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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Lamennais, Robert de" to "Latini, Brunetto"

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Lamennais, Robert de" to "Latini, Brunetto"

Author: Various


        
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "LAMENNAIS, ROBERT DE" TO "LATINI, BRUNETTO" ***

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE LAMPETER: "Lampeter was first incorporated under Edward
      II., but the earliest known charter dates from the reign of Henry
      VI., whereby the principal officer of the town, a portreeve, was to
      be appointed annually at the court-leet of the manor."
      'incorporated' amended from 'imcorporated'.

    ARTICLE LANCASHIRE: "None of the summits of the range within
      Lancashire attains an elevation of 2000 ft., the highest being
      Blackstone Edge (1523 ft.), Pendle Hill (1831 ft.) and Boulsworth
      Hill (1700 ft.)." '1523' amended from '1323'.

    ARTICLE LANCELOT: "... Die verschiedenen Redaktionen des
      Graal-Lancelot Cyklus; J. L. Weston, The Legend of Sir Lancelot du
      Lac ..." 'Cyklus' amended from 'Cycklus'.

    ARTICLE LANDLORD AND TENANT: "Powers of granting building and other
      leases have been conferred by modern legislation on municipal
      corporations and other local authorities." 'authorities' amended
      from 'authorites'.

    ARTICLE LAND REGISTRATION: "... Cherry and Marigold, The Land
      Transfer Acts (1898); ..." 'Transfer' amended from 'Tranfer'.

    ARTICLE LANFRANC: "But in 1042 he embraced the monastic profession
      in the newly founded house of Bec. Until 1045 he lived at Bec in
      absolute seclusion." '1042' amended from '1142' and '1045' amended
      from '1145'.

    ARTICLE LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE: "... Brantôme's Vies des Capitaines
      français; C. Vincens' Les Héros de la Réforme. Fr. de La Noue
      (1875); and Hauser, François de La Noue (Paris, 1892)." "Vincens'"
      amended from "Vincen's".

    ARTICLE LAON: "Of the six towers flanking the façades, only four
      are complete to the height of the base of the spires, two at the
      west front with huge figures of oxen beneath the arcades of their
      upper portion, and one at each end of the transept." 'huge' amended
      from 'hugh'.

    ARTICLE LAPLAND: "Meantime the Karelians were pressing on the
      eastern Lapps, and in the course of the 11th century the rulers of
      Novgorod began to treat them as the Norsemen had treated their
      western brethren." 'Meantime' amended from 'Meantine'.

    ARTICLE LA ROCHELLE: "Of these old houses the most interesting is
      one built in the middle of the 16th century and wrongly known as
      that of Henry II. The parade-ground, which forms the principal
      public square, occupies the site of the castle demolished in 1590."
      'middle' amended from 'midddle'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


            VOLUME XVI, SLICE II

   Lamennais, Robert de to Latini, Brunetto




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  LAMENNAIS, HUGUES ROBERT DE       LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN
  LAMENTATIONS                      LANTERN
  LAMETH, ALEXANDRE VICTOR          LANTERN-FLY
  LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE       LANTERNS OF THE DEAD
  LAMIA                             LANTHANUM
  LAMMAS                            LANUVIUM
  LÄMMERGEYER                       LANZA, DOMENICO GIUSEPPE MARIA
  LAMOIGNON                         LANZAROTE
  LAMONT, JOHANN VON                LANZI, LUIGI
  LAMORICIÈRE, JUCHAULT DE          LAOAG
  LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE    LAOCOON
  LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE       LAODICEA
  LAMOUREUX, CHARLES                LAODICEA, SYNOD OF
  LAMP                              LAOMEDON
  LAMP-BLACK                        LAON
  LAMPEDUSA                         LAOS (territory)
  LAMPERTHEIM                       LAOS (Thai race)
  LAMPETER                          LÂO-TSZE
  LAMPOON                           LA PAZ (department of Bolivia)
  LAMPREY                           LA PAZ (capital of Bolivia)
  LAMPROPHYRES                      LA PÉROUSE, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE GALAUP
  LAMPSACUS                         LAPIDARY, and GEM CUTTING
  LAMPSTAND                         LAPILLI
  LANARK                            LAPIS LAZULI
  LANARKSHIRE                       LAPITHAE
  LANCASHIRE                        LA PLACE, JOSUÉ DE
  LANCASTER, HOUSE OF               LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON
  LANCASTER, HENRY                  LAPLAND
  LANCASTER, SIR JAMES              LA PLATA
  LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT          LAPORTE, ROLAND
  LANCASTER, JOSEPH                 LA PORTE
  LANCASTER, THOMAS                 LAPPA
  LANCASTER (England)               LAPPARENT, ALBERT COCHON DE
  LANCASTER (Ohio, U.S.A.)          LAPPENBERG, JOHANN MARTIN
  LANCASTER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)  LAPRADE, PIERRE MARTIN RICHARD DE
  LANCE                             LAPSE
  LANCELOT                          LAPWING
  LANCET                            LAPWORTH, CHARLES
  LANCEWOOD                         LAR
  LAN-CHOW-FU                       LARA
  LANCIANO                          LARAISH
  LANCRET, NICOLAS                  LARAMIE
  LAND                              LARBERT
  LANDAU                            LARCENY
  LANDECK                           LARCH
  LANDEN, JOHN                      LARCHER, PIERRE HENRI
  LANDEN (Belgium)                  LARCIUS, TITUS
  LANDER, RICHARD LEMON and JOHN    LARD
  LANDES (department in France)     LARDNER, DIONYSIUS
  LANDES (region of France)         LARDNER, NATHANIEL
  LANDESHUT                         LAREDO
  LANDGRAVE                         LA RÉOLE
  LANDLORD AND TENANT               LARES
  LANDON, CHARLES PAUL              LA RÉVELLIÈRE-LÉPEAUX, MARIE DE
  LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH         LARGENTIÈRE
  LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE             LARGILLIÈRE, NICOLAS
  LANDOUR                           LARGS
  LAND REGISTRATION                 LARGUS, SCRIBONIUS
  LANDSBERG AM LECH                 LARINO
  LANDSBERG-AN-DER-WARTHE           LARISSA
  LANDSBERG BEI HALLE               LARISTAN
  LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY         LARIVEY, PIERRE
  LAND'S END                        LARK
  LANDSHUT                          LARKHALL
  LANDSKNECHT                       LARKHANA
  LANDSKRONA                        LARKSPUR
  LANDSTURM                         LARNACA
  LANDWEHR                          LA ROCHE
  LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM              LA ROCHEFOUCAULD
  LANE, GEORGE MARTIN               LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS DE
  LANE, JAMES HENRY                 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRÉDÉRIC
  LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE   LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN, DE
  LANFRANC                          LA ROCHELLE
  LANFREY, PIERRE                   LA ROCHE-SUR-YON
  LANG, ANDREW                      LAROMIGUIÈRE, PIERRE
  LANG, KARL HEINRICH               LARRA, MARIANO JOSÉ DE
  LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS    LARSA
  LANGDON, JOHN                     LARTET, EDOUARD
  LANGE, ANNE FRANÇOISE ELIZABETH   LARVAL FORMS
  LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL         LARYNGITIS
  LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT           LA SABLIÈRE, MARGUERITE DE
  LANGE, JOHANN PETER               LA SALE, ANTOINE DE
  LANGEAIS                          LASALLE, ANTOINE CHEVALIER COLLINET
  LANGEN, JOSEPH                    LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT CAVELIER
  LANGENBECK, BERNHARD KONRAD VON   LA SALLE, ST JEAN BAPTISTE DE
  LANGENSALZA                       LA SALLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
  LANGHAM, SIMON                    LASAULX, ARNOLD CONSTANTIN FRANZ VON
  LANGHOLM                          LASCAR
  LANGHORNE, JOHN                   LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE
  LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN                LASCARIS, JOANNES
  LANGLAND, WILLIAM                 LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE
  LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT          LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN JOSEPH
  LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE               LASHIO
  LANGPORT                          LASKER, EDUARD
  LANGREO                           LASKI
  LANGRES                           LAS PALMAS
  LANGTOFT, PETER                   LASSALLE, FERDINAND
  LANGTON, JOHN                     LASSEN, CHRISTIAN
  LANGTON, STEPHEN                  LASSEN, EDUARD
  LANGTON, WALTER                   LASSO, ORLANDO
  LANGTRY, LILLIE                   LASSO
  LANGUAGE                          LAST
  LANGUEDOC                         LASUS
  LANGUET, HUBERT                   LAS VEGAS
  LANGUR                            LASWARI
  LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS     LATACUNGA
  LANIER, SIDNEY                    LA TAILLE, JEAN DE
  LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS            LATAKIA
  LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL          LATEEN
  LANNES, JEAN                      LA TÈNE
  LANNION                           LATERAN COUNCILS
  LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE             LATERITE
  LANOLIN                           LATH
  LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE              LATHE
  LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM FITZMAURICE    LATHROP, FRANCIS
  LANSDOWNE                         LATIMER, HUGH
  LANSING                           LATINA, VIA
  LANSING MAN                       LATINI, BRUNETTO
  LANSQUENET




LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FÉLICITÉ ROBERT DE (1782-1854), French priest, and
philosophical and political writer, was born at Saint Malo, in Brittany,
on the 19th of June 1782. He was the son of a shipowner of Saint Malo
ennobled by Louis XVI. for public services, and was intended by his
father to follow mercantile pursuits. He spent long hours in the library
of an uncle, devouring the writings of Rousseau, Pascal and others. He
thereby acquired a vast and varied, though superficial, erudition, which
determined his subsequent career. Of a sickly and sensitive nature, and
impressed by the horrors of the French Revolution, his mind was early
seized with a morbid view of life, and this temper characterized him
throughout all his changes of opinion and circumstance. He was at first
inclined towards rationalistic views, but partly through the influence
of his brother Jean Marie (1775-1861), partly as a result of his
philosophical and historical studies, he felt belief to be indispensable
to action and saw in religion the most powerful leaven of the community.
He gave utterance to these convictions in the _Réflexions sur l'état de
l'église en France pendant le 18^(ième) siècle et sur sa situation
actuelle_, published anonymously in Paris in 1808. Napoleon's police
seized the book as dangerously ideological, with its eager
recommendation of religious revival and active clerical organization,
but it awoke the ultramontane spirit which has since played so great a
part in the politics of churches and of states.

As a rest from political strife, Lamennais devoted most of the following
year to a translation, in exquisite French, of the _Speculum Monachorum_
of Ludovicus Blosius (Louis de Blois) which he entitled _Le Guide
spirituel_ (1809). In 1811 he received the tonsure and shortly
afterwards became professor of mathematics in an ecclesiastical college
founded by his brother at Saint Malo. Soon after Napoleon had concluded
the Concordat with Pius VII. he published, in conjunction with his
brother, _De la tradition de l'église sur l'institution des évêques_
(1814), a writing occasioned by the emperor's nomination of Cardinal
Maury to the archbishopric of Paris, in which he strongly condemned the
Gallican principle which allowed bishops to be created irrespective of
the pope's sanction. He was in Paris at the first Bourbon restoration in
1814, which he hailed with satisfaction, less as a monarchist than as a
strenuous apostle of religious regeneration. Dreading the _Cent Jours_,
he escaped to London, where he obtained a meagre livelihood by giving
French lessons in a school founded by the abbé Jules Carron for French
émigrés; he also became tutor at the house of Lady Jerningham, whose
first impression of him as an imbecile changed into friendship. On the
final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815 he returned to Paris, and in the
following year, with many misgivings as to his calling, he yielded to
his brother's and Carron's advice, and was ordained priest by the bishop
of Rennes.

The first volume of his great work, _Essai sur l'indifférence en matière
de religion_, appeared in 1817 (Eng. trans. by Lord Stanley of Alderley,
London, 1898), and affected Europe like a spell, investing, in the words
of Lacordaire, a humble priest with all the authority once enjoyed by
Bossuet. Lamennais denounced toleration, and advocated a Catholic
restoration to belief. The right of private judgment, introduced by
Descartes and Leibnitz into philosophy and science, by Luther into
religion and by Rousseau and the Encyclopaedists into politics and
society, had, he contended, terminated in practical atheism and
spiritual death. Ecclesiastical authority, founded on the absolute
revelation delivered to the Jewish people, but supported by the
universal tradition of all nations, he proclaimed to be the sole hope of
regenerating the European communities. Three more volumes (Paris,
1818-1824) followed, and met with a mixed reception from the Gallican
bishops and monarchists, but with the enthusiastic adhesion of the
younger clergy. The work was examined by three Roman theologians, and
received the formal approval of Leo XII. Lamennais visited Rome at the
pope's request, and was offered a place in the Sacred College, which he
refused. On his return to France he took a prominent part in political
work, and together with Chateaubriand, the vicomte de Villèle, was a
regular contributor to the _Conservateur_, but when Villèle became the
chief of the supporters of absolute monarchy, Lamennais withdrew his
support and started two rival organs, _Le Drapeau blanc_ and _Le
Mémorial catholique_. Various other minor works, together with _De la
religion considérée dans ses rapports avec l'ordre civil et politique_
(2 vols., 1825-1826), kept his name before the public.

He retired to La Chênaie and gathered round him a host of brilliant
disciples, including C. de Montalembert, Lacordaire and Maurice de
Guérin, his object being to form an organized body of opinion to
persuade the French clergy and laity to throw off the yoke of the state
connexion. With Rome at his back, as he thought, he adopted a frank and
bold attitude in denouncing the liberties of the Gallican church. His
health broke down and he went to the Pyrenees to recruit. On his return
to La Chênaie in 1827 he had another dangerous illness, which powerfully
impressed him with the thought that he had only been dragged back to
life to be the instrument of Providence. _Les Progrès de la révolution
et de la guerre contre l'église_ (1828) marked Lamennais's complete
renunciation of royalist principles, and henceforward he dreamt of the
advent of a theocratic democracy. To give effect to these views he
founded _L'Avenir_, the first number of which appeared on the 16th of
October 1830, with the motto "God and Liberty." From the first the paper
was aggressively democratic; it demanded rights of local administration,
an enlarged suffrage, universal freedom of conscience, freedom of
instruction, of meeting, and of the press. Methods of worship were to be
criticized, improved or abolished in absolute submission to the
spiritual, not to the temporal authority. With the help of Montalembert,
he founded the _Agence générale pour la défense de la liberté
religieuse_, which became a far-reaching organization, it had agents all
over the land who noted any violations of religious freedom and reported
them to headquarters. As a result, _L'Avenir's_ career was stormy, and
the opposition of the Conservative bishops checked its circulation;
Lamennais, Montalembert and Lacordaire resolved to suspend it for a
while, and they set out to Rome in November 1831 to obtain the approval
of Gregory XVI. The "pilgrims of liberty" were, after much opposition,
received in audience by the pope, but only on the condition that the
object which brought them to Rome should not be mentioned. This was a
bitter disappointment to such earnest ultramontanes, who received, a few
days after the audience, a letter from Cardinal Pacca, advising their
departure from Rome and suggesting that the Holy See, whilst admitting
the justice of their intentions, would like the matter left open for the
present. Lacordaire and Montalembert obeyed; Lamennais, however,
remained in Rome, but his last hope vanished with the issue of Gregory's
letter to the Polish bishops, in which the Polish patriots were reproved
and the tsar was affirmed to be their lawful sovereign. He then "shook
the dust of Rome from off his feet." At Munich, in 1832, he received the
encyclical _Mirari vos_, condemning his policy; as a result _L'Avenir_
ceased and the _Agence_ was dissolved.

Lamennais, with his two lieutenants, submitted, and deeply wounded,
retired to La Chênaie. His genius and prophetic insight had turned the
entire Catholic church against him, and those for whom he had fought so
long were the fiercest of his opponents. The famous _Paroles d'un
croyant_, published in 1834 through the intermediary of Sainte-Beuve,
marks Lamennais's severance from the church. "A book, small in size, but
immense in its perversity," was Gregory's criticism in a new encyclical
letter. A tractate of aphorisms, it has the vigour of a Hebrew prophecy
and contains the choicest gems of poetic feeling lost in a whirlwind of
exaggerations and distorted views of kings and rulers. The work had an
extraordinary circulation and was translated into many European
languages. It is now forgotten as a whole, but the beautiful appeals to
love and human brotherhood are still reprinted in every hand-book of
French literature.

Henceforth Lamennais was the apostle of the people alone. _Les Affaires
de Rome, des maux de l'église et de la société_ (1837) came from old
habit of religious discussions rather than from his real mind of 1837,
or at most it was but a last word. _Le Livre du peuple_ (1837), _De
l'esclavage moderne_ (1839), _Politique à l'usage du peuple_ (1839),
three volumes of articles from the journal of the extreme democracy, _Le
Monde_, are titles of works which show that he had arrived among the
missionaries of liberty, equality and fraternity, and he soon got a
share of their martyrdom. _Le Pays et le gouvernement_ (1840) caused him
a year's imprisonment. He struggled through difficulties of lost
friendships, limited means and personal illnesses, faithful to the last
to his hardly won dogma of the sovereignty of the people, and, to judge
by his contribution to Louis Blanc's _Revue du progrès_ was ready for
something like communism. He was named president of the "Société de la
solidarité républicaine," which counted half a million adherents in
fifteen days. The Revolution of 1848 had his sympathies, and he started
_Le Peuple constituant_; however, he was compelled to stop it on the
10th of July, complaining that silence was for the poor, but again he
was at the head of _La Révolution démocratique et sociale_, which also
succumbed. In the constituent assembly he sat on the left till the
_coupe d'état_ of Napoleon III. in 1851 put an end to all hopes of
popular freedom. While deputy he drew up a constitution, but it was
rejected as too radical. Thereafter a translation of Dante chiefly
occupied him till his death, which took place in Paris on the 27th of
February 1854. He refused to be reconciled to the church, and was buried
according to his own directions at Père La Chaise without funeral rites,
being mourned by a countless concourse of democratic and literary
admirers.

During the most difficult time of his republican period he found solace
for his intellect in the composition of _Une voix de prison_, written
during his imprisonment in a similar strain to _Les paroles d'un
croyant_. This is an interesting contribution to the literature of
captivity; it was published in Paris in 1846. He also wrote _Esquisse de
philosophie_ (1840). Of the four volumes of this work the third, which
is an exposition of art as a development from the aspirations and
necessities of the temple, stands pre-eminent, and remains the best
evidence of his thinking power and brilliant style.

  There are two so-called _Oeuvres complètes de Lamennais_, the first in
  10 volumes (Paris, 1836-1837), and the other in 10 volumes (Paris,
  1844); both these are very incomplete and only contain the works
  mentioned above. The most noteworthy of his writings subsequently
  published are: _Amschaspands et Darvands_ (1843), _Le Deuil de la
  Pologne_ (1846), _Mélanges philosophiques et politiques_ (1856), _Les
  Évangiles_ (1846) and _La Divine Comédie_, these latter being
  translations of the Gospels and of Dante.

  Part of his voluminous correspondence has also appeared. The most
  interesting volumes are the following: _Correspondance de F. de
  Lamennais_, edited by E. D. Forgues (2 vols., 1855-1858); _Oeuvres
  inédites de F. Lamennais_, edited by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866);
  _Correspondance inédite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles_,
  edited by E. D. Forgues (1819-1853); _Confidences de Lamennais,
  lettres inédites de 1821 à 1848_, edited by A. du Bois de la
  Villerabel (1886); _Lamennais d'après des documents inédits_, by
  Alfred Roussel (Rennes, 2 vols., 1892); _Lamennais intime, d'après une
  correspondance inédite_, by A. Roussel (Rennes, 1897); _Un Lamennais
  inconnu_, edited by A. Laveille (1898); _Lettres de Lamennais à
  Montalembert_, edited by E. D. Forgues (1898); and many other letters
  published in the _Revue bleue_, _Revue britannique_, &c.

  A list of lives or studies on Lamennais would fill several columns.
  The following may be mentioned. A Blaize, _Essai biographique sur M.
  de Lamennais_ (1858); E. D. Forgues, _Notes et souvenirs_ (1859); F.
  Brunetière, _Nouveaux essais sur la littérature contemporaine_ (1893);
  E. Faguet, _Politiques et moralistes_, ii. (1898); P. Janet, _La
  Philosophie de Lamennais_ (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., _Lamennais d'après
  sa correspondance et les travaux les plus récents_ (1893); A. Mollien
  et F. Duine, _Lamennais, sa vie et ses idées_; _Pages choisies_
  (Lyons, 1898); The Hon. W. Gibson, _The Abbé de Lammenais and the
  Liberal Catholic Movement in France_ (London, 1896); E. Renan _Essais
  de morale et de critique_ (1857); E. Schérer, _Mélanges de critique
  religieuse_ (1859); G. E. Spuller, _Lamennais, étude d'histoire et de
  politique religieuse_ (1892); Mgr. Ricard, _L'école menaisienne_
  (1882), and Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits contemporains_, tome i. (1832),
  and _Nouveaux Lundis_, tome i. p. 22; tome xi. p. 347.




LAMENTATIONS (_Lamentations of Jeremiah_), a book of the Old Testament.
In Hebrew MSS. and editions this little collection of liturgical poems
is entitled [Hebrew: eiha] _Ah how!_, the first word of ch. i. (and chs.
ii., iv.); cf. the books of the Pentateuch, and the Babylonian Epic of
Creation (a far older example). In the Septuagint it is called [Greek:
Thrênoi], "Funeral-songs" or "Dirges," the usual rendering of Heb.
[Hebrew: kinot] (Am. v. 1; Jer. vii. 29; 2 Sam. i. 17), which is, in
fact, the name in the Talmud (_Baba Bathra_ 15a) and other Jewish
writings; and it was known as such to the Fathers (Jerome, _Cinoth_).
The Septuagint (B) introduces the book thus: "And it came to pass, after
Israel was taken captive and Jerusalem laid waste, Jeremiah sat weeping,
and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem, and said...," a
notice which may have related originally to the first poem only. Some
Septuagint MSS., and the Syriac and other versions, have the fuller
title _Lamentations of Jeremiah_. In the Hebrew Bible Lamentations is
placed among the _Cetubim_ or Hagiographa, usually as the middle book of
the five _Megilloth_ or Ferial Rolls (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes, Esther) according to the order of the days on which they
are read in the Synagogue, Lamentations being read on the 9th of Ab (6th
of August), when the destruction of the Temple is commemorated (_Mass.
Sopherim_ 18). But the Septuagint appends the book to Jeremiah (_Baruch_
intervening), just as it adds Ruth to Judges; thus making the number of
the books of the Hebrew Canon the same as that of the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet, viz. twenty-two (so Jos. c. Ap. i. 8), instead of the
Synagogal twenty-four (see _Baba Bathra_ 14b).

