The Vegetable Garden: What, When, and How to Plant
by Anonymous · English · Gutenberg #43531 · 477,343 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Vegetable Garden: What, When, and How to Plant
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: The Vegetable Garden: What, When, and How to Plant
Author: Anonymous
Release date: August 22, 2013 [eBook #43531]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43531
Credits: Produced by Sue Fleming and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VEGETABLE GARDEN: WHAT, WHEN, AND HOW TO PLANT ***
NOTE TO THE PPVER AND WWER
The tables have been left as a replica of the original because there is
no way to ensure a clear reading if the size is reduced.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
[Illustration: A GOOD COLLECTION OF HOME-GROWN VEGETABLES]
[Illustration: LETTUCE MATURING IN HOME-MADE COLD FRAME]
The
Vegetable Garden
WHAT, WHEN, AND HOW TO PLANT
_Reprinted from "The Farmer's Cyclopedia"_
GARDEN CITY NEW YORK
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1917
_Copyright, 1912, by_
AGRICULTURAL SERVICE COMPANY
WASHINGTON, D. C.
_All rights reserved_
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Its Importance 3
Location 5
Plan and Arrangement 5
Fertilizers 7
Preparation of the Soil 9
Time of Planting 10
Selection of Seed 10
Sowing and Planting 11
Tools 15
Mulching 15
Irrigation 18
Thinning 19
Transplanting 19
Setting in the Open Ground 20
Protection of Plants 21
Harvesting, Packing and Shipping 22
Canning Vegetables on the Farm 23
Storing 27
Early Plants in Hotbeds 29
Handling Plants 30
Frames Used in Truck Growing 31
Ventilation 33
Soils and Fertilizers 34
Watering Crops 34
Garden Products:
Anise 35
Artichoke 35
Asparagus 35
Beans 40
Beans, Lima 46
Beets 47
Borage 48
Broccoli 48
Brussels Sprouts 49
Cabbage 49
Calabash 51
Cantaloupe 52
Cardoon 53
Carrot 54
Cauliflower 54
Celeriac 57
Celery 57
Cetewayo 64
Chayote 64
Chervil 64
Chicory 64
Chile 65
Chive 66
Citron 66
Collards 67
Corn Salad 67
Cress 67
Cucumbers 67
Dandelion 71
Dill 72
Egg Plant 72
Endive 72
Fennel 73
Garlic 73
Ginger 73
Herbs 73
Horse Radish 74
Ice Plant 73
Kale 74
Kohl-Rabi 74
Leek 75
Lettuce 75
Lleren 75
Martynia 76
Melon--Muskmelon 76
Melon--Watermelon 81
Mustard 82
Nasturtium 82
New Zealand Spinach 83
Okra 83
Onions 85
Parsley 95
Parsnip 95
Peas 95
Peppers 96
Physalis 96
Potato 97
Pumpkin 116
Radish 116
Rhubarb 116
Ruta-Baga 117
Salsify 117
Scolymus 117
Skirret 117
Sorrel 118
Spinach 118
Squash 118
Stachys 118
Sweet Basil 119
Sweet Corn 119
Sweet Marjoram 119
Sweet Potato 119
Swiss Chard 128
Thyme 128
Tomatoes 128
Turnips 137
Vegetable Marrow 137
Quantity of Seed to Plant 138
Composition of Roots 140
Authorities Consulted 140
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A Good Collection of Home-Grown Vegetables. Lettuce
Maturing in Home-Made COLD FRAME _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
Liquid Manure is One of the Best Acting Fertilizers 8
The Wheel Hoe is the Handiest Garden Tool 16
The Easiest Running Wheel Hoe Valuable for Maintaining a Dust
Mulch 16
Temporary Hotbeds in a City Back Yard 30
Showing Vegetables Growing in Hotbed 32
Celery Banked With Earth to Blanch It 62
Japanese Climbing Cucumbers, Nearly Six Feet From the Ground 68
Well-Grown Cucumbers 68
Thorough Cultivation of the Growing Crop is an Essential of
Successful Potato Raising 110
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
Perhaps the most characteristic feature of Northern and Eastern
farms is the home vegetable garden. Even where no orchard has been
planted, and where the ornamental surroundings of the home have been
neglected, a fairly well-kept garden in which are grown a number of
the staple kinds of vegetables is generally to be found. In many
cases the principal interest in the garden is manifested by the women
of the household and much of the necessary care is given by them. A
small portion of the garden inclosure is generally devoted to the
cultivation of flowers, and a number of medicinal plants is invariably
present. Throughout the newer parts of the country it is seen that the
conditions governing the maintenance and use of the vegetable garden
are somewhat different, and, while a number of vegetable crops may
be grown somewhere on the farm, there is wanting that distinction so
characteristic of the typical New England kitchen garden.
It would be impossible to make an accurate estimate of the value of
crops grown in the kitchen gardens of the United States, but from
careful observation the statement can safely be made that a well-kept
garden will yield a return ten to fifteen times greater than would
the same area and location if devoted to general farm crops. A half
acre devoted to the various kinds of garden crops will easily supply a
family with $100 worth of vegetables during the year, while the average
return for farm crops is considerably less than one-tenth of this
amount. A bountiful supply of vegetables close at hand where they may
be secured at a few moments' notice is of even more importance than the
mere money value.
Fresh vegetables from the home garden are not subjected to exposure
on the markets or in transportation and are not liable to become
infected in any way. Many of the products of the garden lose their
characteristic flavor when not used within a few hours after gathering.
By means of the home garden the production of the vegetable supply for
the family is directly under control, and in many cases is the only way
whereby clean, fresh produce may be secured. The home vegetable garden
is worthy of increased attention, and a greater number and variety of
crops should be included in the garden.--(F. B. 255.)
The development and extension of truck farming in the Atlantic coast
States have been coincident with the development of transportation
facilities throughout that section. In the beginning the points
affording water connection with the great consuming centers of the
North were those at which truck farming first became established. The
phenomenal growth of the great consuming centers of the country has
stimulated a corresponding growth and extension of the food-producing
territory, especially that capable of producing perishable truck
crops. The demands for vegetables out of season, followed later
by the continuous demand for fresh vegetables throughout the year
by the great cities, led first to the market gardeners located
near the cities supplementing their field operations by extensive
forcing-house enterprises. Naturally, the products from the greenhouses
were expensive and available only to the few who were able to pay
fancy prices for green products out of season. The improvement and
extension of the transportation facilities which came with the great
railway-building era of the United States made it possible to take
advantage of the wide diversity of climate offered along the Atlantic
coast of the United States to furnish these perishable products to the
great cities of the North and East.
Transportation facilities, together with cheap labor and cheap lands
at the South, have made it possible to produce in extreme southern
locations products out of season at the North in competition with
greenhouse products. The greater land area and the smaller amount of
capital involved in the production of crops at the South, even though
transportation charges were high, have enabled southern growers to
produce much larger quantities of the desired crops than could be grown
profitably under glass. It was therefore not many years before lettuce,
celery, tomatoes, radishes, beets, and bunch beans came to be regular
winter and early spring products of gardens located at great distances
from the centers of consumption.--(Y. B. 1907.)
It is only necessary to look around the village and town gardens in the
South to become convinced of the great need that exists for information
in regard to the proper care of the garden, and particularly that part
which is intended to give supplies to the table. There town gardeners
are very active in the early spring, and their enthusiasm often leads
them to go ahead and plant a great many things at a season too early
for their safety, so that a return of cold often compels the almost
entire replanting of the garden. But with the production of the early
crops in the garden, the enthusiasm of the gardeners oozes out under
the influence of the summer's heat, and the garden that at first looked
so neat in its spring dress becomes merely a weed patch. Few people
realize the advantage that long summers and sunny autumns give for the
production of a constant succession of crops in the garden, and still
fewer realize that in this climate the garden need at no season of
the year be abandoned to the weeds. One of the greatest troubles that
results from the common practice of allowing the garden to grow up in
weeds after the first peas, corn, cabbage, and tomatoes are secured,
is that these weeds are the places where the larvæ of the cut-worm
hide, and are ready to begin their destructive work as soon as the
garden plants are set in the spring. If the garden is kept clean and
cropped continuously all the year round, as it may and should be here,
there will be no cut-worms to bother the early plants. From January
to January there is no need in the South for any space in the garden
unoccupied by crops. From the time the earliest peas go into the ground
in January up to the time it is necessary to prepare for them the
following year there can be a constant succession of fresh vegetables
from the garden, by the exercise of a little forethought. And this
succession can be made still more perfect if there be added a frame
with some hotbed sashes for the production of lettuce, cauliflower,
radishes, carrots, etc., during the colder months; while all through
the winter there can be celery, kale, spinach and turnips.--(N. C. Bul.
132.)
LOCATION.
The question of the proximity to the house or other buildings is of
great importance when locating the garden. Caring for a garden is
usually done at spare times, and for this reason alone the location
should be near the dwelling. In case the site chosen for the garden
should become unsuitable for any cause, it is not a difficult matter
to change the location. Many persons prefer to plant the garden in a
different location every five or six years. The lay of the land has
considerable influence upon the time that the soil can be worked, and
a gentle slope toward the south or southeast is most desirable for the
production of early crops. It is an advantage to have protection on the
north and northwest, by either a hill, a group of trees, evergreens,
a hedge, buildings, a tight board fence, or a stone wall to break the
force of the wind.
Good natural drainage of the garden area is of prime importance. The
land should have sufficient fall to drain off surplus water during
heavy rains, but the fall should not be so great that the soil will
be washed. The surface of the garden should not contain depressions
in which water will accumulate or stand. Waste water from surrounding
land should not flow toward the garden, and the fall below should be
such that there will be no danger of flood water backing up. The garden
should not be located along the banks of a creek or stream that will be
liable to overflow during the growing season.
A good fence around the garden plot is almost indispensable, and it
should be a safeguard against all farm animals, including poultry, and
should be close enough to keep out rabbits. A tight board fence will
accomplish, this result and also serve as a wind-break.--(F. B. 255.)
PLAN AND ARRANGEMENT.
The garden should be planned with a view to furnishing a large
assortment and continuous supply of vegetables through the entire
season. Its size will depend primarily upon the amount of land
available. On the farm, where any amount of land the owner desires can
be reserved, for a garden, vegetables to be stored for winter as well
as the summer supply, should be grown. On the village lot, space may be
insufficient to grow more than the summer's supply, and it may also be
necessary to leave out certain vegetables that require a large amount
of space. On a city lot, the space available for growing vegetables
is necessarily small, and plantings must usually be confined to those
vegetables which produce a large amount of edible product for the space
occupied.
Whether the garden is on the farm, in the village, or on the city
lot, the principles governing its planting and care are the same
although the distances of planting, methods of tillage, and intensity
of cropping may differ widely. On the farm, the saving of labor is
more important than the saving of space; even the small vegetables
are planted in long rows rather than in beds; and horse power is
substituted for hand power wherever possible. In the village and
the city, the vegetables must usually be planted as closely as the
nature of their growth will permit, and hand tillage employed almost
exclusively.
Much loss of time in planting a garden can be avoided by making a
definite plan of the garden several weeks or even months before the
planting is to begin. After measuring the area to be used for the
garden, the next step is to decide what vegetables are to be grown.
If space is ample, this will be determined primarily by the personal
tastes of the gardener and his family. However, if only a limited
amount of time and attention can be given the garden, it may be wise
not to undertake the growing of some of the more exacting crops.
Whatever the space to be devoted to gardening, the crops to be grown
should be decided upon long before the time of planting.
In planning the garden, it is well to arrange the vegetables in
the order in which they are to be planted. This facilitates the
preparation of the land for planting, and makes it possible to maintain
the unplanted portion in a good friable condition with the least
expenditure of labor. In order that the vegetables may be so arranged,
it is necessary to know the proper time for planting each crop. This
depends primarily upon the temperature and moisture requirements of the
particular crop in question.
If any of the small fruits, such as raspberries, currants, and
gooseberries, are to be planted within the garden enclosure, they
should be included with the permanent crops. The area devoted to the
hotbed, cold frame, and seed bed should be decided upon, but these may
be shifted more or less from year to year or located in some convenient
place outside of the garden. Where there is any great variation in
the composition of the soil in different parts of the garden it will
be advisable to take this into consideration when arranging for the
location of the various crops. If a part of the land is low and moist,
such crops as celery, onions, and late cucumbers should be placed
there. If part of the soil is high, warm, and dry, that is the proper
location for early crops and those that need quick, warm soil.
In planning the location of the various crops in the garden, due
consideration should be given to the matter of succession in order that
the land may be occupied at all times. As a rule it would not be best
to have a second planting of the same crop follow the first, but some
such arrangement as early peas followed by celery, or early cabbage
or potatoes followed by late beans or corn, and similar combinations,
are more satisfactory. In the South as many as three crops may be grown
one after the other on the same land, but at the extreme north, where
the season is short, but one crop can be grown, or possibly two by some
such combination as early peas followed by turnips.--(F. B. 255.)
FERTILIZERS.
The kind of fertilizer employed has a marked influence upon the
character and quality of the vegetables produced. For the garden only
those fertilizers that have been carefully prepared should be used.
Fertilizers of organic composition, such as barnyard manure, should
have passed through the fermenting stage before being used. The use
of night soil generally is not to be recommended, as its application,
unless properly treated for the destruction of disease germs, may prove
dangerous to health.
BARNYARD MANURE.
For garden crops there is no fertilizer that will compare with
good, well-rotted barnyard manure. In localities where a supply of
such manure can not be secured it will be necessary to depend upon
commercial fertilizers, but the results are rarely so satisfactory.
In selecting manure for the garden, care should be taken that it does
not contain any element that will be injurious to the soil. An excess
of sawdust or shavings used as bedding will have a tendency to produce
sourness in the soil. Chicken, pigeon, and sheep manures rank high as
fertilizers, their value being somewhat greater than ordinary barnyard
manures, and almost as great as some of the lower grades of commercial
fertilizers. The manure from fowls is especially adapted for dropping
in the hills or rows of plants.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
Commercial fertilizers are sold under a guaranteed analysis, and
generally at a price consistent with their fertilizing value. No
definite rule can be given for the kind or quantity of fertilizer to
be applied, as this varies with the crop and the land. At first the
only safe procedure is to use a good high-grade fertilizer at the
rate of from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds to the acre and note the results.
Market gardeners frequently apply as much as 2,500 pounds of high-grade
fertilizer per acre each year. Farmers who do not have sufficient
barnyard manure for their crops should begin gradually to use the
commercial fertilizers.--(F. B. 255.)
PROFITS FROM THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.
The aim usually in the use of artificial fertilizers is to so
supplement soil supplies of plant-food as to obtain a profit, and,
as already intimated, the profits for the different crops will be in
proportion to their economical use of the desired constituent. Still,
one should not be deterred from the use of fertilizing materials,
even if the conditions should render the application apparently
wasteful--that is, the farmer should estimate the increase that it is
necessary for him to obtain, in order to be regarded as profitable, and
if only this is obtained, he should not be discouraged. Many persons
seem to have gotten the impression that the use of fertilizers is a
gamble at best, and are not satisfied unless the returns from the
investment in fertilizers are disproportionately large. We very often
hear the statement that by the use of certain fertilizers the crop
is doubled or tripled, as if this were a remarkable occurrence, and
partook of the nature of a mystery. Such results are not mysterious;
they can be readily explained. In an experiment on celery it is shown
that the weight of celery from an application of 400 pounds per acre
of nitrate of soda is two and one-half times greater than on the land
upon which no nitrate was used, and that very great profit followed its
use. This result is not mysterious--the nitrogen applied, if all had
been used by the crop, would have given a still greater increase; it
simply shows that where no extra nitrogen had been applied the plant
was not able to obtain enough to make the crop what the conditions of
the season and soil, in other respects, permitted. These favorable
conditions, however, are not uniform, and variations in return from
definite application must be expected.
It is quite possible to have a return of $50 per acre from the use of
$5 worth of nitrate of soda on crops of high value, as, for example,
early tomatoes, beets, cabbage, etc. This is an extraordinary return
for the money invested and labor involved; still, if the value of the
increased crop from its use was but $10, it should be regarded as a
profitable investment, since no more land is required, and but little
more capital with this return. The waste of nitrogen does not result in
loss.
DANGER OF LOSS OF NITRATES BY LEACHING.
The chief difficulties in the use of nitrate of soda are due to
promptness in its solubility and availability. The fact that it is so
soluble carries with it the very grave danger that losses by leaching
may occur if the conditions of soil and crop at the time of its
application are not favorable for a rapid absorption of the nitrate by
the plant. This danger is greater if it is applied to the soil before
rapid growth, when there is a limited number of plants that have not
made much growth, or whose roots have not taken possession of the soil,
as in the case of the vegetable crops. In meadows, on the other hand,
or in grain crops, where there are a large number of plants per unit of
area, and in orchards or berry patches, where there are fewer plants,
but a wider distribution of the feeding roots, losses are not so liable
to occur. There may be, therefore, great disappointment in the returns
from the use of nitrate of soda, if opinions as to its usefulness are
based entirely upon its availability. Nevertheless, because no unknown
conditions enter in, in reference to its availability, it is possible
to avoid, in a great degree, the losses liable to occur, and thus to
secure a maximum return from the application of this form of nitrogen.
THE INFLUENCE OF QUANTITY APPLIED AND METHOD OF APPLICATION.
If the quantity applied is too small to meet the demands of the crop,
unless all seasonal conditions are favorable, the chances are that the
results will not be completely satisfactory, as weather conditions
are not likely to be perfect; it may be too wet or too dry, too cold
or too hot, and hence, during certain periods, the plants would not
be able to obtain their food--that is, it would be impossible for the
plant to absorb always its food uniformly, or in such amounts and at
such times as would result in the best development of the plant. In
all cases an amount should be applied that would exceed the needed
requirement under perfect conditions.
[Illustration: LIQUID MANURE IS ONE OF THE BEST ACTING FERTILISERS]
In the second place, if the quantity found to be necessary for a
definite increase of crop, under average conditions, were all applied
at once, say in the early spring, a greater opportunity would be
offered for losses from leaching than would be the case if the material
were given in successive dressings, so that the losses due to the
escape of the nitrogen would be minimized; on the other hand, if no
losses occurred, the plant might take up more than could be utilized in
a normal development, thus defeating the purpose, because resulting in
a product of less commercial value. This would apply, of course, only
in the case of those crops that are injured by abnormal development in
certain directions, as, for example, too large a proportion of straw
in cereal grains, too large a root in sugar beets, etc. All these
difficulties may be obviated by a fractional application, or, in other
words, by supplying the nitrogen at the time and in the quantity best
adapted for the plant and for the purpose in view in its growth. The
results from the use of nitrogen may be also unsatisfactory if nitrogen
only of the elements essential is used. The best results from the use
of nitrate can come only when there exist in the soil, or are applied
with it, sufficient amounts of the mineral elements to enable the plant
to obtain a food suited to its needs--nitrogen is but one element of
plant food.--(N. J. A. E. Sta., 157.)
PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.
