Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Jacobites" to "Japan" (part)
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Jacobites" to "Japan" (part)
Author: Various
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Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "JACOBITES" TO "JAPAN" (PART) ***
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE JAMAICA: "The British government awarded them compensation
at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at the
time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the hands
of the planters' creditors." 'compensation' amended from
'conpensation'.
ARTICLE JAMESON, LEANDER STARR: "They were tried in London under
the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896, and Dr Jameson was
sentenced to fifteen months' imprisonment at Holloway."
'imprisonment' amended from 'inprisonment'.
ARTICLE JAPAN: "The pots in which these wonders of patient skill
are grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the ceramist's
craft, and as much as £200 is sometimes paid for a notably well
trained tree." "ceramist's" amended from "keramist's".
ARTICLE JAPAN: "... named Iwasa Matahei, had even made a specialty
of this class of motive; but so little is known of Matahei and his
work that even his period is a matter of dispute ..." 'specialty'
amended from 'speciality'.
ARTICLE JAPAN: "At the naval cadet academy--originally situated in
Tokyo but now at Etajima near Kure--aspirants for service as naval
officers receive a 3 years' academical course and 1 year's training
at sea ..." 'Tokyo' amended from 'Tkoyo'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XV, SLICE II
Jacobites to Japan (part)
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
JACOBITES JAMES III.
JACOBS, CHRISTIAN WILHELM JAMES IV.
JACOBS CAVERN JAMES V.
JACOBSEN, JENS PETER JAMES I. (king of Aragon)
JACOB'S WELL JAMES II.
JACOBUS DE VORAGINE JAMES II. (king of Majorca)
JACOTOT, JOSEPH JAMES III. (king of Majorca)
JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE JAMES (prince of Wales)
JACQUERIE, THE JAMES, DAVID
JACTITATION JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD
JADE (estuary of the North Sea) JAMES, HENRY
JADE (ornamental stones) JAMES, JOHN ANGELL
JAEN (province of Spain) JAMES, THOMAS
JAEN (city of Spain) JAMES, WILLIAM (English historian)
JAFARABAD JAMES, WILLIAM (American philosopher)
JAFFNA JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES
JÄGER, GUSTAV JAMES, EPISTLE OF
JÄGERNDORF JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL
JAGERSFONTEIN JAMESON, GEORGE
JAGO, RICHARD JAMESON, LEANDER STARR
JAGUAR JAMESON, ROBERT
JAGUARONDI JAMESTOWN (North Dakota, U.S.A.)
JAHANABAD JAMESTOWN (New York, U.S.A.)
JAHANGIR JAMESTOWN (Virginia, U.S.A.)
JAHIZ JAMI
JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAMIESON, JOHN
JAHN, JOHANN JAMIESON, ROBERT
JAHN, OTTO JAMKHANDI
JAHRUM JAMMU
JAINS JAMNIA
JAIPUR JAMRUD
JAISALMER JAMS AND JELLIES
JAJCE JANESVILLE
JAJPUR JANET, PAUL
JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON JANGIPUR
JAKOVA JANIN, JULES GABRIEL
JAKUNS JANISSARIES
JALALABAD JANIUAY
JALAP JANJIRA
JALAPA JAN MAYEN
JALAUN JANSEN, CORNELIUS
JALISCO JANSENISM
JALNA JANSSEN, CORNELIUS
JALPAIGURI JANSSEN, JOHANNES
JAMAICA (island) JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR
JAMAICA (New York, U.S.A.) JANSSENS, VICTOR HONORIUS
JAMB JANSSENS VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM
JAMES (name) JANUARIUS, ST
JAMES (New Testament) JANUARY
JAMES I. (king of Great Britain) JANUS
JAMES II. JAORA
JAMES I. (king of Scotland) JAPAN (part)
JAMES II.
JACOBITES (from Lat. _Jacobus_, James), the name given after the
revolution of 1688 to the adherents, first of the exiled English king
James II., then of his descendants, and after the extinction of the
latter in 1807, of the descendants of Charles I., i.e. of the exiled
house of Stuart.
The history of the Jacobites, culminating in the risings of 1715 and
1745, is part of the general history of England (q.v.), and especially
of Scotland (q.v.), in which country they were comparatively more
numerous and more active, while there was also a large number of
Jacobites in Ireland. They were recruited largely, but not solely, from
among the Roman Catholics, and the Protestants among them were often
identical with the Non-Jurors. Owing to a variety of causes Jacobitism
began to lose ground after the accession of George I. and the
suppression of the revolt of 1715; and the total failure of the rising
of 1745 may be said to mark its end as a serious political force. In
1765 Horace Walpole said that "Jacobitism, the concealed mother of the
latter (i.e. Toryism), was extinct," but as a sentiment it remained for
some time longer, and may even be said to exist to-day. In 1750, during
a strike of coal workers at Elswick, James III. was proclaimed king; in
1780 certain persons walked out of the Roman Catholic Church at Hexham
when George III. was prayed for; and as late as 1784 a Jacobite rising
was talked about. Northumberland was thus a Jacobite stronghold; and in
Manchester, where in 1777 according to an American observer Jacobitism
"is openly professed," a Jacobite rendezvous known as "John Shaw's Club"
lasted from 1733 to 1892. North Wales was another Jacobite centre. The
"Cycle of the White Rose"--the white rose being the badge of the
Stuarts--composed of members of the principal Welsh families around
Wrexham, including the Williams-Wynns of Wynnstay, lasted from 1710
until some time between 1850 and 1860. Jacobite traditions also lingered
among the great families of the Scottish Highlands; the last person to
suffer death as a Jacobite was Archibald Cameron, a son of Cameron of
Lochiel, who was executed in 1753. Dr Johnson's Jacobite sympathies are
well known, and on the death of Victor Emmanuel I., the ex-king of
Sardinia, in 1824, Lord Liverpool wrote to Canning saying "there are
those who think that the ex-king was the lawful king of Great Britain."
Until the accession of King Edward VII. finger-bowls were not placed
upon the royal dinner-table, because in former times those who secretly
sympathized with the Jacobites were in the habit of drinking to the king
_over the water_. The romantic side of Jacobitism was stimulated by Sir
Walter Scott's _Waverley_, and many Jacobite poems were written during
the 19th century.