_External features and poetical structure._--These poems exhibit a
peculiar metre, the so-called "limping verse," of which Am. v. 2 is a
good instance:

  "She is fállen, to ríse no móre--
           Maid Israël!
   Left lórn upón her lánd--
           none raísing hér!"

A longer line, with three accented syllables, is followed by a shorter
with two. Chs. i.-iii. consist of stanzas of three such couplets each;
chs. iv. and v. of two like Am. v. 2. This metre came in time to be
distinctive of elegy. The text of Lamentations, however, so often
deviates from it, that we can only affirm the _tendency_ of the poet to
cast his couplets into this type (Driver). Some anomalies, both of metre
and of sense, may be removed by judicious emendation; and many lines
become smooth enough, if we assume a crasis of open vowels of the same
class, or a diphthongal pronunciation of others, or contraction or
silence of certain suffixes as in Syriac. The oldest elegiac utterances
are not couched in this metre; e.g. David's (2 Sam. iii. 33 f. Abner;
ib. i. 19-27 Saul and Jonathan). Yet the refrain of the latter, '_Eik
náf 'lu gíbborím_, "Ah how are heroes fallen!" agrees with our longer
line. The remote ancestor of this Hebrew metre may be recognized in the
Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh, written at least a thousand years
earlier:--

           _Ea-báni íbri kutáni_ | _Nímru sha çéri_
  "Eabani, my friend, my little brother! | Leopard of the Wild!"

and again:--

           _Kíki lúskut_ | _Kíki luqúl-ma_
           Íbri shá arámmu_ | _Itémi tittish_
  "How shall I be dumb? | How shall I bewail?
   The friend whom I love | Is turned to clay!"

Like a few of the Psalms, Lamentations i.-iv. are alphabetical
acrostics. Each poem contains twenty-two stanzas, corresponding to the
twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet; and each stanza begins with
its proper letter. (In ch. iii. each of the three couplets in a stanza
begins with the same letter, so that the alphabet is repeated thrice:
cf. Psalm cxix. for an eight-fold repetition.) The alphabet of
Lamentations ii. iii. iv. varies from the usual order of the letters by
placing _Pe_ before _Ain_. The same was doubtless the case in ch. i.
also until some scribe altered it. He went no further, because the sense
forbade it in the other instances. The variation may have been one of
local use, either in Judea or in Babylonia; or the author may have had
some fanciful reason for the transposition, such as, for example, that
_Pe_ following _Samech_ ([Hebrew: sp]) might suggest the word [Hebrew:
sifdu], "Wail ye!" (2 Sam. iii. 31). Although the oldest Hebrew elegies
are not alphabetic acrostics, it is a curious fact that the word
[Hebrew: aidach], "Was he a coward?" (Sc. [Hebrew: libo]; Is. vii. 4),
is formed by the initial letters of the four lines on Abner (om.
[Hebrew: ve], line 3); and the initials of the verses of David's great
elegy are [Hebrew: ha amshech eze], which may be read as a sentence
meaning, perhaps, "Lo, I the Avenger" (cf. Deut. xxxii. 41, 43) "will go
forth!"; or the first two letters ([Hebrew: he'alef']) may stand for
[Hebrew: hoi ahi], "Alas, my brother!" (Jer. xxii. 18; cf. xxxiv. 5). In
cryptic fashion the poet thus registers a vow of vengeance on the
Philistines. Both kinds of acrostic occur side by side in the Psalms.
Psalm cx., an acrostic of the same kind as David's elegy, is followed by
Psalms cxi. cxii., which are alphabetical acrostics, like the
Lamentations. Such artifices are not in themselves greater clogs on
poetic expression than the excessive alliteration of old Saxon verse or
the strict rhymes of modern lyrics. (Alliteration, both initial and
internal, is common in Lamentations.)

As the final piece, ch. v. may have suffered more in transmission than
those which precede it--even to the extent of losing the acrostic form
(like some of the Psalms and Nahum i.), besides half of its stanzas. If
we divide the chapter into quatrains, like ch. iv., we notice several
vestiges of an acrostic. The _Aleph_ stanza (verses 7, 8) still precedes
the _Beth_ (verses 9, 10), and the _Ain_ is still quite clear (verses
17, 18; cf. i. 16). Transposing verses 5, 6, and correcting their text,
we see that the _Jod_ stanza (verses 3, 4) precedes the _Lamed_ (verses
6, 5), _Caph_ having disappeared between them. With this clue, we may
rearrange the other quatrains in alphabetical sequence, each according
to its initial letter. We thus get a broken series of eleven stanzas,
beginning with the letters [Hebrew: alef] (verses 7, 8), [Hebrew: beth]
(9, 10), [Hebrew: hei] (21, 22), [Hebrew: vav] (19, cf. Psalm cii. 13;
and 20), [Hebrew: nun] (1, 2), [Hebrew: het] (13, [Hebrew: horim]; 14),
[Hebrew: iod] (3, 4), [Hebrew: lamed] (6, [Hebrew: latzadim]; 5,
[Hebrew: hibkiru] ... [Hebrew: ol]), [Hebrew: nun] (11, 12), [Hebrew:
ayin] (17, 18), and [Hebrew: shin] (15, 16), successively. An internal
connexion will now be apparent in all the stanzas.

_General subject and outline of contents._--The theme of Lamentations is
the final siege and fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), and the attendant and
subsequent miseries of the Jewish people.

In ch. i. we have a vivid picture of the distress of Zion, after all is
over. The poet does not describe the events of the siege, nor the
horrors of the capture, but the painful experience of subjection and
tyranny which followed. Neither this nor ch. ii. is strictly a "dirge."
Zion is not dead. She is personified as a widowed princess, bereaved and
desolate, sitting amid the ruins of her former joys, and brooding over
her calamities. From verse 11c to the end (except verse 17) she herself
is the speaker:--

  "O come, ye travellers all!
      Behold and see
   If grief there be like mine!"

She images her sorrows under a variety of metaphors (cf. ch. iii. 1-18);
ascribing all her woes to Yahweh's righteous wrath, provoked by her
sins, and crying for vengeance on the malicious rivals who had rejoiced
at her overthrow.

  The text has suffered much. Verse 5c read: [Hebrew: bashevi] (v. 18),
  "into captivity," [Hebrew: zarim] (v. 7), "adversaries." For verse 7,
  see Budde, V. 14: [Hebrew: nishkod], read [Hebrew: nikshar], "was
  bound." Verse 19c read: [Hebrew: aval lhashiv nefesh velo matzu ki
  bikshu] "For they sought food to restore life, and found it not:" cf.
  Septuagint; and verses 11, 16. Verse 20: the incongruous [Hebrew: ki
  maro mariti], "For I grievously rebelled," should be [Hebrew: nihmeru
  rahamai], "My inwards burn"; Hos. xi. 8. Verses 21 f.: "All my foes
  heard, rejoiced That IT" (cf. Psalm ix. 13), "Thou didst. Bring Thou"
  ([Hebrew: havee et]), "the Day Thou hast proclaimed; Let them become
  like me! Let the time" ([Hebrew: et]; see Septuagint) "of their
  calamity come!"

Chapter ii.--"Ah how in wrath the Lord | Beclouds Bath-Sion!" The poet
laments Yahweh's anger as the true cause which destroyed city and
kingdom, suspended feast and Sabbath, rejected altar and sanctuary. He
mentions the uproar of the victors in the Temple; the dismantling of the
walls; the exile of king and princes (verses 1-9). He recalls the
mourning in the doomed city; the children dying of hunger in the
streets; the prophets deluding the people with vain hopes. Passers-by
jeered at the fallen city; and all her enemies triumphed over her
(verses 10-17). Sion is urged to cry to the Lord in protest against His
pitiless work (verses 18-22).

  Here too emendation is necessary. Verse 4a: [Hebrew: hetziv hatzev],
  "He fixed His arrow," sc. on the string (Septuagint, [Greek:
  estereôsen]); cf. Psalm xi. 2. Add at the end [Hebrew: kila (et) apo],
  "He spent His anger:" see iv. 11; Ezek. vii. 8, xx. 8, 21. Verse 6:
  [Hebrew: vaifratz gader mishkano], "And He broke down the wall of His
  dwelling-place" (Septuagint [Greek: tho skênôma autou]; cf. Psalm
  lxxxiv. 7f., where [Hebrew: moed] follows, as here). Is. v. 5; Psalms
  lxxx. 13, lxxxix. 41. Perhaps [Hebrew: vaiehares], verses 2, 17. But
  Septuagint [Greek: kahi diepetasen] = [Hebrew: vaifros] (i. 13, 17) =
  [Hebrew: vaifros] (iv. 4) or even [Hebrew: vaifrotz]. Verse 9,
  perhaps: "He sunk ([Hebrew: tava]) her gates in the ground,--He
  shattered her bars; He made her king and her princes wander ([Hebrew:
  ybir], Jer. xxiii. 1)--Among the nations without Torah" (cf. Ezek.
  vii. 26 f.). Verse 18: "Cry much" ([Hebrew: rabat]; or bitterly,
  [Hebrew: mar], Zeph. i. 14) "unto the Lord, O Virgin Daughter of
  Zion!" Verse 19 is metrically redundant, and the last clauses do not
  agree with what follows. "For the life of thy children" was altered
  from "for what He hath done to thee" ([Hebrew: al sheolel leha]); and
  then the rest was added. The uniform gloom of this, the most
  dirge-like of all the pieces, is unrelieved by a single ray of hope,
  even the hope of vengeance; cf. chapters i. iii. iv. _ad fin_.

Chapter iii.--Here the nation is personified as a man (cf. Hos. xi. 1),
who laments his own calamities. In view of i. 12-22, ii. 20-22, this is
hardly a serious deviation from the strict form of elegy (_Klagelied_).
Budde makes much of "the close external connexion with ch. ii." The
truth is that the break is as great as between any two of these poems.
Chapter ii. ends with a mother's lament over her slaughtered children;
chapter iii. makes an entirely new beginning, with its abruptly
independent "I am the Man!" The suppression of the Divine Name is
intentional. Israel durst not breathe it, until compelled by the climax,
verse 18: cf. Am. vi. 10. Contrast its frequency afterwards, when ground
of hope is found in the Divine pity and purpose (verses 22-40), and when
the contrite nation turns to its God in prayer (verses 55-66). The
spiritual aspect of things is now the main topic. The poet deals less
with incident, and more with the moral significance of the nation's
sufferings. It is the religious culmination of the book. His poem is
rather lyrical than narrative, which may account for some obscurities in
the connexion of thought; but his alphabetic scheme proves that he
_designed_ twenty-two stanzas, not sixty-six detached couplets. There is
something arresting in that bold "I am the Man"; and the lyrical
intensity, the religious depth and beauty of the whole, may well blind
us to occasional ruggedness of metre and language, abrupt transitions
from figure to figure and other alleged blemishes, some of which may not
have seemed such to the poet's contemporaries (e.g. the repetition of
the acrostic word, far more frequent in Psalm cxix.); and some disappear
on revision of the text.

  Verse 5, perhaps: "He swallowed me up" (Jer. li. 34) "and begirt my
  head" (Septuagint) "with gloom" ([Hebrew: afela] Is. lviii. 10, cf.
  verse 6, yet cf. also [Hebrew: halaa], Neh. ix. 32). Verse 14: "all
  my people," rather _all peoples_ (Heb. MSS. and Syr.). Verse 16b, rd.
  [Hebrew: yflishani], "He made me bore" (i.e. grovel) "in the ashes:"
  cf. Jer. vi. 26; Ezek. xxvii. 30. Verse 17a should be: [Hebrew:
  vaiznah leolam nafshi] "And He cast off my soul for ever:" see verse
  31; Psalm lxxxviii. 15. Verse 26: "It is good _to wait_" [Hebrew:
  leohil] "_in silence_" ([Hebrew: dumam] Is. xlvii. 5); or "It is good
  _that he wait and be silent_" ([Hebrew: ki yohil vedamam]; cf. verse
  27). Verse 31, add [Hebrew: nafsho], "his soul." The verse is a reply
  to 17a. Verses 34-36 render: "To crush under His feet ... Adonai
  _purposed_ not" (Gen. xx. 10; Psalm lxvi. 18). Verse 39, [Hebrew: hai]
  (Gen. v. 5; or [Hebrew: haya] Neh. ix. 29) is the necessary second
  verb: "Why doth a mortal complain?" (or "What ... lament?"). "Doth a
  man live by his sins?": Man "lives by" righteousness (Ezek. xxxiii.
  19). For the wording, cf. Psalm lxxxix. 49. Verse 43a: "Thou didst
  encompass with" (rg. [Hebrew: savota]; Hos. xii. 1) "anger and pursue
  us." Syntax as verse 66a. Verse 49, rd. [Hebrew: tefune] (cf. ii. 18
  also). Verse 51: "Mine eye did hurt to herself" [Hebrew: lenafsha]),
  "By weeping over my people:" Verse 48: ch. i. 16; Jer. xxxi. 15. Verse
  52: "They quelled my life in the pit" (Sheol; Psalms xxx. 4, lxxxviii.
  4, 7; verse 55); "They _brought me down to Abaddon_" ([Hebrew:
  horiduni abaddon]; cf. Psalm lxxxviii. 12). Verse 58: "O plead, Lord,
  the cause of my soul! O redeem my life!"; cf. Psalm cxix. 154. If the
  prayer for vengeance begins here, Budde's "deep division in the middle
  of an acrostic letter-group" vanishes. Verse 59, rd. [Hebrew: uti],
  "my perverting;" inf. pi. c. suff. obj.; cf. verse 36. Verse 61b
  repeated by mistake from 60b. Perhaps: "Wherewith they dogged my
  steps:" [Hebrew: shihrefu ekvotai]: Psalm lxxxix. 51 f. Verse 63, rd.
  [Hebrew: komem], as usual, and [Hebrew: neginatam], as in verse 14 and
  Job xxx. 9. Verse 65: "Thou wilt give them madness" (cf. Arab.
  _gunûn_; _magnûn_, mad) "of heart; Thou wilt curse and consume them!"
  ([Hebrew: tohar tohlam]).

  Chapter iv.

    "Ah, how doth gold grow dim,--
     The finest ore change hue!"

The poet shows how famine and the sword desolated Zion (verses 1-10).
All was Yahweh's work; a wonder to the heathen world, but accounted for
by the crimes of prophets and priests (Jer. xxiii. 11, 14, xxvi. 8, 20
ff., xxix. 21-23), who, like Cain, became homeless wanderers and
outcasts (verses 11-16). Vainly did the besieged watch for succours from
Egypt (Jer. xxxvii. 5 ff.); and even the last forlorn hope, the flight
of "Yahweh's Anointed," King Zedekiah, was doomed to fail (verses 17-20;
Jer. xxxix. 4 ff). Edom rejoiced in her ruin (Ezek. xxv. 12; xxxv. 15;
Obad.; Psalm cxxxvii. 7); but Zion's sin is now atoned for (cf. Is. xl.
2), and she may look forward to the judgment of her foe (verses 21-22).

  Verse 6d, perhaps: "And their ruin tarried not" ([Hebrew: ukt yihel
  piryam]); cf. Pro. xxiv. 22. Verse 7d: "Their body" (rd. [Hebrew:
  noiham]) "was a sapphire:" see Ct. v. 14; Dn. x. 6. Verse 9: "Happier
  were the slain of the sword Than the slain of famine! For they"
  (Septuagint om.), "they passed away" ([Hebrew: halhu] Septuagint;
  Psalm xxxix. 14) "with a stab" (Ju. ix. 54; Is. xiii. 15; Jer. li. 4),
  "Suddenly, in the field" ([Hebrew: pitom besh']; Jer. xiv. 18). Verse
  13, add [Hebrew: hi] after [Hebrew: nevieia]; cf. Ju. xiv. 4; Jer.
  xxii. 16. Verse 17c: "While we watched" (Septuagint) "continually:"
  [Hebrew: betzapoteinu tzafu]. Verse 18: "Our steps were curbed"
  ([Hebrew: tzaru] MSS.; see Pro. iv. 12; Job xviii. 7) "from walking In
  our open places" (before the city gates: Neh. viii. 1, 3); "The
  completion of our days drew nigh" ([Hebrew: karev yom meleot yameinu];
  cf. Lev. viii. 33; Job xx. 22), "For our end was come" (Ezek. vii. 2,
  6, &c.). Verse 21, Septuagint om. Uz (dittogr.?); "Settler in the
  Land!" (i.e. of Judah; cf. Ezek. xxxv. 10, xxxvi. 5. Perhaps [Hebrew:
  yorashti ha'] "Seizer of the Land").

Chapter v.--A sorrowful supplication, in which the speakers deplore, not
the fall of Jerusalem, but their own state of galling dependence and
hopeless poverty. They are still suffering for the sins of their
fathers, who perished in the catastrophe (verse 7). They are at the
mercy of "servants" (verse 8; cf. 2 Kings xxv. 24; Neh. v. 15: "Yea,
even their 'boys' lorded it over the people"), under a tyranny of pashas
of the worst type (verses 11 f.). The soil is owned by aliens; and the
Jews have to buy their water and firewood (verses 2, 4; cf. Neh. ix. 36
f.). While busy harvesting, they are exposed to the raids of the
Bedouins (verse 9). Jackals prowl among the ruins of Zion (verse 18; cf.
Neh. iv. 3). And this condition of things has already lasted a very long
time (verse 20).

  Verses 5 f. transpose and read: "To adversaries" ([Hebrew: latzarim])
  "we submitted, Saying" ([Hebrew: leemor]), "'We shall be satisfied
  with bread'" (cf. Jer. xlii. 14); "The yoke of our neck they made
  heavy" (Neh. v. 15: [Hebrew: ehbidu al haam]); "We toil, and no rest
  is allowed us." Verse 13: "Nobles endured to grind, And princes
  staggered under logs" ([Hebrew: horim] for [Hebrew: bahurim], which
  belongs to verse 14; [Hebrew: sarim] for [Hebrew: nearim]. Eccl. x. 7;
  Is. xxxiv. 12; Neh. iv. 14; v. 7; vi. 17). Verse 19, "But Thou..."
  Psalm cii. 13 ([Hebrew: ve] fell out after preceding [Hebrew: vav],
  verse 18). Verse 22, omit [Hebrew: em]; dittogr. of following [Hebrew:
  ma].

_Authorship and date._--The tradition of Jeremiah's authorship cannot be
traced higher than the Septuagint version. The prefatory note there may
come from a Hebrew MS., but perhaps refers to chapter i. only ("Jeremiah
sang _this dirge_"). The idea that Lamentations was originally appended
to Jeremiah in the Hebrew Canon, as it is in the old versions, and was
afterwards separated from it and added to the other Megilloth for the
liturgical convenience of the Synagogue, rests on the fact that Josephus
(Ap. i. 1, 8) and, following him, Jerome and Origen reckon 22 books,
taking Ruth with Judges and Lamentations with Jeremiah; whereas the
ordinary Jewish reckoning gives 24 books, as in our Hebrew Bibles. There
is no evidence that this artificial reckoning according to the number of
letters in the Hebrew alphabet was ever much more than a fanciful
suggestion. Even in the Septuagint the existing order may not be
original. It appears likely that Lamentations was not translated by the
same hand as Jeremiah (Nöldeke). Unlike the latter, the Septuagint
Lamentations sticks closely to the Massoretic text. The two books can
hardly have been united from the first. On the strength of 2 Chron.
xxxv. 25, some ancient writers (e.g. Jerome _ad_ Zech. xii. 11) held
that Jeremiah composed Lamentations. When, however, Josephus (Ant. x. 5,
1) states that Jeremiah wrote an elegy on Josiah still extant in his
day, he may be merely quoting a little too much of Chron. loc. cit.; and
it is obvious that he need not mean our book (see Whiston's note). It is
urged, indeed, that the author of Chronicles could not have imagined a
prophet to have sympathized with such a king as Zedekiah so warmly as is
implied by Lamentations iv. 20; and, therefore, he must have connected
the passage with Josiah, the last of the good kings. However that may
have been, the Chronicler neither says that Jeremiah wrote _all_ the
elegies comprised in _The Qinoth_, nor does he imply that the entire
collection consisted of only five pieces. Rather, the contrary; for he
implies that _The Qinoth_ contained not only Jeremiah's single dirge on
Josiah, but also the elegies of "all the singing men and singing women,"
from the time of Josiah's death (608) down to his own day (3rd century).
The untimely fate of Josiah became a stock allusion in dirges. It is not
meant that for three centuries the dirge-writers had nothing else to
sing of; much less, that they sang of the fall of Jerusalem (presupposed
by our book) before its occurrence. Upon the whole, it does not seem
probable, either that the Chronicler mistook Lamentations iv. for
Jeremiah's dirge on Josiah, or that the book he calls _The Qinoth_ was
identical with our Qinoth. Later writers misunderstood him, because--on
the ground of certain obtrusive similarities between Jeremiah and
Lamentations (see Driver, L.O.T. p. 433 f.), and the supposed reference
in Lamentations iii. 53 ff. to Jeremiah xxxviii. 6 ff., as well as the
fact that Jeremiah was the one well-known inspired writer who had lived
through the siege of Jerusalem--they naturally enough ascribed this
little book to the prophet. It is certainly true that the same emotional
temperament, dissolving in tears at the spectacle of the country's woes,
and expressing itself to a great extent in the same or similar language,
is noticeable in the author(s) of Lamentations i.-iv. and in Jeremiah.
And both refer these woes to the same cause, viz. the sins of the
nation, and particularly of its prophets and priests.

