Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "L" to "Lamellibranchia"
by Various · English · Gutenberg #41902 · 1,176,103 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "L" to "Lamellibranchia"
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "L" to "Lamellibranchia"
Author: Various
Release date: January 23, 2013 [eBook #41902]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41902
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "L" TO "LAMELLIBRANCHIA" ***
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE LABYRINTHULIDEA: "From each cyst ultimately emerges a
single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7)." 'amoeba' amended
from 'amoebae'.
ARTICLE LACE: "... upon the lace-making industry in
Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire contains many
illustrations of laces made in these counties from the 17th century
to the present time." 'Bedfordshire' amended from 'Bedforshire'.
ARTICLE LACONIA: "The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and
dangerous." 'especially' amended from 'expecially'.
ARTICLE LA FARGE, JOHN: "Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai (New York,
1897), and An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897)."
'Hokusai' amended from 'Hoksuai'.
ARTICLE LAMELLIBRANCHIA: "The series of oval holes on the back of
the lamella are the water-pores which open between the filaments in
irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse
inter-filamentar junctions." 'filamentar' amended from 'filmentar'.
THE
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
_All rights reserved_
THE
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVI
L to LORD ADVOCATE
New York
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
VOLUME XVI, SLICE I
L to Lamellibranchia
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
L LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE
LAACHER SEE LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE
LAAGER LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE
LAAS, ERNST LA FAYETTE, ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER
LA BADIE, JEAN DE LA FAYETTE, PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE
LABEL LAFAYETTE
LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS LA FERTÉ
LABERIUS, DECIMUS LA FERTÉ-BERNARD
LABIATAE LA FERTÉ-MILON
LABICANA, VIA LAFFITTE, JACQUES
LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN LAFFITTE, PIERRE
LABICI LA FLÈCHE
LABID LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI
LABIENUS LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE
LABLACHE, LUIGI LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE
LABOR DAY LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE
LA BOURBOULE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE
LABOUR CHURCH, THE LAGASH
LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANÇOIS LAGHMAN
LABOUR EXCHANGE LAGOON
LABOUR LEGISLATION LAGOS (province of Nigeria)
LABOUR PARTY LAGOS (seaport of Nigeria)
LABRADOR LAGOS (seaport of Portugal)
LABRADORITE LA GRÂCE
LABRADOR TEA LA GRAND' COMBE
LABRUM LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS
LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH
LABUAN LA GRANJA
LABURNUM LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS
LABYRINTH LA GUAIRA
LABYRINTHULIDEA LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, DUBREUIL HÉLION
LAC LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES
LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE LAGUNA
LACAITA, SIR JAMES LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE
LA CALLE LAHIRE, LAURENT DE
LA CALPRENÈDE, COSTES LAHN
LA CARLOTA LAHNDA
LACCADIVE ISLANDS LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF
LACCOLITE LAHORE
LACE LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE
LACE-BARK TREE LAHR
LACEDAEMON LAIBACH
LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE LAIDLAW, WILLIAM
LACEWING-FLY LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON
LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE LAING, DAVID
LA CHAISE-DIEU LAING, MALCOLM
LA CHALOTAIS, DE CARADEUC DE LAING, SAMUEL
LA CHARITÉ LAING'S NEK
LA CHAUSSÉE, NIVELLE DE LAIRD, MACGREGOR
LACHES LAÏS
LACHINE LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE
LACHISH LAI-YANG
LACHMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM LAKANAL, JOSEPH
LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM LAKE, GERARD LAKE
LA CIOTAT LAKE
LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE LAKE CHARLES
LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE LAKE CITY
LACONIA (Peloponnese district) LAKE DISTRICT
LACONIA (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) LAKE DWELLINGS
LACONICUM LAKE GENEVA
LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI LAKE OF THE WOODS
LACQUER LAKE PLACID
LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE LAKEWOOD
LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED LAKH
LACROIX, PAUL LAKHIMPUR
LACROMA LAKSHMI
LA CROSSE LALAING, JACQUES DE
LACROSSE LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE
LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE LALÍN
LACRYMATORY LA LINEA
LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS LALITPUR
LACTIC ACID LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR
LACTONES LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD
LA CUEVA, JUAN DE LALO, EDOUARD
LACUNAR LA MADDALENA
LACUZON LAMAISM
LACY, FRANZ MORITZ LAMALOU-LES-BAINS
LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH LAMA-MIAO
LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS
LACYDES OF CYRENE LAMARCK, ANTOINE DE MONET
LADAKH AND BALTISTAN LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO
LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO
LADDER LAMARTINE, LOUIS DE PRAT DE
LADING LAMB, CHARLES
LADISLAUS I LAMB
LADISLAUS IV. LAMBALLE, LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO
LADISLAUS V. LAMBALLE
LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE LAMBAYEQUE
LADO ENCLAVE LAMBEAUX, JEF
LADOGA LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE
LADY LAMBERT, DANIEL
LADYBANK LAMBERT, FRANCIS
LADYBRAND LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH
LADY-CHAPEL LAMBERT, JOHN (English martyr)
LADY DAY LAMBERT, JOHN (English general)
LADYSMITH LAMBERT OF HERSFELD
LAELIUS LAMBESSA
LAENAS LAMBETH
LAER, PIETER VAN LAMBETH CONFERENCES
LAESTRYGONES LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS
LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS LAMBOURN
LAEVIUS LAMECH
LAEVULINIC ACID LAMEGO
LA FARGE, JOHN LAMELLIBRANCHIA
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1]
WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. Ch.
A. B. CHATWOOD, B.SC., A.M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E.
Lock.
A. B. R.
ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S.
Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
on Classification of Flowering Plants, &c._
Leaf.
A. C. F.
ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D.
See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C.
Locke, John.
A. C. S.
ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.
See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.
Landor.
A. D.
HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Dobson, HENRY AUSTIN.
Locker-Lampson.
A. Fi.
PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON.
See the biographical article: FILON, P. M. A.
Labiche.
A. F. P.
ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary
of National Biography, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892;
Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the Protector
Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.
Lambert, Francis;
Lambert, Nicholson.
A. Gl.
ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905)
Trinity College, Cambridge; Joint-editor of _Beaumont and
Fletcher_ for the Cambridge University Press.
Layard.
A. Go.*
REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester.
Laurentius, Paul;
Libertines.
A. G. D.
ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S.,
F.R.S.(Canada).
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of
Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint editor of
_Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_.
Lafontaine.
A. H. S.
REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H.
Laodicea.
A. J. G.
REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United
Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras
University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service.
Logos (_in part_).
A. J. L.
ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX.
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of
the _Rio News_ (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.
Lima (_Peru_).
A. L.
ANDREW LANG.
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.
La Cloche.
A. M. An.
ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A.
H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to
the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist,
Girton College, Cambridge, 1893. Author of various articles on
Industrial Life and Legislation, &c.
Labour Legislation.
A. M. C.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.
Lagrange;
Laplace;
Leverrier.
A. N.
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
Lämmergeyer;
Lapwing;
Lark;
Linnet;
Loom.
A. P. C.
ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist,
Bureau of Mines, Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of _Reports of the
Bureau of Mines of Ontario_.
Labrador (_in part_).
A. P. Lo.
ALBERT PETER LOW.
Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of
Geological Survey of Canada. Author of _Report on the Exploration
in the Labrador Peninsula_; &c.
Labrador (_in part_).
A. Se.*
ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.
Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and
Technology, London. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity
College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of
Cambridge, 1907-1909.
Larval Forms.
A. Sl.
ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P.
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The
London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance
and Legislation_.
Liquor Laws.
A. So.
ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899).
Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of
Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c.
Lebanon (_in part_).
A. S. C.
ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author
of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_;
_Ornament in European Silks_; &c.
Lace.
A. St H. G.
ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS.
Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa.
Author of _Africa from South to North through Marotseland._
Lewanika.
A. S. M.
ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D.
See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART.
Lamp.
A. S. W.
AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. (1843-1905).
Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author
of _Roman Literature_; &c.
Latin Language (_in part_).
A. T. T.
A. T. THORSON.
Official in Life Saving Service, U.S.A.
Life-boat: _United States_.
A. W. H.*
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
Gray's Inn, 1900.
Leopold I. (_Roman Emperor_);
Levellers.
A. W. Hu.
REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A.
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Librarian National Liberal Club,
1889-1899. Author of _Life of Cardinal Newman_; _Life of Cardinal
Manning_; &c.
Leo XIII.
A. W. R.
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
_Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.
Landlord and Tenant;
Letters Patent;
Lodger and Lodgings.
A. W. W.
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article: WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM.
Lodge, Thomas.
B. D. J.
BENJAMIN DAYDON JACKSON, PH.D.
General Secretary of the Linnean Society. Secretary to
Departmental Committee of H.M. Treasury on Botanical Work,
1900-1901. Author of _Glossary of Botanic Terms_; &c.
Linnaeus.
C.
THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF CREWE.
See the biographical article: CREWE, 1ST EARL OF.
Laprade.
C. C. W.
CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M.
Cornell University. Assistant editor 11th Edition of the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
La Salle;
Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_).
C. Di.
CHARLES DIBDIN. F.R.G.S.
Secretary of the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Hon.
Secretary of the Civil Service Life-boat Fund, 1870-1906.
Life-boat: _British_.
C. D. W.
HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT.
See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON.
Labour Legislation: _United States_.
C. E.*
CHARLES EVERITT. M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Light: _Introduction and History_.
C. F. A.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
Harbour_.
Long Island (_Battle_).
C. F.-Br.
CHARLES FORTESCUE-BRICKDALE.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Registrar of the Office of the
Land Registry, Lincoln's Inn Fields. Author of _Registration of
Title to Land_; _The Practice of the Land Registry_; _Land
Transfer in Various Countries_; &c.
Land Registration.
C. H.*
SIR CHARLES HOLROYD.
See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES.
Legros.
C. H. Ha.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
City. Member of the American Historical Association.
Leo I.-X. (_Popes_).
C. J. B.*
REV. CHARLES JAMES BALL, M.A.
University Lecturer in Assyriology, Oxford. Author of _Light from
the East_.
Lamentations.
C. L. K.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, MA., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of _Life of Henry
V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of
London_.
Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of.
C. M.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author
of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte
des Papstthums_; &c.
Lateran Councils.
C. Mo.
WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.
See the biographical article: MONKHOUSE, W. C.
Leighton, Lord.
C. R. B.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.
Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham.
Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
_The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c.
Leif Ericsson;
Leo, Johannes.
De B.
HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ.
See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE.
Lesseps, Ferdinand de.
D. F. T.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising _The Classical
Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analysis of many other
classical works.
Lasso, Orlando.
D. G. H.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900;
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
Latakia;
Lebanon (_in part_).
D. H.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.
La Hogue, Battle of;
Lauria, Roger de;
Lepanto, Battle of;
Lissa.
D. Ll. T.
DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at
Pontypridd and Rhondda.
Llantwit Major.
D. Mn.
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of
_Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c.
Leighton, Robert (_in part_).
D. M. W.
SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of
the Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of the
Institut de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction
Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the
Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c.
Lobánov-Rostovski.
E. B.*
ERNEST CHARLES FRANÇOIS BABELON.
Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of
Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of
the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions
Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine_; _Traités des
Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camées de la
Bibliothèque Nationale_.
Leptis.
E. C. B.
EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.
Leo, Brother.
E. Da.
EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905).
Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905.
Conducted the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author
of _The Music of the Future_; &c. Editor of a critical edition of
Liszt's _Etudes_.
Liszt.
E. D. J. W.
EDWARD D. J. WILSON.
Formerly Leader-writer on _The Times_.
Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of.
E. G.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
Lampoon;
Lie, Jonas L. E.
E. Ga.
EMILE GARCKE, M.INST.E.E.
Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of
_Manual of Electrical Undertakings_; &c.
Lighting: _Electric (Commercial Aspects)_.
E. He.
EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal
Geographical Society, London.
Livingstone Mountains.
E. J. D.
EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Author of _A.
Scarlatti: his Life and Works_.
Leo, Leonardo.
E. O.*
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of
Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.
Liver: _Surgery of Liver and Gall Bladder_.
E. Pr.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of
Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London,
Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon
Geographical Society, &c. Author of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_;
_Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c.
Lobo, F. R.;
Lopes, Fernão.
E. R. L.
SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.SC.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural
History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of
the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890.
Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898.
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at
Oxford, 1905. Author of _Degeneration_; _The Advancement of
Science_; _The Kingdom of Man_; &c.
Lamellibranchia (_in part_).
E. V. L.
EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS.
Editor of _Works of Charles Lamb_. Author of _Life of Charles
Lamb_.
Lamb, Charles.
F. E. B.
FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.
Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in
Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger"
Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of _Monograph of the
Oligochaeta_; _Animal Colouration_; &c.
Leech.
F. E. W.
REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A.
Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College,
Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of _The Old Catholic Ritual done into
English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman
and Old German Manuals_; _The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic
Church_; &c.
Lection, Lectionary;
Lector;
Litany;
Liturgy.
F. G. M. B.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
Lombards (_in part_).
F. G. P.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
College of Surgeons.
Liver: _Anatomy_.
F. J. H.
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of
the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History,
especially Roman Britain; &c.
Legion (_in part_);
Limes Germanicus.
F. L.*
SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A.
Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of
Battle.
Lear, Edward.
F. V. B.
F. VINCENT BROOKS.
Lithography.
