scarce and
expensive, so we must be economical, as it is a very easy matter to
waste lots of lumber."
After some searching, they found part of a pine board, about a foot
long and an inch thick. Ralph chopped out a piece with a hatchet and
deftly split it to about an inch and a half wide. His skill was a
revelation to Harry, who saw that even a hatchet could be used with
precision.
"Now," said Ralph, "I want you to cut this piece of rough pine to a
smooth, straight piece, just an inch square."
"Oh, that's easy," replied Harry eagerly. "Just watch me."
"Take care," said Ralph. "I said an inch square; anything less than an
inch will be wrong. Just imagine that this is a problem in arithmetic
and you are trying to find the answer. If you succeed in making it just
an inch square the answer will be correct; anything larger or smaller
than the exact size will be wrong. In the first place, hold your knife
so that it makes a slant or oblique angle with the wood, like this
(Fig. 2)," he said, taking the wood in his left hand and the knife in
his right. "That gives what we call a paring action, and is much easier
(Fig. 3) than the stiff way you were holding it, at right angles with
the stick."
[Illustration: Fig. 2. Correct way to hold the knife]
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Incorrect method of holding knife]
[Illustration: Photograph by Helen W. Cooke. The Boy and His Jack Knife]
"Now remember that the trouble with beginners is that they usually take
off too much material. Make light, easy cuts and try to get one side of
the wood perfectly straight first."
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Testing with the try square]
This was a harder job than Harry had expected, but after much testing
and sighting (Fig. 4) Ralph said it would do for the first attempt.
"Now," he said, "you may consider this first side the foundation of
your house. Make a pencil mark on it near one of the edges, what the
woodworker would call his witness mark. It means that this side or face
is finished and the edge nearest the pencil mark is to be trued up
next."
This proved even a harder job than the first, because after whittling
and testing until he had the second side straight and true, Ralph
tested it with a square and found that the second edge was not
at right angles with the first, or working face. It was finally
straightened, however, to stand the try square test fairly well.
An inch was next marked off at each end on face number one, and a sharp
pencil line drawn from end to end. Harry then whittled this third side
down to the line, and tested again with the try square. It seemed
easier to do now, and the thickness was obtained in the same way. It
looked as if they never would get that piece of pine exactly square,
and even when Ralph said it would do, they measured it with a rule and
found it an eighth of an inch too small each way.
Harry was disgusted. "The answer is wrong after all," he exclaimed,
"but I'll learn to do that if it takes me a month."
"That's the right sporting spirit," said Ralph. "Keep at it till you
get it. It's the hardest thing you will ever have to do with a knife,
and it's unfortunate that you have to tackle it the first thing; but
it's like learning to play the piano, you must learn the notes and
scales and how to use your fingers before you can play a real piece.
Every time you try this, you are gaining skill and the control of your
hands. After a while you will be able to do it easily and think nothing
of it."
Several days later Harry brought in a piece that he had been working on
and Ralph tested it carefully with rule and try square. He gave Harry a
pat on the back. "Good for you, boy; you are coming along splendidly,"
he said. "How many of these have you tried?"
"Twenty," said Harry meekly.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. The notched trophy stick]
"Well, now, I'll show you how the Indians used to record their
exploits. We'll put a notch on this stick for every one you've tried
to make, and you can keep it as a souvenir of your first attempts at
whittling." So with great care they measured off six two-inch spaces
on each edge, carefully drew notches with a pencil and rule, and as
carefully cut each notch to the line. (Fig. 5.)
Harry was delighted with the result.
They then hunted up a small screw eye, found the exact centre of the
end of the stick by drawing two diagonals, fastened the screw eye in
the centre and tied to it a piece of red, white and blue ribbon. A
quarter-inch bevel was made around each end as a finishing touch.
This piece of white pine, with its twenty notches, hangs to-day in
Harry's room, and every once in awhile he counts the notches to make
sure they are all there, and recalls the trial that each one represents.
Harry was so much pleased with his notched trophy stick that he wanted
to begin something else at once, and he was immediately started on a
key rack.
"Too many homes," said Ralph, sagely, "have no definite place to keep
keys. Those that have no tags are always a nuisance. Every key or bunch
of keys should have a tag attached and should be hung on a certain hook
where it can be found without searching. Now we'll make a sketch of a
key rack before doing anything else, to find out just how large a piece
of stick we shall need."
The drawing they produced is shown in Fig. 6 and called for a piece of
wood seven inches long, an inch wide, and half an inch thick. As the
key rack was to be a permanent household article, they decided on gum
wood as more suitable than pine, it being easy to work and having a
satisfactory appearance.
[Illustration: Fig. 6. The various steps in making a key rack]
The different stages in the process of cutting out are shown in Fig.
6. At _a_ is shown the stock squared up with the knife to the extreme
outside dimensions. The ends were then whittled down to the form
shown at _b_ and the blank piece was ready for notching. The notches
were carefully drawn with a sharp hard pencil and cut as shown at _c_.
The ends were bevelled by whittling to the lines, and the inner edges
of the notches in the centre were whittled back to the middle of each
edge. Then the knife work was finished.
Three brass screw hooks were placed in the centre of the large blank
spaces, and two small screw eyes fastened into the upper edge for
hanging the key rack on the wall.
Each stage of the work had been worked out so carefully that the boys
hardly realized what a satisfactory result they were getting. When it
was finally hung in the boys' room, of course some keys must be put on
it, and as they had no tags, the making of some followed as a matter
of course. A search through their small stock of woods disclosed a few
little pieces of holly, the remains of fret saw work, about an eighth
of an inch thick. This proved to be ideal material, and half a dozen
key tags were made of the size and shape shown in Fig. 7. The holes
were made with a brad awl, the tags fastened to the rings by small
pieces of wire, and the names of the keys printed on the different
tags with black drawing ink.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. The key tag]
The boys, from this time on, seemed possessed with a mania for making
articles to be used about the house. One thing to be manufactured
without delay was a winder for their fishing lines.
The form they finally decided on is shown in Fig. 8. Ralph insisted on
the design being carefully drawn on a piece of thin wood, a quarter of
an inch thick. Harry found whittling to curved lines somewhat harder
than notching, but he produced a fairly satisfactory result. Ralph was
a very exacting teacher, always having in mind his own training in
school. He showed Harry how to cut out the curves at the ends without
cutting his thumb (Fig. 9.) and gave him much advice about whittling
away from himself, whenever possible.
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Fish line winder]
When the knife work was finished, Ralph explained that where curved
edges were cut it was allowable to smooth with a piece of fine
sand-paper, although as a rule it was to be avoided.
[Illustration: Fig. 9. Cutting concave curves]
Harry wanted to know why, and Ralph explained that, generally speaking,
sand-paper was the hallmark of a poor workman, one who could not do
good work with his tools. Sand-paper leaves a scratched surface, for
the grit becomes embedded in the wood to a certain extent, and it will
immediately ruin the cutting edge of a sharp tool in case one has to be
used after the sand-papering. "So," he summed up, "keep your sand-paper
and knife as far apart as possible."
About this time the ladies of the household thought that a winder for
worsted would come in very handy, and the boys evolved a new form,
shown in Fig. 10. This was made only an eighth of an inch thick, and
proved so easy of construction that each of the boys made two and
"allowed" that "they ought to satisfy the sewing department for some
time to come."
[Illustration: Fig. 10. The worsted winder]
"Do you know," exclaimed Harry one day, "we could make lots of things
for Christmas and birthday presents!"
"Why, certainly," said Ralph, "and people appreciate things that you
have made yourself much more than things you buy. Anybody can go to the
store and buy ready-made presents, but those you make yourself mean
more."
"In what way?" said Harry.
"Why, they represent much more of your time and labour, and thought;
and, by the way, if we are going to make many Christmas presents, we
must start right away, because we only have a few weeks and you know
how little time we have outside of school hours after getting our
lessons."
The result of this talk was that the little building in the yard which
they called their "shop" became a perfect beehive of industry for
several weeks. With what money they had saved they purchased a supply
of lumber and a few tools the use of which Ralph said he would explain
later. He suggested that Harry begin by making some calendar backs,
as suitable New Year's presents, because they were easy; and the more
complicated articles could be made after Harry had developed a little
more skill with the knife.
[Illustration: Fig. 11. First calendar back]
The drawing he made is shown in Fig. 11. This called for a small
calendar about two inches long, an inch and three quarters high, and a
space this size was drawn on the centre of the calendar back, while the
calendar was glued to the wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. Second calendar back]
After two or three of these had been made, Harry decided that they were
too small to suit him, and a new design somewhat larger was worked out
on paper. It was a little more difficult to follow, because the outline
had two reversed curves, but the boys were too busy and interested to
be daunted by a trifle like that. (Fig. 12.)
Ralph suggested simple picture frames, and this brought the new problem
of cutting out an opening for the picture.
The first design they tried is shown in Fig. 13. Ralph had to show
Harry how to make the ellipse with compasses by first constructing two
squares or rectangles touching, and with both diagonal lines in each
square. By taking for a centre the point where the squares touch, as
_a_ and _b_, and using the length of a diagonal line as a radius, two
arcs were drawn at _x_ and _y_. The ellipse was finished by taking _c_
as a centre, and the distance _c d_ as a radius, to draw arc _z_, and
the other end was finished in the same way.
[Illustration: Fig. 13. Picture frame with elliptical opening]
Ralph explained that this was not a perfect ellipse, but would answer
for a small picture frame. The drawing was easy compared to the
question of how to cut out the wood to this curved line.
[Illustration: Fig. 14. Using the coping saw]
One of the new tools was brought out, and Harry was introduced to the
mysteries of the coping saw. (Fig. 14). A thin saw blade was produced
and fastened in one end of the frame, the other end being left free.
A hole was made inside of the ellipse with a brad awl, the free end
of the blade passed through the opening and fastened in the frame of
the saw. Resting the picture frame on the edge of a bench, the ellipse
was sawed out roughly about 1/16 of an inch inside of the drawing.
This remaining sixteenth of an inch was then whittled to the line with
a knife and finished with sand-paper. Harry found some difficulty in
getting this elliptical opening smooth enough to suit him, so they
tried designing for half an hour, and produced a new form (Fig. 15).
[Illustration: Fig. 15. Picture frame in straight lines]
This was easier, as there were no curved lines, and it could be sawed
close to the outside as well as the inside lines, to save time in
whittling. While Harry was finishing this frame, Ralph was busy on a
new design and finally passed over the drawing shown in Fig. 16.
"Do you know there is as much fun in getting up new designs as there is
in making them in wood?" said Ralph.
"Yes, but you have to know how to draw," replied the younger boy.
"Can't you teach me?"
"Yes. I first make a rough sketch of my idea, and then a careful
drawing of its actual size, with the drawing instruments."
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Third picture frame]
"That's the part that I want to learn: how to use the instruments."
A lesson in mechanical drawing followed, and as it is a very important
subject to young woodworkers, it will be given in full in the next
chapter.
III
MECHANICAL DRAWING
"In taking up mechanical drawing," said Ralph, "always remember that
accurate and neat work, containing all necessary dimensions, is half
the battle. You will probably feel, as I did at first, that it is a
waste of time, but you can always consider that when your drawing is
finished the work is half done. You can judge from it the number of
pieces of stock required, and their over-all dimensions This saves much
time at the wood pile, and tells at a glance to just what size you must
square up each piece of stock.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. The outfit for mechanical drawing]
"The drawing board is an absolute necessity. It need not be perfectly
square, but the surface must be flat and true, and at least one of the
edges absolutely straight. (Fig. 17.) The T square must have a thin
blade--about 1/16 of an inch, and be made of hard wood. It should form
a right angle with the head, which slides along the left-hand edge of
the drawing board, and that must be the straight edge.
"The T square is used as a guide for the pencil in drawing horizontal
lines, and it should always be kept on the same side of the drawing
board. When drawing a vertical line, one of the wooden triangles should
be placed on the T square and the line drawn along the left-hand
edge of the triangle. Circles or arcs of circles are drawn with the
compasses held at the extreme top."
With this introduction, the boys proceeded to fasten with four
thumb-tacks a piece of drawing paper to the upper part of the drawing
board.
"Why don't you put the paper in the centre?" asked Harry.
"Because, if one worked on the lower part of the drawing board, the T
square head would extend below the edge of the board, and touch the
table. You would have to watch it constantly. The head of the T square
should always be tight against the board, for when you slide it too far
down, it sometimes strikes the table without your knowing it, and you
find your horizontal lines are _not_ horizontal; so I always like to
have the drawing paper as high up on the board as possible."
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Blocking out the crosses of St. Andrew and St.
George]
The boys agreed that while the younger was learning to make drawings,
each one should represent something to be made later in wood. Drawing
number one was a square, 3 inches on a side. Ralph showed how this
was made with only two measurements. Drawing one horizontal and one
vertical line, 3 inches were marked off on each, the other two lines
drawn through these new points, and the square was finished. Ralph
insisted that all lines be very light, as they could be darkened up
later, if necessary, and were easy to erase in case of a mistake. (Fig.
18.)
Harry was then told to divide the upper and left-hand sides into even
inches, and to draw across the square vertical and horizontal lines
from the four points obtained.
Thus the large square was subdivided into nine 1-inch squares, and by
darkening the lines shown in the figure at _a_ the cross of St. George
was produced.
Another 3-inch square was drawn, and marked off, as shown at _b_.
The points were connected by oblique lines by means of the 45-degree
triangle, and by darkening the lines shown at _c_ the cross of St.
Andrew was formed. After explaining that the British flag was a
combination of these two figures Ralph said, "While we are drawing
crosses, we may as well make a Maltese one."
Starting with a 3-inch square again, it was measured off as shown
in Fig. 19. The lines were connected and darkened, as shown at _b_.
"Now," said Ralph, "you can cut that out of wood, tie a ribbon on it
and wear it as a medal."
"Huh," grunted Harry. "Pretty big medal--three inches across!"
"Well, make it any size, an inch or even less."
"That's not a bad idea. I'll make it out of white holly, and put a red,
white, and blue bow on it."
"And print on it 'American Order of Junior Woodworkers'."
"Not a bad idea either; we can find lots of boys who would be glad to
join and come here Saturdays to work in the shop."
"There would be no trouble to get candidates; the trouble would be
to take care of them. They would fill the yard and overflow into the
street," said Ralph.
"But why couldn't we----"
"Come now, let's do one thing at a time; you are supposed to be
learning mechanical drawing. We'll leave the organization of the A.
O. J. W. till another time. I'm going to show you how to use the
compasses."
[Illustration: Fig. 19. The Maltese cross]
While they were drawing the circle, quarterfoil, heart, and oval,
shown in Fig. 20, Ralph reviewed his pupil on the meaning of diameter,
radius, circumference, etc. "If you want to cut hearts out of paper or
wood, I would advise you to wait until St. Valentine's Day, and reserve
the oval or egg until Easter.
"The circle is a wonderful figure. By marking the radius off on the
circumference, with the compasses, we find that the former divides the
latter into exactly six equal parts, and by connecting the points, we
have a perfect hexagon. By connecting the alternate points we obtain a
perfect equilateral triangle, and by connecting the remaining points
we get another triangle of the same size. The two triangles form a
six-pointed star. (Fig. 21.)
[Illustration: Fig. 20]
"Now," said Ralph, "I am going to give you a problem by dictation; all
you have to do is to obey orders. First draw a circle 3-1/2 inches in
diameter."
"What's the radius?" asked Harry.
"That's for you to find out."
Harry thought a moment, divided three and a half by two, and setting
his compasses at 1-3/4, drew the circle.
"Now divide the circumference into three equal parts."
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Triangle, hexagon and star]
The boy puzzled over this for a moment, then marked off the radius,
cutting the circumference into six parts, as if for a hexagon, and
erased every other point, leaving three.
"Draw radial lines from these points to the centre."
"Easy," remarked Harry, and drew a line from each point to the centre
with the edge of one of his triangles.
"Find the centre of each of those lines."
"Easy again," said the boy, as he set his compasses at 7/8 of an inch,
and from the centre of the circle cut each of the straight lines with
an arc. (Fig. 22.)
"Draw a semicircle from each of these points with a radius of 5/8 of an
inch."
"Easier still," quoth Harry, as he drew the semicircles. The drawing
then looked like _a_ (Fig. 22).
[Illustration: Fig. 22. Pulley design]
"Now," said the teacher, "let me show you something." He made a few
strokes with the compasses, and the drawing as shown at _b_ was
finished. "That is enough for to-day. The compasses are about the
easiest of all instruments to use, provided you keep in mind that the
pencil point needs to be sharpened to a chisel, or flat shape, the same
as any other drawing pencil. The number of designs which may be made
with it are simply endless, as you will learn later on."
IV
MECHANICAL DRAWING: CONTINUED
The next day, as they were about to resume their study, Ralph said:
"There is so much to drawing that I hardly know where to begin, or
what to leave out; but in shop drawing, a picture will not do; imagine
an architect trying to build a skyscraper from a picture. The shop
drawing must tell the mechanic everything he needs to know about the
object he is making. He cannot keep running to the office asking
questions; the drawing must answer them all. That is the reason why the
draughting-room is such an important part of every manufacturing plant.
Drawing is the language the designer uses to tell the workmen what he
wants made. It is doubly important when the designer is hundreds or
thousands of miles away from the workman.
"A battle-ship can be designed in Australia and built in England,
so this language of the shop has grown to be a very interesting and
important art. Every one who works with tools must learn it sooner or
later, the sooner the better.
"Usually it is necessary to represent even the simplest object by at
least two views. For example, suppose I hand you this sketch _a_ (Fig.
23), and tell you to make two out of wood. You wouldn't know what to do
because no thickness is shown, but if I give you this sketch _b_, you
would see immediately that it has practically no thickness and might be
a sheet of paper. You learn that from the top view looking down on it.
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Front and top views]
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Showing necessity for top view]
"The first view is called the front view. Now, suppose I change the top
view to this _c_; thickness is shown here, and if I say, make two of
these out of white pine, you would know all that would be necessary to
go ahead.
"Again, suppose I give you this sketch _a_ (Fig. 24), and ask you to
make two out of gum wood. You would be completely at sea, because that
front view might have any one of these top views shown at _b_, _c_,
_d_, _e_ (Fig. 24). In other words, it might be a triangle without
thickness, a wedge, cone, or pyramid.
"So you see, two views are absolutely necessary, and very often a
third, taken from the right or left side. The three views of a book
would look like Fig. 25. The side view is not necessary in this case,
but that is the way it would be drawn if a third were needed. You will
have plenty of opportunities for practising this as we get along with
our tool work, because in order to understand drawings you must be able
to make them. Suppose you try your hand now, by drawing the two views
of a cylinder, two inches in diameter and three inches high."
[Illustration: Fig. 25. Three views of a book]
Ralph rolled a sheet of paper up until the ends met, to illustrate a
cylinder, and the drawing produced by Harry looked like _a_. (Fig. 26.)
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Mechanical drawings of cylinder and cone]
"Now," said Ralph, "no shop drawing is complete unless it shows all the
necessary dimensions; so I will put them on to show you how it is done,
but after this you must dimension every drawing you make."
The finished drawing of the cylinder is shown at _b_.
Harry was told to make the mechanical drawing of a cone, 2 inches in
diameter, and 3 inches high. While he was working at this problem,
Ralph disappeared, and when he returned Harry asked where he had been.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. Making a tip cat]
"Never mind. Let me see your drawing," _c_ (Fig. 26). "All right." Then
he laid a little wooden object on the table.