This, however, is not enough to prove identity of authorship; and the
following considerations militate strongly against the tradition. (i.)
The language and style of Lamentations are in general very unlike those
of Jeremiah (see the details in Nägelsbach and Löhr); whatever allowance
may be made for conventional differences in the phraseology of elegiac
poetry and prophetic prose, even of a more or less lyrical cast. (ii.)
Lamentations i.-iv. show a knowledge of Ezekiel (cf. Lamentations ii.
4c; Ez. xx. 8, 21; Lam. ii. 14; Ez. xii. 24; xiii. 10, 14; Lam. ii. 15;
Ez. xxvii. 3; xxviii. 12; Lam. iv. 20; Ez. xix. 4, 8) and of Is.
xl.-lxvi. (Lam. i. 10, [Hebrew: mahmadim]; Is. lxiv. 10; Lam. i. 15; Is.
lxiii. 2; Lam. ii. 1; Is. lxvi. 1; Lam. ii. 2c; Is. xliii. 28; Lam. ii.
13 _the 3 verbs_; Is. xl. 18, 25; Lam. ii. 15c; Is. lx. 15b; Lam. iii.
26 [Hebrew: dumam]; Is. xlvii. 5; Lam. iii. 30; Is. i. 6; Lam. iv. 14;
Is. lix. 3, 10; Lam. iv. 15; Is. lii. 11; Lam. iv. 17c; Is. xlv. 20;
Lam. iv. 22; Is. xl. 2). Jeremiah does not quote Ezekiel; and he could
hardly have quoted writings of the age of Cyrus. (iii.) The coincidences
of language between Lamentations and certain late Psalms, such as Psalms
lxix., lxxiv., lxxx., lxxxviii., lxxxix., cxix., are numerous and
significant, at least as a general indication of date. (iv.) The point
of view of Lamentations sometimes differs from that of the prophet. This
need not be the case in i. 21 f. where the context shows that the
"enemies" are not the Chaldeans, but Judah's ill neighbours, Edom,
Ammon, Moab and the rest (cf. iv. 21 f.; iii. 59-66 may refer to the
same foes). Ch. ii. 9c may refer to popular prophecy ("_her_ prophets";
cf. verse 14), which would naturally be silenced by the overwhelming
falsification of its comfortable predictions (iv. 14 ff.; cf. Jer. xiv.
13; Ezek. vii. 26 f.; Psalm lxxiv. 9). But though Jeremiah was by no
means disloyal (Jer. xxxiv. 4 f.), he would hardly have spoken of
Zedekiah in the terms of Lam. iv. 20; and the prophet never looked to
Egypt for help, as the poet of iv. 17 appears to have done. It must be
admitted that Lamentations exhibits, upon the whole, "a poet (more) in
sympathy with the old life of the nation, whose attitude towards the
temple and the king is far more popular than Jeremiah's" (W. Robertson
Smith); cf. i. 4, 10, 19, ii. 6, 7, 20c. (v.) While we find in
Lamentations some things that we should not have expected from Jeremiah,
we miss other things characteristic of the prophet. There is no trace of
his confident faith in the restoration of both Israel and Judah (Jer.
iii. 14-18, xxiii. 3-8, xxx.-xxxiii.), nor of his unique doctrine of the
New Covenant (Jer. xxxi. 31-34), as a ground of hope and consolation for
Zion. The only hope expressed in Lamentations i. is the hope of Divine
vengeance on Judah's malicious rivals (i. 21 f.); and even this is
wanting from ch. ii. Chapter iii. finds comfort in the thought of
Yahweh's unfailing mercy; but ends with a louder cry for vengeance.
Chapter iv. suggests neither hope nor consolation, until the end, where
we have an assurance that Zion's punishment is complete, and she will
not again be exiled (iv. 21 f.). The last word is woe for Edom. In
chapter v. we have a prayer for restoration: "Make us return, O Yahweh,
and we shall return!" (i.e. to our pristine state). Had Jeremiah been
the author, we should have expected something more positive and
definitely prophetic in tone and spirit. (The author of chapter iii.
seems to have felt this. It was apparently written in view of chapter
ii. as a kind of religious counterpoise to its burden of despair, which
it first takes up, verses 1-20, and then dissipates, verses 21 ff.).
(vi.) It seems almost superfluous to add that, in the brief and troubled
story of the prophet's life after the fall of the city Jer.
xxxix.-xliv.), it is difficult to specify an occasion when he may be
supposed to have enjoyed the necessary leisure and quiet for the
composition of these elaborate and carefully constructed pieces, in a
style so remote from his ordinary freedom and spontaneity of utterance.
And if at the very end of his stormy career he really found time and
inclination to write anything of this nature, we may wonder why it was
not included in the considerable and somewhat miscellaneous volume of
his works, or at least mentioned in the chapters which relate to his
public activity after the catastrophe.

Budde's date, 550 B.C., might not be too early for chapter v., if it
stood alone. But it was evidently written as the close of the book, and
perhaps to complete the number of five divisions, after the model of the
Pentateuch; which would bring it below the date of Ezra (457 B.C.). And
this date is supported by internal indications. The Divine forgetfulness
has already lasted a very long time since the catastrophe ("for ever,"
verse 20); which seems to imply the lapse of much more than thirty-six
years (cf. Zech. i. 12). The hill of Zion is still a deserted site
haunted by jackals, as it was when Nehemiah arrived, 445 B.C. (Neh. i.
3, ii. 3, 13, 17, iv. 3). And the conditions, political and economic,
seem to agree with what is told us by Nehemiah of the state of things
which he found, and which prevailed before his coming: cf. esp. Neh. v.
2-5 with Lamentations v. 2, 10, and Neh. v. 15 with Lamentations v. 5,
8. There is nothing in chapter i. which Nehemiah himself might not have
written, had he been a poet (cf. Neh. i. 4). The narrative of Neh. xiii.
throws light on verse 10; and there are many coincidences of language,
e.g. "The Province" (of Judea), Neh. i. 3, cf. verse 1; "adversaries"
[Hebrew: tzarim], of Judah's hostile neighbours, verse 7, Neh. iv. 11;
"made my strength stumble," verse 14, cf. Neh. iv. 4 (Heb.); the
prayers, verses 21 f., Neh. iv. 4 f. (Heb. iii. 36 f.), are similar. The
memory of what is told in Neh. iv. 5 (11), Ezra iv. 23 f., v. 5, may
perhaps have suggested the peculiar term [Hebrew: meshabeah],
_stoppage_, _arrest_, verse 7. With verse 3 "Judah migrated from
oppression; From greatness of servitude; She settled among the nations,
Without finding a resting-place," cf. Neh. v. 18 end, Jer. xl. 11 f. The
"remnant of the captivity" (Neh. i. 2 f.) became much attenuated (cf.
verse 4), because all who could escape from the galling tyranny of the
foreigner left the country (cf. verse 6). Verses 11, 19 (dearth of
food), 20 (danger in the field, starvation in the house) agree curiously
with Neh. v. 6, 9 f.

Chapters ii. and iv. can hardly be dated earlier than the beginning of
the Persian period. They might then have been written by one who, as a
young man of sixteen or twenty, had witnessed the terrible scenes of
fifty years before. If, however, as is generally recognized, these poems
are not the spontaneous and unstudied outpourings of passionate grief,
but compositions of calculated art and studied effects, written for a
purpose, it is obvious that they need not be contemporary. A poet of a
later generation might have sung of the great drama in this fashion. The
chief incidents and episodes would be deeply graven in the popular
memory; and it is the poet's function to make the past live again. There
is much metaphor (i. 13-15, ii. 1-4, iii. 1-18, iv. 1 ff.), and little
detail beyond the horrors usual in long sieges (see Deut. xxviii. 52
ff.; 2 Kings vi. 28 f.) Acquaintance with the existing literature and
the popular reminiscences of the last days of Jerusalem would supply an
ample foundation for all that we find in these poems.

  LITERATURE.--The older literature is fully given by Nägelsbach in
  Lange's _Bibelwerk A.T._ xv. (1868, Eng. trans., 1871, p. 17). Among
  commentaries may be noticed those of Kalkar (in Latin) (1836); O.
  Thenius in _Kurzgefasstes Exeg. Handbuch_ (1855), who ascribes
  chapters ii. and iv. to Jeremiah (comp. K. Budde in _Z.A.T.W._, 1882,
  p. 45); Vaihinger (1857); Neumann (1858); H. Ewald in his _Dichter_,
  vol. i. pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1866); Engelhardt (1867); Nägelsbach, op.
  cit. (1868); E. Gerlach, _Die Klagelied. Jer._ (1868); A. Kamphausen
  in Bunsen's _Bibelwerk_ iii. (1868); C. F. Keil (1872) (Eng. trans.,
  1874); Payne Smith in _The Speaker's Commentary_; Reuss, _La Bible:
  poésie lyrique_ (1879); T. K. Cheyne, at end of "Jeremiah," _Pulpit
  Commentary_ (1883-1885); E. H. Plumptre, in Ellicott's _O.T. for
  English Readers_ (1884); S. Oettli in Strack-Zöckler's _Kurzgef. Komm.
  A.T._ vii. (1889); M. Löhr (1891) and again _Handkommentar zum A.T._
  (1893); F. Baethgen _ap._ Kautzsch, _Die Heilige Schrift d. A.T._
  (1894); W. F. Adeney, _Expositor's Bible_ (1895); S. Minocchi, _Le
  Lamentazioni di Geremia_ (Rome, 1897); and K. Budde, "Fünf Megillot,"
  in _Kurzer Hd.-Comm. zum A. T._ (1898).

  For textual and literary criticism see also Houbigant, _Notae
  Criticae_, ii. 477-483 (1777); E. H. Rodhe, _Num Jeremias Threnos
  scripserit quaestiones_ (Lundae, 1871); F. Montet, _Étude sur le livre
  des Lamentations_ (Geneva, 1875); G. Bickell, _Carmina V. T. metrice_,
  112-120 (1882), and _Wiener Zeitschrift für Kunde des Morgenlandes_,
  viii. 101 ff. (1894) (Cf. also his _Dichtungen der Hebräer_, i.
  87-108, 1882); Merkel, _Über das A.T. Buch der Klagelieder_ (Halle,
  1889); J. Dyserinck, _Theologisch Tijdschrift_, xxvi. 359 ff. (1892);
  S. A. Fries, "Parallele zwischen Thr. iv., v. und der
  Makkabäerzeit,"_Z.A.T.W._, xiii. 110 ff. (1893) (chaps. iv. v.
  Maccabean; i.-iii. Jeremiah's); and on the other side Löhr, _Z.A.T.W._
  xiv. 51 ff. (1894); id. ib., p. 31 ff., _Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches
  der Klagelieder_; and Löhr, "Threni iii. und die jeremianische
  Autorschaft des Buches der Klagelieder," _Z.A.T.W._, xxiv. 1 ff.
  (1904).

  On the prosody, see (besides the works of Bickell and Dyserinck) K.
  Budde, "Das hebräische Klagelied," _Z.A.T.W._, ii. 1 ff. (1882), iii.
  299 ff. (1883), xi. 234 ff. (1891), xii. 31 ff. 261 ff. (1892);
  _Preussische Jahrbücher_, lxxiii. 461 ff. (1893); and C. J. Ball, "The
  Metrical Structure of Qinoth," _P.S.B.A._ (March 1887). (The writer
  was then unacquainted with Budde's previous labours.)

  The following may also be consulted, Nöldeke, _Die A.T. Literatur_,
  pp. 142-148 (1868); Seinecke, _Gesch. des Volkes Israel_, ii. 29 ff.
  (1884); Stade, _Gesch._ p. 701, n. 1 (1887); Smend in _Z.A.T.W._
  (1888), p. 62 f.; Steinthal, "Die Klagelieder Jer." in _Bibel und
  Rel.-philosophie_, 16-33 (1890); Driver, _L.O.T._ (1891), p. 428, "The
  Lamentations"; and Cheyne's article "Lamentations (Book)," in _Enc.
  Bibl._ iii.     (C. J. B.*)




LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THÉODORE VICTOR, COMTE DE (1760-1829), French soldier
and politician, was born in Paris on the 20th of October 1760. He served
in the American War of Independence under Rochambeau, and in 1789 was
sent as deputy to the States General by the nobles of the _bailliage_ of
Péronne. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave and Adrien
Duport a sort of association called the "Triumvirate," which controlled
a group of about forty deputies forming the advanced left of the
Assembly. He presented a famous report in the Constituent Assembly on
the organization of the army, but is better known by his eloquent speech
on the 28th of February 1791, at the Jacobin Club, against Mirabeau,
whose relations with the court were beginning to be suspected, and who
was a personal enemy of Lameth. However, after the flight of the king to
Varennes, Lameth became reconciled with the court. He served in the army
as _maréchal-de-camp_ under Luckner and Lafayette, but was accused of
treason on the 15th of August 1792, fled the country, and was imprisoned
by the Austrians. After his release he engaged in commerce at Hamburg
with his brother Charles and the duc d'Aiguillon, and did not return to
France until the Consulate. Under the Empire he was made prefect
successively in several departments, and in 1810 was created a baron. In
1814 he attached himself to the Bourbons, and under the Restoration was
appointed prefect of Somme, deputy for Seine-Inférieure and finally
deputy for Seine-et-Oise, in which capacity he was a leader of the
Liberal opposition. He died in Paris on the 18th of March 1829. He was
the author of an important _History of the Constituent Assembly_ (Paris,
2 vols., 1828-1829).

Of his two brothers, THÉODORE LAMETH (1756-1854) served in the American
war, sat in the Legislative Assembly as deputy from the department of
Jura, and became _maréchal-de-camp_; and CHARLES MALO FRANÇOIS LAMETH
(1757-1832), who also served in America, was deputy to the States
General of 1789, but emigrated early in the Revolution, returned to
France under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Würzburg under
the Empire. Like Alexandre, Charles joined the Bourbons, succeeding
Alexandre as deputy in 1829.

  See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (Paris,
  1905); also M. Tourneux, _Bibliog. de l'histoire de Paris_ (vol. iv.,
  1906, _s.v._ "Lameth").




LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE (1709-1751), French physician and
philosopher, the earliest of the materialistic writers of the
Illumination, was born at St Malo on the 25th of December 1709. After
studying theology in the Jansenist schools for some years, he suddenly
decided to adopt the profession of medicine. In 1733 he went to Leiden
to study under Boerhaave, and in 1742 returned to Paris, where he
obtained the appointment of surgeon to the guards. During an attack of
fever he made observations on himself with reference to the action of
quickened circulation upon thought, which led him to the conclusion that
psychical phenomena were to be accounted for as the effects of organic
changes in the brain and nervous system. This conclusion he worked out
in his earliest philosophical work, the _Histoire naturelle de l'âme_,
which appeared about 1745. So great was the outcry caused by its
publication that Lamettrie was forced to take refuge in Leiden, where he
developed his doctrines still more boldly and completely, and with great
originality, in _L'Homme machine_ (Eng. trans., London, 1750; ed. with
introd. and notes, J. Assézat, 1865), and _L'Homme plante_, treatises
based upon principles of the most consistently materialistic character.
The ethics of these principles were worked out in _Discours sur le
bonheur_, _La Volupté_, and _L'Art de jouir_, in which the end of life
is found in the pleasures of the senses, and virtue is reduced to
self-love. Atheism is the only means of ensuring the happiness of the
world, which has been rendered impossible by the wars brought about by
theologians. The soul is only the thinking part of the body, and with
the body it passes away. When death comes, the farce is over (_la farce
est jouée_), therefore let us take our pleasure while we can. Lamettrie
has been called "the Aristippus of modern materialism." So strong was
the feeling against him that in 1748 he was compelled to quit Holland
for Berlin, where Frederick the Great not only allowed him to practise
as a physician, but appointed him court reader. He died on the 11th of
November 1751. His collected _Oeuvres philosophiques_ appeared after his
death in several editions, published in London, Berlin and Amsterdam
respectively.

  The chief authority for his life is the _Éloge_ written by Frederick
  the Great (printed in Assézat's ed. of _Homme machine_). In modern
  times Lamettrie has been judged less severely; see F. A. Lange,
  _Geschichte des Materialismus_ (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, ii.
  1880); Nérée Quépat (i.e. René Paquet), _La Mettrie, sa vie et ses
  oeuvres_ (1873, with complete history of his works); J. E. Poritzky,
  _J. O. de Lamettrie, Sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1900); F. Picavet,
  "La Mettrie et la critique allemande," in _Compte rendu des séances de
  l'Acad. des Sciences morales et politiques_, xxxii. (1889), a reply to
  German rehabilitations of Lamettrie.




LAMIA, in Greek mythology, queen of Libya. She was beloved by Zeus, and
when Hera robbed her of her children out of jealousy, she killed every
child she could get into her power (Diod. Sic. xx. 41; Schol.
Aristophanes, _Pax_, 757). Hence Lamia came to mean a female bogey or
demon, whose name was used by Greek mothers to frighten their children;
from the Greek she passed into Roman demonology. She was represented
with a woman's face and a serpent's tail. She was also known as a sort
of fiend, the prototype of the modern vampire, who in the form of a
beautiful woman enticed young men to her embraces, in order that she
might feed on their life and heart's blood. In this form she appears in
Goethe's _Die Braut von Corinth_, and Keats's _Lamia_. The name Lamia is
clearly the feminine form of Lamus, king of the Laestrygones (q.v.). At
some early period, or in some districts, Lamus and Lamia (both,
according to some accounts, children of Poseidon) were worshipped as
gods; but the names did not attain general currency. Their history is
remarkably like that of the malignant class of demons in Germanic and
Celtic folk-lore. Both names occur in the geographical nomenclature of
Greece and Asia Minor; and it is probable that the deities belong to
that religion which spread from Asia Minor over Thrace into Greece.




LAMMAS (O. Eng. _hlammaesse_, _hlafmaesse_, from _hlaf_, loaf, and
_maesse_, mass, "loaf-mass"), originally in England the festival of the
wheat harvest celebrated on the 1st of August, O.S. It was one of the
old quarter-days, being equivalent to midsummer, the others being
Martinmas, equivalent to Michaelmas, Candlemas (Christmas) and
Whitsuntide (Easter). Some rents are still payable in England at
Lammastide, and in Scotland it is generally observed, but on the 12th of
August, since the alteration of the calendar in George II.'s reign. Its
name was in allusion to the custom that each worshipper should present
in the church a loaf made of the new wheat as an offering of the
first-fruits.

A relic of the old "open-field" system of agriculture survives in the
so-called "Lammas Lands." These were lands enclosed and held in
severalty during the growing of corn and grass and thrown open to
pasturage during the rest of the year for those who had common rights.
These commoners might be the several owners, the inhabitants of a
parish, freemen of a borough, tenants of a manor, &c. The opening of the
fields by throwing down the fences took place on Lammas Day (12th of
August) for corn-lands and on Old Midsummer Day (6th of July) for grass.
They remained open until the following Lady Day. Thus, in law, "lammas
lands" belong to the several owners in fee-simple subject for half the
year to the rights of pasturage of other people (_Baylis_ v.
_Tyssen-Amherst_, 1877, 6 Ch. D., 50).

  See further F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_; C. I. Elton,
  _Commons and Waste Lands_; P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_.




LÄMMERGEYER (Ger. _Lämmergeier_, _Lamm_, lamb, and _Geier_, vulture), or
bearded vulture, the _Falco barbatus_ of Linnaeus and the _Gypaetus
barbatus_ of modern ornithologists, one of the grandest birds-of-prey of
the Palaearctic region--inhabiting lofty mountain chains from Portugal
to the borders of China, though within historic times it has been
exterminated in several of its ancient haunts. Its northern range in
Europe does not seem to have extended farther than the southern frontier
of Bavaria, or the neighbourhood of Salzburg;[1] but in Asia it
formerly reached a higher latitude, having been found even so lately as
1830 in the Amur region where, according to G. F. Radde (_Beitr._
_Kenntn._ _Russ._ _Reichs_, xxiii. p. 467), it has now left but its
name. It is not uncommon on many parts of the Himalayas, where it
breeds; and on the mountains of Kumaon and the Punjab, and is the
"golden eagle" of most Anglo-Indians. It is found also in Persia,
Palestine, Crete and Greece, the Italian Alps, Sicily, Sardinia and
Mauritania.

In some external characters the lämmergeyer is intermediate between the
families _Vulturidae_ and _Falconidae_, and the opinion of systematists
has from time to time varied as to its proper position. It is now
generally agreed, however, that it is more closely allied with the
eagles than with the vultures, and the sub-family _Gypaëtinae_ of the
_Falconidae_ has been formed to contain it.

The whole length of the bird is from 43 to 46 in., of which, however,
about 20 are due to the long cuneiform tail, while the pointed wings
measure more than 30 in. from the carpal joint to the tip. The top of
the head is white, bounded by black, which, beginning in stiff bristly
feathers turned forwards over the base of the beak, proceeds on either
side of the face in a well-defined band to the eye, where it bifurcates
into two narrow stripes, of which the upper one passes above and beyond
that feature till just in front of the scalp it suddenly turns upwards
across the head and meets the corresponding stripe from the opposite
side, enclosing the white forehead already mentioned, while the lower
stripe extends beneath the eye about as far backwards and then suddenly
stops. A tuft of black, bristly feathers projects beardlike from the
base of the mandible, and gives the bird one of its commonest epithets
in many languages. The rest of the head, the neck, throat and lower
parts generally are clothed with lanceolate feathers of a pale tawny
colour--sometimes so pale as to be nearly white beneath; while the
scapulars, back and wing-coverts generally, are of a glossy
greyish-black, most of the feathers having a white shaft and a median
tawny line. The quill-feathers, both of the wings and tail, are of a
dark blackish-grey. The irides are of a light orange, and the sclerotic
tunics--equivalent to the "white of the eye" in most animals--which in
few birds are visible, are in this very conspicuous and of a bright
scarlet, giving it an air of great ferocity. In the young of the year
the whole head, neck and throat are clothed in dull black, and most of
the feathers of the mantle and wing-coverts are broadly tipped and
mesially streaked with tawny or lightish-grey.

The lämmergeyer breeds early in the year. The nest is of large size,
built of sticks, lined with soft material and placed on a ledge of
rock--a spot being chosen, and often occupied for many years, which is
nearly always difficult of access. Here in the month of February a
single egg is usually laid. This is more than 3 in. in length by nearly
2½ in breadth, of a pale but lively brownish-orange. The young when in
the nest are clad in down of a dirty white, varied with grey on the head
and neck, and with ochraceous in the iliac region.

There is much discrepancy as to the ordinary food of the lämmergeyer,
some observers maintaining that it lives almost entirely on carrion,
offal and even ordure; but there is no question of its frequently taking
living prey, and it is reasonable to suppose that this bird, like so
many others, is not everywhere uniform in its habits. Its name shows it
to be the reputed enemy of shepherds, and it is in some measure owing to
their hostility that it has been exterminated in so many parts of its
European range. But the lämmergeyer has also a great partiality for
bones, which when small enough it swallows. When they are too large, it
is said to soar with them to a great height and drop them on a rock or
stone that they may be broken into pieces of convenient size. Hence its
name ossifrage,[2] by which the Hebrew _Peres_ is rightly translated in
the Authorized Version of the Bible (Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12)--a word
corrupted into osprey, and applied to a bird which has no habit of the
kind.

The lämmergeyer of north-eastern and south Africa is specifically
distinct, and is known as _Gypaetus meridionalis_ or _G. nudipes_. In
habits it resembles the northern bird, from which it differs in little
more than wanting the black stripe below the eye and having the lower
part of the tarsus bare of feathers. It is the "golden eagle" of Bruce's
_Travels_, and has been beautifully figured by Joseph Wolf in E.
Rüppell's _Syst. Übers. der Vögel Nord-Ost-Afrika's_ (Taf. 1).
     (A. N.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See a paper by Dr Girtanner on this bird in Switzerland
    (_Verhandl. St-Gall. naturw. Gesellschaft_, 1869-1870, pp. 147-244).

