The Moths of the British Isles, First Series
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Title: The Moths of the British Isles, First Series
Author: Richard South
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Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOTHS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, FIRST SERIES ***
[Illustration]
Pl. 1.
1. SPURGE HAWK: _caterpillar_.
2, 3. SILVER-STRIPED HAWK: _caterpillar_.
4. OLEANDER HAWK: _caterpillar_.
THE MOTHS
OF THE
BRITISH ISLES
BY
RICHARD SOUTH, F.E.S.
AUTHOR OF "THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES" EDITOR OF "THE
ENTOMOLOGIST," ETC.
FIRST SERIES
COMPRISING
_THE FAMILIES SPHINGIDÆ TO NOCTUIDÆ_
WITH ACCURATELY COLOURED FIGURES OF EVERY SPECIES AND MANY VARIETIES ALSO
DRAWINGS OF EGGS, CATERPILLARS, CHRYSALIDS AND FOOD-PLANTS
LONDON
FREDERICK WARNE & CO.
AND NEW YORK
1907
(_All rights reserved_)
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
* * * * *
PREFACE.
Compared with our butterflies, the number of moths found in the British
Isles is very large. Like the butterflies, moths too are dependent upon
plant life, and almost every kind of herb, bush, or tree, will be found to
nourish the caterpillars of one or more species of moth.
Not only the field botanist, but every rambler in the country must
constantly come across moths or caterpillars that will probably interest
him, and of which he would be glad to learn something about their habits,
life-history, and the position they occupy in the arrangement and
classification of Natural History objects.
In the preparation of this little book on our moths, the author has
proceeded closely on the lines adopted when dealing with the butterflies in
his previous volume. That is, the chief aim has been to place before the
nature lovers as much information concerning these creatures as could be
condensed into moderate limits.
Lengthy descriptions were out of the question, but what might be considered
an omission in this way, is amply compensated for by the life-like
portraits of typical examples of the moths themselves, and in many cases of
their more important varieties. Technicalities have been avoided as far as
possible, the main object being to provide a guide to the identification of
our moths, together with a simple account of the whole or a part of their
earlier stages.
The author is fully aware that this method of treatment only enables him to
touch the fringe of the subject, as it were, but he has been content to
deal with it in this way, as it appeared to be the kind of information that
would most nearly meet the requirements of the majority.
The author desires here to express his thanks to Mr. Robert Adkin, F.E.S.,
for the loan of specimens of _L. coenosa_, _E. ilicifolia_, _D. harpagula_,
_N. albula_, _N. centonalis_, _D. barrettii_, _D. cæsia_, _P. xanthomista_,
_T. extrema_, _L. favicolor_, _L. vitellina_, and _H. palustris_. To Mr.
Alfred Sich, F.E.S., for the use of drawings of the caterpillars of _D.
tiliæ_, _S. fagi_, _L. bicoloria_, _P. ridens_, _A. auricoma_, _A.
rumicis_, _A. aceris_, _N. brunnea_, _M. oleracea_, _A. tragopogonis_, _T.
gothica_, and _T. incerta_. To Mr. H. L. Sich for the loan of drawings of
the caterpillars of _D. euphorbiæ_, _D. galii_, _D. chaonia_, and _P.
dictoea_. For the material figured on Plate 148, except the larva of _L.
putrescens_, kindly sent by Mr. Walker, of Torquay, he is indebted to Mr.
H. M. Edelsten, F.E.S.
Except where otherwise mentioned, the illustrations of moths and
caterpillars at rest are from photographs by "A Forester."
To Mr. Horace Knight he is very greatly obliged for the care bestowed upon
the drawings of ova, larvæ, and pupæ, the bulk of which were made from
living examples; also the coloured drawings for Plates 1, 45, 63, 68, 73,
75, 80, 84, 90, 108, 119, 123, 140, 146, 149, and 153. The only figures
copied from any previous publication are those of the caterpillars of _S.
fuliginosa_, _D. sanio_, _D. pulchella_, _A. corticea_, _A. strigula_, _N.
plecta_, and _N. augur_ (Wilson's "Larvæ Brit. Lep."); and among the moths,
the varieties of _A. caia_; _D. mendica_ (4 Yorks.), Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond., 1889; _S. walkeri_, Curtis, and _N. subrosea_, Stephens.
RICHARD SOUTH.
* * * * *
PREFACE TO THE PRESENT EDITION.
A new edition of this volume having become necessary, it was deemed a
fitting opportunity to bring the subject matter somewhat in line with our
present knowledge of the Nomenclature, Habits, and Distribution of the
Species considered therein. With this end in view, the new facts have been
incorporated in the text so far as this was possible. Matter that could not
be accommodated in this way has been presented in the form of an Appendix.
The changes in the names of genera are not numerous, and in every case
where such change has been made, the name used in the first edition has
been placed in brackets--_i.e._ _Pieris daplidice_ of the 1st edition
becomes in the present one _Pontia (Pieris) daplidice_.
By this treatment it has been found convenient to utilise the old Index
and, at the same time, to provide a Specific Index for those who prefer to
consult the volume by its aid.
* * * * *
{1}
THE MOTHS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
PART I.
INTRODUCTORY.
As mentioned in "Butterflies of the British Isles," there is, speaking
generally, no clear line of division between moths and butterflies, and, as
Dr. Sharp, in "Insects," puts the case, "the only definition that can be
given of Heterocera [moths] is the practical one that all Lepidoptera that
are not butterflies are Heterocera." Now, it happens that all the
butterflies occurring in these islands have the tips of the horns
(_antennæ_) clubbed; and, although there is much variety in the structure
of the horns of our moths, none of them have the tips knobbed.
Like the butterflies, moths pass through the stages of egg, caterpillar,
and chrysalis before they attain the perfect state (_imago_), and the
duration of the several stages is just as variable. The majority assume the
moth condition but once in the year, but some species have two, or even
three, generations in the twelve months, whilst others occupy twenty-four
months in completing the life cycle. In one or two species the chrysalis
stage may last four, five, or even six years.
Diversity of form and structure is considerable in the early stages as well
as in the perfect insects, and this is shown in the {2} selection of
life-history details figured on the black and white plates in this volume.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.
CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH AND FLOWER OF NICOTIANA.
(Photos by W. J. Lucas.)]
Except that it is generally less prominent, the head, with the various
parts thereof, is pretty much the same as in the butterflies. In a few
families, however, the "tongue" (proboscis) is only rudimentary or even
entirely absent; while in others it is very long. The Convolvulus Hawk-moth
has the proboscis of such length that it is able to reach the deep-seated
nectary of such tubular flowers as those of _Nicotiana affinis_. In the
illustration the "tongue" of the moth and the sweet-scented tobacco blossom
are shown on exactly the same scale.
Fig. 2 represents some forms of antennæ found in moths. A, {3} thickened
and spreading out towards the tip (_dilate_); B, simple, thread-like
(_filiform_) structure, without teeth, hairs, or bristles; C, fringed with
fine hairs (_ciliate_); D, fringed with fine hairs, and with longer
bristles at the joints (_setose ciliate_); E, the fringe in tufts
(_fasciculate_); F, toothed, with fine hairs on the teeth (_dentate
ciliate_); G, toothed with hairs in tufts from the teeth (_dentate
fasciculate_); H, I, with double rows of hair scales (_bipectinate_); in I
the projections are continued to the tip, and are themselves fringed with
fine hairs, giving the antennæ a very feather-like appearance--the term
"plumose" is sometimes used to describe this form of antennæ; in H the
pectinations do not reach the apical fourth, which is simple. J, the
_lamellate_, that is, the undersides of the rings or joints are made up of
minute plates.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.
ANTENNÆ OF MOTHS.]
[Illustration: FIG 3.
CONNECTING BRISTLE AND CATCH.]
The wings of a moth are practically identical with those of a butterfly
(see diagram "Butterflies of the British Isles," p. 12). Normally the fore
wings have twelve ribs or veins, and the hind {4} wings eight, but in some
genera a rib, or perhaps two, may be absent from the fore or the hind
wings; or an extra rib, sometimes two, may be found on the hind wings.
These modifications, and others, of the general plan of neuration have been
employed as a basis upon which to found genera, or to group them together
in classification.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.
THE JUGUM, OR YOKE.]
Fig. 3 shows the arrangement by which the upper and lower wings of a moth
are united in flight. The bristle (_frenulum_) arising from the base of the
hind wing is held in place by the catch (_retinaculum_) on the costal
nervure of the fore wing. It will be noticed that the bristle of the male
is longer and firmer than that of the female. The latter, moreover, is
usually made up of two or more strands; the catch, too, in the female is on
the median instead of the costal nervure. These structures are found on the
under side of the wings of most moths, but they are absent in all
butterflies. The Emperor, Kentish Glory, and Eggars may be mentioned as
examples of moths lacking the connecting bristle, but all these have
feather-like antennæ, which terminate in a point. The Burnets have the
antennæ gradually thickened towards the tip (A. Fig. 2), and in this
respect are somewhat butterfly-like, but these moths have a frenulum.
The hind wings of the Swifts, and a few others grouped with them, have
twelve veins, and these moths have a _jugum_, or yoke (see Fig. 4). This is
a flap-like projection from the inner margin, near the base, of the fore
wing; it may serve to connect the wings when the insect flies, but it does
not seem to be capable of giving much help in that way. {5}
[Illustration: FIG. 5.
WINGS AND BODY OF A MOTH.
_h._ Head; _th._ Thorax; _col._ Collar; _lap._ Lappet; _ab._ Abdomen.
_b.l._ basal line; _b.s._ basal streak; _i.l._ inner line;
_c.s._ claviform stigma; _o.s._ orbicular stigma; _c._ central shade;
_r.s._ reniform stigma; _o.l._ outer line; _a.p._ apical patch;
_s.m._ submarginal line.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.
PALE TUSSOCK-MOTH AT REST.]
In describing a moth various markings, etc., have to be referred to, and as
it may assist the reader more easily to locate the usual position of such
characters the accompanying diagram has been prepared. The lines crossing
the fore wings from the front edge, or margin (_costa_), to the inner edge,
or margin (_dorsum_), are generally styled transverse lines; the short one
is the basal; the first long one is the inner, or antemedial; the second is
the outer, or postmedial; and the third is the submarginal, or subterminal.
The whole wing, less the margins, is sometimes called the disc; but it is
more convenient to divide the fore wing into three parts, naming that
between the base of the wing and the first line the basal area; the space
between the first and second lines the central or median area, and the part
beyond the second line the outer area. The more or less round or oval rings
or dashes on {6} the central area are the stigmata, and these characters
occur more especially in the Noctuidæ. The hind wings usually have a fine
short line, crescent, or spot, at the end of the cell, as in the
butterflies, and there is generally a line or band beyond.
Immediately behind the head and covering the front part of the thorax is a
tippet-like arrangement of scales; this is the collar. On each side of the
thorax there is a shoulder lappet (_patagium_) which has its base on the
front part of the thorax also. Both tippet and lappet are often peculiarly
ornamented, and the former is sometimes strikingly coloured. The thorax is
sometimes crested, and more frequently the body is furnished with tufts of
erect hair scales.
The number of moths occurring in the British Islands is well over two
thousand. The majority of these hardly ever find favour with the collector.
This is probably owing in a large measure to the fact that they belong to a
division of the moth tribe which has been dubbed Micro-lepidoptera. It
happens, however, that quite a number of the species included in that
division are actually larger than many kinds that were placed in the other
contingent styled Macro-lepidoptera. According to the most recent
authorities the division of moths into two such main groups as those
adverted to is entirely fictitious and misleading. Possibly, when this new
order of things is more generally understood the so-called "Micros" will
receive their proper share of attention.
In the older systems of classification the Clear wings (Sesiidæ) were
associated with the Hawk-moths (Sphingidæ), but the former family is now
considered to be more closely connected with the Tineidæ. The Goat-moth
(_Cossus ligniperda_) has been removed from among the Bombyces, its name
changed to _Trypanus cossus_, and placed in the family Trypanidæ, which is
relegated to the neighbourhood of the Tortricidæ. The Burnets (Zygænidæ),
together with _Heterogenea limacodes_ and _H. asella_ (Cochliopodidæ), also
_Macrogaster castaneæ_ and _Zeuzera pyrina_ (Cossidæ {7} part) are removed
by Meyrick to the Psychina, a group placed between that author's Pyralidina
and Tortricina. The Swifts (Hepialidæ) are grouped with Micropterygidæ,
which are considered to be primitive forms of Lepidoptera originating in
the Caddis-flies or Trichoptera--a division of the Order Neuroptera.
Except that the Cymbidæ and Arctiidæ are placed just before the Noctuidæ
instead of after the Geometridæ, the arrangement of families, genera, and
species adopted in the present work is very much the same as that in the
1901 edition of Staudinger's Catalogue. Many British entomologists are now
interested in the lepidopterous insects of the Palæarctic, or at least the
European, fauna, of which our islands furnish but a relatively small number
of species. Others, who at the present time are perhaps but beginners, may
very possibly desire, later on, to extend their collections and their
knowledge by making entomological expeditions to various parts of the
continent. It seemed therefore desirable that in an introductory book on
British moths its method of arrangement should at least be founded on some
generally accepted system. {8}
FIELD WORK.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.
DRINKER-MOTH AT REST.]
Several methods of moth collecting are in vogue, but space will only permit
of a few of those most frequently practised being here referred to, and
those suitable for day work will first be considered. Although small woods
should not be neglected, large tracts of woodland afford the moth hunter
the best chance of success in searching for those species that usually sit
during the daytime on the trunks of trees. Many of the moths that rest in
this way so admirably blend with their surroundings that they may easily be
overlooked; others by their resemblance to feathers, birds' excrement,
etc., are also apt to escape detection. Tree trunks, too, abound in
moth-like scars, blotches, and knobs, so that the beginner will frequently
fail to readily distinguish a moth from such objects, or from the others
mentioned. A little practice will soon enable him to tell {9} which is
which without having to very closely investigate, or perhaps even touch the
suspected object.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.
SCARCE MERVEILLE DU JOUR AT REST.]
As a general rule it is no doubt best to confine ourselves to one thing at
a time, if the results are to be satisfactory and the work well done. In
the present case, if he feels that way, the collector can relieve the
monotony of trunk searching by operating in another direction at the same
time. Some moths prefer to repose on the branches, or on the leaves of
trees, others among the herbage under trees; these may be disturbed from
their lurking places and caused to fall or take wing by jarring the boughs
or brushing the undergrowth with a stick.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.
BROAD-BORDERED YELLOW UNDERWING AT SUGAR.]
Palings, especially old ones and those enclosing wooded parks, etc., are
often frequented by numbers of moths. These should be examined as early as
possible in the morning, although {10} a later looking over may not be
unprofitable. When, however, the wind is dead on them, or where they stand
exposed to full sunshine, few insects will be found upon them. Various
species are to be obtained from open post and rail fences, and even iron
hurdles sometimes yield a good moth or two. Walls are not to be despised,
and of course rocks on the moorlands, and the cliffs by the sea afford
suitable resting-places for many kinds of moth. As a matter of fact the
eyes of the entomologist should always be peering about, as a valuable
prize may turn up in the most unexpected places. Hedgerows and bushes in
lanes, or bordering fields and woods, afford harbour to many species of
moths, and some kinds, not necessarily the commonest, may now and then be
beaten from them freely. Herbage on hill or down sides, and on the moor and
moorlands is also a favourite hiding-place, as too is the marram grass,
etc., on the coast sandhills.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.
PURPLE CLAY MOTH AT REST.]
[Illustration: FIG. 11. THE COXCOMB AT REST.]
As the day draws to a close and the night advances, the moths awaken, and
first one kind and then another rises on the wing. These, as they fly in
the lanes, about the borders or along the rides of woods, and over the
vegetation in meadow, {11} fen, or moor, should furnish ample employment
and keep the collector actively engaged until the time arrives for a first
round of the trees upon which he has spread a dainty repast for the
night-flying Noctuidæ, and those members of the Arctiidæ and Geometridæ,
etc., that frequently look in where sweets are to be obtained.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.
A RIDE IN THE NEW FOREST.]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.
MOTHS AT A SUGAR PATCH.]
This sugaring business is perhaps the most exciting phase of collecting.
Having prepared a fine compound of coarse brown or "foots" sugar, treacle,
and beer, by boiling down these ingredients to a suitable liquid condition,
this is taken to the scene of action in a sugaring tin, a receptacle fitted
with a brush which is fixed in the screw-on top; or the attracting medium
may be carried in any kind of convenient bottle providing a paintbrush
(sash tool) and a jampot or some such article accompany it. Arrived on the
ground, preferably a wood, a ride is selected along each side of which are
convenient trees. A glade such as that in the New Forest, photographed by
Mr. W. J. Lucas, and reproduced in Fig. 12, is an ideal pitch. Just before
using, a very small quantity of rum may be added to the mixture, but if
"foots" can be obtained the rum is not required. In the autumn I have found
a drop or two of the essence of {12} jargonelle pear, or of ribstone
pippin, an effective addition. Now comes the initial stage in the night's
venture, the "sugar" is put on each tree in a streak extending downwards
about a foot from the level of one's chin; if thin enough to spread easily
the mixture is almost certain to run further down the trunk. Whilst
employed in this somewhat messy preliminary we meditate on the possible
result, and hope that if visitors are not numerous they may at least be
select. Lighting the lantern, the first round of inspection of the sugar
patches is made, but this may not be altogether encouraging; on only one
tree are there any moths and these but three in number, and not uncommon
kinds (see Fig. 13). The second and even the third rounds do not {13} give
the satisfactory results we had anticipated, and we feel inclined to retire
discomfited; but as a sort of forlorn hope we try once again, and this time
we secure one or two really good things. Another night moths arrive quite
early and in large numbers, chiefly commoners, but with a sprinkling of the
better sorts among them. Just what meteorological or other conditions are
most conducive to a successful sugaring expedition I have never been able
to ascertain. Often blanks have been drawn when the weather has seemingly
been the most favourable, and quite as frequently good bags have been made
when exactly the reverse was thought to be more likely. If the natural
attractions {14} in the way of flowers and "honey dew" abound, the insects
may possibly ignore the most tempting bait we can contrive for them. There
is much uncertainty in this favourite method of collecting, and whether
sugar is put on tree trunks, foliage, palings, rocks, or stones, or smeared
on rags, and these hung up on barbed wire fences; or daubed on heads of
thistles or bunches of grass heads tied together, one must be prepared to
accept the disappointments that are inevitable, however careful we may be
in the selection of "suitable evenings." It may be added that newly sugared
trees are generally less attractive than those that are frequently painted
with the mixture.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.
CATERPILLAR OF EYED HAWK-MOTH.]
Caterpillars that feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs may {15} be
obtained by beating. The collector with one hand holds an open and inverted
umbrella, or a Bignall tray made expressly for the purpose, under a branch,
whilst with the other hand, armed with a stick, he strikes the branches
from above in the direction of the receiver held below. In conducting such
operations some collectors are far too energetic. It should be remembered
that it is not hard thrashing, but a sudden jar that dislodges the
caterpillars most readily.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.
CATERPILLAR OF PRIVET HAWK-MOTH.]
Although oft-times a somewhat slow process, and to some temperaments,
perhaps, rather tedious work, searching for larvæ is not unremunerative
when the quality of the material obtained in this way is considered. Some
kinds sit in the daytime, or feed, fully exposed, upon the upper sides of
the leaves or on the twigs of trees, shrubs, and low herbage; these are not
difficult to see. Other kinds conceal themselves under the leaves or on the
twigs hidden by the foliage, and these have to be sought for, because many
of them cling so tightly to whatever they may be upon that hardly anything
short of a fatal blow with the beating-stick will cause them to relax their
hold. Others, again, spin two or more leaves together, and in the {16}
habitation thus formed they remain throughout the day. The latter are more
easy to see than the more readily evicted contingent. All we have to do is
to stand under the branches and look upwards and outwards, when the united
leaves and the form of the caterpillar between them will be detected. Some,
of course, will be high up and out of reach in the ordinary way, but there
will be others more accessible. Then, at night, especially in the early
spring, we may search, aided by the beam of an acetyline lamp, the plants
and undergrowth in wood rides and clearings, borders of woods, and lanes,
for caterpillars that are arousing from hibernation. Throughout all
searching operations for larvæ the chance finding of eggs under leaves or
on twigs or buds is always probable. Cocoons in addition, among the leaves
of trees and on stems of low plants and the trunks of trees, may also be
revealed.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.
CATERPILLAR OF PALE TUSSOCK-MOTH.]
Furnished with a trowel--the ordinary garden kind will do, but the flatter
pattern, sold by dealers, is better--the collector may take a turn at
digging at the roots of trees for chrysalids. No doubt there are many kinds
to be obtained in this way, but I cannot say much for the practice, as my
own efforts have not been very highly rewarded. Not a single species was
ever obtained by digging that I could not have secured more easily in some
other way.
Methods of setting, and after-manipulation have been fully discussed in
"Butterflies of the British Isles."
* * * * *
{17}
PART II.
DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES.
HAWK-MOTHS.
About sixty species belonging to this family, scientifically known as the
Sphingidæ, are recorded from the Palæarctic region, and of these
twenty-seven are found in Europe. About ten only can be considered as true
natives of the British Isles; seven others, though found here, are
distinctly aliens, and their visits, at least as regards some of them, to
our islands, exceedingly irregular.
Most of the moths are of large size, many of the caterpillars are of noble
proportions, and in both stages they are not difficult to find, if looked
for in suitable places and in their proper season. The caterpillars of
several kinds, owing to the exposed way in which they feed or rest, are
especially noticeable on bush and hedgerow; the chrysalids, although
subterranean, are often freely obtained by turning up the soil around
trunks of trees, or under plants, upon which the caterpillars feed.