"Why, it's a cat," said Harry.
"Yes, a tip cat, and as soon as you make a working drawing of it, you
are going to manufacture one with your knife. Please notice that the
tip cat is a cylinder with a cone at each end, and two views will show
everything about it."
The drawing took longer to make than Harry imagined it would; or it
seemed longer because he was so impatient to get to work with his
knife. His finished drawing is shown at _a_ (Fig. 28).
The different stages in the making of the tip cat are shown in Fig. 27.
[Illustration: Fig. 28. Second tip cat]
First came the squaring up, shown at _a_. Then the two ends were
whittled down to wedges as shown at _b_, and these two ends reduced to
square pyramids, as at _c_.
Lines a quarter of an inch from each edge were drawn on the four sides
of the square part and continued out to the points of the pyramids, as
at _d_. Cutting to this line changed the square to an octagon, and the
square pyramids to octagonal ones.
The edges were again whittled off until there were no more to be seen;
the cat was smoothed with sand-paper, and called finished.
Harry was delighted, but Ralph said: "That is not the best form for
a tip cat, because it will roll. We will make a bat for it now, and
after we have played with it awhile, we'll make a better one; just the
same except that the centre part will be left square and only the ends
rounded." (Fig. 28, _b_.)
The bat they made is shown in Fig. 29. Its handle was cut out with the
coping saw and whittled to the lines. Ralph explained that anything to
be held should be rounded, or it would be hard on the hand, so all the
edges were curved with the knife and finished with sand-paper.
[Illustration: Fig. 29. Bat for tip cat]
They had so much fun with the cat and bat that woodwork was forgotten
for two afternoons. The third day it rained, so the boys were glad to
get at work again in the shop.
Ralph suggested that, as they were doing so much drawing, it might be
well to make a pencil sharpener.
The drawing they produced is shown in Fig. 30. This was easily worked
out in 1/8-inch wood with a piece of sand-paper glued in the oblong
space.
[Illustration: Fig. 30. Pencil sharpener]
The sand-paper suggested match scratchers, and as they are useful
articles, several designs were worked up for Christmas gifts. Three of
these are shown in Fig. 31, but after a good deal of discussion it was
decided that for scratching matches a longer space for sand-paper was
necessary, and three other designs (Fig. 32) were the result of several
hours' work.
[Illustration: Fig. 31. First match scratchers]
"I'm getting tired of match scratchers," exclaimed Harry; "let's make
some toys!"
[Illustration: Fig. 32. Later designs in match scratchers]
"Very well, we'll get ready for Santa Claus, and provide a stock of
things for our numerous young cousins," replied Ralph. "This will give
us a chance to use our coping saw, and I have been wanting to do that
for a long time."
V
TOYS
"In making presents for little children," said Ralph, "we must always
remember that the toys will be played with and receive a great deal of
rough handling. So to begin with, they must be strong and of simple
construction. The youngsters don't care so much for finely finished
articles as older people do, and they tire very quickly of things that
are so complicated that they get out of order easily. Suppose we first
make some neat boxes. They can be filled with candy, and after that is
gone they will be used for a long time to keep treasures in."
Fig. 33 shows the drawing of the first box the boys made. The two
oblong pieces form the top and bottom. The latter was nailed on with
3/8-inch brads. The two cleats were nailed to the under side of the
top to hold it in place, while the sides and ends were fastened with a
little glue, and one brad in the centre. This made a very serviceable
box, the material being basswood 3/16 of an inch thick.
[Illustration: Fig. 33. Toy box]
The sled shown in Fig. 34 came next, made of the same material as the
box. Ralph was delighted with its strength and graceful lines. Two
cleats were glued into the grooves in the sides, and the top nailed on
with 3/8-inch brads.
[Illustration: Fig. 34. The toy sled]
In each case the drawing was made directly on the wood, which was sawed
close to the lines with the coping saw, and finished to the lines with
the knife.
The dog house (Fig. 35) brought out some new features of construction.
The opening in front was cut out with the saw and finished as usual.
Sides and ends were then put together with glue. The two pieces forming
the roof were nailed together with 3/8-inch brads, to make a right
angle and were then placed in position and nailed to the front and back
pieces.
Ralph explained that it was a saving of time and trouble to draw a
light pencil line to mark the location of the brads. If this is not
done, the brads are apt to come out in the wrong place and will then
have to be withdrawn and placed again. This is a waste of time and it
very often spoils the looks of the work, so that the drawing of the
pencil lines really saves time in the end, and the lines can be erased.
[Illustration: Fig. 35. The dog house]
"We can make any amount of this dolls' furniture," said Ralph. "In
fact we could build a doll's house and equip it with chairs, tables,
and beds, but what the youngsters really like best is something that
works, something that moves, so I move--no pun intended--that we design
a toy that has some life to it. We can cut it out with the coping saw
and there need not be a great deal of knife work to it. Suppose we make
an Indian paddling a canoe!" This was more of a problem than they had
bargained for, as it was necessary to look through an encyclopædia to
find pictures of canoes, Indians, tomahawks, etc. Harry traced the
figure of an Indian chief, transferred it to the surface of a piece of
1/8-inch basswood, and on sawing it out found that he had a very good
silhouette of an Indian, but it did not move (Fig. 36). The problem
was still unsolved, and experiments along that line used up several
afternoons.
[Illustration: Fig. 36. Indian chief]
[Illustration: Fig. 37. Indian paddlers]
[Illustration: Fig. 38. Indian paddlers. Separate parts cut out and
assembled]
What was finally worked out is shown in Fig. 37. The arms were made
separate from the body, and were fastened to both the paddles and the
bodies by brads, which acted as pivots. The bodies were then fastened
to the canoe in the same way, but a little glue was used as well as
brads, as they were to be immovable. How to make the paddlers move in
unison was a hard problem, finally solved by fastening a narrow strip
of wood to the lower part of each paddle. It was found that by moving
this strip back and forth the two figures moved with the precision
of a machine. In each case where a pivot was required it seemed only
necessary to drive in a 3/8-inch brad. (Fig. 38.)
The success of this moving toy was so great that the boys went rushing
into the house to show it to the family.
Soon they came rushing back again, determined to try their skill on
something else. Ralph had to remind Harry that the Indian paddlers were
not yet finished, as the toy would not stand up, so the standards shown
at _b_ were sawed out, smoothed with the knife, and one fastened at
each end, as a support, by means of brads and glue.
[Illustration: Fig. 39. The fencers]
After much boyish arguing, it was decided next to try two swordsmen
fencing. This called for some posing, and looking in books to get the
correct position of a man fencing. The drawing shown in Fig. 39 was
finally copied from a book on athletic sports.
The different parts of the figures are shown clearly in the
illustration. It was found, by experimenting with paper figures, that
by making one leg of each figure in two parts, the body, arms, and
other leg could be sawed out of one piece.
The work of cutting out and assembling this combination, seemed much
easier now that the boys had gotten into the swing of it, and they were
so anxious to see it work that they almost spoiled it in their haste.
The swords, or foils, were made of two pieces of soft iron wire.
Ralph insisted on filing these out flat near the ends to make them look
realistic, and they were fastened by drilling a hole in each hand,
passing the wire through and clinching it with a pair of pliers. It was
much safer to drill these holes, as a brad awl sometimes splits wood
that is very thin. This combination worked to perfection, and while
they were trying it Harry caught a glimpse of its shadow on the table.
The silhouette in black looked even more realistic than the toy itself,
and it gave the boys an idea. (Fig. 40.)
These toys could be used for moving shadow pictures, and immediately
their imagination began to conjure up the programme of a show.
"Our first selection, ladies and gentlemen, will be a shadow picture,
entitled 'Before the Coming of the White Men'," exclaimed Harry, moving
the Indian paddlers.
[Illustration: Fig. 40. The fencers. Pieces assembled]
"And our next will be entitled 'The Duel'," said Ralph.
"Not a very good historical show," said Harry. "We ought to have the
'Landing of the _Mayflower_'."
"Not a bad idea, either," said Ralph. "I think we could rig up a ship
in a storm. Let's try that next."
VI
MOVING TOYS
The problem of making a ship roll proved somewhat of a strain on the
engineering corner of Ralph's brain, and after awhile Harry grew
restless.
"Can't you give me something to do while you are designing that ocean?"
he said.
Ralph, pausing a moment, replied, "Yes, try two men sawing a log."
Harry began to draw, but found that he knew very little about saws, so
had to go out and look at one, measured it, and after awhile produced
the sketch shown in Fig. 41. Ralph criticised it rather severely,
suggesting the addition of a log and saw buck, and advised that the
arms of the men and saw be cut out of one piece. The drawing shows the
separated pieces, two bodies, four legs, a saw and arms in one piece,
two straight pieces for the saw buck, the log, and a little triangular
piece to go between log and saw buck. The object of this triangle is to
leave a space between the log and saw buck for the passage of the saw
back and forth, as shown in the sectional view.
The two pieces forming the buck were halved together, and the log,
triangle, and buck are fastened with glue and two brads.
[Illustration: Fig. 41. The sawyers]
After all the pieces had been cut out, the men were first put together
by fastening both legs to the body with one 3/8-inch brad.
The feet were next fastened to the straight piece, 10 inches long,
representing the ground, by one brad through each foot, the bodies
standing upright, and the feet two inches apart. The arms came next,
with one brad through each man's shoulder, and lastly, the saw buck,
with the log already fastened rigidly to it, was nailed on the back of
the ground piece with the log in front of the saw. To make this toy
stand up, two standards were fastened to the ends of the ground piece,
the same size as those attached to the fencers in Fig. 40.
It took Harry two hours to make this figure in wood, after he had the
drawing finished. In the meantime Ralph had worked out a scheme for
giving a boat a rolling motion.
"We'll be mechanical engineers by the time we finish this," he told
Harry. "This piece of mechanism calls for a crank, a shaft, two
bearings, and a cam, not to mention a ship, an ocean, and a few
miscellaneous articles too trivial to mention."
[Illustration: Fig. 42. Boat in storm]
The various parts of "the ship in a heavy sea" are shown in Fig. 42.
At _a_ is the cam, at _b_ the crank and handle, and at _c_ the shaft.
The boat was sketched free hand and cut out with the coping saw in one
piece by sawing exactly on the lines. The ocean was represented by
two pieces corresponding to the ground piece in the sawyers, and the
wavy outline was not made until everything had been cut out and the
combination was ready for assembling.
The most difficult part--the shaft--was made first, and entirely with
the knife: A piece of basswood was cut exactly a quarter of an inch
square, a section was marked in the centre of this 3/16 inch wide, and
notches were made on each corner. The two ends were then whittled to
an octagonal shape and rounded. The square section in the centre was
reduced to 1/8 inch wide and the rounded ends sand-papered smooth.
Next, the cam was cut out, and the square hole made. This was
accomplished, after spoiling one, by drilling a quarter of an inch hole
in the square and cutting the opening square with the point of the
knife.
The object of the square opening was to prevent the cam from slipping
when in operation. The cam was then placed over the round part of the
shaft and glued to the square section, over which it fitted snugly.
Next came the crank. This was made the same shape as the cam, but the
1/4 inch hole drilled in one end was left round, while the other was
cut square as in the cam. The shaft fitted into the round hole and was
glued in after the assembling. For the handle on the crank, a piece
1/4 inch square was fitted into the square hole, and the rest of it
whittled round and sand-papered.
Two cleats, 2 inch × 1/4 × 3/16 inch, were cut out with the saw and
everything was ready for assembling. The two sides of the ocean were
held together and the 1/4-inch hole at _d_ drilled through both pieces
at once.
The two notches at _e_ were cut after the assembling was finished.
After the holes were drilled, the wavy line was sawed, and the two ends
of the shaft inserted in the holes with the cam inside.
The two cleats were inserted in the ends of the ocean and fastened with
brads and glue.
Next, the boat was slipped in between the two sides, with the sloping
stern just touching the cam, and a 3/8-inch brad was driven through the
three thicknesses, sides and boat.
The crank was next slipped over the shaft and glued in position. The
crank handle was inserted into the square hole and fastened with glue,
and lastly a light rubber band was slipped over the notch on the stern
of the boat and the two corresponding notches on the bottom of the
ocean. This was to hold the boat against the cam, which gives the
motion.
To make this toy more realistic, the boys got out a box of water
colors, painted the body of the boat black, the ocean green, and left
the basswood sails their natural color--white.
[Illustration: Fig. 43. Turkey and executioner]
"There," said Ralph when it was finished, "the youngsters can raise a
storm at any time they like by simply turning the crank. This toy ought
to be very serviceable, as it can't very well get out of order and is
almost unbreakable."
The subject of moving toys is almost endless, being limited only by the
imagination of the designer. Thanksgiving suggested the turkey and the
axe, and in the toy these boys worked out the turkey evades the axe
every time.
The parts are shown in Fig. 43. The legs of the turkey are stuck
rigidly to the body by brads and a little glue, and they are fastened
to the ground piece by one brad, which acts as a pivot.
The axeman's body and right leg are in one piece, the left leg being
in two pieces. The arms adhere rigidly to the body, and the axe to the
hands, by means of brads. The operating strip is 1/4 inch wide and 9
inches long.
It is fastened between the legs of the turkey, and to the rigid leg of
the man, by one brad for pivot in each case.
The stump is nailed to the ground strip from the front.
VII
DESIGNING MOVING TOYS
The boys found this making of toys so fascinating that one was barely
finished before another was suggested. So absorbed did they become that
even meals were forgotten, and they regarded it as a hardship to be
called in to supper, while to be told that it was bedtime was absolute
cruelty. They found that it saved time to be systematic, and the usual
method of procedure was about as follows:
[Illustration: Fig. 44. The boxers]
First, to decide on the practicability of the idea. Second, to sketch
out a skeleton figure, as in _a_ (Fig. 44), the boxers. When the proper
action was secured in these skeleton figures, the bodies were sketched
roughly around them as shown at _b_. Third, the movement of the figures
was thought out, and separate drawings traced from the assembled
drawing on tracing paper. Fourth, these separate pieces were traced on
1/8-inch basswood with the grain of the wood running the long way of
the piece, wherever it was possible. Fifth, the pieces were sawed out,
and the edges smoothed with knife and sand-paper. Very often, through
anxiety to see how it worked, the smoothing of the edges was neglected.
Sixth, the parts were put together with brads, and where the points
came through they were bent over or "clinched" on the further side.
Seventh, after experiments to discover the best position for it, the
moving strip was fastened to the legs by 3/8-inch brads, and last of
all the feet were pivoted to the ground piece in the same way.
[Illustration: Fig. 45. The boxers assembled]
The boys learned many things not to do: for example, all the finer
details of the face and hands must be omitted, as they are very apt
to be broken off in sawing. It was found best to make the feet nearly
round or the brads would split the wood. For that reason wherever a
brad has to be driven through, the arm or leg should be made larger
than the proportionate size.
[Illustration: Fig. 46. The racing automobile]
The most surprising feature about the figures was the fact that the
shadow they cast on a white wall or sheet was more realistic than the
figures themselves, and our boys never tired of exercising these toys
in order to watch the shadow pictures.
Of all combinations, perhaps the design and construction of a racing
automobile, that would actually go, gave them the greatest amount of
amusement as well as the largest number of problems to solve. The
history of trials and failures need not be given, but the machine, as
finished, is shown in Fig. 46. The body and hood are comparatively
simple. The principal trouble, as with larger machines, was with the
motive power, and the boys finally compromised by using a rubber band.
The four wheels were sawed out of 3/16-inch basswood, and smoothed with
sand-paper, the two driving wheels for the rear having a 1/4-inch hole
drilled to receive the ends of the axle. The rear axle was 1/4 inch
square at the centre for half an inch, and the rest of it 1/4 inch in
diameter, rounded with the knife and sand-paper. The total length of
the axle was four inches, and the wheel base seven and one-half inches.
For the driving gear, three disks shown at _a_ (Fig. 47) were sawed
out, the two large ones, 1-1/4 inches in diameter, from 1/8-inch
basswood. The edges of these two were rounded with knife and
sand-paper. The small disk, 3/4 inch in diameter, was cut from 1/4-inch
wood or two 1/8-inch pieces placed together and glued.
[Illustration: Fig. 47. Pieces of racing automobile]
A square hole was cut through the centre of each of these disks with a
knife, and they were then put together with glue and brads, making a
very serviceable grooved pulley, which was slipped over the shaft and
fitted over the square part in the centre. As it was a snug fit no glue
was necessary, and the square part prevented the pulley from slipping
on the shaft. The forward axle was made 3-3/4 inches long, 1/4 of an
inch square, except at the ends, where for a distance of 5/16 inch it
was rounded, 1/4 inch in diameter. This completed the wheels, axles,
and transmission pulley.
The chassis, or frame, which supports the body, consists of two pieces
of 3/16-inch basswood 8 inches long and 1/2 inch wide, with a 1/4-inch
hole drilled 1/4 inch from each end. The floor of the auto, on which
the body rests, is 1/8-inch basswood 6 × 3-1/2 inches, and it binds the
whole machine together, giving it strength and rigidity, but it must
not be fastened in place until the structure is ready for assembling.
The hood is simply a box 3-1/4 inches long, 2-1/2 inches wide,
and 1-1/4 inches high without a bottom. The top piece may be left
unfastened, if desired, with two cleats on the under side to hold it
in position. The hood then becomes an available place to keep small
articles, tools, etc.
The body of the automobile is composed of five pieces: the two sides of
the shape shown at _b_, the dash-board, to which they are fastened with
brads, the seat, and the back. This body can be taken off and replaced
by other bodies, made to represent roadsters, touring cars, limousines,
etc.
A block of 1/4-inch basswood 3/4 inch square is fastened to the
dash-board. This block has a 3/16-inch hole drilled through it at
an angle of forty-five degrees, and into this hole is glued the
steering-gear, consisting of a basswood stick, whittled to 3/16 inch
diameter, with a 1/8-inch wheel 1-1/4 inches in diameter fastened at
the top, _d_.
The method of assembling is important. First, insert the front and rear
axles through the holes or bearings in the chassis, or frame; then
nail the floor to the frame with 3/8-inch brads. This gives a rigid
structure to work on, the front edge of the floor being even with the
forward ends of the frame. Now screw into the under side of the floor,
1-1/4 inches from the front end, a 1/2-inch screw eye or screw hook, or
even a flat-head nail. This is to hold one end of the rubber band which
is to supply the motive power.
The hood may now be put together and fastened even with the front of
the machine by nailing it from the bottom with brads. The body is put
on by nailing the two sides to the dash-board, and the dash-board to
the hood. The seat and seat-back are afterward put in place with brads
and the steering-gear glued in position against the dash-board.
The wheels should be put on last of all. Before placing them in
position, slip two or three new rubber bands over the screw hook under
the car, and tie the free end to the driving pulley so tightly that the
cord will not slip on the pulley.
The front wheels are fastened to the axles by 1/2-inch flat-head wire
nails, and worked until they revolve freely on these pivots; the flat
head holds the wheel on.
The rear wheels are the drivers, and must be fastened rigidly to the
axle by glue. When the glue has hardened--this takes several hours--the
machine may be sent across the room on the floor by winding the rear
axle backward as much as the rubber bands will permit without breaking,
and setting the machine on the floor.
The first time the boys tried it, the rubber band uncoiled so quickly
that the auto shot across the room and nearly wrecked itself against
the wall. This was too realistic, especially as it broke one of the
forward wheels, and a new one had to be made.