  [2] Among other crimes attributed to the species is that, according
    to Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ x. cap. 3), of having caused the death of the
    poet Aeschylus, by dropping a tortoise on his bald head! In the Atlas
    range the food of this bird is said to consist chiefly of the
    _Testudo mauritanica_, which "it carries to some height in the air,
    and lets fall on a stone to break the shell" (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 177).
    It was the [Greek: harpê] and [Greek: phênê] of Greek classical
    writers.




LAMOIGNON, a French family, which takes its name from Lamoignon, a place
said to have been in its possession since the 13th century. One of its
several branches is that of Lamoignon de Malesherbes. Several of the
Lamoignons have played important parts in the history of France and the
family has been specially distinguished in the legal profession.
GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON (1617-1677), attained eminence as a lawyer and
became president of the parlement of Paris in 1658. First on the
popular, and later on the royalist side during the Fronde, he presided
at the earlier sittings of the trial of Fouquet, whom he regarded as
innocent, and he was associated with Colbert, whom he was able more than
once to thwart. Lamoignon tried to simplify the laws of France and
sought the society of men of letters like Boileau and Racine. Having
received rich rewards for his public services, he died in Paris on the
10th of December 1677. Guillaume's second son, NICOLAS DE LAMOIGNON
(1648-1724), took the surname of Basville. Following his hereditary
calling he filled many public offices, serving as intendant of
Montauban, of Pau, of Poitiers and of Languedoc before his retirement in
1718. His administration of Languedoc was chiefly remarkable for
vigorous measures against the Camisards and other Protestants, but in
other directions his work in the south of France was more beneficent,
as, following the example of Colbert, he encouraged agriculture and
industry generally and did something towards improving the means of
communication. He wrote a _Mémoire_, which contains much interesting
information about his public work. This was published at Amsterdam in
1724. Lamoignon, who is called by Saint Simon, "the king and tyrant of
Languedoc," died in Paris on the 17th of May 1724. CHRÉTIEN FRANÇOIS DE
LAMOIGNON (1735-1789) entered public life at an early age and was an
actor in the troubles which heralded the Revolution. First on the side
of the parlement and later on that of the king he was one of the
assistants of Loménie de Brienne, whose unpopularity and fall he shared.
He committed suicide on the 15th of May 1789.




LAMONT, JOHANN VON (1805-1879), Scottish-German astronomer and
magnetician, was born at Braemar, Aberdeenshire, on the 13th of December
1805. He was sent at the age of twelve to be educated at the Scottish
monastery in Regensburg, and apparently never afterwards returned to his
native country. His strong bent for scientific studies was recognized by
the head of the monastery, P. Deasson, on whose recommendation he was
admitted in 1827 to the then new observatory of Bogenhausen (near
Munich), where he worked under J. Soldner. After the death of his chief
in 1835 he was, on H. C. Schumacher's recommendation, appointed to
succeed him as director of the observatory. In 1852 he became professor
of astronomy at the university of Munich, and held both these posts till
his death, which took place on the 6th of August 1879. Lamont was a
member of the academies of Brussels, Upsala and Prague, of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and of many
other learned corporations. Among his contributions to astronomy may be
noted his eleven zone-catalogues of 34,674 stars, his measurements, in
1836-1837, of nebulae and clusters, and his determination of the mass of
Uranus from observations of its satellites (_Mem. Astron. Soc._ xi. 51,
1838). A magnetic observatory was equipped at Bogenhausen in 1840
through his initiative; he executed comprehensive magnetic surveys
1849-1858; announced the magnetic decennial period in 1850, and his
discovery of earth-currents in 1862. His _Handbuch des Erdmagnetismus_
(Berlin, 1849) is a standard work on the subject.

  See _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_ (S. Günther); V. J. Schrift,
  _Astr. Gesellschaft_, xv. 60; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_,
  xl. 203; _Nature_, xx. 425; _Quart. Journal Meteor. Society_, vi. 72;
  _Proceedings Roy. Society of Edinburgh_, x. 358; _The Times_ (12 Aug.,
  1879); Sir F. Ronalds's _Cat. of Books relating to Electricity and
  Magnetism_, pp. 281-283; _Royal Society's Cat. of Scientific Papers_,
  vols. iii. vii.




LAMORICIÈRE, CHRISTOPHE LÉON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE (1806-1865), French
general, was born at Nantes on the 11th of September 1806, and entered
the Engineers in 1828. He served in the Algerian campaigns from 1830
onwards, and by 1840 he had risen to the grade of _maréchal-de-camp_
(major-general). Three years later he was made a general of division. He
was one of the most distinguished and efficient of Bugeaud's generals,
rendered special service at Isly (August 14, 1844), acted temporarily as
governor-general of Algeria, and finally effected the capture of Abd
el-Kader in 1847. Lamoricière took some part in the political events of
1848, both as a member of the Chamber of Deputies and as a military
commander. Under the régime of General Cavaignac he was for a time
minister of war. From 1848 to 1851 Lamoricière was one of the most
conspicuous opponents of the policy of Louis Napoleon, and at the _coup
d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851 he was arrested and exiled. He
refused to give in his allegiance to the emperor Napoleon III., and in
1860 accepted the command of the papal army, which he led in the Italian
campaign of 1860. On the 18th of September of that year he was severely
defeated by the Italian army at Castelfidardo. His last years were spent
in complete retirement in France (he had been allowed to return in
1857), and he died at Prouzel (Somme) on the 11th of September 1865.

  See E. Keller, _Le Général de Lamoricière_ (Paris, 1873).




LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANÇOIS DE (1588-1672), French writer, was born in
Paris of a noble family of Maine. His father was an _avocat_ at the
parlement of Paris and author of a curious treatise on the functions of
ambassadors, entitled _Legatus, seu De legatorum privilegiis, officio et
munere libellus_ (1579) and illustrated mainly from ancient history.
François succeeded his father at the parlement, but gave up his post
about 1647 and devoted himself to travel and _belles lettres_. His
_Considérations sur l'éloquence française_ (1638) procured him admission
to the Academy, and his _De l'instruction de Mgr. le Dauphin_ (1640)
attracted the attention of Richelieu. In 1649 Anne of Austria entrusted
him with the education of her second son and subsequently with the
completion of Louis XIV.'s education, which had been very much
neglected. The outcome of his pedagogic labours was a series of books
comprising the _Géographie_, _Rhétorique_, _Morale_, _Économique_,
_Politique_, _Logique_, and _Physique du prince_ (1651-1658). The king
rewarded his tutor by appointing him historiographer of France and
councillor of state. La Mothe Le Vayer died in Paris. Modest, sceptical,
and occasionally obscene in his Latin pieces and in his verses, he made
himself a _persona grata_ at the French court, where libertinism in
ideas and morals was hailed with relish. Besides his educational works,
he wrote _Jugement sur les anciens et principaux historiens grecs et
latins_ (1646); a treatise entitled _Du peu de certitude qu'il y a en
histoire_ (1668), which in a sense marks the beginning of historical
criticism in France; and sceptical _Dialogues_, published posthumously
under the pseudonym of Orosius Tubero. An incomplete edition of his
works was published at Dresden in 1756-1759.

  See Bayle, _Dictionnaire critique_, article "Vayer"; L. Étienne,
  _Essai sur La Mothe Le Vayer_ (Paris, 1849).




LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE (1672-1731), French author, was born in
Paris on the 18th of January 1672. In 1693 his comedy _Les Originaux_
proved a complete failure, which so depressed the author that he
contemplated joining the Trappists, but four years later he again began
writing operas and ballets, e.g. _L'Europe galante_ (1697), and
tragedies, one of which, _Inès de Castro_ (1723), was produced with
immense success at the Théâtre Français. He was a champion of the
moderns in the revived controversy of the ancients and moderns. Madame
Dacier had published (1699) a translation of the _Iliad_, and La Motte,
who knew no Greek, made a translation (1714) in verse founded on her
work. The nature of his work may be judged from his own expression: "I
have taken the liberty to change what I thought disagreeable in it." He
defended the moderns in the _Discours sur Homère_ prefixed to his
translation, and in his _Réflexions sur la critique_ (1716). Apart from
the merits of the controversy, it was conducted on La Motte's side with
a wit and politeness which compared very favourably with his opponent's
methods. He was elected to the Academy in 1710, and soon after became
blind. La Motte carried on a correspondence with the duchesse du Maine,
and was the friend of Fontenelle. He had the same freedom from
prejudice, the same inquiring mind as the latter, and it is on the
excellent prose in which his views are expressed that his reputation
rests. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1731.

  His _Oeuvres du théâtre_ (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his _Oeuvres_
  (10 vols.) in 1754. See A. H. Rigault, _Histoire de la querelle des
  anciens et des modernes_ (1859).




LAMOUREUX, CHARLES (1834-1899), French conductor and violinist, was born
at Bordeaux on the 28th of September 1834. He studied at the Pau
Conservatoire, was engaged as violinist at the Opéra, and in 1864
organized a series of concerts devoted to chamber music. Having
journeyed to England and assisted at a Handel festival, he thought he
would attempt something similar in Paris. At his own expense he founded
the "Société de l'Harmonie Sacrée," and in 1873 conducted the first
performance in Paris of Handel's _Messiah_. He also gave performances of
Bach's _St Matthew Passion_, Handel's _Judas Maccabaeus_, Gounod's
_Gallia_, and Massenet's _Eve_. In 1875 he conducted the festival given
at Rouen to celebrate the centenary of Boïeldieu. The following year he
became _chef d'orchestre_ at the Opéra Comique. In 1881 he founded the
famous concerts associated with his name, which contributed so much to
popularize Wagner's music in Paris. The performances of detached pieces
taken from the German master's works did not, however, satisfy him, and
he matured the project to produce _Lohengrin_, which at that time had
not been heard in Paris. For this purpose he took the Eden Theatre, and
on the 3rd of May 1887 he conducted the first performance of Wagner's
opera in the French capital. Owing to the opposition of the Chauvinists,
the performance was not repeated; but it doubtless prepared the way for
the production of the same masterpiece at the Paris Opéra a few years
later. Lamoureux was successively second _chef d'orchestre_ at the
Conservatoire, first _chef d'orchestre_ at the Opéra Comique, and twice
first _chef d'orchestre_ at the Opéra. He visited London on several
occasions, and gave successful concerts at the Queen's Hall. Lamoureux
died at Paris on the 21st of December 1899. _Tristan und Isolde_ had
been at last heard in Paris, owing to his initiative and under his
direction. After conducting one of the performances of this masterpiece
he was taken ill and succumbed in a few days, having had the consolation
before his death of witnessing the triumph of the cause he had so
courageously championed.




LAMP (from Gr. [Greek: lampas], a torch, [Greek: lampein], to shine),
the general term for an apparatus in which some combustible substance,
generally for illuminating purposes, is held. Lamps are usually
associated with lighting, though the term is also employed in connexion
with heating (e.g. spirit-lamp); and as now employed for oil, gas and
electric light, they are dealt with in the article on LIGHTING. From the
artistic point of view, in modern times, their variety precludes
detailed reference here; but their archaeological history deserves a
fuller account.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bronze Lamp in British Museum.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.]

_Ancient Lamps._--Though Athenaeus states (xv. 700) that the lamp
([Greek: lychnos]) was not an ancient invention in Greece, it had come
into general use there for domestic purposes by the 4th century B.C.,
and no doubt had long before been employed for temples or other places
where a permanent light was required in room of the torch of Homeric
times. Herodotus (ii. 62) sees nothing strange in the "festival of
lamps," Lychnokaie, which was held at Sais in Egypt, except in the vast
number of them. Each was filled with oil so as to burn the whole night.
Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps ([Greek: peri lychnôn],
vii. 215). Still, the scarcity of lamps in a style anything like that of
an early period, compared with the immense number of them from the late
Greek and Roman age, seems to justify the remark of Athenaeus. The
commonest sort of domestic lamps were of terra-cotta and of the shape
seen in figs. 1 and 2 with a spout or nozzle ([Greek: myktêr]) in which
the wick ([Greek: thryallis]) burned, a round hole on the top to pour in
oil by, and a handle to carry the lamp with. A lamp with two or more
spouts was [Greek: dimyxos], [Greek: trimyxos], &c., but these terms
would not apply strictly to the large class of lamps with numerous holes
for wicks but without nozzles. Decoration was confined to the front of
the handle, or more commonly to the circular space on the top of the
lamp, and it consisted almost always of a design in relief, taken from
mythology or legend, from objects of daily life or scenes such as
displays of gladiators or chariot races, from animals and the chase. A
lamp in the British Museum has a view of the interior of a Roman circus
with spectators looking on at a chariot race. In other cases the lamp is
made altogether of a fantastic shape, as in the form of an animal, a
bull's head, or a human foot. Naturally colour was excluded from the
ornamentation except in the form of a red or black glaze, which would
resist the heat. The typical form of hand lamp (figs. 1, 2) is a
combination of the flatness necessary for carrying steady and remaining
steady when set down, with the roundness evolved from the working in
clay and characteristic of vessels in that material. In the bronze lamps
this same type is retained, though the roundness was less in keeping
with metal. Fanciful shapes are equally common in bronze. The standard
form of handle consists of a ring for the forefinger and above it a kind
of palmette for the thumb. Instead of the palmette is sometimes a
crescent, no doubt in allusion to the moon. It would only be with bronze
lamps that the cover protecting the flame from the wind could be used,
as was the case out of doors in Athens. Such a lamp was in fact a
lantern. Apparently it was to the lantern that the Greek word _lampas_,
a torch, was first transferred, probably from a custom of having guards
to protect the torches also. Afterwards it came to be employed for the
lamp itself ([Greek: lychnos], _lucerna_). When Juvenal (_Sat._ iii.
277) speaks of the _aenea lampas_, he may mean a torch with a bronze
handle, but more probably either a lamp or a lantern. Lamps used for
suspension were mostly of bronze, and in such cases the decoration was
on the under part, so as to be seen from below. Of this the best example
is the lamp at Cortona, found there in 1840 (engraved, _Monumenti d.
inst. arch._ iii. pls. 41, 42, and in Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of
Etruria_, 2nd ed. ii. p. 403). It is set round with sixteen nozzles
ornamented alternately with a siren and a satyr playing on a double
flute. Between each pair of nozzles is a head of a river god, and on the
bottom of the lamp is a large mask of Medusa, surrounded by bands of
animals. These designs are in relief, and the workmanship, which appears
to belong to the beginning of the 5th century B.C., justifies the esteem
in which Etruscan lamps were held in antiquity (Athenaeus xv. 700). Of a
later but still excellent style is a bronze lamp in the British Museum
found in the baths of Julian in Paris (figs. 3, 4, 5). The chain is
attached by means of two dolphins very artistically combined. Under the
nozzles are heads of Pan (fig. 3); and from the sides project the
foreparts of lions (fig. 5). To what extent lamps may have been used in
temples is unknown. Probably the Erechtheum on the acropolis of Athens
was an exception in having a gold one kept burning day and night, just
as this lamp itself must have been an exception in its artistic merits.
It was the work of the sculptor Callimachus, and was made apparently for
the newly rebuilt temple a little before 400 B.C. When once filled with
oil and lit it burned continuously for a whole year. The wick was of a
fine flax called Carpasian (now understood to have been a kind of
cotton), which proved to be the least combustible of all flax (Pausanias
i. 26. 7). Above the lamp a palm tree of bronze rose to the roof for the
purpose of carrying off the fumes. But how this was managed it is not
easy to determine unless the palm be supposed to have been inverted and
to have hung above the lamp spread out like a reflector, for which
purpose the polished bronze would have served fairly well. The stem if
left hollow would collect the fumes and carry them out through the roof.
This lamp was refilled on exactly the same day each year, so that there
seems to have been an idea of measuring time by it, such as may also
have been the case in regard to the lamp stand ([Greek: lychneion])
capable of holding as many lamps as there were days of the year, which
Dionysius the Sicilian tyrant placed in the Prytaneum of Tarentum. At
Pharae in Achaia there was in the market-place an oracular statue of
Hermes with a marble altar before it to which bronze lamps were attached
by means of lead. Whoever desired to consult the statue went there in
the evening and first filled the lamps and lit them, placing also a
bronze coin on the altar. A similar custom prevailed at the oracle of
Apis in Egypt (Pausanias vii. 22. 2). At Argos he speaks of a chasm into
which it was a custom continued to his time to let down burning lamps,
with some reference to the goddess of the lower world, Persephone (ii.
22. 4). At Cnidus a large number of terra-cotta lamps were found crowded
in one place a little distance below the surface, and it was conjectured
that there must have been there some statue or altar at which it had
been a custom to leave lamps burning at night (Newton, _Discoveries at
Halicarnassus, &c._, ii. 394). These lamps are of terra-cotta, but with
little ornamentation, and so like each other in workmanship that they
must all have come from one pottery, and may have been all brought to
the spot where they were found on one occasion, probably the funeral of
a person with many friends, or the celebration of a festival in his
honour, such as the _parentalia_ among the Romans, to maintain which it
was a common custom to bequeath property. For example, a marble slab in
the British Museum has a Latin inscription describing the property which
had been left to provide among other things that a lighted lamp with
incense on it should be placed at the tomb of the deceased on the
kalends, nones and ides of each month (_Mus. Marbles_, v. pl. 8, fig.
2). For birthday presents terra-cotta lamps appear to have been
frequently employed, the device generally being that of two figures of
victory holding between them a disk inscribed with a good wish for the
new year: ANNV NOV FAVSTV FELIX. This is the inscription on a lamp in
the British Museum, which besides the victories has among other symbols
a disk with the head of Janus. As the torch gave way to the lamp in
fact, so also it gave way in mythology. In the earlier myths, as in that
of Demeter, it is a torch with which she goes forth to search for her
daughter, but in the late myth of Cupid and Psyche it is an oil lamp
which Psyche carries, and from which to her grief a drop of hot oil
falls on Cupid and awakes him. Terra-cotta lamps have very frequently
the name of the maker stamped on the foot. Clay moulds from which the
lamps were made exist in considerable numbers.     (A. S. M.)




LAMP-BLACK, a deep black pigment consisting of carbon in a very fine
state of division, obtained by the imperfect combustion of highly
carbonaceous substances. It is manufactured from scraps of resin and
pitch refuse and inferior oils and fats, and other similar combustible
bodies rich in carbon, the finest lamp-black being procured by the
combustion of oils obtained in coal-tar distillation (see COAL-TAR).
Lamp-black is extensively used in the manufacture of printing ink, as a
pigment for oil painting and also for "ebonizing" cabinet work, and in
the waxing and lacquering of leather. It is the principal constituent of
China ink.




LAMPEDUSA, a small island in the Mediterranean, belonging to the
province of Girgenti, from which it is about 112 m. S.S.W. Pop. (1901,
with Linosa--see below) 2276. Its greatest length is about 7 m., its
greatest width about 2 m.; the highest point is 400 ft. above sea-level.
Geologically it belongs to Africa, being situated on the edge of the
submarine platform which extends along the east coast of Tunisia, from
which (at Mahadia) it is 90 m. distant eastwards. The soil is
calcareous; it was covered with scrub (chiefly the wild olive) until
comparatively recent times, but this has been cut, and the rock is now
bare. The valleys are, however, fairly fertile. On the south, near the
only village, is the harbour, which has been dredged to a depth of 13
ft. and is a good one for torpedo boats and small craft.

The island was, as remains of hut foundations show, inhabited in
prehistoric times. Punic tombs and Roman buildings also exist near the
harbour. The island is the Lopadusa of Strabo, and the Lipadosa of
Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_, the scene of the landing of Roger of Sicily
and of his conversion by the hermit. A thousand slaves were taken from
its population in 1553. In 1436 it was given by Alfonso of Aragon to Don
Giovanni de Caro, baron of Montechiaro. In 1661, Ferdinand Tommasi, its
then owner, received the title of prince from Charles II. of Spain. In
1737 the earl of Sandwich found only one inhabitant upon it; in 1760
some French settlers established themselves there. Catherine II. of
Russia proposed to buy it as a Russian naval station, and the British
government thought of doing the same if Napoleon had succeeded in
seizing Malta. In 1800 a part of it was leased to Salvatore Gatt of
Malta, who in 1810 sublet part of it to Alessandro Fernandez. In 1843
onwards Ferdinand II. of Naples established a colony there. There is now
an Italian penal colony for _domicilio coatto_, with some 400 convicts
(see B. Sanvisente, _L'Isola di Lampedusa eretta a colonia_, Naples,
1849). Eight miles W. is the islet of Lampione. Linosa, some 30 m. to
the N.N.E., measures about 2 by 2 m., and is entirely volcanic; its
highest point is 610 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) about 200. It has
landing-places on the S. and W., and is more fertile than Lampedusa; but
it suffers from the lack of springs. Sanvisente says the water in
Lampedusa is good. A few fragments of undoubtedly Roman pottery and some
Roman coins have been found there, but the cisterns and the ruins of
houses are probably of later date (P. Calcara, _Descrizione dell' isola
di Linosa_, Palermo, 1851, 29).     (T. As.)




LAMPERTHEIM, a town in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, 8 m. N. from
Mannheim by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main via Biblis, and at the
junction of lines to Worms and Weinheim. It contains a Roman Catholic
church and a fine Evangelical church, and has chemical and cigar
factories. Pop. (1900) 8020.




LAMPETER (_Llanbedr-pont-Stephan_), a market town, municipal borough and
assize town of Cardiganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the Teifi,
here crossed by an ancient stone bridge. Pop. (1901) 1722. Lampeter is a
station on the so-called Manchester-and-Milford branch line of the Great
Western railway. Though of ancient origin, the town is entirely modern
in appearance, its most conspicuous object being the Gothic buildings of
St David's College, founded in 1822, which cover a large area and
contain a valuable library of English, Welsh and foreign works (see
UNIVERSITIES). The modernized parish church of St Peter, or Pedr,
contains some old monuments of the Lloyd family. North of the town are
the park and mansion of Falcondale, the seat of the Harford family.

The name of Llanbedr-pont-Stephan goes to prove the early foundation of
the place by St Pedr, a Celtic missionary of the 6th century, while one
Stephen was the original builder of the bridge over the Teifi. As an
important outpost in the upper valley of the Teifi, Lampeter possessed a
castle, which was demolished by Owen Gwynedd in the 12th century. In
1188 the town was visited by Archbishop Baldwin on his way from Cardigan
to Strata-Florida Abbey, and the Crusade was vigorously preached at this
spot. Lampeter was first incorporated under Edward II., but the earliest
known charter dates from the reign of Henry VI., whereby the principal
officer of the town, a portreeve, was to be appointed annually at the
court-leet of the manor. The town was subsequently governed under a
confirmatory charter of 1814, but in 1884 a new charter was obtained,
whereby the corporation was empowered to consist of a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Although only a small agricultural centre, Lampeter
has since 1886 become the assize town of Cardiganshire owing to its
convenient position. Until the Redistribution Act of 1885 Lampeter
formed one of the group of boroughs comprising the Cardigan
parliamentary district.