F. v. H.
BARON FRIEDRICH VON HÜGEL.
Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic
Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_.
Loisy.
F. Wa.
FRANCIS WATT, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of _Law's Lumber Room_;
_Scotland of to-day_; &c.
Law, John.
F. W. R.*
FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
Labradorite;
Lapis Lazuli.
F. W. Ra.
FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906).
Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of _The New
Practice_; &c.
Lien.
G. A. Gr.
GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.).
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of
Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
Languages of India_; &c.
Lahnda.
G. E.
REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
Lecturer, 1909-1910. Employed by British Government in preparation
of the British Case in the British Guiana-Venezuelan and British
Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations.
Limburg.
G. F. B.
GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK.
Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of
Reading-room, British Museum.
Lavigerie.
G. F. K.
GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.SC.
Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of
Precious Stones, American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Fellow of Geological Society of America. Author of _Precious
Stones of North America_; &c. Senior Editor of _Book of the
Pearl_.
Lapidary and Gem-cutting.
G. H. C.
GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
Author of _Insects: Their Structure and Life_.
Lepidoptera.
G. Sa.
GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B.
La Bruyère;
La Fontaine;
Lamartine;
La Rochefoucauld;
Le Sage.
G. S. L.
GEORGE SOMES LAYARD.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author
of _Charles Keene_; _Shirley Brooks_; &c.
Linton, William James.
G. W. T.
REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Labid.
H. A. L.
HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ.
Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of _La
théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps
mouvants_.
Light: _Nature of_.
H. B. W.*
HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President
of the Samuel Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the
Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. Author of _The Story of
London_; _London Past and Present_; &c.
London: _History_.
H. B. Wo.
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England
and Wales. President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston
Medallist, 1908.
Logan, Sir William E.;
Lonsdale, William.
H. Ch.
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the
10th edition.
Lloyd George, D.
H. De.
REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
Bollandist. Joint-author of the _Acta Sanctorum_.
Lawrence, St;
Linus.
H. F. G.
HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of
Cambridge. Author of _Amphibia and Reptiles_ (Cambridge Natural
History).
Lizard.
H. F. P.
HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F.
Livy (_in part_).
H. H. J.
SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G.
See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON.
Liberia.
H. M. S.
HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D.
Professor of History and Director of University Extension,
University of California. Author of _History of the French
Revolution_; _Revolutionary Europe_; &c.
Littré.
H. R. T.
HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
Libraries (_in part_).
H. St.
HENRY STURT, M.A.
Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; and
_Personal Idealism_.
Lange, Friedrich Albert.
H. T. A.
REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author
of the "Commentary on Acts," in the _Westminster New Testament_;
_Handbook on the Apocryphal Books_ in the "Century Bible."
Logia.
H. W. B.*
HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A.
Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly
Fellow of All Souls' College.
Logic: _History_.
H. W. C. D.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _Charlemagne_; _England
under the Normans and Angevins_; &c.
Lanfranc;
Langton, Stephen.
H. Y.
SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I.
See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY.
Lhasa (_in part_).
I. A.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of
Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of
England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c.
Lazarus, Emma;
Leon, Moses;
Leon of Modena.
J. An.
JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D.
Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant
Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind
Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. Editor of Drummond's _Ancient
Scottish Weapons_; &c.
Lake Dwellings.
J. A. F.
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of
St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-President of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers. Author of _The Principles of Electric Wave
Telegraphy_; _Magnets and Electric Currents_; &c.
Leyden Jar;
Lighting: _Electric_.
J. A. F. M.
JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.
Musical critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The
Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music
in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor
of _Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; &c.
Lind, Jenny.
J. A. H.
JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_; &c.
Lias;
Llandovery Group.
J. Dr.
SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S., LL.D.
See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J.
Liquid Gases.
J. D. B.
JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in
South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of
Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order
of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
Larissa.
J. D. Br.
JAMES DUFF BROWN.
Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of
the Library Association. Author of _Guide to Librarianship_; &c.
Libraries (_in part_).
J. F.-K.
JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool
University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow
of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy.
Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A
History of Spanish Literature_; &c.
La Cueva;
Larra;
Literature.
J. F. St.
JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.
Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
Aramaic, Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
Leviticus.
J. Ga.
JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D.
See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.
Lancaster, House of;
Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of.
J. G. F.
SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G.
Lancaster, Joseph.
J. G. N.
JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901).
Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887. Joint-author of
_Abraham Lincoln_: &c.
Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_).
J. G. P.*
JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.SC., F.C.S.
Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold
Medallist, Society of Arts. Author of _Leather for Libraries_;
_Principles of Tanning_; &c.
Leather.
J. G. R.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London.
Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_. Author of _History of
German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c.
Lessing (_in part_).
J. Hn.
JUSTUUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.
Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn.
Author of _Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft_.
Lang, Karl Heinrich;
Ledochowski;
Leo, Heinrich.
J. H. F.
JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
Leo VI. (_Emperor of the East_).
J. Hl. R.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
Pitt_; &c.
Las Casas.
J. J. L.*
REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A.
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in
Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.
Langen.
J. K. I.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K.
Leslie, Thomas E. C.
J. Le.
REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A.
See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.
Lâo-Tsze.
J. L. M.
JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient
Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical
Archaeology in University of Oxford.
Leleges;
Locri (_Greece_).
J. L. W.
JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_.
Lancelot.
J. Mu.
SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN.
Lake.
J. M. C.
REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE.
Author of _Braemar: its Topography and Natural History_; _Lichenes
Britannici_.
Lichens (_in part_).
J. M. G.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894).
Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery,
1884-1894. Author of _David Scott, R.S.A._; _James and William
Tassie_.
Leech, John.
J. P. E.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN.
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours
élémentaire d'histoire du droit français_; &c.
Lettres de Cachet.
J. P. P.
JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D.
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor
of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus
Poetarum Latinorum_; &c.
Latin Literature (_in part_).
J. P. Pe.
REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly
Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of
the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of
_Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_;
_Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian_.
Lagash;
Larsa.
J. S.
JAMES SULLY, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES.
Lewes, George Henry (_in part_).
J. Si.
JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895).
Author of _A History of Germany_; &c.
Lessing (_in part_).
J. S. F.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
of London.
Laccolite;
Lamprophyres;
Laterite;
Leucite: _Leucite Rocks_;
Limestone.
J. S. K.
JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon. Member, Geographical
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of the _Statesman's
Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_.
Livingstone.
J. S. W.
JOHN STEPHEN WILLISON, LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).
Editor of _The News_ (Toronto). Canadian Correspondent of _The
Times_. Author of _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; &c.
Laurier.
J. T. Be.
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
_Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
_Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.
Ladoga (_in part_);
Livonia (_in part_);
Lop-nor.
J. T. Br.
J. TAYLOR BROWN.
Leighton, Robert (_in part_).
J. T. C.
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London.
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor
of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to
the Marine Biological Association.
Lamellibranchia (_in part_).
J. T. S.*
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
Languedoc.
J. V.*
JULES VIARD.
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public
Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_;
&c.
Le Maçon.
J. W. D.
CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N.
Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.
Log.
J. W. He.
JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek
and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of
_Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c.
Lasker.
J. W. L. G.
JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical
Society. Editor of _Messenger of Mathematics_ and the _Quarterly
Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics_.
Legendre, A. M.;
Logarithm.
K. H.
KILLINGWORTH HEDGES, M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELECT.E.
Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. Author of
_Modern Lightning Conductors_; &c.
Lightning Conductor.
K. S.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of _The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
Instruments of the Orchestra_.
Lituus.
L. A. W.
LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B.
Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of _Lhasa and its
Mysteries_; &c.
Lhasa (_in part_).
L. B.
LAURENCE BINYON.
See the biographical article: BINYON, L.
Lawson, Cecil Gordon.
L. D.*
LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
Liberius.
L. J. S.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.
Leadhillite;
Lepidolite;
Leucite (_in part_);
Liroconite.
L. T. D.
SIR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A.
Dean of the Arches; Master of the Faculties; and First Church
Estates Commissioner. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of
_Monasticism in England_; &c.
Lincoln Judgment, The.
L. V.*
LUIGI VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper
Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; &c.
Leopold II. (_Grand Duke of Tuscany_).
M. Br.
MARGARET BRYANT.
Landor: _Bibliography_;
La Sale.
M. Ca.
MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D.
Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg.
Author of _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c.
Leonardo of Pisa.
M. H. S.
MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the _Magazine of Art_. Member of Fine Art
Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos
Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of
_History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the Opening of
the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British
Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c.
Line Engraving (_in part_).
M. N. T.
MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_.
Laconia;
Leonidas;
Leotychides.
M. O. B. C.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.
Leo I.-V. (_Emperors of the East_);
Lesbos;
Leuctra.
M. P.*
LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
L'Aubespine.
N. G. G.
NICHOLAS G. GEDYE.
Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission.
Lighthouse (_in part_).
O. Hr.
OTTO HENKER, PH.D.
On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany.
Lens.
P. A. K.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
Ladoga (_in part_);
Lithuanians and Letts: _History_;
Livonia (_in part_).
P. C. M.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.SC., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing
Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in
Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903.
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
Life;
Longevity.
P. C. Y.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Laud, Archbishop;
Lauderdale, Duke of;
Leeds, 1st Duke of.
P. G.
PERCY GARDNER. LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
Leochares.
P. Gi.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
University Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the
Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of Comparative
Philology_; &c.
L.
P. G. H.
PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON.
See the biographical article: Hamerton, PHILIP GILBERT.
Line Engraving (_in part_).
R. A. S. M.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
Palestine Exploration Fund.
Lachish.
R. G.
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
Leopardi.
R. I. P.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
Leaf-insect;
Locust (_in part_).
R. J. M.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
_St James's Gazette_, London.
Lawn Tennis;
Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of;
Lockhart, George.
R. K. D.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of
Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907.
Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The
Language and Literature of China_; _Europe and the Far East_; &c.
Li Hung Chang.
R. L.*
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the
British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
Africa_; &c.
Langur;
Lemming (_in part_);
Lemur;
Leopard (_in part_);
Lion (_in part_);
Litopterna.
R. M'L.
ROBERT M'LACHLAN.
Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_.
Locust (_in part_).
R. M. B.
ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE.
See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M.
Life-boat: _British (in part)_.
R. N. B.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
_Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the
Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.
Ladislaus I. and IV. of Hungary;
Laski.
R. S. C.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Author of _The Italic Dialects_.
Latin Language (_in part_);
Liguria: _Archaeology and Philology_.
R. We.
RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M.
Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The
Elegies of Maximianus_; &c.
Long Island.
R. W. C.
THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D.
See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W.
Lombards: _The Kingdom in Italy_.
S. A. C.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses
and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament
History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.
Levites.
S. C.
SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY.
Leonardo da Vinci.
St C.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.
Liguori.
S. D. F. S.
REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (1838-1905).
Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles,
U.F.C. College Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of _The Parables of our
Lord_; &c. Editor of _The International Library of Theology_; &c.
Logos (_in part_).
S. N.
SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
Latitude;
Light: _Velocity_.
T. As.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome.
Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven
Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the
Roman Campagna_; &c.
Labicana, Via;
Labici;
Lampedusa;
Lanciano;
Lanuvium;
Larino;
Latina, Via;
Latium;
Laurentina, Via;
Lavinium;
Lecce;
Leghorn;
Leontini;
Licodia Eubea;
Ligures Baebiani;
Liguria: _History_;
Locri: _Italy_.
T. A. I.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Livery Companies;
London: _Finance_.
T. Ca.
THOMAS CASE, M.A.
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete
Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and
Fellow of Magdalen College. Author of _Physical Realism_; &c.
Logic.
T. C. A.
SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.SC., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge.
Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor of _Systems of Medicine_.
Lister, 1st Baron.
T. Da.
THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D.
Longfellow.
T. F. C.
THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
Mass., U.S.A.
Laodicea, Synod of.
T. F. H.
THOMAS F. HENDERSON.
Author of _Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters_; &c.
Latimer.
T. H. H.*
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys,
India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
Commissioner for the Perso-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.
Ladakh and Baltistan
T. K.
THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.
Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.
Lassalle.
T. Mo.
THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887).
Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea,
1848-1887. Editor of the _Gardeners' Magazine of Botany_; Author
of _Handbook of British Ferns_; _Index Filicum_; _Illustrations of
Orchidaceous Plants_.
Labyrinth.
T. M. L.
REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D.
Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly
Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the
University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_;
_Life of Luther_; &c.
Lollards.
T. Se.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of
_Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1900. Author of _The Age
of Johnson_; &c.
Lever, Charles.
T. W. R. D.
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University.
Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College,
London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of
the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic
Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the
Buddhists_; _Early Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the
Buddha_; &c.
Lamaism.
T. Wo.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
College, Dundee.
Linen and Linen Manufactures.
V. B. L.
VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent
Gas Examiner to the Corporation of the City of London.
Lighting: _Oil and Gas_.
V. H. B.
VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC.
Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of
St John's College, Cambridge.
Lichens (_in part_).
W. A. B. C.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
_The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.
Lausanne;
Leuk;
Liechtenstein;
Linth;
Locarno;
Locle, Le.
W. A. P.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.
Laibach, Congress of;
Lights, Ceremonial use of.
W. E. Co.
THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D.
Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History,
King's College, London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges,
Cambridge. Author of _The Study of Ecclesiastical History_;
_Beginnings of English Christianity_; &c.