THE LIME HAWK-MOTH (_Dilina_ (_Mimas_) _tiliæ_).
The four specimens shown on Plate 3 represent the more or less ordinary
form of this moth. The pale pinkish grey, or reddish brown, fore wings are
sometimes tinged with greenish in the paler forms; the irregular shaped
band crossing the {18} central area of the wings is olive green, usually
dark, and generally edged with whitish. This band is sometimes entire
(typical), but more frequently it is broken about the middle. The outer
third of these wings is more or less greenish or mottled with green, and a
mark near the tip is whitish.
Variation is chiefly connected with the modifications that occur in the
upper or lower, sometimes both, portions of the central band; the lower
seems to be the first to disappear, then the upper passes through various
stages of reduction until it becomes simply a spot or dot about the centre
of the wing. Specimens are occasionally found or reared, in which every
trace of the band has departed from one or both fore wings. The greenish
outer border of the wings is inwardly margined with darker, well defined
and band-like in some examples, but less clearly marked, or even absent, in
others. Near the base of the fore wings are often two dusky greenish cross
lines. The hind wings, generally pretty much of the same ground colour as
the fore wings, have a dusky band-like shade of variable width on the outer
third; sometimes these wings are entirely dusky, approaching blackish. Very
rarely specimens are bred in which there is no trace of green colour. Such
an example was reared by Mr. Frohawk in April, 1882, from a caterpillar he
found in Surrey. In this aberration all the markings (normally green) are
light burnt-sienna red, the usual whitish blotch at the tip of the fore
wings is pink; ground colour also pink, slightly tinged with grey in
places. So variable is this moth in colour and markings, that in some
collections at least one cabinet drawer is given to it so that the range of
aberration may be adequately shown. Already about eighteen colour
modifications have been named, and at least eight band variations have also
received names.
The egg is similar in general appearance to that of the next species (see
Plate 4). Dr. Chapman states that it is more densely covered with an
indiarubber-like gum, and this may cause it to seem darker than the eggs of
the Eyed and the Poplar Hawk-moths. The eggs are laid singly or in pairs on
the underside of elm or lime leaves.
[Illustration]
Pl. 2.
LIME HAWK-MOTH.
_Caterpillar and chrysalis._
[Illustration]
Pl. 3.
LIME HAWK-MOTH.
{19} The figure of a nearly full-grown caterpillar (Plate 2) is from a
drawing in colour by Mr. A. Sich. Shortly, the caterpillar may be described
as green, roughened with yellow points, and with seven yellow oblique
stripes on the sides, each edged above with purplish and reddish; the
spiracles are ringed with reddish, and the curved horn is blue, inclining
to yellowish beneath and at the tip; the roughened shield on the last ring
of the body is reddish, marked with yellow. Head triangular, smoother than
the body. Quite in its infancy, the caterpillar is a long, thin creature;
the horn, which is divided at the tip, is covered with short, stiff hairs,
and appears blackish; later on the horn becomes reddish, and the side
stripes appear on the body. Although alder, birch, and several other shrubs
and trees have been mentioned, there is no doubt that the foliage of elm
and lime is the chief food of the caterpillar in a state of nature. Found
in July and August.
The chrysalis is dark reddish, and somewhat rough. As a rule, it is
enclosed in a very fragile cell which the caterpillar makes for itself
after burrowing a few inches underground and near the trunk of an elm or a
lime tree. There are, however, records of the chrysalis having been found
in crevices of bark high up on elm trees.
In May and June the moth emerges, usually in the afternoon, and may
sometimes be found on the trunks of trees, or on palings near limes and
elms. When at rest the fore wings are so arranged over the hind ones that
they, in conjunction with the upturned body, give the insect more the
appearance of a bunch of immature leaves than of a moth.
The species is widely distributed throughout the southern counties of
England, and in some of them, more especially around London, it is common.
In the Midlands it seems to be {20} scarce, and apparently does not occur
further north than Yorkshire, from which county there is only a single
record. It is common in Europe, except in the more northern and southern
parts, and its range extends eastwards into Siberia.
THE POPLAR HAWK-MOTH (_Smerinthus_ (_Amorpha_) _populi_).
On Plate 5 are three slightly different examples of this moth. In colour it
is most frequently ashy grey, with a brownish central band, and other
markings; there is a white spot on the fore wings and a conspicuous red
patch at the base of the hind wings. The female is generally paler than the
male, and often has a pinkish tinge. Specimens of a pale buff colour are
sometimes obtained, and these are most often of the female sex, although
male examples of this form are not unknown. Among unusual aberrations is
one described as having the wings, legs, thorax, and abdomen of a colour
between brick-red and chocolate, suffused with a whitish bloom as on ripe
plums. Another had the hind wings unadorned with red. Specimens from
Aberdeenshire and Sutherlandshire are smaller than English examples, and
the males are almost always more brightly and distinctly marked.
A very large number of Gynandrous, or "hermaphrodite" specimens have been
recorded, several of them from Britain; in most of these the
gynandromorphism is bilateral, that is the insect is wholly male on one
side, and entirely female on the other. In some the right side is male, in
others the left side; the opposite side in each case being female. Much
information on this subject and on Hybridism of the Sphingidæ will be found
in Tutt's "British Lepidoptera," vol. iii.
The pale shining green eggs are laid, generally singly, but sometimes in
twos, threes, or more, on either surface of a leaf of poplar or sallow. Now
and then batches of eggs may be found, and these have probably been laid by
females that were crippled on emergence, or had been afterwards injured in
some way and so were unable to fly.
[Illustration]
Pl. 4.
POPLAR HAWK-MOTH.
_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._
[Illustration]
Pl. 5.
POPLAR HAWK-MOTH.
{21}
[Illustration: FIG. 17.
EGGS OF POPLAR HAWK-MOTH.]
When full grown the caterpillar is green, roughened with yellow points,
oblique stripes on the sides yellow, spiracles reddish, horn of the general
colour, sometimes tipped with reddish. Head triangular in shape, but not
pointed on the top. A reddish spotted form of the caterpillar is not very
uncommon. In its very early life the head is rather triangular than
rounded, as is the head of the young caterpillar of the previous species,
and also that of the Eyed Hawk. Feeds on poplar, aspen, sallow, and willow,
and may be found from July to September and sometimes October. Chrysalis
blackish, rougher than that of the Lime Hawk. It lies in the ground so
close to the surface that it is often exposed when the garden borders under
or near poplars are raked over. The moth appears in May and June as a rule,
but in backward seasons it may not emerge until July or even August.
Caterpillars from eggs laid in early May are likely to feed up and attain
the perfect state in late July, and eggs resulting from these will pass
through the caterpillar state to that of chrysalis by about {22} September.
Three broods have been obtained in one year, but this is exceptional and
under a forcing method of treatment. The early stages are figured on Plate
4. This is certainly the commonest of our Hawk-moths, and it seems to occur
throughout our islands, except that in Scotland it is not recorded further
north than Sutherland and Ross. Wherever there are poplars, sallows, or
willows, there too most probably will be this caterpillar in its season;
the moth also will be almost certainly seen by any one who may care to keep
an eye on the stems of poplars or adjacent fences at the right time.
Sometimes the insect will introduce itself to the household, after
lighting-up time, much to the alarm of those who, not aware of the harmless
character of their visitor, look upon it with considerable suspicion.
Distribution abroad--Europe (except the polar regions and Greece), Armenia
and the Altai.
THE EYED HAWK-MOTH (_Smerinthus ocellatus_).
Except that there is sometimes an absence of rosy tinge on the fore wings,
and that the brownish markings may be lighter or darker, this species does
not depart very greatly from the typical form shown on Plate 7.
Cross pairings between the Eyed-hawk and the Poplar-hawk are not altogether
difficult to obtain, but the female _populi_ pairs more readily with male
_ocellatus_ than the female of the last named species will with the male of
_populi_. Very few such cross pairings have been noted in a wild state, but
several cases of the kind are known to have occurred in captivity. The
results are hybrid moths, and these have some of the characters of each
parent, and have received distinctive names. Thus the offspring of
_ocellatus_ [male] × _populi_ [female] are the _hybridus_, Steph., whilst
that of _populi_ [male] × _ocellatus_ [female] are referable to _inversa_,
Tutt.
[Illustration]
Pl. 6.
EYED HAWK-MOTH.
_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._
[Illustration]
Pl. 7.
EYED HAWK-MOTH.
{23}
The eggs, which are generally laid singly or in pairs on either side of a
leaf, sometimes on a stalk, are yellowish-green in colour. The shell is
said to be netted, but under a fairly strong lens this does not show. About
four hundred is probably the average number for a female to lay in a state
of nature, but they seem not to deposit so many when reared from the egg in
confinement. As the moth, except under stress of circumstances, places her
eggs on the foliage of trees and bushes in selected positions, the business
of egg laying takes about six nights to perform. Even when she is unable to
fly she will crawl from twig to twig and glue an egg here and there on the
leaves, but rarely more than two on a leaf. On a small sallow bush in my
garden, I once counted eighty-four eggs on the lower leaves and the main
stem. Green, inclining to yellowish or greyish, is the colour of the
full-grown caterpillar. It is roughened with white points, and has seven
whitish oblique stripes on the sides. These stripes are edged in front with
darkish green and occasionally tinged with violet. The horn is bluish,
merging into green towards the dark tip, and roughened with white points.
Head triangular in shape, the top pointed; face tinged with bluish.
Sometimes bright red spots appear on the sides in some examples of the
caterpillar. In the quite young stage the head is usually rounded; the
horn, which appears reddish, is about one third the length of the
caterpillar.
Sallow, willow, and apple are the more general food plants, but poplar and
privet have been reported. I have sometimes found the larva on _Salix
repens_, and also on crab-apple (_Pyrus malus_). It may be found in July
and August. In some years, when the moths emerge in May, caterpillars are
found as early as June, and this is followed by the occurrence of the
caterpillar again, as a second brood, in August and September. When quite
mature the caterpillar enters an inch or two into the soil, and there forms
a weak sort of cell in which it shortly afterwards turns to a brown, or
blackish-brown, smooth and {24} rather glossy chrysalis. The early stages
are figured on Plate 6.
The moth usually emerges in June, earlier or later, according to season.
Under very favourable circumstances some of the moths will leave the
chrysalis in May and give rise to a second generation in July. An
unfavourable year, on the other hand, retards emergence, and the moths do
not come up until late June or mid-July; such has been the case this year
(1907).
Generally distributed and by no means uncommon throughout the southern half
of England, but somewhat local northwards. It has been recorded from the
most southern counties of Scotland, and Kane states that in Ireland it is
widely distributed but usually scarce.
The method of folding down its wings in repose is very similar to that of
the previous two species.
THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH (_Acherontia (Manduca) atropos_).
The fine moth represented on Plate 8 is the largest species found in the
British Isles, although in measurement from tip to tip when the wings are
expanded it does not exceed that of the next species, both varying in this
respect from 4½ to 5 inches. It is, however, a stouter bodied insect, and
its wings are broader. The colour and markings are so well shown in the
illustration that a description is unnecessary. Beyond a greater or lesser
intensity of the paler markings on the fore wings and the thorax, also some
modifications in the black band of the hind wings, there is nothing very
striking in the way of variation. Perhaps the most important aberrations
are connected with the inner black band of the hind wings, which may be
much widened and diffuse, or, on the other hand, entirely absent.
When full grown, the caterpillar attains a length of nearly 5 inches, and
is of considerable thickness throughout. Usually {25} the general colour is
some shade of green, varying to yellowish, but in some examples it is
brown, more or less tinged with violet; others again are of a blackish hue.
The seven oblique side stripes are purplish or violet brown, edged with
yellowish; they are absent from the three rings nearest the head; the
rough, double curved horn is of the body colour. The greenish forms are
sprinkled with violet dots, and the brownish forms with white ones. Most
frequently found on the leaves of potato; it feeds also on the "tea-tree"
(_Lycium barbarum_), woody nightshade (_Solanum dulcamara_), and snowberry
(_Symphoricarpus_). Fig. 1, Plate 9, represents the brown form of the
caterpillar.
When ready to enter the chrysalis state, the caterpillar burrows from 2 to
4 inches below the surface of the soil, and there forms a large chamber,
the walls of which are not very substantial and are easily broken. After
resting therein for a week, or two, it turns to a dark brownish, rather
glossy, chrysalis. (Plate 11, Fig. 1). The earthen cocoon, frail as it is,
seems to be a protection to the chrysalis, guarding it from too much
moisture on the one hand, or dryness on the other. I always found that when
chrysalids from caterpillars that I have obtained were left undisturbed the
moths emerged well enough; but when they were turned up out of the ground
by the potato diggers, and, of course, without covering, they were almost
certain to perish if the attempt were made to keep them through the winter.
In the latter case, the only chance was to endeavour to induce the moth to
emerge as soon as possible by bringing them under the combined influence of
warmth and moisture.
This species was known to Mouffett, who figured it in 1634, but it does not
appear to have received an English name until 1773, when Wilkes figured it
as the "Jasmine Hawk Moth." Moses Harris, in 1775, called it the "Bee Tyger
Hawk Moth," but three years later he changed the name to the Death's Head,
the name by which it is still known, although in some {26} parts of
England, as well as in Ireland, it is referred to as the "bee robber." In
connection with the latter name, it may be mentioned that the moth's
"tongue," or proboscis, is short, and not adapted for obtaining sweets, of
which it is very fond, from long-tubed flowers, consequently it filches
honey from the bees, and, with this object, has been known to enter
bee-hives, at least those of the old straw-skep pattern. The moth is also
said to have a liking for the sap exuded by wounded trees. Although the
species may, perhaps, be with us in certain favoured localities every year,
it does not often occur, in any stage, in numbers sufficient to attract
general attention. I have not searched the chronicles of _Atropos_ in
Britain earlier than 1864, but from these it seems that the species was
widely distributed and generally common in 1865, 1868, 1878, 1885, 1896,
and 1900. More or less common in certain localities in 1867, 1869,
1870-1872, 1877, 1880, 1882, 1884, 1893, 1895, 1899, 1911, and 1917. In the
other years it was scarce, or apparently absent.
The moth is always very much less in evidence than the caterpillar, or even
the chrysalis. Sometimes the former is seen in May or June, or even
earlier, and it has been supposed that these precocious specimens have
hibernated after emergence from the chrysalis here during the previous
autumn. The question of hibernation need not be entertained, but there may
be doubt as to whether the specimens are British born or aliens. I am
inclined to the latter view. The moths are often noted at sea long
distances from land. A specimen was captured on board a vessel in the North
Sea on April 28, 1903, and it was still alive, although it had been roughly
dealt with, on May 8 of that year. In 1899 a moth was taken at Chester,
about the middle of May, and one on June 20 at Chichester. Probably,
although undetected, other specimens were also about the country, and maybe
at even earlier dates than those recorded. However, during the year larvæ
and pupæ were found, at the end of July, at Chilton, Suffolk, and at
Bridgwater, Somerset, and in early August in Somerset, and at Dover. A moth
was captured in August at Marlow, Bucks., one was taken at Christchurch on
September 19, one at Reigate, September 25. Several specimens occurred in
Devon and Cornwall in the autumn, and at Deal early in October. Larvæ were
found, too, from the second week in September to the end of that month in
several parts of the country. Moths seem to have been reared in early
September from the early August caterpillars; whilst the September
caterpillars attained the perfect state towards the end of the month and in
October. Two pupæ, found at Penarth on September 12, produced moths in from
four to six days afterwards; four other chrysalids, obtained in Hants about
mid September, yielded moths between September 21 and the beginning of
October.
[Illustration]
Pl. 8.
DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH.
[Illustration]
Pl. 9.
1. DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK-MOTH.
_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; and caterpillar._
2. CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH CATERPILLAR (DARK FORM).
{27} From the foregoing there can be no question that there are at least
two generations of the moth in some years, and in our own country, but we
have even clearer evidence of this in the records of 1900, when a moth was
taken in the spring at Ayton, Berwickshire, another at Worsborough Bridge
on June 18, and a third at Kilmarnock, on a bee-hive, July 11. Caterpillars
were found during late July and August in South Scotland and various parts
of England, and moths were reared from some of these. In September and
October caterpillars were found more commonly, and two or three moths were
captured, in various places, between August 19 and October 9; others,
reared from September caterpillars, emerged from October 30 to November 24.
By the rustic, and possibly the uninitiated generally, the moth is looked
upon as something uncanny. This is probably due to the fact that the
creature, when handled, emits a peculiar sound that has been described as a
shrill squeak. According to Kirby, the statement made by Rossi that the
sound is produced by air from the air-sacs being forced through the {28}
proboscis, has been verified. Another dread-inspiring character of the
insect is the marking on the thorax, which has been likened to a skull and
crossbones. The squeak is said to have the effect of quieting the bees,
they being under the impression that it proceeds from their queen.
It has been taken at some time or another in almost every part of the
British Isles, right up to and including the Shetlands. Except that it has
not been observed in the more northern parts, the species is found
throughout Europe, North and South Africa, the Canary Islands, and the
Azores. It is also represented in Southern India, extending to the Malays,
and in China, Corea, and Japan.
CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH, _Herse_ (_Sphinx_) _convolvuli_.
The older writers on British moths called this the "Unicorn" or "Bindweed
Hawk." The fore wings are whitish grey, mottled with darker tints, and, in
the male, clouded with blackish about the middle of the wing; the central
third is limited inwardly by a double blackish, wavy line, and outwardly by
an irregular, toothed, whitish line; running from one to the other are two
black streaks between the veins, and a similar streak nearer the costa is
waved upwards to the tip of the wing. The hind wings are whitish grey, with
a black stripe near the base, and two blackish bands between the stripe and
the outer margin. The thorax agrees in colour with the fore wings; the
tapered body has a broad grey stripe, enclosing a central black line along
the back, broad red and black and narrow white bands on each side (Plate
10).
The egg has been described as bright green in colour, and smaller than that
of the Privet Hawk. A female moth captured at Brighton on July 18, 1898,
deposited twenty-five eggs on _Convolvulus arvensis_ up to July 20, and the
next day a further eight were counted. The moth died on the 22nd.
Caterpillars hatched out July 27-28. These were whitish green, with a rough
blackish horn; after second moult they became green, with a darker green
stripe along the back, but without oblique side stripes.
[Illustration]
Pl. 10.
CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH.
[Illustration]
Pl. 11.
1. CHRYSALIS OF DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK-MOTH.
2. " " CONVOLVULUS " "
3, 3a. CATERPILLAR AND CHRYSALIS OF PINE HAWK.
{29} In its more usual form the caterpillar, when full grown, is bright
apple-green, narrowly streaked with black; oblique stripes on the sides
yellowish; horn reddish, tip black. Head green, with black stripes. In some
examples the side stripes are edged above with bluish black; in others
there are blackish, more or less square, spots on the back, and patches on
the sides. Sometimes the general colour is blackish brown, with ochreous
bands and streaks. (This form is figured on Plate 9). When it occurs in
these islands it is generally found on the small bindweed (_Convolvulus
arvensis_), but it will eat _C. sepium_ and _C. soldanella_, and also the
cultivated kinds.
Referring to the caterpillar in Britain, Moses Harris, in 1775, wrote, "I
never heard of but two that were ever found--one by Mr. South [or Smith] of
Hampshire, which, he said, was green, and appeared in other respects so
like the privet that he was deceived. He fed it on the leaves of the lesser
bindweed. It changed into the chrysalis in the earth, in July, and the moth
was produced in September" (Dale).
The caterpillar figured by Harris is of the brown form, so we see that even
at this early date something was known of the life history of this moth and
the variation of the caterpillar. Since that date and up to 1894 only very
few larvæ appear to have been found in our islands. Barrett states that it
is doubtful if more than twenty had then been recorded. In 1895
caterpillars were obtained in Cornwall (four) and in Kent (two). Then for
five years little or nothing was reported about this stage, although the
moth seems to have occurred in varying numbers each year. In 1901, August
and September, over one hundred were reported, rather more than half of
which were taken from a hedgerow, overgrown with _C. sepium_, in {30}
Northumberland; twenty-six were obtained on the bindweed growing on
Lancashire sandhills, thirteen or fourteen in Essex, and others in
Bedfordshire, Kent, Hants, Dorset, and Devon.
Mr. Bell-Marley obtained thirty eggs, September, 1897, and although these
were kept in a cold room, thirteen caterpillars hatched, September 21. They
were supplied with _Convolvulus arvensis_ and _C. soldanella_, and seemed
to relish one as much as the other. Seven died during the first three
moults. The bindweeds being nearly over, seedlings were raised by forcing,
but before these were ready the larvæ had been on short commons, and just
immediately before the seedlings came to hand, had been twenty-four hours
without food. On these tender seedlings and some endive the remaining
larvæ, six in number, attained full growth in December. Two subsequently
died in the first half of that month, and the others went under the soil.
Only one, however, managed to assume the chrysalis state.
A small caterpillar, about one week old, described by Paymaster-in-Chief G.