Where there is considerable choice in the location of the garden plot,
it is often possible to select land that will require very little
special preparation. On the other hand, it may be necessary to take
an undesirable soil and bring it into suitable condition, and it is
generally surprising to note the change that can be wrought in a single
season.
_Plowing._--Autumn is the time for plowing hard or stiff clay soils,
especially if in a part of the country where freezing takes place, as
the action of the frost during the winter will break the soil into
fine particles and render it suitable for planting. Sandy loams and
soils that contain a large amount of humus may be plowed in the spring,
but the work should be done early in order that the soil may settle
before planting. In the Southern States, where there is not sufficient
frost to mellow the soil, this process must be accomplished by means
of frequent cultivations, in order that the air may act upon the soil
particles. It is desirable to plow the garden early, at least a few
days sooner than for general field crops.
Sandy soils will bear plowing much earlier than heavy clay soils. The
usual test is to squeeze together a handful, and if the soil adheres
in a ball it is too wet for working. In the garden greater depth of
plowing should be practiced than for ordinary farm crops, as the roots
of many of the vegetables go deeply into the soil. Subsoiling will be
found advantageous in most cases, as the drainage and general movement
of the soil moisture will be improved thereby.
Hand spading should be resorted to only in very small gardens or where
it is desirable to prepare a small area very thoroughly.
_Smoothing and Pulverizing the Soil._--After plowing, the next
important step is to smooth and pulverize the soil. If the soil be well
prepared before planting, the work of caring for the crops will be very
materially lessened. It is not sufficient that the land be smooth and
fine on top, but the pulverizing process should extend as deep as the
plowing. Some gardeners prefer to thoroughly cut the land with a disk
harrow before plowing, so that when it is turned by the plow the bottom
soil will be fine and mellow. After the plow the disk or cutting harrow
is again brought into play and the pulverizing process completed. If
the soil is a trifle too dry and contains lumps, it may be necessary to
use some form of roller or clod crusher to bring it down. For smoothing
the surface and filling up depressions a float or drag made from planks
or scantlings will be found serviceable.
TIME OF PLANTING.
No definite rule can be given regarding the time for planting seeds and
plants in the garden, for the date varies with the locality and the
time that it is desired to have the crop mature. A little practice will
soon determine when and how often sowings should be made in order to
escape frost and mature the crop at a time when it will be most useful.
Certain crops will not thrive during the heated part of the summer, and
their time of planting must be planned accordingly.
THE SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF GARDEN SEEDS.
In order to have a good garden it is necessary to plant good seeds.
It is not alone essential that the seeds be capable of growing; they
must be capable of producing a crop of the desired quality, under the
conditions existing where the gardening is to be done. Some varieties
of vegetables are restricted in their adaptations, while others thrive
over a wide range of territory and under widely different conditions
of soil and climate. If the behavior of different varieties in a
given locality is not known, the safe plan to follow in selecting
varieties for planting is to choose mainly those that have proved
themselves adapted to a wide range of conditions and have thereby
become recognized as standard sorts. The newer varieties may be tested
in small quantities until their suitableness for a given place and
purpose has been determined. Particular care should be taken to select
varieties that are capable of yielding a product of high quality. Such
varieties are numerous, and some are better for one region than another.
It is always a safe plan to have a little more seed on hand than is
actually needed to plant the area desired. Sometimes the first planting
of a given crop is destroyed by frost or insects, making replanting
necessary. In such a case, delay in replanting could be avoided by
having the seeds on hand. The additional expense is slight compared
with the value of the crop. In the case of many seeds, an ounce costs
but little more than a packet; and in such cases, it is the part
of wisdom to purchase an ounce, even though a packet might contain
sufficient seed to barely plant the desired area. The more expensive
seeds may be purchased in smaller quantities, with less margin between
the actual amount required and the quantity purchased.--(U. Ill. B.
154.)
SEED SOWING.
Garden seeds should always be sown in straight rows regardless of
where the planting is made. If a window box is employed for starting
early plants in a dwelling, the soil should be well firmed and then
laid off in straight rows about 2 inches apart. The same method holds
good for planting seeds in a hotbed, cold frame, or bed in the garden,
except that the rows should be farther apart than in the window box.
By planting in straight rows the seedlings will be more uniform in
size and shape, and thinning and cultivating will be more easily
accomplished. In all cases where the soil of the seed bed is not too
wet it should be well firmed or pressed down before laying off and
marking for sowing the seeds. After the seeds are sown and covered, the
surface should again be firmed by means of a smooth board.
No definite rule can be given for the depth to which seeds should be
planted, for the depth should vary with the kind of seed and with the
character and condition of the soil. In heavy clay and moist soils the
covering should be lighter than in sandy or dry soils. In all cases the
depth should be uniform, and when planting seeds in boxes or a bed the
grooves in which the seeds are planted should be made with the edge of
a thin lath.--(F. B. 255.)
_Planting._--The most distinctive feature of the garden on the farm
should be the reduction of hand labor to a minimum. In planting the
garden, therefore, it should be laid out in long rows, sufficiently
far apart to permit the use of a horse and cultivator in tending the
crops. Time and confusion will also be saved if the vegetables are
grouped according to their cultural requirements, and the number of
plantings made as small as is consistent with the demands of the
various crops. Each group of crops may then be planted and tended as
one crop, and the garden operations thus greatly simplified. When more
than one planting of a given crop is desired for the sake of securing
a succession, the second planting may be put in at the same time that
other crops are being planted, so that even in this case, the number of
plantings need not be multiplied. The use of two or more varieties of
the same vegetable, differing in their time of maturity, will also aid
in keeping down the number of different plantings.
The arrangement of the garden as to length of rows and time of
planting, is not the only labor saving feature that should characterize
the typical farmer's garden. Field methods should be practiced in
preparing the land for planting, and as much preliminary work done
in the fall as is possible, for the sake of both securing an early
garden and reducing the amount of labor in spring. After the land is
cleared of refuse from preceding crops, it should be heavily manured,
and plowed in the fall. The amount of manure to be applied will depend
somewhat upon the fertility of the land, but more largely upon the
trueness of the farmer's conception of the plant food requirements
of garden crops. The best gardens are possible only where plant is
supplied much more liberally than is considered ample for field crops.
Forty tons of manure per acre is a very moderate application for garden
crops, and this amount should be applied annually, even on soils
already rich, if maximum crops of vegetables are to be grown.
The plowing under of manure in the fall hastens the drying out of the
soil in the spring, so that planting may begin earlier than if the
manuring and plowing were deferred until spring. This is both because
the soil actually dries out earlier, and also because no time is lost
in manuring or plowing after the soil has reached workable condition.
It often happens that early in the spring when the cool season crops
should be planted, the soil remains in ideal condition for working only
a brief period, and then becomes so thoroughly wet by copious rains
that further garden work is precluded for two or three weeks. If the
manuring and plowing have been done in the fall, it is often possible
to plant the early vegetables in the brief period during which the soil
is fit to work, while otherwise this entire period might be expended in
making preparations, and the actual planting necessarily deferred until
the next time the soil was dry. Since the success of many of the early
crops depends upon early planting, the wisdom of fall preparation is
apparent.
If the land has been manured and plowed in the fall, and is worked
at the proper time in spring, very little labor is necessary in the
preparation of a seed-bed for the early planting. Soil containing
sufficient humus to grow vegetable crops advantageously, can be fitted
for planting without the use of hand tools, if the precaution is taken
to work it at the exact time it reaches the right degree of dryness. It
will then crumble readily, and a seed-bed can be prepared by the use of
a disk, harrow, and planker. The use of these tools saves an enormous
amount of labor, and is a vast improvement over the old method of using
a hoe and rake.
The actual planting of the garden is a simple matter, provided a
definite plan has previously been made, so that no time is lost in
deciding which vegetable to plant first, where to plant it, or how
much to plant. In the home garden, only a small amount of seed of each
kind is planted, so that a seed drill cannot be used to advantage,
and the planting is therefore almost invariably done by hand. For the
small vegetables, sown in drills, the planting involves four distinct
operations: (1) making the drills, (2) dropping the seed, (3) covering,
and (4) firming. The most rapid way of making the drills in a garden
to be planted in long rows is to use a marker that makes three or four
drills each time it is drawn across the area to be planted. With a
medium weight marker, and the soil in proper condition for planting,
the marks will be of the proper depth for planting seeds of any of the
smaller vegetables usually sown in drills. For peas or beans a deeper
drill may be made with the plow attachment of a wheel hoe. After the
seed is dropped, it is covered with a rake, or in the case of deep
planting, with a hoe, or a wheel hoe. The soil is firmed over the seed
by the use of the feet, the back of a hoe, or a garden roller. Whatever
the means employed, the firming must be thorough, especially in light
soil or dry weather; for unless the soil is brought in close contact
with the seeds, they will not germinate.--(U. Ill. B. 154.)
_Cultivation._--By the proper cultivation of the garden there is
accomplished three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do
not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants
which one desires to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into the
best condition to resist drouth; that is, into the best condition for
availing itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and
to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. (3) The
stores of insoluble plant food are made soluble by the chemical action
and fermentation, which are increased by loosening the soil, thereby
letting in the air.
_Keeping Out the Weeds._--The methods best adapted for keeping the
weeds out of the garden are many and varied, and depend much upon
the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow; upon the
kind of crop and upon the habits of the weeds themselves. The most
important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is
the harrowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before
the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done
thoroughly, the weeds do not have a better chance than the crop. If
this is not done, the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and
if started even ever so little when the crop is planted, the result
generally is that the crop is seriously overgrown by them before it
is large enough to be cultivated. _This is a common mistake, and is,
perhaps, responsible for more failures in the garden than any other
factor which enters into the consideration of this subject_; and it
is a very simple matter to prevent any trouble from this source if a
little foresight is exercised.
_Early Cultivation to Kill Weeds._--The next most important factor in
the prevention of weeds in the garden is early cultivation. In the case
of seeds that require a long time to germinate, it is an excellent
plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake,
even before the crop appears above the ground, providing the work is
so carefully done as not to disturb the seeds. When the seed is sown
with a drill, the line of the row may be plainly seen even before
the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cultivating it
in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as carrots, onions,
parsnips and beets, which are quite delicate when young, cultivation
should begin with some hand garden cultivator, even if it is intended
later on to cultivate with a horse, and the crop is planted with this
purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any
horse implement now in use as with the best hand implements. With
proper tools, the work may be done nearly as quickly by hand as by
horse power, and far more perfectly when the plants are small. Careful
early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since, if the weeds
are removed when they are young, the work of weeding is very small.
If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very
serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the
weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to
remove them or plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of
wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the
prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of great value in breaking up
the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants,
and that seriously interferes with their growth. It is also, like all
surface cultivation, of aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil.
_Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to Go to Seed._--A common source of
weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go
to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or
after the crop has been gathered. To some farmers it often seems a
small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed
and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute
cleanliness should be the only rule in this particular, and it is by
far the most economical in practice in the long run. It requires but
little labor and saves much useless expense to destroy weeds that are
going to seed. If the preventives for weeds suggested are closely
followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum and will often be
unnecessary with any crop.
_Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden._--The manure applied to the
garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds, and is a fruitful
source of weed infection. The manure intended for the garden that
contains the seeds of weeds should be piled up and allowed to ferment
until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted. By this means the seeds in
it will be killed. But in order to rot manure to best advantage, it
should be forked over occasionally when well warmed up by fermentation,
and the whole turned over, with the outside of the pile thrown into the
center. If dry, it should be watered enough to enable fermentation to
continue, and to prevent "fire-fanging." It is seldom advisable to use
fresh manure in the garden, and manure should only be applied in this
condition when free from weeds, and then only for some late-maturing
crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops
need it. All early crops need well rotted manure, and require it in
much larger quantities than do the late-maturing crops.--(U. Minn. A.
E. S. 38.)
_General Cultivation._--The methods to be pursued in the general
cultivation of garden crops will vary somewhat, according to the soil,
season and crop. However, it is very important to remember that the
destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation.
The most important part is to so fit the soil that it may best
withstand drouth. This is accomplished by frequent shallow cultivation
during the period of growth. The first implements to use in the care
of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work
the soil to only a very slight depth, close to the plants. Such
implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As
soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should
be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches
can be easily worked without endangering the safety of the crop by
covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden
crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is
very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very
close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their
upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drouth
results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of
the land, which prevents the moisture from passing into the atmosphere,
and a rather shallow blanket, say two inches deep, accomplishes this
purpose. A compact subsoil readily transmits the water upwards to the
surface soil, in the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to
the flame. At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating
by a blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper subsoil
and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the
crop; loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the
growth of a crop, the surface of the ground should never be left long
with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or after
artificially watering.
TOOLS.
There are a number of one-horse cultivators that are especially adapted
for work in the garden. These may be provided with several sizes of
teeth and shovels, and are easily transformed for various kinds of
work. In working the crops while they are small the harrow or smaller
teeth may be used, and later when the plants become larger the size of
the shovels may be increased. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use
the harrow teeth at all times. When it is desirable to ridge up the
soil around a crop, the wings, or hillers, may be put on either side of
the cultivator. A one-horse turning plow is useful for running off rows
or throwing up ridges. Aside from the horse tools in general use on the
farm, there are only one or two cultivators that will be required for
the garden, and these are not expensive.
The outfit of hand tools for the garden should include a spade, a
spading fork, a cut-steel rake, a 10-foot measuring pole, a line for
laying off rows, a standard hoe, a narrow hoe, dibbles, a trowel, an
assortment of hand weeders, a watering can, a wheelbarrow, and if the
work is to be done largely by hand the outfit should also include some
form of wheel hoe, of which there are a number on the market.
MULCHING.
The term mulch as generally used means a layer of litter applied to
the surface of the ground primarily for the purpose of retarding
evaporation from the soil. Mulches are thus used as a substitute for
cultivation to conserve the moisture in the soil in summer and to keep
down weeds. They are also used as winter and spring coverings for
low-growing small fruits to retard flowering and fruiting and thus
to protect them from injury by late frosts. What is termed a "soil
mulch" or "dust mulch" is maintained by frequent cultivation of the
surface soil, and, like the ordinary mulch, is an effective means of
retarding evaporation. Among the common materials used for mulching
crops are straw, marsh hay, and leaves. These materials are usually
applied to the whole surface of the soil in layers 4 to 6 inches deep.
Mulching crops with straw or other litter is not very common. On a
large scale it is too expensive. It frequently happens on a farm,
however, that spring finds an old straw stack in the barnyard that will
be practically valueless for feed the following winter. Can it be used
profitably as a mulch?
This question was investigated quite thoroughly by the Nebraska
Station. Experiments were made to determine how mulching vegetables
compares with the most thorough cultivation as a general farm practice.
Old straw was the material used. After settling, the layer applied was
about 4 inches deep. A large number of different vegetables were grown.
In general it was found that mulching in Nebraska gave much better
results in normal or dry seasons than in wet seasons.
The value of the mulch in conserving the soil moisture was found to be
quite marked. Soil samples taken one season in July and August showed
the moisture content to a depth of 6 inches to be 18.2 per cent, as
compared with 17.1 per cent in cultivated soil. When the mulch was
applied early in the season before the ground became thoroughly wet,
it often had a retarding effect on the growth of the vegetables.
With early spring vegetables, like lettuce, which require only a few
cultivations, it was found cheaper and better to cultivate than to
mulch; but with longer-growing crops that require frequent cultivation
throughout the season, such as cabbage, tomatoes, etc., mulching
usually proved more effective and cheaper than cultivation.
The fact that most vegetables, especially the more tender kinds, can
not be mulched, until they have become well established and the weather
has become warm, thus requiring some preliminary cultivation, certainly
increases the labor required in growing mulched vegetables over what
would be necessary if the mulch could be applied earlier. But, if the
impracticability of early mulching is a serious drawback to the use of
mulches, so is the impracticability of midsummer cultivation under farm
conditions a serious objection to dependence upon cultivation alone.
For most vegetables mulching should be used to supplement cultivation
rather than to displace it. Such cultivation as is commonly given farm
gardens is better for most vegetables in early spring than mulching;
but mulching is just as surely better in midsummer than the neglect
which is the common thing in farm gardens at that time of year. The
experiment station tests have indeed shown mulching to be better in
many cases than the most thorough cultivation throughout the summer.
The station tests indicate that it is unwise to mulch drilled
onions, lettuce, or sweet corn. The stand of the onions and lettuce
is injured by mulching, while so few cultivations are required for
sweet corn that mulching is hardly profitable, and in wet seasons
the yield was decidedly decreased by mulching. With transplanted
onions, beets, salsify, parsley, peas, and melons the labor required
and yield obtained were found to be about the same by either method of
culture. With cabbage, tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, potatoes, and sweet
potatoes, very favorable results were secured by mulching. The yields
of each of these crops were considerably increased by mulching and
the labor required was considerably less than in case of cultivation
alone. Mulched cabbage produced larger heads than cultivated cabbage,
and there was less injury from rot. The vigor of tomato plants was
decreased by mulching, but the yield of fruit increased. The fruit
was also cleaner and less subject to rot. Mulched cucumbers produced
perfect fruits during dry periods when the fruit from the cultivated
plants was small and imperfect. The quality of potatoes was not hurt by
mulching except in wet places.
[Illustration: THE WHEEL HOE IS THE HANDIEST GARDEN TOOL]
[Illustration: THE EASIEST RUNNING WHEEL HOE VALUABLE FOR MAINTAINING
A DUST MULCH]
In a special test of a 4-inch and 8-inch straw mulch and early and
late mulching for potatoes a 4-inch mulch applied late in summer after
several cultivations gave the best results. In the case of sweet
potatoes the vines did not take root through the straw mulch as they
do on cultivated ground, which was considered a decided advantage for
mulching.
On the whole this work seems to indicate that on the farm where
cultivation of the garden is likely to be neglected in midsummer, a
mulch of straw can be used profitably as a substitute. For the best
results the mulch should not be applied until the ground has become
thoroughly warmed up and after two or three cultivations have been
given. The mulch may then be safely applied to such vegetables as
cabbage, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans, and the garden left to take
care of itself the rest of the season.
The same plans were worked at the New Jersey stations. One season
it was found that mulching increased the yield of sound fruits of
eggplants 66.5 per cent and of tomatoes and peppers about 13 per cent
each. The keeping quality of cucumbers also appeared to be slightly
benefited by the use of a mulch. The season following, which was
considerably more rainy, no advantage resulted from mulching. In this
experiment there was no noticeable difference in the effectiveness of
new salt hay, old hay, or excelsior as a mulch.
Several of the experiment stations have carried out experiments in
mulching potatoes. The favorable results obtained in such experiments
in dry seasons at the Nebraska Station have already been referred to.
At the Michigan Station the following yields were obtained: Mulched,
167 bushels of potatoes per acre; cultivated, 199 bushels per acre.
With another variety the yield of mulched potatoes was 252 bushels,
and of cultivated, 385 bushels. The cost of cultivation was less than
the cost of mulching, and the profit in both instances was in favor
of cultivation. It should be stated, however, that there was a large
amount of rain during this season, and that the straw used as a mulch
contained a considerable amount of grain, which came up on the mulched
plats, both of which conditions were unfavorable to mulching.