Libellatici.
W. F. I.
WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool).
Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of
Lancashire and Cheshire. Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the
Society of Antiquaries. Author of _Liverpool in the reign of
Charles II._; _Old Halls of Wirral_; &c.
Liverpool.
W. H. Be.
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.
Lamech.
W. H. F.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
Lemming (_in part_);
Leopard (_in part_);
Lion (_in part_).
W. M. R.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
Lely, Sir Peter;
Lippi.
W. P. T.
WILLIAM PETERFIELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of
_English Culture in Virginia_; _A Brief History of American
Literature_; &c.
Lanier.
W. R. So.
WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.
Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British
Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. Author of _The Ethics
of Naturalism_; _The Interpretation of Evolution_; &c.
Leibnitz.
W. R. S.-R.
WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A.
Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British
Museum. Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c.
Lermontov.
W. T. Ca.
WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN. D.SC., F.Z.S.
Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South
Kensington. Author of "Crustacea" in _A Treatise on Zoology_,
edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.
Lobster.
W. T. D.
WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E.
Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South
Wales, Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and
Bishop Rock Lighthouses. Author of _The New Eddystone Lighthouse_;
&c.
Lighthouse (_in part_).
W. W. R.*
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
Leo XI. and XII. (_popes_).
W. W. S.
WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LITT.D., LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: SKEAT, W. W.
Layamon.
W. Y. S.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
Latin Literature (_in part_).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Labiatae. Larch. Leprosy.
Lacrosse. Lead Poisoning. Libel.
Lagos. Leeds. Liberal Party.
Lahore. Legitimacy. Liliaceae.
Lake District. Leguminosae. Lille.
Lambeth Conferences. Leicestershire. Lily.
Lanarkshire. Leipzig. Limitation, Statutes of.
Lancashire. Leith. Lincoln.
Lantern. Lemnos. Lincolnshire.
Lapland. Lemon. Lippe.
Larceny. Lent. Lisbon.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
the final volume.
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVI
L a letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician alphabet. It
has in its history passed through many changes of form, ending curiously
enough in its usual manuscript form with a shape almost identical with
that which it had about 900 B.C. ([symbol] L). As was the case with B
and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the symbol in
the position in which they had borrowed it [symbol]. This, which was its
oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies of Italy, was the
form adopted by the Romans, who in time converted it into the rectangle
L, which passed from them to the nations of western Europe. In the Ionic
alphabet, however, from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it
appeared as [symbol]. A still more common form in other parts of Greece
was [symbol], with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus
have not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of
Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family of
Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was lame and so
suggested the form of the Corinthian [symbol]. Another form [symbol] or
[symbol] was practically confined to the west of Argolis. The name of
the Greek letter is ordinarily given as _Lambda_, but in Herodotus
(above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 _e_, where the names of the letters
are given, the best authenticated form is _Labda_. The Hebrew name,
which was probably identical with the Phoenician, is _Lamed_, which,
with a final vowel added as usual, would easily become _Lambda_, _b_
being inserted between m and another consonant. The pronunciation of _l_
varies a great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes
contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally speaking, is
at the same point as for _d_, and this accounts for an interchange
between these sounds which occurs in various languages, e.g. in Latin
_lacrima_ from the same root as the Greek [Greek: dakru] and the English
_tear_. The change in Latin occurs in a very limited number of cases and
one explanation of their occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine)
words. In pronunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or
both sides of the tongue. In most languages _l_ is a fairly stable
sound. Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing
between _l_ and _r_. In Old Persian _l_ is found in only two foreign
words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ _r_ and _l_ differently
in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges between _r_ and
_l_ were somewhat exaggerated by the older philologists. Before other
consonants _l_ becomes silent in not a few languages, notably in French,
where it is replaced by _u_, and in English where it has occasionally
been restored in recent times, e.g. in _fault_ which earlier was spelt
without _l_ (as in French whence it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith
could still rhyme with _aught_. In the 15th century the Scottish dialect
of English dropped _l_ largely both before consonants and finally after
_a_ and _u_, _a'_ = all, _fa'_ = fall, _pu'_ = pull, _'oo'_ = wool,
_bulk_ pronounced like _book_, &c., while after _o_ it appears as _w_,
_row_ (pronounced _rau_) = roll, _know_ = knoll, &c. It is to be
observed that L = 50 does not come from this symbol, but was an
adaptation of [symbol], the western Greek form of [chi], which had no
corresponding sound in Latin and was therefore not included in the
ordinary alphabet. This symbol was first rounded into [symbol] and then
changed first to [symbol], and ultimately to L. (P. Gi.)
LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W.
of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It
occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic
formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities
around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea,
is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an
amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold
and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently
is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies
the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (_Abballa Lacensis_) founded in
1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating
from the 12th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the
monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802
it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a
Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits,
who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which
still appears, entitled _Stimmen aus Maria Laach_. In 1892 the monastery
was again occupied by the Benedictines.
LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch _leger_, Ger. _lager_,
connected with Eng. "lair") for a temporary defensive encampment, formed
by a circle of wagons. The English word is "leaguer," an armed camp,
especially that of a besieging or "beleaguering" army. The Ger. _lager_,
in the sense of "store," is familiar as the name of a light beer (see
BREWING).
LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of
June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under
Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy
in the new university of Strassburg. In _Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung_
(1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief
work _Idealismus und Positivismus_ (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a
clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived
transcendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagoras the
founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume. Throughout his
philosophy he endeavours to connect metaphysics with ethics and the
theory of education.
His chief educational works were _Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern
Gymnasialklassen_ (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and
_Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed.
1886). He contributed largely to the _Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss.
Philos._ (1880-1882); the _Litterarischer Nachlass_, a posthumous
collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, _Der
Positivismus von Ernst Laas_ (1902); Gjurits, _Die Erkenntnistheorie
des Ernst Laas_ (1903); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng.
trans., 1895).
LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of the school
known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far from Bordeaux, on the
13th of February 1610, being the son of Jean Charles de la Badie,
governor of Guienne. He was sent to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and
when fifteen entered the Jesuit college there. In 1626 he began to study
philosophy and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views about
the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon
believers, and adopted Augustinian views about grace, free will and
predestination, which brought him into collision with his order. He
therefore separated from the Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the
people, carrying on this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens
in 1640 he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility
of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Carmelite
hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's _Institutes_ showed him that
he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic
Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of
France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His
reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Déclaration
de Jean de la Badie_. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was
deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said,
had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of
the church at Orange on the Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for
his severity of discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing,
card-playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of the
country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave Orange, and
in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then accepted a call to the
French church in London, but after various wanderings settled at
Middelburg, where he was pastor to the French-speaking congregation at a
Walloon church. His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well
known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the
ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his
followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669
he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon
(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), François Menuret
(d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and,
more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book
_Eucleria_ is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master.
At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views
for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of
holy people who have been born again from sin; baptism is the sign and
seal of this regeneration, and is to be administered only to believers;
the Holy Spirit guides the regenerate into all truth, and the church
possesses throughout all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in
the ancient days; the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of
every Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community of
goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance together;
marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers, and the children of
the regenerate are born without original sin, marriage with an
unregenerate person is not binding. They did not observe the Sabbath,
because--so they said--their life was a continual Sabbath. The life and
separatism of the community brought them into frequent collision with
their neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted
Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's _Women and Men of the French
Renaissance_ (1901). See also J. Favre, _Olivier de Magny_ (1885).
LABEL (a French word, now represented by _lambeau_, possibly a variant;
it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word
appearing in the English "lap," a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card
of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a
parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or
other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the
word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus
applied to the fillets (_infulae_) attached to a bishop's mitre. In
heraldry the "label" is a mark of "cadency."
In architecture the term "label" is applied to the outer projecting
moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called "Dripstone"
or "Weather Moulding," or "Hood Mould." The former terms seem scarcely
applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain
could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label
frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and
formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles
they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply,
sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a "roll" or
"scroll-moulding," so called because it resembles the part of a scroll
where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble
the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return
horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental
architecture than in English.
LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman jurist, was the son
of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain
after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian
nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered
public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised
antipathy to the new régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in
the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican
sympathies--what Tacitus (_Ann._ iii. 75) calls his _incorrupta
libertas_--proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius
Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the ruling powers,
was promoted by Augustus to the consulate, when the appointment should
have fallen to Labeo; smarting under the wrong done him, Labeo declined
the office when it was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. _Ann._
iii. 75; Pompon, in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. 2). From this time he seems to
have devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the
science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa. To his
knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture, devoting his
attention specially to dialectics, philology (_grammatica_), and
antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition, expansion, and
application of legal doctrine (Gell. xiii. 10). Down to the time of
Hadrian his was probably the name of greatest authority; and several of
his works were abridged and annotated by later hands. While Capito is
hardly ever referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence
in the writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and
Paul; and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy of
preservation in Justinian's _Digest_. Labeo gets the credit of being the
founder of the Proculian sect or school, while Capito is spoken of as
the founder of the rival Sabinian one (Pomponius in fr. 47, _Dig._ i.
2); but it is probable that the real founders of the two _scholae_ were
Proculus and Sabinus, followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and
Capito.
Labeo's most important literary work was the _Libri Posteriorum_, so
called because published only after his death. It contained a
systematic exposition of the common law. His _Libri ad Edictum_
embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and
peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His
_Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanôn]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of
definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one
of his most characteristic productions.
See van Eck, "De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis"
(Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's _Thes. nov._, vol. i.; Mascovius, _De
sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor._ (1728); Pernice, _M. Antistius
Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_
(Halle, 1873-1892).
LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and writer of mimes. He
seems to have been a man of caustic wit, who wrote for his own pleasure.
In 45 Julius Caesar ordered him to appear in one of his own mimes in a
public contest with the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a
dignified prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years,
and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar
awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his
equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus
(Macrobius, _Sat._ ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who
introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close of the
republican period. He seems to have been a man of learning and culture,
but his pieces did not escape the coarseness inherent to the class of
literature to which they belonged; and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, 1) accuses
him of extravagance in the coining of new words. Horace (_Sat._ i. 10)
speaks of him in terms of qualified praise.
In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four
of his mimi have been preserved; the fragments have been collected by
O. Ribbeck in his _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1873).
LABIATAE (i.e. "lipped," Lat. _labium_, lip), in botany, a natural order
of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae of the dicotyledons,
and containing about 150 genera with 2800 species. The majority are
annual or perennial herbs inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming
shrubby in warmer climates. The stem is generally square in section and
the simple exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e.
each pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately
above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed or more or
less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs are frequently
glandular, the secretion containing a scent characteristic of the genus
or species. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves or bracts;
they are rarely solitary as in _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap), and generally
form an apparent whorl (_verticillaster_) at the node, consisting of a
pair of cymose inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered
dichasium as in _Brunella_, _Salvia_, &c., or more generally a dichasium
passing over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1),
_Ballota_, _Nepeta_, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the apex
of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small bracts, the whole
forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 5)
_Brunella_, &c.; the bracts are sometimes large and coloured as in
_Monarda_, species of _Salvia_, &c., in the latter the apex of the stem
is sometimes occupied with a cluster of sterile coloured bracts. The
plan of the flower is remarkably uniform (fig. 1, 3); it is bisexual,
and zygomorphic in the median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a
persistent cup-like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping
corolla, 4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally
the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous
arrangement)--sometimes as in _Salvia_, the posterior pair is
aborted--and two superior median carpels, each very early divided by a
constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting of four cells
each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached to the base of an
axile placenta; the style springs from the centre of the pistil between
the four segments (_gynobasic_), and is simple with a bifid apex. The
fruit comprises four one-seeded nutlets included in the persistent
calyx; the seed has a thin testa and the embryo almost or completely
fills it. Although the general form and plan of arrangement of the
flower is very uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the
calyx may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight or
bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies also; it may
be equally toothed as in mint (_Mentha_) (fig. 2, 3), and marjoram
(_Origanum_), or two-lipped as in thyme (_Thymus_), _Lamium_ (fig. 1)
and _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 1); the number of nerves affords useful characters
for distinction of genera, there are normally five main nerves between
which simple or forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The
shape of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless
intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by
insect-agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often widens
towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally five-toothed, or
forms, as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3, 4) an almost regular four-toothed
corolla by union of the two posterior teeth. Usually it is two-lipped,
the upper lip being formed by the two posterior, the lower lip by the
three anterior petals (see fig. 1, and fig. 2, 1, 6); the median lobe of
the lower lip is generally most developed and forms a resting-place for
the bee or other insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip
shows great variety in form, often, as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), _Stachys_,
&c., it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens, or it
may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe _Ocimoideae_ the four upper petals
form the upper lip, and the single anterior one the lower lip, and in
_Teucrium_ the upper lip is absent, all five lobes being pushed forward
to form the lower. The posterior stamen is sometimes present as a
staminode, but generally suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to
staminodes or more or less completely suppressed as in _Salvia_ (fig. 2,
2, 6); rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In
_Coleus_ the stamens are monadelphous. In _Nepeta_ and allied genera the
posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the didynamous
character being generally the result of the anterior pair being the
longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell splitting lengthwise; the
connective may be more or less developed between the cells; an extreme
case is seen in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform
and jointed to the filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced
to a sterile appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the
more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are protected by the
arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. 1) and many other British
genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for the insect which in
probing the flower for the honey, secreted on the lower side of the
disk, collects pollen on its back. Numerous variations in detail are
found in the different genera; in _Salvia_ (fig. 2), for instance, there
is a lever mechanism, the barren half of each anther forming a knob at
the end of a short arm which when touched by the head of an insect
causes the anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the
insect's back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the
flower is more developed, as in the _Ocimoideae_, the stamens and style
lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper side of the
hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower gets smeared with
pollen on its belly and legs. Both types include brightly-coloured
flowers with longer tubes adapted to the visits of butterflies and
moths, as species of _Salvia_, _Stachys_, _Monarda_, &c.; some South
American species of _Salvia_ are pollinated by humming-birds. In
_Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3), thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), and allied genera,
the flowers are nearly regular and the stamens spread beyond the
corolla.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (_Lamium album_).
1, Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; 2 calyx, enlarged; 3, floral
diagram.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Flower of Sage (_Salvia officinalis_); 2,
Corolla of same cut open showing the two stamens; 3, flower of spearmint
(_Mentha viridis_); 4, corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5,
flowering shoot of same, reduced; 6, floral diagram of _Salvia_.]
The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in their
distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny or hairy lobes or
teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder. A scanty endosperm is
sometimes present in the seed; the embryo is generally parallel to the
fruit axis with a short inferior radicle and generally flat cotyledons.
The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief centre
is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as _Lavandula_,
_Thymus_, _Rosmarinus_ and others form an important feature in the
vegetation. The tribe _Ocimoideae_ is exclusively tropical and
subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order is well
represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; _Mentha_ (mint)
including also _M. piperita_ (peppermint) and _M. Pulegium_
(pennyroyal); _Origanum vulgare_ (marjoram); _Thymus Serpyllum_
(thyme); _Calamintha_ (calamint), including also _C. Clinopodium_
(wild basil) and _C. Acinos_ (basil thyme); _Salvia_ (sage), including
_S. Verbenaca_ (clary); _Nepeta Cataria_ (catmint), _N. Glechoma_
(ground-ivy); _Brunella_ (self-heal); _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap);
_Stachys (woundwort); _S. Betonica_ is wood betony; _Galeopsis_
(hemp-nettle); Lamium_ (dead-nettle); _Ballota_ (black horehound);
_Teucrium_ (germander); and _Ajuga_ (bugle).
Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the series
excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is terminal; but
several genera, e.g. _Ajuga_, _Teucrium_ and _Rosmarinus_, approach
Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that order the
style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The
fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which,
however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo.
The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use, such
are thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), sage (_Salvia_), lavender
(_Lavandula_), rosemary (_Rosmarinus_), patchouli (_Pogostemon_). The
tubers of _Stachys Sieboldi_ are eaten in France.
LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E. from Rome.
It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was
then prolonged to Labici, and later still became a road for through
traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the
S.E., for, while the distance from Rome to their main junction at Ad
Bivium (or to another junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically
identical, the summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of
the latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their
junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina rather
than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the first six miles from
Rome is not identical with that of any modern road, but can be clearly
traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course.
See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 215 sqq.
(T. As.)
LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th
of May 1815, of _bourgeois_ parentage. He read for the bar, but
literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when
he gave to the _Chérubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished
and forgotten--a short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the
period, _Les plus belles sont les plus fausses_. A few others followed
much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the
public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the _Revue des
théâtres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small
Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama
of his, _L'Avocat Loubet_, while a vaudeville, _Monsieur de Coislin ou
l'homme infiniment poli_, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and
given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the
Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great
favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year
Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance
called _La Clé des champs_. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy
and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon
after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer
concludes, "this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage,
where a career of success was awaiting him." There was yet another
obstacle in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's
parents that he would renounce a profession then considered incompatible
with moral regularity and domestic happiness. But a year afterwards his
wife spontaneously released him from his vow, and Labiche recalled the
incident when he dedicated the first edition of his complete works: "To
my wife." Labiche, in conjunction with Varin,[1] Marc Michel,[2]
Clairville,[3] Dumanoir,[4] and others contributed comic plays
interspersed with couplets to various Paris theatres. The series
culminated in the memorable farce in five acts, _Un Chapeau de paille
d'Italie_ (August 1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the
French _imbroglio_, in which some one is in search of something, but
does not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to
that date Labiche had been only a successful _vaudevilliste_ among a
crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new departure in _Le
Misanthrope et l'Auvergnat_. All the plays given for the next
twenty-five years, although constructed on the old plan, contained a
more or less appreciable dose of that comic observation and good sense
which gradually raised the French farce almost to the level of the
comedy of character and manners. "Of all the subjects," he said, "which
offered themselves to me, I have selected the _bourgeois_. Essentially
mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way between the
hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During
the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of
Delacour,[5] Choler,[6] and others. When it is asked what share in the
authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we
shall answer in Émile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which
secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all
the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are
conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more
useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel
Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _débutant_ in his younger
days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy
impersonated the _bourgeois_ not only to the public, but to the author
himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and
hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy
way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Célimare le
bien-aimé_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_,
_Un Pied dans le crime_, _La Cagnotte_ (1864), may be quoted as the
happiest productions of Labiche.
In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close, and retired
to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be seen, dressed as a
farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters and an enormous stick,
superintending the agricultural work and busily engaged in reclaiming
land and marshes. His lifelong friend, Augier, visited him in his
principality, and, being left alone in the library, took to reading his
host's dramatic productions, scattered here and there in the shape of
theatrical _brochures_. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a
collected and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first
declined as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried
into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued during
1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had been expected by
the author's most sanguine friends. It had been commonly believed that
these plays owed their popularity in great measure to the favourite
actors who had appeared in them; but it was now discovered that all,
with the exception of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and
caricatural element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the
true comic vein and delightful delineation of human character. The
amazement turned into admiration, and the _engouement_ became so general
that very few dared grumble or appear scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche
was elected to the French Academy. It was fortunate that, in former
years, he had never dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as
M. Pailleron justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little
faults which were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of
his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he
enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris
on the 23rd of January 1888.
Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it
will be enough to say that he was something better than a public
_amuseur_. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage.
They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is
practically absent from his theatre. In none of his plays did he ever
venture into the depths of feminine psychology, and womankind is only
represented in them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost
dumb, young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable
custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good-natured manner
which always left a door open to repentance and timely amendment. He is
never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he
had raised to something akin to literature, relapsed into its former
grossness and unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.)
His _Théâtre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by
Émile Augier.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869).
[2] Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.
[3] Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879),
part-author of the famous _Fille de Mme Angot_ (1872).
[4] Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).
[5] Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a
list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue Général_ (vol.
ii., 1868).
[6] Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889).
LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte Compatri, about 17
m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft.
above sea-level. It occurs among the thirty cities of the Latin League,
and it is said to have joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been
captured by the Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history,
and in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted if not
destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed. Its place was
taken by the _respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium_, the post-station
established in the lower ground on the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA),
a little S.W. of the modern village of Colonna, the site of which is
attested by various inscriptions and by the course of the road itself.
See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 256 sqq.
(T. As.)
LABID (Abu 'Aqil Labid ibn Rabi'a) (_c._ 560-_c._ 661), Arabian poet,
belonged to the Bani 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the Hawazin. In
his younger years he was an active warrior and his verse is largely
concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later, he was sent by a sick uncle
to get a remedy from Mahomet at Medina and on this occasion was much
influenced by a part of the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but
seems then to have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to
have settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but dates
given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems is contained in
the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.).
Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another
thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the whole,
were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann
(Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Über die Gedichte des Lebyd_
(Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labid are contained in the
_Kitabul-Aghani_, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.)
LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without authority) to belong
to the gens Atia. The most important member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63
B.C., at Caesar's instigation, he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for
treason; in the same year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a
plebiscite which indirectly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex
maximus (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout
Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he went to
Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of the Treviri under
Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and
his victory over Camulogenus and the Aedui in the same year. On the
outbreak of the civil war, however, he was one of the first to desert
Caesar, probably owing to an overweening sense of his own importance,
not adequately recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the
Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him, and his ill
fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar.
From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which he had contributed by affecting
to despise his late comrades, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa.
There he was able by mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check
upon Caesar at Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the
younger Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March 17th, 45).
LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was born at Naples
on the 6th of December 1794, the son of a merchant of Marseilles who had
married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered the Conservatorio della Pieta
de Turchini, where he studied music under Gentili and singing under
Valesi, besides learning to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he
had a beautiful alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a
magnificent bass with a compass of two octaves from E[flat] below to
E[flat] above the bass stave. After making his first appearance at
Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled to Turin,
Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London and Paris in 1830 led
to annual engagements in both the English and French capitals. His
reception at St Petersburg a few years later was no less enthusiastic.
In England he took part in many provincial musical festivals, and was
engaged by Queen Victoria to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he
was equally successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his
wonderfully powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos.
Among his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante. He
was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at
Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January
1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in
_Don Giovanni_ was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his
principal other rôles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in
_Semiramide_ (Rossini), Geronimo in _La Gazza Ladra_ (Rossini), Henry
VIII. in _Anna Bolena_ (Donizetti), the Doge in _Marino Faliero_
(Donizetti), the title-rôle in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in
_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Étoile du Nord_
(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halévy).
LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly all of the
states and Territories, where the first Monday in September is observed
by parades and meetings of labour organizations. In 1882 the Knights of
Labor paraded in New York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was
held, and it was decided that this day should be set apart for this
purpose. In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal
holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday throughout the
United States, except in Arizona and North Dakota; in Louisiana it is a
holiday only in New Orleans (Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming
and New Mexico it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in
each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor.
LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of
Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La
Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of
2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent,
are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory organs,
rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were not in
much repute till towards the end of the 19th century. The town has three
thermal establishments and a casino.
LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give expression to the
religion of the labour movement. This religion is not theological--it
leaves theological questions to private individual conviction--but
"seeks the realization of universal well-being by the establishment of
Socialism--a commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts
that "improvement of social conditions and the development of personal
character are both essential to emancipation from social and moral
bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty of studying the economic
and moral forces of society." The first Labour Church was founded at
Manchester (England) in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John
Trevor. This has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been
established not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham,
Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of industry, about
30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many branches of the Independent
Labour Party and the Social Democratic Federation also hold Sunday
gatherings for adults and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book
and a similar form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton
Coit's _Message of Man_. There are special forms for child-naming,
marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated in a Labour
Church Union, which holds an annual conference and business meeting in
March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name
"Labour Church" was changed to "Socialist Church."
LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS, COUNT MAHÉ de (1699-1753), French
naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He
went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French
India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and
displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that
the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the
service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to
French service as governor of the Île de France and the Île de Bourbon.
His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and
successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of
hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head
of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at
Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege
of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in
India, and his anger was increased on his return to the Île de France at
finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail
on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the
British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing
a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748) on a
charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration, and secretly
imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille. He was tried in 1751 and
acquitted, but his health was broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin
at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations
against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The
French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres.
La Bourdonnais wrote _Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723),
and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a
celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840)
(latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise
to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the
arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel
Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and
over-ambitious.
See P. de Gennes, _Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les
pièces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais,
in a Letter to a Friend_ (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards,
_Révolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de
l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën,
_Histoire de la conquête et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans
l'Inde_ (Paris, 1840); Margry, "Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous
le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais," in _La Revue maritime et
coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde française," in
_La Revue britannique_ (1882); G. B. Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Oxford,
1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Français dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et
Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748_,
trans. in French by Vinsor in _École spéciale des langues orientales
vivantes_, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894).
LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to registries having for
their principal object the better distribution of labour (see
UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is applied to the system of
equitable labour exchanges established in England between 1832 and 1834
by Robert Owen and his followers. The idea is said to have originated
with Josiah Warren, who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an
experiment in 1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of
a "time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas, Ohio, and a
third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were quite on the same line as
the English exchanges. The fundamental idea of the English exchanges was
to establish a currency based upon labour; Owen in _The Crisis_ for June
1832 laid down that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that
labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according to the time
employed, and that in the new exchanges it was proposed to make _time_
the standard or measure of wealth. This new currency was represented by
"labour notes," the notes being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned
as being worth sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the
wage of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be
exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened in extensive
premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross, London, on the 3rd
of September 1832. For some months the establishment met with
considerable success, and a considerable number of tradesmen agreed to
take labour notes in payment for their goods. At first, an enormous
number of deposits was made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501
hours. But difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical
valuators, and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish
between the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled.
Tradesmen, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked to
their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from their shops,
exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked out the best of the
saleable articles. Consequently the labour notes began to depreciate;
trouble also arose with the proprietors of the premises, and the
experiment came to an untimely end early in 1834.
See F. Podmore's _Robert Owen_, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones,
_Co-operative Production_, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, _History
of Co-operation_, c. viii. (1906).
LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,[1] in some form or another,
whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesiastical rules or by formal
legislation in the interests of a community, is no doubt as old as the
most ancient forms of civilization. And older than all civilization is
the necessity for the greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance,
whether freely or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or
for the requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear,
however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily
forces--with or without mechanical aid--to personal maintenance and the
production of goods, remains the common lot of the majority of citizens
of the most developed modern communities, still there is much risk of
confusion if modern technical terms such as "labour," "employer,"
"labour legislation" are freely applied to conditions in bygone
civilizations with wholly different industrial organization and social
relationships. In recent times in England there has been a notable
disappearance from current use of correlative terms implying a social
relationship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage
from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and Workman Act
1875. In the 18th century the term "manufacturer" passed from its
application to a working craftsman to its modern connotation of at least
some command of capital, the employer being no longer a small working
master. An even more significant later change is seen in the steady
development of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social
need for the care of specially helpless "protected" persons in factories
and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion of general
industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker from fraud in
making or carrying out wage contracts.
If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes within so
short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly reviewing long
periods of time prior to that industrial revolution which is traced
mainly to the application of mechanical power to machinery in aid of
manual labour, practically begun and completed within the second half of
the 18th century. "In 1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it
had been since weaving had begun ... and the law of the land was" (under
the Act of Apprentices of 1503) "that wages in each district should be
assessed by Justices of the Peace."[2] Turning back to still earlier
times, legislation--whatever its source or authority--must clearly be
devoted to aims very different from modern aims in regulating labour,
when it arose before the labourer, as a man dependent on an "employer"
for the means of doing work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was
almost unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the
special status secured in towns to the artisan.
In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggregations of
labour which was not solely, though frequently it was predominantly,
slave labour; and some of the features of manufacture and mining on a
great scale arose, producing the same sort of evils and industrial
maladies known and regulated in our own times. Some of the maladies were
described by Pliny and classed as "diseases of slaves." And he gave
descriptions of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging
entirely to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace
back through the earliest known Aryan civilizations to a prehistoric
origin in the East, and which have never died out in western Europe, but
can be traced in a concentrated manufacture with almost unchanged
methods, now in France, now in Germany, now in England.
Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour to piece
together the scattered and scanty materials for a comparative history of
the varying conditions and methods of labour regulation over so enormous
a range. While our knowledge continually increases of the remains of
ancient craft, skill and massed labour, much has yet to be discovered
that may throw light on methods of organization of the labourers. While
much, and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory or
forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed, and it is
by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt, much less the
beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal work, weaving and other
skilled craft work, were typical products of slave labour. Even in Rome
it was only at times that the proportion of slaves valued as property
was greater than that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or
self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves by the
trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally considered the
cheapest means of securing labour. As in early England the various
stages of village industrial life, medieval town manufacture, and
organization in craft gilds, and the beginnings of the mercantile
system, were parallel with a greater or less prevalence of serfdom and
even with the presence in part of slavery, so in other ages and
civilizations the various methods of organization of labour are found to
some extent together. The Germans in their primitive settlements were
accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the Roman
Empire Roman captives from among the most useful craftsmen were carried
away by their northern conquerors.
The history and present details of the labour laws of various countries
are dealt with below in successive sections: (1) history of legislation
in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown by the law in force in
1909, with the corresponding facts for (3) Continental Europe and (4)
the United States. Under other headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND
LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on
cognate subjects.
I. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
1. _Until the Close of the 15th Century._--Of the main conditions of
industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are scanty.
Monastic industrial communities were added in Christian times to village
industrial communities. While generally husbandry was the first object
of toil, and developed under elaborate regulation in the manorial
system, still a considerable variety of industries grew up, the aim
being expressly to make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect
and regulate village artisans in the interest of village resources. This
protective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of labour
and social life, has been compared as analogous to the much later and
wider system under which the main purpose was to keep England as a whole
self-sufficing.[3] It has also been shown how greatly a fresh spirit of
enterprise in industry and trade was stimulated first by the Danish and
next by the Norman invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in
growth of villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of
trading towns; the latter especially opened up new communications with
the most civilized continental people, and was followed by a
considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of Flemings. In Saxon
England slavery in the strictest sense existed, as is shown in the
earliest English laws, but it seems that the true slave class as
distinct from the serf class was comparatively small, and it may well be
that the labour of an ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and
the remuneration in maintenance and kind not much less than that of
agricultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the steady protest
of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general rule) did not
die out for many centuries, and was apt to be revived as a punishment
for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions of the statute of Edward
VI. against beggars, not repealed until 1597. At no time, however, was
it general, and as the larger village and city populations grew the
ratio of serfs and slaves to the freemen in the whole population rapidly
diminished, for the city populations "had not the habit and use of
slavery," and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities
from exceptionally severe taskmasters, "there is no doubt that freemen
gradually united with them under the lord's protection, that strangers
engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that a race of artisans
gradually grew up in which original class feelings were greatly
modified." From these conditions grew two parallel tendencies in
regulation of labour. On the one hand there was, under royal charters,
the burgh or municipal organization and control of artisan and craft
labour, passing later into the more specialized organization in craft
gilds; on the other hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to
prevent undue diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or
agricultural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision
appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of Richard
II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed in agriculture
might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a craft. The steady
development of England, first as a wool-growing, later as a
cloth-producing country, would accentuate this difficulty. During the
13th century, side by side with development of trading companies for the
export of wool from England, may be noted many agreements on the part of
monasteries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same
century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system was
practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for naturalization
of these aliens. From the time of Edward I. to Edward III. a gradual
transference of burgh customs, so far as recognized for the common good,
to statute law was in progress, together with an assertion of the rights
of the crown against ecclesiastical orders. "The statutes of Edward I.,"
says Dr. Cunningham, "mark the first attempt to deal with Industry and
Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state, not as the
particular affair of leading men in each separate locality." The first
direct legislation for labour by statute, however, is not earlier than
the twenty-third year of the reign of Edward III., and it arose in an
attempt to control the decay and ruin, both in rural and urban
districts, which followed the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence
known as the Black Death. This first "Statute of Labourers" was designed
for the benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or
prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary wages
and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or bond, not
living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work for hire at
recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the circumstances and
ideals of the time. Regulation generally in the middle ages aimed at
preventing any individual or section of the community from making what
was considered an exceptional profit through the necessity of others.[4]
The scarcity of labour by the reduction of the population through
pestilence was not admitted as a justification for the demands for
increased pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be
committed to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of
the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants were
liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar restrictions were
made applicable to artificers and workmen. By another statute, two years
later, labourers or artificers who left their work and went into another
county were liable to be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These
and similar provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of
1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting "all
alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations, chapters,
ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed "every lord to bargain
or covenant for their works in gross with such labourers and artificers
when it pleaseth them, so that they perform such works well and lawfully
according to the bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers
were given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine matters
under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show that workmen of
various descriptions were pressed by writs addressed to sheriffs to work
for their king at wages regardless of their will as to terms and place
of work. These proceedings were founded on notions of royal prerogative,
of which impressment of seamen survived as an example to a far later
date. By an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however,
could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing a
letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going and time
of return. Such provisions would appear to have widely failed in their
purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that the servants and labourers
fled from county to county, and justices were empowered to send writs to
the sheriffs for fugitive labourers as for felons, and to examine
labourers, servants and their masters, as well as artificers, and to
punish them on confession. An act of 1405, while putting a property
qualification on apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy
penalties to put their children to such labour as their estates
required, made a reservation giving freedom to any person "to send their
children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the 15th
century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening, modifying,
amending the various attempts (since the first Statute of Labourers) to
limit free movement of labour, or demands by labourers for increased
wages, may be seen in the acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly
found extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute
control of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of
certain occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512 the
penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so far as
related to masters, but it also appears that London workmen would not
endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages, and that they secured in
practice a greater freedom to arrange rates when working within the
city. Several of these statutes, and especially one of 1514, fixed the
hours of labour when limiting wages. During March to September the
limits were 5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast
and an hour and a half off for mid-day dinner. In winter the outside
limits were fixed by the length of daylight.
Throughout the 15th century the rapidly increasing manufacture of cloth
was subject to a regulation which aimed at maintaining the standard of
production and prevention of bad workmanship, and the noteworthy statute
4 Edward IV. c. 1, while giving power to royal officers to supervise
size of cloths, modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers
in "pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment in true
and lawful money. This statute (the first against "Truck") gives an
interesting picture of the way in which clothiers--or, as we should call
them, wholesale merchants and manufacturers--delivered wool to spinners,
carders, &c., by weight, and paid for the work when brought back
finished. It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as
town districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other
trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed condition.
Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the Edwardian statutes,
that is, of securing that the public should be well served with good
wares, and that the trade and manufacture itself should be on a sound
basis as to quality of products and should flourish. Incidentally there
was considerable regulation by the gilds of the conditions of labour,
but not primarily in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was
prohibited because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work;
working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between craftsmen
and so on. The position of apprentices was made clear through
indentures, but the position of journeymen was less certain. Signs are
not wanting of a struggle between journeymen and masters, and towards
the end of the 15th century masters themselves, in at least the great
wool trade, tended to develop from craftsmen into something more like
the modern capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers it
is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced and that
cloth-making was carried on largely by employers with large capitals.
Before this, however, while a struggle went on between the town
authorities and the craft gilds, journeymen began to form companies of
their own, and the result of the various conflicts may be seen in an act
of Henry VI., providing that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be
submitted to justices of the peace--a measure which was strengthened in
1503.
2. _From Tudor Days until the Close of the 18th Century._--A detailed
history of labour regulation in the 16th century would include some
account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and methods of dealing with
the increase of pauperism, attributable, at least in part, to the
dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII., and to the
confiscation of craft gild funds, which proceeded under Somerset and
Edward VI. It is sufficient here to point to the general recognition of
the public right to compel labourers to work and thus secure control of
unemployed as well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward
VI. against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in
principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and
subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the fifth year of
Elizabeth's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of the same year, was
to a considerable extent both a consolidating and an amending code of
law, and was so securely based on public opinion and deeply rooted
custom that it was maintained in force for two centuries. It avowedly
approves of principles and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages,
punishing refusal to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It
makes, however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the
poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a machinery,
by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield "unto the hired
person both in time of scarcity and in time of plenty a convenient
proportion of wages." Minute regulations were made governing the
contract between master and servant, and their mutual rights and
obligations on parallel lines for (a) artificers, (b) labourers in
husbandry. Hiring was to be by the year, and any unemployed person
qualified in either calling was bound to accept service on pain of
imprisonment, if required, unless possessed of property of a specified
amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a "gentleman."
Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might
not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial,
or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of
the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if
contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised
scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable
extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour
were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for wages by
the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months of March and
September, be and continue at their work at or before 5 o'clock in the
morning and continue at work and not depart until betwixt 7 and 8
o'clock at night, except it be in the time of breakfast, dinner or
drinking, the which time at the most shall not exceed two hours and a
half in a day, that is to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his
dinner one hour and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which
is from the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all
the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September and the
midst of March shall be and continue at their work from the spring of
the day in the morning until the night of the same day, except it be in
time afore appointed for breakfast and dinner, upon pain to lose and
forfeit one penny for every hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked
out of his wages that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the
Factory Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 20th century
as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from wages is
completely reversed, yet the difference is not great between the average
length of hours of labour permissible under the present law for women
and those hours imposed upon the adult labourer in Elizabeth's statute.
Apart from the standpoint of compulsory imposition of fines, one
advantage in the definiteness of amount deductable from wages would
appear to lie on the side of the earlier statute.
Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the Elizabethan
poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of measures for setting
vagrants to work, we find the first compulsory contributions from the
well-to-do towards poor relief there provided for, (b) at least a
theoretical recognition of a right as well as an obligation on the part
of the labourer to be hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing
of destitute children and orphans to a trade.
One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland, which was
nearly a century later in organizing provisions for fixing conditions of
hire and wages of workmen, labourers and servants, similar to those
consolidated in the Elizabethan Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was
provided (and reaffirmed in 1661) that power should be given to the
sheriffs to compel payment of wages, "that servants may be the more
willing to obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of
compulsory labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in
1672 houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and
masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work and to
correct them according to their demerits. While servants in manufacture
were compelled to work at reasonable rates they might not enter on a new
hire without their previous master's consent.
Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force until the
awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial revolution--that
is, until the combined effects of steady concentration of capital in the
hands of employers and expansion of trade, followed closely by an
unexampled development of invention in machinery and application of
power to its use. completely altered the face of industrial England.
From time to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against
truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the act of
Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary, and this
branch of labour legislation developed through the reigns of Anne and
the four Georges until consolidation and amendment were effected, after
the completion of the industrial revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831.
From the close of the 17th century and during the 18th century the
legislature is no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling
labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but rather in
regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace in the matter of
dispute between masters and servants in relation to contracts and
agreements, express or implied, presumed to have been entered into
voluntarily on both sides. While the movement to refer labour questions
to the jurisdiction of the justices thus gradually developed, the main
subject matter for their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour
also changed, even when theoretically for a time the two sets of
powers--such as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment
of workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforcement
of labour contracts--might be concurrently exercised. Even in an act of
George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes and differences as to wages
or other conditions under a contract of labour, power was retained for
the justices, on complaint of the masters of misdemeanour or
ill-behaviour on the part of the servant, to discharge the latter from
service or to send him to a house of correction "there to be corrected,"
that is, to be held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or
to be corrected by whipping. In an act with similar aims of George IV.