F. Mathew ("Notes on Lepidoptera from the Mediterranean," _Entom._, xxxi.
115), was 1¾ inch long, pale glaucous green in colour, and thickly covered
with raised white dots; oblique side stripes white, bordered above with
dark green. On September 26, 1897, this caterpillar, which had been found
on September 18, was nearly full grown, and the writer goes on to state
that when gathering bindweed he obtained either eggs or tiny caterpillars
at the same time, and he eventually found that he had eight of them
altogether. They fed up rapidly, as a caterpillar, hatched about September
27, had gone down on October 18. Owing to accident, four produced deformed
chrysalids, but each chrysalis resulting from the others was perfect and
healthy on February 15, 1898. The large reddish-brown chrysalis is figured
on Plate 11, and it will be noted that the "tongue" case forms a curious
bent projection not unlike the handle of a pitcher. To give some idea of
the irregular way in which this migratory species visits our islands, it
will suffice to note the records only since 1894. Previous to that year it
was common, more or less generally, in 1846, 1868, 1875, 1885, and 1887.
[Illustration]
Pl. 12.
1. PRIVET HAWK-MOTH.
2. PINE HAWK-MOTH.
[Illustration]
Pl. 13.
PRIVET HAWK-MOTH.
_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._
{31} In 1895 an invasion seems to have effected a landing in the autumn, on
the south-west coast, chiefly, perhaps, in the Portland district, where
some fifty individuals were captured between August 12 and October 7;
twenty-three were caught near Bournemouth in August and September; sixteen
were taken at Christchurch, August 11 to October 2; and eight were recorded
from Milford. Several were reported from Devon, but only two from Cornwall,
although four larvæ were found in October at Port Wrinkle in the latter
county. At Cork, in Ireland, ten specimens were obtained in October.
Eastward, the captures in September were Norfolk (seven), Essex (one),
Lincoln (one). Odd specimens were taken here and there in Kent, Surrey, and
Herts. Several were reported from Gloucestershire, and one from South
Wales. The northward extension was evidenced by the capture of one example
at Alnwick, in Northumberland, in September, and of two in Aberdeenshire,
one as early as August 31, the other September 9.
The moth was almost a defaulter in 1896, but in 1897 about forty specimens
were taken, twenty-seven of which occurred in the Scilly Isles and eleven
at Portland (August 14 to September 16). One example was reported from
Yorkshire and another from Sutherlandshire, both in September.
A female was taken at Brighton, July 18, 1898, and in the autumn of that
year a good many specimens were obtained in various parts of England but
chiefly in the south. Portland again heading the list with over fifty
(August 4 to October 3) and a number were taken in the Isle of Wight during
September. Captures in 1899 seem to have been only pretty good. Portland
twenty, August 25 to September 20, perhaps less than a dozen in other parts
of England and one in Scotland, all in September {32} or October. In 1900
one specimen was taken at an Eastbourne electric light, and one at
Portpatrick in Scotland, both end of August. There appears to have been an
arrival of moths in this country in early June, 1901. Captures were
reported from Portland (June 2), Bedford, and S. W. London. Larvæ and pupæ
were found in many parts of England, as already mentioned. Then in August,
from about the 14th to September, moths were captured throughout the
greater part of England; in some places caterpillars were also obtained in
August, chrysalids in September. After a lull towards the end of the latter
month, moths suddenly appeared again during the first week in October.
Several observers remarked that whereas the August to September moths were
mostly females, large in size, and not in the best condition, the later
moths were chiefly of the male sex, small in size, and fine in condition.
It would seem therefore that these late specimens were the descendants of
the early August moths and represented a second generation on British soil
and the grandchildren of the June immigrants. Or, possibly, the
August-September moths were fresh immigrants, and the October specimens
their offspring.
The species was observed in several English counties during August and
September, 1911; and again in 1915. In 1917 it seems to have been more
widely spread over our islands, as specimens were reported from Ireland and
even Shetland.
Plants with tubular flowers, such as those of petunias, and the
sweet-scented white tobacco (_Nicotiana affinis_) are its especial
favourites, but it also visits the blossoms of pentstemon, geranium
(chiefly the scarlet variety), etc. It does not settle on the flowers but
inserts its long "tongue" into the tubes as it hovers on the wing in front
of them. Just at twilight it commences operations, but it may be seen
pursuing its investigations well on into the night (see Fig. 1, p. 2).
Distributed over Europe, Asia, and Africa. {33}
THE PRIVET HAWK (_Sphinx ligustri_).
A specimen of the female sex is figured on Plate 12. The white clouding or
mottling on the pale brown colour of the fore wings varies in intensity and
is sometimes tinged with pink, especially at the base of the wings; often
it is only noticeable at the tips of the wings and on the outer area; the
blackish suffusion from the inner margin through the central area and the
black streaks between the veins are rather more constant. On the hind wings
the pinkish tinge between the black bands may be faint or entirely absent;
the central black band varies in width, and is sometimes so much expanded
that it absorbs the basal half of the first band.
When full grown the caterpillar measures about three inches in length and
has a very substantial appearance. It is of a pretty green colour, with
seven oblique white stripes, each of which has a purplish front edging; the
spiracles are yellowish. The head is rather more grass green and marked
with black in front. The curved horn is blackish on the upper side and
yellowish below. The colour of the caterpillar in its younger stage is
yellowish, due to the presence of yellow dots, it also has some tiny hairs;
the horn, which is bristly and slightly forked at the tip, is a conspicuous
feature at this age on account of its length and dark colour as compared
with that of the creature itself. Just before changing into the chrysalis,
a brownish tinge is assumed, and very rarely caterpillars of a pinkish or
purplish tint have been found.
It feeds on privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_) in July and August; often to be
seen resting on the upper part of the longer sprays of the food plant.
Sometimes a dozen or more may be found on one short strip of privet hedge.
They are much subject to the attack of ichneumons. Other food plants are
lilac, ash, lauristinus, and some other shrubs. Mr. Step informs me that on
{34} August 18, 1907, he found three larvæ feeding on teasel at Ashtead.
The caterpillar will burrow some depth underground before constructing its
pupal chamber. The chrysalis, which is reddish, or blackish-brown in
colour, is figured with the other stages on Plate 13.
The moth usually emerges the following June or July, but there are at least
two records of its remaining in the chrysalis during two winters.
The southern portion of England appears to be the principal British home of
this moth. It is more or less scarce in the midlands and northwards. In
Scotland it has only been recorded from southern counties, and in his
"Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland," Kane states that he has no
certain record of its occurrence in that country. Widely distributed
through central and southern Europe, extending northwards to south Sweden
and Finland, and eastwards to Amurland, China, and Japan.
THE PINE HAWK (_Hyloicus pinastri_).
Stephens, writing of this species in 1828, remarked that about thirty years
before that date, a specimen "was taken in June at Colney Hatch Wood, and a
second in the neighbourhood of Esher." He also gives Rivelston Wood, near
Edinburgh, as a locality, on the authority of Dr. Leach. A specimen was
stated to have been seen in Cumberland in 1827 or 1828, and up to the year
1877 four other examples were reported, each from a different part of
England. In the year last mentioned a specimen was recorded from
Woodbridge, Suffolk, as taken in a rectory garden the previous midsummer
(since ascertained that the moth was first seen there in 1875); an example
was also found at rest on a tree trunk at Tuddenham, near Ipswich, in July,
1877, and one was reared on August 5, 1876, from a {35} chrysalis found
near Horham Rectory, Wickham Market, Suffolk. In 1878-9, caterpillars were
met with at Leiston, Suffolk; the moth was found in the pine woods around
Aldeburgh, 1881, and as many as forty specimens were taken in July and
August, 1882, and rather more than twenty in August, 1919. In 1895, Lord
Rendlesham, when driving through the fir woods in the neighbourhood of
Woodbridge, noted two specimens in almost the same spot where he had taken
some moths in 1892-93. Mr. F. Mellusson, writing from this district (August
2, 1895), stated that fifteen specimens had been taken, and that others
could have been captured; also that about one hundred larvæ were then
feeding in confinement. He also mentioned that 1895 was the fourth year out
of five that the insect had occurred there. A male moth was found at rest
on an oak trunk near Southwold, Suffolk, on July 29, 1900. On August 13,
1906, the Rev. A. P. Waller saw a worn specimen on a pine trunk in the
rectory garden at Woodbridge. He also noted a pupa on September 30, 1917.
(Plate 12, Fig. 2.)
The mature caterpillar, which feeds on pine needles, is green, with a
yellowish-edged reddish line along the middle of the back and a creamy line
on each side of this; the interrupted line below the reddish spiracles is
yellowish or ochreous. Head yellowish brown; horn blackish brown; both are
glossy. It enters the earth and there turns to a reddish brown chrysalis;
this is rather glossy, somewhat darker above than below, and appearing
blackish between the rings; the rough "tongue" sheath is short and attached
throughout to the case; the tail spike is roughened, and has a blunt point
on each side of it (Plate 11, Figs. 3, 3a).
It has been recorded that caterpillars hatched from the egg early in
August, pupated in October, and the moths emerged the following May-July.
The perfect insect sits upon tree trunks, chiefly pine, often well within
reach, although sometimes its position is fourteen or {36} fifteen feet up
the trunk. At night it visits flowers, and seems to be most partial to
those of the honeysuckle.
Suffolk seems to be the British home of this species, but odd specimens
have been reported since 1860 from Romsey, Hampshire; Hinton St. George,
Somersetshire; Herefordshire; Isle of Mull (two caterpillars); and
Bournemouth.
The range of this species is through Northern and Central Europe southwards
to Northern Spain and Italy, and eastward to the Caucasus. In Japan it is
represented by var. _caligineus_, Butler, which differs but little from
typical _pinastri_.
THE SPURGE HAWK (_Deilephila_ (_Hyles_) _euphorbiæ_).
The fore wings are pale grey, more or less tinged with pinkish and marked
with olive at the base, towards the middle of front margin, and a tapered
band running from the inner margin to the tip of the wing; the lower part
of the basal patch is blackish. Hind wings pinkish with black basal patch
and a band before the outer margin; a white patch at anal angle (Plate 15,
Fig. 1).
The caterpillar feeds, August and September, on spurge (_Euphorbia
paralias_, and _E. cyparissias_). When full grown the head is crimson red,
marked on the crown with black; the body is black, but so thickly sprinkled
with yellow dots that much of the black colour is obscured; the larger
spots are often crimson, but sometimes they are yellow, or even cream
coloured; the stripes along the back and below the yellow spiracles are
crimson, as also are the legs and feet; the spiny horn is crimson with a
black tip. In a younger stage the head and the horn are orange, the latter
black tipped; the body is yellow with patches of black around the paler
yellow spots on the back. Chrysalis pale brownish, minutely dotted with
black; the head and thorax are marked with blackish, and the rings of the
body have narrow, interrupted, blackish bands; the wing and antennæ cases
are covered with fine short blackish streaks; tail spike blackish, somewhat
flattened, and the acute point black (Plate 1, Fig. 1; 14, Figs. 2, 2a).
[Illustration]
Pl. 14.
1, 1a. BEDSTRAW HAWK-MOTH.
2, 2a. SPURGE HAWK-MOTH.
_Caterpillars and chrysalids._
[Illustration]
Pl. 15.
1. SPURGE HAWK-MOTH.
2. BEDSTRAW HAWK-MOTH.
3. STRIPED HAWK-MOTH.
{37} The moth usually emerges in June or July of the year following
pupation, but it may come out the same year; on the other hand, it has been
known to remain in the chrysalis for two winters. Dr. Chapman has noted the
emergence of the moth eighteen days after the pupa was formed.
Little, if anything, appears to have been known of this species as an
inhabitant of Britain until 1806, when Mr. Raddon, who was staying at
Instow, in N. Devon, had a caterpillar brought to him by a fisherman. From
that time, and up to 1814, a large number of the caterpillars were obtained
from _Euphorbia paralias_ growing on Braunton Burrows, a long stretch of
sandhills on the north Devonshire coast, accessible from Barnstaple or
Ilfracombe, which, when I visited the locality some twenty-five years ago,
was greatly favoured by rabbits. One would suppose that the Spurge Hawk
caterpillars must have been pretty abundant at the time Raddon made his
observations, as he states in a note on the subject published in the
Entomological Magazine for 1835, that on leaving the ground one evening at
dusk he hastily cut an armful of spurge, which he took home and put in
water. Next morning he "found the food covered with not less than a hundred
minute larvæ about a day or two old." This must have happened prior to
1814, because the species seems to have entirely disappeared about that
year. The Rev. E. N. Bloomfield, in his catalogue of the Lepidoptera of
Suffolk, mentions a moth bred from a larva found near Landguard Fort about
1865. He adds that the food plant was then abundant there. At a meeting of
the Entomological Society of London held in October, 1876, a letter was
read from Mr. Higgins concerning the reported finding of the caterpillars
of this species in a locality near Harwich in 1873. It was stated that the
spurge (_Euphorbia paralias_), had not only been {38} seen in the
particular spot, but in other parts of the same district also.
In the _Entomologist_ for 1893 there is a very circumstantial account of
the finding of eighteen or nineteen Spurge Hawk caterpillars on the Cornish
coast in the autumn of 1889. From these, eight moths resulted in May-July,
1890, and one in June, 1891.
Although the occurrence of the moth in Britain has been more frequently
recorded, probably in error for the Bedstraw Hawk, there are at least two
that are undoubtedly authentic. One of these refers to a specimen taken in
a private garden near Southampton (_Entom._, 1872), and the other was
captured by the late Mr. C. G. Barrett as it flew at early dusk in a garden
at King's Lynn, Norfolk, in September, 1887. Some idea of the scarcity of
_bonâ fide_ English specimens may be gained from the fact that about
thirteen years ago, two of Raddon's bred specimens were sold by auction at
Stevens, when six guineas was given for one, and ten shillings more for the
other.
Its distribution abroad extends through Central and Southern Europe into
Asia Minor, and it is represented by local races in other parts of Asia.
THE BEDSTRAW HAWK (_Deilephila_ (_Celerio_) _galii_).
On Plate 15, Fig. 2, will be found a portrait of this moth, which the
ancient fathers of British entomology dubbed the "Spotted Elephant"--at
least, Harris, in 1778, figured its caterpillar under this name. Later it
was called the "Galium Hawk-moth." The olive-brown fore wings have a
tapered, creamy-white stripe running obliquely from the inner margin near
the base to the tip of the wing; the lower edge of this stripe is almost
straight, but the upper edge is irregular; the outer margin of the wings is
greyish. Hind wings creamy {39} white, the basal area and a band before the
outer margin black; the space enclosed is blotched, and sometimes tinged
with pinkish red; but the extreme inner portion is almost pure white. Head
and thorax are olive-brown, edged with white; the abdomen is olive-brown,
with a whitish line along the middle of the back, and ornamented with black
and white on the sides.
The full-grown caterpillar varies in colour from greenish olive to pale
olive-brown, reddish brown, or sometimes blackish; the spots on the back
are yellowish, edged with black, but occasionally these are absent. It
feeds in August and September, on the bedstraws (_Galium verum_, _G.
mollugo_, etc.), preferring the yellow-flowered kind that flourishes on
sandhills by the sea (_G. verum_, var. _maritimum_). It can be reared very
well on willow herb (_Epilobium_) and on fuchsia.
When ready for the change it burrows underground, and, where the soil is
sandy and light, it works down pretty deeply before making the frail cell,
in which it turns to a reddish-brown chrysalis with blackish markings,
somewhat similar to those of the next species; the anal spike is blackish,
rather flattened, terminating in a sharp point (Plate 14, Figs. 1, 1a).
Haworth in 1812 mentioned caterpillars from Devonshire, and although single
specimens of the moth seem to have been taken here and there in various
years between that date and 1854, in only one year during that period was
it reported from several parts of the country. This was in 1834, when four
moths were captured in August, and eight or nine others seen at Yarmouth;
caterpillars were also found on the bedstraw growing on the Denes. Odd
examples of the moth were observed that year in Lincolnshire,
Somersetshire, and in the Isle of Wight. In 1855-56, caterpillars were
obtained in August on the sandhills at Deal, and, in September, at
Devonport in the first-named year. A moth was taken in May, 1857, and,
later in that year, specimens were captured at Deal, {40} Brighton, and
Taunton. Three moths were recorded in 1858; and in 1859 caterpillars were
plentiful on the south-east coast, common on the Cheshire coast, also
reported from Devon, Cambs., London, and Darlington; over a score were
found within a short distance of Perth. A good many moths were also taken.
The species was especially abundant in 1870, in which year caterpillars
were collected in hundreds. It seems to have been widely distributed
throughout England, and was again found in Perthshire. Perhaps not more
than three specimens were taken between 1872 and 1888, but in the rainy and
cold summer of the latter year, the moths seem to have invaded the country
in great force, and were reported from many parts of England, and also from
Aberdeen in Scotland, and from Howth in Ireland. Caterpillars, too, were
plentiful on the coast sandhills of Kent, Cheshire, and Lancashire, and
also in the Eastern Counties.
In March, 1889, Mr. Elisha had moths emerge from chrysalids of the previous
year. These had been placed in a temperature ranging from 60 to 70 degrees,
and the moths came out in from fourteen to sixteen days after commencing
the forcing process. Some half a dozen chrysalids that I had in 1888, from
Lancashire caterpillars, were allowed to remain in the earth, which was
contained in a large-sized flower-pot; the moths emerged in May and June,
1889, all but one being perfect specimens.
In 1894 Mr. Harwood obtained five caterpillars on the Essex coast, and in
1897 the Rev. A. Miles Moss found a few, and observed traces of others, on
the Lancashire coast, but, apart from these records, very few moths or
caterpillars of this species appear to have been noted in the country since
1888, and we still await the advent of another _Galii_ year. So far the
periods of scarcity between the seasons of plenty have been twenty-five,
eleven, and nineteen years.
The range of this insect extends through Europe and Asia to {41} Siberia
and Amurland. It is represented in North America by the Galium Sphinx
(_Celerio intermedia_, Kirby = _chamænerii_, Harris), which so greatly
resembles it that only an expert could readily distinguish one from the
other.
THE STRIPED HAWK (_Phryxus_ (_Deilephila_) _livornica_).
Owing to some confusion between this moth (Plate 15, Fig. 3) and the North
American Striped Morning Sphinx (_D. lineata_), which also seems to have
had a place in the cabinets of the earlier British entomologists, the
localities given by authors previous to 1828 are doubtful. Haworth,
however, in 1803, mentions Cornwall, and Stephens, in his remarks on this
species, refers to a specimen from Norfolk; one taken off the mast of the
Ramsgate steam vessel at Billingsgate, in June, 1824; and three specimens,
one of which he figured, captured near Kingsbridge, Devonshire.
In 1846 thirteen of these moths were recorded from various parts of England
and Ireland, and probably many others were in these islands that year.
Between May 12 and 26, 1860, twenty specimens were taken in the south of
England, and more than half of them in Devonshire. In 1862 a specimen
occurred at Worthing on April 16, and one at Herne Hill on April 29; others
were taken between May 2 and May 18 on the south and south-west coasts, and
at Colchester. Over a score of specimens were recorded in 1868, chiefly in
August, and from localities ranging from Cornwall to Yorkshire. The year
1870 was a good one for the species, and moths were reported from England,
Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. Fully fifty specimens were obtained, mostly
in May, and caterpillars were also found. In 1904 the moth occurred in May,
at several places in the south and south-west of England, also in
Gloucestershire, Wales, and at Carlisle; in September of this year a
specimen was taken on the pier at Dover, and another on a small {42}
headland at Barry, in Glamorgan. Some of the early captured females
deposited eggs; caterpillars resulting therefrom were fed on vine, and at
least one moth was reared in September.
A good many specimens visited the south of England, more particularly South
Devon, in June, 1906, but the species was reported as occurring in large
numbers on rhododendron blossom near Cork in Ireland from June 9 to 13 or
14. In August and September the moth was reported from Kent, Sussex, Hants,
Dorset, Devon, Somerset, and South Wales; such specimens probably being the
offspring of the early immigrants. During the past forty years the barren
seasons for the Striped Hawk appear to have been only ten. The dates of its
occurrence have been somewhat erratic. One was captured in 1887 in the
month of February, one on March 27 in 1903, but the moth has been observed
in each month from May to September inclusive, although May, June, and
August would seem to have been the more favoured. The caterpillar has not
been seen often in England. Mr. Farn recorded six or seven from Ryde in
July, 1870; they were feeding on vine and centaury in a garden. One spun up
in the leaves at the bottom of the box on July 27, but the web was so
fragile that the caterpillar fell out, and changed to the chrysalis state
on the 30th. The moth emerged on August 26. In the same year several
caterpillars occurred in Devon and Cornwall, and one of these was found on
July 11 in a mangold-wurtzel field in the Exeter district. It was
afterwards reared on fuchsia, and produced a moth on August 18. Nine others
were reported from a nursery garden at Plymouth; they were fed up on
dock--the plant upon which they had been found--and the moth was reared
later in the year. In 1902 Mr. Jäger received a caterpillar from Starcross
about July 20, and this attained the moth state on September 27. A
caterpillar, believed to be of this species, was found in a sunny garden at
Lewes in Sussex, July 20, 1906. {43}
According to Hellins the eggs are light green in colour, and the
caterpillars hatch out in about three weeks. When it first emerges from the
egg-shell the caterpillar is dirty white without spots, and the head and
horn are black. The adult is dark green or black dotted with yellow; three
yellow lines on the back and two rows of black-ringed yellow spots, with
some black spots above them; each yellow spot is tinged with pink on the
upper portion. Head black, marked with yellow; horn reddish, with the tip
black. Sometimes the rings of the body are banded.
It feeds in June and July on vine, fuchsia, dock, and probably other
plants. It may be noted that the foliage of house vines are stated to be
unsuitable food. The blossoms of numerous plants are visited by the moths
in the evening, among which are delphinium, petunia, honeysuckle, tobacco,
rhododendron, valerian, and silene.
In the daytime it has been found resting on walls, windows, and also the
curtains; on grass turf, railway metals, fences, and on plants and shrubs.