When such an automobile is to be presented to little children who want
to draw it around with a string, it is necessary to remove the rubber
band; otherwise the rear wheels will drag.
When our boys had finished their machine, the question came up to
whom it should be given for Christmas, and Harry blurted out, "I want
it myself." This was the greatest of all their difficulties. When they
had finished a piece of work they hated to part with it, but Ralph was
older, and he knew that as Harry became interested in new things he
would gradually lose interest in the old ones. So they played with this
machine, made another with a roadster body, and auto races became the
rage for awhile. After several afternoons of racing, they decided, just
as their elders had done before them, that what their machines needed
was improved motive power. The accomplishment of this would take them
out of the realm of woodwork, so Ralph suggested that they stick to
their motto of "one thing at a time." "And our business just now is
woodwork."
VIII
THE MODEL AEROPLANE
The automobile experiment naturally suggested the aeroplane, and after
much reading of magazines and animated discussions as to the relative
advantages of biplanes, monoplanes, gliders, etc., the boys decided to
try their skill on a biplane of their own design, a combination of the
features and proportions of the Curtiss and Wright machines.
The automobile was child's play compared with the problems confronting
the young aviators in designing and working out a flying machine,
and, as in the former case, the question of motive power was the most
difficult. We might add it has not yet been satisfactorily solved.
Fig. 48 shows the general appearance of the boys' model, which was
eighteen inches long from front to back, and the planes, made of light
card-board, were 14 inches long and 3-1/2 inches wide. The frame,
braces, rudder, and tilting plane were made of 1/8-inch basswood, put
together with 1/2-inch brads clinched wherever the points came through.
The parts composing the frame were made first, and all small details,
such as rudder, propeller, tilting plane, etc., cut out later.
The separate parts are shown in the drawing. Four straight pieces like
_a_ were required to support the tilting plane in front, and two pieces
each _b_ and _c_ for the rudder in the rear. Two pieces _a_, one of _b_
and _c_ were fastened together by means of two uprights _d_, forming
one complete side of the machine. This was completed, and the second
side made identical with it.
These two sides were then fastened parallel with each other, rigidly,
by means of the two rudder posts _e e_ and the cross pieces _f f_, by
brads. The rudder posts bound the two sides rigidly at the rear, the
cross pieces at the centre, and at the forward end the tilting plane
was held in position by the brads, which also acted as pivots.
This made a remarkably light and yet strong framework. The card-board
planes were not placed in position until everything else was finished,
as they could be attached easily and quickly, but were very much in the
way when experiments were being made on the propelling apparatus.
Of course there had to be a propeller, and the problem of making it
required some practice.
Ralph introduced the subject by showing Harry how to make an
old-fashioned toy, shown in the detail drawing, of two pieces, one the
propeller, the other a balancing stick.
The propeller was made of a piece of 3/8-inch basswood, 4 inches long
and 1/2 inch wide. A 3/16-inch hole was first drilled at the exact
centre. The two ends were then whittled down to the shape shown at _k_.
The balancing stick was next whittled down until one end fitted tightly
into the hole drilled in the propeller, and the rest of the stick then
rounded until it was of uniform diameter. This stick was glued into the
hole, and allowed to dry.
There was plenty of work to do while the glue was hardening, as the
cross pieces _g g_ had to be fastened to the frame to prepare for the
installation of the power plant.
When the glue was dry, Ralph took the balancing stick between the palms
of his hands, drew his right hand toward him with a quick motion, at
the same time releasing the stick. To Harry's amazement, the whole
thing flew up and struck the ceiling, and for a few minutes aeroplanes
were forgotten while the two played with this interesting but ancient
toy.
[Illustration: Fig. 48. The toy biplane]
Ralph explained that the propeller was simply part of a screw thread,
and had actually worked its way through the air just as a screw works
its way into a piece of wood. Its lifting power had been shown by the
way it carried the balancing stick with it up to the ceiling.
"Now," he continued, "when we place a propeller horizontal it will worm
its way forward through the air in the same way and carry the aeroplane
with it, for the simple reason that it is so placed in the frame it
can't get out. As the free space it has to revolve in is only 3 inches,
we shall have to cut the blades down to about 2-3/4 inches to give it
clearance."
They whittled out a shaft 1-1/2 inches long and fastened the two
notched pieces _h h_ to it after placing the propeller in position
between the two cross pieces _g g_ which had been previously drilled
with 1/4-inch holes to act as bearings.
New rubber bands were then passed over the notches, stretched out to
the front and rear of the frame, and tied to cross pieces.
By winding up the propeller, these bands were twisted tightly, and when
the propeller was released, the bands unwound, causing it to revolve
rapidly.
The rudder was now pivoted in position by brads, and the two planes
fastened by the same method.
The power derived from the bands was not sufficient to propel the
aeroplane fast enough to support it in the air, so it was necessary to
experiment with strong thread until the centre of gravity was found.
It proved to be near the centre of the planes. Small holes were made
with an awl at this point, the thread passed through them and tied.
By suspending the aeroplane from a chandelier it took up a horizontal
position.
Then the forward tilting plane was elevated slightly and the propeller
wound up. On being released the aeroplane slowly and majestically
sailed through the air in a great circle, limited by the length of the
suspending thread.
The boys never tired of this toy and all it lacked was the ability to
fly in the open air, which would require a more powerful motor. This
would more than double the weight of the machine, and therefore call
for larger planes to support it. There you have the great problem of
the aviator.
Ralph wisely suggested that as they had not yet reached the stage of
designing gasolene motors they had better leave the aeroplane as it
was, or it would be necessary to abandon their woodwork, which neither
of them had any intention of doing.
IX
THE MONOPLANE
A very satisfactory monoplane can be made from the plans shown in Fig.
49.
The material for the frame should be quarter-inch white pine or spruce.
The six long strips are 30 inches in length, and for fastening, holes
should be drilled and the connection made by passing fine soft wire
through them and binding fast.
The top frame, formed of four of these long strips, should be made
first, with particular attention to the measurements, so that both
sides shall be exactly the same size and weight.
At the rear end the two long strips may be wired together temporarily.
The propeller shown in the drawing can be made at any time from a piece
of white pine 7/8 inch thick and 12 inches long by 1-3/4 inches wide.
It is a good piece of whittling work.
[Illustration: Fig. 49]
[Illustration: Fig. 49 (a). The toy monoplane.]
The 3/8-inch hole for the shaft should be bored first, and the
propeller blades reduced to a thickness of 1/8 inch at the centre of
the blade, and 1/16 inch or less at the edges.
The shaft needs to be strong, and should be made of a piece of 3/8-inch
dowel rod. Make a saw cut with back saw in the end, which is to be
fastened in the propeller.
When ready to assemble, push this end into the 3/8-inch hole in the
propeller, drive in a soft pine wedge with a little glue, and a rigid
fastening will result.
The groove in the rear end of the shaft is to take the thrust of the
propeller, and hold it in the machine. This groove may be readily cut
out with the knife, and smoothed with sand-paper. Two bearings are
necessary to hold the shaft in alignment. The forward one is a strip
of pine 1/4 by 3/4, with a 3/8-inch hole bored at the centre. This
hole should be sand-papered until the shaft turns in it freely. The
rear bearing is a strip 5/8 by 3/8 inch, laid out as shown at _a_. The
quarter-inch hole must be bored first. Next, drill two small holes with
a fine drill on either side of the hole for the wires which are to hold
the two pieces together. Next saw on the pencil line shown, removing
the small piece _x_. Test the bearing by placing the small grooved
section of the shaft in the quarter-inch hole to see if it turns
freely. When this has been accomplished, the propeller and its bearings
are ready for the monoplane.
Looking at the front view, the two uprights are 9 × 3/4 × 1/4 inches.
At the top ends they are rabbeted as shown, and wired to the top frame.
At the bottom they are wired to the long strips which form the long
sides of the bottom frame.
Before putting these uprights on, a 1/4-inch hole should be drilled
1-1/2 inches from the bottom of each. These are to receive the 1/4-inch
dowel rod which acts as the axle for the spool _s_. This rod should
be 10 inches or more in length, so that brads or wire may be passed
through the ends outside the uprights to keep the axle in place.
The small spool which acts as a pulley must be perfectly free to turn
on this rod, and be kept in place by two brads driven through drilled
holes on either side of it.
The front and lower parts of the frame are now ready to be assembled.
The four long strips constituting the body of the frame are all wired
together at the back, temporarily. To finish the forward part, saw out
a strip 3/8 × 1/4 inch, and form on each end a rounded bearing, as in
the automobile, for two wheels 1-3/4 inches in diameter. Saw the wheels
out of 3/16-inch basswood, drill a hole at each centre, place on the
bearing, and fasten in place with a flat-head wire nail and a small
washer next to the wheel. Sand-paper the wheels smooth, and see that
they turn freely. Tack the strip, or wire it to the uprights, as low
down as possible.
The rear end of the monoplane is a nice little problem. Cut out a block
of pine from 1 inch to 1-1/8 inches square. In the side facing the
front place a screw eye for fastening the spring or rubber bands.
The rudder is shown in the drawing. Drill two holes, as shown, and
drive in brads or flat-head wire nails, as large as the hole, so that
the rudder may be turned by hand, but not free enough to turn with the
wind.
Next drill a hole clear through the block for the axle of the tilting
planes.
It is not necessary that the axle be at the exact centre of the cube.
It should extend quite through both planes as well as the cube, and be
bent around the edges, so as to make them rigid. They should be snug
enough to turn by hand, but not loose enough for the wind to shift.
The four sides of the frame are now whittled down to fit the block, and
wired to it.
Last comes the question of motive power.
This is _the_ great problem. The writer is opposed to encouraging
boys to believe that these toy aeroplanes can be made to fly great
distances. The propeller would have to be made to revolve at high speed
for several minutes in order to accomplish this, and the tension of
rubber bands is not equal to it. The machines can be made to fly short
distances only. The problem of aviation is now a question of motors,
and the smallest gasolene motor, with its tank, etc., requires a fairly
large aeroplane to lift it. No doubt, the problem will be solved within
a short time, but it has not been done at the time of writing.
For this size of toy monoplane several large rubber bands may be tied
together, fastened at the screw eye on one end and to a piece of strong
linen kite cord at the other.
Pass this cord forward under the spool and up to the propeller shaft.
Drill a small hole in the shaft, draw the cord taut, and fasten it
through this hole.
While the model has no planes as yet, it is wise to get the propeller
working before putting them on, as the space for working is freer.
Wind up the propeller until the bands have been stretched to their
limit, then let go. It may be necessary to place wheels at the rear,
the same as in front. On a smooth floor, the machine should be drawn
forward several feet by the action of the propeller.
It is entirely practicable, on a plane of this size, to use the works
of an ordinary alarm clock in place of rubber bands.
Remove the outer casing of an old clock; loosen the four brass nuts
that hold the frame together, and take out all the wheels, except the
axle on which the mainspring is fastened. Put the frame together again
with the four nuts.
The axle for the mainspring extends outside of the frame, and is
threaded to receive the handle for winding. Take this handle off. Drill
a hole in the end of the propeller shaft, slightly smaller than the
mainspring axle, and screw the latter into the propeller shaft.
You now have the clock-works on the end of your shaft, and it is
necessary to fasten a strip of pine 1/2 in. by 1/4 in. to the upper
sticks of the frame in order to wire the works fast, as they must not
be allowed to turn. By turning the propeller you wind up the clock, and
as soon as you release it, as there is no escapement now to regulate
the spring, it tries to unwind at once, and the propeller starts at
terrific speed. Look out for your hands, as the propeller blades have
no conscience.
This action, although strenuous, is short lived, but much more powerful
than rubber bands. The spring of an ordinary alarm clock is powerful
enough to drive a wooden two-bladed propeller 12 inches in diameter
with blades two inches wide at the outside. It will draw a monoplane of
this size along the floor several feet.
Having finally decided the question of power, it remains to attach the
planes.
The remaining long strip is wired to the top pieces, 12 inches from
the front, and the plane, made of silk, oiled paper, or very thin
card-board, attached.
In many toy aeroplanes the bands of rubber are not stretched, but
twisted. The shaft in this case is a wire which, after being fastened
to the propeller, passes through a glass bead and then the frame,
ending in a hook to which the rubber bands are attached. There must be
a perfectly clear space from front to back of the frame. The glass bead
between the propeller and frame is to relieve the friction.
X
KITES
Making and experimenting with aeroplanes calls for much patience and
often ends in disappointment--the lot of inventors generally. This is
no reason why work should stop, as all progress is made by attempting
the supposedly impossible, but it will be restful after a while to turn
to the ancient and gentle art of kite making.
Incidentally, something may be learned about the effect of wind on
plane surfaces that will prove helpful in aeroplane work.
The aeroplane kite shown in Fig. 50 is simple and effective. It may be
given the appearance of a Blériot monoplane by modifying some of its
features, as shown at _b_, the planes having a slight upward slant. The
arrangement of the frames is clearly shown in the drawing. Spruce or
white pine may be used, as lightness is an essential.
The method of fastening the sticks is important. It is not wise to
halve them, as their strength will be reduced below the safety point,
and nails are likely to split them. Bind them securely with strong
linen kite cord or fine soft wire.
Kite _a_ is open to criticism on account of the single stick connecting
front and back. The second form is better, and the two long sticks may
be correspondingly lighter without reducing the ultimate strength of
the frame. The method of joining three sticks, as at the forward end,
is shown in detail in Fig. 50. Wherever a butt joint occurs, join the
two pieces by means of small strips of tin cut to size with a pair of
tinsmith snips. Drill holes through tin and sticks, pass fine soft wire
through the hole, and twist tightly with a pair of pliers.
The planes or sails may be of light, strong paper, or some light
fabric, such as lawn or cheap silk. The fabric should be cut to size,
allowing two inches each way for the hem. Pieces of cord are fastened
to the hem, and tied to the ends of the sticks through small holes
drilled for the purpose, or tied to notches cut with the knife.
The advantage of this method is that the sails, or planes, may be
drawn tightly or removed without loss of time. In this way a number
of fabrics can be used for experimental purposes. Paper, on the other
hand, must be lapped over sticks and wires, and glued.
Propellers may be fastened to front, rear, or both, to create the
appearance of a real aeroplane.
The restraining action of the cord holding one of these kites up
against the wind brings into action the same force that supports the
glider or aeroplane, and the sails, especially fabrics, assume the
curve of a boat sail, when close-hauled and sailing into the wind.
The forms that are possible are infinite, and limited only by the
imagination of the designer.
It is well to begin with one of the standard types, and leave
experimental forms until some experience has been gained.
The Americanized Malay, Eddy, or parakite is shown in Fig. 50. The two
sticks are of equal length, bound together with twine or soft wire.
Distance _c e_ should be from 14 to 18 per cent. of the total length _c
d_. The vertical stick remains straight, but cross stick _a b_ is bent
back like a bow, the distance _e f_ being 10 per cent. of the total
length of either stick, and maintained by a string from _a_ to _b_. The
four points _a c b d_ are joined by a cord drawn taut, to make sure
that the sticks are at right angles.
[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
The material should be cut as shown, the amount lapped being uniform
all around. This is important, as a slight difference in weight
between the two sides would result in erratic flying. For Eddy kites
up to three feet in height a light-weight wrapping paper will answer
very well. Larger sizes require nainsook, lawn, or China silk. Like all
the kites described here, this is a tailless one, and the method of
fastening the bridle is shown. Make a small hole in the covering, pass
a cord through, and tie it to cross the stick at its centre. Fasten the
other end about half an inch from lower end of upright, and make a loop
at _o_ for attaching the line.
The kite line should be the light and strong linen twine made
especially for this purpose, and sold by toy and sporting goods
dealers. A ball containing 600 yards of cord, strong enough to hold any
three-foot kite, will cost about fifty cents.
For larger sizes, it pays to make a reel, to save time drawing in and
to avoid bad tangles. A simple form of reel is shown in Fig. 51.
The frame has a generous-sized hole bored as shown at _h_. Cut a small
branch in the form shown, _i_, and use this as a stake. Drive it into
the ground through _h_, and use it as a pivot to shift the reel as the
wind changes. With this arrangement the kite cannot drag the reel, and
it is possible to leave the apparatus with the kite in the air. The
writer was driven to using this device after seeing his reel go tearing
across the fields until stopped by a four-foot fence. The pull exerted
at the reel by a train of three or four kites is sometimes sufficient
to give a boy all he can do to hold it. The height to which a kite will
go is illustrated by the diagram. _S_ is the starting point, and _s t_
the direction of the string at the start, when but little cord has been
played out. The position of the kite at various times is indicated by
letters _a b c d e_, the actual path being shown by dotted line. The
solid, curved lines from _s_ to these points show the position of the
cord as it is played out. This is a mathematical curve resulting from
the weight of cord and kite, wind pressure on cord, and lifting power
of the plane.
It will be seen that the kite finally moves along horizontally, no
matter how much cord is played out. This occurs when the lifting power
equals the force of gravity and wind pressure. In other words, the kite
can do no more without an increase of wind.
To make it go higher, we must raise point _s_ by tandem flying,
attaching another kite and cord to the first one, as shown at _x_.
Three or four Eddy kites may be flown in this way, the lines of equal
or unequal length joined at a common point to the main line; and,
strange as it may seem, if they are well balanced kites they will not
interfere with each other. In fact, there seems to be an electrical
repulsion among the lines, so that they spread out like a broom.
This is one of the most interesting discoveries in kite flying, though
badly upset in actual practice, when one member of the team becomes
erratic and proceeds to make a braid of the four cords by diving under
and over the others to bring about a general demoralization. For this
reason, it is wise to test each kite separately, first, to discover any
possible tendency to freakishness.
A weird experience may be enjoyed by leaving the tandem out after dark.
Run the main line down by slipping it under your arm, and walk out
until you reach the junction of the four lines, where a light-weight
lantern can be attached. Let go, and see the lantern apparently drawn
up into the air by noiseless, invisible hands.
Flags and other devices may be attached as indicated in the drawing; a
light stick at _a b_ will keep the flag from blowing up into a heap,
and loops at _a_ and _c_ are tied in the main line to avoid sliding.
THE BOX KITE
[Illustration: Fig. 51. Kite details]
The cellular kite is made in several forms. The rectangular box variety
is perhaps the most common, and with the bridle attached is shown in
Fig. 51. The standard dimensions are: length _a b_ 79 inches, width
_a c_ 78 inches, depth of cell _c d_ 32 inches, and width of cloth
covering _c e_ 25 inches. A very convenient size is obtained by
dividing approximately by two, making length and width 40 inches each,
and depth 16 inches.
Mr. H. H. Clayton, of the Blue Hill Observatory, has patented one
form of this kite known as the "Blue Hill Naval Box Kite," so the
amateur must confine his use of it to experimenting. Other forms of
cells which have been used are shown at 2 3 4 5. These all possess
the advantage--that each plane is a lifting surface, whereas in the
rectangular form the vertical planes have only a rudder action, tending
to hold the kite parallel with the wind.
When launching a box kite, the assistant stands in front of and under
it, while with the Malay he stands behind it and lets go at a given
word. About a hundred yards of line should be run out before launching,
and only a few steps backward by the boy at the string should be
necessary. Running is only required when the line out is insufficient.