At the Oklahoma Station the total potato crop was increased about 50
per cent by mulching, the marketable crop nearly 100 per cent, and
the size of the tubers about 70 per cent. Mulching potatoes with old
shavings at the New Jersey stations increased the total number of
tubers on a small plat about 16 per cent and the weight of the crop
about 35 per cent. At the Georgia Station mulching potatoes with
pine straw was not found to be of sufficient value to recommend the
practice. These conflicting results secured with potatoes would seem to
confirm the conclusion reached at the Nebraska Station that mulching is
of greatest value in a dry season.
There is, however, a drawback to mulching that may not at first occur
to the reader, viz., the danger it involves from fire. In dry weather
a lighted match or cigar dropped upon the mulch may easily start a
conflagration that it may be impossible to stop until the orchard is
destroyed. It gives disaffected trespassers in the orchard an excellent
opportunity to take vengeance upon the owner.
The cost of the mulch will of course depend much upon the price at
which the material may be obtained. Clean wheat, rye, or oats straw
would answer the purpose well, and in many localities would be cheaper
than marsh hay. In some seasons oats sown as a second crop would grow
fast enough to make mulching material by the time of frost. In the
vicinity of marshes the coarser marsh grasses that have no value as hay
may be cut after the ground freezes in autumn and would make excellent
material for mulching. Cornstalks have been suggested, but they are
probably too coarse to keep down weeds.
It has been suggested that by sowing rye in September, and harvesting
the crop the following June, and then sowing the same ground to millet,
the rye straw with the millet would mulch an area of plums equal to
that on which the two crops were grown, and would leave the thrashed
rye to compensate for the labor. This is certainly worth trying by
those who have no better source from which to obtain mulching.--(Nebr.
Sta. Bul., 79, 80.)
IRRIGATION.
Throughout the portions of the country where rains occur during
the growing season it should not be necessary to irrigate except
occasionally in order to produce the ordinary garden crops. In arid
regions, where irrigation must be depended upon for the production of
crops, the system best adapted for use in that particular locality
should be employed in the garden. Wherever irrigation is practiced the
water should not be applied until needed, and then the soil should be
thoroughly soaked. After irrigation, the land should be cultivated
as soon as the surface becomes sufficiently dry, and no more water
should be applied until the plants begin to show the need of additional
moisture. Constant or excessive watering is very detrimental in every
case. Apply the water at any time of the day that is most convenient
and when the plants require it.
By the subirrigation method of watering, lines of farm drain tiles or
perforated pipes are laid on a level a few inches below the surface of
the soil. This system is especially adapted for use in backyard gardens
where city water is available and where the area under cultivation is
small. Subirrigation is expensive to install, as the lines of tiles
should be about 3 feet apart, or one line for each standard row. By
connecting the tiles at one end by means of a tile across the rows the
water may be discharged into the tiles at one point from a hose, and
will find its way to all parts of the system, entering the soil through
the openings.
THINNING.
Where plants are not to be transplanted twice, but remain in the plant
bed until required for setting in the garden, it may be necessary to
thin them somewhat. This part of the work should be done as soon as the
plants are large enough to pull, and before they begin to "draw" or
become spindling from crowding.
When thinning plants in the plant bed it should be the aim to remove
the centers of the thick bunches, leaving the spaces as uniform as
possible. When thinning the rows of seedlings in the garden the best
plants should be allowed to remain, but due consideration should be
given to the matter of proper spacing. Failure to thin plants properly
will invariably result in the production of an inferior crop.
There is a tendency for some gardeners to leave the plants of carrots,
onions, and similar vegetables too thick, or to defer the thinning
too long, with the intention of making use of the thinnings. Usually
this is a serious error, except in the case of beets, which can be
used quite young for greens. The crowded seedlings do not reach edible
size as soon as they would if not crowded; and the removal of part of
the crowded plants when they are wanted for the table is likely to
seriously disturb and impair the growth of those which remain. A better
plan is to make at least a preliminary thinning as early as possible,
leaving the plants perhaps twice as thick as they are eventually to
stand; and then to pull out every other plant after they reach edible
size. This method of thinning is especially adapted to beets, carrots,
lettuce and onions. The other root crops, like parsnips and salsify,
should be thinned to the full distance at the first thinning.--(U. Wis.
Cir. 16; F. B. 255.)
TRANSPLANTING.
At the North, where the growing season is short, it is necessary to
transplant several of the garden crops in order to secure strong
plants that will mature within the limits of the growing season. In
the Southern States the season is longer, and transplanting, while
desirable, may not be necessary, as many crops that must be started
indoors at the North can be planted in the garden where they are to
remain. Transplanting should be done as soon as the seedlings are large
enough to handle, and again when the plants begin to crowd one another.
Aside from producing more uniform and hardy plants, the transplanting
process has several other very marked influences. Certain crops which
are grown for their straight roots are often injured by having
their roots bent or broken in transplanting. On the other hand, such
plants as celery, which at first have a straight root and are grown
for their tops, are greatly benefited by transplanting. In all cases
transplanting has a tendency to increase the number of small roots, and
these are the main dependence of the plant at the time it is set in the
open ground.
A large number of garden crops, including melons, cucumbers, and beans,
do not transplant readily from the seed bed to the open ground, and
some special means for handling the plants must be employed where extra
early planting is desired. A common practice among gardeners is to fill
pint or quart berry boxes with good soil and plant a single hill in
each box.
Another method is to cut sods into pieces about 2 inches thick and 6
inches square and place them, root side upward, on the greenhouse bench
or in the hotbed, the hills being planted in the loamy soil held in
place by the roots of the grass. When the weather becomes sufficiently
warm, and it is desired to set the plants in the garden, the berry
boxes or pieces of sod are placed on a flat tray and carried to the
place where the planting is to be done. Holes of sufficient size and
depth are dug and the boxes or sods are simply buried at the points
where it is desired to have the hills of plants. The boxes should be
placed a little below the surface and fine earth worked in around the
plants. If it is thought desirable, the bottoms of the boxes may be cut
away when set in the garden.
SETTING IN THE OPEN GROUND.
A few hours before removing plants from the seed bed or plant bed
they should be well watered and the water allowed to soak into the
soil. This will insure a portion of the soil adhering to the roots
and prevent the plants from wilting. If the plants have been properly
thinned or transplanted it is often possible to run a knife or trowel
between them, thus cutting the soil into cubes that are transferred
with them to the garden. Where the soil does not adhere to the roots
of the plants it is well to puddle them. In the process of puddling,
a hole is dug in the earth near the plant bed, or a large pail may
be used for the purpose, and a thin slime, consisting of clay, cow
manure, and water, is prepared. The plants are taken in small bunches
and their roots thoroughly coated with this mixture by dipping them
up and down in the puddle a few times. Puddling insures a coating of
moist earth over the entire root system of the plant, prevents the air
from reaching the rootlets while on the way to the garden, and aids in
securing direct contact between the roots and the soil.
Previous to setting out plants, the land should be worked over and put
in good condition, and everything should be ready for quick operations
when a suitable time arrives. The rows should be measured off, but it
is well to defer making the furrows or digging the holes until ready
to plant, in order to have the soil fresh. The time best suited for
transferring plants from the plant bed to the open ground is when there
is considerable moisture in the air and clouds obscure the sun, and if
the plants can be set before a shower there will be no difficulty in
getting them to grow. During seasons when there is very little rain at
planting time, or in irrigated regions, evening is the best time to set
the plants. It is possible to set plants in quite dry soil, provided
the roots are puddled and the earth well packed about them. When water
is used in setting plants it should be applied after the hole has been
partially filled, and the moist earth should then be covered with dry
soil to prevent baking. Where water is available for irrigation it will
be sufficient to puddle the roots and then irrigate after the plants
are all in place. Plants should be set a trifle deeper in the garden
than they were in the plant bed. The majority of plants require to be
set upright, and where the dibble is used for planting care should be
taken that the soil is well pressed around the roots and no air spaces
left.
PRECAUTIONS TO AVOID ATTACKS OF INSECTS AND DISEASES.
In the control of insects and diseases that infest garden crops it is
often possible to accomplish a great amount of good by careful sanitary
management. In the autumn, after the crops have been harvested, or
as fast as any crop is disposed of, any refuse that remains should
be gathered and placed in the compost heap, or burned if diseased or
infested with insects. Several of the garden insects find protection
during the winter under boards and any loose material that may remain
in the garden. Dead vines or leaves of plants are frequently covered
with spores of diseases that affect those crops during the growing
season, and these should be burned, as they possess very little
fertilizing value.
PROTECTION OF PLANTS.
Some plants require protection from the direct rays of the sun in
summer or from cold in winter, and there are many that need special
protection while they are quite small. Seedlings of many of the garden
crops are unable to force their way through the crust formed on the
soil after heavy rains, and it is necessary either to break the crust
with a steel rake or soften it by watering.
In parts of the country where the sunshine is extremely hot during a
part of the summer, some plants, especially those that are grown for
salad purposes, are benefited by shading. Shading is often used in the
care of small plants when they are first transplanted.
Where boards are available they can be used for protecting plants that
have been set in rows in the garden by placing them on the south side
of the row at an angle that will cast a shadow over the plants, and
holding them in place by short stakes driven in the ground. Laths,
wooden slats, cotton cloth, or shaded sash are frequently used to
protect plant beds from the heat of summer.
For protecting plants from cold in winter several kinds of materials
are used, such as boards, cloth, pine boughs, straw, manure, or leaves.
There are a number of crops of a tropical nature that may be grown far
north, provided they are properly protected during the winter.
Several of the annual crops can be matured much earlier in the spring
if they are planted in the autumn and protected during the winter.
Plants of this kind can often be protected by means of boards set at
an angle on the north side of the row instead of on the south. A mulch
of manure, straw, or leaves forms a good protection, but care should
be taken that the mulch does not contain seeds of any kind or serious
trouble will attend the further cultivation of the crop. Plants are
like animals in that they require air, and care should be exercised
in putting on the winter covering not to smother them. Coarse, loose
materials are better for a winter covering than fine, easily compacted
substances.--(F. B. 255.)
HARVESTING, PACKING AND SHIPPING.
As a rule the crop should be harvested just before it reaches maturity.
The time for this depends somewhat upon the distance from the market
and the method of shipment. Remember that it costs just as much
freight for a package of poor goods as for the best, and while there
is a market for good produce, poor stuff not only does not bring good
prices, but reacts upon the superior article, reducing its price.
It is, therefore, poor policy to ship inferior goods. Inspect and
assort rigorously, retaining all doubtful product for canning, or to
be otherwise disposed of. Better lose it entirely than send it to
market to undermine the good. Learn what kind of package the market
you are selling in prefers. Provide that package, and pack the goods
securely and honestly. Be sure the package is full. Not only is this
more honest, but your produce will arrive upon the market in better
condition if this is done. Have the goods in each package as near the
same size as possible, and as near the same degree of ripeness. Do
not make the error of placing the best on top. Remember that every
package is examined by the buyer until he learns whether you are honest
or not, and this practice fools no one, and only serves to make the
buyer wary of your goods. Pack neatly in a neat clean package. Nail it
up securely, stencil your name and post office, and the name of the
consignee upon it, and ship as promptly, and by the most direct route
possible. Notify the consignee promptly of the shipment in order that
he may know it is on the way, and have a chance to provide for its
reception and disposal. The shipment of perishable goods by freight in
refrigerator cars is preferable. Very early in the season ventilated
cars may give satisfaction. Except with a few packages of very early
vegetables or fruits, express shipments will not, as a rule, be found
profitable. Not only will the charges be four or five fold, but the
packages are handled so often, and so roughly, that they invariably
reach their destination in poor condition. Besides this, there is no
assurance as to the temperature being kept low, and a low temperature,
while in transit, is essential to the arrival of your produce upon the
market in good condition.
Careful selection, packing and shipping cannot be too strongly urged.
Upon the intelligence and care with which this is done, depends,
largely, the success of the shipper. Remember that after leaving your
hands, and before reaching the consumer, these perishable goods are
subjected to their greatest ordeal, and too much care cannot be given
to make this test as light as possible. A proper understanding of this
by the shipper would save many a disappointment, and many a hard word
for the consignee. Of course, all else being equal, it is much safer
and more satisfactory to sell on the track. However, this is not always
possible, nor is it always advisable when possible. It would be unjust
to demand or to expect the buyer to pay you the net price of the big
city market for your goods at your home town.
In buying from you there, he takes the risk of transportation, of the
fluctuations of the market, and pays all selling charges, and it is
but just and right that he should be allowed a fair margin for these
risks. On the other hand, human nature is the same the world over, and
unless you watch Mr. Buyer closely, you will find he shows a decided
tendency to make this margin unnecessarily large. To sell on track,
intelligently and advantageously, therefore, you must make a close
study of the market conditions. It is not enough to know what stuff
sold for last week. You should know what it sold for the day before,
and what the conditions of supply and demand are. Is the crop a large
one? Is the movement to your market large or light? Is the demand brisk
or dull? Is your railroad service efficient? All these questions should
be considered, and unless the farmer recognizes that the disposal
of his crop is a business, and adopts business methods, he is sure
to come to grief. In order to do this, it is necessary to have some
reliable source of information. For this purpose, select some reliable
commission house, and if necessary, pay them to furnish you daily
market reports by wire during the shipping season. Do not begrudge the
little money these telegrams will cost, for they will frequently save
you many a dollar, even on one carload.--(La. St. U. & A. & M. Col. 81.)
CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME.
One of the many problems that confront the American housewife is the
supply of vegetables for her table during the winter months. "What
can I have for dinner today?" is a question often heard. Since the
advent of the modern greenhouse and the forcing of vegetables under
glass, fresh vegetables can usually be found at any time in the
markets of the large cities. But the cost of forcing vegetables or
growing them out of season is and will continue to be very great. This
makes the price so high as almost to prohibit their use by people of
moderate means, except as a luxury. A healthful diet, however, must
include vegetables, and therefore the housewife turns to canned goods
as the only alternative. These are sometimes poor substitutes for
the fresh article, especially the cheaper commercial grades, which
necessarily lack the delicate flavor of the fresh vegetable. There
is practically no danger, however, from contamination with tin or
other metals providing the containers are made of proper materials
and handled carefully. In some cases the proper care is not taken in
packing vegetables for market. The decayed and refuse portions are not
so carefully removed as they should be and the requisite degree of
cleanliness is not observed in their packing. Happily, however, such
carelessness is not general.
Every housewife may run a miniature canning factory in her own kitchen,
and on the farm this is especially economical and desirable, the
economy being less pronounced in the case of city dwellers, who must
buy their fruits and vegetables. Enough vegetables annually go to waste
from the average farm garden to supply the table during the entire
winter. But usually the farmer's wife cans her tomatoes, preserves
her fruits, and leaves her most wholesome and nutritious vegetables
to decay in the field, under the impression that it is impossible to
keep them. This is a great mistake. It is just as easy to keep corn or
string beans as it is to keep tomatoes, if you know how.
_Sterilization._--The great secret of canning or preserving lies in
complete sterilization. The air we breathe, the water we drink, all
fruits and vegetables, are teeming with minute forms of life which we
call bacteria, or molds, or germs. These germs are practically the
sole cause of decomposition or rotting. The exclusion of air from
canned articles, which was formerly supposed to be so important,
is unnecessary provided the air is sterile or free from germs. The
exclusion of air is necessary only because in excluding it we exclude
the germ. In other words, air which has been sterilized or freed from
germs by heat or mechanical means can be passed continuously over
canned articles without affecting them in the least. If a glass bottle
is filled with some vegetable which ordinarily spoils very rapidly--for
instance, string beans--and, instead of a cork, it is stoppered with a
thick plug of raw cotton and heated until all germ life is destroyed,
the beans will keep indefinitely. The air can readily pass in and out
of the bottle through the plug of cotton, while the germs from the
outside air cannot pass through, but are caught and held in its meshes.
This shows that the germs and their spores or seeds are the only causes
of spoilage that we have to deal with in canning.
Germs which cause decay may be divided into three classes--yeasts,
molds and bacteria. All three of these are themselves plants of a very
low order, and all attack other plants of a higher order in somewhat
the same way. Every housewife is familiar with the yeast plant and its
habits. It thrives in substances containing sugar, which it decomposes
or breaks up into carbonic acid and alcohol. This fact is made use of
in bread making, as well as in the manufacture of distilled spirits.
Yeasts are easily killed, so they can be left out of consideration in
canning vegetables. Molds, like yeasts, thrive in mixtures containing
sugar, as well as in acid vegetables, such as the tomato, where neither
yeasts nor bacteria readily grow. Although more resistant to heat than
yeasts, they are usually killed at the temperature of boiling water. As
a general rule, molds are likely to attack jellies and preserves and
are not concerned with the spoiling of canned vegetables. The spoiling
of vegetables is due primarily to bacteria.
The reproduction of bacteria is brought about by one of two processes.
The germ either divides itself into two parts, making two bacteria
where one existed before, or else reproduces itself by means of spores.
These spores may be compared with seeds of an ordinary plant, and they
present the chief difficulty in canning vegetables. While the parent
bacteria may be readily killed at the temperature of boiling water, the
seeds retain their vitality for a long time even at that temperature,
and upon cooling will germinate, and the newly formed bacteria will
begin their destructive work. Therefore it is necessary, in order to
completely sterilize a vegetable, to heat it to the boiling point of
water and keep it at that temperature for about one hour, upon two or
three successive days, or else keep it at the temperature of boiling
water for a long period of time--about five hours. The process of
boiling upon successive days is the one that is always employed in
scientific work and is much to be preferred. The boiling on the first
day kills all the molds and practically all of the bacteria, but does
not kill the spores or seeds.
As soon as the jar cools these seeds germinate and a fresh crop of
bacteria begin work upon the vegetables. The boiling upon the second
day kills this crop of bacteria before they have had time to develop
spores. The boiling upon the third day is not always necessary, but is
advisable in order to be sure that the sterilization is complete. Among
scientists this is called fractional sterilization, and this principle
constitutes the whole secret of canning. If the housewife will only
bear this in mind she will be able with a little ingenuity to can any
meat, fruit, or vegetable.
_Exclusion of the Air._--Even after sterilization is complete the work
is not yet done. The spores of bacteria are so light that they float
about in the air and settle upon almost everything. The air is alive
with them. A bubble of air no larger than a pea may contain hundreds of
them. Therefore it is necessary after sterilizing a jar of vegetables
to exclude carefully all outside air. If one bacterium or one of its
spores should get in and find a resting place, in the course of a few
days the contents of the jar would spoil. This is why the exclusion of
air is an important factor, not because the air itself does any damage
but because of the ever-present bacteria.
All of this may seem new fashioned and unnecessary to some
housekeepers. Persons have quite often heard it said: "My grandmother
never did this, and she was the most successful woman at canning that
I ever knew." Possibly so, but it must be remembered that grandmother
made her preserves--delicious they were, too--and canned her tomatoes,
but did not attempt to keep the most nutritious and most delicately
flavored vegetables, such as lima beans, string beans, okra, asparagus,
or even corn.