The distribution of this species is somewhat similar to that of the
Silver-striped Hawk-moth, but it extends into Western China and is
represented in North America.
THE SILVER-STRIPED HAWK (_Hippotion (Chærocampa) celerio_).
Referring to this species in 1828 Stephens wrote: "The first recorded
specimen of the perfect insect was taken flying in Bunhill-fields
burying-ground so long ago as 1779: and the specimen now exists in a high
state of preservation in Mr. Haworth's collection, having been purchased by
him at the dispersion of that of Mr. Francillon. Subsequently to the above
capture the larvæ have been found several times in Cambridgeshire.... Two
or three were also taken about fifteen {44} or sixteen years since in a
garden at Norwich, and were kept until they changed to pupæ; but
unfortunately, in that state their metamorphosis ended. One of these pupæ I
have in my collection. Of late, however, the perfect insect has occurred
more than once, and in totally different parts of the country. Three
specimens, as I am informed by the Rev. F. W. Hope, were taken near Oxford
several years ago. In August, 1826, an injured one was found resting on a
wall near Birmingham; and last summer a second was secured not far distant
from the same locality; the latter I have in my possession. Again, Mr.
Marshall informed me in March last, that, on his way to Manchester, he met
with an individual who possessed upwards of a dozen living pupæ, which were
procured from larvæ found in that neighbourhood during last season."
Humphrey and Westwood mention a specimen taken in Brighton in 1834, and in
1846 eight moths were obtained. Something like one hundred and twenty-five
specimens of this species have been recorded between the year last quoted
and the present time. Of these only one occurred in Ireland. This was a
specimen taken at light on September 17, 1881, at Mullaghmore, County
Sligo. Several were captured in Scotland, and one in Wales; but the bulk
were obtained at various places in England, not in the south only but in
the north also. The majority were met with in the autumn, but a specimen
was reported as taken in May, 1848, at Harlestone, another in March, 1862,
at Tooting, and a third in the Isle of Anglesea, July, 1865. In the
last-named year nine specimens were captured in the autumn. Doubleday
recorded a caterpillar found in a garden at Epping (October, 1867), and
other caterpillars have been reported from Newmarket and Sussex.
At least one example of the moth has been recorded almost annually since
1846, but captures seem to have been more numerous in 1861, 1866, 1870,
1879, 1881, and especially so in 1885. The caterpillar (figured on Plate 1)
varies in ground colour, which may be pale brown, dark brown, or green.
There is a black line along the middle of the back, and a pinkish brown
stripe on each side; the latter runs from the ring next the head to the
horn, but is interrupted on ring four, and the back from this ring to the
horn is covered with linear dots arranged in more or less regular rows; the
underside is thickly sprinkled with black-ringed white dots; on each side
of ring four there is a conspicuous oval mark made up of a blackish outer
ring, an inner ring of yellowish, and one of reddish; the centre is
blackish, with some yellowish dots upon it. Head small, pale brown; horn
blackish and rather rough.
[Illustration]
Pl. 16.
1. OLEANDER HAWK-MOTH.
2. SILVER-STRIPED HAWK-MOTH.
[Illustration]
Pl. 17.
ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH.
_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._
{45} It feeds on vine (_Vitis vinifera_) and yellow bedstraw (_Galium
verum_); also on fuchsia and virginia-creeper (_Ampelopsis_). August and
September are given as months for this caterpillar, but the Newmarket and
Epping examples referred to were taken in October.
The moth seems to visit us chiefly in September and October. It does not
appear to have been so often taken at flowers as at light, or when resting
by day, on a wall or window of a dwelling house or shop, to which it had
been attracted at night by the illumination within. The species has a wide
range through Africa and Southern Asia to Java, Borneo, and Australia. In
Europe it is perhaps only native in southern parts; thence it sometimes
wanders through Central Europe to Germany and Holland. The specimens
visiting our islands may come from the latter country, or possibly in years
of comparative plenty the moths come to us _viâ_ the west coast of Europe.
THE OLEANDER HAWK-MOTH (_Daphnis_ (_Chærocampa_) _nerii_).
The forewings of this handsome moth (Plate 16) are pinkish grey, marbled
with various shades of green and olive brown; some of the marbling edged
with white. Hind wings greyish {46} brown shaded with greenish, with a
whitish, waved cross line. The colours of the head, thorax, and body are
similar to those of the wings.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.
CHRYSALIS OF OLEANDER-MOTH.
(Photo by W. J. Lucas.)]
The caterpillar feeds on the Oleander (_Nerium oleander_), and also on the
lesser periwinkle (_Vinca minor_). When full grown it is olive green on the
back from the hinder part of the third ring to the small, rough, and
drooping, horn; the under surface and the whole of the first three rings
ochreous; there is a divided brown spot on the ring nearest the head (first
thoracic segment), and two larger blue-black spots on the third ring. These
spots each enclose two whitish clouds; on the front edge of rings five to
nine (second to sixth abdominal segments) are whitish dots, but these are
fewer on rings eight and nine than on the others; a narrow whitish stripe,
edged above and below with whitish dots, runs along the sides from ring
five to the horn; spiracles are black with pale margins (Plate 1).
Chrysalis brown with blackish central line, which becomes broken and
obscure on the body rings, broken again on the head, but continued thence
along the under surface to the tips of the wing cases. The spiracles are
blackish; the body is dotted, and the last rings are clouded with blackish.
I have only seen a preserved example of this caterpillar and a dead
chrysalis; descriptions of each are from these.
The first published notification of the occurrence of this moth {47} in
England is that of Stephens in 1835. He wrote: "A noble specimen of this
remarkably beautiful insect (five inches three lines in expanse), was taken
in the beginning of September, 1833, by a lady in her drawing-room at
Dover. Whether the pupa had been imported in some of the numerous packages
of foreign fruits, etc., or the insect itself had been brought over in one
of the passage-vessels, is a question not easily solved. The larva feeds
upon an exotic plant; but has been found in a garden near Charmouth, as
appears by a subsequent communication to the _Ent. Magazine_ by Captain
Blomer."
The next record of the moth appears in the _Zoologist_ for 1852. "On the
11th of September a specimen of _Chærocampa nerii_ was taken in Montpelier
Road, Brighton, by a young gentleman at school, while it was hovering over
a passion flower." Two caterpillars were found in a garden at Eastbourne,
feeding upon the leaves of potato, in October, 1859. In confinement they
ate periwinkle, but they were not reared. The following records are, except
where otherwise stated, of single specimens of the moth: Hastings, August
2, 1862; Sheffield, September 14, 1867; St. Leonards, October, 1868 (? 2
examples); Ascot, June, 1873; Lewes, September 3, 1874; Hemel Hempstead,
October 15, 1876; Tottenham, Middlesex, Eastbourne, Sussex, and Blandford,
Dorset, September, 1884; Hartlepool and Prestwich, July, 1885; Brighton,
September 7, 1886; Poplar, September 20, 1888; Dartmouth, September 26,
1890; Stowling, Kent, July, 1896; Yalding, Kent, September 18, Teignmouth,
October 23, 1900; Banhead, Scotland, end September, 1901; Liverpool, in a
steamship, and Atherstone, Warwickshire, October, 1903; Eastbourne, July
14, 1904; Lancaster, September 18, 1906. A specimen of _Daphnis hypothous_,
Cramer, a native of India, Borneo, Java, and Ceylon, was captured at
Crieff, Perthshire, in July, 1873, and was recorded as _D. nerii_, and the
error was not rectified until 1891.
It will be seen from the above that the moth is exceedingly {48} rare in
these islands. The species is an inhabitant of Africa, and its normal range
extends along both sides of the Mediterranean through Asia Minor and Syria
to India. In Europe, north of the Alps, the moth is seldom observed, and it
is probably almost as scarce on most of the Continent as it is with us.
THE SMALL ELEPHANT (_Metopsilus_ (_Chærocampa_) _porcellus_).
The fore wings of this hawk-moth are ochreous with a faint olive tinge; the
front margin is edged and blotched with pinkish, and there is a broad but
irregular band of the same colour on the outer margin. Hind wings blackish
on upper margin, pinkish on outer margin, and ochreous tinged with olive
between; fringes chequered whitish, sometimes tinged with pink. Head,
thorax, and body pinkish, more or less variegated with olive; the thorax
has a patch of white hairs above the base of the wings (Plate 19, Figs. 3,
4).
In most specimens there are at least traces of two cross-lines in the fore
wings, the space between these is sometimes brownish olive; the outer
border of the hind wings varies in tint, and may be purplish. Occasionally
the ground colour of the fore wings is greenish olive.
A hybrid, resulting from a pairing between _Chærocampa elpenor_ and
_Metopsilus porcellus_ has been named _elpenorcellus_ (Staud).
The egg is a rich full green and rather glossy; it is laid in June on
yellow bedstraw and other kinds of _Galium_.
A full-grown caterpillar will measure quite two inches in length, and in
general appearance is not unlike that of the next species. It is, however,
greyish brown in colour, merging into yellowish brown on the front rings.
The head is greyer than the body; the usual Sphingid horn is absent, and in
its place there is a double wart. When quite young the caterpillar is pale
greyish green with blackish bristles, and the head and under surface are
yellowish.
[Illustration]
Pl. 18.
SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH.
_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._
[Illustration]
Pl. 19.
1, 2. ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH.
3, 4. SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH.
{49} It feeds, at night, in August and September, on bedstraw growing in
dry places. It will eat almost any sort of _Galium_; also willow herb
(_Epilobium_), and purple loosestrife (_Lythrum salicaria_).
The chrysalis is pale ochreous brown sprinkled with darker brown; the wing
cases and the ring divisions are also darker. The body rings are furnished
with reddish hooks. It is enclosed in a cocoon similar to that of the
Elephant, and usually is on the ground. The early stages are figured in
Plate 18.
The moth, which chiefly affects drier localities than the next species, is
on the wing in May and June in the south of England, and June and July in
the north. It has a weakness for the flowers of honeysuckle, and
spur-valerian (_Centranthus_), but will take toll in the way of sweets
wherever found, even from the sugar patches of the nocturnal collector.
Except that it does not appear frequently in the Midlands, the species
seems to be widely distributed throughout the country. In Scotland its
range extends to Perthshire and Aberdeen; and in Ireland it is found all
over the island, and is fairly plentiful in some localities, but especially
attached to the coast.
Abroad, its distribution covers nearly the whole of Europe, and eastward to
north-eastern Asia Minor, Bithynia, and the Altai.
THE ELEPHANT (_Chærocampa_ (_Eumorpha_) _elpenor_).
The fore wings are olive brown with two pinkish lines, both shaded with
dark olive brown; the first is rather broader than the second, and
terminates just above the centre of the wing and near a white dot; the
second line runs from the white inner margin to the tip of the wing, and
the area beyond it is flushed with pinkish; there is a black mark at the
base of the wings and the fringes are pinkish. The hind wings are black on
the {50} basal half and pinkish on the outer half; fringes white. The head,
thorax, and body are olive brown marked with pinkish, the thorax being
additionally ornamented with white on the sides. The moth is shown on Plate
19, and the early stages on Plate 17.
The eggs are whitish-green in colour and rather glossy. Those I had were
laid in June on a leaf of willow herb (_Epilobium_).
When newly hatched the caterpillar is yellowish white, and paler between
the rings; the head is tinged with greenish, and the horn is black. The
full-grown caterpillar measures nearly three inches in length, and is
rather plump. It is blackish or brownish grey, thickly sprinkled with black
dots on the back and more sparingly on the sides; the spiracles are
ochreous ringed with blackish, and below them is an ochreous line, which is
most distinct on the front rings; on each side of the third to fifth rings
there is a round black spot, the second and third pairs enclosing black
centred whitish lunules which are sometimes tinged with pink or yellow; the
horn is much of the same colour as the body. There is a green form of this
caterpillar.
It feeds, chiefly, at night, in July and August, on _Epilobium hirsutum_
and on bedstraw especially the kind (_G. palustre_), growing by the side of
brooks and streams. The chrysalis is palish brown freckled with darker
brown, the divisions between the rings and the spiked tail appearing
blackish; enclosed in a cocoon formed of earth and sundry fragments of
stalks, leaves, etc., spun together with silk and generally on the ground,
but sometimes just under the surface.
The moth is on the wing in June, and very occasionally there is a late
summer emergence. It does not fly until dusk, and may then be seen hovering
over the blossoms of honeysuckle, etc. It is also known to be attracted now
and then to "sugared" trees. The best plan, however, for obtaining a few
fine specimens {51} is to rear them from eggs or caterpillars. The latter
are said to come up to sun themselves about four o'clock in the afternoon,
but they may be found at any time in their season, and in likely spots, by
turning back the herbage and looking for them in their hiding-places. When
in repose the head and front rings are drawn inwards, and this distends the
eyed rings, thus bringing these into prominence and giving the creature a
rather wicked look, from which the uninitiated would be likely to retreat.
The caterpillar, however, is quite harmless, and may be handled with
impunity.
Although somewhat scarce in the more northern counties, this is a pretty
common species throughout most of England and Wales. Its range extends into
Scotland as far as Dumbarton, and, according to Barrett, along the east
coast to Aberdeen. Kane states that in Ireland it is met with everywhere
and is abundant in some localities. Distributed over Europe, except the
more northern parts, and extending through Asia to Japan.
THE HUMMING-BIRD HAWK-MOTH (_Macroglossa stellatarum_).
The brown fore wings with black cross lines, and the brownish bordered
orange hind wings, at once separate this from any other hawk-moth occurring
in our islands. Its greenish eggs are laid on bedstraw, and in July and
August the caterpillars may be found on the same kind of plant. They are
greenish or brownish covered with white dots; a whitish line runs along
each side of the back and a yellowish one lower down on the sides; the
spiracles are blackish, and the horn bluish shading into yellow at the tip.
The yellow-flowering bedstraw (_Galium verum_) seems to be the kind upon
which the caterpillar is most often found, but it also occurs on the hedge
bedstraw (_G. mollugo_). It has been known to eat wild madder (_Rubia
peregrina_), and is {52} stated to thrive in confinement on goose-grass or
cleavers (_G. aparine_). When full grown a loosely woven cocoon is formed
on the ground beneath the food plant, or other herbage, and therein the
caterpillar changes to an ochreous grey or brownish chrysalis. This is
marked with darker brown on the wing covers and around the spiracles; the
"tongue" case forms a small beak-like projection.
Like the Bee Hawks, referred to presently, the moth is a day flyer, and
delights in the sunshine, although it has been several times seen on the
wing quite late in the evening, and has also been observed hovering in
front of flowers and probing them with its long "tongue" even in the
pouring rain. Blossoms of very many plants, both wild and cultivated, seem
to receive its attention, but it is perhaps most partial to those of the
jasmine where available. In the south of Europe the species is generally
abundant throughout the year; but there would seem to be at least two
distinct broods, one appearing in June, and the other in October. Possibly
there may be an intermediate brood in August, as the period from egg to
moth is known to be less than two months. In the British Isles, so far as
one can gather from the records, caterpillars have only been found in July
and August. Single specimens of the moth have been seen in the earliest
months of the year, as for example, January 31, 1898 (Bath), January 3,
1899 (S. Wales), February 2, 1900 (London); it has also been observed
several times in December. These facts and others connected with this
species in Britain certainly lend colour to the oft-repeated statement that
the moth hibernates in this country. The insect is known to enter houses,
and to examine holes and cracks in walls, dry banks, etc., in the autumn.
Mr. J. P. Barrett, in a note, written in November or December, 1900, states
that six or seven moths came into his house at Margate in October, and that
one was still hidden in his bedroom. However, if it be granted that the
moth does hibernate here, the instances are so rare and isolated that,
unless such specimens are impregnated females, the chances of these
reproducing their kind the following year are not great. We have,
therefore, to fall back upon immigration as the probable source of the
Humming-Bird Hawk-moth in Britain. Except the more northern portion, this
species is distributed over the whole of the Palæarctic region, including
India, China, Corea, and Japan.
[Illustration]
Pl. 20.
1. NARROW-BORDERED BEE HAWK-MOTH: _caterpillar_.
2, 2a. BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK: _caterpillar and chrysalis_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 21.
1. HUMMING-BIRD HAWK-MOTH.
2. BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK-MOTH, _male_; 3 _female_.
4. NARROW-BORDERED BEE HAWK-MOTH, _male_; 5 _female_.
{53} THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK-MOTH (_Hemaris fuciformis_).
We have but two kinds of Bee Hawk-moths in our islands, and the present
species (Plate 21, Figs. 2, 3) is easily recognized by the broad reddish
brown borders of the wings and especially those on the front pair, which
also have a black bar at the end of the cell. When freshly emerged the
wings are not clear and transparent, but covered with greenish-grey scales,
which are so loosely attached that they are lost after the moth's first
flight.
The egg is bright green, and is laid on the underside of a leaf of
honeysuckle. When very young the caterpillar is yellowish white, but when
full grown (Plate 20, Fig. 2) it is whitish green on the back, green on the
sides, and reddish brown beneath. Along the middle of the back there is a
darker, much interrupted, green line and a yellow line on each side of it;
the spiracles are reddish, the head is dark green, and the horn reddish
brown merging into violet at the base, and brown at the tip. Sometimes
there are blotches of reddish brown on the sides. When quite mature and
ready to assume the chrysalis stage the caterpillar changes in colour to
purplish brown. At all times it is difficult to detect, as its colour and
markings agree so well with the stems, stalks, and leaves of the food
plant. If a leaf of honeysuckle having round holes on each side of the
midrib be noticed, examination of the underside of that leaf may reveal a
young caterpillar of this species. {54}
The common honeysuckle, or woodbine (_Lonicera periclymenum_) is the usual
food, but in confinement the caterpillars will eat the foliage of the
cultivated kinds of _Lonicera_, and, it is stated, even snowberry
(_Symphoricarpus racemosus_). In rearing it will, however, be safer to
supply them with the ordinary food wherever this is to be obtained. July
and August are the months in which to look for them. The chrysalis is
blackish brown, the skin is rather roughened, and the ring divisions are
paler brown. It is protected by a silken cocoon, the interior of which is
smooth, and the exterior coated with earth, etc.
From mid-May to mid-June in average years, the moth is on the wing. The
blossoms of the rhododendron are its favourite attraction, and the best
time to see it at these flowers is on a nice sunny morning between ten
o'clock and midday. The flowers of the bugle (_Ajuga reptans_) growing in
meadows, wood-ridings, on railway banks or hedgerows, are hardly less
attractive, but these are less easily worked than the higher shrubs. The
collector has simply to stand before the latter and await the arrival of
the active Bee Hawks. Among other flowers that this moth has been observed
to visit are those of its own food plant; ragged robins (_Lychnis
flos-cuculi_), ground ivy (_Nepeta glechoma_), and also blue-bell and
primrose.
The species is widely distributed and locally common throughout England,
but its northern range does not extend apparently beyond Yorkshire.
According to Kane it is absent from Ireland; and the reports of odd
specimens from Scotland are probably erroneous. Its distribution abroad
extends over Europe, except the most northern parts, a large portion of
northern and central Asia, and southwards to North Africa.
Moses Harris, it may be mentioned, figured this moth in 1775 as "The
Clear-winged Humming-bird Sphinx." {55}
THE NARROW-BORDERED BEE HAWK-MOTH (_Hemaris tityus_).
This moth (Plate 21, Figs. 4, 5) has long been known as "_bombyliformis_"
and was so mentioned by Haworth in 1802, but for some years past there has
been a growing tendency to discard the name altogether, and as most recent
authors follow Kirby's identification of this species as the _tityus_ of
Linnæus, that name is here adopted.
The chief characters separating this moth from the preceding are the narrow
blackish borders of the wings and the absence of the black mark at the end
of the cell of fore wings. It has been suggested that the female deposits
its green oval eggs on the undersides of the leaves of devil's-bit scabious
(_Scabiosa succisa_) whilst on the wing, but as she will lay freely in a
box it is most probable that she settles on the plants when engaged in egg
laying.
The caterpillar (Plate 20, Fig. 1) is green, roughened with white points,
from which tiny hairs arise; the green colour varies in tint from whitish
to bluish; the lines along each side of the back are yellowish, and often
have purplish red spots, or patches, upon them; the spiracles are set in
purplish red patches, and the roughened reddish-brown horn is finely
pointed. The under side is traversed by a purplish-red stripe. There is
some modification in the reddish markings, both as regards number and
intensity; these are well developed in the specimen from the New Forest
figured on Plate 20. The caterpillars may be found in June and July on the
under sides of the lower leaves of the scabious, and as they eat holes in
the leaves these marks should afford a clue to their whereabouts.
A few days before changing to a dark brown chrysalis, which is enclosed in
a coarse and very loosely constructed cocoon, the caterpillar assumes a
reddish colour.
This moth, which much resembles a large humble bee, is on {56} the wing
from about the middle of May to the middle of June. It should be looked for
in places where its food plant flourishes, such as rough fields adjoining
woods, woodland glades, marshy heaths, fens, bogs, etc. It visits the
blossoms of various low growing plants, among which the louseworts
(_Pedicularis palustris_ and _P. sylvatica_) and the bugle (_Ajuga
reptans_) are perhaps favourites. In some localities the blossoms of the
rhododendron and of the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_) are very
attractive. When seen hovering over the flowers it must be approached
cautiously, as, although seemingly fully engrossed in the business in hand,
it is quickly alarmed and its movements are rapid.
It occurs throughout the greater part of England and Wales and northwards
to Sutherlandshire in Scotland. In Ireland it is abundant in many
localities.
Distributed over Europe its range extends northwards to Lapland, southwards
to north-west Africa, and eastward to Amurland.