[Illustration: Fig. 52. The tetrahedral kite]
The tetrahedral form invented by Dr. Graham Bell is unique and
interesting. Based on the geometrical figure, it has a remarkable
strength of frame, and possesses a surprising lifting power. The
principal difficulty in the construction is in fastening the sticks,
as three of them meet at every point. The frame consists of six pieces
of equal length. Drill a 1/32-inch hole in each end of all the pieces,
about 1/4 inch from the end. Place the pieces on the floor as shown
at 1. Pass a piece of soft iron or brass wire through the three holes
at _a_ and bind lightly. Do the same at angles _b_ and _c_. Now raise
loose ends _d e f_ until they meet over the centre, as at 2. Join with
wire and tighten all the joints with a pair of pliers. (Fig. 52.)
Each face of the frame is an equilateral triangle, and the covering is
to be on only two sides, as shown at 3. The shape of the piece to be
cut is shown at 4. This forms a single cell, and the large sizes are
broken up into many small tetrahedral cells. The line may be tied at
_c_ or _d_.
The designing of fancy figure kites is a fascinating occupation,
but unless certain fixed principles are kept in mind may end in
much experimenting and many disappointments. The question of
steadiness or stability seems to be summed up in the mathematical
expression--"dihedral angle."
A kite having a stiff, flat surface presented to the wind will often
cut up queer antics, while the same frame covered with a more flexible
covering will fly beautifully. The reason is that the flexible covering
will be bowed back by the wind, forming an approximate "dihedral angle."
In the triangular box and tetrahedral kites this bowing back is not so
necessary, because the dihedral angle is provided in the construction.
In these kites, when a sudden gust of wind presses harder on one side
than on the other, the first side is pressed back, reducing the
resistance, and the other side is brought forward until both sides
receive equal pressure, or the kite is in equilibrium, facing the wind;
and the shifting of the breeze is constantly provided for. The bowing
back of the covering of an Eddy kite takes care of sudden changes in
the same way. Double Malay kites or two tetrahedral kites, fastened
together, tandem fashion, will be found stable, especially if the rear
one be slightly smaller than the forward one. (Fig. 53.)
[Illustration: Fig. 53. Double kites]
Geometrical forms like the hexagon, six-pointed star, and even the
circle are used, but these generally require a tail.
A butterfly design may be used, provided the body is designed as a keel
and the two wings are tilted backward to provide the required angle.
In some of the Chinese kites, in the form of insects, the wings have
split bamboo frames, flexible enough to bend backward and provide the
necessary stability. A flexible lower end on the frame also has a good
balancing effect.
XI
CHIP CARVING AND KNIFE WORK
"Making moving toys is a form of dissipation," said Ralph. "It is very
fascinating and interesting, but the making of many toys will never
make one an expert woodworker. The accuracy and skill required can be
developed only by actual constructive work. I suggest that we take up a
form of decoration which can be done with the knife.
"There are two ways of making an article in wood pleasing to the eye.
One is by varying the outline, as we did in our match scratchers, and
the other is by some kind of surface ornamentation. There are many ways
of decorating surfaces--carving, pyrography, staining, polishing, etc.,
and very often several of these methods are combined.
"As we have started to learn the possibilities of knife work, I propose
to teach you a form of carving which can be done with the knife alone.
Very elaborate work is done with the regular carving tools. This
requires a great deal of time and skill, but with the knife alone a
wonderful variety of beautiful work can be done even by small boys.
"It is very important to approach it properly, so I am going to give
you a few simple exercises and the elaborate designs will come along
naturally.
"The work is not new, and evidently grew out of the still older art of
notching. Primitive peoples probably saw in it a way to improve the
appearance of their various wooden implements. Not only could the edges
be notched, but the cutting could be done on flat surfaces as well."
[Illustration: Fig. 54. First cuts in carving]
Fig. 54 at _a_ shows one of the earliest designs. It is simply a border
of triangular cuts, and while this may be done with the whittling
knife, Fig. 55 shows two knives which are better fitted to do accurate
work.
[Illustration: Fig. 55. Two good types of knife for carving]
The positions for carving are shown in Fig. 56. Hold the knife in an
upright position, with the cutting edge away from you, and the point on
the apex of the triangle. Press the knife down and then away from you
along one of the sides of the triangle. Place it in position again, and
repeat the motion along the other side of the triangle, always directly
on the line. This brings the deep part of the cut at the apex of the
triangle, and it remains to take out the triangular chip. This can be
done in either of the two ways shown in Fig. 56, by cutting away from
you or toward you. It is well to practise both ways, as in complicated
designs the direction of the grain makes it necessary to cut sometimes
in one direction, sometimes in another.
The rest of this border is a repetition of the same stroke, and the
more elaborate designs are simply different arrangements of triangular
cuts.
In Fig 54, _b_ shows two rows of these same shaped cuts, one row
inverted, to produce a diamond-shaped border; _c_ shows a border in
which the drawing is similar to _b_, but vertical triangles are cut
instead of horizontal ones, as this gives a cut across the grain of the
wood instead of parallel to it, and is a trifle harder.
[Illustration: Fig. 56. Positions for holding carving knife]
Our boys practised on these simple borders for awhile, using knife _a_
and 1/4-inch basswood. The work proved fully as fascinating to Harry
as the making of toys, and it was decided that from that time onward
the outlines of their woodwork should be simpler, and the decoration
should be in the form of chip carving.
[Illustration: Fig. 57. A simple picture frame with carving]
While Harry was practising on these simple borders Ralph made the
basswood photograph frame shown in Fig. 57, and drew the carving
design, as shown, with an H pencil.
To carve this was simply to repeat border _b_. This was so
satisfactory that Ralph decided to try his pupil on finer work, and
the design shown in Fig. 58 was tried. In each case Harry found that
he was making triangular cuts, and removing triangular chips, just as
in the first border, only the triangles were in different positions.
Ralph suggested that they begin to decorate some of the things they had
already made, and the little basswood box shown in Fig. 33 was brought
out, and the design shown in Fig. 59 drawn and carved upon it.
[Illustration: Fig. 58. A more elaborate picture frame]
There followed a number of "backs," which Ralph explained could be
used as thermometer backs, match scratchers, calendars, key racks, and
in other ways. In each case, the design was drawn carefully on paper,
and thence transferred to the surface of the wood with the same care
that it had been done on paper. The designing required considerable
thought.
[Illustration: Figs. 59 and 60. Designs for box covers]
Where a border continued around four sides, the corner became the most
difficult and interesting part of the design, and was worked out first.
(Fig. 61.)
[Illustration: Fig. 61. Straight line designs for thermometer backs]
Very soon the boys found that it was necessary to draw only half the
design on paper, and in many cases a corner or quarter sufficed.
The next step was to initiate Harry into the mysteries of curved
cutting, a departure from triangular cutting.
He was informed that the cuts were still three-sided, one or two of the
sides being but slightly curved.
[Illustration: Fig. 62. Curved cuts.]
Fig. 62, used as an enrichment of a "back" in 3/8-inch gum wood, was
Harry's first effort in curved chip carving. The edges of the blank
piece were bevelled with a plane and Ralph showed his pupil how to do
this by holding the blank against a bench hook. The long sides were
bevelled first, the ends last, to avoid breaking off the corners.
[Illustration: Fig. 63. Key rack]
The key rack (Fig. 63) gave an opportunity to use centre pieces inside
a border, diamonds of the flat surface being left uncarved for the
placing of the screw hooks.
A pencil box for school followed, the various pieces being shown in
Fig. 64. The two sides and ends were made in one strip 1-1/4 inches
wide, and afterward cut to length. To secure this strip of uniform
width, the shooting board shown in Fig. 65 was used, the plane being
laid on its side, giving the 1/4-inch piece of gum wood a perfectly
square edge.
[Illustration: Fig. 64. The pencil box]
Ralph was having his own troubles as a teacher about this time, for he
wanted to reserve Harry's education in the use of bench tools until
later on, when he should have exhausted the possibilities of the knife;
but this method of using the plane was necessary if Harry was to
produce blank forms fit for decoration.
The six pieces being squared up, a 1/4-inch margin was left on all
sides of the pieces to be carved--the top, front, and two ends.
This 1/4-inch space was for the brads.
[Illustration: Fig. 65. Use of shooting board]
The assembling was not done until the carving had been finished, and it
consisted of fastening the long sides to the ends with 5/8-inch brads,
with a little glue on the end grain of the end pieces. The bottom
was put on with brads, and the top hinged to the back by two small
nickel-plated hinges. A little hook and eye from the hardware store
were put at the front to hold the cover on, and two small cleats were
glued to the under side of the cover to keep it from warping.
The time spent on this pencil box was several hours, but the result was
a box the like of which could not be bought.
[Illustration: Fig. 66. Carving designs for pencil box]
Pencil boxes became the rage with our boys, and although they made
several of the same size, in each case the design was different. (Fig.
66.)
XII
CHIP CARVING: CONTINUED
Among the many useful articles which can be made with the knife in thin
wood, with carving as enrichment, are the numerous desk accessories,
such as envelope holders, letter racks, stamp and pen boxes, pen trays,
blotting pads, etc. The boys, after exhausting the subject of pencil
boxes for school use, took up the design and construction of letter
racks. These, they decided, should be in two compartments for answered
and unanswered letters. This called for three uprights, or partitions,
and a base. They decided to make them of about uniform dimensions,
as shown in the blank form (Fig. 67). The problem of the outline was
somewhat affected by the fact that the front was to be carved. This
called for a simpler outline than would have been the case had they
expected to leave the surface plain. Some of the designs they worked
out are shown in Fig. 68.
The form marked _a_ was selected as a beginning, the three partitions
cut out exactly alike, and the front piece carved as shown in Fig. 69.
The middle partition and back piece were left with plain surfaces.
[Illustration: Fig. 67. Parts of letter rack]
The cutting of the grooves in the base was a new problem, and Harry
was allowed to try his skill with a chisel. The method used was first
to make the drawing shown at _a_, Fig. 67. The long side lines of each
groove were scored with the point of the knife, going over each line
several times, to make the cut as deep as possible. An under cut was
then made, as shown in the figure.
[Illustration: Fig. 68. Boys' designs for letter racks]
The wood in the centre was removed with a 1/4-inch chisel, and the
process continued until a uniform depth of 1/4 inch was reached. After
all three grooves had been cut, the edges of the base were bevelled
with the plane. This bevelling could have been done readily with the
knife, but much time was saved by using the plane, always doing the
long sides first.
In all the letter racks shown in the illustrations the construction
was the same. First, the three blank partitions were made, then
finished in their outlines with knife and sand-paper. The carving was
always drawn carefully on the surface of the front piece. Third, came
the making of the base, and last, the gluing of the partitions into
the grooves. To increase the strength of a letter rack, 3/4-inch brads
can be driven from the bottom into the partitions, but where this is
done it is safer to draw pencil lines on the bottom directly under the
centre of each partition. Place the point of the brad exactly on the
line before hammering.
[Illustration: Fig. 69. Form "A"]
Although the forms of the letter rack are endless, the one which our
boys found most interesting was based on the ellipse. It called forth
a very instructive drawing lesson. Ralph showed Harry first how the
figure could be drawn by a string, with two pins to represent the foci
of the ellipse. The figure has two dimensions called the major axis
and minor axis. (Fig. 70).
[Illustration: Fig. 70.]
The combined length of the two lines drawn from any point on the
ellipse to the two foci must always be the same and equal to the length
of the major axis. This is readily seen with the two pins and string.
(Fig. 71.)
[Illustration: Fig. 71. Drawing the ellipse with string and pins]
The pencil point as it traverses the ellipse represents any point,
and the string remains the same length. Where it is required to draw
an ellipse of definite size, say two by three, it becomes necessary
to find the foci before the string can be used, and as it requires
considerable skill to get the string the exact length, Ralph showed the
boy another way, called the trammel method. (Fig. 72.)
Suppose the problem is to construct an ellipse 6 inches × 2-1/2 inches.
First draw the two lines _a b_ and _c d_ at right angles, intersecting
at the exact centre. Take a straight piece of paper, lay it along _a
b_ with one end at _a_. Make a dot on the edge of the paper where the
lines cross, and mark it _x_. Next, lay the same strip of paper along
_c d_, with the original end at _c_, and again mark a point where the
lines cross. Mark this point _y_. At any position of this strip of
paper when the points _x_ and _y_ touch the two axes _a b_ and _c d_,
the end of the paper strip will be on the ellipse. By shifting this
paper trammel and keeping the two points on the axes a series of points
may be made at the end of the paper. Connecting this by a pencil line
will complete the ellipse. This is a very simple method and a very
accurate one.
[Illustration: Fig. 72. The trammel method]
[Illustration: Fig. 73. The ellipse used in carving designs]
Our boys drew this figure, 6 × 2-1/2 inches, with a trammel and
then worked out the design from it shown in Fig. 73. It made a very
satisfactory form for the letter rack, and gave an elliptical space for
carving, a new problem in chip carving design.
[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
Two more of these elliptical designs are shown in Fig. 74.
Another feature of this rack was a change in the middle partition; the
form is shown at Fig. 75. The making of the base and gluing into the
grooves were similar to the earlier designs.
The next design was characterized by an outline composed largely of
straight lines.
The middle partition was lower than the front and back pieces, as shown
in Fig. 75.
[Illustration: Fig. 75. A neat design for a letter rack]
The boys found a great deal of pleasure in working out a decorative
scheme for the carving. Having discovered how easy it is to carve
the long flowing curves, they introduced them wherever possible. The
general shape of the carved section must of course conform to the
outline of the wood, but while filling in these flowing curves they
soon learned to sketch them in free-hand.
[Illustration: Fig. 76. A letter rack decorated with the veining tool]
To a person who has not tried this work or who has not begun with
simple cuts it appears very difficult, but when it is remembered that
only one cut can be made at a time and that each chip is a triangle,
even if its sides are slightly curved, it actually proves very easy,
and within the power of any normal boy to accomplish.
[Illustration: Fig. 77. The pen-holder]
Harry was introduced at this time to the use of the veining tool, a
fine gouge with a cross section almost V-shaped. This was used to
emphasize the outlines of the designs by simply pushing ahead directly
on the lines. When veining straight lines, it may be guided by a
ruler or other straight edge, but for curves, a free-hand movement is
necessary. A very good practice piece is the design shown at Fig. 76.
This may be applied to the front of the letter rack design. (Fig. 69.)
The pen-holder shown at Fig. 77 is one of a large number which were
made by the boys. The pieces were cut out with a knife to the blank
forms shown. On all pieces like these, afterward to be assembled, the
edges were made straight and square on the shooting board, and the
carving done before assembling. This pen-holder was put together with
3/4-inch brads with the exception of the front, which was glued, as
it was thought best not to have nails showing on this important side.
(Fig. 78.)
[Illustration: Fig. 78. Pieces composing pen-holder]
[Illustration: Photograph by Arthur G. Eldredge. Using the Veining Tool]
XIII
CHIP CARVING AND KNIFE WORK (See 31, 109)
"I like this new work better than anything we have ever done," said
Harry one day when he and Ralph were up to their ears in carving,
whittling, and designing.
Ralph smiled as he remembered Harry's intense interest in making moving
toys. "As I told you once before," he replied, "this is not new but
old. The people of northern Europe have done it for centuries, and the
reason is not hard to find. In Norway during the long winter it gets
dark very early, in some places at three o'clock in the afternoon, and
does not become light again until nine o'clock in the morning. The
result is very, very long evenings, when it is much more comfortable to
work indoors.
"At an early era the people developed this beautiful art of carving,
and spent their long evenings in working at it. They became very
skilful and as most of the household utensils were of wood, it was not
at all unusual to see the household furniture, even to their bread
boards, beautifully carved."
"By the way," said Harry, "can't I make a paper knife now? You know you
said I could after I had learned to use the knife!"
"Yes, I think you might try your skill on something of that character
now. It will be quite a change from this flat work we have been doing.
It will require a harder wood, however, than you have been using, as a
paper knife must be thin and strong at the same time.
"The Swedish carvers use apple wood a great deal for their paper
knives, but as this is rare with us, suppose we try rock maple. It is
white in colour, close grained, and hard."
As usual, they worked up their design on paper first and sketched in
the carving shown in Fig. 79.
A piece of rock or sugar maple was first squared up and laid out in
pencil as shown at _B_. In order to get the outline to conform exactly
to the drawing, the form was cut out of paper and traced on the face of
the wood. The blank form was then whittled out to the pencil line, and
sand-papered smooth as shown at _c_.
Maple proved to be a hard wood to whittle.
Notches were cut at _d d_ after drawing the edge view on front and
back edges. The blade and handle were then whittled down to lines _e_
and _f_.
[Illustration: Fig. 79. Two designs for paper knives]
"Whew!" exclaimed Harry, "don't ever give me any maple to whittle
again."
"Well, you wanted to make a paper knife, didn't you? A paper knife that
would break when it fell on the floor wouldn't be of much use, and you
are not through yet. The blade must be cut down to a fairly sharp edge
on both sides now."
This was done by bevelling the edges as shown in _h_ and the bevel
gradually cut back to the centre line, as shown at _i_ and _j_. Harry
concluded that this was the hardest work that he had ever done.
[Illustration: Fig. 80. Key rack designs]
"Now you understand," said Ralph, "why I couldn't allow you to make a
knife at first. All the training I have given you was necessary before
you had the requisite skill and control of your hands. The carving will
be easy for you because of all this practice. Skill is something which
comes that way. Why, if I should give you the problem of making that
first key rack over again, you would do it in about one third of the
time, and very much better than at your first attempt. You have been
gaining skill without knowing it.
"Just to show you how much you have advanced, I will give you one or
two key rack designs to be decorated with chip carving. When they are
finished, take them into the house and compare them with the first you
made. I think you will be amused at the difference. That original piece
of which you were so proud will seem a very crude affair now."
"All right," said Harry, "but I should like to make one more paper
knife first if you don't mind."
"Very well; make up a new design, because no artist ever duplicates his
work," said Ralph with a mischievous smile.
The smile was premature, however. The boy had not been designing
woodwork for nothing. The design is shown at No. 2, Fig. 79, and even
Ralph, severe critic though he was, had to admit that it was "pretty
fair."
"Looks like a table knife," he said seriously. "However, it is your own
design, so go ahead and make it. Try a piece of cherry this time. It
makes a good wood for carving, and is not quite so hard to whittle as
maple."
The different steps in the process of cutting this out were the same as
in No. 1, Fig. 79.
[Illustration: Fig. 81. The blotter pad]
The key rack shown in Fig. 80 was comparatively easy after making
paper knives. The bevelling of the curves at the ends was the only new
feature of the knife work.
[Illustration: Fig. 82. Method of using the spokeshave]
The making of presents went rapidly onward from this time. The next
article to engage our woodworkers' attention was the blotting pad,
made of two pieces of black walnut fastened together with the screw
handle. (Fig. 81.) The blotter is bent around the curved face of the
lower part, and the ends gripped between the two parts by tightening
the screw. These handles with screw attached are of brass, and can be
obtained at any hardware store.
The upper piece was bevelled, and a circular space in the centre left
plain to provide for the handle, the rest of the space being carved.
The making of the curved face on the bottom was too difficult for the
knife, so the boy worked it out with the plane and spokeshave shown in
(Fig. 82).
When these blotter pads are finished with the brass handle, coloured
blotter and hand-carved top, they are very attractive, and make
acceptable presents.
Toilet boxes were next in order, and there seemed no end to them;
glove boxes, collar boxes, handkerchief boxes, boxes for storing away
photographs, etc. Those for collars were square, viewed from the top,
while glove boxes were made long and narrow.