LAMPOON, a virulent satire either in prose or verse; the idea of
injustice and unscrupulousness seems to be essential to its definition.
Although in its use the word is properly and almost exclusively English,
the derivation appears to be French. Littré derives it from a term of
Parisian argot, _lamper_, to drink, greedily, in great mouthfuls. This
word appears to have begun to be prevalent in the middle of the 17th
century, and Furetière has preserved a fragment from a popular song,
which says:--

  Jacques fuyant de Dublin
  Dit à Lauzun, son cousin,
  "Prenez soin de ma couronne,
  J'aurai soin de ma personne,
        Lampons! lampons!"

--that is to say, let us drink heavily, and begone dull care. Scarron
speaks of a wild troop, singing _leridas_ and _lampons_. There is, also,
a rare French verb, _lamponner_, to attack with ridicule, used earlier
in the 17th century by Brantôme. In its English form, lampoon, the word
is used by Evelyn in 1645, "Here they still paste up their drolling
lampoons and scurrilous papers," and soon after it is a verb,--"suppose
we lampooned all the pretty women in Town." Both of these forms, the
noun and the verb, have been preserved ever since in English, without
modification, for violent and reckless literary censure. Tom Brown
(1663-1704) was a past master in the art of lampooning, and some of his
attacks on the celebrities of his age have a certain vigour. When Dryden
became a Roman Catholic, Brown wrote:--

  Traitor to God and rebel to thy pen,
  Priest-ridden Poet, perjured son of Ben,
  If ever thou prove honest, then the nation
  May modestly believe in transubstantiation.

Several of the heroes of the _Dunciad_, and in particular John Oldmixon
(1673-1742), were charged without unfairness with being professional
lampooners. The coarse diatribes which were published by Richard Savage
(1697-1743), mainly against Lady Macclesfield, were nothing more nor
less than lampoons, and the word may with almost equal justice be
employed to describe the coarser and more personal portions of the
satires of Churchill. As a rule, however, the lampoon possessed no
poetical graces, and in its very nature was usually anonymous. The
notorious _Essay on Woman_ (1764) of John Wilkes was a lampoon, and was
successfully proceeded against as an obscene libel. The progress of
civilization and the discipline of the law made it more and more
impossible for private malice to take the form of baseless and
scurrilous attack, and the lampoon, in its open shape, died of public
decency in the 18th century. Malice, especially in an anonymous form,
and passing in manuscript from hand to hand, has continued, however, to
make use of this very unlovely form of literature. It has constantly
reappeared at times of political disturbance, and the French have seldom
failed to exercise their wicked wit upon their unpopular rulers. See
also PASQUINADE.     (E. G.)




LAMPREY, a fish belonging to the family _Petromyzontidae_ (from [Greek:
petros] and [Greek: myzô], literally, stone-suckers), which with the
hag-fishes or _Myxinidae_ forms a distinct subclass of fishes, the
_Cyclostomata_, distinguished by the low organization of their skeleton,
which is cartilaginous, without vertebral segmentation, without ribs or
real jaws, and without limbs. The lampreys are readily recognized by
their long, eel-like, scaleless body, terminating anteriorly in the
circular, suctorial mouth characteristic of the whole sub-class. On each
side, behind the head, there is a row of seven branchial openings,
through which the water is conveyed to and from the gills. By means of
their mouth they fasten to stones, boats, &c., as well as to other
fishes, their object being to obtain a resting-place on the former,
whilst they attach themselves to the latter to derive nourishment from
them. The inner surface of their cup-shaped mouth is armed with pointed
teeth, with which they perforate the integuments of the fish attacked,
scraping off particles of the flesh and sucking the blood. Mackerel,
cod, pollack and flat-fishes are the kinds most frequently attacked by
them in the sea; of river-fish the migratory _Salmonidae_ and the shad
are sometimes found with the marks of the teeth of the lamprey, or with
the fish actually attached to them. About fifteen species are known from
the coasts and rivers of the temperate regions of the northern and
southern hemispheres. In Great Britain and Europe generally three
species occur, viz. the large spotted sea-lamprey (_Petromyzon
marinus_), the river-lamprey or lampern (_P. fluviatilis_), and the
small lampern or "pride" or "sand-piper" (_P. branchialis_). The first
two are migratory, entering rivers in the spring to spawn; of the
river-lamprey, however, specimens are met with in fresh water all the
year round. In North America about ten species of lamprey occur, while
in South America and Australasia still others are found. Lampreys,
especially the sea-lamprey, are esteemed as food, formerly more so than
at present; but their flesh is not easy of digestion. Henry I. of
England is said to have fallen a victim to this, his favourite dish. The
species of greatest use is the river-lamprey, which as bait is preferred
to all others in the cod and turbot fisheries of the North Sea. Yarrell
states that formerly the Thames alone supplied from 1,000,000 to
1,200,000 lamperns annually, but their number has so much fallen off
that, for instance, in 1876 only 40,000 were sold to the cod-fishers.
That year, however, was an unusually bad year; the lamperns, from their
scarcity, fetched £8, 10s. a thousand, whilst in ordinary years £5 is
considered a fair price. The season for catching lamperns closes in the
Thames about the middle of March. The origin of the name lamprey is
obscure; it is an adaptation of Fr. _lamproie_, Med. Lat. _lampreda_;
this has been taken as a variant of another Med. Lat. form _Lampetra_,
which occurs in ichthyological works of the middle ages; the derivation
from _lambere petras_, to lick stones, is a specimen of etymological
ingenuity. The development of lampreys has received much attention on
the part of naturalists, since Aug. Müller discovered that they undergo
a metamorphosis, and that the minute worm-like lamperns previously known
under the name of _Ammocoetes_, and abundant in the sand and mud of many
streams, were nothing but the undeveloped young of the river-lampreys
and small lamperns. See CYCLOSTOMATA.




LAMPROPHYRES (from Gr. [Greek: lampros], bright, and the terminal part
of the word porphyry, meaning rocks containing bright porphyritic
crystals), a group of rocks containing phenocrysts, usually of biotite
and hornblende (with bright cleavage surfaces), often also of olivine
and augite, but not of felspar. They are thus distinguished from the
porphyries and porphyrites in which the felspar has crystallized in two
generations. They are essentially "dike rocks," occurring as dikes and
thin sills, and are also found as marginal facies of plutonic
intrusions. They furnish a good example of the correlation which often
exists between petrographical types and their mode of occurrence,
showing the importance of physical conditions in determining the
mineralogical and structural characters of rocks. They are usually dark
in colour, owing to the abundance of ferro-magnesian silicates, of
relatively high specific gravity and liable to decomposition. For these
reasons they have been defined as a _melanocrate_ series (rich in the
dark minerals); and they are often accompanied by a complementary
_leucocrate_ series (rich in the white minerals felspar and quartz) such
as aplites, porphyries and felsites. Both have been produced by
differentiation of a parent magma, and if the two complementary sets of
rocks could be mixed in the right proportions, it is presumed that a
mass of similar chemical composition to the parent magma would be
produced.

Both in the hand specimens and in microscopic slides of lamprophyric
rocks biotite and hornblende are usually conspicuous. Though black by
reflected light they are brown by transmitted light and highly
pleochroic. In some cases they are yellow-brown, in other cases
chestnut-brown and reddish brown; in the same rock the two minerals have
strikingly similar colour and pleochroism. Augite, when it occurs, is
sometimes green, at other times purple. Felspar is restricted to the
ground mass; quartz occurs sometimes but is scarce. Although porphyritic
structure is almost universal, it is sometimes not very marked. The
large biotites and hornblendes are not sharply distinct from those of
intermediate size, which in turn graduate into the small crystals of the
same minerals in the ground mass. As a rule all the ingredients have
rather perfect crystalline forms (except quartz), hence these rocks have
been called "panidiomorphic." In many lamprophyres the pale quartz and
felspathic ingredients tend to occur in rounded spots, or _ocelli_, in
which there has been progressive crystallization from the margins
towards the centre. These spots may consist of radiate or brush-like
felspars (with some mica and hornblende) or of quartz and felspar. A
central area of quartz or of analcite probably represents an original
miarolitic cavity infilled at a later period.

There are two great groups of lamprophyres differing in composition
while retaining the general features of the class. One of these
accompanies intrusions of granite and diorite and includes the minettes,
kersantites, vogesites and spessartites. The other is found in
association with nepheline syenites, essexites and teschenites, and is
exemplified by camptonites, monchiquites and alnoites. The complementary
facies of the first group is the aplites, porphyrites and felsites; that
of the second group includes bostonites, tinguaites and other rocks.

  The _granito-dioritic-lamprophyres_ (the first of these two groups)
  are found in many districts where granites and diorites occur, e.g.
  the Scottish Highlands and Southern Uplands, the Lake district,
  Ireland, the Vosges, Black Forest, Harz, &c. As a rule they do not
  proceed directly from the granite, but form separate dikes which may
  be later than, and consequently may cut, the granites and diorites. In
  other districts where granites are abundant no rocks of this class are
  known. It is rare to find only one member of the group present, but
  minettes, vogesites, kersantites, &c., all appear and there are
  usually transitional forms. For this reason these rock species must
  not be regarded as sharply distinct from one another. The group as a
  whole is a well-characterized one and shows few transitions to
  porphyries, porphyrites and other dike types; its subdivisions,
  however, tend to merge into one another and especially when they are
  weathered are hard to differentiate. The presence or absence of the
  four dominant minerals, orthoclase, plagioclase, biotite and
  hornblende, determines the species. Minettes contain biotite and
  orthoclase; kersantites, biotite and plagioclase. Vogesites contain
  hornblende and orthoclase; spessartites, hornblende and plagioclase.
  Each variety of lamprophyre may and often does contain all four
  minerals but is named according to the two which preponderate. These
  rocks contain also iron oxides (usually titaniferous), apatite,
  sometimes sphene, augite and olivine. The hornblende and biotite are
  brown or greenish brown, and as a rule their crystals even when small
  are very perfect and give the micro-sections an easily recognizable
  character. Green hornblende occurs in some of these rocks. The augite
  builds eumorphic crystals of pale green colour, often zonal and
  readily weathering. Olivine in the fresh state is rare; it forms
  rounded, corroded grains; in many cases it is decomposed to green or
  colourless hornblende in radiating nests (pilite). The plagioclase
  occurs as small rectangular crystals; orthoclase may have similar
  shapes or may be fibrous and grouped in sheaflike aggregates which are
  narrow in the middle and spread out towards both ends. If quartz is
  present it is the last product of crystallization and the only mineral
  devoid of idiomorphism; it fills up the spaces between the other
  ingredients of the rock. As all lamprophyres are prone to alteration
  by weathering a great abundance of secondary minerals is usually found
  in them; the principal are calcite and other carbonates, limonite,
  chlorite, quartz and kaolin.

  Ocellar structure is common; the ocelli consist mainly of orthoclase
  and quartz, and may be a quarter of an inch in diameter. Another
  feature of these rocks is the presence of large foreign crystals or
  xenocrysts of felspar and of quartz. Their forms are rounded,
  indicating partial resorption by the solvent action of the
  lamprophyric magma; and the quartz may be surrounded by corrosion
  borders of minerals such as augite and hornblende produced where the
  magma is attacking the crystal. These crystals are of doubtful origin;
  they are often of considerable size and may be conspicuous in
  hand-specimens of the rocks. It is supposed that they did not
  crystallize in the lamprophyre dike but in some way were caught up by
  it. Other enclosures, more certainly of foreign origin, are often
  seen, such as quartzite, schists, garnetiferous rocks, granite, &c.
  These may be baked and altered or in other cases partly dissolved.
  Cordierite may be formed either in the enclosure or in the
  lamprophyre, where it takes the shape of hexagonal prisms which in
  polarized light break up into six sectors, triangular in shape,
  diverging from the centre of the crystal.

  The second group of lamprophyric dike rocks (_the camptonite,
  monchiquite, alnoite series_) is much less common than those above
  described. As a rule they occur together, and there are transitions
  between the different sub-groups as in the granito-dioritic
  lamprophyres. In Sweden, Brazil, Portugal, Norway, the north of
  Scotland, Bohemia, Arkansas and other places this assemblage of rock
  types has been met with, always presenting nearly identical features.
  In most cases, though not in all, they have a close association with
  nepheline or leucite syenites and similar rocks rich in alkalies. This
  indicates a genetic affinity like that which exists between the
  granites and the minettes, &c., and further proof of this connexion is
  furnished by the occasional occurrence in those lamprophyres of
  leucite, haüyne and other felspathoid minerals.

  The camptonites (called after Campton, New Hampshire) are dark brown,
  nearly black rocks often with large hornblende phenocrysts. Their
  essential minerals in thin section are hornblende of a strong
  reddish-brown colour; augite purple, pleochroic and rich in titanium,
  olivine and plagioclase felspar. They have the porphyritic and
  panidiomorphic structures described in the rocks of the previous
  group, and like them also have an ocellar character, often very
  conspicuous under the microscope. The accessory minerals are biotite,
  apatite, iron oxides and analcite. They decompose readily and are then
  filled with carbonates. Many of these rocks prove on analysis to be
  exceedingly rich in titanium; they may contain 4 or 5% of titanium
  dioxide.

  The monchiquites (called after the Serra de Monchique, Portugal) are
  fine-grained and devoid of felspar. Their essential constituents are
  olivine and purplish augite. Brown hornblende, like that of the
  camptonites, occurs in many of them. An interstitial substance is
  present, which may sometimes be a brown glass, but at other times is
  colourless and is believed by some petrographers to be primary
  crystalline analcite. They would define the monchiquites as rocks
  consisting of olivine, augite and analcite; others regard the analcite
  as secondary, and consider the base as essentially glassy. Some
  monchiquites contain haüyne; while in others small leucites are found.
  Ocellar structure is occasionally present, though less marked than in
  the camptonites. A special group of monchiquites rich in deep brown
  biotite has been called fourchites (after the Fourche Mountains,
  Arkansas).

  The alnoites (called after the island of Alnö in Norway) are rare
  rocks found in Norway, Montreal and other parts of North America and
  in the north of Scotland. They contain olivine, augite, brown biotite
  and melilite. They are free from felspar, and contain very low
  percentages of silica.

  The chemical composition of some of these rocks will be indicated by
  the analyses of certain well-known examples.

    +--------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |        |  SiO2 | TiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | FeO  | MgO  | CaO  | Na2O | K2O  |
    +--------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+
    |   I.[1]| 52.70 | 1.71 | 15.07 |  8.41 | ...  | 7.23 | 5.33 | 3.12 | 4.81 |
    |  II.   | 52.12 | 1.20 | 13.52 |  2.56 | 4.53 | 6.36 | 5.78 | 2.34 | 5.36 |
    | III.   | 45.15 | ...  | 15.39 |  2.76 | 5.64 | 6.38 | 8.83 | 2.67 | 2.77 |
    |  IV.   | 54.67 | ...  | 12.68 | 11.68 | 2.13 | 6.11 | 4.96 | 3.85 | 3.65 |
    |   V.   | 41.96 | 4.15 | 15.36 |  3.27 | 9.89 | 5.01 | 9.47 | 5.15 | 0.19 |
    |  VI.   | 43.74 | 2.80 | 14.82 |  2.40 | 7.52 | 6.98 |10.81 | 3.06 | 2.90 |
    | VII.   | 29.25 | 2.54 |  8.80 |  3.92 | 5.42 |17.66 |17.86 | 0.77 | 2.45 |
    +--------+-------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+

  In addition to the oxides given these rocks contain small quantities
  of water (combined and hygroscopic), CO2, S, MnO, P2O5, Ca2O3, &c.
       (J. S. F.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] I. Minette (Weiler, Alsace). II. Kersantite (Neubrunn,
    Thuringia). III. Vogesite (Castle Mountain, Montana). IV. Spessartite
    (Waldmichael, Spessart). V. Camptonite (Campton Falls). VI.
    Monchiquite (Ria do Ouro, Serra de Tingua). VII. Alnöite (Alnö,
    Sweden).




LAMPSACUS, an ancient Greek colony in Mysia, Asia Minor, known as
Pityusa or Pityussa before its colonization by Ionian Greeks from
Phocaea and Miletus, was situated on the Hellespont, opposite Callipolis
(Gallipoli) in Thrace. It possessed a good harbour; and the
neighbourhood was famous for its wine, so that, having fallen into the
hands of the Persians during the Ionian revolt, it was assigned by
Artaxerxes I. to Themistocles to provide him with wine, as Percote did
with meat and Magnesia with bread. After the battle of Mycale (479
B.C.), Lampsacus joined the Athenians, but, having revolted from them in
411, was reduced by force. It was defended in 196 B.C. against Antiochus
the Great of Syria, after which its inhabitants were received as allies
of Rome. Lampsacus was the chief seat of the worship of Priapus, a gross
nature-god closely connected with the culture of the vine. The ancient
name is preserved in that of the modern village of Lapsaki, but the
Greek town possibly lay at Chardak immediately opposite Gallipoli.

  See A. L. Castellan, _Lettres sur la Morée, l'Hellespont, &c._ (Paris,
  1820); Choiseul Gouffier, _Voyage pittoresque dans l'empire ottoman_
  (1842).




LAMPSTAND, a pillar, tripod or figure extending to the floor for
supporting or holding a lamp. The lampstand (_lampadère_) is probably of
French origin; it appears to have been in use in France before the end
of the 17th century.




LANARK, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of
Lanarkshire, Scotland, standing on high ground about half a mile from
the right bank of the Clyde, 31 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the Caledonian
railway. Pop. (1901) 6440. It is a favourite holiday resort, being the
point from which the falls of the Clyde are usually visited. The
principal buildings are the town hall, the county buildings, the
assembly rooms, occupying the site of an old Franciscan monastery, three
hospitals, a convalescent home, the Smyllum orphanage and the Queen
Victoria Jubilee fountain. The industries include cotton-spinning,
weaving, nail-making and oilworks, and there are frequent markets for
cattle and sheep. Lanark is a place of considerable antiquity. Kenneth
II. held a parliament here in 978, and it was sometimes the residence of
the Scottish kings, one of whom, William the Lion (d. 1214), granted it
a charter. Several of the earlier exploits of William Wallace were
achieved in the neighbourhood. He burned the town and slew the English
sheriff William Hezelrig. About 1 m. N.W. are Cartland Craigs, where
Mouse Water runs through a precipitous red sandstone ravine, the sides
of which are about 400 ft. high. The stream is crossed by a bridge of
single span, supposed to be Roman, and by a three-arched bridge,
designed by Thomas Telford and erected in 1823. On the right bank, near
this bridge, is the cave in which Wallace concealed himself after
killing Hezelrig and which still bears his name. Lanark was the centre
of much activity in the days of the Covenanters. William Lithgow
(1582-1645), the traveller, William Smellie (1697-1763), the
obstetrician and Gavin Hamilton (1730-1797), the painter, were born at
Lanark. The town is one of the Falkirk district group of parliamentary
burghs, the other constituents being Airdrie, Hamilton, Falkirk and
Linlithgow.

New Lanark (pop. 795), 1 m. S., is famous in connexion with the
socialist experiments of Robert Owen. The village was founded by David
Dale (1739-1806) in 1785, with the support of Sir Richard Arkwright,
inventor of the spinning-frame, who thought the spot might be made the
Manchester of Scotland. In ten years four cotton mills were running,
employing nearly 1400 hands. They were sold in 1799 to a Manchester
company, who appointed Owen manager. In the same year he married Dale's
daughter. For many years the mills were successfully conducted, but
friction ultimately arose and Owen retired in 1828. The mills, however,
are still carried on.

  There are several interesting places near Lanark. Braxfield, on the
  Clyde, gave the title of Lord Braxfield to Robert Macqueen
  (1722-1799), who was born in the mansion and acquired on the bench the
  character of the Scottish Jeffreys. Robert Baillie, the patriot who
  was executed for conscience' sake (1684), belonged to Jerviswood, an
  estate on the Mouse. Lee House, the home of the Lockharts, is 3 m.
  N.W. The old castle was largely rebuilt in the 19th century. It
  contains some fine tapestry and portraits, and the Lee Penny--familiar
  to readers of Sir Walter Scott's _Talisman_--which was brought from
  Palestine in the 14th century by the Crusading knight, Sir Simon
  Lockhart. It is described as a cornelian encased in a silver coin.
  Craignethan Castle on the Nethan, a left-hand tributary joining the
  Clyde at Crossford, is said to be the original of the "Tillietudiem"
  of Scott's _Old Mortality_.




LANARKSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
shires of Dumbarton and Stirling, E. by Linlithgowshire, Mid-Lothian and
Peeblesshire, S. by Dumfriesshire and W. by the counties of Ayr, Renfrew
and Dumbarton. Its area is 879 sq. m. (562,821 acres). It may be
described as embracing the valley of the Clyde; and, in addition to the
gradual descent from the high land in the south, it is also
characterized by a gentle slope towards both banks of the river. The
shire is divided into three wards, the Upper, comprising all the
southern section, or more than half the whole area (over 330,000 acres);
the Middle, with Hamilton for its chief town, covering fully 190,000
acres; and the Lower, occupying the northern area of about 40,000 acres.
The surface falls gradually from the uplands in the south to the Firth
of Clyde. The highest hills are nearly all on or close to the borders of
Peeblesshire and Dumfriesshire, and include Culter Fell (2454 ft.) and
Lowther Hill (2377). The loftiest heights exclusively belonging to
Lanarkshire are Green Lowther (2403), Tinto (2335), Ballencleuch Law
(2267), Rodger Law (2257), Dun Law (2216), Shiel Dod (2190), Dungrain
Law (2186) and Comb Law (2107). The principal rivers are the Clyde and
its head waters and affluents (on the right, the Medwin, Mouse, South
Calder, North Calder and Kelvin; on the left, the Douglas, Nethan,
Avon, Rotten Calder and Cart). There are no lochs of considerable size,
the few sheets of water in the north--Woodend Reservoir, Bishop Loch,
Hogganfield Loch, Woodend Loch, Lochend Loch--mainly feeding the
Monkland and the Forth and Clyde Canals. The most famous natural
features are the Falls of Clyde at Bonnington, Corra, Dundaff and
Stonebyres.