PROMINENTS (_Notodontidæ_).
In the majority of our moths belonging to this family there is a tooth-like
tuft of scales projecting from about the middle of the inner margin of the
fore wings; these, when the moth is resting, are brought together and
raised above the level of the closed wings (see Fig. 11, page 11). The
antennæ of the male are bipectinated in most of the species, but those of
_Odontosia_, _Lophopteryx_, and _Phalera_ are dentated and each tooth has a
little tuft of short hair.
The moths are not often seen in the day time, but a few species are
sometimes met with at rest on tree trunks, palings, etc. All fly at night
and are pretty rapid on the wing; possibly if it were not for the fact that
a bright light has a powerful attraction for them, the perfect insects
would be rarely captured. {57} Specimens, when caught, except females which
it may be well to keep for eggs, should be killed and pinned at once, as
many kinds become very restless when imprisoned in a box and soon damage
themselves. Females usually deposit their eggs freely, and in most cases
the caterpillars are not difficult to rear when once they begin to feed.
Sometimes it is not easy to induce them to commence this very necessary
business. The caterpillars, except those of _Phalera_ and _Pygæra_, are
without hairs on the body; those of the true Prominents generally have one,
or more, hump on the back; in some kinds the anal prolegs or hind claspers,
are small. When resting the hinder part of the caterpillar is more or less
raised, several of them elevate the front portion also, and frequently the
posture assumed is a most curious one.
The caterpillars of _Cerura_, _Dicranura_, and _Stauropus_ have the hind
claspers transformed into tail-like appendages, which in the case of the
Puss and Kittens take the form of a pair of slender tubes furnished with
flagellæ, or whips, which can be protruded or withdrawn as occasion may
require. These organs are presumably for defensive purposes, but are not
always effective in combating the attack of parasitical flies, as these
evidently manage to deposit their egg on the caterpillars not infrequently.
The pupa, or chrysalis, of some kinds is enclosed in a hard cocoon on tree
trunks, and others in a soft cocoon generally underground; sometimes,
however, the cocoon is spun up between leaves; occasionally, as for example
that of the Buff-tip, the chrysalis is found in the ground without any
protecting covering, although the cell in which it was formed may have been
flimsily lined with silk.
Nearly one hundred species are referred to this family in Staudinger's
"Catalogue of Palæarctic Lepidoptera," and of these twenty-five occur, or
have been taken, in the British Isles, nearly all of which are accepted as
indigenous. Two of the {58} three species not generally regarded as true
natives have been found in the caterpillar state, and the third was reared
from an egg obtained with others of the same kind in Norfolk.
THE ALDER KITTEN (_Cerura bicuspis_).
This moth (Plate 22, Fig. 3) differs from either of the two next following
in being whiter, and in having both margins of the central band of the fore
wings angled or bent inwards above the middle; this is markedly so on the
outer side. The band itself is black, inclining to purplish rather than
grey. Barrett mentions a specimen without central band or cloud towards
tip.
[Illustration: FIG. 19. COCOON OF THE ALDER KITTEN.]
According to Buckler, the caterpillar is yellow-green; head dark
reddish-brown; at the back of the head commences a broad, reddish-brown
blotch, which runs to a point on the back of the third segment, where is a
slight elevation; on the fourth it recommences and becomes broader on each
segment to the eighth, where it extends below and encloses the spiracles,
thence it narrows to the tenth, continuing on the eleventh and twelfth as a
broad stripe, and {59} widening on the thirteenth, where it again narrows
to the tentacles; in the broad portion of this dorsal marking are faint
indications of two or three orange spots; on each side it is broadly edged
with pale yellow, and on the sixth, seventh, and eighth segments its margin
is deeply indented. It feeds on alder and birch in July and August.
The cocoon is shown in its natural position on birch bark (Fig. 19). This
was kindly lent to me for figuring by Mr. L. W. Newman, of Bexley, who also
had another in which lichen as well as fragments of bark were worked into
the surface, so that the cocoon was less in evidence than the one
portrayed.
The moth emerges in May and June.
The first British specimen, a male, was found on alder near Preston, and
was recorded by Doubleday in the _Zoologist_ for 1847. A second example was
noted from the same locality in 1849. This district in Lancashire, and
Tilgate Forest in Sussex, are the chief homes in the north and the south of
England respectively; but one or more specimens have occurred in Cheshire,
Herefordshire, Oxfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Devonshire, and more
frequently in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Yorkshire. It does not seem to
inhabit Scotland or Ireland, neither has it been recorded from Wales, so
far as I can find, more than once.
The species is found in Germany, Switzerland, Eastern France, Belgium,
Southern Sweden, Central Russia, Livonia, Finland, Ussuri, and a local race
occurs in Amurland.
THE POPLAR KITTEN (_Cerura bifida_).
Fore wings grey, with a broad, dark grey central band, and a cloud of the
same colour towards the tips of the wings; the band is inwardly margined by
an almost straight black line, and outwardly by a curved line; the third
line is double, and curved towards the costa, forming the inner edge of the
grey cloud, the lower part is wavy. The first black line is inwardly, and
{60} the second outwardly edged with ochreous, and preceding the first is a
series of black dots.
The full-grown caterpillar, which is green, with a yellow-edged, purplish,
irregular stripe on the back, is figured on Plate 23, together with a very
young example, the purplish-black eggs as laid, and the red-brown
chrysalis. The cocoon from which the chrysalis was extracted was spun up on
a fairly stout twig of poplar, from which some of the bark had been torn;
the cocoon was formed, as regards the upper part, on the bare twig, and
this was covered with gnawed wood, instead of with bark fragments, as is
the lower end. The moth is figured on Plate 22, and the early stages on
Plate 23.
The moth emerges in June, sometimes in July, and may occasionally be found
at rest on the trunks of poplars, on which the caterpillar feeds from July
to September; also on adjacent walls or palings. The cocoons are made up on
the surface or in the chinks of the bark, and may be searched for, all
through the winter and early spring. It is curious to note how readily
these are detected after the moth has escaped, and how difficult they are
to see before that event. Usually there is but one brood in the year, but
in the hot summer of 1906 a male specimen emerged from a few chrysalids
that I had reared from eggs laid at the end of June of that year. On the
other hand, the moth has been known to remain in the chrysalis for two
winters.
The species is not uncommon in some parts of the London district, and seems
to occur throughout England wherever poplars abound. It does not appear to
have been found in Scotland, and is scarce in Ireland. Abroad it is found
in Central Europe with a northern range to Finland, southwards to Italy and
Greece, and eastwards to the Altai.
[Illustration]
Pl. 22.
1. POPLAR KITTEN-MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_.
3. ALDER KITTEN-MOTH, _male_.
4. SALLOW KITTEN-MOTH, _male_; 5 _female_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 23.
1, 1a, 1b. POPLAR KITTEN: _eggs, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
2, 2a. SALLOW KITTEN: _eggs and caterpillars_.
{61}
THE SALLOW KITTEN (_Cerura furcula_).
This moth differs from the last in its generally smaller size, but more
especially in the shape of the black line forming the outer margin of the
central band; this is always more or less angled or dentate towards the
front margin of the wings, whereas, in the Poplar Kitten, this portion of
the line forms a clean curve (Plate 22, Figs. 4, 5).
The eggs are black, rather glossy, and are generally deposited in pairs,
but rarely more than three, and often only singly, on the upper surface of
a leaf of sallow or willow. The caterpillar feeds from July to September,
sometimes as early as the end of June, or as late as October. It is green,
with a yellow tinge; the markings on the back are similar to these
characters in the caterpillar of the preceding species, but, as will be
seen by looking at the figures on Plate 23, they are not quite the same in
outline. The figure of the young caterpillar on this plate was made soon
after it left the egg, and the shell from which it emerged is also
depicted. Sallow and willow are the usual food plants, but in August, 1906,
I found a half-grown caterpillar of this species on aspen, but it died a
few days afterwards. The reddish-brown chrysalis is enclosed in the usual
hard cocoon of its kind, which is affixed to a branch or the trunk of the
tree upon which the caterpillar fed. A depression is usually selected, and
when the cocoon is finished off with its covering of bark fragments it is
difficult to see.
The species is well distributed over England, Ireland, and Scotland;
perhaps more frequently obtained on the mosses of Cheshire, Lancashire, and
Yorkshire, than in other parts of England. It is found in Central and
Northern Europe, and, according to Staudinger, in Amurland and North
America. {62}
THE PUSS MOTH (_Dicranura vinula_).
Portraits of both sexes of this rather common moth are given on Plate 24.
The head, thorax, and body are very fluffy. The whitish fore wings are
crossed by several wave-like lines; the main veins (_nervures_) are
ochreous, and the branches (_nervules_) are blackish; beyond the more or
less clear basal area there is often a broad but irregular blackish band,
and the wavy markings on the outer area vary in intensity (sometimes the
short streaks between the veins terminate on the outer margin in black
dots). Hind wings whitish in the male, and suffused with blackish in the
female, to a greater or lesser extent. In some examples of the female the
fore wings and the body are also tinged with blackish. The antennæ are
bipectinated in both sexes, but those of the female have the teeth much
shorter than those of the male.
The eggs are usually laid in pairs on the upper surface of a leaf of
sallow, willow, or poplar. In colour these are purplish or reddish brown,
shining, and finely grained; a minute depression at the top is yellowish,
with a black speck at the bottom of the hollow.
In its last stage the caterpillar is green, with a white or yellowish-edged
purplish brown band on the back; the head is light brown margined with
black and purplish behind, and the ring immediately following (first
thoracic) is green margined with yellow and having two black spots on the
upper part. When the creature assumes the position which Professor Poulton
terms the terrifying attitude, the front part is elevated, the head is
drawn back into the ring next to it, and the tails are raised and curved
forward over the back (see Plate 25). Seen thus from the front the
appearance of the caterpillar is certainly grotesque, and no doubt affords
it some protection from its enemies. It feeds on poplars, sallows, and
willows, usually in July and August, but sometimes as late as September.
{63}
[Illustration: FIG. 20.
CATERPILLAR OF PUSS MOTH.]
The reddish brown chrysalis is enclosed in a hard cocoon spun up and
securely attached to the trunk or under a limb of the tree upon which the
caterpillar was nourished, or upon some other adjacent thereto. I once
found a cocoon on the lower rail of a garden fence. In constructing the
cocoon fragments of bark and wood are worked on the exterior, but failing
these the caterpillar will make use of any available material for the
purpose. If enclosed in a tumbler covered with glass it will spin a
transparent cocoon. Emergence from its strong pupal chamber would appear to
be a difficult matter, but the caterpillar and the chrysalis both
contribute something towards assisting the final efforts of the moth to
escape. The caterpillar, in constructing the cocoon, is careful to make the
exit end with a thinner layer than the other parts; then the chrysalis is
provided with a cutting implement in the shape of a keel-like arrangement
on the fore part, and with this it operates at the right time on the weak
end until a breach is made; the moth breaks the head end of the chrysalis
case and moistens {64} the ruptured material with a softening fluid so that
the insect is able to force its way out of the cocoon; the chrysalis case
remains in the cocoon.
The moth is on the wing in May and June, and sometimes July. Three
specimens that I reared this year (1907) from eggs found on a leaf of
poplar last year, emerged on June 4th, 10th, and July 12th. They all
pupated about the same time, and side by side on cork bark.
I believe this species has not been recorded from the Orkneys or the
Shetlands, but with these exceptions it seems to occur in more or less
frequency throughout the United Kingdom. It is widely distributed in
Europe, and its range extends to Siberia. In Lapland, Amurland, Japan, and
North Africa it is represented by named forms.
THE LOBSTER (_Stauropus fagi_).
The English name of this insect does not apply to the greyish brown or
sometimes blackish moth (Plate 26), but to its remarkable caterpillar, the
figures of which, on Plate 27, are reproduced from drawings by Mr. Alfred
Sich. In colour this curious-shaped creature is always some shade of brown,
the head is marked in front with reddish, the ring divisions of the body
are darker brown, and the hind rings are reddish brown.
The late Mr. W. H. Tugwell, referring to the early history of these
caterpillars, states that a female of the blackish form received from
Reading in May was kept alive for seven days, during which time she laid a
few eggs on oak leaves each night; "all told" she produced forty eggs. As
she was then quite exhausted, a good many had probably been laid
previously. The eggs when first laid are of a pale cream colour,
hemispherical in shape and flattened beneath. About the seventh day a
circular depression, and a dark spot, appear, and gradually the entire egg
assumes a dull purplish colour. "On the tenth day the caterpillars hatch
out. When they first leave the shell they appear extremely large, this is
partly on account of the long legs and the caudal appendages which are ever
nervously twisting about. The young caterpillars most carefully keep guard
over their own egg-shell, which is to them an all-important item, as this
provides them with their first meal--the first and only food they take for
seven days, in fact, for a longer period, as it is not until after moulting
their first skin that they eat any other food. This fact I proved over and
over again, as, being an invalid, my time was quite free to watch them hour
after hour and day after day. As soon as they have eaten their way out of
the shell they stretch themselves, and then from time to time nibble
portions of the white chitinous-looking egg-shell, and a tough morsel it
seems to be for them; but they never leave it for more than an inch or so,
and then rapidly come back. They keep nervously moving around and about
this, and if perchance another caterpillar should approach within touch of
it, a vigorous attack is made to drive off the intruder. All going well
during the first hour or two, the whole of the shell, or sometimes not more
than from half to two-thirds of it is consumed; and once the caterpillars
really leave the egg-shell, that is, walk away from it, they do not touch
it after. If by any chance a young caterpillar gets driven away from the
egg-shell, death is certain to result, as I could never induce them to feed
on portions of empty shells left by others; nor would they eat the leaves
or the brown stipules of the beech, which it has been suggested they do
eat. In no single instance did they eat other food in their first skin save
and alone the one meal of their own egg-shells."
[Illustration]
Pl. 24.
PUSS MOTH.
[Illustration]
Pl. 25.
PUSS MOTH.
_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars, chrysalis and cocoon._
{65} The caterpillars feed on beech, and also occasionally on birch, oak,
hazel, and some fruit trees, and may be found from July to September.
The chrysalis, which is enclosed in a tightly woven cocoon {66} spun up
between leaves, usually dead ones, is blackish brown with a violet bloom
upon it.
The moths are on the wing in May and June in an early season, but not until
June and July in a backward one. They may be sometimes found resting by day
on the stems of small trees or even bushes. "In fact, anything," Mr.
Holland says, "which stands upright in a beech wood will do, so that it is
not too large." The blackish form of the moth is so like a knot on a stem
that it is easily overlooked. There is sometimes a second emergence in
August. Possibly those caterpillars found during the latter part of
September in some favourable years are from eggs deposited by moths
emerging in early August, and the offspring of May parents.
The species is widely distributed, but not often common, over the Midland,
Southern, and Eastern Counties of England. It seems to flourish chiefly in
beech woods, and is perhaps more frequent in parts of Berkshire, Bucks, and
Oxfordshire, than elsewhere, but it is not uncommon in some seasons in the
New Forest. It has been reported from Swansea in Wales, and once from
Selby, Yorkshire. In Ireland it is exceedingly rare, and is not known to
occur in Scotland. The range abroad extends through Central Europe,
northward to Sweden, southward to Spain and Portugal, and eastward to
Armenia, Ussuri, and Japan.
THE DUSKY MARBLED BROWN (_Gluphisia crenata_).
Only three authenticated British examples are known of this dingy
grey-brown moth (Plate 28, Fig. 3). The earliest intimation we have of the
occurrence of this species in England is the following record by the late
Mr. Henry Doubleday in the _Entomologist_, vol. i. p. 156: "_Chaonia
crenata._ The first British specimen of this insect was taken in Ongar Park
Wood, in June, 1839; a second in the same place, in June of the present
year. Both specimens were females." The locality mentioned in the foregoing
notice which was penned July 10th, 1841, is in the County of Essex. At a
meeting of the Entomological Society of London held in April, 1854, the
Rev. Joseph Greene exhibited a specimen that he had reared from a
caterpillar obtained from a poplar near Halton, in Bucks, August, 1853.
[Illustration]
Pl. 26.
LOBSTER MOTH.
[Illustration]
Pl. 27.
LOBSTER MOTH.
_Egg, enlarged, caterpillars, chrysalis and cocoon._
{67} According to Buckler the caterpillar is pale green, with a thin
whitish line down the middle of the back, a broader yellow line on each
side, and some reddish spots on the front and hind rings of the body; the
spiracles are black. It spins a somewhat oval-shaped cocoon between two
poplar leaves, and therein turns to a glossy blackish brown chrysalis.
Abroad the species is found in Central Europe, North Italy, North-western
Russia, Southern Norway, and also in Amurland and Ussuri. There are said to
be two broods on the continent, one emergence of moths taking place in
April and the other in June or July.
THE MARBLED BROWN (_Drymonia trimacula_).
Somewhat similar to the next species, but the fore wings are generally
whiter; the cross lines are not so straight, and there is no black crescent
above the centre of the wings (Plate 28, Fig. 1).
The caterpillar is green, with two yellow lines on the back, and a yellow
one along the spiracles, the latter edged above with reddish. It feeds on
oak, and may be found from July to September; stated to hide by day in the
chinks of the bark. The reddish brown chrysalis is enclosed in a cocoon of
earth held together with silk. It may be searched for at the roots of
grass, etc., around the foot of oak trees growing in parks or in the more
open parts of woods. The moth appears in May.
Although nowhere really common, it seems to occur pretty generally over the
southern portion of England, and as far north {68} as Derbyshire and
Staffordshire. Farther north, and in Wales and Scotland, it has been rarely
met with. Recorded by Birchall to be not uncommon at Killarney; but Kane
states that he has never seen an Irish specimen.
The species occurs locally throughout Central Europe, also in Transylvania,
Northern and Central Italy, and Eastern Armenia. In Ussuri, and Japan, it
is represented by the form _dodonides_, Staud.
THE LUNAR MARBLED BROWN (_Drymonia chaonia_).
The fore wings of this moth (Plate 28, Fig. 2) are dark fuscous, almost
blackish, a short white line near the base; the central third is white
clouded with the ground colour and limited by white edged black wavy lines;
a black crescent just above the centre of the wing. Hind wings smoky grey
with a pale curved line. The egg, which is bluish white in colour, is of
the usual Notodont shape. Caterpillar green, merging into bluish-green on
the back; the lines are pale yellow, or creamy white, that along the black
margined spiracles is rather broad and is sometimes tinged with reddish on
the three front rings. Head green, mouth marked with pale yellow. Feeds in
June, July, and August on oak. From about a dozen eggs that I had in May,
1907, the caterpillars hatched on the 13th of the month. Only one got
through safely to the chrysalis stage which it reached at the end of June.
On June 26th some half-grown and smaller caterpillars were received from
the New Forest, only one of these was seen on July 19th, but it was then
nearly full grown and appeared to be quite healthy, and others had pupated
or died.
The chrysalis is deep red brown, enclosed in a silken cocoon covered with
particles of earth; generally found at the roots of isolated oak trees
(Plate 29, Figs. 1, 1a).
[Illustration]
Pl. 28.
1. MARBLED BROWN MOTH.
2. LUNAR MARBLED BROWN.
3. DUSKY MARBLED BROWN.
4. SWALLOW PROMINENT, _female_; 5 _male_.
6. LESSER SWALLOW PROMINENT.
[Illustration]
Pl. 29.
1, 1a. LUNAR MARBLED BROWN: _caterpillar and chrysalis_.
2, 2a, 2b. SWALLOW PROMINENT: _egg, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
3, 3a, 3b. LESSER SWALLOW PROMINENT: _egg, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
{69} The moth emerges in May, sometimes at the end of April, generally in
the afternoon; it sits on the tree trunk to expand and dry its wings, and
then ascends higher up the tree. It is found in Berkshire, Buckinghamshire,
and in most of the southern counties of England, and in the west, but it
seems to be rarer eastward and northward, and also in Scotland. In Ireland
it has been found, very sparingly, in Wicklow and Kerry, and "numbers were
taken in a moth trap at Clonbrook."
The range abroad is very similar to that of the next species.
THE SWALLOW PROMINENT (_Pheosia tremula_).
Normally whitish, with a brown shaded black stripe along the inner margin
of the fore wings, and a brownish cloud, with black streaks in it, towards
the tips of these wings; the outer extremities of the veins are white,
there is a white wedge-shaped streak between veins 1 and 2, and from the
apex of this an indented white line runs to the base of the wing. Sometimes
the whole discal area is suffused with brownish. The moth is shown on Plate
28, Figs. 4, 5, and the early stages on Plate 29, Figs. 2, 2a, and 2b. The
egg when laid is creamy white, and the newly hatched caterpillar is pale
green. When full grown the caterpillar is green with rather darker, but not
always clearly defined, lines along the back, and a yellow line along the
region of the black spiracles; the underside is sometimes reddish. Another
form is brownish in colour and the yellow line is then generally obscure.
The green form is figured on Plate 29. The usual food is poplar, but sallow
is also eaten. It may be found in late June and early July and again in
September and October. The chrysalis is reddish brown and glossy except on
the wing covers, which are granulated and appear darker. The cocoon is
roughly constructed of silk and earth, and before spinning it the autumnal
caterpillar sometimes burrows a good depth under the surface of the soil;
the summer cocoons are said to be made up among leaves. The moth is on the
wing in May and August. {70}
The species is perhaps most common in the southern and eastern counties of
England, but seems to be pretty generally distributed throughout the
country, and extends into Scotland as far as Moray. In Ireland it has a
wide range but is only common near Londonderry. Abroad it is found in
Central and Northern Europe, and as far east as Amurland and Ussuri. In
America it is represented by _P. dimidiata_, H.-S., which does not seem to
be really specifically distinct.