(1823), with a rather wider scope, the power to order corporal
punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour contracts
had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the 19th century the right
to enforce contracts of labour also disappeared. Then breach of such
labour contracts became simply a question of recovery of damages, unless
both parties agreed that security for performance of the contract shall
be given instead of damages.
While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract died out in
the latter end of the 18th century, sentiment for some time had strongly
grown in favour of developing early industrial training of children. It
appears to have been a special object of charitable and philanthropic
endeavour in the 17th century, as well as the 18th, to found houses of
industry, in which little children, even under five years of age, might
be trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this
development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to prevent
future unemployment and vagrancy by training in habits and knowledge of
industry, but not unavowed was another motive: "from children thus
trained up to constant labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its
price."[5] The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a
movement gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour
legislation which are specially the work of the 19th century. Evident as
it is "that before the Industrial Revolution very young children were
largely employed both in their own homes and as apprentices under the
Poor Law," and that "long before Peel's time there were misgivings about
the apprenticeship system," still it needed the concentration and
prominence of suffering and injury to child life in the factory system
to lead to parliamentary intervention.
3. _From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878._--A serious outbreak of
fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears to have first
drawn widespread and influential public opinion to the overwork of
children, under terribly dangerous and insanitary conditions, on which
the factory system was then largely being carried on. A local inquiry,
chiefly by a group of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was
instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the
forefront of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation
and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution by the
county justices followed, in which they declared their intention in
future to refuse "indentures of parish Apprentices whereby they shall be
bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other works in which children are
obliged to work in the night or more than ten hours in the day." In 1795
the Manchester Board of Health was formed, which, with fuller
information, more definitely advised legislation for the regulation of
the hours and conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and
Morals of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first
step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour in
factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice system,
under which large numbers of pauper children were worked in cotton and
woollen mills without education, for excessive hours, under wretched
conditions. It did not apply to places employing fewer than twenty
persons or three apprentices, and it applied the principle of limitation
of hours (to twelve a day) and abolition of night work, as well as
educational requirements, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and
suitable sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the
act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation
provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing more
than twenty persons. "Visitors" were to be appointed by county justices
for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to "direct the
adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think
proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and
justices had power to inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions.
Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in
many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was
done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices
passed a resolution substituting the ten hours' limit for the twelve
hours' limit of the act, as a condition of permission for indenturing of
apprentices in mills.
Rapid development of the application of steam power to manufacture led
to growth of employment of children in populous centres, otherwise than
on the apprenticeship system, and before long the evils attendant on
this change brought the general question of regulation and protection of
child labour in textile factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited
as it was, was a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this
wider scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is
satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts and
practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert Owen. Its
provisions fell on every point lower than the aims he put forward on his
own experience as practicable, and notably in its application only to
cotton mills instead of all textile factories. Prohibition of child
labour under nine years of age and limitation of the working day to
twelve in the twenty-four (without specifying the precise hour of
beginning and closing) were the main provisions of this act. No
provision was made for enforcement of the law beyond such as was
attempted in the act of 1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the
acts of 1825 and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in
1833 applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment of
young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children,
prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and first
providing for "inspectors" to enforce the law. This is the act which was
based on the devoted efforts of Michael Sadler, with whose name in this
connexion that of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from
1832 associated. The importance of this act lay in its provision for
skilled inspection and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent
body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manufactures lay,
whose specialization in their work enabled them to acquire information
needed for further development of legislation for protection of labour.
Their powers were to a certain extent judicial, being assimilated to
those possessed by justices; they could administer oaths and make such
"rules, regulations and orders" as were necessary for execution of the
act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the act. In
1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive inspectoral powers,
organizing the service on lines resembling those of our own time, and
added provision for certifying surgeons to examine workers under sixteen
years of age as to physical fitness for employment and to grant
certificates of age and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act
of 1833, were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the
week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69 in the
week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour of a ten hours' day,
which had long been in progress, reached its height in a time of great
commercial and industrial distress, but could not be carried into effect
until 1847. By the act of 1844 the hours of adult women were first
regulated, and were limited (as were already those of "young persons")
to 12 a day; children were permitted either to work the same hours on
alternate days or "half-time," with compulsory school attendance as a
condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting the hours of
the three classes of workers was to provide for a practical standard
working-day. For the first time detailed provisions for health and
safety began to make their appearance in the law. Penal compensation for
preventible injuries due to unfenced machinery was also provided, and
appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the
Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactures in
1841.
From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective legislation
for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842 following the terrible
revelations of the Royal Commission referred to excluded women and girls
from underground working, and limited the employment of boys, excluding
from underground working those under ten years, but it was not until
1850 that systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that
other safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously
provided by law. With the exception of regulations against truck there
was no protection for the miner before 1842; before 1814 it was not
customary to hold inquests on miners killed by accidents in mines. From
1842 onwards considerable interaction in the development of the two sets
of acts (mines and factories), as regards special protection against
industrial injury to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and
in the department (Home Office) administering them. Another strong
influence tending towards ultimate development of scientific protection
of health and life in industry began in the work and reports of the
series of sanitary commissions and Board of Health reports from 1843
onwards. In 1844 the mines inspector made his first report, but two
years later women were still employed to some extent underground.
Organized inspection began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on
Accidents adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative
extension of the practice of several colliery owners in framing special
safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided seven
general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts,
proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve for steam-boiler,
indicator and brake for machine lowering and raising; also it provided
that detailed special rules submitted by mine-owners to the secretary of
state, might, on his approval, have the force of law and be enforceable
by penalty. The Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to
ironstone mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents
and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety. At
several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent management and
neglect of rules, and a demand was made for enforcing employment only of
certificated managers of coal mines. This was not met until the act of
1872, but in 1860 certain sections relating to wages and education were
introduced. Steady development of the coal industry, increasing
association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of
ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved the way
to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year health and safety in
metalliferous mines received their first legislative treatment in a code
of similar scope and character to that of the Coal Mines Act. This act
was amended in 1886, and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal
provisions are still in force, with certain revised special rules and
modifications as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment of
children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a Royal
Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had shown the grave
excess of mortality and sickness among metalliferous miners, attributed
to the inhalation of gritty particles, imperfect ventilation, great
changes of temperature, excessive physical exertion, exposure to wet,
and other causes. The prohibition of employment of women and of boys
under ten years underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal
mines, had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been
provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form included in
the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys underground being raised
to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act of 1872 we see the first important
effort to provide a complete code of regulation for the special dangers
to health, life and limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it
applied to "mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale
and mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act--applying to all other
mines--it maintained the age limit of entering underground employment
for boys at ten years, but for those between ten and twelve it provided
for a system of working analogous to the half-time system in factories,
including compulsory school attendance. The limits of employment for
boys from twelve to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in
anyone week. The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of
the "general" safety rules, improvement of the method of formulating
"special" safety rules, provision for certificated and competent
management, and increased inspection. Several important matters were
transferred from the special to the general rules, such as compulsory
use of safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives, and
securing of roofs and sides. Special rules, before being submitted to
the secretary of state for approval, must be posted in the mine for two
weeks, with a notice that objections might be sent by any person
employed to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions
became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners by
imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important new step lay in
the sections relating to daily control and supervision of every mine by
a manager holding a certificate of competency from the secretary of
state, after examination by a board of examiners appointed by the
secretary of state, power being retained for him to cause later inquiry
into competency of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or
suspend the certificate in case of proved unfitness.
Returning to the development of factory and workshop law from the year
1844, the main line of effort--after the act of 1847 had restricted
hours of women and young persons to 10 a day and fixed the daily limits
between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. (Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.)--lay in bringing
trade after trade in some degree under the scope of this branch of law,
which had hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories.
Bleaching and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862;
lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by acts of
1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated by an act of 1863,
with special reference to local authorities for administration of its
clauses. The report of the third Children's Employment Commission
brought together in accessible form the miserable facts relating to
child labour in a number of unregulated industries in the year 1862, and
the act of 1864 brought some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer
match-making, percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and
fustian cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory
acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years later,
but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it first
embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical and sanitary
commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be applied to the removal of
injurious gases, dust, and other impurities generated in manufacture,
and made a first attempt to engraft part of the special rules system
from the mines acts. The provisions for framing such rules disappeared
in the Consolidating Act of 1878, to be revived in a better form later.
The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities, provided
for general sanitation in any factories and workshops not under existing
factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation Act of 1867, similarly to be
administered by local authorities, amended in 1870, practically
completed the application of the main principle of the factory acts to
all places in which manual labour was exercised for gain in the making
or finishing of articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially
dangerous or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867
(e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making) ranked as
"factories," although not using mechanical power, and for a time
employment of less than fifty persons relegated certain workplaces to
the category of "workshops," but broadly the presence or absence of such
motor power in aid of process was made and has remained the distinction
between factories and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of
the series before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the
minimum age of employment for children to ten years in textile
factories. In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child
labour the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and
non-textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers have
been responsible for too early employment and excessive hours of
employment of children, and from early times until to-day in factory
legislation it has been recognized that they must to some extent be held
responsible for due observation of the limits imposed. For example, in
1831 it was found necessary to protect occupiers against parental
responsibility for false certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a
child or "any Person having any benefit from the wages of such child"
were made to share responsibility for employment of children without
school attendance or beyond legal hours.
During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874, it had
become apparent that revision and consolidation of the multiplicity of
statutes then regulating manufacturing industry had become pressingly
necessary; modifications and exceptions for exceptional conditions in
separate industries needed reconsideration and systematization on clear
principles, and the main requirements of the law could with great
advantage be applied more generally to all the industries. In
particular, the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for
meals, and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and
workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and thus prevent
the tendency in "the larger establishments to farm out work among the
smaller, where it is done under less favourable conditions both sanitary
and educational."[6] In these main directions, and that of simplifying
definitions, summarizing special sanitary provisions that had been
gradually introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving
the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876 on the
Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory Act of 1878 took
effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions for pauses, holidays,
general and special exceptions, distinctions between systems of
employment for children, young persons and women, education of children
and certificates of fitness for children and young persons, limited
regulation of domestic workshops, general principles of administration
and definitions, the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that
embodied in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely
revised are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of
controlling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily
enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for reporting
accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing of mill gearing
and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regulation of injurious and
dangerous process and trades; (d) powers of certifying surgeons; (e)
amount of overtime permissible (greatly reduced in amount and now
confined to adults); (f) age for permissible employment of a child has
been raised from ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act
of 1878 are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for
supplying particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them
to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e) extension of
the act to laundries; (f) a tentative effort to limit the too early
employment of mothers after childbirth.
II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910
_Factories and Workshops._--The act of 1878 remained until 1901,
although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a monument to the efforts
of the great factory reformers of the first half of the 19th century,
and the general groundwork of safety for workers in factories and
workshops in the main divisions of sanitation, security against
accidents, physical fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and
times of employment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which
came into force 1st January 1902 (and became the principal act), was an
amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison of the two acts
shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages of further
consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of sections and
important additions which tend towards a specialized hygiene for factory
life, the fundamental features of the law as fought out in the 19th
century remain undisturbed. So far as the law has altered in character,
it has done so chiefly by gradual development of certain sanitary
features, originally subordinate, and by strengthening provision for
security against accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At
the same time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the
protection of "outworkers" as well as factory workers against fraudulent
or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages.
Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain acts of
1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently.
Additions to act of 1878.
The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received
striking additions, based (1) on the experience gained in other branches
of protective legislation, e.g. development of the method of regulation
of dangerous trades by "special rules" and administrative inquiry into
accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings of royal
commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased control of
"outwork" and domestic workshops, and limitation of "overtime"; (3) on
the development of administrative machinery for enforcing the more
modern law relating to public health, e.g. transference of
administration of sanitary provisions in workshops to the local sanitary
authorities; (4) on the trade-union demand for means for securing
trustworthy records of wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g.
the section requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers.
The first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely
attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted in the code of
1878 with certain striking instances of trades injurious to health. Thus
the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883 provided that white-lead factories
should not be carried on without a certificate of conformity with
certain conditions, and also made provision for special rules, on lines
later superseded by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to
any employment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or
injurious by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with
sanitary conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations
of previous enactments touching overtime and employment of a child in
any factory or workshop were also included in the act. A class of
factories in which excessive heat and humidity seriously affected the
health of operatives was next dealt with in the Cotton Cloth Factories
Act 1889. This provided for special notice to the chief inspector from
all occupiers of cotton cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or
workshop or part thereof in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on)
who intend to produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both
temperature of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and
provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a standard minimum
volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be admitted in every hour for
every person employed in the factory. Power was retained for the
secretary of state to modify by order the standard for the maximum limit
of humidity of the atmosphere at any given temperature. A short act in
1870 extended this power to other measures for the protection of
health.