  _Geology._--The southern upland portion is built up of Silurian and
  Ordovician rocks; the northern lower-lying tracts are formed of
  Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone rocks. Ordovician strata cross the
  county from S.W. to N.E. in a belt 5-7 m. in breadth which is brought
  up by a fault against the Old Red and the Silurian on the northern
  side. This fault runs by Lamington, Roberton and Crawfordjohn. The
  Ordovician rocks lie in a synclinal fold with beds of Caradoc age in
  the centre flanked by graptolitic shales, grits and conglomerates,
  including among the last-named the local "Haggis-rock"; the well-known
  lead mines of Leadhills are worked in these formations. Silurian
  shales and sandstones, &c., extend south of the Ordovician belt to the
  county boundary; and again, on the northern side of the Ordovician
  belt two small tracts appear through the Old Red Sandstone on the
  crests of anticlinal folds. The Old Red Sandstone covers an irregular
  tract north of the Ordovician belt; a lower division consisting of
  sandstone, conglomerates and mud-stones is the most extensively
  developed; above this is found a series of contemporaneous porphyrites
  and melaphyres, conformable upon the lower division in the west of the
  county but are not so in the east. An upper series of sandstones and
  grits is seen for a short distance west of Lamington. Lanark stands on
  the Old Red Sandstone and the Falls of Clyde occur in the same rocks.
  Economically the most important geological feature is the coal basin
  of the Glasgow district. The axis of this basin lies in a N.E.-S.W.
  direction; in the central part, including Glasgow, Airdrie,
  Motherwell, Wishaw, Carluke, lie the coal-measures, consisting of
  sandstones, shales, marls and fireclays with seams of coal and
  ironstone. There are eleven beds of workable coal, the more important
  seams being the Ell, Main, Splint, Pyotshaw and Virtuewell. Underlying
  the coal-measures is the Millstone Grit seen on the northern side
  between Glenboig and Hogganfield--here the fireclays of Garnkirk,
  Gartcosh and Glenboig are worked--and on the south and south-east of
  the coal-measures, but not on the western side, because it is there
  cut out by a fault. Beneath the last-named formation comes the
  Carboniferous Limestone series with thin coals and ironstones, and
  again beneath this is the Calciferous Sandstone series which in the
  south-east consists of sandstones, shales, &c., but in the west the
  greater part of the series is composed of interbedded volcanic
  rocks--porphyrites and melaphyres. It will be observed that in general
  the younger formations lie nearer the centre of the basin and the
  older ones crop out around them. Besides the volcanic rocks mentioned
  there are intrusive basalts in the Carboniferous rocks like that in
  the neighbourhood of Shotts, and the smaller masses at Hogganfield
  near Glasgow and elsewhere. Volcanic necks are found in the Carluke
  and Kilcadzow districts, marking the vents of former volcanoes and
  several dikes of Tertiary age traverse the older rocks. An intrusion
  of pink felsite in early Old Red times has been the cause of Tinto
  Hill. Evidences of the Glacial period are abundant in the form of
  kames and other deposits of gravel, sand and boulder clay. The ice in
  flowing northward and southward from the higher ground took an
  easterly direction when it reached the lower ground. In the lower
  reaches of the Clyde the remains of old beaches at 25, 50 and 100 ft.
  above the present sea-level are to be observed.

  _Climate and Agriculture._--The rainfall averages 42 in. annually,
  being higher in the hill country and lower towards the north. The
  temperature for the year averages 48° F., for January 38° and for July
  59°. The area under grain has shown a downward tendency since 1880.
  Oats is the principal crop, but barley and wheat are also grown.
  Potatoes and turnips are raised on a large scale. In the Lower Ward
  market-gardening has increased considerably, and the quantity of
  vegetables, grapes and tomatoes reared under glass has reached great
  proportions. An ancient industry in the vale of the Clyde for many
  miles below Lanark is the cultivation of fruit, several of the
  orchards being said to date from the time of Bede. The apples and
  pears are of good repute. There has been a remarkable extension in the
  culture of strawberries, hundreds of acres being laid down in beds.
  The sheep walks in the upper and middle wards are heavily stocked and
  the herds of cattle are extensive, the favoured breeds being Ayrshire
  and a cross between this and "improved Lanark." Dairy-farming
  flourishes, the cheeses of Carnwath and Lesmahagow being in steady
  demand. Clydesdale draught-horses are of high class. They are supposed
  to have been bred from Flanders horses imported early in the 18th
  century by the 5th duke of Hamilton. Most of the horses are kept for
  agricultural work, but a considerable number of unbroken horses and
  mares are maintained for stock. Pigs are numerous, being extensively
  reared by the miners. The largest farms are situated in the Upper
  Ward, but the general holding runs from 50 to 100 acres. More than
  21,000 acres are under wood.

  _Other Industries._--The leading industries are those in connexion
  with the rich and extensive coal and iron field to the east and
  southeast of Glasgow; the shipbuilding at Govan and Partick and in
  Glasgow harbour; the textiles at Airdrie, Blantyre, Hamilton, Lanark,
  New Lanark, Rutherglen and Glasgow; engineering at Cambuslang,
  Carluke, Coatbridge, Kinning Park, Motherwell and Wishaw, and the
  varied and flourishing manufactures centred in and around Glasgow.

  _Communications._--In the north of the county, where population is
  most dense and the mineral field exceptionally rich, railway
  facilities are highly developed, there being for 10 or 12 m. around
  Glasgow quite a network of lines. The Caledonian Railway Company's
  main line to the south runs through the whole length of the shire,
  sending off branches at several points, especially at Carstairs
  Junction. The North British Railway Company serves various towns in
  the lower and middle wards and its lines to Edinburgh cross the
  northwestern corner and the north of the county. Only in the immediate
  neighbourhood of Glasgow does the Glasgow and South Western system
  compete for Lanarkshire traffic, though it combines with the
  Caledonian to work the Mid-Lanarkshire and Ayrshire railway. The
  Monkland Canal in the far north and the Forth and Clyde Canal in the
  north and north-west carry a considerable amount of goods, and before
  the days of railways afforded one of the principal means of
  communication between east and west.

  _Population and Administration._--The population amounted in 1891 to
  1,105,899 and in 1901 to 1,339,327, or 1523 persons to the sq. m. Thus
  though only tenth in point of extent, it is much the most populous
  county in Scotland, containing within its bounds nearly one-third of
  the population of the country. In 1901 there were 104 persons speaking
  Gaelic only, and 26,905 speaking Gaelic and English. The chief towns,
  with populations in 1901, apart from Glasgow, are Airdrie (22,288),
  Cambuslang (12,252), Coatbridge (36,991), Govan (82,174), Hamilton
  (32,775), Kinning Park (13,852), Larkhall (11,879), Motherwell
  (30,418), Partick (54,298), Rutherglen (17,220), Shettleston (12,154),
  Wishaw (20,873). Among smaller towns are Bellshill, Carluke, Holytown,
  Lanark, Stonefield, Tollcross and Uddingston; and Lesmahagow and East
  Kilbride are populous villages and mining centres. The county is
  divided into six parliamentary divisions:--North-east, North-west, Mid
  and South Lanark, Govan and Partick each returning one member. The
  royal burghs are Glasgow, Lanark and Rutherglen; the municipal and
  police burghs Airdrie, Biggar, Coatbridge, Glasgow, Govan, Hamilton,
  Kinning Park, Lanark, Motherwell, Partick, Rutherglen and Wishaw.
  Glasgow returns seven members to Parliament; Airdrie, Hamilton and
  Lanark belong to the Falkirk group and Rutherglen to the Kilmarnock
  group of parliamentary burghs. Lanarkshire is a sheriffdom, whose
  sheriff-principal is confined to his judicial duties in the county,
  and he has eight substitutes, five of whom sit constantly in Glasgow,
  and one each at Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The shire is under
  school-board jurisdiction, many schools earning grants for higher
  education. For advanced education, besides the university and many
  other institutions in Glasgow there are a high school in Hamilton, and
  technical schools at Coatbridge and Wishaw. The county council expends
  the "residue" grant in supporting lectures and classes in agriculture
  and agricultural chemistry, mining, dairying, cookery, laundry work,
  nursery and poultry-keeping, in paying fees and railway fares and
  providing bursaries for technical students, and in subsidizing science
  and art and technical classes in day and evening schools. A director
  of technical education is maintained by the council. Lanark,
  Motherwell and Biggar entrust their shares of the grant to the county
  council, and Coatbridge and Airdrie themselves subsidize science and
  art and evening classes and continuation schools.

_History._--At an early period Lanarkshire was inhabited by a Celtic
tribe, the Damnonii, whose territory was divided by the wall of
Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde (remains of which are found in the
parish of Cadder), but who were never wholly subjugated by the Romans.
Traces of their fortifications, mounds and circles exist, while stone
axes, bronze celts, querns and urns belonging to their age are
occasionally unearthed. Of the Romans there are traces in the camp on
Beattock summit near Elvanfoot, in the fine bridge over the Mouse near
Lanark, in the road to the south of Strathaven, in the wall already
mentioned and in the coins and other relics that have been dug up. After
their departure the country which included Lanarkshire formed part of
the kingdom of Strathclyde, which, in the 7th century, was subdued by
Northumbrian Saxons, when great numbers of the Celts migrated into
Wales. The county once embraced a portion of Renfrewshire, but this was
disjoined in the time of Robert III. The shire was then divided into two
wards, the Over (with Lanark as its chief town) and the Nether (with
Rutherglen as its capital). The present division into three wards was
not effected till the 18th century. Independently of Glasgow,
Lanarkshire has not borne any part continuously in the general history
of Scotland, but has been the scene of several exciting episodes. Many
of Wallace's daring deeds were performed in the county, Queen Mary met
her fate at Langside (1568) and the Covenanters received constant
support from the people, defeating Claverhouse at Drumclog (1679), but
suffering defeat themselves at Bothwell Brig (1679).

  See W. Hamilton, _Description of the Sheriffdoms of Lanark and
  Renfrew_, Maitland Club (1831); C. V. Irving and A. Murray, _The Upper
  Ward of Lanarkshire_ (Glasgow, 1864); _The Clydesdale Stud Book_
  (Glasgow); W. A. Cowan, _History of Lanark_ (Lanark, 1867); _Extracts
  from the Records of the Burgh of Lanark_ (Glasgow, 1893).




LANCASHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded N.E. by
Westmorland, E. by Yorkshire, S. by Cheshire, W. by the Irish Sea and
N.W. by Cumberland. The area is 1880.2 sq. m., the county being the
sixth in size in England. The coast is generally flat, and broken by
great inlets, with wide expanses of sandy foreshore at low tide. The
chief inlets, from N. to S., are--the estuary of the river Duddon,
which, with the river itself, separates the county from Cumberland;
Morecambe Bay; and the estuaries of the Ribble and the Mersey. Morecambe
Bay receives the rivers Crake and Leven in a common estuary, and the
Kent from Westmorland; while the Lune and the Wyre discharge into
Lancaster Bay, which is only partially separated from Morecambe Bay by
the promontory of Red Nab. Morecambe Bay also detaches from the rest of
the county the district of Furness (q.v.), extending westward to the
Duddon, and having off its coast the island of Walney, 8 m. in length,
and several small isles within the strait between Walney and the
mainland. The principal seaside resorts and watering-places, from S. to
N., are Southport, Lytham, St Anne's-on-the-Sea, Blackpool, Fleetwood
and Morecambe; while at the head of Morecambe Bay are several pleasant
villages frequented by visitors, such as Arnside and Grange. Of the
rivers the Mersey (q.v.), separating the county from Cheshire, is the
principal, and receives from Lancashire the Irwell, Sankey and other
small streams. The Ribble, which rises in the mountains of the West
Riding of Yorkshire, forms for a few miles the boundary with that
county, and then flows S.W. to Preston, receiving the Hodder from the N.
and the Calder and Darwen from the S. Lancashire has a share in two of
the English districts most famous for their scenery, but does not
include the finest part of either. Furness, entirely hilly except for a
narrow coastal tract, extends N. to include the southern part of the
Lake District (q.v.); it contains Coniston Lake and borders Windermere,
which are drained respectively by the Leven and Crake, with some smaller
lakes and such mountains as the Old Man and Wetherlam. Another elevated
district, forming part of a mountainous chain stretching from the
Scottish border, covered by the name of Pennine uplands in its broader
application, runs along the whole eastern boundary of the main portion
of the county, and to the south of the Ribble occupies more than half
the area, stretching west nearly to Liverpool. The moorlands in the
southern district are generally bleak and covered with heather. Towards
the north the scenery is frequently beautiful, the green rounded
elevated ridges being separated by pleasant cultivated valleys
variegated by woods and watered by rivers. None of the summits of the
range within Lancashire attains an elevation of 2000 ft., the highest
being Blackstone Edge (1523 ft.), Pendle Hill (1831 ft.) and Boulsworth
Hill (1700 ft.).

Along the sea-coast from the Mersey to Lancaster there is a continuous
plain formerly occupied by peat mosses, many of which have been
reclaimed. The largest is Chat Moss between Liverpool and Manchester. In
some instances these mosses have exhibited the phenomenon of a moving
bog. A large district in the north belonging to the duchy of Lancaster
was at one time occupied by forests, but these have wholly disappeared,
though their existence is recalled in nomenclature, as in the Forest of
Rossendale, near the Yorkshire boundary somewhat south of the centre.

  _Geology._--The greater part of Lancashire, the central and eastern
  portions, is occupied by Carboniferous rocks; a broad belt of Triassic
  strata fringes the west and south; while most of the detached northern
  portion is made up of Silurian and Ordovician formations. The
  Carboniferous system includes the great coal-field in which are
  gathered all the principal manufacturing towns, Colne, Burnley,
  Blackburn, Chorley, Wigan, Bolton, Preston, Oldham, Rochdale and
  Manchester. In the centre of the coal-field is an elevated moorland
  tract formed of the grits and shales of the Millstone Grit series.
  Part of the small coal-field of Ingleton also lies within the county.
  Between these two coal basins there is a moderately hilly district in
  which grits and black shales predominate, with a broad tract of
  limestone and shales which are well exposed in the quarries at
  Clitheroe and at Longridge, Chipping, Whalley and Downham. The
  limestone again appears in the north at Bolton-le-Sands,
  Burton-in-Kendall, Grange, Ulverston and Dalton-in-Furness. Large
  pockets of rich iron ore are worked in the limestone in the Furness
  district. The belt of Trias includes the Bunter sandstone and
  conglomerate, which ranges from Barrow-in-Furness, through Garstang,
  Preston, Ormskirk, Liverpool, Warrington and Salford; and Keuper
  marls, which underlie the surface between the Bunter outcrop and the
  sea. On the coast there is a considerable development of blown sand
  between Blackpool and Lytham and between Southport and Seaforth. North
  of Broughton-in-Furness, Ulverston and Cartmel are the Silurian rocks
  around Lakes Windermere and Coniston Water, including the Coniston
  grits and flags and the Brathay flags. These rocks are bounded by the
  Ordovician Coniston limestone, ranging north-east and south-west, and
  the volcanic series of Borrowdale. A good deal of the solid geology is
  obscured in many places by glacial drift, boulder clay and sands.

  The available coal supply of Lancashire has been estimated at about
  five thousand millions of tons. In 1852 the amount raised was
  8,225,000 tons; in 1899 it was 24,387,475 tons. In the production of
  coal Lancashire vies with Yorkshire, but each is about one-third below
  Durham. There are also raised in large quantities--fireclay,
  limestone, sandstone, slate and salt, which is also obtained from
  brine. The red hematitic iron obtained in the Furness district is very
  valuable, but is liable to decrease. The district also produces a fine
  blue slate. Metals, excepting iron, are unimportant.

  _Climate and Agriculture._--The climate in the hilly districts is
  frequently cold, but in the more sheltered parts lying to the south
  and west it is mild and genial. From its westerly situation and the
  attraction of the hills there is a high rainfall in the hilly
  districts (e.g. at Bolton the average is 58.71 in.), while the average
  for the other districts is about 35. The soil after reclamation and
  drainage is fertile; but, as it is for the most part a strong clayey
  loam it requires a large amount of labour. In some districts it is
  more of a peaty nature, and in the Old Red Sandstone districts of the
  Mersey there is a tract of light sandy loam, easily worked, and well
  adapted for wheat and potatoes. In many districts the ground has been
  rendered unfit for agricultural operations by the rubbish from
  coal-pits. A low proportion (about seven-tenths) of the total area is
  under cultivation, and of this nearly three-fourths is in permanent
  pasture, cows being largely kept for the supply of milk to the towns,
  while in the uplands many sheep are reared. In addition to the
  cultivated area, about 92,000 acres are under hill pasturage. A
  gradual increase is noticeable in the acreage under oats, which occupy
  more than seven-tenths of the area under grain crops, and in that
  under wheat, to the exclusion of the cultivation of barley. Of green
  crops the potato is the chief.

_Industries and Trade._--South Lancashire is the principal seat of the
cotton manufacture in the world, the trade centring upon Manchester,
Oldham and the neighbouring densely populated district. It employs
upwards of 400,000 operatives. The worsted, woollen and silk
manufactures, flax, hemp and jute industries, though of less importance,
employ considerable numbers. Non-textile factories employ about 385,000
hands. The manufacture of machines, appliances, conveyances, tools, &c.,
are very important, especially in supplying the needs of the immense
weaving and spinning industries. For the same purpose there is a large
branch of industry in the manufacture of bobbins from the wood grown in
the northern districts of the county. Of industries principally confined
to certain definite centres there may be mentioned--the manufacture of
iron and steel at Barrow-in-Furness, a town of remarkably rapid growth
since the middle of the 19th century; the great glass works at St
Helens; the watch-making works at Prescot and the leather works at
Warrington. Printing, bleaching and dyeing works, paper and chemical
works, india-rubber and tobacco manufactures are among the chief of the
other resources of this great industrial region. Besides the port of
Liverpool, of worldwide importance, the principal ports are Manchester,
brought into communication with the sea by the Manchester Ship Canal
opened in 1894, Barrow-in-Furness and Fleetwood, while Preston and
Lancaster have docks and a considerable shipping trade by the rivers
Lune and Ribble respectively. The sea fisheries, for which Fleetwood and
Liverpool are the chief ports, are of considerable value.

[Illustration: Map of Lancashire.]

  _Communications._--Apart from the Manchester Ship Canal, canal-traffic
  plays an important part in the industrial region. In 1760 the Sankey
  canal, 10 m. long, the first canal opened in Britain (apart from very
  early works), was constructed to carry coal from St Helens to
  Liverpool. Shortly afterwards the duke of Bridgewater projected the
  great canal from Manchester across the Irwell to Worsley, completed in
  1761 and bearing the name of its originator. The Leeds and Liverpool
  canal, begun in 1770, connects Liverpool and other important towns
  with Leeds by a circuitous route of 130 m. The other principal canals
  are the Rochdale, the Manchester (to Huddersfield) and the Lancaster,
  connecting Preston and Kendal. A short canal connects Ulverston with
  Morecambe Bay. A network of railways covers the industrial region. The
  main line of the London and North Western railway enters the county at
  Warrington, and runs north through Wigan, Preston, Lancaster and
  Carnforth. It also serves Liverpool and Manchester, providing the
  shortest route to each of these cities from London, and shares with
  the Lancashire and Yorkshire company joint lines to Southport, to
  Blackpool and to Fleetwood, whence there is regular steamship
  communication with Belfast. The Lancashire and Yorkshire line serves
  practically all the important centres as far north as Preston and
  Fleetwood. All the northern trunk lines from London have services to
  Manchester and Liverpool. The Cheshire Lines system, worked by a
  committee of the Great Northern, Great Central and Midland companies,
  links their systems with the South Lancashire district generally, and
  maintains lines between Liverpool and Manchester, both these cities
  with Southport, and numerous branches. Branches of the Midland railway
  from its main line in Yorkshire serve Lancaster, Morecambe, and
  Heysham and Carnforth, where connexion is made with the Furness
  railway to Ulverston, Barrow, Lake Side, Coniston, &c.

_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
1,203,365 acres. Its population in 1801 was 673,486; in 1891, 3,926,760;
and in 1901, 4,406,409. The area of the administrative county is
1,196,753 acres. The distribution of the industrial population may be
best appreciated by showing the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary,
county and municipal boroughs and urban districts as placed among the
four divisions of the ancient county. In the case of urban districts the
name of the great town to which each is near or adjacent follows where
necessary. The figures show population in 1901.

  NORTHERN DIVISION.--This embraces almost all the county N. of the
  Ribble, including Furness, and a small area S. of the Ribble estuary.
  It is considerably the largest of the divisions. _Parliamentary
  divisions_, from N. to S.--North Lonsdale, Lancaster, Blackpool,
  Chorley. _Parliamentary, county and municipal
  boroughs_--Barrow-in-Furness (57,586; one member); Preston (112,989;
  two members). _Municipal boroughs_--Blackpool (county borough;
  47,348), Chorley (26,852), Lancaster (40,329; county town), Morecambe
  (11,798). _Urban districts_--Adlington (4523; Chorley),
  Bispham-with-Norbreck (Blackpool), Carnforth (3040; Lancaster),
  Croston (2102; Chorley), Dalton-in-Furness (13,020), Fleetwood
  (12,082), Fulwood (5238; Preston), Grange (1993), Heysham (3381;
  Morecambe), Kirkham (3693; Preston), Leyland (6865; Chorley),
  Longridge (4304; Preston), Lytham (7185), Poulon-le-Fylde (2223;
  Blackpool). Preesall-with-Hackinsall (1423; Fleetwood), St
  Anne's-on-the-Sea (6838, a watering-place between Blackpool and
  Lytham), Thornton (3108; Fleetwood), Ulverston (10,064, in Furness),
  Withnell (3349; Chorley).

  NORTH-EASTERN-DIVISION.--This lies E. of Preston, and is the smallest
  of the four. _Parliamentary divisions_--Accrington, Clitheroe, Darwen,
  Rossendale. _Parliamentary, county and municipal boroughs_--Blackburn
  (127,626; two members); Burnley (97,043; one member). _Municipal
  boroughs_--Accrington (43,122), Bacup (22,505), Clitheroe (11,414),
  Colne (23,000), Darwen (38,212), Haslingden (18,543, extending into
  South-Eastern division), Nelson (32,816), Rawtenstall (31,053). _Urban
  districts_--Barrowford (4959; Colne), Brierfield (7288; Burnley),
  Church (6463; Accrington), Clayton-le-Moors (8153; Accrington), Great
  Harwood (12,015; Blackburn), Oswaldtwistle (14,192; Blackburn),
  Padiham (12,205; Burnley), Rishton (7031; Blackburn), Trawden (2641;
  Colne), Walton-le-Dale (11,271; Preston).