_So-Called "Preserving Powders."_--There are a great many brands of
so-called "preserving powders" on the market. These are sold not only
under advertised trade names but by druggists and peddlers everywhere.
In the directions for use the housewife is told to fill the jar with
the fruit or vegetable to be canned, to cover with water, and to
add a teaspoonful of the powder. It is true that these powders may
prevent the decay of the fruit or vegetable, but they also encourage
uncleanly, careless work, and in the hands of inexperienced persons may
be dangerous. While with small doses the influence may not be apparent
in an adult in normal health, with a child or an invalid the effect
may be of a serious nature. The proper way to sterilize is by means
of heat, and as this can be done very easily and cheaply the use of
chemical preservatives in canning is not to be recommended.
_Kinds of Jars._--The first requisite for successful canning is a good
jar. Glass is the most satisfactory. Tin is more or less soluble in
the juices of fruits and vegetables. Even the most improved styles of
tin cans which are lacquered on the inside to prevent the juice from
coming in contact with the tin are open to this objection. While the
amount of tin dissolved under these conditions is very small, enough
does come through the lacquer and into the contents of the can to be
detected in an ordinary analysis. While the small amount of tin may not
be injurious, it gives an undesirable color to many canned articles.
Tin cans can not readily be used a second time, while glass with proper
care will last indefinitely.
There are a great many kinds of glass jars on the market, many of them
possessing certain distinct points of advantage. The ordinary screw-top
jar is the one in most common use. Although cheap in price, these jars
are the most expensive in the long run. The tops last only a few years
and, being cheaply made, the breakage is usually greater than that of
a better grade of jar. The tops also furnish an excellent hiding place
for germs, which makes sterilization very difficult.
The most satisfactory jar is the one which has a rubber ring and glass
top, held in place by a simple wire spring. There are several brands
of these jars on the market, so no difficulty should be experienced in
obtaining them. Vegetables often spoil after being sterilized because
of defective rubbers. It is poor economy to buy cheap rubbers or to use
them a second time. As a general rule black rubbers are more durable
than white ones.
Buy a good grade of jar. The best quality usually retails at from a
dollar to a dollar and twenty-five cents a dozen. The initial expense
may be, therefore, somewhat high, but with proper care they should last
many years. The annual breakage should be less than 3 per cent on the
average. In selecting a jar always give preference to those having wide
mouths. In canning whole fruit or vegetables and in cleaning the jars
the wide mouth will be found to be decidedly preferable.
_Containers for Sterilizing._--A tin clothes boiler with a false
bottom made of wire netting cut to fit may be used as a container for
sterilizing. The netting is made of medium-sized galvanized wire (No.
16) with one-half inch mesh. A false bottom is absolutely necessary, as
the jars will break if set flat upon the bottom of the boiler. Narrow
strips of wood, straw, or almost anything of this nature may be used
for the purpose, but the wire gauze is clean and convenient.
There are several varieties of patent steamers or steam cookers in
common use. These have either one or two doors and hold a dozen or more
quart jars. They are ideal for canning, but they are somewhat expensive
and can be easily dispensed with. A common ham boiler or clothes boiler
with a tight-fitting cover will answer every purpose.--(F. B. 359.)
_Selection and Preparation of Vegetables._--The first step in
successful canning is the selection and preparation of the vegetables.
Never attempt to can any vegetable that has matured and commenced
to harden or one that has begun to decay. As a general rule, young
vegetables are superior in flavor and texture to the more mature
ones. This is especially true of string beans, okra, and asparagus.
Vegetables are better if gathered in the early morning while the dew
is still on them. If it is impossible to can them immediately, do not
allow them to wither, but put them in cold water, or in a cold, damp
place and keep them crisp until you are ready for them. Do your canning
in a well-swept and well-dusted room. This will tend to reduce the
number of spores floating about and lessen the chances of inoculation.
STORING.
The assortment of vegetables which can be made available for winter
use is much larger than is ordinarily supposed. No less than thirty
distinct kinds of vegetables can be preserved for winter use by proper
methods of storing, canning, and pickling. Of these, at least twenty
may be kept in the fresh state, without canning or pickling. Besides
the staple crop, potatoes, the list includes the root crops (beets,
carrots, horse-radish, parsnips, winter radish, ruta-baga, salsify,
turnips), kohl-rabi, cabbage, celery, leeks, chicory, parsley, onions,
dry beans, pumpkins, squashes and sweet potatoes. The vegetables most
commonly canned are rhubarb, tomatoes, corn, peas and string beans;
those commonly preserved by pickling are cauliflower, cucumbers (both
green and ripe), citron, green peppers and green tomatoes.
When vegetables are to be canned or pickled, it is not usually
necessary to grow them especially for that purpose, except to make sure
that a suitable variety is planted in sufficient quantity. When the
vegetables have reached the right stage of maturity and the supply is
abundant, part of the crop is simply canned or pickled without special
regard to the particular time in the season it may be done. However,
with vegetables to be preserved in the fresh state for winter use it is
essential that they be planted at such a time that they will reach the
right stage of development at the proper season for storing. This means
that in the case of some of the crops they will be planted considerably
later than if designed for summer use, since the product is of better
quality if not allowed to continue growth after reaching the desired
stage of development, and this stage should not be reached before the
arrival of the storage season. Since most vegetables usually keep best
if put into storage comparatively late, it should be the aim of the
gardener to mature the vegetables for winter use as late in the season
as he can, and yet have them harvested before they are injured by cold.
Of the vegetables stored for winter, some require entirely different
conditions in storage than do others, so that attempts to store all
vegetables under the same conditions would result only in failure. In
order that the root crops may be stored without wilting, rotting or
starting into growth, they must be kept cool, fairly moist, and away
from contact with circulating air. Cabbage may be successfully stored
under the same conditions. Onions must be kept at a low temperature,
but differ from the root crops in that they must be in a dry atmosphere
and have free circulation of air. In a moist atmosphere, under high
temperature, they would either rot or sprout. Vegetables that are
expected to continue growth while in storage, such as celery, leeks,
Brussels sprouts, chicory and parsley, must be planted in dirt and the
roots kept moist. Air should circulate freely about the tops, and the
temperature must be low. On the other hand, sweet potatoes, pumpkins
and squashes demand a high temperature and dry atmosphere, with free
circulation of air.
The conditions of storage favorable to the different crops are secured
in various ways. Market gardeners use outdoor pits or specially
constructed cellars for their root crops, cabbage and celery. Onions
are commercially stored in slatted crates piled in tiers in frost-proof
houses provided with means for ventilation so that the temperature
can be maintained at slightly above freezing. Sweet potatoes and
squashes are also stored in specially constructed houses, in which the
temperature can be controlled; but since a high temperature is demanded
for these crops, artificial heat is usually employed. Circulation
of air about these products in storage is facilitated by the use of
slatted bins, and allowing ample space between the bins and the side
walls of the building.
For home use the root crops and cabbage can best be stored in outdoor
pits for late winter use, and in the cellar for use early in the
season. The chief objection usually urged against storing root crops
in the cellar is that they are likely to wilt. This difficulty can be
obviated by packing the roots in boxes with alternate layers of earth
or sand, and placing the boxes in the coolest part of the cellar. The
earth will absorb any odors in case the vegetables should start to
decay, and thus avoid endangering the health of the family. Cabbage can
be stored in the same way if the roots and outer leaves are removed and
merely the heads are packed in boxes or barrels of earth.
Cabbage intended for late winter use, however, will keep better in an
outdoor pit than in a cellar. The same is true of parsnips, salsify,
horse-radish and some of the other root crops. Except where the ground
is especially well drained, the pits are usually made entirely above
ground. For storing cabbage in this manner, the plants are pulled with
the roots and leaves on, and placed upside-down in regular order on a
level piece of ground. Usually three plants are placed side by side,
with two above, and this arrangement repeated so that the final result
is a long, low pile of cabbage showing five plants in a cross section.
Earth is piled against and over this array of cabbage until the plants,
including the roots, are entirely covered. In a severe climate, a layer
of manure may be added when cold weather arrives.
For storing parsnips, salsify and horse-radish, which are uninjured by
freezing, the roots may be placed in a pile on the ground and covered
with about six inches of earth. The advantage of storing in this
manner, instead of allowing the roots to remain where they grew, is
the saving in time of digging, when a few roots are wanted during the
winter. It is much easier to open the pit when the ground is frozen
than to dig roots from the garden with a pick. In fact, the difficulty
of digging almost precludes the use of these crops in midwinter unless
they are more accessible than in the place where they grew.
Beets, carrots, turnips, ruta-bagas, kohl-rabi and Irish potatoes can
also be stored in outdoor pits, but they must be covered sufficiently
to prevent freezing. One of the best ways of handling these crops is to
place them in a conical pile and cover first with six or eight inches
of hay or straw, then with earth to a similar depth. If extremely cold
weather is expected, a layer of manure should be placed outside of the
earth. In getting vegetables from pits of this kind in midwinter, the
manure is removed slightly from one side of the pit near the bottom
and a hole about a foot square chopped through the frozen earth with
an old ax. Sufficient hay is then pulled out by means of an iron hook,
to enable a person to thrust his arm into the opening and reach the
vegetables.--(U. Ill. 154.)
EARLY PLANTS IN HOTBEDS.
The most common method of starting early plants in the North is by
means of a hotbed. The hotbed consists of an inclosure covered with
sash and supplied with some form of heat, usually fermenting stable
manure, to keep the plants warm and in a growing condition. As a rule,
the hotbed should not be placed within the garden inclosure, but near
some frequently used path or building where it can receive attention
without interfering with other work. The hotbed should always face to
the south, and the south side of either a dwelling, barn, tight board
fence, hedge, or anything affording a similar protection, will furnish
a good location. The hotbed should be started in February or early in
March, in order that such plants as the tomato and early cabbage may be
well grown in time to plant in the open ground. There are two or three
forms of hotbeds that are worthy of use.
A temporary hotbed, such as would ordinarily be employed on the farm,
is easily constructed by the use of manure from the horse stable as a
means of furnishing the heat. Select a well-drained location, where the
bed will be sheltered, shake out the manure into a broad, flat heap,
and thoroughly compact it by tramping. The manure heap should be 8 or
9 feet wide, 18 to 24 inches deep when compacted, and of any desired
length, according to the number of sash to be employed. The manure for
hotbed purposes should contain sufficient litter, such as leaves or
straw, to prevent its packing soggy, and should spring slightly when
trodden upon. After the manure has been properly tramped and leveled,
the frames to support the sash are placed in position facing toward
the south. These frames are generally made to carry 4 standard hotbed
sash, and the front board should be 4 to 6 inches lower than the back,
in order that water will drain from the glass. Three to five inches
of good garden loam or specially prepared soil is spread evenly over
the area inclosed by the frame, the sash put on, and the bed allowed
to heat. At first the temperature of the bed will run quite high, but
no seeds should be planted until the soil temperature falls to 80° F.,
which will be in about three days. In most farmhouses enough heat is
wasted throughout the winter to sustain a small hothouse to say nothing
of a hotbed.
Hotbeds having more or less permanence may be so constructed as to
be heated either with fermenting manure, a stove, a brick flue, or
by means of radiating pipes supplied with steam or hot water from
a dwelling or other heating plant. For a permanent bed in which
fermenting manure is to supply the heat, a pit 24 to 30 inches in depth
should be provided. The sides and ends of the pit may be supported by
brick walls or by a lining of 2-inch plank held in place by stakes.
Standard hotbed sash are 3 by 6 feet in size, and are usually
constructed of white pine or cypress. As a rule, hotbed sash can be
purchased cheaper than they can be made locally, and are on sale by
seedsmen and dealers in garden supplies. In the colder parts of the
country, in addition to glazed sash either board shutters, straw mats,
burlap, or old carpet will be required as a covering during cold
nights. It is also desirable to have a supply of straw or loose manure
on hand to throw over the bed in case of extremely cold weather.
During bright days the hotbed will heat very quickly from the sunshine
on the glass and it will be necessary to ventilate during the early
morning by slightly raising the sash on the opposite side from the
wind. Care should be taken in ventilating to protect the plants from a
draft of cold air. Toward evening the sash should be closed in order
that the bed may become sufficiently warm before nightfall. Hotbeds
should be watered on bright days and in the morning only. Watering in
the evening or on cloudy days will have a tendency to chill the bed and
increase the danger from freezing. After watering, the bed should be
well ventilated to dry the foliage of the plants and the surface of the
soil and prevent the plants being lost by damping-off fungus or mildew.
HANDLING OF PLANTS.
Successful transplanting of indoor-grown plants to the garden or field
depends largely upon their proper treatment during the two weeks
preceding the time of their removal. Spindling and tender plants will
not withstand the exposure of the open ground so well as sturdy,
well-grown plants, such as may be secured by proper handling.
Plants grown in a house, hotbed, or cold frame will require to be
hardened off before planting in the garden. By the process of hardening
off, the plants are gradually acclimated to the effects of the sun
and wind so that they will stand transplanting to the open ground.
Hardening off is usually accomplished by ventilating freely and by
reducing the amount of water applied to the plant bed. The plant bed
should not become so dry that the plants will wilt or be seriously
checked in their growth. After a few days it will be possible to leave
the plants uncovered during the entire day and on mild nights. By the
time the plants are required for setting in the garden they should be
thoroughly acclimated to outdoor conditions and can be transplanted
with but few losses.--(F. B. 255; U. Mo. Col. Ag. & Mech. Arts 33; N.
La. 81; Kan. St. Ag. Col. 70; S. Dak. 47; U. Idaho 17.)
[Illustration: TEMPORARY HOTBEDS IN A CITY BACK YARD]
FRAMES USED IN TRUCK GROWING.
Intensive gardening under sash or cloth covers has become one of the
most popular and, in certain localities where the conditions are
suitable, one of the most profitable lines of outdoor work. The trucker
and the market gardener of the present day have been compelled by
keen competition and a constantly increasing demand for high-grade
products out of season to provide special facilities for increasing and
improving the product, as well as to take advantage of every favorable
natural condition. Many localities are especially favored with an
abundance of sunshine at all seasons of the year, and at the same
time their climate, due to the influence of large streams or near-by
bodies of water, is mild and free from extremes of temperature. In such
localities it would be possible to grow lettuce, radishes, and similar
crops during the entire winter without protection were it not for a few
cold days and nights. A very slight covering or the application of a
small amount of heat will, as a rule, carry the plants through in good
condition. This industry may readily be combined with regular truck
farming, as it furnishes remunerative employment during the winter
months. A comparatively small area is necessary for the frames, but
several times that acreage of land should be available, so that the
site of the frames may be changed every few years to safeguard against
diseases and insect injuries.
_Cloth-Covered Frames._--The type of frame or bed varies with the
different localities and is ordinarily no more elaborate or expensive
than is necessary to protect the crops. In North Carolina and South
Carolina the type of frame generally used is that having for the sides
two lines of 12-inch boards set on edge and held in place by means
of stakes driven into the ground. The covering of cheap unbleached
muslin is supported on strips of wood 1 inch thick and 2-1/2 or 3
inches wide, which are raised in the center by being carried over the
top of a stake; the ends are held down by nailing to the sides of the
bed. Most of these frames are temporary and are taken apart and stored
during the summer months. Before placing the frames in position in
the autumn the soil is plowed, thoroughly fitted, and given a liberal
dressing of well-rotted stable manure and commercial fertilizers.
The placing of the boards will cause some trampling of the bed, and
before putting in the ends and nailing on the rafters or strips to
support the cloth it is desirable to loosen the soil again by means of
a harrow or cultivator. The stakes for supporting the cross strips or
rafters are then driven through the center and the strips nailed in
place at intervals of 4 feet. The ends are inclosed by means of 12-inch
boards, and the bed is then ready for the cloth cover. The cloth is
first stitched, with the strips running lengthwise of the bed, into
one great sheet large enough to cover the entire bed. This sheet is
fastened on the north side of the frame by nailing over it plastering
laths or similar strips of wood. The cloth should not be fastened to
the top edge of the board but on the side, 1 or 2 inches below the top.
For fastening the sheet on the south side of the frame short loops of
string or cloth are attached to its edge and these are looped over
nails driven into the side of the bed.
_Sash-Covered Frames._--In the tidewater region of Virginia the frames
are covered with hotbed sash. The climate of Norfolk is a little too
severe for the use of cloth except for early autumn and spring crops.
A number of growers in the vicinity of Norfolk handle sash-covered
frames occupying as much as 3, 4, or 5 acres each season. For the sides
and ends of these frames the same class of cheap lumber as for the
cloth-covered frames is used.
_Heated Frames._--Farther north, near Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland,
Detroit, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, New York, and Boston,
sash-covered frames are extensively used for growing early vegetables.
This work is practically the same as that found at Norfolk, except
that the frames are constructed over an excavation which is filled
with fermenting manure to provide heat. Where manure-heated beds are
extensively used for growing early vegetables a long, shallow pit is
opened, the manure is trodden in, and 12-inch boards are fastened to
stakes to form the sides. The board on the north side is raised a
little higher than the one on the south side in order to form a slope
for the glass. A few strips are nailed across the bed to prevent the
sides from coming in by the pressure of the manure or soil that is
banked on the outside, and the sash simply rest on the sides without
any guide or supporting strips between them. Straw mats and board
shutters are employed as a protection for the sash during cold weather.
_Temperature of Frames._--The temperature at which the air of the
beds should be carried will depend entirely upon the crop being grown.
Thermometers should be placed at intervals in the beds, as it is not
safe to judge the temperature by personal sensation. If lettuce,
parsley, or radishes are growing in the beds, the temperature should
not go above 70° F. before ventilation is given; on the other hand,
if the frames are filled with cucumbers, eggplant, or peppers, the
temperature may run 8 or 10 degrees higher. It should be borne in mind
that any covering, whether cloth or sash, will exclude a part of the
light, and every precaution is necessary to prevent the plants becoming
"drawn." The safest plan is to keep the temperature a trifle low and
thus retain the plants in a strong, thrifty condition. Where tender
plants are being grown under cloth there is greater danger of injury
from keeping them covered too tightly than from exposure to moderate
cold.
[Illustration: SHOWING VEGETABLES GROWING IN HOTBED]
VENTILATION.
_Open-Air._--In the care of cloth-covered frames the covers are
left off during bright weather and the plants subjected to open-air
conditions. When there is danger of cold the covers are put on at
night, and during unfavorable weather they are frequently left on
during the day. While the cloth covers conserve the heat, they at the
same time exclude the sunlight, and if they are kept on too great a
portion of the time the crops will become drawn and spindling. With
sash-covered frames the matter of ventilation is of prime importance.
The glass admits and holds the heat of the sun's rays, and during
bright weather it is necessary to open the frames quite early in the
morning. Ventilation is accomplished by propping up one end or one side
of the sash on a notched stick. The rule to be followed is to ventilate
on the side away from the wind, so that the wind will blow over the
opening and not into the bed.