The chief collections of Jacobite poems are: Charles Mackay's
_Jacobite Songs and Ballads of Scotland, 1688-1746, with Appendix of
Modern Jacobite Songs_ (1861); G. S. Macquoid's _Jacobite Songs and
Ballads_ (1888); and _English Jacobite Ballads_, edited by A. B.
Grosart from the Towneley manuscripts (1877).
Upon the death of Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last of James II.'s
descendants, in 1807, the rightful occupant of the British throne
according to legitimist principles was to be found among the descendants
of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I., who married Philip I., duke of
Orleans. Henrietta's daughter, Anne Marie (1669-1728), became the wife
of Victor Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia; her
son was King Charles Emmanuel III., and her grandson Victor Amadeus III.
The latter's son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest
daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena, whose
son Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie Thérèse (b. 1849).
This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria, was in 1910 the senior
member of the Stuart family, and according to the legitimists the
rightful sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland.
_Table showing the succession to the crown of Great Britain and
Ireland according to Jacobite principles._
Charles I. (1600-1649)
|
Henrietta (1644-1670) =
Philip I., duke of Orleans (1640-1701)
|
Anne Marie (1669-1728) =
Victor Amadeus II, king of Sardinia (1666-1732)
|
Charles Emmanuel III.
king of Sardinia (1701-1773)
|
Victor Amadeus III.
king of Sardinia (1726-1796)
|
Victor Emmanuel I.
king of Sardinia (1759-1824)
|
Marie Beatrice (c. 1780-1840) =
Francis IV., duke of Modena (1779-1846)
|
Ferdinand (1821-1849)
|
Marie Thérèse (b. 1849) =
Louis, prince of Bavaria (b. 1845)
|
+--------------------+------------+------------+
| | |
Rupert, prince Charles Francis
of Bavaria (b. 1869) (b. 1874) (b. 1875)
+---------------+--------------+
| | |
Luitpold Albert Rudolph
(b. 1901) (b. 1905) (b. 1909)
Among the modern Jacobite, or legitimist, societies perhaps the most
important is the "Order of the White Rose," which has a branch in
Canada and the United States. The order holds that sovereign authority
is of divine sanction, and that the execution of Charles I. and the
revolution of 1688 were national crimes; it exists to study the
history of the Stuarts, to oppose all democratic tendencies, and in
general to maintain the theory that kingship is independent of all
parliamentary authority and popular approval. The order, which was
instituted in 1886, was responsible for the Stuart exhibition of 1889,
and has a newspaper, the _Royalist_. Among other societies with
similar objects in view are the "Thames Valley Legitimist Club" and
the "Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland."
See _Historical Papers relating to the Jacobite Period_, edited by J.
Allardyce (Aberdeen, 1895-1896); James Hogg, _The Jacobite Relics of
Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1819-1821); and F. W. Head, _The Fallen Stuarts_
(Cambridge, 1901). The marquis de Ruvigny has compiled _The Jacobite
Peerage_ (Edinburgh, 1904), a work which purports to give a list of
all the titles and honours conferred by the kings of the exiled House
of Stuart. (A. W. H.*)
JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1764-1847), German classical
scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of October 1764. After studying
philology and theology at Jena and Göttingen, in 1785 he became teacher
in the gymnasium of his native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an
office in the public library. In 1807 he became classical tutor in the
lyceum of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by the old
Bavarian Catholic party, who resented the introduction of "north German"
teachers, he returned to Gotha in 1810 to take charge of the library and
the numismatic cabinet. He remained in Gotha till his death on the 30th
of March 1847. Jacobs was an extremely successful teacher; he took great
interest in the affairs of his country, and was a publicist of no mean
order. But his great work was an edition of the Greek Anthology, with
copious notes, in 13 volumes (1798-1814), supplemented by a revised text
from the Codex Palatinus (1814-1817). He published also notes on Horace,
Stobaeus, Euripides, Athenaeus and the _Iliaca_ of Tzetzes; translations
of Aelian (_History of Animals_); many of the Greek romances;
Philostratus; poetical versions of much of the Greek Anthology;
miscellaneous essays on classical subjects; and some very successful
school books. His translation of the political speeches of Demosthenes
was undertaken with the express purpose of rousing his country against
Napoleon, whom he regarded as a second Philip of Macedon.
See E. F. Wüstemann, _Friderici Jacobsii laudatio_ (Gotha, 1848); C.
Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_; and
the appreciative article by C. Regel in _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_.
JACOBS CAVERN, a cavern in latitude 36° 35´ N., 2 m. E. of Pineville,
McDonald county, Missouri, named after its discoverer, E. H. Jacobs, of
Bentonville, Arkansas. It was scientifically explored by him, in company
with Professors Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorehead, in 1903. The
results were published in that year by Jacobs in the _Benton County
Sun_; by C. N. Gould in _Science_, July 31, 1903; by Peabody in the _Am.
Anthropologist_, Sept. 1903; and in the _Am. Journ. Archaeology_, 1904;
and by Peabody and Moorehead, 1904, as _Bulletin I._ of the Dept. of
Archaeology in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in the museum of which
are exhibits, maps and photographs.
Jacobs Cavern is one of the smaller caves, hardly more than a
rock-shelter, and is entirely in the "St Joe Limestone" of the
sub-carboniferous age. Its roof is a single flat stratum of limestone;
its walls are well marked by lines of stratification; dripstone also
partly covers the walls, fills a deep fissure at the end of the cave,
and spreads over the floor, where it mingles with an ancient bed of
ashes, forming an ash-breccia (mostly firm and solid) that encloses
fragments of sandstone, flint spalls, flint implements, charcoal and
bones. Underneath is the true floor of the cave, a mass of homogeneous
yellow clay, one metre in thickness. It holds scattered fragments of
limestone, and is itself the result of limestone degeneration. The
length of the opening is over 21 metres; its depth 14 metres, and the
height of roof above the undisturbed ash deposit varied from 1 m. 20 cm.
to 2 m. 60 cm. The bone recess at the end was from 50 cm. to 80 cm. in
height. The stratum of ashes was from 50 cm. to 1 m. 50 cm. thick.