The construction of these called for the use of carpenters' tools, and
Ralph was not ready to start his pupil on this branch of woodwork yet,
for several reasons.
In the first place, it meant a halt in the fascinating work of carving,
and they had not yet exhausted the possibilities of knife work. So they
tried the plan of buying ready-made boxes from the stores. This was
not entirely satisfactory, as most of them were of basswood, soft, and
easily carved, but so white that it became soiled too readily. This
difficulty finally led to a unique scheme. They stained the wood a dull
ebony, and found that the design showed very clearly in gray pencil
lines, easily carved.
The carving came out white on a black background, and proved quite
satisfactory for the coarser designs. The finer work, however, did
not show to advantage, and the method was adopted of leaving certain
portions of the surface plain.
One of the glove box designs is shown in Fig. 83.
The lines made in this black and white carving by the veining tool are
very effective.
[Illustration: Fig. 83. Design for glove box]
The boys had just gotten nicely at work one afternoon when Harry
remarked very seriously: "On what subject shall our lecture be this
afternoon, professor?"
A block of white pine hurtled across the shop, but Harry ducked and no
one was hurt.
"No," said Ralph, "you can't start a discussion to-day. I've been
thinking that you will have to take up the use of bench tools pretty
soon, because you are really doing this work backward."
"What do you mean?"
"Why, you should never decorate anything which you haven't actually
made."
"Well, haven't I made everything we have carved so far?"
[Illustration: Fig. 84. Double photo frame]
"All except the boxes. When we bought those boxes, that was a signal
that it was time for you to begin constructive work. It has been a big
problem to give you carving to do on articles in the flat that you
could make with the knife. We will make a few picture frames, carve
them, and then leave our carving until you can construct anything in
wood. You will always be able now to design carved work for any given
space; one of these picture frames, however, is going to be a rather
severe test of your skill."
Fig. 84 shows the first photograph frame they took up, a simple design
in one piece.
The openings for the pictures were cut out with coping saw and knife
and bevelled. The bevels on the outer edges of the frame were planed.
[Illustration: Fig. 85. Carved picture frame]
Fig. 85 shows a problem in designing for irregular spaces, and the
design is a typical Swedish form. In both of these frames it was
necessary to provide a method of holding the photo on the back.
This was accomplished by tacking on two strips of 1/8-inch basswood on
each side, and the bottom as shown in Fig. 85, the narrow strip being
1/4 inch wide, and the top one 1/2 inch wide, making a groove 1/8 inch
deep to receive the picture. If it is designed to have glass in front
of the photo, the narrow strip must be 1/4 inch thick in place of 1/8
inch.
The problem of polishing carved work is rather a difficult one.
Ordinary varnish or shellac cannot be used to advantage, as on flat
surfaces, because it fills up the spaces and ruins the effect.
Perhaps the best method is to dissolve a small quantity of beeswax
in turpentine, and rub in with an old tooth or nail brush, which is
comparatively soft. This will not injure the carving, and will protect
it from dampness and dust, as the wax hardens. It should be put on when
about the consistency of soft putty.
[Illustration: Fig. 86. Palette photograph frame]
The photo frame shown (Fig. 86) was the last form our boys attempted in
the flat.
It has the advantage of simplicity, only one kind of cut being used;
but the long flowing lines, which must be first drawn on the wood
free-hand, require all the patience and skill one can command.
The form in outline is the artist's palette, and the opening for the
picture an ellipse.
All the lines in the carving converge to a point to the left of the
centre of the opening.
XIV
THE SHOP
The man who is most successful is the one who is best prepared for his
work. In beginning to learn how to use woodworking tools, the average
boy is very often hampered by the lack of facilities. The place he is
to use for his shop should at least have good light. Many of the lines
he uses are knife lines, which are harder to see than pencil lines, so
that light at least is an essential.
The tools should be as good as he can obtain. This does not mean that
it is necessary to have elaborate sets of chisels, gouges, etc., but
the cutting tools should be of well tempered steel. It is far better to
have a few very good tools than an elaborate equipment of poor ones,
such as the boy's ready-made tool chest often contains.
A good workman is one who can do a large variety of good work with a
few well-selected tools.
One reason for our having given so much space to knife work was to
illustrate this very fact. Very often the carved pieces described in
previous chapters are salable at good figures, and from the money thus
obtained a supply of bench or carpenters' tools can be bought.
Next to a well lighted place in which to work, a fairly good bench is
essential. This can be made by the boy himself, if he cannot secure
one already built, but as the construction of a bench presupposes some
previous practice with tools, we will assume that our readers receive
their first tool practice on a bench already built, just as Harry did.
Several forms of benches on the market are shown in Fig. 87.
The bench to be of any use must have a vise of some description, as
very often both hands are required to guide the tool, and the wood must
be held rigid.
The old-fashioned screw vise is cheap, and a cheap vise may be made at
a cost of half a dollar, by purchasing the screw and nut and making the
jaw and guides by hand, but this again calls for the use of a bench. So
taken all in all it will pay the young woodworker to save his money and
buy a good vise even if the bench is home-made.
This is just where our boys had their first argument; Harry wanted to
begin by building a work bench.
[Illustration: Fig. 87. Types of work bench]
"That is where you are wrong," said Ralph. "Perhaps you remember that
you wanted to begin knife work by making a paper cutter, and as a
matter of fact it was very nearly the last thing I gave you to do. It
required all your skill and previous practice to accomplish it. It will
be just the same with the bench and vise. You will be able to construct
them, but only after considerable experience with tools. You might as
well insist on making all your tools before starting to use them or you
might insist on going into the woods, cutting down trees and ripping
out your own planks for stock. Just wait a minute."
He went into the house and came out with a pamphlet on lumbering, which
he opened at the picture shown in Fig 88. It represents the old style
of sawing out planks by hand before the coming of the saw-mill.
The man in the pit is called a pit man, the one on the log, the sawyer.
This method of cutting lumber was in vogue up to about fifty years ago.
"This," said Ralph, "is what your line of reasoning would lead us back
to, so if I am to be your instructor you must leave these things to my
judgment, and my advice is to start work with a good bench having on it
a good vise."
[Illustration: Fig. 88. The old way of getting out lumber]
To let you into a family secret, the boys' work in carving had been
admired by several friends and they had worked up quite a trade in
making and selling their carvings. From the money they had saved they
purchased the bench shown in Fig. 89. It was very well built, having
a heavy top of 3-inch maple and a modern quick action vise. The seven
drawers underneath were not really necessary, but the boys found them
very handy for storing tools, nails, screws, unfinished work, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 89. Bench with quick action vise]
The space under a bench is very apt to become a catch-all and a
nuisance, so as time went on they concluded that the extra cost of this
bench was justified, although at the time the price seemed very high.
Some of the cheaper benches they looked at are shown in Fig. 87.
The quick action vise was a great time saver, as it could be pulled
wide open or pushed back without turning the handle, as in the old
screw vises.
A dozen of these quick action vises are on the market, and may be had
at hardware stores for from four dollars upward.
This flat topped bench had no tool rack, and could consequently be
worked on from any side. At first, the owners kept most of their tools
in the large drawer at the top, but later on they made a good sized
tool cabinet, which was fastened to the wall and will be described
later.
The iron bench stop also proved a valuable feature, as it could be
fastened at any desired height by a set screw, or dropped down out of
the way below the level of the bench top. When planing thin wood, one
end of the board is braced against the bench stop. Ralph found that
starting with a new bench had another advantage. It helped his pupil to
take good care of the bench. Harry was very careful not to saw or cut
it as he might have done with an old bench, and to foster this spirit
of carefulness, Ralph gave him for his first problem the making of a
bench hook. (Fig. 90.) The tools used in its construction were:
24-inch rip saw Brace and 1/4-inch bit
20-inch cross cut saw Countersink bit
Marking gauge 1-1/2-inch flat head screws
Try square 6 inches Piece of maple, planed to 7/8-inch
15-inch jack-plane thick, 12 inches long, 10 inches wide
[Illustration: Fig. 90. The bench hook]
The maple board was first laid out as shown at _a_, a pencil line
being drawn 2 inches from one edge. The piece was placed in the vise
horizontally, and both long edges planed straight and true and tested
with the try square.
The block was then placed upright in the vise, and the ends planed
square with the block plane. This required much explaining and
practise, as the block plane has a bad habit of breaking off the
farther corner.
Ralph showed Harry how to use this tool safely by planing only part way
across the end and then finishing from the other side. Both ends were
tested with the try square.
The piece was now sawed in two by using a rip saw on the pencil line,
the wood being held in the vise in an upright position.
This made two pieces of stock 12 inches long, one 2 inches wide, the
other 8 inches nearly, as the saw cut had removed some of the wood.
The 2-inch piece was laid out as shown at _b_. The marking gauge was
set at 1-3/4 inches and from the joint edge--that already planed--a
line was gauged on each flat face, and the sawed edge planed to these
lines as at _b_.
It was then laid out as shown at _c_, two knife lines being squared
around the four sides 1/8 inch apart. The piece was then sawed apart
carefully between these two knife lines, and the ends block planed and
tested.
[Illustration: Fig. 91. Method of using the bench hook and back saw]
Two 1/4-inch holes were bored, as shown at _d_, in each piece, and
countersunk with the countersink bit. This makes a place for the screw
heads, so they will be below the surface where they cannot be in the
way of tools or scratch the bench.
The wide piece was next planed on its sawed edge, and the blocks
screwed on. That the bench hook might always be handy and have a
definite place of its own, a half-inch hole was bored as shown in the
illustration, and it was hung on a nail, set in the end of the bench.
The bench hook is designed to protect the bench from saw marks and the
cuts of chisels, gouges, etc. The method of using it with the saw is
shown in Fig. 91. Wherever possible, it should be made of hard wood.
XV
THE EQUIPMENT FOR A SHOP
Nothing is so necessary to the saving of time and energy as an orderly
shop. Our boys had bought a quantity of white pine to begin operations
and it was lying in a pile on the floor where it was always in the way.
To cut a piece of stock from one of these 12-foot boards it was
necessary to use two kitchen chairs for trestles, so it was decided to
construct two saw horses, and as soon as they were finished, to build a
lumber rack against the wall where their little supply could be stored
out of the way.
"We will carry out our regular practice by first making a drawing,"
said Ralph. "We know from experience that it saves time."
Fig. 92 shows the proportions of the trestle at _a_, and the mechanical
drawing with all dimensions at _b_.
The body of the trestle was built up of four pieces, two long and two
short ones. The open space in the centre, Ralph explained, would make
a convenient tool rack where hammers, chisels, etc., could be placed
while they were working, especially at outdoor work, instead of being
dropped on the ground. The body then called for two pieces 3 feet long
by 4 inches wide, and two pieces 10 inches long by 4 wide.
These were sawed from a rough plank with the rip saw by using the
chairs as trestles. A pencil line was laid out 3-1/4 inches from one
edge, and the saw cut made directly on the line, 8 feet long.
The cross cut saw was used to cut the strip off and this strip was then
sawed with the same saw into four pieces of equal length for the legs.
Another strip 4-1/4 inches wide, 7 feet 8 inches long, was ripped out
and taken off with the cross cut saw, for the body, and divided into
two pieces 3 feet 10 inches long, for convenience in planing.
Harry now had his first real experience in planing. All the pieces were
of 1-inch rough lumber, with sawed edges, and had to be planed down to
7/8 inch in thickness.
To plane six pieces of stock straight and true, with squared edges and
of definite size, was no easy task.
"How do you like manual labour?" asked Ralph, mischievously.
"I like it all right," replied the perspiring boy, "but we won't need
any gymnasium work for exercise while we are doing this."
[Illustration: Fig. 92. The trestle or saw horse. By permission of
_Carpentry and Building_]
"Wouldn't you like to make a bench in hard wood right away?" asked
Ralph.
"No, I guess you were right after all."
Ralph showed him the proper way to stand, and how to hold the
jack-plane so as to get the best results. He promised to show him how
to sharpen and adjust the plane as soon as the lumber was stored away
on the lumber rack.
Harry's business was to dress down one of the flat faces of each piece
till it was smooth, straight and true both with the grain and across
it. He tested it by his eye and the edge of his plane and when he
thought it was about right, passed it over to Ralph for criticism.
Ralph was a very exacting instructor, but made allowance for the boy's
inexperience. He was making the second trestle at the same time and it
was exasperating to Harry to see the ease with which he turned out his
work.
"Never mind," said Ralph, "you can do as good carving now as I, and in
a few weeks you will be able to do just as good joinery or carpentry.
The first day is always the hardest. You are all impatience and want to
get through right away. After a while you will learn by experience that
you can only do one thing at a time, and will not rush so."
[Illustration: Photograph by Helen W. Cooke. Using the Jack Plane]
Finally, one face on each of the six pieces was pronounced finished,
and the next step was to "joint" or "dress down" one edge straight,
smooth and square with the working face--the first planed surface. This
seemed easier after the experience of making the bench hook, and Harry
knew how to test for squareness with the try square.
Working on the two long pieces for the body, both edges of each were
squared up, a 10-inch piece was marked off on one end of each with
pencil and try square, and sawed off with cross cut saw.
It was decided to leave the inner faces rough, as they would be inside
the trestle, and out of sight. These four pieces forming the body were
now nailed together with 2-1/2-inch wire nails, as shown in _a_.
The four pieces for the legs were dressed on all four sides, and it
only remained to cut the angle at top and bottom.
This brought into use a new tool, the bevel. The angle _x_ was found
by laying the bevel on the mechanical drawing, and fixing it at the
angle by tightening the set screw provided for the purpose. The line
was carried across the face by means of the try square, and the bevel
used on the farther edge. When this laying out was finished, the piece
looked like _c_, the triangular piece _y_ being removed by sawing
directly on the pencil lines.
After the four legs were laid out in this manner and cut, they were
nailed to the body with 3-inch wire nails.
The saw horse was now complete with the exception of the two braces,
and the final truing up.
The braces were made by holding a piece of stock 4 inches × 7/8 inch in
position and marking the slope with a pencil, sawing to pencil lines
and nailing in position _d_.
The final process of truing up was an interesting one to Harry, and he
used it many times afterward in finishing pieces of furniture, such as
tables, tabourettes, etc.
The horse was placed on the bench, and a pair of dividers set as shown
at _e_.
A line was scribed on each leg wherever the compasses point touched
it, holding the latter upright and going around all four sides of each
leg. By sawing to the lines made in this way, the trestle was found
to stand on the floor perfectly true. This is a method much used in
truing up articles that rest on three or more legs, and it overcomes
any inaccuracies that may have arisen in the process of assembling; but
it is very important that the surface on which this truing up is done
shall itself be perfectly true. The bench used in this case was new
and had not yet warped at all, but an old bench might not have been
suitable. This can be ascertained by testing the surface in several
directions with a long straight edge.
The facts of warping and shrinkage in wood must always be taken into
consideration.
The saw horse is an important part of every shop equipment, and the
boys now relegated the clumsy chairs to the kitchen, where they
belonged, and were prepared to saw out stock from their longest boards.
XVI
BUILDING A LUMBER RACK
Ralph had painted two signs and fastened them in prominent places on
the wall. One read: "One thing at a time"; the other, "A place for
everything, and everything in its place."
"Those are very old-fashioned," he said, "but they are none the less
absolutely true. Many boys fail to accomplish anything in tool work
because they do not heed the first, and more time is wasted than we
ever realize, particularly among mechanics, by failing to observe the
second. It often seems a waste of time to put a tool or piece of stock
away in a definite place, but, on the other hand, one often spends ten
times as many minutes in looking for a thing as he would putting it in
its place where it could be found instantly."
"What's the answer?" said Harry absent-mindedly.
"The answer is that we will make a rack for our lumber before we do
anything else.
"It need not be very fine work, but it will make our shop much neater,
if the surfaces of the wood are planed instead of being left rough, and
to give you practice in planing and to develop your muscles, I am going
to let you do most of the planing, while I lay out the work."
The rack as finally constructed is shown in Fig. 93. The shop was not
sheathed on the inside, the framework or studding being exposed. The
short cross pieces were nailed to the studding with ten-penny wire
nails, but where they joined the uprights they were let into the latter
to a depth of 1/2 inch before being nailed. Harry wanted to know what
this was for, and Ralph explained that if the cross pieces were simply
nailed to the uprights, all the weight would be carried by the nails.
By letting or "gaining" them part way into the uprights, the weight was
carried by the latter without so much strain on the nails.
"Then why don't you let them into the wall studs too?" asked Harry.
"Because the studs are in position and we couldn't saw them out without
breaking through the outside of the building; therefore we are obliged
simply to nail them on."
[Illustration: Fig. 93. The lumber rack]
Four of the uprights were spaced three feet apart, and held in place
at top and bottom by blocks nailed to the ceiling and floor. A
carpenter would have simply "toe-nailed" them by driving nails at an
angle through the ends of the uprights into the floor, but the boys
were not yet skilled in carpenters' methods. An ideal lumber rack is
made of galvanized iron pipe. It is indestructible, fire-proof, rather
expensive, and the joints are regular pipe fitter's joints, elbows,
tees, crosses, and floor plates.
This was beyond our boys' pocket-book, as it would have required the
services of a pipe fitter.
One of the uprights laid out and partly cut is shown at _a_, the
openings having been taken out with cross cut saw and chisel.
On one of the upper tiers the cross pieces were made eight inches
longer than the others, and where they extended beyond the front of the
rack pieces of pine 6 × 2 × 7/8 inches were nailed to the ends, making
a convenient hook for hanging hand screws, which are always in the way
on the floor. It also made a very convenient shelf for storing narrow
waste strips of lumber, which should not be destroyed, as one can never
tell when they will be needed.
In the case of a rack made of iron pipe, the ends of these long cross
pieces need be only ordinary pipe elbows.
The labour of building a lumber rack was much heavier than anything
the boys had done before, but it brought the larger muscles into play,
seemed like real carpenter work, and was an excellent preparation for
the finer tool work to follow. A boy who has never carried out a piece
of large work successfully cannot realize the satisfaction of looking
at a really good piece of construction and being able to say, "I made
that all myself!"
[Illustration: Fig. 94. First wind vane]
Ralph suggested that one or two things more were needed to make their
equipment ship-shape--one was a tool cabinet, and another was some
arrangement for storing small pieces of stock; but as both of these
required considerable tool practice, they were recorded in a notebook
as among the things to be done later on.
It was agreed that the shop needed a vane to show the direction of the
wind, and the boys' design for this is shown at Fig. 94. It included a
weather vane and windmill.
The whole combination required five pieces of wood. The two short
pieces, 7 inches long by 1 inch square, were first dressed to size, cut
out and halved together as shown. They were then taken apart and cut to
the lines shown, with a knife, making propeller blades similar to those
made for the aeroplane. When both were finished, they were again put
together, and a hole drilled through the centre a trifle larger than a
flat-head wire nail 2-1/2 inches long. This nail is to hold the mill
to the horizontal piece. The nail is to be tight in this horizontal
piece, but the windmill must revolve freely about the nail. It is for
this reason that the hole in the mill must be slightly larger than the
diameter of the nail.
The horizontal piece is bevelled on one end with the knife and has a
1/4-inch slot sawed out at the other. The slot is to receive the wind
vane. The vane was sawed out of 1/4-inch wood, fitted into the slot and
nailed with brads.
When all these parts were assembled, it was necessary to find the
centre of gravity of the whole combination, as it is important that it
be perfectly balanced.