THE LESSER SWALLOW PROMINENT (_Pheosia dictæoides_).
Very similar to the last species, but generally smaller, and the ground
colour has usually less brown in it; the chief character, however, by which
it may be distinguished, is the broader and clearer white wedge-shaped mark
between veins one and two on the fore wings. Reference to the figures of
each species on Plate 28 will show this at once.
The eggs are greenish white, and the full-grown caterpillar is purplish
brown on the back merging into violet on the sides; there is a broad yellow
stripe along the spiracle area; the head is violet, faintly marked with
black. A noticeable feature of this caterpillar is its varnished
appearance. It feeds on birch in June and July, and sometimes in September
and October. The early stages are figured on Plate 29, Figs. 3, 3a, and 3b.
The species has a somewhat similar distribution to that mentioned for the
preceding, but it seems to be commoner in the North of England and in
Scotland than elsewhere in the British Isles.
THE PEBBLE PROMINENT (_Notodonta ziczac_).
This moth varies in the colour of the fore wings from pale ochreous brown
to a darker brown tinged with reddish; the usual pale greyish patch in the
middle of the costal area is {71} sometimes obliterated by a suffusion of
the darker colour; the dark-brown first and second lines are often only
visible towards the front edge of the wings; a blackish lunule or crescent
forms, in conjunction with the strongly curved outer line, the outline of
the characteristic pebble-like mark on the apical area of the wings; a pale
saw-edged line, which is inwardly shaded with dusky and intersected by
black streaks on the veins, traverses the pebble mark, but in the lighter
coloured specimens this line is not traceable. The female has browner hind
wings than the male. The moth is depicted on Plate 31, Fig. 2; and the
early stages on Plate 30, Figs. 1, 1a, and 1b.
The caterpillar, when full grown, is pale ochreous grey, sometimes tinged
with pink or purplish brown, or with yellowish, and especially on the hind
rings; a yellow stripe along the back is edged here and there with
brownish; the diffuse dusky line along the area of the black margined
spiracles is edged with yellowish. It is occasionally found on poplar, but
sallows and willow are the more usual food plants, and it feeds upon these
in June and July and again in August and September. The reddish brown
chrysalis is enclosed in an earthen cocoon just under the surface of the
ground at the roots of tree or bush upon which the caterpillar fed. The
moth emerges in May and June from chrysalides of the previous year, and in
August as a second generation. Three broods in the year have been obtained
in confinement, but this is probably exceptional.
Widely distributed throughout the British Isles, but seems to have a
preference for fens and marshy ground. It occurs all over Central and
Northern Europe, its range extends through France to Spain, Italy, and
Corsica, and it has been recorded from Armenia and Amurland. {72}
THE IRON PROMINENT (_Notodonta dromedarius_).
The specimen shown on Plate 31 is from Surrey, and represents the form most
frequently obtained in the south of England. Northwards the species becomes
darker in colour, and the reddish and yellow marking much reduced. The form
_perfusca_, as figured by Stephens, has the fore wings dark purplish grey,
streaked with dark brown; a pale patch at the base is russet marked, the
line before the middle of the wing is russet, and a dash of the same colour
lies at the lower extremity of the line beyond the middle; the hind wings
are brownish grey with a broad whitish cross line. The specimen, which is
of the female sex, was from Dublin, and the form was not then supposed to
occur in any other part of the British Isles. It is now, however, well
known in Scotland and the North of England, and also in Ireland. Some
examples that I have seen from Scotland are much larger and darker than the
figure referred to. In his description of this form Stephens states that
the fore wings are fuscous mixed with chestnut, with darker clouds. The
caterpillar, which is figured on Plate 30, is green, becoming yellowish on
the back; a rather broad stripe on the back of the front rings and the
markings on the humps and on other parts of the body are purplish brown. It
feeds on birch, alder, and sometimes hazel, usually on the former, in June,
July, and August. In some seasons, and localities, the moth appears twice
in the year: the caterpillar may then be found in September and October.
The chrysalis is blackish-brown and rather glossy, enclosed in a cocoon
composed of silk and sand or other soil, and may be obtained by lightly
digging up the earth and sods at the roots of trees.
THE THREE HUMPED (_Notodonta phoebe_ = _tritophus_).
Very little is known in Britain of this Central European moth (Plate 31,
Fig. 3). The first specimen of which we have any {73} knowledge was reared
on August 10, 1842 from a caterpillar found in Essex on aspen. This example
was included, with two others, one of which was captured in Suffolk, in the
collection of the late Dr. Mason, which was dispersed at Stevens' Auction
Rooms in March, 1905.
Besides the specimens mentioned above, a caterpillar, which subsequently
died, was beaten from alder in the Exeter district in 1870; another was
obtained from hazel in Gloucestershire, but this was "ichneumoned." Then
there is a record of a moth or caterpillar, presumably the former,
occurring in the neighbourhood of Paisley; and there is a report that a
caterpillar was once found at the base of an aspen growing on Clapham
Common. A specimen was taken at electric light at Bedford, May, 1907.
The caterpillar is green, with three reddish humps on the back, and an
interrupted reddish line along the sides. It feeds on poplar in July and
August.
THE LARGE DARK PROMINENT (_Notodonta tritophus_ = _torva_).
Another Central European species, of which only one specimen is known to
have occurred in Britain. This was reared from an egg, or from a
caterpillar, obtained in Norfolk in the latter part of the summer of 1882.
The moth might be mistaken for a small dark coloured specimen of the next
species (_N. trepida_), but the dark hindwings readily distinguish it
(Plate 31, Fig. 4).
The caterpillar, although darker, bears considerable resemblance to that of
the Pebble Prominent; it feeds in June and July, and also in September, on
aspen.
According to Staudinger this species is the _tritophus_ of Esper, an
earlier name than _torva_, Hübn.; whilst the preceding species, that has so
long been referred to _tritophus_, Fabricius (or _trilophus_), is found to
be _phoebe_, Siebert, which name has seventeen years' priority. {74}
THE GREAT PROMINENT (_Notodonta trepida_).
Fore wings greyish, or ochreous grey, with dark cross lines; a blackish
tuft from middle of inner margin, and a series of dark, or sometimes
reddish, spots on a pale cross line before the inner margin. Hind wings
whitish, sometimes ochreous tinged; clouded with greyish on costal area
(Plate 31, Fig. 5). When full grown the caterpillar is rather larger than
the one figured on Plate 30. In colour it is green, with yellow lines along
the back, seven reddish-edged yellow oblique streaks on the sides, and a
reddish tinged stripe on the two rings nearest the head. It is stated to
assume a purplish tint when quite mature. May be found from end of June to
early August on oak. The dark reddish brown chrysalis, which is enclosed in
an earth-covered cocoon, may be found at the roots of oak trees in the
autumn or winter.
The moth emerges between late April and early June, sometimes remaining in
the chrysalis for two winters. Light attracts it freely, and it is
frequently seen in the illuminated moth trap, and may be occasionally noted
on the iron frame of a gas lamp in suitable places. Sometimes the moth is
met with in the daytime, resting on the trunks or branches of oak trees in
woods, or on palings adjacent thereto. When such specimens happen to be
females, they should be kept for eggs, which they lay freely.
It occurs in most of the southern counties of England, is somewhat rare in
the Midlands, and scarce in the northern counties and in Scotland. Recorded
by Birchall as "not uncommon in Co. Wicklow," but Kane ("Cat. Lep.
Ireland") states that he has no information concerning its occurrence in
the sister island. Distributed throughout Central Europe, extending into
Spain, Italy, and Corsica; also to South-east Russia, Armenia, and possibly
Ussuri. {75}
THE WHITE PROMINENT (_Leucodonta bicoloria_).
The glossy white moth, prettily marked with orange and black, shown on
Plate 33, was not known to inhabit the British Isles until 1858 when
Bonchard obtained one specimen in a large birch wood in the Killarney
district, Ireland; in the following year he took a second specimen. Both
captures were made in the month of June. In June, 1861, one example of the
moth was found in Burnt Wood, Staffordshire; and in the same wood, June,
1865, no fewer than six specimens were secured, and eggs obtained from one
of the females. The caterpillars duly hatched out, but most of them were
lost, only seven attaining the moth state. Kane states that in 1866 a
specimen was taken in Mucross demesne, and caterpillars "were said also to
have been beaten." Miss Vernon of Clontarf showed him her collection of
insects from Kerry, and he found therein two rather poor specimens of the
White Prominent from a new locality in Kerry. Barrett mentions the capture,
in 1880, of a specimen near Exeter, Devonshire. From the foregoing, which
comprises all that appears to be definitely known about British _L.
bicoloria_, it will be gathered that the species is not only very local,
but exceedingly rare.
The caterpillar, figured on Plate 32, from a coloured drawing by Mr. A.
Sich, is pale yellowish green, rather whiter on the upper surface; the
lines are green, the central one darkest; the stripe along the spiracles is
yellow edged with green. It feeds on birch in July; and changes in due
course to a dark reddish brown chrysalis, which is enclosed in a compact
silken cocoon spun up between leaves. The moth emerges in May or June.
Abroad the species seems to be generally distributed in Central Europe, and
is also found in the Ural, Amurland, Ussuri, and Japan. {76}
THE MAPLE PROMINENT (_Lophopteryx cuculla_).
To Donovan and the entomologists of his time this moth (Plate 33, Fig. 4)
was known by the English name still in use, Stephens considered it a rare
insect, and remarks that he once caught a specimen at Darenth Wood, by
"mothing," in June, 1820; several other examples had been taken in the same
place, and in the neighbouring woods. Although many more localities are now
known for the moth, it still continues to be rather a scarce species. It
appears to inhabit woods on a chalky soil almost exclusively, and is found
less uncommonly in the woods of Buckinghamshire than in its other haunts in
Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Kent, Sussex, Devonshire, Essex, Cambridgeshire,
Suffolk, and Norfolk. The bulk of the specimens in collections were
probably reared from the egg, or from caterpillars obtained by beating or
searching the maple bushes growing in the woods frequented by the moth.
The caterpillar is whitish green, rather glossy, with a dark green line
along the middle of the back, which is broadest on the front rings, and a
pale yellow stripe on the sides, the latter edged above with pale green;
spiracles pinkish edged with black; a hump on the eleventh ring is purplish
tinted. Head pale ochreous brown marked with reddish brown. Sometimes the
general colour is yellowish or pinkish ochreous. May be found in June and
July on maple (_Acer campestris_) and in confinement will feed very well on
sycamore (_A. pseudoplatanus_). The moth usually emerges in May or June,
but in 1901 Mr. Adkin reared ten moths, July 24 to 31, from eggs deposited
in the spring of that year. The species does not seem to be a common one
even abroad; its range extends through Central Europe to Italy and Sicily,
and it is also found in Ussuri.
[Illustration]
Pl. 30.
1, 1a, 1b. PEBBLE PROMINENT: _egg, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
2, 2a, 2b, 2c. IRON PROMINENT: _eggs, caterpillar, chrysalis and cocoon_.
3, 3a. GREAT PROMINENT: _caterpillar and chrysalis_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 31.
1. IRON PROMINENT.
2. PEBBLE PROMINENT.
3. THREE HUMPED MOTH.
4. LARGE DARK PROMINENT.
5. GREAT PROMINENT.
{77}
THE COXCOMB PROMINENT (_Lophopteryx camelina_).
Probably the commonest of the true Prominents, and certainly the most
variable. The early stages are figured on Plate 32, and two forms of the
moth on Plate 33. In its typical and southern form the fore wings are more
or less pale reddish brown with a darker cloud on the inner marginal area;
there are three dusky, or blackish, cross lines, but two of these are
generally very indistinct, the third runs from the blackish "tooth" on the
inner margin to the front edge of the wing, and is followed by a pale wavy
band often outwardly bordered with dusky. Sometimes the fore wings are
clouded with dark brown, and in the North of England a dark reddish form
occurs. In Scotland the fore wings vary in colour from dusky brown through
reddish to pale yellowish brown; sometimes the "tooth" is reddish in
chestnut coloured specimens. The whitish eggs are laid on the undersides of
the leaves of various trees and bushes upon which the caterpillar feeds;
these are chiefly birch, oak, hazel, sallow, and beech.
The caterpillar, which appears in July to October, and sometimes even
later, is green, with a darker line on the back, and a yellow one on the
sides; two reddish tipped wart-like projections on the back of ring eleven.
Occasionally the general colour is ochreous with a pinkish tinge, or it may
be even purplish. There are two broods in the south of England, but only
one in the north. The moths of the first brood fly in May and June, and
those of the second in July and August, sometimes rather later. Pretty
generally distributed throughout England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland.
Abroad its range extends over Northern and Central Europe to Northern
Spain, Northern and Central Italy, Dalmatia, Turkey, Armenia, Siberia,
Amurland, Corea, and Japan. {78}
THE SCARCE PROMINENT (_Odontosia carmelita_).
In 1828, when Stephens figured this moth, he only knew of two British
specimens, both of which had been reared about sixteen years previously
from caterpillars found at Darenth Wood. The wings, which are not thickly
scaled, are purplish grey, becoming reddish brown on the front margins of
the fore wings; the outer transverse line of the fore wings starts from a
conspicuous creamy patch on the front margin, and the line on the hind
wings is most distinct above the anal angle, where it runs through a
purplish cloud (Plate 33, Fig. 5).
In April and May the pale blue eggs are laid on the underside of birch
leaves. The caterpillar in June feeds on the foliage of the birch, and when
full grown is green freckled with yellowish above; a darker line runs along
the middle of the back, and a reddish spotted, or tinted, yellow stripe
along the sides; the small head, also green, is marked with yellowish. When
the chrysalids are kept indoors the moths emerge earlier than in the open,
and it therefore sometimes happens that eggs are laid and the caterpillars
hatch before the birch leaves are ready for them. In such cases I have got
over the difficulty in a measure by removing a portion of the outer
covering of one or two of the most forward buds to give the caterpillars a
chance of getting at the unexposed leaves. The moth emerges in April or
May, and, as pointed out by Mr. R. Adkin, it sometimes remains in the
chrysalis for two winters. Possibly this species may be found in most
districts where birch abounds; but, so far as its distribution in our
islands is known, it certainly appears to be distinctly local. Besides
Darenth, it also occurs in West Wickham Wood, and at Wateringbury, in Kent;
the Weybridge district, Dorking, and Haslemere, in Surrey; Ashdown Forest,
Blackdown Woods, Haywards Heath, and Tilgate Forest, in Sussex; New Forest,
Hampshire, and Berkshire. There seems to be no record of the moth having
been found in any other part of England, except Keswick and Windermere. In
Scotland it has been reported from Galashiels, Clydesdale, the Tay
district, Argyleshire, and Moray.
[Illustration]
Pl. 32.
1, 1a, 1b. PALE PROMINENT: _egg, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
2, 2a. WHITE PROMINENT: _caterpillar and chrysalis_.
3, 3a, 3b. COXCOMB PROMINENT: _egg, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
4. MAPLE PROMINENT: _chrysalis_.
5, 5a. SCARCE PROMINENT: _chrysalis and cocoon_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 33.
1. WHITE PROMINENT.
2, 3. COXCOMB PROMINENT.
4. MAPLE PROMINENT.
5. SCARCE PROMINENT.
6. PALE PROMINENT.
7. PLUMED PROMINENT, _male_; 8, _female_.
{79}
THE PLUMED PROMINENT (_Ptilophora plumigera_).
The thinly scaled fore wings are ochreous brown in the male, and purplish
brown in the female, and the markings, which are most in evidence in the
male, are yellowish. Hind wings, more sparsely scaled than the fore wings,
are pale ochreous brown in the male and darker in the female. It varies in
the tint of general colour and in the intensity of the yellowish markings.
In the female the antennæ are simple, but in the male they are very
plume-like, hence the English name. Buckler describes the caterpillar as
whitish blue-green, with a broad deep green stripe down the middle of the
back, and a narrow yellow line on each side of it; spiracular line slender,
white, and wavy; head rather small, glossy, yellowish green. When quite
full grown and mature it changes to a uniform semi-transparent green, like
the underside of a leaf of maple, upon which, and also sycamore, the
caterpillar feeds in May and early June. Maple bushes growing in hedgerows
are usually selected by the female moths when laying their eggs. These are
placed on the twigs near a bud, and may be searched for at any time from
November until April. The moth is shown on Plate 33.
This species was figured by Stephens (1828) as _Ptilophora variegata_ and
the only locality then known to him was Darenth Wood, where, he states, the
caterpillar was obtained almost every year. It still occurs in Kent and
possibly in its old haunt; it is also recorded from Watergate, Sussex;
South Devon (Torquay district); and Gloucestershire. In Bucks, Berks, and
Oxfordshire it is more frequent than in either of the counties previously
mentioned, and in all it seems to be found chiefly in chalky localities.
The moth, which is on the wing in November {80} or sometimes in late
October, has rarely been taken when flying at night or resting by day.
Light has an attraction for the male, but apparently not for the female.
Distributed through Central Europe, its range extends to Southern
Scandinavia, Northern Italy, Livonia, Bulgaria, S.E. Russia, and Japan.
THE PALE PROMINENT (_Pterostoma palpina_).
This blackish streaked, pale brownish grey moth has been known as the Pale
Prominent since 1775, when Moses Harris gave it this name. Beyond the black
scaled tooth-like projection the inner margin is notched. The antennæ of
the female are pectinated, but the teeth are shorter than those of the
male; and the blackish streak on the wings are usually less defined. Except
that some specimens are more strongly marked than others there is little to
note in the way of aberration. Mr. Harwood of Colchester has, however,
recorded an almost black variety, and this may be referable to the form
from Russian Lapland, known as var. _lapponica_, Teich. The moth is figured
on Plate 33, and the early stages on Plate 32.
The caterpillar is bluish green, with white lines along the back and sides,
and a black edged yellow stripe along the spiracles; the stripe is marked
with reddish on the three rings nearest the head. It feeds chiefly on
poplar, but has been found on willow and sallow. Usually to be obtained
full grown early in July or late in June; in the south and south-east of
England, it is found also in September and October. The chrysalis is
purplish, or reddish, brown and rather shining. It may be found, in a
cocoon formed of silk mixed with particles of earth, among the roots of
grass, etc., at the foot of poplar or willow trees. Moths are on the wing
in May and June, and again in July and August. Coming to electric and gas
lamps, as well as entering lighted rooms, and illuminated moth traps, they
are often secured; otherwise they are rarely seen in a state of nature. The
species is most frequent, perhaps, in the southern countries, but seems to
occur throughout England; it becomes scarcer from the Midlands northwards
to Durham and Cumberland. It occurs in Southern Scotland, and has been
recorded from Moray. In Ireland it is widely distributed, but is not noted
as common in any locality. The range abroad extends through temperate
Europe into Asia Minor, and as far east as China and Japan.
[Illustration]
Pl. 34.
1, 1a, 1b, 1c. CHOCOLATE TIP: _egg, caterpillar, chrysalis and cocoon_.
2, 2a, 2b. SMALL CHOCOLATE TIP: _caterpillar, chrysalis, cocoon and
larval retreat_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 35.
1, 2. CHOCOLATE-TIP MOTH.
3. BUFF-TIP MOTH.
4. SCARCE CHOCOLATE-TIP, _male_; 5 _female_.
6. SMALL CHOCOLATE-TIP, _male_; 7 _female_.
{81}
THE BUFF-TIP (_Phalera bucephala_).
[Illustration: FIG. 21.
EGGS OF BUFF-TIP MOTH.]
This species (Plate 35, Fig. 3) is easily recognized by its violet-grey
fore wings, and the more or less round, pale, ochreous blotch on the outer
third. The blotch is clouded, to a greater or lesser extent, with pale
brown, and the inner area of the wings is flecked with silvery grey; the
cross lines are edged with reddish brown.
The rather downy caterpillar is yellow, with several interrupted blackish
lines, and of these the one along the middle of the back is the broadest
and blackest; head black. It feeds, during August and September, in
companies, until nearly full grown, and the foliage of almost any kind of
tree or bush appears to be suitable food, although that of elm, lime, and
hazel is often selected by the female moth when depositing her whitish
eggs, which {82} she lays in neatly arranged batches on the undersides of
the leaves. If undisturbed, a company of these caterpillars quickly clear a
fair-sized branch of all leafage. The chrysalis is purplish brown (the
early stages are shown on Plate 37).
The moth flies in June and July, but is rarely seen in the daytime. The
wings in repose are closely folded down to the body and the insect has then
a very stick-like appearance, and may thus easily escape detection.
Occurs throughout England and Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. It is most
common, and the caterpillar often abundant, in London and its suburbs, as
well as other southern parts of the country. Its range extends through
Europe to Northern Asia Minor, Armenia, and Siberia.
THE CHOCOLATE-TIP (_Pygæra curtula_).
Two examples of this moth are shown on Plate 35. Fig. 2 represents the
spring (April and May) form, and Fig. 1 the summer (July and August) form.
Sometimes there is a third brood, in September or October, and Barrett
describes the individuals of this as "pale drab, dusted with darker atoms,
and with the chocolate blotch paler towards the apex." Hybrids have been
obtained from a pairing between _curtula_ female and _anachoreta_ male, and
these were most like the female parent. The early stages are figured on
Plate 34, Figs. 1-1c.