_Protection of Frames._--The area occupied by the frames is often
surrounded by a high board fence or a hedge of evergreens to break the
force of the wind. If a large area is devoted to frames it is sometimes
subdivided by numerous cross fences to break up air currents and lessen
the force of storms. Where no heat is applied to the frames the control
over temperature will not be great except in the prevention of too high
temperature by means of ventilation during bright weather. In many
instances straw and burlap mats are kept ready at hand for throwing
over sash-covered frames to prevent loss from freezing, but this would
not be practicable on a large scale. Sometimes the glass is covered by
shoveling one-half or three-fourths of an inch of soil over it, but
this involves considerable labor and frequently results in the breakage
of a great deal of glass. It is possible to ward off frost by the use
of a number of orchard heaters in the frame yard. These heaters burn
kerosene or crude oil and give off both heat and a smudge which will
prevent injury from a reasonable degree of cold.
_Crops Grown in Frames._--The crops most commonly grown in frames
are lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, garden beets, parsley, eggplant,
peppers, and snap beans. The crops grown in the sash-covered frames
do not differ materially from those grown under cloth. In the spring,
however, many growers devote their beds almost entirely to cucumbers
and eggplant instead of to lettuce and radishes. To the southward the
cloth covers are sufficient to protect the more hardy crops throughout
the winter. To the northward the hardy crops may be grown under sash in
midwinter, and those requiring more heat are grown in the spring.
_Marketing Crops Grown in Frames._--Crops grown in frames are usually
superior in quality and appearance to those grown in the open and
should be given more care in handling and marketing. The cost of
production is somewhat higher than for outdoor crops, and it is
essential that they be put up in neat packages in order to bring the
highest market price. The more successful growers give the work
of gathering, grading, and packing the crop their closest personal
attention and use only clean, attractive packages for handling and
shipping.
The packages employed for handling the frame products are generally the
same as those used for marketing outdoor vegetables, of the same kinds.
In a few instances a distinctive package has been employed. The use
of special shipping packages that would give the frame-grown produce
special recognition on the markets would be a decided advantage to the
grower.--(F. B. 460.)
SOIL AND FERTILIZERS.
The greater portion of the work with frames is conducted on light
or sandy loam soils which are naturally well drained and adapted
to intensive trucking. The original soil is usually employed, but
when necessary rich soil is hauled and placed in the beds. The first
essential is good drainage, and if the land is not naturally well
drained it should be tiled or provided with numerous open ditches to
carry off the water. The surface of the soil should be graded and all
depressions filled in and leveled. For best results the land should be
subjected to two or three years of preparation by manuring and planting
to leguminous crops.
The presence of plenty of organic matter in the soil is very important,
especially where large quantities of commercial fertilizers are to be
used. This organic matter may be added in the form of stable manure,
but more satisfactory results will be obtained where leguminous crops
are included in the preparatory treatment. For green manure nothing is
better than cowpeas as a summer crop and crimson clover as a winter
crop. The crimson clover should be turned under about the time it comes
into full bloom in the spring, the land planted to cowpeas, and the
resulting crop plowed under or mowed for hay during the month of August
in ample time to prepare the land for frame work during the autumn.
When heavy crops of green manure are turned under it is essential that
lime be used to improve the mechanical condition and to sweeten the
soil; a dressing of 1,000 pounds to the acre should be sufficient.
Large quantities of stable manure are used in growing crops in frames,
sometimes as much as 30 to 60 cartloads to the acre. The manure is
generally spread in a broad, flat pile to compost before it is applied
to the soil on which frames are to be located. Where manure is employed
for heating the beds it may afterwards be mixed with the soil for the
growing of subsequent crops. Poultry and sheep manure is excellent
fertilizer for frame work, but the quantity obtainable is very small.
In the application of natural manures of all kinds it is essential that
the manure should be fine; that it be what is termed "short" manure.
WATERING CROPS.
To insure success in the cultivation of plants in frames it is
necessary to provide some means of applying water to the soil.
Occasionally the supply of water can be obtained from the system of
some city, but more often it must be pumped from a well or stream and
stored for use in an elevated tank. Watering is generally done during
the late afternoon, but should be completed early enough to permit the
foliage to become reasonably dry before closing the frames for the
night. If the plants are young and very tender it will be important to
avoid too great a degree of moisture. Serious losses from "damping-off"
often result from excessive moisture, especially at night, when
evaporation is not so rapid as during the day. Many gardeners make
the mistake of watering too often and not doing the work thoroughly.
Under ordinary conditions twice a week will be often enough to apply
water, and in winter, when evaporation is at its lowest point, once
a week will be sufficient. In watering the sash-covered frames it is
necessary either to remove the sash or to prop them up high enough to
permit working under them. As a rule the sash are taken off early in
the morning of a bright day, the soil is stirred, sometimes a little
fertilizer is added, later in the day the bed is watered, and toward
night the sash are replaced.
ANISE.
This is an annual. Leaves used as a garnish. The seeds are the source
of Anise oil. This plant grows well and gives a good yield of seed.
Seeds should be soaked over night in warm water and sown thickly.--(U.
Idaho 10.)
ARTICHOKE, GLOBE.
This plant requires a deep, rich sandy loam, with a liberal supply of
well-rotted manure, is best suited for growing artichokes. Plant the
seeds as soon as the soil is warm in the spring, and when the plants
have formed three or four leaves they may be transplanted to rows 3
feet apart and 2 feet apart in the row. The plants do not produce until
the second season, and in cold localities some form of covering will be
necessary during the winter. This crop is not suited for cultivation
north of the line of zero temperature. After the bed is once
established the plants may be reset each year by using the side shoots
from the base of the old plants. If not reset the bed will continue to
produce for several years, but the burs will not be so large as from
new plants. The bur, or flower bud, is the part used, and the burs
should be gathered before the blossom part appears. If they are removed
and no seed is allowed to form, the plants will continue to produce
until the end of the season.
ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM.
This useful and productive plant will grow in any good garden soil,
and should be planted three to four feet apart each way, with three or
four small tubers in a hill. If large tubers are used for planting they
should be cut the same as Irish potatoes. Plant as soon as the ground
becomes warm in the spring and cultivate as for corn. A pint of tubers
cut to eyes will plant about thirty hills. The tubers will be ready for
use in October, but may remain in the ground and be dug at any time
during the winter.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho 10.)
ASPARAGUS.
This valuable plant was formerly a luxury on the tables of the rich,
but is now during the season a vegetable seen daily upon the tables
of people of moderate or even small incomes. It is also frequently
recommended as an article of diet for the sick and convalescent. To the
asparagus grower there are two methods by which plants can be secured,
(1) by purchasing or saving the seed from which to raise them, and (2)
by purchasing the plants from either a seedsman or some grower. Taking
the second method, as being the quickest way to start a bed as well as
the most easily disposed of, it is suggested that roots over two years
old be rejected, and only one-year-old roots selected if a sufficient
number can be secured, as the latter are much better and will in the
course of a few years produce more and larger spears to the plant and
yield profitable crops for a longer period. It is best to deal with
reliable firms; they will be more likely to supply plants of both the
kind and age desired.
_Seed._--Only reliable seedsmen should be trusted, or the seed should
be procured from some neighbor who has the desired variety and has
taken proper care in producing and saving the seed, if the first
plan is to be followed. If one already has an asparagus bed of the
desired sort, producing fine spears, and of the proper age (8 to 12
years old) for seed production, it is always best to save seed from
it for new plantings. The growing of one's own plants is preferable,
both because of the extra year intervening between the determination
to plant and the actual setting out of the bed, thereby permitting
the soil of the proposed bed to be put in a better and more friable
condition, and because, good seed having been secured and proper care
given to the young plants, a more satisfactory supply of the young
roots is obtained. That there are objections to growing one's own seed
is undoubtedly true, but there are also compensating advantages, and
if proper care is exercised it will pay the grower to raise his own
seed (from beds which are satisfactory) even if seed can be bought in
the open market for much less than the trouble of attending to the
home grown may cost. If, however, a grower is unwilling or unable to
exercise the necessary care in the production of seed, he would do
much better not to attempt it, but depend upon some reliable dealer,
studiously avoiding those whose claims to patronage are based upon
cheapness of stock. Good seed are worth good money; poor seed should
not be accepted under any conditions.
_Soil._--Asparagus will grow on most soils, and will yield large crops
upon stiff soils; but for the purpose of the grower for market, a light
sandy soil of fair fertility is much to be preferred, both because of
the earliness with which it produces marketable spears and the ease
with which it is cultivated. A soil on which water stands after rain,
or under which the standing subsurface water is near the surface, into
which the roots are liable to penetrate, is to be avoided. Of course,
such a soil, if otherwise suitable, can be made fit by a thorough
system of under drainage, since an occasional overflow, or even a
submergence of the beds for several days, is not necessarily injurious
if the drainage, either natural or artificial, is good. The soil
should be free of roots, stones, or any trash that will not readily
disintegrate or that will interfere with the growth of the spears. A
rather stiff but naturally well-drained soil which produces early and
fine asparagus, notwithstanding the fact that it is full of large
gravel, some of the stones being twice the size of a man's fist.
_Shade._--Fruit or other trees or high shrubs must not be allowed in
the asparagus bed, because of the shade they throw over the beds and
because their roots make heavy drafts upon the soil. Nor should high
trees, hedges, hills, or buildings be so near as to throw a shadow
upon the beds, because all the sunshine obtainable is needed to bring
the spears quickly to the surface. The land should be protected from
the north or east (or from the direction of the prevalent winds) and
so slope that the full benefit of the sunshine will be obtained during
the whole day. Freedom from weeds is very desirable, even more so than
great fertility, for the latter can be produced by the heavy manuring
which the future cultivation will require; and to the end that weeds
may be few, it is well that for a year or two previous to planting the
land should have been occupied by some hoed crop, such as potatoes,
beets, cabbages, etc.
_Cultivation._--In the late fall or early winter the selected area,
should be a light sandy loam as described above, needs to be deeply
plowed, and if the subsoil is not already of an open and porous nature,
through which surface water will readily drain and the roots easily
penetrate, a subsoil plow should follow, breaking the soil to the
depth of at least 15 inches. After harrowing the field, a good compost
of well-rotted horse, cow, sheep, or other manure should be spread
broadcast and left to the action of the weather until as early in the
spring as the ground is in condition to be worked, when the manure
should be plowed in, the surface carefully harrowed, and the soil put
in a light and friable condition.
As early in the spring as the condition of the ground will permit work
to be done--when it is dry enough to bear plowing and the soil will
break up fine--rows should be marked off 4 to 6 feet apart and opened
up with a large plow, going a sufficient number of times to make a
furrow from 8 to 12 inches deep. Loose soil that the plow does not
throw up should be taken up with a shovel or wide-bladed hoe. It is in
these furrows that the crowns are to be set, the distance to be left
between plants varying, according to the opinion of the grower, from 18
inches to 5 feet.
_Planting._--Rows should be run north and south, so that the full
benefit of the sunshine will be secured. If the rows run east and
west, they will be shaded by the ridges in early spring, when the sun
is low in the south, and later in the season they will be completely
shaded on one side by the tall foliage. This delays sprouting in the
spring, and prevents the best development of the plants at all times.
Of course, any conditions, such as the slope of the land, etc., which
make it inadvisable to run the rows north and south must be considered,
but southeast to northwest or northeast to southwest is better than
due east or west, or, in short, the natural conditions permitting,
the course should be as far from east and west as possible. This is
especially important to those who ridge the rows to produce white
asparagus. Early in the spring of each year, after the plants are old
enough to cut, there must be a ridge made over the rows to blanch the
shoots, if white asparagus is to be cut; and once ridging is not
sufficient, but after the spears begin to appear the ridges will need
renewing every week or ten days during the cutting season, as the rains
beat them down and the sun bakes a crust upon the top. The grower of
green asparagus has about the same work, less the ridging and plowing
down. As it is necessary to keep down all weeds, some hoeing may be
necessary as supplementary to a free use of the 1-horse cultivator.
After the cutting season, a cutaway harrow run twice diagonally across
the rows loosens up the soil and destroys a vast number of weeds
without injury to the crowns, although some spears may be broken off.
_Brush._--The bushes should be cut as soon as the berries are fully
colored, as the growth will be sufficiently matured so that no injury
will be done the roots by removing the tops, thus avoiding a further
drain upon the roots to mature the seed, and preventing the dropping
of seed, followed by the springing up of innumerable young asparagus
plants.
All brush should be promptly collected and burned, that there may be
no lodging places for insects and diseases. In case the fields were
not leveled, harrowed, and manured at the close of the cutting season,
now is a convenient time to perform this work, although if the soil
is rather too moist it is well to leave the surface firm, that the
winter rains may run off rather than penetrate to the already too damp
subsoil around the roots.
_Manuring._--In nothing relating to asparagus has there been a greater
change than in the practice of manuring. Formerly it was thought
necessary to place large quantities of manure in the bottom of the
deep trenches in which the young plants were set out in order that
sufficient fertility might be present for several years for the roots,
as after the plants were once planted there would be no further
opportunity to apply the manure in such an advantageous place; it was
also considered necessary to use much manure every autumn to bank the
beds in order that the crowns should not be injured by the winter's
frost. These applications, especially that given prior to planting the
young crowns, made the outlay so great, and that for so many years
before any return would be received from the bed, that only small
plantings were possible to those who were without considerable capital.
Although asparagus is still heavily manured, the amount now used is
much less than was formerly supposed to be necessary, only about
double the quantity ordinarily used upon root crops, such as potatoes,
beets, etc. It is not a good practice to put manure in the bottom of
the trenches or furrows when setting out the crowns, because it is
demonstrated to be rather a waste of manure than otherwise, and besides
the roots of asparagus thrive better when resting upon a more compact
soil; nor is it necessary that the soil should contain great amounts
of humus or be in an extremely fertile condition when the plants are
first put out, since by the present system of top dressing a moderately
fertile soil soon becomes exceedingly rich and equal to the demands
which the plants make upon it. Considerable improvement is produced
in the mechanical condition of the soil by the use of stable manure
upon beds. By the addition of humus, porous sandy soil is made somewhat
more binding and its ability to take up and retain moisture thereby
increased; while, on the other hand, cold, heavy soils are made warmer
and more porous.
All organic manures are suitable for use on the beds; but care must be
exercised in the use of any of these lest they be too hot and injure
the plants, especially if applied directly to the roots and immediately
over the crowns. Where the young shoots come up through it, fresh, hot
manure is likely to produce rust or to render the shoots unsightly and
thus injure their sale. Especially is this true in light, sandy soils.
The time of applying manure on beds, and the position where it should
be placed, are of some importance. In the use of stable manure, both
writers upon the subject and growers actually engaged in producing
asparagus for the market almost unanimously state that "in the autumn,
after the stalks have matured and have been cut, manure should be
applied on top of the rows." Some give the caution not to put it just
over the crowns, lest the shoots next spring be injured by contact with
it. This plan of top dressing beds during the autumn or early winter is
gradually giving way to the more rational mode of top dressing in the
spring and summer. It was believed that autumn dressing strengthened
the roots and enabled them to throw up stronger shoots during the
following spring. This is a mistake.
It is during the growth of the stalks after the cutting season is over
that the crowns form the buds from which the spears of next season
spring, and it is probable that it is principally during this period
that the roots assimilate and store up the material which produce
these spears. This being true, the plant food added to the soil and
becoming available after the cessation of vegetation in the autumn can
have little, if any, effect upon the spears which are cut for market
the following spring; it first becomes of use to the plant after the
crop has been cut and the stalks are allowed to grow. In the use of
hot, or fresh, manure it may be that the winter season is none too
long to permit the fertilizing elements to become available and well
distributed throughout the soil, but if well-rotted manure is used
there is danger of the fertility being leached out of the soils by the
rains and melted snows of winter.
Those growers who apply a liberal dressing of stable manure or
fertilizer immediately after the cutting season supply the required
nourishment to the plants at the time they most need it and can most
profitably utilize it in the production of spears. Manure thus applied
will also act as a mulch, preventing the growth of weeds, keeping the
soil light and cool, and preserving the moisture intact. It should
not be made on top of the row. This suggestion the writer wishes to
emphasize.
Manuring in November in many cases does more harm than good, as the
mass of manure causes many roots to decay, and those which do survive
are weak and only produce small spears. It would be much better to rely
upon liberal supplies of food through the growing season than to give
manure when the bushes are cut, as at the former period the roots can
more readily absorb the food given. By feeding in spring and summer the
crowns are built up for the next season's supply of grass. The roots
of the asparagus are perhaps always active, but much less so in winter
than at any other season, and they will obtain as much nutriment from
the soil as they can then use. If heavily covered with manure sunshine
is excluded, growth is checked, and the roots have to fight hard for
existence at a time when they are none too strong.
In the culture of green spears the manure is best utilized by
broadcasting, this application to be followed by a thorough harrowing
of the field. When white asparagus has been cut, either manuring in the
trench between the ridges before disturbing them or harrowing down the
ridges and then manuring broadcast is perhaps the most rational way. As
between manuring in the row and between the rows, the latter should be
selected as the evidently advisable one by which the feeding roots of
the plants are most easily reached. Placing the manure in the row only
reaches those feeding roots which are to be found about midway between
the crowns, as just around the crowns are nothing but storage roots,
besides it is not desirable to place manure too close to the crowns,
but manuring between the rows puts the manure right where the summer
rains can carry the fertility directly down into the (as it were) open
mouths of the feeding roots.
_Green Crop._--If green asparagus is desired, the stalks need be cut
only so far beneath the surface as to furnish a 9 or 10 inch spear, the
major part of which, say 6 inches or more, will be green, and of course
above ground. If white asparagus is sought for, the rows will have been
ridged from 10 to 15 inches above the crowns, and the spears must be
cut as soon as they show at, and before they peep above, the surface.
This means cutting 9 or 10 inches below the surface. To accomplish
this, long chisel-like knives of various shapes are used.
Cutting should be done at least every day, and when vegetation is rapid
twice each day will be necessary for white asparagus, and is often
desirable when the green sort is being cut.
_Harvesting and Marketing._--Asparagus is one of the earliest
vegetables, especially if the roots are near to the surface or the soil
above them has been temporarily removed so that the rays of the sun
can easily penetrate to them. Some varieties are earlier than others,
and this difference in time of appearance varies from a day or two to
several weeks. For instance, the Early Argenteuil is about ten days
earlier than the ordinary asparagus grown in the same locality, and the
Late Argenteuil at least ten days later; so that there would be nearly
three weeks between the Early and Late Argenteuil. Among the ordinary
varieties, however, there is only a short period between the earliest
and the latest.--(F. B. 61, 255; U. Cal. 165; U. Mo. 43; U. Kans. 70;
U. Miss. 1905.)
BEANS.
_Kinds._--For convenience in reference and for discussion, beans may
be divided into two general groups--"field" and "garden" beans--which
are by no means distinctly separate either in appearance or in
characteristics. Each of these groups can again be divided into bush
and pole beans. Bush beans of the field type are recognized, for
commercial purposes, under three well-marked types, known as Kidney,
Marrow, and Pea beans, each of which may be subdivided into two groups,
colored and white. The garden beans, like the field beans, may be
divided into bush and pole types; these again into Kidneys and Limas,
the term "Kidney" in this case including all of the common garden beans
whether of one type or another, and this group may again be divided
into wax and green pod. The same subdivision may also be recorded under
pole beans, as is suggested in the following classification:
{Kidney...........{Colored.