The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable precedents for
further developments of special hygiene in factory life, but the next
advance in the Factory and Workshop Act 1891, following the House of
Lords Committee on the sweating system and the Berlin International
Labour Conference, extended over much wider ground. Its principal
objects were: (a) to render administration of the law relating to
workshops more efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this
end in view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary
matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the district
council), acting by their officers, and giving them the powers of the
less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at the same time the
provisions of the Public Health Acts replaced in workshops the very
similar sanitary provisions of the Factory Acts; (b) to provide for
greater security against accidents and more efficient fencing of
machinery in factories; (c) to extend the method of regulation of
unhealthy or dangerous occupations by application of special rules and
requirements to any incident of employment (other than in a domestic
workshop) certified by the secretary of state to be dangerous or
injurious to health or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age
of employment of children and restrict the employment of women
immediately after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of
wages to be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the
textile industries; (f) to amend the act of 1878 in various subsidiary
ways, with the view of improving the administration of its principles,
e.g. by increasing the means of checking the amount of overtime worked,
empowering inspectors to enter workplaces used as dwellings without a
justice's warrant, and the imposition of minimum penalties in certain
cases. On this act followed four years of greatly accelerated
administrative activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by
the secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of preparing
and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by the act of 1901
and will be dealt with in that connexion.
The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a period of exercise
of new powers of administrative regulation (the period being also that
during which the Royal Commission on Labour made its wide survey of
industrial conditions), and after two successive annual reports of the
chief inspector of factories had embodied reports and recommendations
from the women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the
inspectorate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative
effort than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness
of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work. Some
of these measures, however, involved new principles, as in the provision
for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous machine or structure by
the order of a magistrate's court, and the power to include in the
special rules drawn up in pursuance of section 8 of the act of 1891, the
prohibition of the employment of any class of persons, or the limitation
of the period of employment of any class of persons in any process
scheduled by order of the secretary of state. These last two powers have
both been exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away,
without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of the adult
male labourer to carry on his manufacture without legislative limitation
of the hours of labour. Second only in significance to these new
developments was the addition, for the first time since 1867, of new
classes of workplaces not covered by the general definitions in section
93 of the Consolidating Act of 1878, viz.: (a) laundries (with special
conditions as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and
premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily used for the
purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in
connexion with the building (for the purpose only of obtaining security
against accidents). Other entirely new provisions in the act of 1895,
later strengthened by the act of 1901, were the requirement of a
reasonable temperature in workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for
the use of persons employed in any department where poisonous substances
are used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to
report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed on an
employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made, cleaned or
repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is suffering from
infectious disease. Another provision empowered the secretary of state
to specify classes of outwork and areas with a view to the regulation of
the sanitary condition of premises in which outworkers are employed.
Owing to the conditions attached to its exercise, no case was found in
which this power could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals
with the matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from
occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person charged
with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence, were important
new provisions, as was also the adoption of the powers to direct a
formal investigation of any accident on the lines laid down in section
45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887. Other sections, relating to
sanitation and safety, were developments of previous regulations, e.g.
the fixing of a standard of overcrowding, provision of sanitary
accommodation separate for each sex where the standard of the Public
Health Act Amendment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent
local sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical means
to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity (the previous power
covering only dust). The fencing of machinery and definition of
accidents were made more precise, young persons were prohibited from
cleaning dangerous machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of
injury by fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment
the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition of
overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power of an
employer to employ protected persons outside his factory or workshop on
the same day that he had employed them in the factory or workshop. Under
the head of particulars of work and wages to piece-workers an important
new power, highly valued by the workers, was given to apply the
principle with the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of
state to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as to
those employed inside factories and workshops.
The act of 1901.
In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employment of
children was effected by the Elementary Education Amendment Act, which,
by raising from eleven to twelve the minimum age at which a child may,
by the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or partial exemption
from the obligation to attend school, made it unlawful for an occupier
to take into employment any child under twelve in such a manner as to
prevent full-time attendance at school. The age of employment became
generally thereby the same as it has been for employment at a mine above
ground since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employment of
a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct and absolute. Under
the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness for employment, special
regulation of dangerous trades, special control of bakehouses,
exceptional treatment of creameries, new methods of dealing with home
work and outworkers, important additions were made to the general law by
the act of 1901, as also in regulations for strengthened administrative
control. New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing: (a)
ventilation _per se_ for every workroom, and empowering the secretary of
state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation; (b) drainage of wet
floors; (c) the power of the secretary of state to define in certain
cases what shall constitute sufficient and suitable sanitary
accommodation. New safety provisions were those relating to--(a)
Examination and report on steam boilers; (b) prohibition of employment
of a child in cleaning below machinery in motion; (c) power of the
district council to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most
important administrative alterations were: (a) a justice engaged in the
same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons engaged in
the same trade as, a person charged with an offence may not act at the
hearing and determination of the charge; (b) ordinary supervision of
sanitary conditions under which outwork is carried on was transferred to
the district council, power being reserved to the Home Office to
intervene in case of neglect or default by any district council.
Acts of 1903, 1906, 1907.
The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily providing for
industries outside the scope of the Factory Act, incidentally secured
that children employed as half-timers should not also be employed in
other occupations. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended the whole
system of notification of accidents, simultaneously in mines, quarries,
factories and workshops, and will be set out in following paragraphs.
The Factory and Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of
laundries by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade
laundries while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by
extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the Home
Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations) to
institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory purposes.
The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed an exemption in the act of
1901 (and earlier acts) relating to employment of women in flax scutch
mills, thus bringing this employment under the ordinary provisions as to
period of employment.
The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the scope of the
modified and amended law, as a whole, adding where clearly necessary
reference to the effect of acts, which ceased to apply after the 31st of
December 1901:--
Definitions.
The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, "factories" and
"workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c., enumerated
above as introduced and regulated partially only by the act of 1895
and subsequent acts. Apart from this secondary list, and having regard
to workplaces which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly
be said to apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour,
with or without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in
or incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting,
washing, cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or
part of any article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used
in aid of the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if
not, it is a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes
of works (brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, &c.,
before workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as
factories whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again,
subdivided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the
machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton,
wool, hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre
or other like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed
with any other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other
factories are non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical
origin of factory regulation and the regulations in textile factories
remain in some respects slightly more stringent than in the
non-textile factories and workshops, though the general provisions are
almost the same. Three special classes of workshops have for certain
purposes to be distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include
tenement workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house,
room or place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the
work carried on there a workshop, and in which the only persons
employed are members of the same family, dwelling there alone--in
these women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which
neither children nor young persons are employed--in these a more
elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary
workshops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed--these come
under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other
workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards
security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought
under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of the
act of 1901.
The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined
workplaces are _children_, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and
fourteen, _young persons_, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of
fourteen (or if an educational certificate has been obtained,
thirteen) and eighteen years of age, and _women_, i.e. females above
the age of eighteen; these are all "protected" persons to whom the
general provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours
and times of employment, apply. To adult men generally those
provisions broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation
and safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process.
The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions of
the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of the
hours of labour or other matters, is the _occupier_ (a term undefined
in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are, however,
limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the occupier has
used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act, and can show
that another person, whether agent, servant, workman or other person,
is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the sections relating
to employment of protected persons, where the owner or hirer of a
machine or implement driven by mechanical power is some person other
than the occupier of the factory, the owner or hirer, so far as
respects any offence against the act committed in relation to a person
who is employed in connexion with the machine or implement, and is in
the employment or pay of the owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the
occupier of the factory; (c) for the one purpose of reporting
accidents, the actual employer of the person injured in any factory or
workshop is bound under penalty immediately to report the same to the
occupier; (d) so far as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of
machinery, affixing of notices in _tenement_ factories, the _owner_
(as defined by the Public Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes
the place of the occupier.
Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for wages or
not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in cleaning any
place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part of the
machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process or
handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in any
part of the factory or workshop, where machinery is used or
manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery is
stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved. The
act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose of
repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of preserving
and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing boats in
order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled, nor to the
process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary to
prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August and
September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family only in a
private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside the
scope of the act.
Sanitation.
The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary condition
of the workplaces and the general security of every class of worker.
Every factory must be kept in a cleanly condition, free from noxious
effluvia, ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless, so far as
practicable, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the
manufacture; must be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary
conveniences separate for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less
than 250 cubic ft. during the day, 400 during overtime, for each
worker). In these matters the law of public health takes in workshops
the place of the Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the
same. Although, however, primarily the officers of the district
council enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government
factory inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the
district council in whose district they are situate; and if
proceedings are not taken within one month by the latter, the factory
inspector may act in default and recover expenses from the district
council. This power does not extend to domestic workshops which are
under the law relating to public health so far as general sanitation
is concerned. General powers are reserved to the secretary of state,
where he is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public
health as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district
council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in his
order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary
provisions administered by the government inspectors are the
requirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where
poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and
maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not
interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person
is employed; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every
room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as may
be prescribed by order of the secretary of state); provision of a fan
to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent their
inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors where wet
processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses there are
further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for heating
irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room or
ironing-table, and the floors shall be "drained in such a manner as
will allow the water to flow off freely"; and in bakehouses a cistern
supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from that
supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not communicate
directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground bakehouses (i.e. a
baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the ground adjoining) is
prohibited, except where already used at the passing of the act;
further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904, a certificate as to
suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be obtained from the
district council. In other trades certified by the secretary of state
further sanitary regulations may be made to increase security for
health by special rules to be presently touched on. The secretary of
state may also make sanitary requirements a condition of granting such
exceptions to the general law as he is empowered to grant. In
factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime washing (or
washing with hot water and soap where paint and varnish have been
used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least in every fourteen
months is generally required (in bakehouses once in six months). As
regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary accommodation, the
standards determined by order of the secretary of state shall be
observed in the districts to which it is made applicable. An order was
made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order, on the 4th of February
1903, the definitions and standards in which have also been widely
adopted by local sanitary authorities in districts where the Order
itself has no legal force, the local authority having parallel power
under the Public Health Act of 1890.
Security and accidents.
Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions as
regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between the
fixed and traversing parts of self-acting machines driven by power, by
fencing of machinery, and by empowering inspectors to obtain an order
from a court of summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily
or absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a
steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and limb.
Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical power,
and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by mechanical power,
and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever its position, and every
part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery must either be fenced or
be in such position that it is as safe as if fenced. No protected
persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in motion, and children may
further not clean any part of or below manufacturing machinery in
motion by aid of mechanical power; young persons further may not clean
any machinery if the inspector notifies it to the occupier as
dangerous. Security as regards the use of dangerous premises is
provided for by empowering courts of summary jurisdiction, on the
application of an inspector, to prohibit their use until the danger
has been removed. The district council, or, in London, the county
council, or in case of their default the factory inspector, can
require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in factories and
workshops in which more than forty persons are employed; special
powers to make by-laws for means of escape from fire in any factory or
workshop are, in addition to any powers for prevention of fire that
they possess, given to every district council, in London to the county
council. The means of escape must be kept free from obstruction.
Provisions are made for doors to open outwards in each room in which
more than ten persons are employed, and to prevent the locking,
bolting or fastening of doors so that they cannot easily be opened
from inside when any person is employed or at meals inside the
workplace. Further, provisions for security may be provided in special
regulations. Every boiler for generating steam in a factory or
workshop or place where the act applies must have a proper safety
valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve
and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a
competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen
months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for
penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due
to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of
which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his
family, as the secretary of state determines. When a death has
occurred by accident in a factory or workshop, the coroner must advise
the factory inspector for the district of the place and time of the
inquest. The secretary of state may order a formal investigation of
the circumstances of any accident as in the case of mines. Careful and
detailed provisions are made for the reporting by occupiers to
inspectors, and entry in the registers at factories and workshops of
accidents which occur in a factory or workshop and (a) cause loss of
life to a person employed there, or (b) are due to machinery moved by
mechanical power, molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas
or steam, electricity, so disabling any person employed in the factory
or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one whole
day from his ordinary work, (c) are due to any other special cause
which the secretary of state may determine, (d) not falling under the
previous heads and yet cause disablement for more than seven days'
ordinary work to any person working in the factory or workshop. In the
case of (a) or (b) notice has also to be sent to the certifying
surgeon by the occupier. Cases of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and
mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop
must similarly be reported and registered by the occupier, and the
duty of reporting these cases is also laid on medical practitioners
under whose observation they come. The list of classes of poisoning
can be extended by the secretary of state's order.
Physical fitness of workers.
Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained by
the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all
persons under sixteen years of age employed in a factory, and in any
class of workshops to which the requirement has been extended by order
of the secretary of state, and an inspector may suspend any such
persons for re-examination in a factory, or for examination in a
workshop, when "disease or bodily infirmity" unfits the person, in his
opinion, for the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine
the process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the
certificate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person
is fit to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry
shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within four
weeks after childbirth.
Hours of protected persons.