The verdigris-green eggs are laid in batches on the leaves of poplar and
aspen, upon which the caterpillars feed in May and June, and, as a second
brood, in August and September. In colour the caterpillar, which is rather
hairy, is grey, with a pinkish tinge, sprinkled with black, and with orange
spots on the sides; there is a raised black spot on the fourth ring, and
another on the eleventh; head blackish. The chrysalis is reddish-brown,
spun up in a packet of leaves. This species appears to be less common in
England than formerly. It is, {83} perhaps, more often observed in Kent and
Sussex than in the other counties it inhabits, which, according to Barrett,
are Berks, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, in all of which it is local;
also, but more rarely, in Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Herefordshire,
Leicestershire, Yorkshire, and Cumberland, the latter county being its
northern limit. To the above may be added Hertfordshire and Middlesex.
Although caterpillars are reported to have been found in Ireland, the moth
has not been reared in that country.
This species is distributed through Northern and Central Europe, extending
to South France, Corsica, North Italy, Bulgaria, Armenia, and Mongolia.
THE SCARCE CHOCOLATE-TIP (_Pygæra anachoreta_).
This moth is distinguished from that last referred to by the black spots in
and just below the blotch at the tip of the fore wings; the blotch itself
is dull reddish, merging outwardly into greyish, and is intersected by a
white line. There is some variation in the tint of the general colour,
ranging from dusky to reddish grey, but otherwise the species is constant
(Plate 35, Figs. 4, 5).
The caterpillar, which feeds on poplar and sallow from May to August, or
even later, is rather hairy, dark grey or blackish in colour; there are
four ochreous or whitish lines on the back, and a row of black spots
followed by a series of orange ones on the sides; below the spiracles are
some yellowish markings; the raised spots on rings four and eleven are
reddish brown; the former has a white spot on each side, and the back of
the latter is edged with white; head black and rather glossy. Chrysalis
blackish in hue, spun up among leaves. The moths emerge in May, and again
in July; in confinement there is sometimes a third brood in September.
Except that two {84} specimens were reported as found in a street at Deal,
the moth does not seem to have been noticed at large.
This species was known to Haworth, but, as a British insect, was
exceedingly rare until 1859, when Dr. Knaggs found some caterpillars upon
poplar in the neighbourhood of Folkestone. From the stock then obtained the
moths were reared in numbers for some time. Batches of eggs were also put
down in various localities, and the species seems to have flourished in
some of them for a while, but failed eventually to establish itself in any
of them. Then the species disappeared from the Folkestone locality,
although a caterpillar or two were found there in 1861, and on to 1912 in
other places on the Kentish coast. In 1893 eggs were obtained at St.
Leonard's, in Sussex, and thus originated a new stock.
The species has a wide range in Central and Northern Europe, extending to
some of the southern parts; it also occurs in Siberia, Amurland, China, and
Japan.
THE SMALL CHOCOLATE-TIP (_Pygæra pigra_).
This species will be recognized by its smaller size and less distinct
chocolate blotch on the tips of the fore wings. The ground colour varies
from whitish grey to pale brownish grey; the pale cross lines are usually
well defined; the first is bordered with chocolate colour, and angled above
the middle; the third line runs from a white spot on the costa and through
the chocolate patch. The moth is shown on Plate 35, and the early stages on
Plate 34.
Of the offspring resulting from eggs laid by a female _curtula_ that had
paired with a male _pigra_, and also those from a female _pigra_ crossed
with a male _curtula_, the hybrids in each case most nearly resembled the
female parent.
The eggs are pale olive green tending to brownish, and all that I have seen
have been laid in irregular lines on leaves, or {85} on the sides of a chip
box. The caterpillar is greyish, with some short hairs and black dots; the
back is broadly marked with yellow, and there is a yellow stripe, with
black dots on it, low down on the sides; rings four and eleven have each a
raised black spot; head blackish. Feeds from June to September, on dwarf
sallow (_Salix repens_), and also on young plants of aspen. Like other
caterpillars of this genus, it hides by day in a packet of leaves spun
together. There are certainly two broods, if not more, in the year. The
moth emerges in May, and more irregularly in July or August, and October.
Except when attracted to a light, the moth is rarely seen, but in fens,
marshes, and boggy places generally, the caterpillars may often be obtained
in numbers almost throughout the United Kingdom. Its distribution abroad
embraces Northern and Central Europe, with extension into Northern Spain
and Italy; Bulgaria, South-east Russia, and Armenia.
THYATIRIDÆ.
The nine British species next to be considered belong to the old family
Cymatophoridæ, but as the name _Cymatophora_, as indicated by Hübner in the
"Tentamen" (1816), is now generically used by authors for some species of
Geometridæ; and as Hübner's _Verzeichniss_ generic names will have to be
used for the species previously included in _Cymatophora_, Tr., the term
Thyatiridæ has here been adopted for this family--the Polyplocidæ of
Meyrick and others.
THE BUFF ARCHES (_Habrosyne derasa_).
This pretty species (Plate 36, Figs. 1, 2) is well distributed over the
greater part of England and not at all uncommon in the more sylvan
districts of the southern counties. It occurs in Wales but has only once
been recorded from Scotland. In {86} Ireland it is found in almost every
well-wooded locality, but is not generally common. The moth hides among the
foliage of the bramble and also creeps under the withered leaves on the
ground. It comes freely to sugar, and is often the earliest to attend the
banquet, but is rather skittish at first and should be given time to settle
down.
The fore wings are pale olive grey with two whitish streaks across them,
the first oblique approaching the second towards the inner margin; the
space between the streaks is clouded with brownish buff and there is a
whitish cloud on the costal area, and some strongly waved cross lines
before the second streak.
The caterpillar, which is rusty brown, with a blackish central line on the
back, a black edged yellowish spot on ring four, a smaller one on ring
five, and sometimes a tiny one on ring seven, feeds in August and
September, sometimes later, on bramble, and is said to eat hawthorn and
hazel. It hides during the day and comes up to feed at night. The
chrysalis, which is enclosed in an earthen cocoon below the surface of the
ground, or sometimes among moss, is purplish black with the ring divisions
reddish; the anal spike is furnished with hooks. As a rule the moth does
not emerge until June or July following the year of pupation, but it has
been found on the wing in September and October.
Distributed over Central Europe, extending into Southern France, and
Northern Italy, Southern Sweden and Livonia, and eastward to the Himalayas,
Corea, and Japan.
THE PEACH-BLOSSOM (_Thyatira batis_).
The olive brown fore wings of this moth are adorned with five pink-tinged
whitish spots, and clouded with brown; the pink tinge varies in amount and
in brightness, and sometimes gives place to pale ochreous. The moth is
figured on Plate 36, and the early stages on Plate 37.
[Illustration]
Pl. 36.
1. BUFF ARCHES MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_.
3. PEACH-BLOSSOM MOTH, _male_; 4 _female_.
5. FIGURE OF EIGHTY, _male_; 6. _female_.
7. POPLAR LUTESTRING, _male_; 8 _female_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 37.
1, 1a. BUFF-TIP: _eggs and caterpillar_.
2, 2a, 2b. PEACH-BLOSSOM: _eggs, caterpillar and chrysalis_.
{87}
The fluted greenish-white eggs are laid upon the edges of bramble-leaves.
The caterpillar is pale reddish brown shaded with darker and freckled with
whitish (in the young stage the second and third rings are whitish above);
a slender dark brown line along the middle of the back, and a broader one
along the sides, the latter not distinct on the first three rings; the two
rings nearest the head each have a divided ridge, the second being the
larger; there are also similar ridges on the fifth to ninth rings, and the
back of ring eleven is slightly raised; a series of pale triangular marks
on the back. It feeds on bramble in July, and may be found from that month
until September.
In confinement it will thrive on raspberry or the cultivated kinds of
blackberry. From some thirty eggs I had in June this year (1907) the
caterpillars hatched on the 27th; several of these fed up rapidly and one
or two had spun up for pupation, among the leaves, in July (about 24th),
whilst others remained quite small, and a few were in the last skin but
one. Early in August the larger caterpillars just referred to pupated, and
the smaller ones began to feed up, and by the end of the month they had
attained to full growth, although they did not spin cocoons until the
second week in September.
From July chrysalids moths will often emerge in August or September of the
same year, but none have appeared from those under observation. The
chrysalis is pale brown mottled with dark purplish or reddish brown, wing
cases reddish. The species frequents woods or wooded localities, and is
generally distributed throughout England and Wales, but commoner in some
parts than others. Rather local in Scotland but not uncommon in Perthshire.
Sometimes very abundant in Ireland, occurring in similar localities to the
preceding species. It is found over the greater part of Northern and
Central Europe, and as far east as Amurland and Japan. {88}
THE FIGURE OF EIGHTY (_Palimpsestis octogessima_).
This moth (Plate 36, Figs. 5, 6) may be distinguished by two whitish marks
on the fore wings which have some resemblance to the numerals 80, hence the
common name. These are really the white outlines of the reniform and
orbicular stigmata, each of which has the central part filled in with
black; sometimes the lower portion of the 8 is obscure, but in a general
way the character is not difficult to make out.
The caterpillar is yellowish tinged with greyish on the back; a greyish
plate on the back of the ring nearest the black marked orange head; three
black spots on each side of the first ring, two such spots on ring two, and
one on each side of rings three to eleven; the back of the last ring has a
greyish plate. It feeds in July and August, earlier or later in accordance
with season, on poplar. During the day it hides between united leaves, or
in a curled up withered leaf, upon the tree. The shining black chrysalis
with somewhat reddish ring divisions is enclosed in a rather loosely
constructed cocoon spun up between leaves, or among moss etc., at the base
of poplar trees. The moth emerges in May or June. It is partial to sugar,
and is said to prefer its sweets served up on poplar trunks. Probably it is
most often and regularly obtained in the Eastern Counties, but it is
locally not uncommon in Worcestershire and Herefordshire; also found in
Gloucestershire, Somerset, Hertfordshire, Middlesex, Surrey, and, I
believe, Sussex. The range abroad is similar to that of _T. batis_.
THE POPLAR LUTESTRING (_Palimpsestis or_).
May be recognized in the typical form by the four-lined bands,
"lutestrings," on the greyish, sometimes pink-tinged fore wings; the
reniform and orbicular marks are often present although the first is
generally obscure, and they never assume the similarity {89} to figures
noted in the last species (Plate 36, Figs. 7, 8). In Scotland the moths
have a paler ground colour generally, var. _scotica_, Tutt; one from
Ireland with ground colour pearly white and broad black "lutestrings" has
been named var. _gaelica_, Kane. Hybrids from a cross pairing of this
species with the last have been obtained by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher. These
specimens have the "lutestrings" of _or_, and the "figure of 80"
characteristic of _octogessima_. Caterpillar yellowish green with a dark
line along the middle of the back, and two black spots on the front edge of
the ring next the yellowish brown head. It feeds on poplar, and hides
between united leaves in the daytime; may be found from July to September
or even later. Chrysalis, reddish brown, the surface minutely pitted, and
spike pointed, and thickened at the base; in a brownish cocoon spun up
between leaves. The moth emerges in June or July, and it comes freely to
sugar, but like other members of this family is not always easy to box. It
seems to occur in most places where poplar trees are well established;
widely distributed over England, and found throughout Scotland even to the
Shetland Isles. In Ireland it seems to be local and rare. Distribution
abroad much as in the last species.
THE LESSER SATIN MOTH (_Palimpsestis duplaris_).
Figs. 1, 2, on Plate 39, represent the typical southern form of this
species. The fore wings are pale greyish with a whitish edged, broad, dark
central band; two black dots on the outer edge of the band distinguish this
species from the next. In Scotland and in Northern England the general
colour is blackish or purplish grey (Fig. 3), and sometimes specimens more
or less suffused with the darker colour are found in the southern half of
England. Quite the darkest, almost black, form seems to occur in Cannock
Chase, Staffordshire, and in Delamere Forest, Cheshire. The caterpillar is
greenish; central area of the back {90} green, margined on each side by an
olive green, or brighter green, stripe; some black dots along the sides;
head reddish brown marked with black. Feeds on birch, and may be found from
August to October. It spins the leaves together for a shelter during the
daytime, and comes out to feed at night, when it may be obtained by beating
the boughs. Other food plants mentioned are alder, oak, and hazel. The pupa
is of a dull reddish colour, in a slight cocoon between leaves.
Widely distributed throughout England and common in most woodlands,
especially in the south and east; it ranges through Scotland to the
Shetlands. In Ireland, where the moth has the ground colour silvery grey
(var. _argentea_, Tutt), it has been obtained in many localities, from
Donegal and Tyrone to Kerry and Cork.
THE SATIN CARPET (_Palimpsestis fluctuosa_).
In colour and general pattern this species (Plate 39, Fig. 4) is very
similar to the last in its typical form. The points of distinction are, the
slightly larger size, whiter ground colour, and the absence of the two
black dots from the edge of the band. In August and September the
caterpillar feeds, at night, on birch, and by day conceals itself between
leaves. It is reddish or violet grey above, and pale ochreous-white
beneath; the lines down the centre of the back and along the sides are
darker; on the first ring there is a greenish-tinged yellow plate, and from
this to the eleventh ring there are two series of black dots along the
back. Head yellow-brown, blackened above; a black circle on each cheek.
Chrysalis reddish-brown, in a cocoon among leaves either on the tree or on
the ground. The moth emerges in June, and is distinctly local. Sometimes it
may be disturbed from its resting place among the foliage; it becomes
active on the wing at dusk for a short time; sugar does not seem to possess
any great attraction for it, anyway it does not attend the feast prepared
for Noctuæ so frequently as other members of this family. It is known to
occur, chiefly in woods, in Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Hampshire in the
south; Essex and Suffolk in the east; also in Worcestershire (Wyre Forest),
and Herefordshire; in the Barnsley and Sheffield districts of Yorkshire;
and it has been reported from Cumberland. In Ireland it is rare and only
recorded from Killarney, Kerry, and Sligo. Abroad it occurs in Central
Europe, the range extending to Southern Scandinavia, and to South-east
Russia.
[Illustration]
Pl. 38.
1. FROSTED GREEN: _caterpillar_.
2, 2a, 2b, 2c. YELLOW HORNED: _egg, caterpillar, chrysalis and cocoon_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 39.
1. LESSER SATIN MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_; 3 _northern var_.
4. SATIN CARPET MOTH.
5. LESSER LUTESTRING, _male_; 6 _female_.
7, 8. YELLOW-HORNED MOTH.
9. FROSTED GREEN MOTH, _male_; 10 _female_.
{91} THE LESSER LUTESTRING (_Asphalia diluta_).
The fore wings are whitish or greyish, and sometimes tinged with brown;
crossed by two brownish bands. Variation is chiefly in the tint of the
bands and also in their width and definition. In var. _nubilata_, which
occurs in Yorkshire, the general colour of the fore wings is darker than
normal, and there is a basal patch and three cross-bands of reddish or
purplish brown (Plate 39, Figs. 5, 6).
Caterpillar, yellowish above and greyish beneath; a dusky line along the
middle of the back, and one, dotted with black, low down on the sides; head
dark brown, almost blackish. It feeds in May and June on oak, but only at
night; it constructs a leafy chamber in which it sits tight during the day,
and is not easily evicted unless its apartment is forcibly opened. The
reddish chrysalis is enclosed in a flimsy cocoon between, or among, leaves.
Although September is the month during which the moth usually emerges, it
is sometimes seen earlier. It is so partial to sugar, that it may often be
seen at an old patch before the new feast has been set out for the evening
entertainment. The species is fairly well distributed throughout England
and Wales, and most common in the south of the former country. It extends
into Southern Scotland, but {92} apparently does not occur in Ireland.
Abroad it is found in Central Europe, Belgium, North Germany, North Italy,
and North-east Asia Minor.
THE YELLOW HORNED (_Polyploca flavicornis_).
In the South of England this species is greenish grey, sometimes speckled
or dusted with darker grey; the reniform and orbicular marks are generally
clear and distinct, but in some examples they are united and form a whitish
blotch outlined in blackish; the cross lines are usually well defined, but
in the dark grey dusted form are very obscure. Specimens from Scotland are
generally larger, there is less green, if any, in the ground colour, and
the markings are often more pronounced and brighter. This form is the var.
_scotica_, Tutt, and may be more or less identical with the var.
_finmarchia_, Schöyen, from Norway and Lapland (Fig. 7, Plate 39, shows the
English form, and Fig. 8 the Scotch form).
The caterpillar is greenish, light olive green, or dark olive green above,
and yellowish beneath; a line along the middle of the back is paler, and on
each side there is a row of black spots and finely black-edged white dots;
a line above the brownish outlined spiracles is yellowish: the head is
yellow brown with blackish jaws and black mark on each cheek. It feeds in
June and July on birch, preferring the foliage of bushes. During the
daytime it resides in a leaf neatly folded in half; when quite young, the
caterpillar then being blackish, a small leaf or just the turned-over edge
of a large one answers its purpose. The chrysalis is reddish, enclosed in a
flimsy cocoon among leaves, moss, or roots of grass, etc., sometimes just
under the surface of the soil. The early stages are figured on Plate 38,
Figs. 2-2c. The moth emerges in March or April of the year following
pupation, as a rule, but it may remain in the chrysalis for two winters. It
is often obtained in birch woods, or wherever there {93} is a good growth
of birch, by jarring the twigs and branches of birch upon which it rests
during the day, or it may be found by searching the low bushes and
underwood. Soon after dusk it is on the wing, and will then visit sugar and
sallow bloom.
Generally distributed throughout Great Britain. In Ireland it appears to be
very rare. Its range abroad, in the typical form, extends over Northern and
Central Europe to North Italy and to South-east Russia.
THE FROSTED GREEN (_Polyploca ridens_).
This moth (Plate 39, Figs. 9, 10) is also on the wing early in the year,
but although it is sometimes found on tree trunks in April or perhaps as
late as the first week in May, it seems to be rarely obtained otherwise in
the perfect state. It does not "come to sugar" often, if at all, and so far
as is known, does not visit any of the usual natural attractions.
The ground colour of the fore wings varies from whitish to green, but in
some specimens the general hue is olive or blackish green, and the markings
then appear to be wavy whitish lines crossing the wings, one near the base,
and the other before the outer margin.
The caterpillar (Plate 38, Fig. 1) is yellow above and rather greenish
beneath; a greenish grey double stripe along the back is interrupted at the
ring divisions; there are also white dots with black or blackish edges on
the back and the sides; a yellow line along the spiracle area is shaded
above and below with greenish grey; the head, which is notched on the
crown, is yellowish, with a black mark on each cheek. It feeds, at night,
on oak, from May to July; hiding by day on the underside of a leaf, a
portion of which is folded over and secured with silk, to form a suitable
retreat. These caterpillars respond more readily to the persuasive
beating-stick than others of the group.
The species affects woodland localities in most of the southern {94}
counties of England, and it is also found in South Wales. Its range extends
into the Eastern Counties and through the Midlands northward to Cumberland.
It does not seem to have been noted from Scotland or Ireland. Abroad it is
distributed over Central Europe and northward to Denmark and Livonia, and
southward to South France and Andalusia.
TUSSOCK-MOTHS (_Lymantriidæ_).
About seventy-two species, referred to this family, are known to occur in
various parts of the Palæarctic region; ten of these are found in our
islands. The Black V-moth (_Leucoma v-nigrum_ or _Arctornis l-album_) has
been reported as British, but if the few examples that have been recorded
were natives, the species has long since disappeared from this country.
Some of the caterpillars, as, for example, those of the Brown and
Yellow-tails, are not altogether pleasant to handle, as the hairs with
which they are covered have a disagreeable trick of transferring themselves
to our hands, whence they find their way to our face, and when there are
apt to set up most unpleasant irritation and swelling of the parts
affected. These urticating hairs are more troublesome when received from
the caterpillar or cocoon, but those from the moth itself communicate a
very respectable simulation of the skin trouble known to the doctor as
Urticaria.
THE SCARCE VAPOURER (_Orgyia gonostigma_).
The male of this species, and also of the next, flies in the sunshine, but
the female of each is wingless, or nearly so, and has to remain at home on
the cocoon from which she emerged. Here she lays a large number of eggs,
from four to five hundred, upon the exterior. The eggs of this species are
whitish and rather glossy when first laid; the top is sunken. Apart from
{95} the deeper brown colour of the fore wings and the blacker hind wings,
the male of this species has a white mark near the tip of each fore wing,
and this character will distinguish it from the same sex of the Common
Vapourer.
The caterpillar is blackish with star-like tufts of hair, white on the back
and greyish on the sides; on rings four to seven are brushes of brown
hairs; a pencil of black hair on side of the first ring pointing forward,
and a thicker one on the back of ring eleven directed backward; the
interrupted stripes along the back and sides are reddish orange,
approaching vermilion; those along the back are united in front of the
pencil on ring eleven, and those of the sides unite behind the pencil. Head
glossy, black. The foliage of sallow, willow, and oak, is perhaps the more
usual food, but it has been known to eat beech, elm, hawthorn, sloe, and
nut, and has been found on meadow-sweet. The chrysalis is brown, inclining
to yellowish between the rings, and the back is hairy; enclosed in a cocoon
spun up among leaves or in any suitable cranny. The male and female moths
are figured on Plate 40 (Fig. 3, 5), and the caterpillar and chrysalis on
Plate 41.
The moths emerge in June, and from their eggs caterpillars result in July.
These, feeding up quickly, attain the perfect state in late July or early
August. Caterpillars from this second generation usually go into
hibernation when quite small, and feed up in the following April and May;
in confinement they may, however, get through their metamorphosis and reach
the moth state in September or October. Sometimes it happens that a part of
the summer brood of caterpillars will feed up straight away and produce
moths in August; others, feeding and growing more slowly, assume the winged
state in November; whilst a third portion will remain small and go into
hibernation.