  SOUTH-WESTERN DIVISION.--This division represents roughly a quadrant
  with radius of 20 m. drawn from Liverpool. _Parliamentary
  divisions_--Bootle, Ince, Leigh, Newton, Ormskirk, Southport, Widnes.
  _Parliamentary boroughs_--the city and county and municipal borough of
  Liverpool (684,958; nine members); the county and municipal boroughs
  of St Helens (84,410; one member); Wigan (60,764; one member),
  Warrington (64,242; a part only of the parliamentary borough is in
  this county). _Municipal boroughs_--Bootle (58,566), Leigh (40,001),
  Southport (county borough; 48,083), Widnes (28,580). _Urban
  districts_--Abram (6306; Wigan), Allerton (1101; Liverpool),
  Ashton-in-Makerfield (18,687), Atherton (16,211), Billinge (4232;
  Wigan), Birkdale (14,197; Southport), Childwall (219; Liverpool),
  Formby (6060), Golborne (6789; St Helens), Great Crosby (7555;
  Liverpool), Haydock (8575; St Helens), Hindley (23,504; Wigan),
  Huyton-with-Roby (4661; St Helens), Ince-in-Makerfield (21,262),
  Lathom-and-Burscough (7113; Ormskirk), Litherland (10,592; Liverpool),
  Little Crosby (563; Liverpool), Little Woolton (1091; Liverpool), Much
  Woolton (4731; Liverpool), Newton-in-Makerfield (16,699), Ormskirk
  (6857), Orrell (5436; Wigan), Prescot (7855; St Helens), Rainford
  (3359; St Helens), Skelmersdale (5699; Ormskirk),
  Standish-with-Langtree (6303; Wigan), Tyldesley-with-Shakerley
  (14,843), Upholland (4773; Wigan), Waterloo-with-Seaforth (23,102;
  Liverpool).

  SOUTH-EASTERN DIVISION.--This is of about the same area as the
  South-Western division, and it constitutes the heart of the industrial
  region. _Parliamentary divisions_--Eccles, Gorton, Heywood, Middleton,
  Prestwich, Radcliffe-cum-Farnworth, Stretford, Westhoughton.
  _Parliamentary boroughs_--the city and county of a city of Manchester
  (543,872; six members); with which should be correlated the adjoining
  county and municipal borough of Salford (220,957; three members), also
  the county and municipal boroughs of Bolton (168,215; two members),
  Bury (58,029; one member), Rochdale (83,114; one member), Oldham
  (137,246; two members), and the municipal borough of Ashton-under-Lyne
  (43,890). Part only of the last parliamentary borough is within the
  county, and this division also contains part of the parliamentary
  boroughs of Stalybridge and Stockport. _Municipal boroughs_--Eccles
  (34,369), Heywood (25,458), Middleton (25,178), Mossley (13,452).
  _Urban districts_--Aspull (8388; Wigan), Audenshaw (7216;
  Ashton-under-Lyne), Blackrod (3875; Wigan), Chadderton (24,892;
  Oldham), Crompton (13,427; Oldham), Denton (14,934;
  Ashton-under-Lyne), Droylsden (11,087; Manchester), Failsworth
  (14,152; Manchester), Farnworth (25,925; Bolton), Gorton (26,564;
  Manchester), Heaton Norris (9474; Stockport). Horwich (15,084;
  Bolton), Hurst (7145; Ashton-under-Lyne), Irlam (4335; Eccles),
  Kearsley (9218; Bolton), Lees (3621; Oldham), Levenshulme (11,485;
  Manchester), Littleborough (11,166; Rochdale), Little Hulton (7294;
  Bolton), Little Lever (5119; Bolton), Milnrow (8241; Rochdale), Norden
  (3907; Rochdale), Prestwich (12,839; Manchester), Radcliffe (25,368;
  Bury), Ramsbottom (15,920; Bury), Royton (14,881; Oldham), Stretford
  (30,436; Manchester), Swinton-and-Pendlebury (27,005; Manchester),
  Tottington (6118; Bury), Turton (12,355; Bolton), Urmston (6594;
  Manchester), Wardle (4427; Rochdale), Westhoughton (14,377; Bolton),
  Whitefield or Stand (6588; Bury), Whitworth (9578; Rochdale), Worsley
  (12,462; Eccles).

Lancashire is one of the counties palatine. It is attached to the duchy
of Lancaster, a crown office, and retains the chancery court for the
county palatine. The chancery of the duchy of Lancaster was once a court
of appeal for the chancery of the county palatine, but now even its
jurisdiction in regard to the estates of the duchy is merely nominal.
The chancery of the county palatine has concurrent jurisdiction with the
High Court of Chancery in all matters of equity within the county
palatine, and independent jurisdiction in regard to a variety of other
matters. The county palatine comprises six hundreds.

  Lancashire is in the northern circuit, and assizes are held at
  Lancaster for the north, and at Liverpool and Manchester for the south
  of the county. There is one court of quarter sessions, and the county
  is divided into 33 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of
  Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham, Salford and
  Wigan have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter
  sessions; and those of Accrington, Ashton-under-Lyne,
  Barrow-in-Furness, Blackpool, Bolton, Bury, Clitheroe, Colne, Darwen,
  Eccles, Heywood, Lancaster, Middleton, Mossley, Nelson, Preston,
  Rochdale, St Helens, Southport and Warrington have separate
  commissions of the peace only. There are 430 civil parishes.
  Lancashire is mainly in the diocese of Manchester, but parts are in
  those of Liverpool, Carlisle, Ripon, Chester and Wakefield. There are
  787 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
  county.

  Manchester and Liverpool are each seats of a university and of other
  important educational institutions. Within the bounds of the county
  there are many denominational colleges, and near Clitheroe is the
  famous Roman Catholic college of Stonyhurst. There is a day training
  college for schoolmasters in connexion with University College,
  Liverpool, and a day training college for both schoolmasters and
  schoolmistresses in connexion with Owens College, Manchester. At
  Edgehill, Liverpool, there is a residential training college for
  schoolmistresses which takes day pupils, at Liverpool a residential
  Roman Catholic training college for schoolmasters, and at Warrington a
  residential training college (Chester, Manchester and Liverpool
  diocesan) for schoolmistresses.

_History._--The district afterwards known as Lancashire was after the
departure of the Romans for many years apparently little better than a
waste. It was not until the victory of Æthelfrith, king of Deira, near
Chester in 613 cut off the Britons of Wales from those of Lancashire and
Cumberland that even Lancashire south of the Ribble was conquered. The
part north of the Ribble was not absorbed in the Northumbrian kingdom
till the reign of Ecgfrith (670-685). Of the details of this long
struggle we know nothing, but to the stubborn resistance made by the
British leaders are due the legends of Arthur; and of the twelve great
battles he is supposed to have fought against the English, four are
traditionally, though probably erroneously, said to have taken place on
the river Douglas near Wigan. In the long struggle for supremacy between
Mercia and Northumbria, the country between the Mersey and Ribble was
sometimes under one, sometimes under the other kingdom. During the 9th
century Lancashire was constantly invaded by the Danes, and after the
peace of Wedmore (878) it was included in the Danish kingdom of
Northumbria. The _A.S. Chronicle_ records the reconquest of the district
between the Ribble and Mersey in 923 by the English king, when it
appears to have been severed from the kingdom of Northumbria and united
to Mercia, but the districts north of the Ribble now comprised in the
county belonged to Northumbria until its incorporation with the kingdom
of England. The names on the Lancashire coast ending in _by_, such as
Crosby, Formby, Roby, Kirkby, Derby, show where the Danish settlements
were thickest. William the Conqueror gave the lands between the Ribble
and Mersey, and Amounderness to Roger de Poictou, but at the time of
Domesday Book these had passed out of his hand and belonged to the king.

The name Lancashire does not appear in Domesday; the lands between the
Ribble and Mersey were included in Cheshire and those north of the
Ribble in Yorkshire. Roger de Poictou soon regained his lands, and Rufus
added to his possessions the rest of Lonsdale south of the Sands, of
which he already held a part; and as he had the Furness fells as well,
he owned all that is now known as Lancashire. In 1102 he finally
forfeited all his lands, which Henry I. held till, in 1118, he created
the honour of Lancaster by incorporating with Roger's forfeited lands
certain escheated manors in the counties of Nottingham, Derby and
Lincoln, and certain royal manors, and bestowed it upon his nephew
Stephen, afterwards king. During Stephen's reign the history of the
honour presents certain difficulties, for David of Scotland held the
lands north of the Ribble for a time, and in 1147 the earl of Chester
held the district between the Ribble and Mersey. Henry II. gave the
whole honour to William, Stephen's son, but in 1164 it came again into
the king's hands until 1189, when Richard I. granted it to his brother
John. In 1194, owing to John's rebellion, it was confiscated and the
honour remained with the crown till 1267. In 1229, however, all the
crown demesne between the Ribble and Mersey was granted to Ranulf, earl
of Chester, and on his death in 1232 came to William Ferrers, earl of
Derby, in right of his wife Agnes, sister and co-heir of Ranulf. The
Ferrers held it till 1266, when it was confiscated owing to the earl's
rebellion. In 1267 Henry III. granted the honour and county and all the
royal demesne therein to his son Edmund, who was created earl of
Lancaster. His son, Earl Thomas, married the heiress of Henry de Lacy,
earl of Lincoln, and thus obtained the great estates belonging to the de
Lacys in Lancashire. On the death of Henry, the first duke of Lancaster,
in 1361, the estates, title and honour fell to John of Gaunt in right of
his wife Blanche, the duke's elder daughter, and by the accession of
Henry IV., John of Gaunt's only son, to the throne, the duchy and honour
became merged in the crown.

The county of Lancaster is first mentioned in 1169 as contributing 100
marks to the Royal Exchequer for defaults and fines. The creation of the
honour decided the boundaries, throwing into it Furness and Cartmel,
which geographically belong to Westmorland; Lonsdale and Amounderness,
which in Domesday had been surveyed under Yorkshire; and the land
between the Ribble and Mersey. In Domesday this district south of the
Ribble was divided into the six hundreds of West Derby, Newton,
Warrington, Blackburn, Salford and Leyland, but before Henry II.'s reign
the hundreds of Warrington and Newton were absorbed in that of West
Derby. Neither Amounderness nor Lonsdale was called a hundred in
Domesday, but soon after that time the former was treated as a hundred.
Ecclesiastically the whole of the county originally belonged to the
diocese of York, but after the reconquest of the district between the
Ribble and Mersey in 923 this part was placed under the bishop of
Lichfield in the archdeaconry of Chester, which was subdivided into the
rural deaneries of Manchester, Warrington and Leyland. Up to 1541 the
district north of the Ribble belonged to the archdeaconry of Richmond in
the diocese of York, and was subdivided into the rural deaneries of
Amounderness, Lonsdale and Coupland. In 1541 the diocese of Chester was
created, including all Lancashire, which was divided into two
archdeaconries: Chester, comprising the rural deaneries of Manchester,
Warrington and Blackburn, and Richmond, comprising the deaneries of
Amounderness, Furness, Lonsdale and Kendal. In 1847 the diocese of
Manchester was created, which included all Lancashire except parts of
West Derby, which still belonged to the diocese of Chester, and Furness
and Cartmel, which were added to Carlisle in 1856. In 1878 by the
creation of the diocese of Liverpool the south-eastern part of the
county was subtracted from the Manchester diocese.

No shire court was ever held for the county, but as a duchy and county
palatine it has its own special courts. It may have enjoyed palatine
jurisdiction under Earl Morcar before the Conquest, but these
privileges, if ever exercised, remained in abeyance till 1351, when
Henry, duke of Lancaster, received power to have a chancery in the
county of Lancaster and to issue writs therefrom under his own seal, as
well touching pleas of the crown as any other relating to the common
laws, and to have all _Jura Regalia_ belonging to a county palatine. In
1377 the county was erected into a palatinate for John of Gaunt's life,
and in 1390 these rights of jurisdiction were extended and settled in
perpetuity on the dukes of Lancaster. The county palatine courts consist
of a chancery which dates back at least to 1376, a court of common
pleas, the jurisdiction of which was transferred in 1873 by the
Judicature Act to the high court of justice, and a court of criminal
jurisdiction which in no way differs from the king's ordinary court. In
1407 the duchy court of Lancaster was created, in which all questions of
revenue and dignities affecting the duchy possessions are settled. The
chancery of the duchy has been for years practically obsolete. The duchy
and county palatine each has its own seal. The office of chancellor of
the duchy and county palatine dates back to 1351.

  Lancashire is famed for the number of old and important county
  families living within its borders. The most intimately connected with
  the history of the county are the Stanleys, whose chief seat is
  Knowsley Hall. Sir John Stanley early in the 15th century married the
  heiress of Lathom and thus obtained possession of Lathom and Knowsley.
  In 1456 the head of the family was created a peer by the title of
  Baron Stanley and in 1485 raised to the earldom of Derby. The
  Molyneuxes of Sephton and Croxteth are probably descended from William
  de Molines, who came to England with William the Conqueror, and is on
  the roll of Battle Abbey. Roger de Poictou gave him the manor of
  Sephton, and Richard de Molyneux who held the estate under Henry II.
  is undoubtedly an ancestor of the family. In 1628 Sir Richard Molyneux
  was advanced to the peerage of Ireland by the title of Viscount
  Maryborough, and in 1771 Charles, Lord Maryborough, became earl of
  Sefton in the peerage of Ireland. His son was created a peer of the
  United Kingdom as Baron Sefton of Croxteth. The Bootle Wilbrahams,
  earls of Lathom, are, it is said, descended from John Botyll of
  Melling, who was alive in 1421, and from the Wilbrahams of Cheshire,
  who date back at least to Henry III.'s reign. In 1755 the two families
  intermarried. In 1828 the title of Baron Skelmersdale was bestowed on
  the head of the family and in 1880 that of earl of Lathorn. The
  Gerards of Bryn are said to be descended from an old Tuscan family,
  one of whom came to England in Edward the Confessor's time, and whose
  son is mentioned in Domesday. Bryn came into this family by marriage
  early in the 14th century. Sir Thomas Gerard was created a baronet by
  James I. in 1611, and in 1876 a peerage was conferred on Sir Robert
  Gerard. The Gerards of Ince were a collateral branch. The Lindsays,
  earls of Crawford and Balcarres, are representative on the female side
  of the Bradshaighs of Haigh Hall, who are said to be of Saxon origin.
  Other great Lancashire families are the Hoghtons of Hoghton Tower,
  dating back to the 12th century, the Blundells of Ince Blundell, who
  are said to have held the manor since the 12th century, now
  represented by the Weld-Blundells, the Tyldesleys of Tyldesley, now
  extinct, and the Butlers of Bewsey, barons of Warrington, of whom the
  last male heir died in 1586.

At the close of the 12th and during the 13th century there was a
considerable advance in the importance of the towns; in 1199 Lancaster
became a borough, in 1207 Liverpool, in 1230 Salford, in 1246 Wigan, and
in 1301 Manchester. The Scottish wars were a great drain to the county,
not only because the north part was subject to frequent invasions, as in
1322, but because some of the best blood was taken for these wars. In
1297 Lancashire raised 1000 men, and at the battle of Falkirk (1298)
1000 Lancashire soldiers were in the vanguard, led by Henry de Lacy,
earl of Lincoln. In 1349 the county was visited by the Black Death and a
record exists of its ravages in Amounderness. In ten parishes between
September 1349 and January 1350, 13,180 persons perished. At Preston
3000 died, at Lancaster 3000, at Garstang 2000 and at Kirkham 3000. From
the effects of this plague Lancashire was apparently slow to recover;
its boroughs ceased to return members early in the 14th century and
trade had not yet made any great advance. The drain of the Wars of the
Roses on the county must also have been heavy, although none of the
battles was fought within its borders; Lord Stanley's force of 5000
raised in Lancashire and Cheshire virtually decided the battle of
Bosworth Field. The poverty of the county is shown by the fact that out
of £40,000 granted in 1504 by parliament to the king, Lancashire's share
was only £318. At the battle of Flodden (1513) the Lancashire archers
led by Sir Edward Stanley almost totally destroyed the Highlanders on
the right Scottish wing and greatly contributed to the victory. Under
the Tudors the county prospered; the parliamentary boroughs once more
began to return members, the towns increased in size, many halls were
built by the gentry and trade increased.

  In 1617 James I. visited Lancashire, and in consequence of a petition
  presented to him at Hoghton, complaining of the restrictions imposed
  upon Sunday amusements, he issued in 1618 the famous _Book of Sports_.
  Another of James's works, the _Daemonologie_, is closely connected
  with the gross superstitions concerning witches which were specially
  prevalent in Lancashire. The great centre of this witchcraft was
  Pendle Forest, in the parish of Whalley, and in 1612 twelve persons
  from Pendle and eight from Samlesbury were tried for witchcraft, nine
  of whom were hanged. In 1633 another batch of seventeen witches from
  Pendle were tried and all sentenced to be executed, but the king
  pardoned them. This was the last important case of witchcraft in
  Lancashire.

In the assessment of ship money in 1636 the county was put down for
£1000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston £40, Lancaster £30,
and Liverpool £25, and these figures compared with the assessments of
£140 on Hull and £200 on Leeds show the comparative unimportance of the
Lancashire boroughs. On the eve of the Great Rebellion in 1641
parliament resolved to take command of the militia, and Lord Strange,
Lord Derby's eldest son, was removed from the lord lieutenancy. On the
whole, the county was Royalist, and the moving spirit among the
Royalists was Lord Strange, who became Lord Derby in 1642. Manchester
was the headquarters of the Parliamentarians, and was besieged by Lord
Derby in September 1642 for seven days, but not taken. Lord Derby
himself took up his headquarters at Warrington and garrisoned Wigan. At
the opening of 1643 Sir Thomas Fairfax made Manchester his headquarters.
Early in February the Parliamentarians from Manchester successfully
assaulted Preston, which was strongly Royalist; thence the
Parliamentarians marched to Hoghton Tower, which they took, and within a
few days captured Lancaster. On the Royalist side Lord Derby made an
unsuccessful attack on Bolton from Wigan. In March a large Spanish ship,
laden with ammunition for the use of parliament, was driven by a storm
on Rossall Point and seized by the Royalists; Lord Derby ordered the
ship to be burned, but the parliament forces from Preston succeeded in
carrying off some of the guns to Lancaster castle. In March Lord Derby
captured the town of Lancaster but not the castle, and marching to
Preston regained it for the king, but was repulsed in an attack on
Bolton. In April Wigan, one of the chief Royalist strongholds in the
county, was taken by the parliament forces, who also again captured
Lancaster, and the guns from the Spanish ship were moved for use against
Warrington, which was obliged to surrender in May after a week's siege.
Lord Derby also failed in an attempt on Liverpool, and the tide of war
had clearly turned against the Royalists in Lancashire. In June Lord
Derby went to the Isle of Man, which was threatened by the king's
enemies. Soon after, the Parliamentarians captured Hornby castle, and
only two strongholds, Thurland castle and Lathom house, remained in
Royalist hands. In the summer, after a seven weeks' siege by Colonel
Alexander Rigby, Thurland castle surrendered and was demolished. In
February 1644 the Parliamentarians, under Colonel Rigby, Colonel Ashton
and Colonel Moore, besieged Lathom house, the one refuge left to the
Royalists, which was bravely defended by Lord Derby's heroic wife,
Charlotte de la Trémoille. The siege lasted nearly four months and was
raised on the approach of Prince Rupert, who marched to Bolton and was
joined on his arrival outside the town by Lord Derby. Bolton was carried
by storm; Rupert ordered that no quarter should be given, and it is
usually said at least 1500 of the garrison were slain. Prince Rupert
advanced without delay to Liverpool, which was defended by Colonel
Moore, and took it after a siege of three weeks. After the battle of
Marston Moor Prince Rupert again appeared in Lancashire and small
engagements took place at Ormskirk, Upholland and Preston; in November
Liverpool surrendered to the Parliamentarians. Lathom house was again
the only strong place in Lancashire left to the Royalists, and in
December 1645 after a five months' siege it was compelled to surrender
through lack of provisions, and was almost entirely destroyed. For the
moment the war in Lancashire was over. In 1648, however, the Royalist
forces under the duke of Hamilton and Sir Marmaduke Langdale marched
through Lancaster to Preston, hoping to reach Manchester; but near
Preston were defeated by Cromwell in person. The remnant retreated
through Wigan towards Warrington, and after being again defeated at
Winwick surrendered at Warrington. In 1651 Charles II. advanced through
Lancaster, Preston and Chorley on his southward march, and Lord Derby
after gathering forces was on his way to meet him when he was defeated
at Wigan. In 1658, after Cromwell's death, a Royalist rebellion was
raised in which Lancashire took a prominent part, but it was quickly
suppressed. During the Rebellion of 1715 Manchester was the chief centre
of Roman Catholic and High Church Toryism. On the 7th of November the
Scottish army entered Lancaster, where the Pretender was proclaimed
king, and advanced to Preston, at which place a considerable body of
Roman Catholics joined it. The rebels remained at Preston a few days,
apparently unaware of the advance of the government troops, until
General Wills from Manchester and General Carpenter from Lancaster
surrounded the town, and on the 13th of November the town and the rebel
garrison surrendered. Several of the rebels were hanged at Preston,
Wigan, Lancaster and other places. In 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed
through the county and was joined by about 200 adherents, called the
Manchester regiment and placed under the command of Colonel Townley, who
was afterwards executed.

The first industry established in Lancashire was that of wool, and with
the founding of Furness abbey in 1127 wool farming on a large scale
began here, but the bulk of the wool grown was exported, not worked up
in England. In 1282, however, there was a mill for fulling or bleaching
wool in Manchester, and by the middle of the 16th century there was
quite a flourishing trade in worsted goods. In an act of 1552 Manchester
"rugs and frizes" are specially mentioned, and in 1566 another act
regulated the fees of the aulnager who was to have his deputies at
Manchester, Rochdale, Bolton, Blackburn and Bury; the duty of the
aulnagers was to prevent "cottons, frizes and rugs" from being sold
unsealed, but it must be noted that by cottons is not meant what we now
understand by the word, but woollen goods. The 17th century saw the
birth of the class of clothiers, who purchased the wool in large
quantities or kept their own sheep, and delivered it to weavers who
worked it up into cloth in their houses and returned it to the
employers. The earliest mention of the manufacture of real cotton goods
is in 1641, when Manchester made fustians, vermilions and dimities, but
the industry did not develop to any extent until after the invention of
the fly shuttle by John Kay in 1733, of the spinning jenny by James
Hargreaves of Blackburn in 1765, of the water frame throstle by Richard
Arkwright of Bolton in 1769, and of the mule by Samuel Crompton of
Hall-in-the-Wood near Bolton in 1779. So rapid was the development of
the cotton manufacture that in 1787 there were over forty cotton mills
in Lancashire, all worked by water power. In 1789, however, steam was
applied to the industry in Manchester, and in 1790 in Bolton a cotton
mill was worked by steam. The increase in the import of raw cotton from
3,870,000 lb. in 1769 to 1,083,600,000 in 1860 shows the growth of the
industry. The rapid growth was accompanied with intermittent periods of
depression, which in 1819 in particular led to the formation of various
political societies and to the Blanketeers' Meeting and the Peterloo
Massacre. During the American Civil War the five years' cotton famine
caused untold misery in the county, but public and private relief
mitigated the evils, and one good result was the introduction of
machinery capable of dealing with the shorter staple of Indian cotton,
thus rendering the trade less dependent for its supplies on America.