To find the correct point, a light string was slipped under the
horizontal piece and moved back and forth until the vane hung
horizontally. The spot where the string touched the wood was marked
with a pencil and a 1/4-inch hole drilled at this point for the pivot.
A corresponding hole was drilled 3 inches deep into the bevelled end of
the standard.
A piece of 1/4-inch maple dowel was used as a pivot, the upper end
being sand-papered until the vane swung freely. The boys found that
by placing a metal washer between the vane and its standard, much of
the friction was removed. A wire nail driven into the standard through
a hole drilled in the horizontal piece would have answered the same
purpose as the dowel. When the centre of gravity is not found for the
pivot, the vane is apt to tilt forward or backward and not only look
badly, but bring considerable friction on one end, so that it will not
revolve freely with the wind.
XVII
MILLS AND WEATHER VANES
The subject of windmills and weather vanes opened up a field that
seemed inexhaustible, and for a while there was a perfect furore of
designing and experimenting. As usual, Harry wanted to try great
schemes that Ralph knew were impracticable, and it required all his
diplomacy to keep the boy down to earth, on something simple and within
his power to do successfully.
One of his earliest attempts was a scheme to make a windmill on the
principle of a water-wheel, placed horizontally to catch the wind.
Ralph knew that it would not work, but after arguing for some time,
he decided to let the youngster learn by experience. While Harry was
working at his project, Ralph sketched out and made a vane which he
considered an improvement on the first one. It is shown in Fig. 95; and
it was made without a mill and composed of four pieces. The horizontal
piece had an arrow head at the forward end. At the rear end, two
pieces of 1/4-inch pine were fastened with two small bolts. From the
point where they were bolted they curved outward as shown in the top
view, and were held in that position by two small strips nailed on
with brads, one on the upper and one on the lower side. The centre of
gravity was found as before, and the vane pivoted to its standard.
[Illustration: Fig. 95. Second wind vane]
In the meantime, Harry had found out to his own satisfaction that his
water-wheel windmill would not work.
"What have you curved those ends out for?" he exclaimed on catching a
sight of Ralph's vane.
"Why, to make it more sensitive to the slightest breeze. Those curves
catch the wind quicker than flat surfaces; have you never noticed that
on the weather bureau vanes they are always curved out like that?"
"No," said Harry. "By the way, do you know why my mill doesn't work?"
"I have told you about six times that a water-wheel receives the water
on one side only, while your mill receives the same pressure on both
sides of the centre. The two forces balance, so your mill can't very
well turn. If you could cut off the wind from one side, it would go all
right."
"Well, why can't I box in one side?"
"You can, but then you will have to shift it every time the wind
changes. You could construct a combination mill and vane, and arrange
it so that the box would be shifted by the vane, but honestly, I don't
think it worth the trouble. It would be clumsy, top-heavy, and hard to
balance. I have a scheme for a horizontal mill, but we will take it up
later. In the meantime, let's make a happy jack windmill!"
"Happy jack?"
"That's what they call them, but we will try to be original and I
propose an Indian with war clubs."
"Whew! That sounds interesting!"
Ralph's sketch of the Indian is shown in Fig. 96. The figure was
sawed out of 1/2-inch pine, a 3/8-inch hole bored for the arms, and a
1/4-inch hole bored for the dowel pivot at the feet. The arms were made
of a piece of dowel, six inches long, with 3/16-inch holes bored near
the ends to receive the "clubs." These were whittled out of pine, each
club being a propeller blade. When fastened into the dowel they formed
a complete two-bladed propeller, but this was not done until the dowel
had been inserted through the Indian's shoulders, and a brad driven
through on each side of the body to keep the arms in place.
[Illustration: Fig. 96. Happy jack]
Harry was so anxious to see it work that he came near spoiling it, and
had to be restrained by the older boy, as in making these toys a well
balanced figure is very important. When it was finally finished, and
placed out in the wind, the antics of the Indian made Harry laugh till
the tears ran down his cheeks.
"That's the finest thing we ever made," he said. Ralph smiled. It
seemed that he had heard something like that several times before.
An athlete was suggested, and a bold figure with outstretched arms was
sketched, as shown in Fig. 97.
The Indian clubs he is supposed to be swinging were propeller blades,
and to give them more uniform motion than in the case of the Indian,
the hands were drilled and a piece of 1/4-inch dowel inserted. At each
end of the dowel was fastened a blade which had been drilled to fit.
Brads were driven through the dowel on each side of the hand to keep
the clubs swinging freely.
[Illustration: Fig. 97. An athletic happy jack]
The body and arms were cut from a piece of 1/2-inch pine and halved
together across the chest, and after the joint was made the form of the
body and the arms whittled out with a knife. The two parts were then
fastened together with brads.
It was important that this figure face the wind, so into the space
between the ankles was fitted the small end of a wind vane and the
figure securely fastened to it with brads. The centre of gravity was
then found and the whole combination pivoted on a generous piece of
1/4-inch dowel.
[Illustration: Fig. 98. The anemometer]
This athletic weather vane is painted in bright colours, the clubs
being gilded to make them realistic Indian clubs.
"What was that scheme of yours for a horizontal windmill?" asked Harry
after he had watched the athletic club swinger until he was satisfied.
"Why, to make one on the principle of the anemometer," replied Ralph.
"How do you spell it?"
"Never mind the spelling, it's like this," and Ralph rapidly sketched
out Fig. 98.
"This is the wind gauge of the weather bureau," he explained, "and I
figure we can use ordinary tin cups for the buckets. You go down to the
hardware store and buy four small round bottomed tin cups while I start
the woodwork."
Having secured the cups for five cents each, they cut the handles with
a pair of tinners' "snips." The cut was made next to the cup at the
lowest point and the handle straightened out even with the top of the
cup.
Two pieces of pine, 16 inches long, 7/8-inch wide, and 5/8-inch thick,
were halved together at the centre, where a 1/4-inch hole was bored
straight through the joint.
A block of wood cut to the shape _a_ was fitted over the joint, and
fastened to the four arms with 1-inch brads. The 1/4-inch hole was
now continued almost through this cap to give a long bearing for the
pivot--a ten-penny wire nail with the head filed off. Two 3/16-inch
holes were drilled through the handle of each cup and corresponding
holes through the wooden arms. The cups were made fast by passing
3/16-inch bolts through cup handles and arms and tightening the nuts.
This made a very strong and rigid construction and on testing it by
holding the pivot in the hand out in the breeze the instrument revolved
rapidly.
Altogether it was one of the most substantial and satisfactory things
that they had made, but Ralph was not yet satisfied.
"We might as well have a Coney Island of our own as not," he said. "You
whittle out four propellers, 4 inches long and 1/2 inch across, and
I'll show you something," he said.
While Harry was doing this, Ralph sawed out four wooden dirigibles
shown at _b_, 8 inches long, 3 inches across at the widest part, and
1/4 inch thick.
A hole was drilled through the centre of each propeller and another in
the flat stern of each air-ship. The pivots for the propellers were
flat-head wire nails small enough for the blades to revolve freely, but
driven securely into the air-ships.
These were now fastened at the ends of the arms of the anemometer by
attaching two strips of basswood to each ship by wires. The strips
were to hold the ships in the proper position facing in the direction
of motion, which was always the same, no matter in which direction the
wind was blowing.
The upper ends of these strips were brought together, and securely
fastened under one of the bolts by wires.
As the anemometer revolved, centrifugal force sent the air-ships out as
far as the basswood strips would allow.
[Illustration: Fig. 99. The Zeppelin wind vane]
It was a very interesting fair weather toy, but the first gale, while
having no effect on the anemometer other than to make it spin around at
terrific speed, nearly wrecked the ships by slamming them against the
standard. So the boys always took the ships off at night, and put them
on again when they wanted to give an exhibition.
The propellers were gilded and the ships painted in bright colours.
A very simple vane may be made to represent a Zeppelin air-ship (Fig.
99) by cutting out a piece of white pine 2 feet long and 2-1/2 inches
wide with the ends pointed to the shape of a Gothic arch. The hole for
the pivot should be bored 2 inches deep and be placed well forward of
the centre. To make the vane balance, the rear portion from the pivot
to the stern should be planed thin and rounded with the spokeshave.
[Illustration: Fig. 100. A six-bladed mill]
At the stern should be a small two-bladed propeller, pivoted on a
flat-head wire nail. If the stern is still too heavy, the balance can
be restored by driving into the forward point a round-headed screw, or
by attaching another small propeller. In fact, if the hole in this
propeller is made large enough, the screw can be used as the pivot; in
any event, the vane must be balanced by adding some kind of weight at
the bow.
These typical forms of wind vanes will suggest others and the young
woodworker should try to be original, to design new forms, ships,
submarines, air-ships, etc.
One form which the boys made was especially substantial and reliable. A
six-bladed mill was constructed as follows:
First: a piece of 7/8-inch pine was cut to the form of a hexagon 2
inches across the points.
Second: a 1/4-inch hole was bored in the centre of each of the six
edges and a 3/16-inch hole through the centre of the hexagon. (Fig.
100.)
Third: six blades were formed from 1/2-inch pine 8 inches long, 2
inches wide, tapering down to 1 inch at one end.
Fourth: in the small end a 1/4-inch hole was bored at the centre, about
an inch deep.
Fifth: the blades were tapered in thickness from 1/2-inch at the small
end to 3/16-inch at the wide end, the tapering being done on one side
only, that away from the wind, the side facing the wind being perfectly
flat.
Sixth: dowel pins were glued securely into the holes in the hexagonal
block and into the blades, the latter being turned on the dowels at an
angle of about 30 degrees--1/3 a right angle--from the front face.
Seventh: after the glue had hardened over night, the whole mill was
painted, special attention being given to covering the joint where the
glue held, to prevent the rain from loosening it.
Eighth: two pieces of 1/4-inch white wood were cut out to the form
shown at _b_. These were fastened to the square piece _c_ by two small
bolts.
The wide ends of the vanes were spread and fastened by two small strips
of white wood, by brads as shown.
Ninth: last came the locating of the centre of gravity, after the mill
had been attached by a ten-penny flat-head wire nail. The pivot was
made of a similar nail into the standard, as on previous wind vanes.
XVIII
TOOLS: SAWS
The boys now took up the systematic study of tools, as Ralph suggested
that they had spent time enough on toys and curiosities.
A cutting tool must be constructed with reference to the material it
is to cut. In the machine shop, we find the angle of the cutting edge
large--often 80 degrees--while a razor has a cutting edge of about 5
degrees. All cutting tools are wedges, whether saws, chisels, planes,
axes, or knives, and the angle depends on the hardness of the material
in which it is to work. The action of the tool may be a chisel action,
a knife action, or both. In the rip saw, the teeth are really a series
of chisel edges cut in one piece of steel, while in a cross cut saw we
have a knife action for cutting the fibres, followed by a chisel action
for removing the wood.
The side view of a rip saw is shown at _a_ (Fig. 101), the end view at
_b_.
The chisel-like edges are bent outward to right and left alternately.
This is called the "set" of the teeth and its purpose is to make
the cut wider than the body of the saw, to prevent friction. As the
saw teeth pass through the wood, the fibres spring back against the
saw blade or body, and the friction makes the work almost impossible
without "set" to the teeth. All woodworking saws must be set, and
special tools called "saw sets" are sold for the purpose of bending out
the teeth.
[Illustration: Fig. 101. Teeth of rip saw]
The rip or slitting saw should only be used for cutting with the grain.
When used across the grain, the action is exactly like that of a narrow
chisel, and it will tear the fibres instead of cutting them.
The teeth of a cross cut saw are shown in Fig. 102. At _a_ is the side
view, and at _b_ the end view. The teeth are set and filed to a knife
edge. This gives two parallel lines of knife-like teeth which cut the
fibres in two parallel lines, while the body of the tooth cuts out the
wood in the form of sawdust. All woodworking saws belong to one of
these two classes, and the cutting angles of the teeth are shown in
Fig. 103.
[Illustration: Fig. 102. Teeth of cross cut saw]
[Illustration: Photograph by Helen W. Cooke. Learning to Use the Cross
Cut Saw]
[Illustration: Fig. 103]
We are very apt to regard the saw not only as a very commonplace
article, but as a fixed quantity which has always been the same and
always will be. As a matter of fact, the saw has gone through a process
of evolution the same as the electric motor, automobile, and aeroplane.
New methods of its manufacture are constantly being invented and
improvements made in its construction. Some of the steps in the process
of making a hand saw are: rolling the steel plate of which the body is
made, hardening, tempering, hammering or smithing, grinding, polishing,
filing, setting, etching, handling, and blocking.
[Illustration: Fig. 104]
The handling refers to the placing of the wooden handle and some idea
of what it means is illustrated in Fig. 104, showing two methods of
attaching the apple wood handle.
Some idea of what the grinding means is shown by the tapers, or
difference in the thickness of the steel, as shown at Fig. 105, the
thickness in one thousandths of an inch being given at the different
points. It will be noticed that not only does the blade decrease in
width from the handle out to the end of the saw, but the thickness
decreases from the teeth to the top and also from the handle out to the
end. This represents ideal saw construction, and it is found only in
the good makes.
[Illustration: Fig. 105. Thickness of saw blade]
[Illustration: Fig. 106. The back saw]
The back saw, being strengthened by a heavy piece of steel along the
top, is made of thinner material, and the tapers are not necessary, for
the back piece gives rigidity. It removes less wood, but is limited in
its action by the back. It is used chiefly by pattern makers, and for
finer bench work, such as cabinet making, but should be part of every
boy's outfit.
The compass-saw shown at Fig. 107 is used for general purposes, but is
not so necessary as the back saw. It is useful for cutting out small
openings, though it is not as valuable for this purpose as the turning
saw.
[Illustration: Fig. 107. The compass saw]
One end of the turning saw can be released from the frame by removing a
pin, passed through a small hole. This is fastened in the frame again
and made to follow a curved line like a fret or coping saw.
[Illustration: Fig. 108. The turning saw]
The number of teeth to the inch varies, and saws are rated as
four-point, five-point, etc., according to the number of points or
spaces to the inch. For very hard woods, a saw with small teeth, _i.
e._, with more points than ordinary to the inch, should be used; but a
boy who possesses one saw of each kind--a rip, a cross cut, a back saw,
and a turning saw--has all that will be required for ordinary woodwork.
[Illustration: Fig. 109. Using the rip saw and trestles]
In working with the board on trestles, the saw should be held at an
angle of about 45 degrees to the surface. When sawing a board held in
the bench vise, this is not so easily done, but the cut should at least
be started with the tool in the correct position. (Fig. 109).
The hack saw is used for cutting metal, and while not essential for
woodwork, is often valuable for cutting pieces of pipe, rivets, bolts,
screws, and nails and should be added to the outfit when the finances
will allow. (Fig. 110).
[Illustration: Fig. 110. The hack saw for cutting metal]
In fact, there is no such thing as a set of tools. Good tools only
should be bought, and the outfit at first should be simple; new ones
can be added from time to time, as they are needed. In this way one
learns the possibilities of his kit much better than by starting with
an elaborate collection.
XIX
TOOLS: PLANES
A boy buying his tool outfit is often bewildered by the array in the
hardware store. He is further confused by the advice of the salesman,
and his own little store of money.
In selecting planes, only three are really necessary for ordinary work,
and this number may even be reduced to two.
Wooden planes are still the favourite tools of some woodworkers, but
iron planes have largely superseded them. A 15-inch iron jack plane, a
9-inch smoothing plane, and a block plane make a very good combination
for a beginning.
Special planes can be added later, as the finances will allow.
The iron plane with its various parts is shown in Fig. 111. These refer
to either the jack or the smooth plane.
In the block plane there is no cap iron, the cutter or plane iron being
placed with the bevelled side up. There is frequently found on this
tool an adjustment for changing the amount of opening in the mouth for
hard or soft woods.
The plane iron and cap are fastened together with a set screw, and the
cap is removed when it is being ground or sharpened on an oilstone.
This set screw, which is loosened with a screw-driver, or the edge of
the clamp used as a screw-driver, also allows the distance from the
cutting edge to the cap to be changed for soft or hard woods. These two
irons are fastened into the throat of the plane by the clamp.
[Illustration: Fig. 111. The smoothing plane]
The lever (1) is for straightening the plane iron, and the screw _s_ is
for adjusting the depth of the cut.
The difference between the jack and smooth planes, aside from the size,
is in the shape of the "cutter" or "bit." In the jack plane, the bit
is ground with a slightly curved cutting edge. This enables the tool to
remove coarse shavings, but leaves a slightly corrugated surface which
must be smoothed with the smoothing plane.
The jack plane also tends to straighten the work, owing to its greater
length. The greater the length, the more does it straighten. The
old-fashioned jointers were made several feet long for this very
purpose.
If a boy can afford only one plane, it should be a jack plane, but the
cutter should be ground straight to act as a smooth plane.
The block plane can be dispensed with better than any of the others,
because the smooth plane can be used on a shooting board for truing up
end grain, the original purpose of the block plane.
The latter plane has no cap, as it works on the ends of the wood fibres
with a shearing or paring action. This is helped by holding the tool
at an angle with the wood, a position not advisable with the other two
tools.
[Illustration: By the Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
TOOLS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
Showing how little progress has been made in tool construction. In this
collection is a jointer plane, a smooth plane, rabbit plane, straight
edge, dividers or compasses, a bench vise, hand vise, wrench, hacksaw
and combination tool.]
The proper position for planing is with the right side to the bench,
the plane held flat on the work. Each stroke should, wherever possible,
be the full length of the board, unless one part is higher than the
rest of the surface. This may be ascertained by using the edge of the
plane as a straight edge. High spots should be marked with a pencil,
and then planed off, till the full length strokes can be made, and the
edge planed straight and true. In surface planing, if the surface be
warped, the amount of wind may be determined by placing two "winding"
sticks--two straight pieces of the same size at the two ends--and
sighting with the eye along their top edges. To take out wind, it
may be necessary to plane diagonally across the grain from corner to
corner. This defect is common in lumber not properly piled or seasoned,
and is more noticeable in such woods as gum or chestnut.
The sharpening of plane irons is a very important part of one's
knowledge of tool work, and of course applies to chisels, gouges, and
all cutting tools.
Remember that the cutting edge or bevel is a wedge, the angle of a
plane-iron bevel being from 25 to 35 degrees, the smaller angle for
soft wood, the larger for hard. This angle is not measured by the
woodworker often, but is a matter of experience. If the young mechanic
will keep his tools ground to the same angle as he finds them at the
time of purchase, he will not go far astray.
[Illustration: Fig. 112. The cutting angle]
This angle should be a clean-cut one, however. Fig. 112 shows some
correct and some incorrect ways of grinding. At _a_ is shown the
right way, _b_ is not an angle at all, and _c_ is a waste of time and
material. At _d_ is shown the worst fault of all--a "back bevel."
This occurs when the tool is carelessly turned over and ground on
both sides, which renders it useless until all the steel in front of
the dotted line has been removed; in other words, until the tool is
reground.
This mistake is sometimes made in using the oilstone, by rubbing
the tool on both sides instead of on one only. All the grinding and
sharpening must be done on the bevelled side. As the plane iron is only
a thin chisel, the sharpening of the latter tool is performed as in the
case of the plane iron, and the same care should be taken to keep the
bevel clean cut.
A good grindstone is a shop necessity, and, one might add, a household
necessity, because every household uses knives, and the dull knife is
an altogether too common nuisance.