The employment of children, young persons and women is regulated as
regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary and
exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays. The outside
limits of ordinary periods of employment and holidays are, broadly,
the same for textile factories as for non-textile factories and
workshops; the main difference lies in the requirement of not less
than a total two hours' interval for meals out of the twelve, and a
limit of four and a half hours for any spell of work, a longer weekly
half holiday, and a prohibition of overtime, in textile factories, as
compared with a total one and a half hours' interval for meals and a
limit of five hours for spells and (conditional) permission of
overtime in non-textile factories. The hours of work must be
specified, and from Monday to Friday may be between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.,
or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M.; in non-textile factories and workshops the hours
also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. or by order of the
secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. Between
these outside limits, with the proviso that meal-times must be fixed
and limits as to spells observed, women and young persons may be
employed the full time, children on the contrary only half time, on
alternate days, or in alternate sets attending school half time
regularly. On Saturdays, in textile factories in which the period
commences at 6 A.M. all manufacturing work must cease at 12 if not
less than one hour is given for meals, or 11.30 if less than one hour
is given for meals (half an hour extra allowed for cleaning), and in
non-textile factories and workshops at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M.,
according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M., 7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In
"domestic workshops" the total number of hours for young persons and
children must not exceed those allowed in ordinary workshops, but the
outside limits for beginning and ending are wider; and the case is
similar as regards hours of women in "women's workshops." Employment
outside a factory or workshop in the business of the same is limited
in a manner similar to that laid down in the Shop Hours Act, to be
touched on presently. Overtime in certain classes of factories,
workshops and warehouses attached to them is permitted, under
conditions specified in the acts, for women, to meet seasonal or
unforeseen pressure of business, or where goods of a perishable nature
are dealt with, for young persons only in a very limited degree in
factories liable to stoppage for drought or flood, or for an
unfinished process. These and other cases of exceptional working are
under minute and careful administrative regulations. Broadly these
same regulations as to exceptional overtime may apply in _laundries_
but the act of 1907 granted to laundries not merely ancillary to the
manufacture carried on in a factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar
factories), additional power to fix different periods of employment
for different days of the week, and to make use of one or other of two
exceptional methods of arranging the daily periods so as to permit of
periods of different length on different days; these exceptional
periods cannot be worked in addition to overtime permissible under the
general law. Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or
reformatory institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the
law, but special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays,
&c., may be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who
is empowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less
favourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act;
such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of
Parliament.
Dangerous and unhealthy industries.
Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under
conditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under
eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than 10 P.M. or
before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, under conditions, for
Jews; and in factories, workshops and laundries six holidays
(generally the Bank holidays) must be allowed in the year. In
creameries in which women and young persons are employed the secretary
of state may by special order vary the beginning and end of the daily
period of employment, and allow employment for not more than three
hours on Sundays and holidays.
The general provisions of the act may be supplemented where specially
dangerous or unhealthy trades are carried on, by special regulations.
This was provided for in the law in force until 31st December 1901, as
in the existing principal act, and the power to establish rules had
been exercised between 1892 and 1901 in twenty-two trades or processes
where injury arose either from handling of dangerous substances, such
as lead and lead compounds, phosphorus, arsenic or various chemicals,
or where there is inhalation of irritant dust or noxious fumes, or
where there is danger of explosion or infection of anthrax. Before the
rule could be drawn up under the acts of 1891 to 1895, the secretary
of state had to certify that in the particular case or class of cases
in question (e.g. process or machinery), there was, in his opinion,
danger to life or limb or risk of injury to health; thereupon the
chief inspector might propose to the occupier of the factory or
workshop such special rules or measures as he thought necessary to
meet the circumstances. The occupier might object or propose
modifications, but if he did not the rules became binding in
twenty-one days; if he objected, and the secretary of state did not
assent to any proposed modification, the matters in difference had to
be referred to arbitration, the award in which finally settled the
rules or requirement to be observed. In November 1901, in the case of
the earthenware and china industry, the last arbitration of the kind
was opened and was finally concluded in 1903. The parties to the
arbitration were the chief inspector, on behalf of the secretary of
state, and the occupier or occupiers, but the workmen interested might
be and were represented on the arbitration. In the establishing of the
twenty-two sets of existing special rules only thrice has arbitration
been resorted to, and only on two of these occasions were workmen
represented. The provisions as to the arbitration were laid down in
the first schedule to the Act of 1891, and were similar to those under
the Coal Mines Regulation Acts. Many of these codes have still the
force of law and will continue until in due course revised under the
amended procedure of the act of 1901. They might not only regulate
conditions of employment, but also restrict or prohibit employment of
any class of workers; where such restriction or prohibition affected
adult workers the rules had to be laid for forty days before both
Houses of Parliament before coming into operation. The obligation to
observe the rules in detail lies on workers as well as on occupiers,
and the section in the act of 1891 providing a penalty for
non-observance was drafted, as in the case of the mines, so as to
provide for a simultaneous fine for each (not exceeding two pounds for
the worker, not exceeding ten pounds for the employer).
The provisions as to special regulations of the act of 1901 touch
primarily the method of procedure for making the regulations, but they
also covered for the first time domestic workshops and added a power
as to the kind of regulations that may be made; further, they
strengthened the sanction for observance of any rules that may be
established, by placing the occupier in the same general position as
regards penalty for non-observance as in other matters under the act.
On the certificate of the secretary of state that any manufacture,
machinery, plant, process or manual labour used in factories or
workshops is dangerous or injurious to life, health or limb, such
regulations as appear to the secretary of state to meet the necessity
of the case may be made by him after he has duly published notice: (1)
of his intention; (2) of the place where copies of the draft
regulations can be obtained; and (3) of the time during which
objections to them can be made by persons affected. The secretary of
state may modify the regulations to meet the objections made. If not,
unless the objection is withdrawn or appears to him frivolous, he
shall, before making the regulations, appoint a competent person to
hold a public inquiry with regard to the draft regulations and to
report to him thereon. The inquiry is to be made under such rules as
the secretary of state may lay down, and when the regulations are
made, they must be laid as soon as possible before parliament. Either
House may annul these regulations or any of them, without prejudice to
the power of the secretary of state to make new regulations. The
regulations may apply to all factories or workshops in which the
certified manufacture, process, &c., is used, or to a specified class.
They may, among other things, (a) prohibit or limit employment of any
person or class of persons; (b) prohibit, limit, or control use of any
material or process; (c) modify or extend special regulations
contained in the Act. Regulations have been established among others
in the following trades and processes: felt hat-making where any
inflammable solvent is used; file-cutting by hand; manufacture of
electric accumulators; docks, processes of loading, unloading, &c.;
tar distilling; factories in which self-acting mules are used; use of
locomotives; spinning and weaving of flax, hemp and jute; manufacture
of paints and colours; heading of yarn dyed by means of lead
compounds.
Measures and particulars to piece-workers.
Although the Factory and Workshop Acts have not directly regulated
wages, they have made certain provision for securing to the worker
that the amount agreed upon shall be received: (a) by extending every
act in force relating to the inspection of weights, measures and
weighing machines for use in the sale of goods to those used in a
factory or workshop for checking or ascertaining the wages of persons
employed; (b) by ensuring that piece-workers in the textile trades
(and other trades specified by the secretary of state) shall receive,
before commencing any piece of work, clear particulars of the wages
applicable to the work to be done and of the work to which that rate
is to be applied. Unless the particulars of work are ascertainable by
an automatic indicator, they must be given to textile workers in
writing, and in the case of weavers in the cotton, worsted and woollen
trades the particulars of wages must be supplied separately to each
worker, and also shown on a placard in a conspicuous position. In
other textile processes, it is sufficient to furnish the particulars
separately to each worker. The secretary of state has used his powers
to extend this protection to non-textile workers, with suitable
modifications, in various hardware industries, including pen-making,
locks, chains, in wholesale tailoring and making of wearing apparel,
in fustian cutting, umbrella-making, brush-making and a number of
other piece-work trades. He further has in most of these and other
trades used his power to extend this protection to outworkers.
Administration.
With a view to efficient administration of the act (a) certain notices
have to be conspicuously exhibited at the factory or workshop, (b)
registers and lists kept, and (c) notices sent to the inspector by the
occupier. Among the first the most important are the prescribed
abstract of the act, the names and addresses of the inspector and
certifying surgeon, the period of employment, and specified meal-times
(which may not be changed without fresh notice to the inspector), the
air space and number of persons who may legally be employed in each
room, and prescribed particulars of exceptional employment; among the
second are the general registers of children and young persons
employed, of accidents, of lime-washing, of overtime, and lists of
outworkers; among the third are the notice of beginning to occupy a
factory or workshop, which the occupier must send within one month,
report of overtime employment, notice of accident, poisoning or
anthrax, and returns of persons employed, with such other particulars
as may be prescribed. These must be sent to the chief inspector at
intervals of not less than one and not more than three years, as may
be directed by the secretary of state.
The secretary of state for the Home Department controls the
administration of the acts, appoints the inspectors referred to in the
acts, assigns to them their duties, and regulates the manner and cases
in which they are to exercise the powers of inspectors. The act,
however, expressly assigns certain duties and powers to a chief
inspector and certain to district inspectors. Many provisions of the
acts depend as to their operation on the making of orders by the
secretary of state. These orders may impose special obligations on
occupiers and increase the stringency of regulations, may apply
exceptions as to employment, and may modify or relax regulations to
meet special classes of circumstances. In certain cases, already
indicated, his orders guide or determine the action of district
councils, and, generally, in case of default by a council he may
empower his inspectors to act as regards workplaces, instead of the
council, both under the Factory Acts and Public Health Acts.
The powers of an inspector are to enter, inspect and examine, by day
or by night, at any reasonable time, any factory or workshop (or
laundry, dock, &c.), or part of one, when he has reason to believe
that any person is employed there; to take with him a constable if he
has reasonable cause to expect obstruction; to require production of
registers, certificates, &c., under the acts; to examine, alone or in
the presence of any other person, as he sees fit, every person in the
factory or workshop, or in a school where the children employed are
being educated; to prosecute, conduct or defend before a court of
summary jurisdiction any proceeding under the acts; and to exercise
such other powers as are necessary for carrying the act into effect.
The inspector has also the duty of enforcing the Truck Acts in places,
and in respect of persons, under the Factory Acts. Certifying surgeons
are appointed by the chief inspector subject to the regulations of the
secretary of state, and their chief duties are (a) to examine workers
under sixteen, and persons under special rules, as to physical fitness
for the daily work during legal periods, with power to grant qualified
certificates as to the work for which the young worker is fit, and (b)
to investigate and report on accidents and cases of lead, phosphorus
or other poisoning and anthrax.
In 1907 there were registered as under inspection 110,276 factories,
including laundries with power, 146,917 workshops (other than men's
workshops), including laundries without power; of works under special
rules or regulations (included in the figures just given) there were
10,586 and 19,687 non-textile works under orders for supply of
particulars to piece-workers. Of notices of accidents received there
were 124,325, of which 1179 were fatal; of reported cases of poisoning
there were 653, of which 40 were fatal. Prosecutions were taken by
inspectors in 4474 cases and convictions obtained in 4211 cases. Of
persons employed there were, according to returns of occupiers, 1904,
4,165,791 in factories and 688,756 in workshops.
_Coal Mines._--The mode of progress to be recorded in the regulation of
coal mines since 1872 can be contrasted in one aspect with the progress
just recorded of factory legislation since 1878. Consolidation was again
earlier adopted when large amendments were found necessary, with the
result that by far the greater part of the law is to be found in the act
of 1887, which repealed and re-enacted, with amendments, the Coal Mines
Acts of 1872 and 1886, and the Stratified Ironstone Mines (Gunpowder)
Act, 1881. The act of 1881 was simply concerned with rules relating to
the use of explosives underground. The act of 1886 dealt with three
questions: (a) The election and payment of checkweighers (i.e. the
persons appointed and paid by miners in pursuance of section 13 of the
act of 1887 for the purpose of taking a correct account on their behalf
of the weight of the mineral gotten by them, and for the correct
determination of certain deductions for which they may be liable); (b)
provision for new powers of the secretary of state to direct a formal
investigation of any explosion or accident, and its causes and
circumstances, a provision which was later adopted in the law relating
to factories; (c) provision enabling any relatives of persons whose
death may have been caused by explosions or accidents in or about mines
to attend in person, or by agent, coroners' inquests thereon, and to
examine witnesses. The act of 1887, which amended, strengthened and
consolidated these acts and the earlier Consolidating Act of 1872, may
also be contrasted in another aspect with the general acts of factory
legislation. In scope it formed, as its principal forerunner had done, a
general code; and in some measure it went farther in the way of
consolidation than the Factory Acts had done, inasmuch as certain
questions, which in factories are dealt with by statutes distinct from
the Factory Acts, have been included in the Mines Regulation Acts, e.g.
the prohibition of the payment of wages in public-houses, and the
machinery relating to weights and measures whereby miners control their
payment; further, partly from the less changing nature of the industry,
but probably mainly from the power of expression gained for miners by
their organization, the code, so far as it went, at each stage answered
apparently on the whole more nearly to the views and needs of the
persons protected than the parallel law relating to factories. This was
strikingly seen in the evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour in
1892-1894, where the repeated expression of satisfaction on the part of
the miners with the provisions as distinct from the administration of
the code ("with a few trifling exceptions") is in marked contrast with
the long and varied series of claims and contentions put forward for
amendment of the Factory Acts.
Since the act of 1887 there have followed five minor acts, based on the
recommendation of the officials acting under the acts, while two of them
give effect to claims made by the miners before the Royal Commission on
Labour. Thus, in 1894, the Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act rendered it
illegal for an employer ("owner, agent, or manager of any mine, or any
person employed by or acting under the instructions of any such owner,
agent, or manager") to make the removal of a particular checkweigher a
condition of employment, or to exercise improper influence in the
appointment of a checkweigher. The need for this provision was
demonstrated by a decision of the Court of Session in Edinburgh, which
upheld an employer in his claim to the right of dismissing all the
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/41902