During the 18th century the only town where maritime trade increased was
Liverpool, where in the last decade about 4500 ships arrived annually of
a tonnage about one-fifth that of the London shipping. The prosperity of
Liverpool was closely bound up with the slave trade, and about
one-fourth of its ships were employed in this business. With the
increase of trade the means of communication improved. In 1758 the duke
of Bridgewater began the Bridgewater canal from Worsley to Salford and
across the Irwell to Manchester, and before the end of the century the
county was intersected by canals. In 1830 the first railway in England
was opened between Manchester and Liverpool, and other railways rapidly
followed.

  The first recorded instance of parliamentary representation in
  Lancashire was in 1295, when two knights were returned for the county
  and two burgesses each for the boroughs of Lancaster, Preston, Wigan
  and Liverpool. The sheriff added to this return "There is no city in
  the county of Lancaster." The boroughs were, however, excused one
  after another from parliamentary representation, which was felt as a
  burden owing to the compulsory payment of the members' wages.
  Lancaster ceased to send members in 1331 after making nineteen
  returns, but renewed its privileges in 1529; from 1529 to 1547 there
  are no parliamentary returns, but from 1547 to 1867 Lancaster
  continued to return two members. Preston similarly was excused after
  1331, after making eleven returns, but in 1529 and from 1547 onwards
  returned two members. Liverpool and Wigan sent members in 1295 and
  1307, but not again till 1547. To the writ issued in 1362 the sheriff
  in his return says: "There is not any City or Borough in this County
  from which citizens or burgesses ought or are accustomed to come as
  this Writ requires." In 1559 Clitheroe and Newton-le-Willows first
  sent two members. Thus in all Lancashire returned fourteen members,
  and, with a brief exception during the Commonwealth, this continued to
  be the parliamentary representation till 1832. By the Reform Act of
  1832 Lancashire was assigned four members, two for the northern and
  two for the southern division. Lancaster, Preston, Wigan and Liverpool
  continued to send two members, Clitheroe returned one and Newton was
  disfranchised. The following new boroughs were created: Manchester,
  Bolton, Blackburn, Oldham, returning two members each;
  Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, Rochdale, Salford and Warrington, one each.
  In 1861 a third member was given to South Lancashire and in 1867 the
  county was divided into four constituencies, to each of which four
  members were assigned; since 1885 the county returns twenty-three
  members. The boroughs returned from 1867 to 1885 twenty-five members,
  and since 1885 thirty-four.

  _Antiquities._--The Cistercian abbey of Furness (q.v.) is one of the
  finest and most extensive ecclesiastical ruins in England. Whalley
  abbey, first founded at Stanlawe in Cheshire in 1178, and removed in
  1296, belonged to the same order. There was a priory of Black Canons
  at Burscough, founded in the time of Richard I., one at Conishead
  dating from Henry II.'s reign, and one at Lancaster. A convent of
  Augustinian friars was founded at Cartmel in 1188, and one at
  Warrington about 1280. There are some remains of the Benedictine
  priory of Upholland, changed from a college of secular priests in
  1318; and the same order had a priory at Lancaster founded in 1094, a
  cell at Lytham, of the reign of Richard I., and a priory at
  Penwortham, founded shortly after the time of the Conqueror. The
  Premonstratensians had Cockersand abbey, changed in 1190 from a
  hospital founded in the reign of Henry II., of which the chapter-house
  remains. At Kersal, near Manchester, there was a cell of Cluniac monks
  founded in the reign of John, while at Lancaster there were convents
  of Dominicans and Franciscans, and at Preston a priory of Grey Friars
  built by Edmund, earl of Lancaster, son of Henry III.

  Besides the churches mentioned under the several towns, the more
  interesting are those of Aldingham, Norman doorway; Aughton; Cartmel
  priory church (see Furness); Hawkshead; Heysham, Norman with traces of
  earlier date; Hoole; Huyton; Kirkby, rebuilt, with very ancient font;
  Kirkby Ireleth, late Perpendicular, with Norman doorway; Leyland;
  Melling (in Lonsdale), Perpendicular, with stained-glass windows;
  Middleton, rebuilt in 1524, but containing part of the Norman church
  and several monuments; Ormskirk, Perpendicular with traces of Norman,
  having two towers, one of which is detached and surmounted by a spire;
  Overton, with Norman doorway; Radcliffe, Norman; Sefton,
  Perpendicular, with fine brass and recumbent figures of the Molyneux
  family, also a screen exquisitely carved; Stidd, near Ribchester,
  Norman arch and old monuments; Tunstall, late Perpendicular; Upholland
  priory church, Early English, with low massy tower; Urswick, Norman,
  with embattled tower and several old monuments; Walton-on-the-hill,
  anciently the parish church of Liverpool; Walton-le-Dale; Warton, with
  old font; Whalley abbey church, Decorated and Perpendicular, with
  Runic stone monuments.

  The principal old castles are those of Lancaster; Dalton, a small rude
  tower occupying the site of an older building; two towers of Gleaston
  castle, built by the lords of Aldingham in the 14th century; the ruins
  of Greenhalgh castle, built by the first earl of Derby, and demolished
  after a siege by order of parliament in 1649; the ruins of Fouldrey in
  Piel Island near the entrance to Barrow harbour, erected in the reign
  of Edward III., now most dilapidated. There are many old timber houses
  and mansions of interest, as well as numerous modern seats.

  See _Victoria History of Lancashire_ (1906-1907); E. Baines, _The
  History of the County Palatine and Duchy of Lancaster_ (1888); H.
  Fishwick, _A History of Lancashire_ (1894); W. D. Pink and A. B.
  Beavan, _The Parliamentary Representation of Lancashire_ (1889).




LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. The name House of Lancaster is commonly used to
designate the line of English kings immediately descended from John of
Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. But the history of the family and
of the title goes back to the reign of Henry III., who created his
second son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster in 1267. This Edmund received in
his own day the surname of Crouchback, not, as was afterwards supposed,
from a personal deformity, but from having worn a cross upon his back in
token of a crusading vow. He is not a person of much importance in
history except in relation to a strange theory raised in a later age
about his birth, which we shall notice presently. His son Thomas, who
inherited the title, took the lead among the nobles of Edward II.'s time
in opposition to Piers Gaveston and the Despensers, and was beheaded for
treason at Pontefract. At the commencement of the following reign his
attainder was reversed and his brother Henry restored to the earldom;
and Henry being appointed guardian to the young king Edward III.,
assisted him to throw off the yoke of Mortimer. On this Henry's death in
1345 he was succeeded by a son of the same name, sometimes known as
Henry Tort-Col or Wryneck, a very valiant commander in the French wars,
whom the king advanced to the dignity of a duke. Only one duke had been
created in England before, and that was fourteen years previously, when
the king's son Edward, the Black Prince, was made duke of Cornwall. This
Henry Wryneck died in 1361 without heir male. His second daughter,
Blanche, became the wife of John of Gaunt, who thus succeeded to the
duke's inheritance in her right; and on the 13th of November 1362, when
King Edward attained the age of fifty, John was created duke of
Lancaster, his elder brother, Lionel, being at the same time created
duke of Clarence. It was from these two dukes that the rival houses of
Lancaster and York derived their respective claims to the crown. As
Clarence was King Edward's third son, while John of Gaunt was his
fourth, in ordinary course on the failure of the elder line the issue of
Clarence should have taken precedence of that of Lancaster in the
succession. But the rights of Clarence were conveyed in the first
instance to an only daughter, and the ambition and policy of the house
of Lancaster, profiting by advantageous circumstances, enabled them not
only to gain possession of the throne but to maintain themselves in it
for three generations before they were dispossessed by the
representatives of the elder brother.

As for John of Gaunt himself, it can hardly be said that this sort of
politic wisdom is very conspicuous in him. His ambition was generally
more manifest than his discretion; but fortune favoured his ambition,
even as to himself, somewhat beyond expectation, and still more in his
posterity. Before the death of his father he had become the greatest
subject in England, his three elder brothers having all died before him.
He had even added to his other dignities the title of king of Castile,
having married, after his first wife's death, the daughter of Peter the
Cruel. The title, however, was an empty one, the throne of Castile being
actually in the possession of Henry of Trastamara, whom the English had
vainly endeavoured to set aside. His military and naval enterprises were
for the most part disastrous failures, and in England he was exceedingly
unpopular. Nevertheless, during the later years of his father's reign
the weakness of the king and the declining health of the Black Prince
threw the government very much into his hands. He even aimed, or was
suspected of aiming, at the succession to the crown; but in this hope he
was disappointed by the action of the Good Parliament a year before
Edward's death, in which it was settled that Richard the son of the
Black Prince should be king after his grandfather. Nevertheless the
suspicion with which he was regarded was not altogether quieted when
Richard came to the throne, a boy in the eleventh year of his age. The
duke himself complained in parliament of the way he was spoken of out of
doors, and at the outbreak of Wat Tyler's insurrection the peasants
stopped pilgrims on the road to Canterbury and made them swear never to
accept a king of the name of John. On gaining possession of London they
burnt his magnificent palace of the Savoy. Richard found a convenient
way to get rid of John of Gaunt by sending him to Castile to make good
his barren title, and on this expedition he was away three years. He
succeeded so far as to make a treaty with his rival, King John, son of
Henry of Trastamara, for the succession, by virtue of which his
daughter Catherine became the wife of Henry III. of Castile some years
later. After his return the king seems to have regarded him with greater
favour, created him duke of Aquitaine, and employed him in repeated
embassies to France, which at length resulted in a treaty of peace, and
Richard's marriage to the French king's daughter.

Another marked incident of his public life was the support which he gave
on one occasion to the Reformer Wycliffe. How far this was due to
religious and how far to political considerations may be a question; but
not only John of Gaunt but his immediate descendants, the three kings of
the house of Lancaster, all took deep interest in the religious
movements of the times. A reaction against Lollardy, however, had
already begun in the days of Henry IV., and both he and his son felt
obliged to discountenance opinions which were believed to be politically
and theologically dangerous.

Accusations had been made against John of Gaunt more than once during
the earlier part of Richard II.'s reign of entertaining designs to
supplant his nephew on the throne. But these Richard never seems to have
wholly credited, and during his three years' absence his younger
brother, Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, showed himself a far
more dangerous intriguer. Five confederate lords with Gloucester at
their head took up arms against the king's favourite ministers, and the
Wonderful Parliament put to death without remorse almost every agent of
his former administration who had not fled the country. Gloucester even
contemplated the dethronement of the king, but found that in this matter
he could not rely on the support of his associates, one of whom was
Henry, earl of Derby, the duke of Lancaster's son. Richard soon
afterwards, by declaring himself of age, shook off his uncle's control,
and within ten years the acts of the Wonderful Parliament were reversed
by a parliament no less arbitrary. Gloucester and his allies were then
brought to account; but the earl of Derby and Thomas Mowbray, earl of
Nottingham, were taken into favour as having opposed the more violent
proceedings of their associates. As if to show his entire confidence in
both these noblemen, the king created the former duke of Hereford and
the latter duke of Norfolk. But within three months from this time the
one duke accused the other of treason, and the truth of the charge,
after much consideration, was referred to trial by battle according to
the laws of chivalry. But when the combat was about to commence it was
interrupted by the king, who, to preserve the peace of the kingdom,
decreed by his own mere authority that the duke of Hereford should be
banished for ten years--a term immediately afterwards reduced to
five--and the duke of Norfolk for life.

This arbitrary sentence was obeyed in the first instance by both
parties, and Norfolk never returned. But Henry, duke of Hereford, whose
milder sentence was doubtless owing to the fact that he was the popular
favourite, came back within a year, having been furnished with a very
fair pretext for doing so by a new act of injustice on the part of
Richard. His father, John of Gaunt, had died in the interval, and the
king, troubled with a rebellion in Ireland, and sorely in want of money,
had seized the duchy of Lancaster as forfeited property. Henry at once
sailed for England, and landing in Yorkshire while King Richard was in
Ireland, gave out that he came only to recover his inheritance. He at
once received the support of the northern lords, and as he marched
southwards the whole kingdom was soon practically at his command.
Richard, by the time he had recrossed the channel to Wales, discovered
that his cause was lost. He was conveyed from Chester to London, and
forced to execute a deed by which he resigned his crown. This was
recited in parliament, and he was formally deposed. The duke of
Lancaster then claimed the kingdom as due to himself by virtue of his
descent from Henry III.

The claim which he put forward involved, to all appearance, a strange
falsification of history, for it seemed to rest upon the supposition
that Edmund of Lancaster, and not Edward I., was the eldest son of Henry
III. A story had gone about, even in the days of John of Gaunt, who, if
we may trust the rhymer John Hardyng (_Chronicle_, pp. 290, 291), had
got it inserted in chronicles deposited in various monasteries, that
this Edmund, surnamed Crouchback, was really hump-backed, and that he
was set aside in favour of his younger brother Edward on account of his
deformity. No chronicle, however, is known to exist which actually
states that Edmund Crouchback was thus set aside; and in point of fact
he had no deformity at all, while Edward was six years his senior.
Hardyng's testimony is, moreover, suspicious as reflecting the
prejudices of the Percys after they had turned against Henry IV., for
Hardyng himself expressly says that the earl of Northumberland was the
source of his information (see note, p. 353 of his _Chronicle_). But a
statement in the continuation of the chronicle called the _Eulogium_
(vol. iii. pp. 369, 370) corroborates Hardyng to some extent; for we are
told that John of Gaunt had once desired in parliament that his son
should be recognized on this flimsy plea as heir to the crown; and when
Roger Mortimer, earl of March, denied the story and insisted on his own
claim as descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, Richard imposed
silence on both parties. However this may be, it is certain that this
story, though not directly asserted to be true, was indirectly pointed
at by Henry when he put forward his claim, and no one was then bold
enough to challenge it.

This was partly due, no doubt, to the fact that the true lineal heir
after Richard was then a child, Edmund, who had just succeeded his
father as earl of March. Another circumstance was unfavourable to the
house of Mortimer--that it derived its title through a woman. No case
precisely similar had as yet arisen, and, notwithstanding the precedent
of Henry II., it might be doubted whether succession through a female
was favoured by the constitution. If not, Henry could say with truth
that he was the direct heir of his grandfather, Edward III. If, on the
other hand, succession through females was valid, he could trace his
descent through his mother from Henry III. by a very illustrious line of
ancestors. And, in the words by which he formally made his claim, he
ventured to say no more than that he was descended from the king last
mentioned "by right line of the blood." In what particular way that
"right line" was to be traced he did not venture to indicate.

A brief epitome of the reigns of the three successive kings belonging to
the house of Lancaster (Henry IV., V. and VI.) will be found elsewhere.
With the death of Henry VI. the direct male line of John of Gaunt became
extinct. But by his daughters he became the ancestor of more than one
line of foreign kings, while his descendants by his third wife,
Catherine Swynford, conveyed the crown of England to the house of Tudor.
It is true that his children by this lady were born before he married
her; but they were made legitimate by act of parliament, and, though
Henry IV. in confirming the privilege thus granted to them endeavoured
to debar them from the succession to the crown, it is now ascertained
that there was no such reservation in the original act, and the title
claimed by Henry VII. was probably better than he himself supposed.

We show on the following page a pedigree of the royal and illustrious
houses that traced their descent from John of Gaunt.     (J. Ga.)




LANCASTER, HENRY, EARL OF (c. 1281-1345), was the second son of Edmund,
earl of Lancaster (d. 1296), and consequently a grandson of Henry III.
During his early days he took part in campaigns in Flanders, Scotland
and Wales, but was quite overshadowed by his elder brother Thomas (see
below). In 1324, two years after Thomas had lost his life for opposing
the king, Henry was made earl of Leicester by his cousin, Edward II.,
but he was not able to secure the titles and estates of Lancaster to
which he was heir, and be showed openly that his sympathies were with
his dead brother. When Queen Isabella took up arms against her husband
in 1326 she was joined at once by the earl, who took a leading part in
the proceedings against the king and his favourites, the Despensers,
being Edward's gaoler at Kenilworth castle. Edward III. being now on the
throne, Leicester secured the earldom of Lancaster and his brother's
lands, becoming also steward of England; he knighted the young king and
was the foremost member of the royal council, but he was soon at
variance with Isabella and her paramour, Roger Mortimer, and was
practically deprived of his power. In 1328 his attempt to overthrow
Mortimer failed, and he quietly made his peace with the king; a second
essay against Mortimer was more successful. About this time Lancaster
became blind; he retired from public life and died on the 22nd of
September, 1345.

  TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DESCENDANTS OF JOHN OF GAUNT.

                 John of Gaunt,          =            Blanche,                                     =           Constance,             =        Catherine,
        duke of Lancaster, titular king  |    daughter and heiress of                              |  the elder of the two daughters  |  daughter of Sir Payne Roet,
                  of Castile.            |    Henry, duke of Lancaster.                            |  and heiresses of Peter, king of |  widow of Sir Hugh Swynford.
                                         |                                                         |  Castile and Leon.               |
            +---------------+------------+-----------------------------+                           |                +----------+-------+--+------------------+
            |               |            |                             |                           |                |          |          |                  |
          Philippa,     Henry IV.,= Mary de Bohun,=    Joan,        Elizabeth,                  Catherine,        John       Henry      Thomas         Joan Beaufort,
         married to     king of   | daughter and    daughter of  married to John             married to Prince   Beaufort,  Beaufort,  Beaufort,  wife of Ralph Nevill, 1st
        John I., king   England.  | co-heir of      Charles the  Holand, duke of             Henry, afterwards   earl of    cardinal.  duke of    earl of Westmoreland, by
        of Portugal.              | Humphrey de     Bad, king    Exeter, who was             Henry III. of       Somerset.              Exeter.   whom she became an ancestor
            |                     | Bohun, earl of  of Navarre.  beheaded by Henry           Castile.               |                             of Edward IV., Richard III.,
         Edward,                  | Hereford and    No issue.    IV.; afterwards to                |                +-+------------------+        Warwick the King Maker and
        king of                   | Essex.                       Sir John Cornwall,             John II.              |                  |        many noble families.
        Portugal.                 |                              created Baron               king of Castile.       Henry              John
           |                      |                              Fanhope.                          |               Beaufort,         Beaufort,
      +----+--------+             +-+------------------------+----------+-----+----+         Isabella of Castile,   earl of       earl, afterwards
      |             |               |                        |          |     |    |         queen of Ferdinand    Somerset.         duke, of
      |             |               |                        |          |     |    |         of Aragon; whose                        Somerset.
      |             |               |                        |          |     |    |         descendants were                            |
  Alphonso V.     Ferdinand,     Henry V., = Catherine,   Thomas,      John,  | Humphrey,    kings of Spain till        Edmund,    =  Margaret
  of Portugal.  duke of Viseu.   king of   | daughter of  duke of     duke of | duke of      the accession of the   earl of Rich-  |  Beaufort.
      |             |            England.  | Charles IV.  Clarence.   Bedford.| Gloucester.  Bourbons in 1700.      mond, son of   |
    John II         Emmanuel,              | of France                        |                                     Sir Owen Tudor |
  of Portugal.  king of Portugal;          | afterwards                       |                                     by Catherine,  |
                whose descendants          | Tudor.                        Philippa,                                widow of Henry |
                have reigned in that       |                               married                                  V.             |
                country ever since.     Henry VI.                          to Eric                                                 |
                                           |                               VII. of                                            Henry VII.,
                                         Edward,                           Denmark                                         king of England.
                                     prince of Wales.                      of Sweden.                                              |
                                                                                                                                   |
                  +---------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
                  |                     |                             |
             Henry VIII.             Margaret = James IV.         Mary. = Charles Brandon,
                  |                           | king of Scotland.       | duke of Suffolk.
      +-----------+-----------+               |                         |
      |           |           |            James V.,            +-------+---+-----------------+
  Edward VI.    Mary,     Elizabeth,   king of Scotland.        |           |                 |
              queen of     queen of            |              Henry,     Frances,          Eleanor,
               England.    England.       Mary Stuart.       earl of   wife of Henry    wife of Henry,
                                               |             Lincoln.  Grey, marquess   2nd. earl of
                                     James VI. of Scotland             of Dorset,       Cumberland.
                                     and I. of England                 created duke of
                                     whose descendants                 Suffolk.
                                     have reigned in Great                 |
                                     Britain ever since.              Lady Jane Grey
                                                                       and others.

His son and successor, HENRY, 1st duke of Lancaster (c. 1300-1361), was
a soldier of unusual distinction. Probably from his birthplace in
Monmouthshire he was called Henry of Grosmont. He fought in the naval
fight off Sluys and in the one off Winchelsea in 1350; he led armies
into Scotland, Gascony and Normandy, his exploits in Gascony in 1345 and
1346 being especially successful; he served frequently under Edward III.
himself; and he may be fairly described as one of the most brilliant and
capable of the English warriors during the earlier part of the Hundred
Years' War. During a brief respite from the king's service he led a
force into Prussia and he was often employed on diplomatic business. In
1354 he was at Avignon negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to
make peace between England and France, and one of his last acts was to
assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360. In
1337 he was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he succeeded to his father's
earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester; in 1349 he was created earl of
Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of Lancaster. He was steward of
England and one of the original knights of the order of the garter. He
died at Leicester on the 13th of March 1361. He left no sons; one of his
daughters, Maud (d. 1362), married William V., count of Holland, a son
of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the other, Blanche (d. 1369),
married Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who obtained his
father-in-law's titles and estates.




LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (fl. 1591-1618), English navigator and statesman,
one of the foremost pioneers of the British Indian trade and empire. In
early life he fought and traded in Portugal. On the 10th of April 1591
he started from Plymouth, with Raymond and Foxcroft, on his first great
voyage to the East Indies; this fleet of three ships is the earliest of
English oversea Indian expeditions. Reaching Table Bay (1st of August
1591), and losing one ship off Cape Corrientes on the 12th of September,
the squadron rested and refitted at Zanzibar (February 1592), rounded
Cape Comorin in May following, and was off the Malay Peninsula in June.
Crossing later to Ceylon, the crews insisted on r

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