The ash surface was staked off into square metres, and the substance
carefully removed in order. Each stalactite, stalagmite and pilaster was
measured, numbered, and removed in sections. Six human skeletons were
found buried in the ashes. Seven-tenths of a cubic metre of animal bones
were found: deer, bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, beaver, buffalo, elk,
turkey, woodchuck, tortoise and hog; all contemporary with man's
occupancy. Three stone metates, one stone axe, one celt and fifteen
hammer-stones were found. Jacobs Cavern was peculiarly rich in flint
knives and projectile points. The sum total amounts to 419 objects,
besides hundreds of fragments, cores, spalls and rejects, retained for
study and comparison. Considerable numbers of bone or horn awls were
found in the ashes, as well as fragments of pottery, but no "ceremonial"
objects.
The rude type of the implements, the absence of fine pottery, and the
peculiarities of the human remains, indicate a race of occupants more
ancient than the "mound-builders." The deepest implement observed was
buried 50 cm. under the stalagmitic surface. Dr. Hovey has proved that
the rate of stalagmitic growth in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is .0254 cm.
annually; and if that was the rate in Jacobs Cavern, 1968 years would
have been needed for the embedding of that implement. Polished rocks
outside the cavern and pictographs in the vicinity indicate the work of
a prehistoric race earlier than the Osage Indians, who were the historic
owners previous to the advent of the white man. (H. C. H.)
JACOBSEN, JENS PETER (1847-1885), Danish imaginative writer, was born at
Thisted in Jutland, on the 7th of April 1847; he was the eldest of the
five children of a prosperous merchant. He became a student at the
university of Copenhagen in 1868. As a boy he showed a remarkable turn
for science, particularly for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly
writing verses already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a
profession. He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on
the flora of the islands of Anholt and Læsö. About this time the
discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him, and
finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated into Danish
_The Origin of Species_ and _The Descent of Man_. In the autumn of
1872, while collecting plants in a morass near Ordrup, he contracted
pulmonary disease. His illness, which cut him off from scientific
investigation, drove him to literature. He met the famous critic, Dr
Georg Brandes, who was struck by his powers of expression, and under his
influence, in the spring of 1873, Jacobsen began his great historical
romance of _Marie Grubbe_. His method of composition was painful and
elaborate, and his work was not ready for publication until the close of
1876. In 1879 he was too ill to write at all; but in 1880 an improvement
came, and he finished his second novel, _Niels Lyhne_. In 1882 he
published a volume of six short stories, most of them written a few
years earlier, called, from the first of them, _Mogens_. After this he
wrote no more, but lingered on in his mother's house at Thisted until
the 30th of April 1885. In 1886 his posthumous fragments were collected.
It was early recognized that Jacobsen was the greatest artist in prose
that Denmark has produced. He has been compared with Flaubert, with De
Quincey, with Pater; but these parallelisms merely express a sense of
the intense individuality of his style, and of his untiring pursuit of
beauty in colour, form and melody. Although he wrote so little, and
crossed the living stage so hurriedly, his influence in the North has
been far-reaching. It may be said that no one in Denmark or Norway has
tried to write prose carefully since 1880 whose efforts have not been in
some degree modified by the example of Jacobsen's laborious art.
His _Samlede Skrifter_ appeared in two volumes in 1888; in 1899 his
letters (_Breve_) were edited by Edvard Brandes. In 1896 an English
translation of part of the former was published under the title of
_Siren Voices: Niels Lyhne_, by Miss E. F. L. Robertson. (E. G.)
JACOB'S WELL, the scene of the conversation between Jesus and the "woman
of Samaria" narrated in the Fourth Gospel, is described as being in the
neighbourhood of an otherwise unmentioned "city called Sychar." From the
time of Eusebius this city has been identified with Sychem or Shechem
(modern Nablus), and the well is still in existence 1½ m. E. of the
town, at the foot of Mt Gerizim. It is beneath one of the ruined arches
of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached by a few rough steps.
When Robinson visited it in 1838 it was 105 ft. deep, but it is now much
shallower and often dry.
For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K. Cheyne,
art. "Sychar," in _Ency. Bibl._, col. 4830. It is possible that Sychar
should be placed at Tulul Balata, a mound about ½ m. W. of the well
(_Palestine Exploration Fund Statement_, 1907, p. 92 seq.); when that
village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to 'Askar, a village
on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about 1¾ m. E.N.E. from Nablus and ½ m.
N. from Jacob's Well. It may be noted that the difficulty is not with
the location of the well, but with the identification of Sychar.
JACOBUS DE VORAGINE (c. 1230-c. 1298), Italian chronicler, archbishop of
Genoa, was born at the little village of Varazze, near Genoa, about the
year 1230. He entered the order of the friars preachers of St Dominic in
1244, and besides preaching with success in many parts of Italy, taught
in the schools of his own fraternity. He was provincial of Lombardy from
1267 till 1286, when he was removed at the meeting of the order in
Paris. He also represented his own province at the councils of Lucca
(1288) and Ferrara (1290). On the last occasion he was one of the four
delegates charged with signifying Nicholas IV.'s desire for the
deposition of Munio de Zamora, who had been master of the order from
1285, and was deprived of his office by a papal bull dated the 12th of
April 1291. In 1288 Nicholas empowered him to absolve the people of
Genoa for their offence in aiding the Sicilians against Charles II.
Early in 1292 the same pope, himself a Franciscan, summoned Jacobus to
Rome, intending to consecrate him archbishop of Genoa with his own
hands. He reached Rome on Palm Sunday (March 30), only to find his
patron ill of a deadly sickness, from which he died on Good Friday
(April 4). The cardinals, however, "propter honorem Communis Januae,"
determined to carry out this consecration on the Sunday after Easter. He
was a good bishop, and especially distinguished himself by his' efforts
to appease the civil discords of Genoa. He died in 1298 or 1299, and was
buried in the Dominican church at Genoa. A story, mentioned by the
chronicler Echard as unworthy of credit, makes Boniface VIII., on the
first day of Lent, cast the ashes in the archbishop's eyes instead of on
his head, with the words, "Remember that thou art a Ghibelline, and with
thy fellow Ghibellines wilt return to naught."