Our boys hung up another sign at this stage, and it read, "Keep your
tools sharp." This ought to go without saying, but it is a fact that
many people make failures of their work and become disgusted with it
because they do not keep their tools in order. The satisfaction of
using fine, sharp tools cannot be explained; it must be experienced.
Like other things about the shop, there are many kinds of grindstones
on the market. The old-fashioned stone with a wooden frame (Fig. 113)
worked by hand or a treadle may be good--it depends on the stone--and
the new one with a small stone, iron, or pressed steel frame is handy.
The last stone is provided with a bicycle seat, and is worked by both
feet, so that the hands are free to hold the tool. This stone has ball
bearings, is noiseless, and occupies less space than the other.
A stone that is soft and gritty, rather than one that is hard like a
piece of granite, should be selected.
In holding the tool against the stone, some common sense is necessary.
The harder one presses, the quicker the grinding, but if there is not
plenty of water on the stone, the tool may be "burned." When a black
place appears, you have destroyed the temper, showing that there has
been too much pressure, or too little water, or both.
[Illustration: Fig. 113. Two types of grindstone]
The tool may be moved back and forth across the stone to keep its face
true, but never up and down. This up and down motion is careless and
gives the defective edge shown at _b_ (Fig. 112)--very bad grinding.
It is an easy matter to test your grinding by occasionally placing
the blade of a try square on the bevel. If it is not straight, your
grinding needs more care. Too much stress cannot be laid on the
importance of this subject of grinding. It is the key-note of success.
If you are careless in this particular, your work at the bench cannot
be a success. "A good workman is known by his tools."
[Illustration: Fig. 114. The oilstone]
A teacher of drawing once said, "I don't care to see your drawing; all
I want is to see your pencil. I can tell just what kind of work you are
doing by observing the care you give your pencil."
This is peculiarly true of the worker with tools. Find a man very
particular about them, and you may be sure he is a careful workman.
After grinding comes sharpening. This is done by rubbing the bevelled
side back and forth a few times on an oilstone, lubricated with a few
drops of sperm or light machine oil.
[Illustration: Fig. 115. The action of the cap iron]
The stone should be wiped off, afterward, and should never be saturated
with the oil. If this is allowed to happen, the surface becomes gummed
(Fig. 114) and loses its cutting edge. This rubbing will sometimes turn
over a thin wire edge, which is removed by laying the tool with the
flat side on the oilstone and drawing it toward you. The wire edge can
be further removed if necessary by stropping on a piece of leather.
Before replacing the cutter in the plane, the cap iron is fastened on
the flat side about 1/16-inch from the cutting edge; but this distance
may be varied for different woods.
The object of the cap iron is to prevent a splitting action by bending
the shaving forward, as shown in Fig. 115. At _a_ is shown the effect
when there is no cap, and at _b_ the splinter bent over giving a
shaving.
XX
SQUARING UP STOCK
Having prepared Harry for the serious work to come by his explanation
of the plane and its operation, Ralph prepared to start his pupil on
the most important and difficult problem in shopwork--squaring up stock.
"Anybody," he said "can hack away at a piece of wood with tools, and
get some kind of result, but if this work is worth doing at all, it
is worth doing well, and to be able to square up stock is perhaps the
most important operation you will ever do. It is like mathematics, the
answer is either right or wrong. When you finish, the stock is either
square or not square.
"To square up stock means to reduce it to three definite dimensions,
length, breadth, and thickness, with all adjoining edges or surfaces at
right angles. It sounds easy.
"Suppose we want a piece 12 inches × 2 inches × 7/8 inch. First, saw
out your stock about 12-1/4 inches × 2-1/4 inches × 1 inch. This allows
something each way for the tools to remove in the process--for sawdust
and shavings. It is considerably more than necessary, but on the first
trial you waste more than later, when you have become skilled in this
work.
"Second. Dress down one of the flat faces with the jack plane; follow
with the smoothing plane and test, with straight edge, with the grain,
across it, and diagonally across corners. When this face is finished it
constitutes the foundation of the process, and is called the 'working
face.'
"Third. Make a pencil mark on the working face near one of the edges.
This is called a witness mark, and it indicates that the edge it
touches is to be the next face dressed.
"Fourth. Dress down the edge, making it square with the working face,
and testing its whole length with the try square. This is the 'joint
edge' (Fig. 116).
"Fifth. Set the marking gauge, as shown in Fig. 117, holding it in the
left hand and the rule in the right, to two inches, the width of the
finished piece. The reason for this is that the scale on the gauge
stick is sometimes inaccurate.
"With the gauge block against the joint edge, gauge a line the entire
length of the working face. In doing this, the gauge may be used in
either hand, and in fact it is well to practise so as to be able to
use either at will. The tool should always be pushed from you, and at
the same time tilted from you, until the steel point makes only a fine
line. If it is held upright, the point will try to follow the grain,
which is very seldom parallel with the edge.
[Illustration: Fig. 116. Steps in the process of squaring up stock]
"You have now laid out on the working face your first dimension--the
width.
"Sixth. Plane down the edge opposite to the joint edge, almost to the
gauge line just drawn. Remember that the tendency is always to take off
too much, and when a piece is too small there is no way of making it
larger, but if it is left a little too large, it is a simple matter to
take off one more shaving. In other words, always be on the safe side,
and take off too little rather than too much. Test this edge to see
that it is square with working face before reaching the gauge line. Get
into the habit of marking all high spots with a pencil, and planing out
the marks.
[Illustration: Fig. 117. "Setting" the marking gauge]
"Seventh. Set the gauge at the required thickness, in this case 7/8
inch--and with gauge block against working face, make a line full
length on both of the squared edges.
"Eighth. Dress down the remaining rough face to or near both gauge
lines just drawn, and test with straight edge, as in the working face.
The stock is now to the second dimension--thickness.
"Ninth. Secure the last dimension--length. As near one end as possible
make a line across the working face with a knife and try square, and
continue it around the four sides back to the starting place. If it
does not come out exactly at this point, the stock is not square.
"From this knife line, measure off the length on the working face, and
square a knife line on the four sides, as on the first end. Block-plane
both ends to the knife lines, and test.
"If these nine successive steps are carried out accurately, the answer
is correct," as Ralph remarked after Harry had worked faithfully
throughout the whole explanation.
The boys realized that they needed a shooting board as a necessary part
of their equipment, and after Ralph had worked out the drawing shown in
Fig. 118, Harry was told to square up the four pieces of stock to be
used in its construction.
[Illustration: Fig. 118. The shooting board]
"Now let me show you a new trick," said Ralph. "It is always a good
plan after making a drawing to write out a bill of material something
like this:
1 pc. pine 14 × 8 × 1/2 1 pc. pine 6 × 2 × 1/2
1 pc. maple 14 × 6 × 1/2 4 1-1/4-inch f. h. screws
1 pc. pine 8 × 1-1/2 × 7/8 5 3/4-inch f. h. screws
"There you have in a nutshell all the items needed for the shooting
board, and you can proceed to square all your pieces to these
dimensions without consulting the drawing until you are ready to
assemble the parts. The five 3/4-inch screws are for fastening the
maple pieces to the flat piece of pine, and the 1-1/4 screws to fasten
the cleats. All the holes for screws are to be bored and countersunk."
"What's countersunk?" asked Harry.
This led to a talk on screws and boring tools, and as it is valuable to
the young worker in wood, we will give it as fully as possible.
[Illustration: Fig. 119. The use of screws]
"There are several kinds of screws," began Ralph, "but the two most
commonly used are flat heads and round heads. (Fig. 119). Flat-head
screws are those we generally think of, but unless the hole which has
been bored or drilled is reamed out at the top, countersunk as we call
it, the screw head will stand out from the surface ready to tear your
clothes and to scratch anything it may come in contact with, so you can
readily see the importance of sinking them below the surface.
"On the other hand, there are often cases where we have no desire to
hide the screw. The round heads are used for such cases, and because of
their shape they do not catch hold of things. These screws are usually
blued--treated with acid to give them a dull, more artistic colour.
Screws treated in this way do not rust as readily as the bright ones.
You can buy brass screws in both flat and round head forms; in fact you
can get tinned, Japanned, lacquered, bronzed, copper, nickel, and even
silver plated screws--if you have the money.
"In buying them, you must always give two numbers--the length, in
inches, and the diameter. This is the diameter of the wire forming the
body and runs from 0 to 30, number 0 being about 1/16 inch.
"A one-inch screw No. 8 would be fatter or larger in diameter than a
one-inch No. 6, which is of comparatively slight or thin proportions.
They are sold in boxes containing a gross.
"In fastening two pieces of wood together, they should be prepared as
shown at _a_ (Fig. 119) for a flat head and as at _b_ for a round head.
The screw slips through the first board, and the screw threads engage
only in the second in each case."
XXI
BORING TOOLS
"Boring tools are very interesting," said Ralph. The brace and bit
for soft woods have practically taken the place of the old fashioned
augers, gimlets, etc. The reason is not hard to find. An auger or
gimlet could bore but one size of hole, while with a brace and set of
bits almost any diameter can be secured. A little later on, I'll tell
you about a Yankee invention along this line.
"The brace is a sort of universal tool holder, and any tool designed to
fit into it is known as a bit, as for example a countersink bit, or a
screw driver bit, and several varieties of drills.
"The shank, or part that fits into the brace, is usually square and
tapering, and the part of the brace which engages this shank is called
the 'chuck.' (Fig. 120.)
"The centre bit, an old-fashioned form, had all the necessary features
of a good boring tool but one. It had a sharp centre for accurately
locating the hole, a knife edge for cutting the fibres, and a chisel
for removing the wood, but it lacked the spiral screw thread of the
modern tool, and had to be forced through the wood by main strength. On
a modern auger bit, this spiral screw relieves the worker of a large
part of the labour; all he has to do is to turn the brace and keep it
straight, supposing of course that the bit is sharp. (Fig. 121.)
[Illustration: Fig. 120. Gimlet bit and centre bit]
"The auger bit is most commonly used by woodworkers. It has two knife
edges and two chisels besides the spiral spur in the centre. A short
form of this tool, called the dowel bit, has the advantage of bending
less readily than the ordinary auger bit. The size in sixteenths of
an inch is stamped into the metal shank, but if this number is not
distinct or for any reason is missing, the diameter may be measured by
holding the rule across the knife edges."
[Illustration: Fig. 121. The auger bit]
"What's the Yankee invention you were going to tell me about?"
interrupted Harry.
"Well, suppose you wanted to bore a large hole, say 2-1/2 inches in
diameter, the probabilities are that you wouldn't have a bit that size.
In fact, to have a full set of bits from 3/16 inch up to 3 inches would
mean a very expensive lot of tools. This difficulty has been overcome
by a very clever invention called the extension or expansive bit. (Fig.
122). On this tool the knife edge and chisel are part of a moving lip,
which may be fastened at any desired point by means of a set screw.
"Besides being adjustable in diameter, the lip of the bit has a scale,
and the body a single line engraved on it. By bringing this line to the
various measurements on the scale, you can set it to a definite size
without the trouble of measuring it.
"The tool has certain limitations, of course. It is made in two sizes;
one will bore holes of any size from 1/2 inch up to 1-1/2 inches, and
the other any size from 7/8 inch to 3 inches, while extra lips or
cutters are made to bore as large as 4 inches, but if you ever try to
bore a hole of this size you will want all your muscle."
[Illustration: Fig. 122. The expansive bit]
The screw-driver bit is simply a screw-driver with a bit shank instead
of a wood handle, and the countersink has a cone-shaped end with
enough grooves cut in it to give one or more cutting edges. Its use was
illustrated in making the bench hook and shooting board.
[Illustration: Fig. 123. The Forstner bit]
The gimlet bit may be used for boring holes for screws. It is made from
2/32 inch up to 12/32 inch, and is valuable for preparing articles for
the smaller-sized screws where the auger bit would be too large.
We find for sale drill bits for electricians, warranted to go through a
nail if necessary, and dozens of special bits.
In working with thin wood, the auger bit is very apt to split it,
especially brittle woods, like red gum. Even this contingency is
provided for in the Forstner bit, which will bore a hole in a sheet of
paper (Fig. 123), and is therefore very valuable for work in veneering
or other very thin material.
The brace is represented by several styles and makers, but the beginner
must look for the same qualities in the brace as he would in any other
tool--good workmanship and material, simplicity and durability.
The old-fashioned Spofford brace was strong, simple, and reliable. For
working in corners or any place where a full revolution of the tool is
not possible, a ratchet attachment is necessary. This is found on most
of the modern tools, and may be obtained at any hardware store. (Fig.
124).
[Illustration: Fig. 124. Common types of the brace]
The hand drill (Fig. 125) is one of the most useful tools any one can
have about the shop or the house. To be able to make holes in soft
or hard wood, tin, zinc, brass, copper, or iron is certainly a great
advantage, and some form of the tool should be in every establishment.
Our boys found it useful in making moving toys, wind vanes,
anemometers, and dozens of other pieces, and never regretted its cost.
It may be bought for fifty cents and upward, a very good one costing
about $1.50. The drills designed to be used with this tool vary by 1/64
inch, beginning with 5/64 inch up to 3/8 inch. Above this a larger
chuck is required. They have round shanks instead of the ordinary
square bit shank.
[Illustration: Fig. 125. The hand drill]
XXII
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
THE SCREW-DRIVER
The need of a screw-driver is too obvious to require special mention.
They are made with blades from two inches up to thirty inches long, and
have round, flat, or corrugated handles. The best grip is obtained on
either a flat or corrugated one, and two sizes are desirable, a small
one with about a three-inch blade, the other with an eight or ten.
(Fig. 126.)
Some of the magazine brad awls containing a dozen awls and screw-driver
are very convenient, but the combinations supposed to contain a whole
tool outfit, including saws, are poor investments.
Ratchet screw-drivers, from which the hand is not removed during the
operation of driving or withdrawing a screw, are on the market, but
they are luxuries rather than necessities.
Pliers with wire-cutting attachments are convenient, and should be
added to the kit when possible; some of them are powerful enough to
cut a heavy wire nail. (Fig. 127.)
_The Mallet._ This simple tool is made in a dozen different forms for
various trades. The round-headed kind is perhaps the cheapest. It is
made of hickory or lignum vitæ. (Fig. 128.)
The best form for woodwork has an oblong or square head of lignum vitæ.
The handle should pass clear through the head and be fastened with a
wedge.
A blow from this tool does not shatter the tool handle as would a blow
from a hammer. A comparison of the two blows might be likened to the
action of gun powder and dynamite. The slow burning powder represents
the action of the mallet. The hammer should never be used on a chisel
or gouge.
[Illustration: Fig. 126. Screw-drivers]
[Illustration: Fig. 127. Pliers]
Hand screws for holding glued-up work together, sometimes for holding
special work on the bench top, are made of wood, with either wood or
metal spindles. For ordinary work, the jaws should be parallel, but
special forms are on the market which will hold irregular forms, as
shown in Fig. 129.
They are made in several sizes, from little ones with 4-inch jaws up
to 22-inch jaws. For large and heavy work, clamps of wood or metal
may be had as large as eight feet in length. They are useful in the
making of drawing boards, doors, etc., but are not a real necessity for
boys' ordinary woodwork. Clamps in the form of trestles for specially
important large work are made as large as twelve feet in length.
[Illustration: Fig. 128. The mallet]
For ordinary purposes, a pair of 6-inch and a pair of 12 or 14 inch
wood hand screws will answer. The ingenuity of the young woodworker
will suggest other ways of holding glued-up work in the absence of hand
screws, such as winding with heavy twine or rope, and twisting a stick
through the strands, after the old method of tightening a buck saw
or turning saw. In building up a drawing board and gluing the strips
together, the requisite pressure may be obtained by laying it on the
floor between blocks temporarily nailed there, and wedges driven in,
after the method described for picture frames.
[Illustration: Fig. 129. Clamp and hand screws]
A large part of the value derived from woodwork is in the exercise of
ingenuity required to meet unexpected contingencies. Just so the owner
of an automobile learns more about mechanics and the construction of
his machine by being obliged to make repairs on the road, miles from
any repair shop, and with a limited number of tools and appliances.
THE HAMMER
This common tool is made in at least thirty different forms, and some
styles in nine or ten different weights. For woodwork, the adze-eye
claw hammer, weight sixteen ounces, will answer all requirements. For
use with brads as small as 3/8 inch, a brad hammer of three or four
ounces is desirable. Both of these forms are provided with claws for
withdrawing nails. (Fig. 130.)
[Illustration: Fig. 130. Hammers]
Claw hammers are comparatively modern inventions, and there are men
now living who, when serving their apprenticeship, were obliged to
withdraw their nails with a pair of pinchers. At that period all nails
were wrought by hand, and houses are standing to-day on which the
clapboards are still held in place by nails forged on an anvil by hand.
THE FILE
A volume might be written about the various shapes, sizes, and
methods of cutting of this tool. Its place in woodwork is limited,
and it should never be used where another tool will do the work. Like
sand-paper, it has a tendency to lead to bad habits and slovenly work.
On certain pieces of curved work in hard wood it may be used to remove
the sharp edges left by chisel or gouge, especially the latter, but its
action even there is apt to tear away the fibres.
An eight-inch, half-round, cabinet wood file and an eight-inch, round,
slim No. 0 cut Swiss pattern file are sufficient.
For sharpening bits, a special auger bit file is made, and this may be
used for sharpening the marking gauge point and such small work. For
sharpening saw teeth, triangular saw files are sold at all hardware
stores.
THE SPIRIT LEVEL
This is necessary on outdoor structures which are to be placed on
foundations, in securing level or horizontal timbers, and in plumbing
the uprights. The human eye is not equal to the task. Masons and
builders make use of wooden plumb rods, but as the level is necessary
to secure the horizontals, it will be at hand for the uprights, the two
glass tubes being at right angles. (Fig. 131.)
[Illustration: Fig. 131. The spirit level]
RULE
A two-foot, four-fold, boxwood rule, graduated to eighths outside and
sixteenths inside, will answer all ordinary requirements. (Fig. 132.)
THE STEEL SQUARE
[Illustration: Fig. 132. Steel square and rule]
This simple but valuable tool, about which volumes have been written,
is necessary for building construction, but is not needed in the making
of furniture or cabinet work.
XXIII
MAKING NAIL BOXES
The boys now became very busy completing their shop equipment, and the
first project was a box for holding different sizes of nails. This was
to be kept on the bench where it could be reached conveniently, and it
is shown in Fig. 133.
After studying the sketch, Harry made out the bill of material:
2 pcs. pine 15 × 1-3/4 × 1/2
2 pcs. pine 3 × 1-3/4 × 1/2
2 pcs. pine 3-1/2 × 1-3/4 × 3/8
[Illustration: Fig. 133. The nail box]
These six pieces were squared up, and the joints for the two partitions
laid out by placing them edge to edge in the vise. Pencil lines were
drawn across the faces at random, _a_. Ralph explained that by fitting
these pencil lines they could at any time bring the two pieces
together in the original position.
The four knife lines representing the edges of the grooves were next
drawn, and squared half-way down on each edge, using the face with the
pencil lines as a working face. The bottom of the groove was laid off
with the marking gauge set at 1/4 inch. The wood inside the lines was
removed by making a saw cut just inside the knife lines, and cutting
out with a 3/8-inch chisel.
[Illustration: Fig. 134. Socket chisels]
This led to a talk on chisels. Ralph explained that for fine work a
"firmer" chisel was used, having a comparatively thin body.