{ {White.
{Bush.....{Marrow...........{Colored.
{ { {White.
Field beans.........{ {Pea..............{Colored.
{ {White.
{Pole or corn hill. White or colored.
{Kidney..........{Wax.
{Bush......{Lima {Green pod.
Garden beans........{ {Kidney..........{Wax.
{Pole......{Lima {Green Pod.
{Runner (Scarlet Runner).
_Soil._--While clay loams or soils overlying limestone are most
desirable, sandy and even gravelly loams may be used, but these latter
soils should contain more or less humus and the gravelly soil should
not be too coarse. Beans may be grown on heavy clay soils but the
surface or underground drainage, or both, must be good and special
attention must also be given cultural methods to produce a fine, mellow
seed bed. Muck soils or those with a superabundance of humus are not
suitable as they tend to produce vines at the expense of the seed. It
is also true that this crop will not thrive on low, wet, poorly drained
soils. Beans seem to produce good crops on soils somewhat deficient in
nitrogen when well supplied with potash and phosphorus. Contrary to a
somewhat prevalent notion, beans will not produce well on very poor
soils, but require a fair degree of fertility.
_Seed._--Care should be exercised in the selection of beans for seed.
None but the best hand-picked beans should be used for planting, as the
success of the crop is quite largely dependent on the vitality of the
seed.
_Tilth._--Since the bean is a warm-season crop and can not safely
be planted until after danger from killing frost has passed, the
preparation of the soil for field beans should be deferred until the
vegetation covering the area has made considerable growth, so that
it may be as completely destroyed as possible during the operations
of plowing, harrowing, and fitting the land for the reception of the
seed. The short-season character of the bean crop enables the land
to be occupied during the winter months by some cover crop, such as
wheat or rye, and if the same land is used year after year for the
production of beans, the turning under of winter cover crops furnishes
an important means by which the store of organic matter in the soil
can be maintained, a consideration of great moment in sections chiefly
dependent upon commercial fertilizers as a source for available plant
food.
After the land has attained proper dryness in the spring it should
be plowed from 6 to 8 inches in depth, and immediately compacted and
harrowed, so as to prevent the loss of moisture. The surface of the
seed bed should be made smooth and fine, so that the drill or planter
can be economically used upon it. If dry weather follows at this season
of the year, a good practice is, immediately preceding the planting
of the crop, to run a heavy land roller over the area, particularly
if the planting is done with an ordinary grain drill. If the planting
is done with a planter similar to the ordinary corn planter and the
land has been rolled previously, it is advisable to go over it with
a spike-tooth harrow or some other type of smoothing harrow after
the crop has been planted, in order that the land may not possess a
compacted condition from the substratum to the surface.
_Planting._--Growers have found that it is better to postpone planting
the crop until as late in the season as is practicable and yet be
able to safely harvest the crop before the vines are injured by fall
frost. The late planted crop has the advantage of escaping the most
serious attacks of the bean rust. While there are undoubtedly varieties
which are more or less resistant to this trouble, yet the general
practice of late planting has been found to be of decided advantage.
In planting the field crop the distance between the rows varies from
28 to 36 inches, according to the implements used in harvesting the
crop, 30 inches being a very satisfactory and not an unusual distance
for placing the rows. The seeds are so scattered as to fall from 2 to
4 inches apart in the row. The ideal distance would be undoubtedly 6
inches, if it were possible to obtain a perfect stand of plants at this
distance. For distributing the seed in the row at these distances a
bean planter or a check row corn planter may be set to drop the seeds
in drills. A common practice is to use an ordinary grain drill and
stop a sufficient number of tubes to enable two or three rows of beans
to be planted at the proper distance apart without the necessity of
purchasing a special implement.
_Quantity of Seed._--The quantity required to plant an acre of beans
varies with the size of the beans; that is, a half-bushel of small Pea
beans is sufficient to plant an acre of ground, while a bushel of Red
Kidney beans is hardly sufficient to plant an acre when the seed is
distributed in the ordinary fashion in drills rather than in hills.
In planting beans of the Pea and Marrow types the quantity of seed
varies from one-half to a bushel per acre, depending upon the quality
of the beans and upon the preferences of the planter. For Kidney
beans the quantity varies from a bushel to as much as six pecks per
acre. Ordinarily, with rows 30 inches apart, a bushel is a sufficient
quantity for seeding an acre.
_Depth of Planting._--The depth at which beans should be planted is
determined by the character of the soil and the season of the year at
which they are planted. In heavy, retentive soils planting should be
made comparatively shallow, as the peculiar habit of growth of the
bean is such that it can not readily reach the surface if planted deep
in such soils. Upon light soils and early in the season, planting can
be made quite deep. Three inches is not too deep upon such soils,
but an inch and a half or 2 inches is the maximum depth for planting
upon retentive soils. All things considered, a satisfactory depth for
planting beans is about 1-1/2 inches.
_Cultivation._--Like all other hoe crops field beans require frequent,
shallow cultivation. The stirring of the soil for the purpose of
holding the weeds in check and preserving a soil mulch over the area
occupied by the growing crop, is the important factor to be considered
in culture. At the last cultivation the plants may be slightly hilled;
that is, the soil may be thrown toward the plants with small wings.
This has the advantage of leaving the plants on a slight ridge, which
facilitates the work of harvesting when such work is done by mechanical
means. In the cultivation of beans it is traditional that they should
not be cultivated when the dew is on the vines. This undoubtedly has a
slight foundation for the reason that moisture is a conveyor of spores
of disease and might have a tendency to distribute them more widely
than would be the case if moisture were allowed to dry off the leaves
without being disturbed.
_Harvesting._--For many years the handling of hoe crops, such as field
beans, upon an extensive scale was impossible because of the great
amount of hand labor necessary to gather the crop. Within recent
years, however, labor-saving devices have been invented so that now
the once laborious practice of hand-pulling individual plants can be
done away with by the use of a bean harvester. After the plants are
thrown together by the harvester it is customary for men with ordinary
pitchforks, either 2 or 3 tined, to follow the harvester and place
the beans in small heaps to cure for several days before storing them
in barns or sheds for thrashing. In some instances, where the work is
done upon a very extensive scale and where the loss from shelling is
not considered sufficient to justify the employment of hand labor for
bunching the beans with forks, an ordinary horserake is employed for
the purpose. Where the beans are to remain for a longer period and
to become more thoroughly cured in the field and where the work of
harvesting is done entirely by hand, the crop is frequently placed in
shocks which are built about a pole 4 or 5 feet in height, both ends of
which have been sharpened and one end firmly placed in the ground. A
small quantity of straw, grass, or other material is placed around the
base of the stake, and the beans as they are pulled are piled around
the pole until a compact miniature stack about 4 or 5 feet high is
formed. The curing process in any case is carried far enough to prevent
the vines molding after storing them in the barn prior to thrashing.
If the vines are thoroughly ripened in the field before harvesting,
they can be stored in from two to three days if the weather is
satisfactory. If, however, the vines have some green leaves upon them
and the pods are not thoroughly dry, the period for curing in the field
is of necessity much longer than with thoroughly ripened plants.
_Storage._--After the crop has been properly cured in the field it
is customary to store the beans in barn lofts or in sheds until the
weather has become quite cool before the work of thrashing is done. In
some instances, however, if the beans are thoroughly field cured they
may be thrashed in the field; but ordinarily, in those regions where
beans are extensively grown, weather conditions will not permit of
their being cured and left in the field a sufficient period to enable
the entire work of harvesting and thrashing to be carried on in the
open.
_Care Necessary._--All operations connected with the harvesting and
field management of beans should be done as carefully as possible, in
order to avoid injury to the plants while in the growing condition
and to prevent shelling the beans after they have ripened. Most
varieties of beans shell more or less easily after the pods have become
thoroughly matured. Most extensive growers of beans consider the loss
by shelling resulting from the use of labor-saving machinery of less
money value than the added cost of carrying on all operations by hand
in the most careful way. In other words, the loss from the use of
labor-saving machinery is not sufficient to justify the return to hand
labor in the care and management of the crop.
_Threshing._--Beans are now threshed by a special machine or beaner
which has been instrumental in materially increasing the acreage of
beans grown. These machines are usually introduced into localities
where beans are grown commercially and offered for hire on a plan
similar to that used by grain threshers.
_Cleaning and Grading._--While the farm operations in connection with
the preparation of field beans for market usually cease with the
thrashing of the crop, the cleaning and grading of the product is a
very important item and requires much hand work. Besides the removal of
sticks and straws from the grain by the use of the fan, the beans are
passed through a machine which is provided with a broad, slow-moving
belt placed at such an angle that split beans and peas, dirt, and
stones which are not removed by the fan adhere to the belt and are
thrown out, while the smooth, perfect seeds fall back into another
receptacle and are thus separated from the dirt and broken seeds.
After this the beans are usually subjected to a third operation, which
consists in removing by hand all broken and discolored seeds, as well
as foreign matter, which were not removed in the other operations.
_Garden Beans._--The type as well as the variety of garden bean to be
grown is determined by the purpose for which it is to be used. If it is
to be used as a snap or string bean for early market, quick-maturing
green or wax-podded varieties are selected. If for canning purposes, a
different variety is selected, which may have either green or wax pods,
while as a rule green beans which are required late in the season for
table use belong to the pole type. For early beans, however, the bush
type is the one most commonly used.
_Fertilizers._--While beans are quick-growing and early-maturing
plants requiring an abundance of available plant food in the soil,
yet, because of their family relations, being legumes, they make the
soil better for having been grown upon it. They are nitrogen-gathering
plants, and for this reason require only a small percentage of this
element in any fertilizer used upon them. While heavy applications of
fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are used
by truck growers in the production of beans, as a rule such fertilizers
should be relatively richer in phosphoric acid and potash than in
nitrogen. The production of garden beans for snap or string beans,
however, demands a larger percentage of immediately available nitrogen
than does the production of field beans for the dry grain, as in the
former case the crop occupies the land a shorter time and therefore
gives it less opportunity to provide itself with a supply of nitrogen
from the atmosphere. The fertilizer, if used in the form of commercial
fertilizer, may be distributed broadcast over the area occupied by
the crop with a grain drill or a fertilizer distributer, or it may be
scattered along the row at the time the seeds are sown by one of the
many types of seed drill having a fertilizer attachment.
_Planting._--Garden beans, like field beans, may be planted either
in hills or in drills. The customary practice, however, is to plant
the seeds in drills so that they shall fall 2 or 4 inches apart in
rows far enough apart to admit of cultivation with either one or two
horse implements. Because of their peculiar habit of germination--the
elongation of the part between the root and the seed leaves, called
the hypocotyl--the seed leaves or cotyledons are lifted out of the
soil. A large expenditure of energy on the part of the plant is
necessary to accomplish this, and the more compacted the soil and the
deeper the seed is planted the more time and energy are required in
accomplishing this result. It is evident, therefore, that the shallower
the beans can be planted without retarding satisfactory germination,
the better. Upon thoroughly fine and compacted soils the seeds are
planted from 1-1/2 to 2 inches deep. Shallower planting does not as
a rule give as satisfactory germination as planting within the range
above mentioned. While garden beans are planted in extensive areas,
they are, nevertheless, frequently used as a catch crop between other
plants, such as squashes and cucumbers. The bean, being a quick-growing
plant, matures its crop and is out of the way before the entire area is
demanded by the companion crop.
_Harvesting._--From the nature of the product the harvesting of garden
beans for use as string or snap beans must necessarily be done by hand.
Their extensive culture is therefore restricted to areas in which
an abundant labor supply which can be commanded at short notice is
available. After the beans are picked they are carried to a convenient
sorting table, either in the open or under shelter, where they are
looked over, all diseased and broken beans rejected, and the baskets
uniformly filled and shaken down preparatory to covering them for
shipment.
LIMA BEANS.
Under the name of Lima beans two distinct types are now recognized:
Pole Limas and dwarf, or bush, Limas. Lima beans are of very great
commercial value, but are not sufficiently appreciated as a table food
because it is not generally known that in a dry state they can be used
in practically the same manner as are the common beans. In reality they
are richer and more delicate in flavor than the common beans, and can
be used in as many different ways. The virtues of these types as green
beans need only a passing mention, and their value as an accompaniment
of corn in succotash is well known to every consumer of canned goods.
_Planting._--The common method of handling the Lima bean in the climate
of the northern tier of States, outside of the irrigated belt, is to
plant from three to five beans in hills 18 to 36 inches apart, with the
rows 3-1/2 to 4 feet apart, and after all danger from cold and from
insect enemies is past the beans are thinned to about three plants to
the hill. As the beans are exceedingly tender, it is necessary to delay
planting in the open until about a week or ten days after the time for
planting the common garden beans. After the second cultivation, when
the tendency to climb has manifested itself, the plantation is supplied
with poles from 5 to 6 feet high, or with a trellis running from end
to end of the row, which may be made by stretching two or three wires
lengthwise of the row and weaving between them strands of ordinary
wool twine. If the trellis is employed the beans can be planted in
practically continuous rows, so that they stand about a foot apart.
Toward the northern limit for cultivating this crop, one is fortunate
if one-half to two-thirds of the pods which set upon the plants mature
the seed. Farther south the crop is proportionally heavier.
In California and in other irrigated regions where there are
well-marked wet and dry seasons, the dry season, accompanied by heavy
fogs, occurring during the summer months, it is possible to cultivate
Lima beans somewhat as follows: Upon moderately rich, somewhat sandy
valley land, cultivation can be carried out by planting the beans as
soon as all danger from rains has ceased and the plantation will remain
dry except for irrigation. If there has not been sufficient winter rain
to thoroughly moisten the land it should be well watered and allowed
to dry to a good cultural condition before planting. Seed can then be
planted in hills about 3-1/2 or 4 feet apart each way, or in drills,
the beans scattered about a foot apart in rows 4 feet apart. After the
beans have germinated it may be necessary to cultivate them once or
twice with a sweep of some type, to destroy any weeds which may have
sprung up from the moist ground. All moisture should be withheld and
a dust mulch over the surface preserved by running a sweep over the
plantation once or twice more, and then the vines should be allowed to
take possession of the territory. This obviates the necessity of using
poles, and the crop can grow to maturity under these conditions without
irrigation, without cultivation, and without poles.
At harvest time a root cutter is passed under the lines of the rows,
severing the roots of the plants, and after the plants have dried and
become somewhat cured they are thrown into convenient heaps for loading
on wagons and are allowed to remain in these heaps until near the
approach of the rainy season. Then they are carried to the thrashing
floors, where they are beaten out by the tramping of animals or by
driving over the heap a device somewhat similar to the ordinary cutaway
harrow.
The dwarf Lima beans, because of their habit of growth, are planted and
cultivated practically the same as are field beans. They are slightly
hardier than pole Limas, and for that reason toward the northern limit
of the range of this crop can be planted somewhat earlier in the season
than the pole Limas.--(F. B. 289; U. Mich. 259; S. C. E. S. 10; S. Dak.
E. S. 47, 91; Iowa E. S. 47; Miss. E. S. 131.)
BEETS.
The red garden beet may be grown in any good soil, but rich, sandy loam
will give the best results. Sow the seeds in the spring as soon as
danger of frost has passed. Beets should be planted in drills 12 to 18
inches apart, and when the plants are well up they should be thinned to
4 or 5 inches in the row. If desirable to plant in rows 3 feet apart
for horse cultivation, the seeds may be sown in a double drill with 6
inches between, leaving 30 inches for cultivation. Two ounces of beet
seed are required to plant 100 feet of row, or 5 pounds to the acre. As
a rule each seed ball contains more than one seed, and this accounts
for beets coming up very thickly. The seed should be covered to a depth
of about 1 inch. For a succession of young beets during the summer,
plantings should be made every four or five weeks during the spring
months. Beets intended for winter storage should not be sown until late
in the summer, the crop being harvested and stored in the same manner
as turnips. Sugar beets are often substituted for the ordinary garden
beet, especially for winter use.
A soil that is well adapted to growing the usual vegetables will be
found good for this one. It may be slightly heavier than that for the
crops that are grown for their foliage, as lettuce. A good cabbage soil
will be found of about the right consistency. Wet or soggy land will
not raise a crop. Plow deep and prepare the ground well; the seedlings
are quite small and need considerable coaxing before they will make a
good start. Use plenty of fertilizer of some well prepared kind. Rough
or undecomposed material should not be used. A sprinkling of powdered
nitrate soda as a top dressing when the plants are one-third grown
will produce a rapid growth. In applying, be careful not to apply so
as to touch the foliage, unless during a rain. It is not profitable
to transplant beets; it may be done on a small scale, but it is too
expensive to practice on a large scale.
_Varieties._--According to shape of the root one may divide beets into
two classes, viz., Long Rooted and Globular. If color is made the basis
of classification you have red, white and yellow kinds. Extra Early
Blood Turnip, Eclipse and Extra Early Egyptian are good varieties to
grow for market. The first named is probably the best; the last named
has the disadvantage of becoming stringy if it matures during a long,
dry spell, or if allowed to stand too long. The deep red varieties are
preferred in the markets, and those that are turnip shaped sell better
than the long.
_Marketing._--The usual method is to use barrels or large boxes; this
is a clumsy way, and one not calculated to bring the best price. The
usual vegetable crate will be found handy and desirable.
In districts where there are pickling factories, and near large cities,
small beets, with greens, are raised with profit, but these can not
be shipped to a distant market. For a distant market gather tops and
all; carry to the packing-house; remove the tops with a sharp knife,
leaving about an inch of the leaf-stalk on the beet. Remove the dirt,
and pack in vegetable crates. The leaves put in a compost heap will pay
for the trouble of hauling, or they can be fed to domestic animals with
profit. The beet itself makes one of the best feeds for milch cows, and
is excellent for other domestic animals.--(F. B. 225; N. C. A. E. S.
132; Fla. E. S. 31; U. Idaho 10; N. H. Col. 99, 125; N. J. A. Col. Rpt.
1900.)
BORAGE.
The leaves are used for flavoring.
BROCCOLI.
Broccoli is simply a variety of cauliflower that is more commonly grown
for fall use, as it is rather more hardy than the true cauliflower.
Lee's Sprouting Broccoli is a branching sort that is esteemed in
some places. There is a great deal of misunderstanding regarding the
Cauliflower and Broccoli. Both are the same in their general make
up and growth, both producing heads in the same manner and to the
casual observer are taken one for the other. The difference is that
Cauliflower is a more tender variety and therefore will not stand a
very low temperature. The seed is sown in early spring and will produce
heads during the summer. The Broccoli will stand a temperature as low
as 25 without much injury to the plant. The seed is sown in the spring,
the plants set out in June or early part of July and continue to grow
until the spring following, some varieties producing heads at intervals
during winter and up to as late as May. Attention needs to be directed
during the winter to such plants as are about to produce heads. These
should have the outer leaves turned over the head to protect it from
frost to which it is very susceptible. The seed may be sown and the
plants treated in every way as for the cabbage. They thrive well in a
deep, rich soil. Much better results would be had if more attention
were given to the matter of deep cultivation, that is, in deep spading
or plowing of the ground. Manure that has been well composted should
be used plentifully and plowed in deep. By so doing the roots of the
plants are encouraged to penetrate deep into the soil where they can
find moisture as well as food. The shallow plowing in of manure has
the tendency to keep the feeding roots of plants near the surface and
will therefore soon dry out and turn blue, and when once the plants are
stricken with the blues no further growth will be made and they might
as well be discarded.--(Oreg. E. S. 74; N. C. E. S. 132.)