Jacobus de Voragine left a list of his own works. Speaking of himself
in his _Chronicon januense_, he says, "While he was in his order, and
after he had been made archbishop, he wrote many works. For he
compiled the legends of the saints (_Legendae sanctorum_) in one
volume, adding many things from the _Historia tripartita et
scholastica_, and from the chronicles of many writers." The other
writings he claims are two anonymous volumes of "Sermons concerning
all the Saints" whose yearly feasts the church celebrates. Of these
volumes, he adds, one is very diffuse, but the other short and
concise. Then follow _Sermones de omnibus evangeliis dominicalibus_
for every Sunday in the year; _Sermones de omnibus evangeliis_, i.e. a
book of discourses on all the Gospels, from Ash Wednesday to the
Tuesday after Easter; and a treatise called "_Marialis_, qui totus est
de B. Maria compositus," consisting of about 160 discourses on the
attributes, titles, &c., of the Virgin Mary. In the same work the
archbishop claims to have written his _Chronicon januense_ in the
second year of his pontificate (1293), but it extends to 1296 or 1297.
To this list Echard adds several other works, such as a defence of the
Dominicans, printed at Venice in 1504, and a _Summa virtutum et
vitiorum Guillelmi Peraldi_, a Dominican who died about 1250. Jacobus
is also said by Sixtus of Siena (_Biblioth. Sacra_, lib. ix.) to have
translated the Old and New Testaments into his own tongue. "But," adds
Echard, "if he did so, the version lies so closely hid that there is
no recollection of it," and it may be added that it is highly
improbable that the man who compiled the Golden Legend ever conceived
the necessity of having the Scriptures in the vernacular.
His two chief works are the _Chronicon januense_ and the _Golden
Legend_ or _Lombardica hystoria_. The former is partly printed in
Muratori (_Scriptores Rer. Ital._ ix. 6). It is divided into twelve
parts. The first four deal with the mythical history of Genoa from the
time of its founder, Janus, the first king of Italy, and its enlarger,
a second Janus "citizen of Troy", till its conversion to Christianity
"about twenty-five years after the passion of Christ." Part v.
professes to treat of the beginning, the growth and the perfection of
the city; but of the first period the writer candidly confesses he
knows nothing except by hearsay. The second period includes the
Genoese crusading exploits in the East, and extends to their victory
over the Pisans (c. 1130), while the third reaches down to the days of
the author's archbishopric. The sixth part deals with the constitution
of the city, the seventh and eighth with the duties of rulers and
citizens, the ninth with those of domestic life. The tenth gives the
ecclesiastical history of Genoa from the time of its first known
bishop, St Valentine, "whom we believe to have lived about 530 A.D.,"
till 1133, when the city was raised to archiepiscopal rank. The
eleventh contains the lives of all the bishops in order, and includes
the chief events during their pontificates; the twelfth deals in the
same way with the archbishops, not forgetting the writer himself.
The _Golden Legend_, one of the most popular religious works of the
middle ages, is a collection of the legendary lives of the greater
saints of the medieval church. The preface divides the ecclesiastical
year into four periods corresponding to the various epochs of the
world's history, a time of deviation, of renovation, of reconciliation
and of pilgrimage. The book itself, however, falls into five
sections:--(a) from Advent to Christmas (_cc._ 1-5); (b) from
Christmas to Septuagesima (6-30); (c) from Septuagesima to Easter
(31-53); (d) from Easter Day to the octave of Pentecost (54-76); (e)
from the octave of Pentecost to Advent (77-180). The saints' lives are
full of puerile legend, and in not a few cases contain accounts of
13th-century miracles wrought at special places, particularly with
reference to the Dominicans. The last chapter but one (181), "De
Sancto Pelagio Papa," contains a kind of history of the world from the
middle of the 6th century; while the last (182) is a somewhat
allegorical disquisition, "De Dedicatione Ecclesiae."
The _Golden Legend_ was translated into French by Jean Belet de Vigny
in the 14th century. It was also one of the earliest books to issue
from the press. A Latin edition is assigned to about 1469; and a dated
one was published at Lyons in 1473. Many other Latin editions were
printed before the end of the century. A French translation by Master
John Bataillier is dated 1476; Jean de Vigny's appeared at Paris,
1488; an Italian one by Nic. Manerbi (? Venice, 1475); a Bohemian one
at Pilsen, 1475-1479, and at Prague, 1495; Caxton's English versions,
1483, 1487 and 1493; and a German one in 1489. Several 15th-century
editions of the _Sermons_ are also known, and the Mariale was printed
at Venice in 1497 and at Paris in 1503.
For bibliography see Potthast, _Bibliotheca hist. med. aev._ (Berlin,
1896), p. 634; U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist. Bio.-bibl._
(Paris, 1905), s.v. "Jacques de Voragine."
JACOTOT, JOSEPH (1770-1840), French educationist, author of the method
of "emancipation intellectuelle," was born at Dijon on the 4th of March
1770. He was educated at the university of Dijon, where in his
nineteenth year he was chosen professor of Latin, after which he studied
law, became advocate, and at the same time devoted a large amount of his
attention to mathematics. In 1788 he organized a federation of the youth
of Dijon for the defence of the principles of the Revolution; and in
1792, with the rank of captain, he set out to take part in the campaign
of Belgium, where he conducted himself with bravery and distinction.
After for some time filling the office of secretary of the "commission
d'organisation du mouvement des armées," he in 1794 became deputy of the
director of the Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the
central schools at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the "method of
sciences," where he made his first experiments in that mode of tuition
which he afterwards developed more fully. On the central schools being
replaced by other educational institutions, Jacotot occupied
successively the chairs of mathematics and of Roman law until the
overthrow of the empire. In 1815 he was elected a representative to the
chamber of deputies; but after the second restoration he found it
necessary to quit his native land, and, having taken up his residence at
Brussels, he was in 1818 nominated by the Government teacher of the
French language at the university of Louvain, where he perfected into a
system the educational principles which he had already practised with
success in France. His method was not only adopted in several
institutions in Belgium, but also met with some approval in France,
England, Germany and Russia. It was based on three principles: (1) all
men have equal intelligence; (2) every man has received from God the
faculty of being able to instruct himself; (3) everything is in
everything. As regards (1) he maintained that it is only in the will to
use their intelligence that men differ; and his own process, depending
on (3), was to give any one learning a language for the first time a
short passage of a few lines, and to encourage the pupil to study, first
the words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the meaning, until a
single paragraph became the occasion for learning an entire literature.
After the revolution of 1830 Jacotot returned to France, and he died at
Paris on the 30th of July 1840.
His system was described by him in _Enseignement universel, langue
maternelle_, Louvain and Dijon, 1823--which passed through several
editions--and in various other works; and he also advocated his views
in the _Journal de l'émancipation intellectuelle_. For a complete list
of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see _Biographie
de J. Jacotot_, by Achille Guillard (Paris, 1860).
JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (1752-1834), French inventor, was born at Lyons
on the 7th of July 1752. On the death of his father, who was a working
weaver, he inherited two looms, with which he started business on his
own account. He did not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to
become a lime-burner at Bresse, while his wife supported herself at
Lyons by plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful
defence of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards
served in their ranks on the Rhône and Loire. After seeing some active
service, in which his young son was shot down at his side, he again
returned to Lyons. There he obtained a situation in a factory, and
employed his spare time in constructing his improved loom, of which he
had conceived the idea several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited
his invention at the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was
summoned to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers.
A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1700-1782), deposited there, suggested
various improvements in his own, which he gradually perfected to its
final state. Although his invention was fiercely opposed by the
silk-weavers, who feared that its introduction, owing to the saving of
labour, would deprive them of their livelihood, its advantages secured
its general adoption, and by 1812 there were 11,000 Jacquard looms in
use in France. The loom was declared public property in 1806, and
Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He
died at Oullins (Rhône) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later a
statue was erected to him at Lyons (see WEAVING).
JACQUERIE, THE, an insurrection of the French peasantry which broke out
in the Île de France and about Beauvais at the end of May 1358. The
hardships endured by the peasants in the Hundred Years' War and their
hatred for the nobles who oppressed them were the principal causes which
led to the rising, though the immediate occasion was an affray which
took place on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between
"brigands" (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and countryfolk.
The latter having got the upper hand united with the inhabitants of the
neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume Karle at their head. They
destroyed numerous châteaux in the valleys of the Oise, the Brèche and
the Thérain, where they subjected the whole countryside to fire and
sword, committing the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of
Navarre, crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the 10th of
June, and the nobles then took violent reprisals upon the peasants,
massacring them in great numbers.
See Simeon Luce, _Histoire de la Jacquerie_ (Paris, 1859 and 1895).
(J. V.*)
JACTITATION (from Lat. _jactitare_, to throw out publicly), in English
law, the maliciously boasting or giving out by one party that he or she
is married to the other. In such a case, in order to prevent the common
reputation of their marriage that might ensue, the procedure is by suit
of jactitation of marriage, in which the petitioner alleges that the
respondent boasts that he or she is married to the petitioner, and prays
a declaration of nullity and a decree putting the respondent to
perpetual silence thereafter. Previously to 1857 such a proceeding took
place only in the ecclesiastical courts, but by express terms of the
Matrimonial Causes Act of that year it can now be brought in the
probate, divorce and admiralty division of the High Court. To the suit
there are three defences: (1) denial of the boasting; (2) the truth of
the representations; (3) allegation (by way of estoppel) that the
petitioner acquiesced in the boasting of the respondent. In _Thompson_
v. _Rourke_, 1893, Prob. 70, the court of appeal laid down that the
court will not make a decree in a jactitation suit in favour of a
petitioner who has at any time acquiesced in the assertion of the
respondent that they were actually married. Jactitation of marriage is a
suit that is very rare.
JADE, or JAHDE, a deep bay and estuary of the North Sea, belonging to
the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The bay, which was for the most
part made by storm-floods in the 13th and 16th centuries, measures 70
sq. m., and has communication with the open sea by a fairway, a mile and
a half wide, which never freezes, and with the tide gives access to the
largest vessels. On the west side of the entrance to the bay is the
Prussian naval port of Wilhelmshaven. A tiny stream, about 14 m. long,
also known as the Jade, enters the head of the bay.
JADE, a name commonly applied to certain ornamental stones, mostly of a
green colour, belonging to at least two distinct species, one termed
nephrite and the other jadeite. Whilst the term jade is popularly used
in this sense, it is now usually restricted by mineralogists to
nephrite. The word jade[1] is derived (through Fr. _le jade_ for
_l'ejade_) from Span. _ijada_ (Lat. _ilia_), the loins, this mineral
having been known to the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru under the
name of _piedra de ijada_ or _yjada_ (colic stone). The reputed value of
the stone in renal diseases is also suggested by the term nephrite (so
named by A. G. Werner from Gr. [Greek: nephros], kidney), and by its old
name _lapis nephriticus_.
Jade, in its wide and popular sense, has always been highly prized by
the Chinese, who not only believe in its medicinal value but regard it
as the symbol of virtue. It is known, with other ornamental stones,
under the name of _yu_ or _yu-chi_ (yu-stone). According to Professor H.
A. Giles, it occupies in China the highest place as a jewel, and is
revered as "the quintessence of heaven and earth." Notwithstanding its
toughness or tenacity, due to a dense fibrous structure, it is wrought
into complicated forms and elaborately carved. On many prehistoric
sites in Europe, as in the Swiss lake-dwellings, celts and other carved
objects both in nephrite and in jadeite have not infrequently been
found; and as no kind of jade had until recent years been discovered _in
situ_ in any European locality it was held, especially by Professor L.
H. Fischer, of Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden, that either the raw material
or the worked objects must have been brought by some of the early
inhabitants from a jade locality probably in the East, or were obtained
by barter, thus suggesting a very early trade-route to the Orient.
Exceptional interest, therefore, attached to the discovery of jade in
Europe, nephrite having been found in Silesia, and jadeite or a similar
rock in the Alps, whilst pebbles of jade have been obtained from many
localities in Austria and north Germany, in the latter case probably
derived from Sweden. It is, therefore, no longer necessary to assign the
old jade implements to an exotic origin. Dr A. B. Meyer, of Dresden,
always maintained that the European jade objects were indigenous, and
his views have become generally accepted. Now that the mineral
characters of jade are better understood, and its identification less
uncertain, it may possibly be found with altered peridotites, or with
amphibolites, among the old crystalline schists of many localities.