There are two kinds of handles, known as "socket" and "tang." The
chisels having "tangs" should never be hammered, as the tang acts as
a wedge and splits the handle. Where blows are to be struck with the
mallet, a socket handle should be used. (Fig. 134.) For heavy work,
where hard blows are to be struck, as in house-framing, and out-of-door
work generally, the heavy framing tool should be used. The handle of
this chisel has a heavy iron ring near the top to keep it from going
to pieces.
Our boys' equipment at this time consisted of one half-inch and a
one-inch firmer chisel with tang handles, a 1/8-inch and 3/8-inch
socket firmer, and one 1/2-inch framing chisel. Later on they added a
1/4-inch firmer with tang handle.
The grooves for the nail box were cut with the 3/8-inch chisel without
the aid of the mallet.
Ralph showed how, by inclining the tool at a slight angle, a paring
action could be obtained, and by working from both ends of the groove
no corners were destroyed.
When the four grooves were finished, the box was ready for assembling.
This called for hammer and nails.
Wire nails are so cheap now that the old-fashioned cut nails have been
largely driven from the market.
The nails used on the box were one-inch brads.
The holding power of flat-head nails is of course much greater than
bung head, but in this case the box was to be squared up after nailing,
exactly as if it were a solid block of wood. This meant planing the
sides and ends, and as the nails would ruin the plane iron, they were
all sunk below the surface with a nail set or punch. (Fig. 135). This
is a useful tool, but not absolutely necessary, as for light work a
wire nail, with the point ground flat on the grindstone, will answer
the same purpose. A carpenter frequently uses the edge of a flat-head
nail instead of the punch.
[Illustration: Photograph by Arthur G. Eldredge. The Correct Way to
Hold the Chisel]
The box was assembled by nailing together the sides and ends. The
bottom was next put on, holding the try square along one side and end
to make sure everything was square, and last of all the two partitions
were pushed down into their grooves, and tied in place by one brad from
each side. Next, all nails were set, and the outside tested with the
try square and trued up with the plane.
[Illustration: Fig. 135. Wire nails and nail sets]
The cabinet of drawers shown in Fig 136 was next designed to keep
the assortment of screws and nails, which the boys knew would soon
accumulate. As far as possible, they were kept in their original paper
boxes, on which the sizes were plainly printed.
The twelve drawers were simply boxes without covers or partitions, and
Ralph suggested that it was not necessary to make them all at once,
but that they could often fill in spare time that way, and gradually
complete the dozen.
[Illustration: Fig. 136. Cabinet for nails and screws]
After making the nail box with partitions, this was a simple job, it
being only important that they all be of the same size.
The construction of the cabinet, however, brought new problems. The
shelves, being short, did not require any vertical support except at
the ends, where they were gained into the sides, and to give Harry
practice the top and bottom were to be "rabbeted" into the sides. The
sides then were the most important parts. All six pieces were first
squared up to the dimensions called for in the drawing. The list of
material was as follows:
4 pcs. 24-5/8 × 12 × 1/2 shelves
2 pcs. 14 × 12 × 1/2 ends
1 pcs. 25-1/8 × 14 × 1/4 back
"The grain must run the long way," said Ralph, "so the grooves will be
across the grain."
The four grooves were laid out with knife and try square, and the lines
scored as deeply with the knife as possible.
Then another cut was made with the knife inside of the first, and with
the knife held at about 45 degrees, cutting out a V-shaped groove, as
shown at _a_.
In each of these grooves a cut with the buck saw was made down to the
line, and the wood removed with the 3/8-inch chisel. There are special
planes, called rabbet planes, and plows for doing this kind of work,
but it is good practice for beginners to use the chisel.
The grooves finished, the cabinet was put together with 1-1/2-inch
brads, except the back. This being of thin material, and having no
special strain on it, was nailed on with 1-inch brads. The total width
of the drawers in each tier was 1/8 inch less than the space. This
gave clearance, so that they could be moved in or out easily.
Later, when all twelve drawers were finished, the boys bought a dozen
simple drawer pulls, and screwed one in the centre of each box.
The centre was found by drawing the diagonals in light pencil lines.
The front and ends were sand-papered, and given two coats of dark-green
stain, and the cabinet was placed on a shelf against the wall.
XXIV
BIRD HOUSES
The boys felt that they were ready for business, and Ralph suggested
that they had provided enough weather vanes and windmills, but had made
no provisions for the birds.
The cat, that arch enemy of the native birds, had driven the robins,
martins, and wrens all away. Each year some of these brave little birds
started homes in the trees near the house only to have their families
devoured as soon as they were hatched.
A bird house to be attractive need not be very pretentious, but it must
absolutely be cat-proof, or the birds will inspect it carefully from
all points of view and leave it severely alone. A nest well hidden
in the tree foliage or shrubbery is not nearly so conspicuous as a
brightly painted house fastened to the limbs of a tree. The side of a
barn or outhouse, far enough down from the roof so that the cat cannot
reach it, or a tall pole covered on the upper part with tin, so that
the feline bird hunter cannot gain a foothold, are about the only safe
places for a house which the birds will actually adopt. The first house
our woodworkers manufactured is shown in Fig. 137.
This was a single or one-family house, and its construction was very
simple.
The list of material follows:
One pc. 1/2-inch pine or white wood 10 × 6-1/2 ins.
Two pcs. 1/2-inch pine or white wood 7-1/2 × 3 ins.
One pc. 1/2-inch pine or white wood 9-1/2 × 5 ins.
One pc. 1/2-inch pine or white wood 9-1/2 × 4-1/2 ins.
Two pcs. 1/2-inch pine or white wood 5-1/4 × 4-1/2 ins.
The first piece, 10 × 6-1/2 inches, was simply squared up for the
bottom. The two pieces for the sides, 7-1/2 × 3 inches, were squared
up, and one edge of each planed to a 45-degree bevel, to engage with
the roof boards.
The latter were squared up, and nailed together at right angles with
1-1/4-inch brads.
The two ends, 5-1/2 × 4-1/2 inches, were carefully laid out as shown in
the drawing, sawed, and planed to the lines with square edges.
In the end which was to contain the circular door a hole 1-3/4 inches
in diameter was bored with its centre two inches from the bottom
line. This required the services of the extension bit, and, to avoid
splitting the wood, as soon as the spur of the bit showed on the
further side, the wood was turned about, and the hole finished from the
other side.
The house was next turned upside down, and fastened in the bench vise.
Holes were drilled along the sides of the bottom piece 3/4 inch in
from the edge--three on each side--countersunk, and the piece fastened
to the sides with 1-inch No. 8 screws. The top pieces already nailed
together were now nailed in position on the sides and ends with 1-inch
brads.
[Illustration: Fig. 137. One family bird house, and house for high-hole]
The pole they used was 13 feet long and about 3 inches in diameter at
the small end. It was rounded at this end by using a draw knife. (Fig.
138). A block of 7/8-inch pine was bored out, and fitted snugly over
the end of the pole. This block was then removed, and four holes bored
through it for screws.
[Illustration: Fig. 138. The draw knife]
Before replacing the block on the top of the pole a cut was made across
the end of the pole about two inches deep, by means of the rip saw.
The block was replaced, and wooden wedges driven into the saw cut. This
fastened the block securely on the end of the pole, and after making
sure that it was level, the bird house was fastened to the block by
four 1-1/4-inch screws from the under side.
A piece of sheet tin was wound around just under the house to
discourage pussy, and the pole set into the ground about three feet,
bringing the under side of the house ten feet above the ground.
A double or two-family house of similar proportions was built next, as
shown in Fig. 139. The list of material called for:
One pc. 1/2-inch wood 18-1/2 × 6-1/2 (bottom)
One pc. 1/2-inch wood 18-1/2 × 5-1/2 (roof)
One pc. 1/2-inch wood 18-1/2 × 4-1/2 (roof)
Two pcs. 1/2-inch wood 15-1/2 × 3 (sides)
Three pcs. 1/2-inch wood 5-1/4 × 4-1/2 (ends and partition)
The construction was the same as before, each end having a door, and
the partition of course being solid. The block for supporting the house
on the pole was larger, being 8 × 5 × 1-1/4 inches, and called for six
1-1/2-inch No. 10 screws, to secure it to the under side of the floor.
Harry wanted to make it more complete by adding a small wind vane, but
Ralph said it might frighten the birds, so it was omitted.
Of course larger and more ornamental houses may be built, but where
there are too many families in such close proximity there is apt to be
trouble, while houses that are too conspicuous do not appeal to the
beautiful American wild birds that we want to attract. With the English
sparrow it does not matter so much. For these birds, a tenement house
against the side of a barn may be built easily, in the form shown in
Fig. 139.
This may be made any length, each door leading to a compartment
separated from the others by partitions. Make as many pieces plus one
as there are to be compartments, apartments, or flats; have the bottom
project as shown in side view for a perch and walk, and have the roof
also project to shed rain.
If not fastened from the inside of the barn by stout screws, this house
must be secured to a shelf, or by brackets.
[Illustration: Fig. 139. Two family house and tenement]
The side view shows a simple shelf made of a back piece secured to
the side of the barn by screws or nails, a plain shelf nailed to this
back piece, and two wooden brackets. If iron brackets are used, both
the shelf and back piece may be omitted, the brackets being fastened
to the under side of the bird house and to the siding of the barn by
screws.
For birds like the high-hole, or flicker, a piece of hollow log, or an
elongated box fastened securely to the side of a pole, made cat proof,
is very acceptable. This should not be painted, but should be provided
with a door on the side and a perch. (Fig. 137.) The opening should be
about three inches for these large birds, and the location should be as
secluded as possible. Any number of devices will suggest themselves,
but always remember the cat, and study the location from the bird point
of view. The martins and swallows are especially to be encouraged, as
they are wonderful destroyers of insects.
[Illustration: Fig. 140. The bird bath]
One device, especially grateful to these feathered friends in hot
weather, is a pan of water, in a place where they can drink and bathe
without being eternally on the watch for that crouching enemy, who is
always stalking them--Tabby.
A pedestal with a platform about four feet above the ground will do
nicely, and it can be placed so close to the house that you can watch
them, and enjoy their ablutions almost as much as they do. (Fig. 140.)
The construction is too simple to require an explanation.
XXV
SIMPLE ARTICLES FOR HOUSEHOLD USE
The boys thought it was about time to pay some attention to the wants
of the family, who had been clamouring for weeks to have this article
or that for the kitchen, dining room, and in fact for every part of the
house.
Ralph was a wise teacher, however. He knew that the cause of ninety out
of every hundred failures was due to the young mechanic's trying some
problem too far advanced.
It seems strange that people cannot learn this lesson. We have seen
hundreds of boys led along, say in carving, from one simple lesson to
another, until at the end of five or six carefully graded exercises,
these boys could carve beautifully any design given them.
On the other hand, we have seen boys start in on their own hook,
without any direction from older people, and ruining everything they
tried, simply because they wanted to do the most difficult thing first,
before they had developed any skill.
Ralph was determined that his boy should be an expert and successful
user of tools, so he paid no attention to the clamours of the family,
and allowed Harry to make only those things which were within his power
to do well. Each time a piece of work was finished, and inspected by
the family, the universal chorus was something like this:
"Well, if he can make such a fine bird house, I don't see why he can't
make half a dozen picture frames for these water colors," or, "If he
can make such a fine pen tray, I don't see why he can't make a new
stool for the piano!"
In vain Ralph explained that these things could be made in due time,
that a picture frame required much more skill than a bird house, etc.
Their household articles commenced with a bread board for the kitchen.
(Fig. 141). This gave Harry his first experience in planing a broad
surface. He used jack and smoothing planes for the working face, and
squared the rest of the board as he had smaller pieces. This required
some time. The wood about the semi-circular top was removed with saw
and chisel, the board held for the chiselling flat on the bench hook.
After getting this curve as true as possible with the chisel, it was
finished with a sand-paper block. A 1/2-inch hole was bored at the
centre of the semi-circle to hang it up by, and the two lower corners
were rounded with chisel and sand-paper. No sand-paper was used on the
flat surface, as Ralph explained this was a board for cutting bread,
and the grit from the sand-paper would become more or less embedded in
the wood, and it would spoil the bread knife. Sand-paper is made of
ground quartz, and it soon dulls the edge of a cutting tool.
[Illustration: Fig. 141. The bread board]
The knife and fork box (Fig. 142) brought new problems. The list of
material was:
1 pc. 11-1/2 × 3-1/4 x 1/2 2 pcs. 7 × 1-1/2 × 1/2
2 pcs. 14 × 1-1/2 × 1/2 1 pc. 12 × 6-1/2 × 1/4
It was made of white wood, and, after being assembled, was stained a
rich brown by receiving two coats of bichromate of potash. This is a
chemical, which may be bought at a paint or drug store in the form of
crystals. These are dissolved in water, until the solution looks like
pink lemonade. It can be applied with a brush, but each coat must be
allowed to dry completely before the whole is sand-papered smooth with
No. 0 sand-paper. A deeper brown can be obtained by adding one or two
extra coats of stain.
[Illustration: Fig. 142. Method of using hand screws in the
construction of a knife box]
The middle partition containing the handle was made first. The drawing
was laid out on the wood after it had been squared up, and two holes 1
inch in diameter were bored out at _a a_. The wood between was taken
out with a key-hole saw, and finished to the line with chisel and
knife. A turning saw can be used to advantage on this handle, but it
is not absolutely necessary. Spaces _b b_ were removed in the same
way, but a knife was used in the concave part of the curve. If it is
handy, a small spokeshave can be employed on the whole upper line of
this handle.
Anything in the nature of a handle should be rounded to fit the hand.
Edges _c c_ were therefore rounded with the knife, and finished with
coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper.
The two sides were laid out together as in the nail box, and the groove
cut with back saw and 1/8-inch chisel.
The end pieces were made in a similar manner, and the bottom piece
squared to 1/16-inch of finished size. The assembling consisted of
first gluing together the sides and ends. Two hand screws were used to
hold them. This was Harry's first attempt at using hand screws, and
Ralph showed him the importance of keeping the jaws parallel.
The box remained in the hand screws over night, and the next day it was
found to be securely fastened. The most convenient kind of glue for
boys is the liquid sold in cans. It is always ready for use, and very
handy where only a moderate quantity is needed.
Dry glue in the form of flakes, or granulated, must be soaked over
night, and then heated in a pot having a double bottom with water in
the lower part.
It should be put on hot with a brush or a small flat stick. The best
glue is none too good, yet a good quality has wonderful holding power
and should last indefinitely.
After removing the hand screws, the unfinished box was placed in the
vise, tested with the edge of the plane, and made perfectly true, top
and bottom.
The 1/4-inch bottom piece was now put on with one-inch brads, the sides
and ends made square, the handle partition slipped into the grooves,
and fastened with two brads at each end.
[Illustration: Fig. 143. Tool box]
This knife box was so satisfactory that our young carpenters resolved
to have a large one for tools. Whenever they had a job to do in the
house, they were constantly running out to the shop for something, so
that a tool box became a necessity.
The construction was similar to the knife box; but this was larger and
heavier, and the dado joints at the ends were replaced by a butt joint
fastened with flat-head screws. (Fig. 143). The bottom and partition
were also put on with screws, on account of the weight to be carried.
[Illustration: Fig. 144. Another tool box]
These tool boxes are frequently made in the shape shown in Fig. 144,
with sloping sides and ends called the hopper joint; but aside from the
tool practice it affords, it is doubtful if the shape has advantage
enough over the other form to warrant the extra time it takes. Man is
an imitative creature, however, and what one carpenter has, the others
copy.
The principal features about this useful article should be size and
strength, especially in the handle, which should be of about 5/8 or 3/4
inch stock.
XXVI
THE MITRE BOX AND PICTURE FRAMES
It seemed to Harry that the shop was fairly well equipped, but Ralph
insisted that they must have a mitre box before making anything else
for the house.
The mitre box is, or should be, an instrument of precision, and
although simple in construction, must be perfectly accurate, or it is
useless. (Fig. 145.)
The illustration shows the common form, but elaborate affairs of iron
and wood can be bought ready made. Every boy should make his own, for
the practice, if for nothing else. The sides should be made of oak
7/8 inch thick, 18 inches long, and 3-1/2 inches high, the bottom of
7/8-inch pine or other soft wood, the same size.
When squared up, the two sides must be tested by standing them side by
side; then reverse one end for end, to see if they are alike. If not,
find where the trouble is, and correct it.
It is especially important that the edges of the bottom piece be square
and the sides perfectly parallel. This test can be made with the
marking gauge. Sides are fastened on by boring and countersinking for
three screws on each. After assembling, the whole thing must be tested
as if it were a solid block. Top edges must be true and parallel.
[Illustration: Fig. 145. The 45° mitre box and test pieces]
Near one end--about two inches in--lay out across the top with try
square a line 90 degrees with the sides. Carry the line down each side,
square with the top edges. For 45-degree angles, lay out a square by
drawing two pencil lines across the top, as far apart as the finished
mitre box is wide. Draw the two diagonals and square lines from their
ends down both sides, taking care that their position is not over the
screw in the bottom; because as the saw cuts deeper it may reach this
screw and ruin its teeth.
Make the three saw cuts directly on the lines laid out with a cross
cut or back saw, with the utmost care. If this is not done accurately,
all the labour of preparation is wasted. The blank end of the mitre
box may have an additional 90-degree cut, or be left for new cuts in
the future, as a mitre box of this description wears out and becomes
inaccurate.
Other angles may be used, as 60 degrees or 30 degrees, but it is better
to have these on another box as they are used less, and for special
purposes. (Fig. 146.)
The mitre box is not ready to use until it has been thoroughly tested.
Prepare a strip of soft wood--pine or white wood--1-1/2 inches wide and
1/2 inch thick. Cut four pieces from it on the mitre box, using the
back saw as shown at _a_, with only one of the slits. Place these four
triangular pieces together to form a square. All the four mitre joints
of this square must fit perfectly. If they do not, mark the slit "N.
G.," and test the other slit in the same way. If all right, mark "O.
K." It often happens that one may be perfect and the other inaccurate.
If they are both O. K., the box is ready for use. If one slit is
useless, lay out and cut another on the blank end of the mitre box in
the same direction, and test again.
[Illustration: Fig. 146. 30-60-90 mitre box]
In testing a 30-degree cut three pieces of the strip should be sawed
out, and when placed together they should form a perfect equilateral
triangle, while from a 60-degree cut, six pieces are needed to form a
hexagon.
These angles are valuable in inlaid work, and for getting out
geometrical designs.
The 45-degree cut is indispensable in making the mitred corners of
picture frames and in cabinet work.
In making picture frames of simple cross section, it is first necessary
to cut the rabbet (Fig. 147) with a rabbet plane. If this moulding is
made by hand, the size of the picture should be measured, the length of
all four sides added, and a liberal allowance made for waste.
[Illustration: Fig. 147. Making picture frames]
In the figure, the triangles _a a_ are waste, the rabbet being
indicated by the dotted line. After the four pieces have been sawed out
on the mitre box, they should be placed together on a flat surface,
such as the bench top or floor, to see if the mitres fit perfectly. If
they do not, one of them can be block planed to make a perfect fit, and
the other three laid close together, as shown in the illustration.
The assembling is the hardest part of the operation, and many devices
have been tried and some patented to hold the parts together while the
glue is drying.
Perhaps the surest way is to drill a hole in one piece of each joint
large enough for the passage of a wire bung-head n
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