BRUSSELS SPROUTS.
This crop is closely related to cabbage and cauliflower. Instead of
a single head, Brussels sprouts form a large number of small heads
in the axils of the leaves. As the heads begin to crowd, the leaves
should be broken from the stem of the plant to give them more room. A
few leaves should be left at the top of the stem where the new heads
are being formed. Brussels sprouts are more hardy than cabbage, and
in mild climates may remain in the open ground all winter, the heads
being removed as desired. For winter use in cold localities, take up
plants that are well laden with heads and set them close together in a
pit, cold frame, or cellar, with a little soil around the roots. The
uses of Brussels sprouts are similar to those of cabbage, but they are
considered to be of a superior flavor. They require the same treatment
as cabbage. The soil must be rich and requires considerable moisture.
The small sprouts must grow rapidly or they will be tough. Sow the
seed in hotbed and transplant, or scatter seed in hills and thin. The
plants must have plenty of room. Rows should be thirty inches apart and
the plants not closer than two feet.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho E. S. 10;
Cornell U. E. S. 292.)
CABBAGE.
Cabbage is one of the most universally cultivated of the garden plants.
Although it is one of the coarser vegetables it finds a place in the
home garden as well as in the market garden and truck farm. In some
sections of the United States it is extensively grown as a farm crop.
Early cabbage is practically all consumed as a green vegetable. The
late crop, on the other hand, is handled as a fresh vegetable, as a
storage crop, and for the manufacture of sauerkraut. It is always in
demand, and under present conditions is always available, either as the
product of a southern truck farm or a northern farm, garden, or storage
house. The group of cultivated plants which has been derived from the
wild cabbage presents a greater diversity of form than that derived
from any other single ancestral type.
Wild cabbage is a robust-growing broad-leaved plant enjoying the low,
moist areas near the seacoast of southern Europe. The most closely
allied form now in cultivation is the collard. The wide variation in
the group is illustrated by the diversity of form shown in collards,
kale, tree cabbage, marrow kale, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts. It
is almost beyond the bounds of reason to believe that all these forms
have been derived from a common parentage, yet such is the fact.
_Seed._--In no truck crop does the character of the seed count for more
than in cabbage. It is very essential that the crop come to marketable
maturity early, that the heads be uniform in size and character,
and that they mature so that the whole crop can be harvested at two
cuttings. The small saving made by the purchase of cheap or inferior
seed is usually paid for a hundred times over in the lessened value
of the crop. A grower can not afford to risk his crop for so small
a saving. The best seed that can be obtained is none too good, and
anything short of this is not good business. Without highly viable
seed of a good strain, true to type, the best results can not be
expected. For early spring cabbage in the South, sow the seeds in an
outdoor bed and transplant to the garden before January 1. In the
North, plant the seeds in a hotbed during February and set the plants
in the open ground as early as the soil can be worked. For a late crop
in the North, plant the seeds in a bed in the open ground in May or
June and transplant to the garden in July. Early cabbages require a
rich, warm soil in order that they may mature early. For late cabbages
the soil should be heavier and more retentive of moisture and not so
rich as for the early crop, as the heads are liable to burst. Cabbages
should be set in rows 30 to 36 inches apart and 14 to 18 inches apart
in the row. Where the plants are set out in the autumn and allowed to
remain in the ground over winter, they are usually placed on top of
ridges.
_Soil._--The soil for cabbage must necessarily vary in different
localities. In one area it may be of an alluvial character, while
in another it may be sedentary, and in still another it may be
characteristic glacial drift. The fact that cabbage grows well in all
these soils indicates its adaptation to a wide range of conditions. The
main thing with cabbage is an abundant supply of immediately available
plant food. Market gardeners rely chiefly upon stable manure for their
supply of plant food.
_Cultivation._--Among market gardeners it is a common expression that
"cabbage should be hoed every day." Perhaps no other crop responds
more quickly to good cultivation and an ample food supply. This
is undoubtedly the explanation of the above quoted expression. In
cultivating cabbage the work should be frequent and thorough, but
the cultivation should not be deep. The aim should be to destroy all
competing weeds and to maintain a loose, friable layer of soil about 2
inches deep over the surface of the area devoted to cabbage.
_Storage._--Early cabbage must be used soon after it has formed solid
heads, as it will not keep during hot weather. Late cabbage may be
buried in pits or stored in cellars or specially constructed houses.
The usual method of storing cabbage is to dig a trench about 18 inches
deep and 3 feet wide and set the cabbage upright, with the heads close
together and the roots bedded in soil. As cold weather comes on, the
heads are covered slightly with straw and then 3 or 4 inches of earth
put on. Slight freezing does not injure cabbage, but it should not be
subjected to repeated freezing and thawing. If stored in a cellar or
building, the heads are generally cut from the stems and stored on
slatted shelves or in shallow bins. While in storage, cabbage should be
well ventilated and kept as cool as possible without freezing.
_Varieties._--The varieties of cabbage used in the trucking section
are practically limited to the Wakefield type. There are two strains
of this type of cabbage now extensively employed: The true Jersey
Wakefield, with its small, acutely pointed tip and very firm, tender
flesh of high quality, and the Charleston Wakefield, which is broader,
somewhat flatter, more obtusely pointed, and slightly more angular
in cross section than the Jersey type. The varieties which may be
used for field cultivation depend upon the purpose for which the
cabbage is intended. If for sauerkraut or for immediate consumption,
the Flat Dutch type from American-grown seed is extensively employed
in the eastern part of the United States. In the irrigated section
of Colorado, in the vicinity of Greeley, where cabbage is grown for
sauerkraut, a variety known as Scotch Cross is almost universally
grown. If the cabbage is intended for storage the Danish Ball Head from
imported seed is almost exclusively used.--(F. B. 255, 433; Colo. E. S.
143; Md. Ag. Col. E. S. 133; Tex. E. S. 52, 69; Ga. E. S. 91; Kans. E.
S. 70; S. Dak. E. S. 91.)
CALABASH.[1]
The increasing popularity of calabash pipes made from the fruits of a
South African calabash, or gourd, has aroused a widespread interest in
the growing of this vine.
[1] See page 321, for illustration.
Calabash pipes made from imported South African gourds have been the
fashion in England for some time and are now coming into vogue in
America. These pipes are formed from the crooked necks of a large
gourd (_Lagenaria vulgaris_) belonging to the well-known group of
plants which includes the cucumber, the melons, and the squashes. Pipes
made from the imported gourds are expensive, American dealers usually
charging $3 to $12 apiece for them. They are the lightest pipes made
for their size, are graceful in shape, color like meerschaums, and are
delightful smokers. Unlike the cheap pipes which are turned out by
machinery, no two of these calabash pipes are alike. In this lies much
of their charm. In this, likewise, lies their cost, for, unlike the
great mass of pipes turned out by machinery, the crook of the calabash
varies so that each mouthpiece must be made to fit it and each lining
of meerschaum or plaster of Paris must be specially adapted. In our
land of labor-saving machinery and expensive hand labor this is what
makes the pipes costly.
The vine forms a very satisfactory cover for unsightly brush heaps
or fences, though its rather rank odor might prove objectionable if
used for an arbor too near the dwelling. To grow the vine for the
sake of its gourds is where the chief interest lies, however, and to
do this well it should not be trained on a trellis, but allowed to
trail over the ground. If the fruits are allowed to lie on the ground
they form their crooked necks quite naturally without assistance, and
while not all of them by any means make suitable necks for pipes a
good proportion do. It seems to induce a more perfect neck to stand
the gourds up when half grown so that they rest on their big ends.
Unless care is exercised in doing this the necks snap off, for they are
extremely brittle even when fully grown. It is only when almost mature
that they become hard and then they are indeed almost unbreakable.
Much could doubtless be done to perfect the methods of culture,
insuring perhaps a greater percentage of properly crooked necks and
more perfect surfaces. It could not be seen that inheritance plays
any material part in this matter of percentage of crooks. If left to
themselves the majority will crook their necks, but some few will
remain quite straight, and this on the same vine with perfectly formed
crooks. The gourds should be left as long as possible on the vines to
thoroughly thicken their shells. If picked green the shell will be
no thicker than stiff cardboard and in drying it is very liable to
crack. Frost will injure the gourds if they are left on the vines too
long.--(B. P. I. Cir. 41.)
CANTALOUPE.
Cantaloupe growing, as developed since its origin near Rockyford,
Colorado, in 1885, requires unusual judgment and cultural skill on
the part of the farmer. Co-operative organization and good business
management are also essential, for only by these means can the crop be
properly timed and prepared for shipment, and necessary arrangements
made with transportation and selling agencies.
_Seed._--Seed should be most carefully selected with reference to
flavor and appearance of the fruit; to good shipping characters,
including small cavities and heavy netting; and to a tendency to
produce melons of standard size. Early strains are desired for some
situations; but in Arizona rust resistance is not a necessary character
as this class of diseases is little to be feared under the arid
conditions. Seed should be purchased only from most reliable sources.
Rockyford growers are at present the principal means of supply.
_Soil._--Experience has proven that a sandy loam is the soil best
suited for cantaloupes, and that its condition of tilth and the
available fertility are the prime essentials in bringing cantaloupes
to quick maturity. The secret of getting soil in that ashy, mellow
condition so desirable for cantaloupes is largely one of experience,
for hardly two farms can be handled the same. In general, there must
be moisture in the soil over winter to get the disintegrating effect
of frost, and plowing should not be done until the ground is dry
enough to pulverize mellow. Barnyard manure has long been the means of
supplying fertility to force cantaloupes to early maturity. Old alfalfa
ground is most excellent for cantaloupe culture. Bermuda sod plowed
up and exposed to the sun without irrigation the preceding summer
makes excellent cantaloupe ground, the intensive cultivation necessary
serving both to benefit the crop and to restrain this formidable weed.
_Planting._--The first requisite aside from moisture for a good start
is warm weather, as cantaloupe seed cannot germinate when the ground
is cold and freezing; and if perchance the days are warm enough
to germinate the seed that is planted in March or April, the cold
nights that are sure to follow will offset the advantage of early
planting. If there is a secret in getting early cantaloupes it is
in growing the crop from start to finish with a uniform unchecked
growth; the cantaloupe does not seem to have the power to rally from
a check in growth or an injury from an insect and still makes its
normal development. The back-set not only cuts off the production of
early cantaloupes but seriously affects the size and quality of the
melon. There are numerous instances where unfavorable conditions of
growth have produced a large quantity of pony melons, while under
more favorably growing conditions the same seed and soil have yielded
standard sized cantaloupes. One of the first signs of promise for early
cantaloupes is a quick germination and rapid development of large
cotyledons. Seed that germinates slowly with small, yellow appearing
seed leaves has never made early cantaloupes.
_Irrigation._--Moisture for the cantaloupe hill is generally supplied
by the irrigation furrow. It should always reach the seed or plant
by soaking through the soil. Irrigation should never be allowed to
over-soak or flood the ground, as the soil will then become hard and
not permit a good growth. The relation of irrigation to an early
set of cantaloupes is a somewhat mooted question. There are growers
who argue the use of frequent irrigations during the setting period
to secure a good set, and there are others who prefer to keep the
vines rather dry and even letting them show the need of water before
they will irrigate during the setting stage. There have been results
that seemed to support both theories, yet close observation would
not warrant following either plan to an extreme, but rather a medium
course of supplying enough moisture for an even, healthy growth, which
seems to be the essential condition all the way through. An excess of
irrigation during the hot weather in July will doubtless tend to grow
vines at the expense of early fruit; but the most disastrous result of
too much water--having the ground so soaked that the surface is nearly
all wet, and affording the moist, dewy condition which is favorable to
its development--is in the development of rust. The rust problem is a
serious one in cantaloupe culture in Colorado. Controlling it by proper
application of irrigation is only a palliative measure, yet a marked
contrast is often seen in two portions of a field; one over-irrigated,
and the other comparatively dry, aside from the moisture necessary
to the growth of the vines. Rainy weather and dewy nights afford the
proper conditions for the growth of the rust spore, and while the
farmer cannot change climatic conditions, yet by careful attention
in the application of water, having the rows well ditched, and with
adequate waste laterals to prevent over-soaking and flooding, the
surface of the ground will dry rapidly after a rain or an irrigation.
Thus the dews at night will be less, and in a measure alleviate the
effects of rust.--(U. Ariz. Cir. 77; Ag. Col. Colo. 62, 85, 95 and 108.)
CARDOON.
The cardoon is a thistle-like plant, very similar in appearance to
the Globe artichoke, but is grown as an annual. The seeds are sown in
early spring in a hotbed or cold frame and the plants transplanted
later to the open ground. The cardoon should be planted in rows 3 feet
apart and 18 inches apart in the row on rich soil, where it can secure
plenty of moisture and make rapid growth. Toward autumn the leaves are
drawn together and the center blanched in the same manner as endive.
If intended for winter use, the leaves are not blanched in the garden,
but the plants are lifted with considerable earth adhering to the roots
and stored closely in a dark pit or cellar to blanch. The blanched leaf
stems are used for making salads, soups, and stews.--(F. B. 255.)
CARROT.
The culture of the carrot is practically the same as the parsnip,
except that carrots are not thinned so much and are allowed to grow
almost as thickly as planted. Carrots should be dug in the autumn
and stored the same as parsnips or turnips. Any surplus can be fed
sparingly to horses, mules or cattle. The roots of the carrot are
used at all times of the year, mostly in soups, but they may be
boiled and served with butter or creamed. Carrots are planted in
rows 16 inches apart and the plants thinned out to 4 inches in the
row. Chantenay is an excellent table carrot of medium size and dark
orange color, slightly tapering and abruptly terminating with a
short, fine taproot. The flesh is orange colored, brittle, juicy and
mild flavored. What it lacks in size it makes up in quality and good
shape. Scarlet Intermediate, somewhat larger than Chantenay, is of
good size for table use. In shape more tapering and with a longer
taproot. It is dark orange colored; flavor and quality good. Flesh is
quite brittle and orange colored with a white center. To these two
are added two varieties principally grown for stock feed, similar
varieties being grown for table use in many parts of Europe, and more
especially those of the White Belgian variety. Both varieties are
of slender shape, 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, holding their size
well, although averaging 12 inches in length, 3 to 4 inches of which
grows above ground and which as a consequence is colored light green
on the outside. White Belgian is the sweeter of the two, and while
the flesh is somewhat coarse, the flavor of it, when well stewed and
mashed, is sweeter and not unlike that of the parsnip. Victoria, the
other variety, is of the same texture, fairly sweet and with a more
pronounced carrot flavor, the flesh instead of white, being light
orange colored. This vegetable can be grown to perfection in Porto
Rico almost any time of the year. It prefers a rich loam and grows
very well on a heavy clay which is not too wet, but a light sandy soil
is not well adapted to it. For fertilizer, stable manure will do when
nothing else is available, but a commercial fertilizer, rich in potash
and phosphoric acid, is much to be preferred for this crop.--F. B. 255,
295; Mich. E. S. 20; N. C. E. S. 132; U. Idaho E. S. 10; P. R. A. E. S.
7.
CAULIFLOWER.
This plant requires a very rich, moist soil. Land that will produce
only a fair crop of cabbage is unfit for cauliflower. If the land is
very rich and well fertilized it may be reasonably expected that the
returns from the crop of cauliflower will more than repay the cost of
putting the land in good condition.
_Seed._--No more important element enters into the success of the
cauliflower crop than the quality of the seed and to the seed alone is
often due the difference between success and failure, profit and loss.
The best seed that can be secured is the cheapest at any reasonable
price, and it should always be obtained from a well-known, reputable
seedsman.
_Seed-bed._--This should be carefully prepared. The soil should be
enriched with a liberal application of commercial fertilizer, or
thoroughly decomposed stable manure. After the fertilizer is applied
it should be thoroughly worked in to a depth of three or four inches.
From a few days to two weeks should elapse before the seed is sown
for there is great danger in planting seed too soon after applying
commercial fertilizer as the seed is likely to be destroyed by the
action of the mineral substance unless it has been dissolved and
thoroughly incorporated with the soil. The time between the application
of the fertilizer and the sowing of the seed will depend upon the
amount of rainfall and it is often better to wet down the seed-bed each
day for four or five days before planting and not to depend upon the
uncertain rainfall. The rows should be about three inches apart. In six
or seven days the young plants should begin to appear and the ground
between the drills should be cultivated. Do not allow the soil to dry
out as the cauliflower plant from seed to head should never be checked.
Neither should the bed be kept too wet, else there is danger of
"damping off." The bed should be carefully watched and if the disease
does break out it may be checked by removing the diseased plants,
working the soil, scattering dry sand and sulphur along the rows and
withholding water until the surface soil becomes dry. It might be
pointed out here that about six months must be allowed from the sowing
of the seed until the crop matures.
_Transplanting._--The plants should not be allowed to remain long in
the seed rows. If left too long they will soon crowd and become weak
and spindling. When they have reached the height of one inch, they
should be pricked off and set in another portion of the bed. They may
be set in rows four inches apart with the plants one and a half to two
inches apart in the rows. Here they should remain until ready for the
field. If care has been exercised all the way through, the plants will
be short, stocky and vigorous. By the time they are four or five inches
high or when the leaves have lapped they are ready for the field. It
is not best to let them get too large, because there is often a delay
of a few days in order to obtain good climatic conditions for setting
out. If left too long in the seed bed, greater care must be exercised
in transplanting, else the plants may suffer a severe check and will
button or break irregularly instead of forming smooth well shaped heads.
_Soils and Preparation._--Work should be started on the ground at
least a month before the plants are set out. The cauliflower is a deep
rooted plant, consequently the soil should be prepared deeply. It
is not advisable to turn under the good surface soil and to obviate
this ground may be plowed shallow and then stirred and opened with a
bull-tongue to a depth of seven or eight inches. After this the surface
should be cultivated to a depth of two or three inches. Give thorough
preparation by frequent cultivation before the fertilizer is applied,
preparatory to setting out the plants.
_Setting Out._--It is best that the plants be set out either just
before or immediately after a rain, but if this can not be done they
should be set out late in the evening and watered, giving each plant
about a quart of water. A cloudy day is much preferable to a clear one
and if the day on which the plants are set out is followed by cloudy
weather, so much the better. The ground should be leveled or smoothed
over, for which purpose a roller or float may be used. After this the
ground may be marked off. Two markers should be constructed, one with
the teeth three feet apart, the other with the teeth two feet apart.
These may be made of wood after the pattern of an ordinary garden rake.