Nephrite, or true jade, may be regarded as a finely fibrous or compact
variety of amphibole, referred either to actinolite or to tremolite,
according as its colour inclines to green or white. Chemically it is a
calcium-magnesium silicate, CaMg3(SiO3)4. The fibres are either more
or less parallel or irregularly felted together, rendering the stone
excessively tough; yet its hardness is not great, being only about 6
or 6.5. The mineral sometimes tends to become schistose, breaking with
a splintery fracture, or its structure may be horny. The specific
gravity varies from 2.9 to 3.18, and is of determinative value, since
jadeite is much denser. The colour of jade presents various shades of
green, yellow and grey, and the mineral when polished has a rather
greasy lustre. Professor F. W. Clarke found the colours due to
compounds of iron, manganese and chromium. One of the most famous
localities for nephrite is on the west side of the South Island of New
Zealand, where it occurs as nodules and veins in serpentine and
talcose rocks, but is generally found as boulders. It was known to the
Maoris as _pounamu_, or "green stone," and was highly prized, being
worked with great labour into various objects, especially the
club-like implement known as the _mere_, or _pattoo-pattoo_, and the
breast ornament called _hei-tiki_. The New Zealand jade, called by old
writers "green talc of the Maoris," is now worked in Europe as an
ornamental stone. The green jade-like stone known in New Zealand as
_tangiwai_ is bowenite, a translucent serpentine with enclosures of
magnesite. The mode of occurrence of the nephrite and bowenite of New
Zealand has been described by A. M. Finlayson (_Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc._, 1909, p. 351). It appears that the Maoris distinguished six
varieties of jade. Difference of colour seems due to variations in the
proportion of ferrous silicate in the mineral. According to Finlayson,
the New Zealand nephrite results from the chemical alteration of
serpentine, olivine or pyroxene, whereby a fibrous amphibole is
formed, which becomes converted by intense pressure and movement into
the dense nephrite.
Nephrite occurs also in New Caledonia, and perhaps in some of the
other Pacific islands, but many of the New Caledonian implements
reputed to be of jade are really made of serpentine. From its use as a
material for axe-heads, jade is often known in Germany as _Beilstein_
("axe-stone"). A fibrous variety, of specific gravity 3.18, found in
New Caledonia, and perhaps in the Marquesas, was distinguished by A.
Damour under the name of "oceanic jade."
Much of the nephrite used by the Chinese has been obtained from
quarries in the Kuen-lun mountains, on the sides of the Kara-kash
valley, in Turkestan. The mineral, generally of pale colour, occurs in
nests and veins running through hornblende-schists and gneissose
rocks, and it is notable that when first quarried it is comparatively
soft. It appears to have a wide distribution in the mountains, and has
been worked from very ancient times in Khotan. Nephrite is said to
occur also in the Pamir region, and pebbles are found in the beds of
many streams. In Turkestan, jade is known as _yashm_ or _yeshm_, a
word which appears in Arabic as _yeshb_, perhaps cognate with [Greek:
iaspis] or jasper. The "jasper" of the ancients may have included
jade. Nephrite is said to have been discovered in 1891 in the Nan-shan
mountains in the Chinese province of Kan-suh, where it is worked. The
great centre of Chinese jade-working is at Peking, and formerly the
industry was active at Su-chow Fu. Siberia has yielded very fine
specimens of dark green nephrite, notably from the neighbourhood of
the Alibert graphite mine, near Batugol, Lake Baikal. The jade seems
to occur as a rock in part of the Sajan mountain system. New deposits
in Siberia were opened up to supply material for the tomb of the tsar
Alexander III. A gigantic monolith exists at the tomb of Tamerlane at
Samarkand. The occurrence of the Siberian jade has been described by
Professor L. von Jaczewski.
Jade implements are widely distributed in Alaska and British Columbia,
being found in Indian graves, in old shell-heaps and on the sites of
deserted villages. Dr G. M. Dawson, arguing from the discovery of some
boulders of jade in the Fraser river valley, held that they were not
obtained by barter from Siberia, but were of native origin; and the
locality was afterwards discovered by Lieut. G. M. Stoney. It is known
as the Jade Mountains, and is situated north of Kowak river, about 150
miles from its mouth. The study of a large collection of jade
implements by Professor F. W. Clarke and Dr G. P. Merrill proved that
the Alaskan jade is true nephrite, not to be distinguished from that
of New Zealand.
Jadeite is a mineral species established by A. Damour in 1863,
differing markedly from nephrite in that its relation lies with the
pyroxenes rather than with the amphiboles. It is an aluminium sodium
silicate, NaAl(SiO3)2, related to spodumene. S. L. Penfield showed, by
measurement, that jadeite is monoclinic. Its colour is commonly very
pale, and white jadeite, which is the purest variety, is known as
"camphor jade." In many cases the mineral shows bright patches of
apple-green or emerald-green, due to the presence of chromium. Jadeite
is much more fusible than nephrite, and is rather harder (6.5 to 7),
but its most readily determined character is found in its higher
specific gravity, which ranges from 3.20 to 3.41. Some jadeite seems
to be a metamorphosed igneous rock.
The Burmese jade, discovered by a Yunnan trader in the 13th century,
is mostly jadeite. The quarries, described by Dr F. Noetling, are
situated on the Uru river, about 120 m. from Mogaung, where the
jadeite occurs in serpentine, and is partly extracted by fire-setting.
It is also found as boulders in alluvium, and when these occur in a
bed of laterite they acquire a red colour, which imparts to them
peculiar value. According to Dr W. G. Bleeck, who visited the jade
country of Upper Burma after Noetling, jadeite occurs at three
localities in the Kachin Hills--Tawmaw, Hweka and Mamon. The jadeite
is known as _chauk-sen_, and is sent either to China or to Mandalay,
by way of Bhamo, whence Bhamo has come erroneously to be regarded as a
locality for jade. Jadeite occurs in association with the nephrite of
Turkestan, and possibly in some other Asiatic localities. In certain
cases nephrite is formed by the alteration of jadeite, as shown by
Professor J. P. Iddings. The Chinese _feits'ui_, sometimes called
"imperial jade," is a beautiful green stone, which seems generally to
be jadeite, but it is said that in some cases it may be chrysoprase.
It is named from its resemblance in colour to the plumage of the
kingfisher. The resonant character of jade has led to its occasional
use as a musical stone.
In Mexico, in Central America and in the northern part of South
America, objects of jadeite are common. The Kunz votive adze from
Oaxaca, in Mexico, is now in the American Museum of Natural History,
New York. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico amulets of
green stone were highly venerated, and it is believed that jadeite was
one of the stones prized under the name of _chalchihuitl_. Probably
turquoise was another stone included under this name, and indeed any
green stone capable of being polished, such as the Amazon stone, now
recognized as a green feldspar, may have been numbered among the Aztec
amulets. Dr Kunz suggests that the chalchihuitl was jadeite in
southern Mexico and Central America, and turquoise in northern Mexico
and New Mexico. He thinks that Mexican jadeite may yet be discovered
in places (_Gems and Precious Stones of Mexico_, by G. F. Kunz:
Mexico, 1907).