This very local species used to be obtained in the Wimbledon district, but
it has not been seen there for some years past. {96} Other localities for
it are the Norfolk and Cambridge fens, Bewdley Forest in Shropshire, and
Wyre Forest, Worcestershire; it is also found in some parts of Devonshire,
Suffolk, Essex, and Yorks. Its range abroad extends through Northern and
Central Europe, southward to North Spain, Piedmont, and Corsica, and
eastward to Amurland, Corea, and Japan.
THE VAPOURER (_Orgyia antiqua_).
The male has the wings rather more ample than the same sex of the last
species, the colour is a more ochreous red and there is a large white spot
at the lower angle of the fore wings, but no white mark at the tips of
these wings. Specimens from the north of England are rather darker than
southern examples. In the course of temperature experiments it has been
noted that the colour of the moth is darkened if the chrysalids are put in
a refrigerator for a few weeks, and then brought into a mean temperature of
40° Fahr. In the female the appendages representing wings are somewhat
larger than those of the female of the Scarce Vapourer, but are quite
useless as organs of flight (Plate 40, Figs. 4, 6).
In general colour the caterpillar is violet or smoky grey; the markings on
the back comprise a creamy, red-dotted line along the middle area, this is
edged with black, and on each side of it is a series of raised red spots;
the broken line along the sides is yellowish, and the four brushes of hair
on the back are yellow, sometimes merging into brown above; the pencils of
longer hairs are blackish on the ring nearest the head, and dark grey or
brownish on the last ring. It may be found through the summer on the leaves
of most trees and bushes. Chrysalis blackish, glossy, and rather hairy. The
cocoons are spun up in the crevices of bark on tree trunks, or in the fork
of a twig, under the eaves of an out-house or shed, on palings and fences,
etc. The hairs of the caterpillar are mixed with the silk of the cocoon;
the female lays her pale brownish eggs, which are minutely pitted and have
a darker ring below the sunken top, on the outside of the cocoon, and there
they remain through the winter.
[Illustration]
Pl. 40.
1. DARK TUSSOCK MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_.
3. SCARCE VAPOURER, _male_; 5 _female_.
4. VAPOURER, _male_; 6 _female_.
7. PALE TUSSOCK, _male_; 8 _female_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 41.
1, 1a. SCARCE VAPOURER: _caterpillar and cocoon_.
2, 2a. COMMON VAPOURER: _egg-batch on cocoon and enlarged egg_.
3, 3a, 3b, 3c. PALE TUSSOCK: _egg, caterpillar, chrysalis and cocoon_.
4. DARK TUSSOCK: _caterpillar_.
{97} Generally distributed throughout the United Kingdom, but not so common
in Ireland as in England and Scotland. It is quite a Cockney insect, and is
found in almost every part of the Metropolis where there are a few trees.
Occurs practically over the whole of Europe, and in North-east Asia Minor,
Armenia, Siberia, Amurland, and North America.
THE DARK TUSSOCK (_Dasychira fascelina_).
The figures of the sexes of this species on Plate 40 represent the dark
grey form. Sometimes the forewings are whitish grey and occasionally slaty
grey; the cross lines may be stronger or fainter, and in some specimens are
nearly absent; the yellowish colour usually seen on the cross lines may be
missing, or, on the other hand, other parts of the wings may be stippled
with yellowish. Laying her eggs in batches, the female carefully covers
them with dark brown hairs from the tuft at the end of her body.
The caterpillar (Plate 41, Fig. 4) is blackish, with star-like tufts of
hairs, yellow, mixed with longer blackish ones towards the head and tail,
brownish grey on the middle portion; a brush of black hairs on rings four,
five, and eleven, and of white hairs on six, seven, and eight. Head black.
When full grown (Plate 42, Fig. 3) the hairs of the body are greyish, and
those of the brushes on the back are black flanked with white. When
disturbed it rolls in a ring. It feeds on hawthorn, and various species of
_Salix_, also on broom and ling. It hibernates when still small, in a
silken cocoon-like envelope which it spins in the fork of a branch, or
among the twigs of a bush; growth is completed in April or May, and the
winged state attained in {98} June or July. Sometimes the young
caterpillars have been found in their winter quarters about the middle of
July, and this would seem to imply that they occasionally lie dormant for
two winters; at least this would appear to be so in Scotland whence such
individuals have been recorded, with the additional information that they
did not eat through the summer and that one was still alive in the
following March. The chrysalis is glossy black, and hairy (Plate 42, Fig.
3a).
This is chiefly a northern insect, occurring most commonly on the Cheshire,
Lancashire, and Cumberland coast. It is more generally distributed in
Scotland and is often abundant on the moorlands. In Ireland three
caterpillars were found by Mr. Kane in the Bog of Allen, and the species
has also been recorded from Tullamore and Mullingar. Distribution: Northern
and Central Europe, extending to the Altai.
THE PALE TUSSOCK (_Dasychira pudibunda_).
This moth is much commoner and more widely distributed in England than that
last mentioned. The central area of the greyish white fore wings is subject
to variation in width and also in tint; this latter may be darker or
lighter than the example shown on Plate 40, and the cross lines are in some
specimens black and very distinct. The colour of the female ranges from
pale greyish white through various tones of grey, and the bands on the hind
wings may be as well defined as in the male. Black males of the species
have been recorded.
The hairy caterpillar is green or yellow, the former mottled with whitish
and the latter with greenish; on rings 4 to 7 are thick brushes of yellow
hairs, and on ring 11 there is a tuft of reddish hair; the back is marked
with black between the brushes, and there are black spots on the sides of
the hind rings. Sometimes the caterpillar is light or dark brownish and the
brushes are then greyish, or tinged with pale reddish or blackish.
Altogether it is a pretty creature, and as it is, or was previous to the
modern "washing," common in hop gardens at picking time, it was christened
the "hop dog." It may be found from July to September on the foliage of
birch, hazel, oak, and many other trees, as well as on hop. The moth
appears in May and June, and rests by day on herbage, especially on bracken
in woods (see Fig. 6, p. 7); at night it comes readily to light, but
specimens so obtained are generally of the female sex.
[Illustration]
Pl. 42.
1, 1a. YELLOW-TAIL: _caterpillars_.
2. BROWN-TAIL: _caterpillar_.
3, 3a. DARK TUSSOCK: _caterpillar and chrysalis_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 43.
1. BROWN-TAIL MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_.
3. YELLOW-TAIL MOTH, _female_; 4, 5 _males_.
6. WHITE SATIN MOTH, _female_.
{99} It is most at home in the southern portion, but occurs throughout
England and Wales, to Cumberland. Only doubtfully recorded from Scotland,
but in Ireland it has occurred in Galway, Kerry, Waterford, Cork, and
Wicklow.
Distribution: Central and Northern Europe eastward to North-east China and
Japan.
THE BROWN-TAIL (_Euproctis chrysorrhoea_).
Although sometimes found in the East and West of England, and even in
Yorkshire and Durham, this appears to be essentially a coast species in
Britain, and confined at that to Kent and Sussex, the former especially.
Even in these favoured localities where it is usually abundant, it is,
however, not always in evidence. The moths sit about at the end of July and
early August on leaves of hawthorn, sloe, sea-buckthorn (_Hippophaë
rhamnoides_), and wild rose, generally on the underside. Near the females
will be found batches of eggs, which are covered with "fur" from the anal
tuft of the female. The caterpillars hatch out in August, and while still
very small go into hibernation in a common nest. In the spring, when active
again, they construct a new habitation, and another or perhaps two more
before they are full grown, about June. The chrysalis is very dark, almost
blackish-brown, with tufts of hair, and the fairly substantial brownish
cocoon in which it is enclosed {100} is composed of silk and caterpillar
hairs, and is spun up on the food-plant, often singly, but not
infrequently, several are made up in a common silken covering.
The caterpillar is blackish with brownish warts, each bearing a tuft of
brownish hairs; a row of tufts of white downy scales on each side of the
back of rings four to eleven; the central line on the back is black, edged
on each side by a red line of variable width from rings six to ten; a
vermillion round spot on nine and ten. Head blackish.
The moth is shown on Plates 43, 45, and the caterpillar on Plate 42, Fig.
1.
Distribution, Central and South Europe to North-west Africa and Asia Minor.
In 1897 an appeal was made to British entomologists to refrain from taking
many specimens of this species; while American entomologists were seeking
power to compel local authorities to suppress the Brown-tail, which about
that time was a new, and no doubt introduced, insect pest in the State of
Massachusetts.
THE YELLOW-TAIL (_Porthesia similis_).
The male has usually only one black mark on the fore wings, but sometimes
there are two, as seen in Fig. 5, Plate 43; more rarely there is a dot or
two towards the tips of the wings. The habit of the moth is to sit upon the
foliage of bushes and the branches of trees, where it might easily be
passed over for a fluffy white feather; occasionally it may be found on
palings or even iron railings. About dark it is on the wing, and light has
then a great attraction for it. The caterpillar is black with black and
grey hairs; a vermillion stripe down the middle of the back has a black
central line, and is expanded on rings four, eleven, and twelve; along each
side there are tufts of snowy white fluffy scales; the back of rings four,
{101} five, and eleven is velvety black and slightly raised, especially on
ring four. Head black and glossy.
The caterpillars hatch from the eggs, which are laid in batches, in August,
hibernate, each in a silken case, and recommence feeding in the spring
(Plate 42, Figs. 1, 1a). In May, when nearly full grown, they separate and
are then common objects on hawthorn hedges in many districts. They also
feed on the foliage of oak, beech, birch, sallow, rose, apple, pear, and
other fruit trees. Sometimes a nearly fully mature caterpillar has been
found in August, this has pupated and produced a moth the same year. The
chrysalis is rather hairy and of a brownish colour; the cocoon is similar
to that of the last species. In late June and through July the moth is
generally common throughout the Southern part of England, and as far
northwards as Lancashire and Yorkshire. It has been very rarely seen in
Scotland, and not at all in Ireland.
Distribution, Central and South-eastern Europe, extending to Amurland,
China, Corea, and Japan.
THE REED TUSSOCK (_Lælia coenosa_).
This insect (Plate 45) was formerly abundant in some parts of fenland, and
was first met with, as a British species, at Whittlesea Mere about 1819 or
1820. It was subsequently found in Yaxley and Burwell fens. Up to 1860 it
continued to occur freely in all stages, but by 1865 larvæ at a shilling
per dozen, the price at which they had been sold by the reed cutters, were
no longer obtainable, and they became so scarce that in the year 1871 or
thereabouts, only two caterpillars were seen. The species was at that time
seemingly on the decline, but a year or two later a good many males were
attracted by the rays of a powerful lamp that had been set up at Wicken.
Then the moths became fewer and fewer {102} until at last, somewhere about
1880, even the lamps would not draw a single specimen, and soon it appeared
probable that the last of the Reed Tussock had been seen in the fens, its
only known habitat in Britain.
Caterpillar, dusky with a blackish stripe along the middle of the back; the
raised dots are ochreous grey with pale yellowish brown hairs arising from
them; there are four brushes of yellow hairs on the back, bunches of long
hairs on the first ring extended over the brownish head, and a pencil of
similar hairs on ring eleven directed backward. The food plants given are
bur-reed (_Sparganium_), Stephens; _Cladium mariscus_, Barrett, and reed
(_Phragmites communis_). Stephens states that the caterpillar and the moth
were found at the end of July and beginning of August, but other
authorities give August to June for the caterpillar, and July for the moth.
The caterpillar described above, and of which a figure is given on Plate
44, was obtained, together with eggs and cocoon, from Dr. Staudinger and
Bang Haas, of Dresden. All are preserved examples.
Abroad this species is found in Northern Germany and France, Hungary,
Bulgaria, Amurland, China, Corea, and Japan.
THE WHITE SATIN MOTH (_Stilpnotia salicis_).
The English name of this species dates back to about 1773, and is a very
suitable one for it, the fore wings being especially glossy and satin-like.
It seems to be less generally distributed over the country than formerly,
but it is still common in most years, and in many places; more particularly
in the south of England, and on the Lancashire coast. Even yet it occurs in
the suburbs of London, and on the southern side is sometimes not uncommon.
In Scotland it appears to be rare; Barrett mentions it from Aberdeen,
Pitcaple, Inverurie, Peterhead, and Ayrshire. Kane states that in Ireland
the species, so far as he knew, only occurred in a locality near Ahascragh.
[Illustration]
Pl. 44.
1, 1a, 1b. REED TUSSOCK: _egg, caterpillar and cocoon_.
2, 2a. WHITE SATIN: _caterpillar and chrysalis_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 45.
1. REED TUSSOCK MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_.
3, 4. BROWN-TAIL _varieties_.
{103}
The caterpillar, which is hairy and variegated with reddish and black and
white, may be recognised by the large bright white marks on the back. It is
often seen in the daytime on the boles or branches of poplars, as well as
on the foliage. It frequently falls a victim to the parasitical flies, and
it is probably due to these enemies that the species is less common in some
years than in others. Besides poplar, it will feed upon sallow and willow.
Hibernating when quite tiny, it reappears in April, and, feeding up, is
ready to enter the chrysalis state in June or July, when it spins a flimsy
silken cocoon among the leaves, or in some suitable cranny on the tree or
bush. The moth is shown on Plate 43, Fig. 6, and the caterpillar and
chrysalis on Plate 44, Fig. 2, 2a.
The moth emerges in July or August, and may be found resting on or under
the leaves, and on stems and branches of the trees upon which the
caterpillar fed, or on palings, etc., adjacent thereto.
Distribution, Northern and Central Europe, Iberia, Corsica, Italy, Balkan
Peninsula, South-east Russia, North-east Asia Minor, and Armenia. In the
Far East, including China, Corea, and Japan, it is represented by the var.
_candida_, Staud.
THE GIPSY (_Lymantria dispar_).
Up to some sixty-five years ago, this species (Plate 46, Figs. 1 [male], 2
[female]) seems to have flourished in a wild state in the fens of Norfolk
and Cambridgeshire, and also in Huntingdonshire. Just how long it had been
common in those localities history does not inform us, but about 1792
Donovan was unable to obtain a native specimen to figure. Stephens,
however, writing in 1828 states that at that time it abounded in the
Huntingdonshire fens. "It is said," he remarks "to have been introduced
into Britain by eggs imported by Mr. Collinson, but the abundance with
which it occurs near {104} Whittlesea, and the dissimilarity of the
indigenous specimens (which are invariably paler, with stronger markings)
to the foreigner, sufficiently refute that opinion." There appears to be no
doubt that some time near 1840 the Gipsy moth began to decrease in numbers,
and that about 1850 it had almost or quite ceased to exist, as a wildling,
in England. At the present time, and probably since the date last
mentioned, the species has been semi-domesticated, and so reared year by
year, at first possibly direct from the original wild stock, but afterwards
from fresh stock derived from eggs of foreign origin. Futile attempts have
been made to re-establish the species in various parts of England, and also
in Ireland. Such failure is curious, seeing that in America the accidental
introduction of a few moths has resulted in the species becoming so
numerous that at least one state has been expending thousands of dollars in
endeavouring to destroy it. The eggs are laid in batches and covered with
the down-like scales from the anal tuft of the female.
The caterpillar hatches in April, and in warm weather feeds up pretty
quickly. It is grey, covered with black dots and fine marks; the hairs
arising in spreading tufts from the raised warts, are longer on the sides
than on the back; these warts on the back on each side of the pale central
line are bluish on rings one to five, and reddish thence to eleven. Head,
pale brown marked with black. Feeds on the foliage of most fruit trees,
also on oak, elm, sallow, hawthorn, and sloe.
Chrysalis rather hairy, brownish in colour, in a fairly strong silken
cocoon, which is spun up in any suitable angle.
The moths appear in August, and there is a striking difference in the size
and coloration of the sexes. The male is pale or greyish brown, lined and
clouded with darker brown on the fore wings, and the female is whitish with
brownish cross lines, and a black central V-mark on the fore wings.
Distributed over the whole of the Palæarctic Region, except {105} the most
northern, and, as adverted to, it has now become a pest in parts of North
America.
THE BLACK ARCHES (_Lymantria monacha_).
Two examples of each sex of this moth are figured on Plate 46, and these
show the normal form of the species; the central markings of the fore wings
vary in width and intensity, and in some specimens the whole of the central
area is more or less filled up with black or sooty black. Sometimes the
wings are partially suffused with blackish, and the normal markings are
consequently somewhat obscured. Examples wholly suffused with black are
referable to var. _eremita_, a form not uncommon on the continent, and
modifications of it are found in a wild state in this country. By selecting
parents showing a tendency to vary in the direction of this dark form, it
has been found possible to obtain a good percentage of darkened specimens,
some of them closely approximating to var. _eremita_.
The early stages are figured on Plate 47.
The eggs of this species are laid in August in the chinks of bark on tree
trunks, and do not hatch until the spring.
Caterpillar, whitish varying to greyish, a deep brown stripe along the
middle of the back with an irregular black line on each side of it; the
stripe is interrupted by a whitish or greyish patch on rings seven to nine;
on ring two there is a black mark, and occasionally red dots appear on
eight and nine; black dots on the back and sides are furnished with hairs.
Head, brownish marked with a paler tint. It feeds from April to July on the
leaves of oak and various other trees, including apple and pine.
The chrysalis, which is enclosed in a somewhat transparent silken cocoon
spun up in a fissure of the bark, is brownish, hairy, and has a very glossy
metallic appearance.
The moth emerges at the end of July and in August. It flies {106} at night,
and may be seen resting by day on the trunks of trees. Although it occurs
in most of the counties of England from Yorkshire southwards, and in some
parts of Wales, it is nowhere so often met with as in the New Forest,
Hants.
Distribution, Central Europe extending to parts of Northern Europe, and
southwards to North Italy and Greece, and eastwards to Ussuri and Japan.
LACKEYS AND EGGARS (_Lasiocampidæ_).
Staudinger in his catalogue of Palæarctic Lepidoptera refers twenty genera
comprising sixty-three species to this family. Of these, eleven species
belonging to ten genera occur in the British Isles. According to some
authorities a twelfth species, _Dendrolimus pini_, Linn., should be
included. This is the _Eutricha pini_ of Stephens (1828) and the "Wild Pine
tree Lappet moth" and "Pine tree Lappet" of the more ancient authors. The
claim of this species to a place in the British list rests chiefly on a
specimen captured in the Norwich Hospital, in July, 1809, by Mr. Sparshall.
Wilkes (1773) states that he once found a caterpillar near Richmond Park,
but the moth was not reared. For generations the species now classified as
Lasiocampidæ have been referred to Bombycidæ, but the silkworm (_Bombyx
mori_) is typical of that family, which has but few genera in it, and none
of them occur in Europe. Although some of the moths are of considerable
size, most of them are not large. The general colour is some shade of
brown. Both sexes have the antennæ bipectinated, but more strongly in the
male than the female.
In his treatment of the species here included under Lasiocampidæ, Tutt. ("A
Natural History of the British Lepidoptera," vols. i., ii.) separates them
into two families, Lachneidæ and Eutrichidæ. The first family is divided
into five sub-families and the same number of tribes. The latter family has
three sub-families and three tribes. The whole are embraced in a
super-family styled Lachneides. Lasiocampidæ disappears as a family name,
but the genus _Lasiocampa_ is retained for _quercus_, L., whilst
_trifolii_, Schiff., is referred to the genus _Pachygastria_, Hb., and
these with _Aurivillia_, Tutt, not represented in Britain, constitute the
Pachygastriidi tribe of the Pachygastriinæ, a sub-family of Lachneidæ. All
this will no doubt appear very complicated to the beginner, but he need not
worry himself very greatly about the matter at present. When he feels that
he has a fair knowledge of the species in the group he will be in a
position to grapple with the niceties of classification.
[Illustration]
Pl. 46.
1. GIPSY MOTH, _male_; 2 _female_.
3, 4. BLACK ARCHES, _males_; 5, 6 _females_.
[Illustration]
Pl. 47.
BLACK ARCHES MOTH.
_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._
{107} THE LACKEY (_Malacosoma neustria_).
The colour of the male ranges from pale yellow ochre, through pale brown to
reddish or dark brown; and in the female from pale brown to reddish brown;
two cross lines are generally present on the fore wings; the space between
the lines is usually darker in the female, and sometimes in the male also,
forming a dark central band. All these colour forms were reared from some
caterpillars taken by myself at Byfleet, Surrey, in 1901. Another year a
few caterpillars taken at Esher produced ochreous coloured males and pale
brown females only; the bands of the latter were narrower than usual and
much contracted below the middle. As the females last mentioned are
somewhat under the normal size I am inclined to think that the caterpillars
from which they were reared had been on short commons during their last
stage. Two males and a female are shown on Plate 48.
The greyish brown eggs are laid during July and August in a ring cluster
around a twig as shown on Plate 49, and so they remain exposed to all
weathers during the winter. In April the caterpillars hatch out, and as
they live in company throughout the greater part of their larval existence,
the first business is to {108} construct a silken tent-like web (Fig. 22).
The exterior of the tent affords a suitable surface upon which they can lie
when they take a sun bath, which they seem fond of doing whenever the
opportunity offers. It is also used, as well as the interior, for the
process of skin-changing.
[Illustration: FIG. 22. WEB OF LACKEY CATERPILLARS. (Photo by W. J.
Lucas.)]
The full-grown caterpillar is slaty blue above; along the middle of the
back is a bluish white line, bordered on each side by a
reddish-orange-lined black stripe; towards the lower limit of the slaty
blue colour is a black edged reddish-orange line, and below this again the
ground colour is flecked with orange, sometimes forming a line i
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