In place of a marker a line may be used or the ground may be checked
off with a light hand plow. Only a limited number of plants should be
removed from the seed-bed at one time. The leaves should be cut back
about one-half or one-third, using for the purpose a large pair of
shears. Sprinkle the plants with water as soon as removed from the bed,
place in a shallow box or basket and keep them shaded from the sun.
_Cultivation and Care._--The field should be frequently cultivated and
the ground should be scarified at least every week and after every
rainfall. The best tool for cultivating is an ordinary cultivator
and the ground should not be worked to a greater depth than two and
one-half or three inches. This will preserve a surface mulch of dry
earth and prevent loss of moisture by evaporation. As soon as the heads
commence to form the leaves should be drawn together at the top and
loosely tied near their tips with a piece of cord or twine. Rafia makes
a good substitute for twine and is preferable because there is less
danger of cutting the leaves. The practice of breaking down the leaves
over the head has been tried, but found not quite so satisfactory. If
the heads are left uncovered they become yellow through the action of
the sun and rain but when the leaves are drawn together and tied, they
bleach out pure white, and curd-like.
_Gathering._--Cauliflower may be cut before it is mature, but the
flavor is not so well developed as it is when the heads are full grown.
For winter shipment heads from four to six inches in diameter are of a
desirable size and the market will take them fully as well or better
than large ones. The field should be picked over at least every two
or three days during the season, though heads will remain in good
condition for nearly a week if the weather be cold. Examine the head by
separating the leaves on the side. As soon as the head is well rounded
up in the center and developed so as to force the leaves outward, and
assumes a grained appearance, it will be found to be fully matured. The
heads should be cut, preferably, when dry. If moist they are likely to
decay in transit. The best time of day is the afternoon if they are
intended for long distance shipment. About an inch of stem should be
left on the head and three rows of leaves. After cutting, the heads
should be carefully placed in a wagon and carried to the packing house
or on dry pleasant days packing may be done in the field.
_Packing._--The package recommended for general use is the ordinary
lettuce basket. Before packing, the leaves should be cut back to stubs.
Each head should be carefully wrapped in a large sheet of white glazed
paper. The baskets should be packed snug and tight without bruising the
heads, and only those of uniform size should be placed in each basket.
Never place different sizes in the same package and always discard
inferior or injured heads; the compost heap is the place for them.--(F.
B. 255; Fla. E. S. 59; Tex. E. S. 57; Cornell U. E. S. 292.)
CELERIAC.
This vegetable, which is also known as turnip-rooted celery, or knot
celery, is closely related to our ordinary celery, being indeed a
cultural variety of the same original plant grown under conditions
which have developed the root rather than the stalk. In Europe it is
by far the most common form of celery, but has never been extensively
cultivated in the United States, though it is found in the larger
markets. The roots are white and more or less globular in shape,
closely resembling turnips in appearance. This vegetable deserves to be
more widely known, being extremely hardy and of easy cultivation. It
is mostly used for flavoring soups, except by the Germans who use it
in the same manner as potatoes for potato salad. Planted 7 or 8 inches
apart and 3 feet between the rows it will yield abundantly, and succeed
best where celery will. The edible portion develops into a bulbous root
weighing 4 to 6 ounces when trimmed, and these bulbs when properly
packed away in the cellar will keep almost until spring. Where the
ground but slightly freezes, the plants may be safely left unharvested
for spring use.--(F. B. 255, 295; Mich. E. S. 20.)
CELERY.
The ideal climatic conditions for the production of celery are bright
sunshine, pure air, cool nights, and a well-distributed rainfall of
about 8 inches during the growing period in the field or garden.
_Soils._--In the production of celery for domestic use, a rich, mellow,
sandy loam will give the best results. The soil of the seed bed should
contain plenty of leaf mold and should be passed through a sieve having
not less than six meshes to the inch. The soil of the transplanting
bed need not be sifted so fine, and some well-rotted barnyard manure
should replace a part of the leaf mold; in other respects it should be
the same as that of the seed bed. Any fertile, well-drained soil will
grow celery, but a loose, sandy loam is preferable. If nothing but clay
soil is available, it may be made to produce good celery by the liberal
application of well-rotted barnyard manure. On clay soils there is
likely to be injury caused by the soil becoming washed into the hearts
of the plants while they are yet small.
_Fertilizers._--For the production of the home supply of celery there
is no fertilizer that is so satisfactory as well-rotted barnyard
manure. In many localities the supply of manure is limited, and it may
be necessary to depend almost entirely upon commercial fertilizers. If
fresh stable manure is used, it should be plowed under in the autumn.
If the manure is well rotted, it may be plowed under early in the
spring or used as a top-dressing a short time before planting in order
to bring the manure to the surface. From 10 to 20 tons of manure to the
acre should be applied each year that the land is planted to celery.
The application of lime will improve most soils. Following the use
of stable manure an application of 1,000 pounds of ground quicklime
as a top dressing will be beneficial. Soils that are liable to leach
during the winter can be held by planting to rye and the crop turned
under quite early in the spring. When applied to clay soils the lime
has a tendency to lighten them, and sandy soils are rendered more
retentive of moisture by the addition of lime. An application of 500 to
800 pounds of common salt to the acre is considered desirable by some
growers. Celery will take up a limited quantity of salt, and its flavor
is improved thereby.
One to 2 tons of high-grade fertilizer to the acre may be profitably
applied on most soils in addition to the stable manure and lime. As a
rule, the quick-acting fertilizers are used, and a mixture suitable for
growing celery should contain about 6 per cent of nitrogen, 5 per cent
of available phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent of potash.
_Time and Method of Plowing._--As a rule the land should be plowed
several weeks before planting. At the North it is desirable to plow
the celery land in the autumn and allow the soil to lie exposed to the
action of frost during the winter. At the South it will be necessary
to plow but a short time before planting. The plowing should be very
thorough, and in most cases with a somewhat heavier plow than that
generally used for other crops.
_Smoothing and Pulverizing._--A few days before the land is required
for planting, the surface should be cut with a disk or cutting harrow,
followed by such tools as are necessary to pulverize the soil to a
depth of 5 or 6 inches. Just before planting, the land should either
be rolled or gone over with a float, or drag, made by nailing together
planks or scantlings, in order to secure an even surface for planting.
_Marking Rows._--The rows in which the celery plants are to be set
should not be marked until a short time before planting, in order that
the soil may remain fresh. A marking device similar to the ordinary
corn marker may be used, but some form of roller with a number of
projecting pegs to form holes in which to set the plants is desirable.
A device of this character can be constructed by replacing the wheel of
an ordinary wheelbarrow with a roller having a series of pegs.
_Selection of Seed._--The first and most important consideration when
preparing to grow a crop of celery is the securing of good seed, not
merely seed of which a large percentage will germinate, but that having
strength and vigor sufficient to give the seedling a good start. As
the seeds of celery are very small, it is necessary that only a small
percentage of the number usually sown should actually grow in order to
secure an abundance of plants; but as low germination and the necessary
vigor are seldom both to be found in the same packet of seed that seed
which has a high percentage of germination is preferable.
_Sowing for an Early Crop._--For sowing seed during the early part of
the season, the plan best suited to the requirements of the farmer or
amateur grower of celery is to secure a wooden flat or tray about 16 by
24 inches in size and 3 inches deep, with several small holes in the
bottom for drainage. After filling with sifted soil level it off even
with the top, and either shake down the soil or press it down by means
of a board before the seeds are sown. Either sow in drills 2 inches
apart or scatter broadcast, and cover the seed by sprinkling through
a fine sieve a very small quantity of leaf mold or sand. This tray
can be placed in the window of a moderately warm room in the dwelling,
and the soil should be watered by sprinkling very lightly as often as
necessary to keep the surface from showing dryness, but the soil should
not become waterlogged.
_Sowing for a Late Crop._--The method now in use by most large growers
is to prepare a tract of land by pulverizing with horse tools and then
raking by hand, after which the seed is sown broadcast by means of a
wheelbarrow grass-seed drill. The soil is sometimes pressed down with
a plank after the seeds are scattered, but some growers maintain that
there is a decided advantage in leaving the soil slightly uneven, as
the seeds fall into the shaded places and are protected from the direct
rays of the sun. The seed will become sufficiently covered by rains
or by watering. Should more than 20 per cent of the seed usually sown
germinate, it is necessary to thin out to prevent overcrowding, with
its attendant injury. To prevent the surface of the soil becoming too
dry, it may be necessary to partially shade the young plants during the
warm days of early summer, but the shading should never be so dense as
to cause them to become "drawn."
_Transplanting._--In case the grower adopts the plan of transplanting
twice, the seedlings will be ready for the first handling in from four
to six weeks from the time the seed is sown. The seedlings may be
transplanted to trays or to beds in the open ground. This transplanting
answers two purposes: (1) The seedling plant of celery has a straight
root, or taproot, which is broken in transplanting, causing a large
mass of fibrous roots to be formed. In the case of a plant allowed to
remain in the seed bed until planting-out time this taproot has gone
far down into the soil and the plant has formed very few side roots;
consequently it suffers a great shock in the process of planting in the
field, and a large number of plants will need to be replaced. (2) When
transplanting twice is practiced there is no necessity for thinning,
and a more uniform lot of plants is obtained. Two handlings can not be
recommended when celery is grown on a large scale, as the cost of labor
is too great. It is better to have a surplus of plants and to renew
those that fail.
_Watering._--When the seed bed is prepared, the soil of which it is
composed should contain as much moisture as possible and yet be in
good condition to handle. After sowing and covering the seeds the bed
should be sprinkled lightly. During the period between seeding and the
appearance of the plants the bed should be watered only as often as it
shows indications of dryness; however, the surface should never become
dry. During the first few days a moist cloth may be spread over the
surface of the seed bed in order to conserve the moisture, but this
covering should be removed before the seedlings begin to appear. After
the plants are up, care should be taken not to water too heavily, as
the seedlings are liable to "damp off"; but the ground should never
become so dry as to check their growth. Celery requires the most water
while making its greatest growth, which occurs late in the summer. As
the crop approaches maturity the water should be applied sparingly, and
it should be withheld altogether for some time before blanching. Among
the methods of applying the water, the most simple and usually the most
desirable practice, especially where the surface of the soil is even,
is to run the water along the rows by means of small furrows, 8 or 10
inches distant on either side of the row. This method is well adapted
to use on a gentle slope with the rows running up and down the incline.
When the water is sprinkled over the entire surface it should be done
late in the day, so that the soil may, during the night, absorb the
moisture and prevent a crust being formed, as would be the case were
the water applied under the direct heat of the sun.
_Growing Without Irrigation._--For a home supply of celery it is often
possible to select a rather moist but well-drained piece of land
whereon it may be grown without artificial watering. In this case the
plants should be set while the atmosphere is filled with moisture,
preferably between gentle showers, and the moisture afterwards retained
in the soil by frequent shallow cultivation or by the application of a
mulch around the plants. This method can not be followed in climates
where irrigation is necessary for the production of crops, but is
applicable in regions that have an ordinary rainfall during the growing
season.
_Planting._--For domestic use, where plenty of land is available, it
will be found most economical to plant in single or double rows 4, 5 or
6 feet apart, with the plants 5 or 6 inches apart in the row. If the
space is limited, solid beds about 5 feet wide will be found suitable,
with the plants set 7 or 8 inches apart each way. By planting in rows
the crop may be worked with a horse cultivator or a wheel hoe and the
banking more easily done, and thus the cost of production is lessened.
With the solid-bed system the work must all be done by hand. If
possible, the planting should be done when the soil is rather moist and
the atmospheric conditions suitable to the subsistence of the plants
until the roots can again furnish sufficient moisture to supply them.
The bed should be thoroughly watered a few hours before the plants are
removed, and a knife or trowel should be run between the plants so that
they may be lifted with a clump of earth and with most of their roots
attached.
_Mulching._--In muck soils it will not be found necessary to mulch the
ground around the plants after setting, but some kind of a covering
is desirable on sandy and clay soils. As soon as the plants are in
position and before any water is applied, cover the ground for a
distance of 8 or 10 inches on either side with any finely divided
material that will shade the top of the soil and prevent a crust being
formed after watering; half-rotted manure is preferable for this, as it
aids the growth by its fertilizing qualities. Good celery can be grown
on clay upland with but one watering--at the time of planting--provided
that plenty of mulch is applied as soon as the plants are set. The
roots of celery, after it is once transplanted, run close to the
surface, and the mulch will protect them from the heat of the sun.
Among materials that may be used for a mulch may be mentioned pine
needles, leaves of any kind, straw, cornstalks run through the cutter,
clippings from the lawn, etc., none of which, however, are as good as
barnyard manure. Have the material to be used as a mulch near at hand,
and as the plants are set cover the soil around them to a depth of 2
inches, bringing the mulching material up close to the plant, but being
careful to allow none to get into the heart. Apply the mulch before
watering, if possible.
Where celery is planted in single rows and mulched it will only be
necessary to maintain shallow cultivation between the rows, not
allowing the cultivator teeth to come nearer the plants than the edge
of the mulch. Where no mulch is used the cultivation may be carried a
little closer to the plants, but should be very shallow, and at no time
should deep cultivation be practiced, as the roots are to be found very
near the surface of the soil. If a mulch is used no hand cultivation
will be required, either along the side or between the plants in the
row, except to pull any weeds that may spring up. Where no mulch is
used it will be necessary lightly to stir the surface with a wheel
hoe or iron rake, to prevent a crust being formed after each rain or
watering. Keep the surface of the soil smooth and in no case allow
lumps of earth to remain near the plants.
_Blanching._--In its original wild state the stems of celery are tough,
full of woody strands, of a rank flavor, and green in color, being
similar to the outside stems or trimmings of our present varieties. The
object of blanching is to secure leafstalks free from woody strands,
crisp and tender, and without the rank flavor found in those that are
green. Of the cultivated plant there are two classes of varieties, the
large-growing, or giant, and the dwarf sorts. These are again divided
into those which must be blanched by excluding all the light and those
which are in a measure self-blanching. Of the former the Giant Pascal
variety is a type, and of the latter the Golden Self-Blanching variety
is a good illustration.
Blanching is accomplished by the same general method that is employed
for destroying the coloring matter in any plant tissue, that is, by
excluding the light and allowing the growth to proceed in the dark.
The particular method to be adopted must be determined largely by the
time when the crop is to be used. If for early use or marketing, the
blanching must be completed where the plants are grown; but if the
celery be for winter use the blanching may take place after the crop
has been removed from the field and placed in storage. In fact, it is
best to blanch as little as possible before storing when the product is
to be kept until late, as the keeping qualities are better while it is
unblanched. When planting for early use it is necessary to choose one
of the self-blanching varieties, such as may be conveniently blanched
by the use of boards or other similar means.
For early blanching on a small scale, such as would be employed on the
farm or in the garden of the amateur horticulturist, there are several
methods. One of the most common is by means of boards placed on edge
along each side of the row.
After the boards are in position it is a good plan to run a celery
hiller between the rows and to throw a little soil against the lower
edges of the boards to close any openings that may result from the
uneven surface of the soil.
Two or three weeks' time will be required to complete the blanching of
the early varieties, and the boards must be kept in position until the
crop is removed from the ground, after which they may be used again two
or three times during the season. If the celery is allowed to remain in
the boards too long after it has reached a marketable stage, it loses
in weight and flavor and is liable to be injured or even destroyed by
the attacks of blight. This is especially true during the earlier part
of the season, when the weather is warm. At the end of the season the
boards should be piled flat, with strips inserted at every fourth or
fifth course, and the whole pile roofed over to shed off rain; treated
in this manner they will last from ten to twelve years.
Perhaps the most satisfactory way of blanching early celery on a small
scale is by means of ordinary farm drain tiles of about 4 inches inside
diameter, placed over the plants after they have become almost fully
grown. To facilitate the work of placing the tiles over the plants,
some of the outside leaves should be pulled away and the main part of
the plant loosely tied together by means of a soft string, or, better,
with what is known as paper twine, being a string made by twisting a
strip of soft paper. This string will lose its strength as soon as it
becomes wet, and will offer no resistance to the further growth of the
plant. If the common, unglazed tiles are used the evaporation from
their surface has a tendency to keep the plant cool during the heat of
the day, and a very crisp and tender product is the result. This method
of blanching is desirable also on account of its cleanliness, as celery
treated in this way will need very little washing before marketing.
The most common method for blanching celery on a small scale is that
of banking with soil, and it is by this means that the finest flavor
can be obtained. Where the plants are set in single rows the soil
can often be partially thrown up by means of a plow, or, better, by
a celery hiller. Before the plow or banking machine is used a small
quantity of dirt must be placed around the plants by hand to hold them
in position while the earth is being thrown around them. This may also
be accomplished by tying up the plants with paper twine, as previously
recommended for use in connection with tiles.
_Storing._--The plan usually adopted where but a small quantity of
celery is to be stored for winter use is to bank up with earth and
cover the plants where grown. Place enough earth around the base of the
plants to hold them in good form, and then allow them to remain without
any further banking as long as there is not danger of a hard frost.
Celery may be safely stored in cellars provided the temperature is kept
low and plenty of ventilation maintained. The warmth and dampness of
the ordinary cellar have a tendency to cause the celery to decay, but
these conditions can frequently be overcome. Celery will readily absorb
any odor that may be present in the atmosphere of the storage place,
and care should be taken to provide sanitary conditions. When storing
in a cellar, the plants should have most of their roots attached, and
a bed of moist sand in which to set them should be provided.
[Illustration: CELERY BANKED WITH EARTH TO BLANCH IT]
_Preparing Celery for Market._--In preparing it from the rows where
grown, it is not necessary to remove the entire root from the earth,
but it may be cut off just below the surface of the soil by means of a
stiff knife. Remove the outside leaves and trim the root evenly, pack
in boxes, and load on the wagon for removal to the washing house. The
blanching boards should not be removed till necessary, and the trimmed
celery must not be allowed to lie exposed to the sun or wind for any
length of time. It is well also to have a piece of canvas to protect
the celery while it is on the wagon on the way to the washing house.
In marketing from the trenches the process is practically the same as
from the rows, except that the celery is already loosened from the soil
and the roots can be removed more easily. Upon reaching the washing
room the celery is placed upon a rack consisting of wooden slats over a
large trough and subjected to a spray of cold water to cool it and to
remove the adhering soil. After washing, it is allowed to drain; then
it is tied in bunches of 12 or more plants each, according to the size.
The bunches are packed 6 in a box for first-grade celery and 8 or 9 for
second or third grades. These boxes should be practically air-tight,
and a lining of paper should be placed in them before packing the
celery, or each bunch should be wrapped separately. The celery should
be nearly dry before it is placed in the boxes, and throughout the
entire handling must be kept as cool as possible.
_Sanitary Conditions._--It is essential that the celery should be
washed in pure water to prevent the transmission of disease germs.
Any germ, such as that producing typhoid fever, which is found in
contaminated water, is readily carried to the digestive system of
the consumer, and may or may not produce an attack of the disease,
according to the strength of the person to resist it. The washhouse and
its surroundings should be kept clean and free from any decomposing
materials. Shippers and dealers alike lose
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/43531