Chloromelanite is Damour's name for a dense, dark mineral which has
been regarded as a kind of jade, and was used for the manufacture of
celts found in the dolmens of France and in certain Swiss
lake-dwellings. It is a mineral of spinach-green or dark-green colour,
having a specific gravity of 3.4, or even as high as 3.65, and may be
regarded as a variety of jadeite rich in iron. Chloromelanite occurs
in the Cyclops Mountains in New Guinea, and is used for hatchets or
agricultural implements, whilst the sago-clubs of the island are
usually of serpentine. Sillimanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral which,
like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of western
Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of jade. It is an
aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3.2, distinguished by
its infusibility. The _jade tenace_ of J. R. Haüy, discovered by H. B.
de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurite. Among other
substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned prehnite, a
hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished much resembles
certain kinds of jade. Pectolite has been used, like jade, in Alaska.
A variety of vesuvianite (idocrase) from California, described by Dr.
G. F. Kunz as californite, was at first mistaken for jade. The name
jadeolite has been given by Kunz to a green chromiferous syenite from
the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral called bowenite, at one time
supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough variety of serpentine. Some
of the common Chinese ornaments imitating jade are carved in steatite
or serpentine, while others are merely glass. The _pâte de riz_ is a
fine white glass. The so-called "pink jade" is mostly quartz,
artificially coloured, and "black jade," though sometimes mentioned,
has no existence.
An exhaustive description of jade will be found in a sumptuous work,
entitled _Investigations and Studies in Jade_ (New York, 1906). This
work, edited by Dr G. F. Kunz, was prepared in illustration of the
famous jade collection made by Heber Reginald Bishop, and presented
by him to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The work, which is
in two folio volumes, superbly illustrated, was printed privately, and
after 100 copies had been struck off on American hand-made paper, the
type was distributed and the material used for the illustrations was
destroyed. The second volume is a catalogue of the collection, which
comprises 900 specimens arranged in three classes: mineralogical,
archaeological and artistic. The important section on Chinese jade was
contributed by Dr S. W. Bushell, who also translated for the work a
discourse on jade--_Yü-shuo_ by T'ang Jung-tso, of Peking. Reference
should also be made to Heinrich Fischer's _Nephrit und Jadeit_ (2nd
ed., Stuttgart, 1880), a work which at the date of its publication was
almost exhaustive. (F. W. R.*)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] The English use of the word for a worthless, ill-tempered horse,
a "screw," also applied as a term of reproach to a woman, has been
referred doubtfully to the same Spanish source as the O. Sp.
_ijadear_, meaning to pant, of a broken-winded horse.
JAEN, an inland province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts
belonging to Andalusia; bounded on the N. by Ciudad Real and Albacete,
E. by Albacete and Granada, S. by Granada, and W. by Cordova. Pop.
(1900), 474,490; area, 5848 sq. m. Jaen comprises the upper basin of the
river Guadalquivir, which traverses the central districts from east to
west, and is enclosed on the north, south and east by mountain ranges,
while on the west it is entered by the great Andalusian plain. The
Sierra Morena, which divides Andalusia from New Castile, extends along
the northern half of the province, its most prominent ridges being the
Loma de Chiclana and the Loma de Ubeda; the Sierras de Segura, in the
east, derive their name from the river Segura, which rises just within
the border; and between the last-named watershed, its continuation the
Sierra del Pozo, and the parallel Sierra de Cazorla, is the source of
the Guadalquivir. The loftiest summits in the province are those of the
Sierra Magina (7103 ft.) farther west and south. Apart from the
Guadalquivir the only large rivers are its right-hand tributaries the
Jándula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the Guadiana Menor, and
the Segura, which flows east and south to the Mediterranean.
In a region which varies so markedly in the altitude of its surface,
the climate is naturally unequal; and, while the bleak, wind-swept
highlands are only available as sheep-walks, the well-watered and
fertile valleys favour the cultivation of the vine, the olive and all
kinds of cereals. The mineral wealth of Jaen has been known since
Roman times, and mining is an important industry, with its centre at
Lináres. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1903; small quantities of
iron, copper and salt are also obtained. There is some trade in sawn
timber and cloth; esparto fabrics, alcohol and oil are manufactured.
The roads, partly owing to the development of mining, are more
numerous and better kept than in most Spanish provinces. Railway
communication is also very complete in the western districts, as the
main line Madrid-Cordova-Seville passes through them and is joined
south of Lináres by two important railways--from Algeciras and Malaga
on the south-west, and from Almería on the south-east. The eastern
half of Jaen is inaccessible by rail. In the western half are Jaen,
the capital (pop. (1900), 26,434), with Andujar (16,302), Baeza
(14,379), Bailen (7420), Lináres (38,245), Martos (17,078) and Ubeda
(19,913). Other towns of more than 7000 inhabitants are Alcalá la
Real, Alcaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and Porcuna, in the west; and
Cazorla, Quesada, Torredonjimeno, Villacarillo and Villanueva del
Arzobispo, in the east.
JAEN, the capital of the Spanish province of Jaen, on the Lináres-Puente
Genil railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900), 26,434. Jaen is
finely situated on the well-wooded northern slopes of the Jabalcuz
Mountains, overlooking the picturesque valleys of the Jaen and
Guadalbullon rivers, which flow north into the Guadalquivir. The
hillside upon which the narrow and irregular city streets rise in
terraces is fortified with Moorish walls and a Moorish citadel. Jaen is
an episcopal see. Its cathedral was founded in 1532; and, although it
remained unfinished until late in the 18th century, its main
characteristics are those of the Renaissance period. The city contains
many churches and convents, a library, art galleries, theatres, barracks
and hospitals. Its manufactures include leather, soap, alcohol and
linen; and it was formerly celebrated for its silk. There are hot
mineral springs in the mountains, 2 m. south.
The identification of Jaen with the Roman Aurinx, which has sometimes
been suggested, is extremely questionable. After the Moorish conquest
Jaen was an important commercial centre, under the name of Jayyan; and
ultimately became capital of a petty kingdom, which was brought to an
end only in 1246 by Ferdinand III. of Castille, who transferred hither
the bishopric of Baeza in 1248. Ferdinand IV. died at Jaen in 1312. In
1712 the city suffered severely from an earthquake.
JAFARABAD, a state of India, in the Kathiawar agency of Bombay, forming
part of the territory of the nawab of Janjira; area, 42 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 12,097; estimated revenue, £4000. The town of Jafarabad (pop.
6038), situated on the estuary of a river, carries on a large coasting
trade.
JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon, at the northern extremity of the island. The
fort was described by Sir J. Emerson Tennent as "the most perfect little
military work in Ceylon--a pentagon built of blocks of white coral." The
European part of the town bears the Dutch stamp more distinctly than any
other town in the island; and there still exists a Dutch Presbyterian
church. Several of the church buildings date from the time of the
Portuguese. In 1901 Jaffna had a population of 33,879, while in the
district or peninsula of the same name there were 300,851 persons,
nearly all Tamils, the only Europeans being the civil servants and a few
planters. Coco-nut planting has not been successful of recent years. The
natives grow palmyras freely, and have a trade in the fibre of this
palm. They also grow and export tobacco, but not enough rice for their
own requirements. A steamer calls weekly, and there is considerable
trade. The railway extension from Kurunegala due north to Jaffna and the
coast was commenced in 1900. Jaffna is the seat of a government agent
and district judge, and criminal sessions of the supreme court are
regularly held. Jaffna, or, as the natives call it, Yalpannan, was
occupied by the Tamils about 204 B.C., and there continued to be Tamil
rajahs of Jaffna till 1617, when the Portuguese took possession of the
place. As early as 1544 the missionaries under Francis Xavier had made
converts in this part of Ceylon, and after the conquest the Portuguese
maintained their proselytizing zeal. They had a Jesuit college, a
Franciscan and a Dominican monastery. The Dutch drove out the Portuguese
in 1658. The Church of England Missionary Society began its work in
Jaffna in 1818, and the American Missionary Society in 1822.
JÄGER, GUSTAV (1832- ), German naturalist and hygienist, was born at
Bürg in Württemberg on the 23rd of June 1832. After studying medicine at
Tübingen he became a teacher of zoology at Vienna. In 1868 he was
appointed professor of zoology at the academy of Hohenheim, and
subsequently he became teacher of zoology and anthropology at Stuttgart
polytechnic and professor of physiology at the veterinary school. In
1884 he abandoned teaching and started practice as a physician in
Stuttgart. He wrote various works on biological subjects, including _Die
Darwinsche Theorie und ihre Stellung zu Moral und Religion_ (1869),
_Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Zoologie_ (1871-1878), and _Die Entdeckung der
Seele_ (1878). In 1876 he suggested an hypothesis in explanation of
heredity, resembling the germ-plasm theory subsequently elaborated by
August Weismann, to the effect that the germinal protoplasm retains its
specific properties from generation to generation, dividing in each
reproduction into an ontogenetic portion, out of which the individual is
built up, and a phylogenetic portion, which is reserved to form the
reproductive material of the mature offspring. In _Die Normalkleidung
als Gesundheitsschutz_ (1880) he advocated the system of clothing
associated with his name, objecting especially to the use of any kind of
vegetable fibre for clothes.
JÄGERNDORF (Czech, _Krnov_), a town of Austria, in Silesia, 18 m. N.W.
of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,675, mostly German. It is situated
on the Oppa and possesses a château belonging to Prince Liechtenstein,
who holds extensive estates in the district. Jägerndorf has large
manufactories of cloth, woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an
active trade. On the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1420 ft.) are a
church, much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat
of the former princes of Jägerndorf. The claim of Prussia to the
principality of Jägerndorf was the occasion of the first Silesian war
(1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed, Austria retained the
larger portion of it. Jägerndorf suffered severely during the Thirty
Years' War, and was the scene of engagements between the Prussians and
Austrians in May 1745 and in January 1779.
JAGERSFONTEIN, a town in the Orange Free State, 50 m. N.W. by rail of
Springfontein on the trunk line from Cape Town to Pretoria. Pop. (1904),
5657--1293 whites and 4364 coloured persons. Jagersfontein, which
occupies a pleasant situation on the open veld about 4500 ft. above the
sea, owes its existence to the valuable diamond mine discovered here in
1870. The first diamond, a stone of 50 carats, was found in August of
that year, and digging immediately began. The discovery a few weeks
later of the much richer mines at Bultfontein and Du Toits Pan, followed
by the great finds at De Beers and Colesberg Kop (Kimberley) caused
Jagersfontein to be neglected for several years. Up to 1887 the claims
in the mine were held by a large number of individuals, but coincident
with the efforts to amalgamate the interest in the Kimberley mines a
similar movement took place at Jagersfontein, and by 1893 all the claims
became the property of one company, which has a working arrangement with
the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on the open system
and has a depth of 450 ft., yields stones of very fine quality, but the
annual output does not exceed in value £500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft.
deep was sunk with a view to working the mine on the underground system.
Among the famous stones found in the mine are the "Excelsior" (weighing
971 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the "Jubilee"
(see DIAMOND). The town was created a municipality in 1904.
Fourteen miles east of Jagersfontein is Boomplaats, the site of the
battle fought in 1848 between the Boers under A. W. Pretorius and the
British under Sir Harry Smith (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_).
JAGO, RICHARD (1715-1781), English poet, third son of Richard Jago,
rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, was born in 1715. He went up to
University College, Oxford, in 1732, and took his degree in 1736. He was
ordained to the curacy of Snitterfield, Warwickshire, in 1737, and
became rector in 1754; and, although he subsequently received other
preferments, Snitterfield remained his favourite residence. He died
there on the 8th of May 1781. He was twice married. Jago's best-known
poem, _The Blackbirds_, was first printed in Hawkesworth's _Adventurer_
(No. 37, March 13, 1753), and was generally attributed to Gilbert West,
but Jago published it in his own name, with other poems, in R. Dodsley's
_Collection of Poems_ (vol. iv., 1755). In 1767 appeared a topographical
poem, _Edge Hill, or the Rural Prospect delineated and moralized_; two
separate sermons were published in 1755; and in 1768 _Labour and Genius,
a Fable_. Shortly before his death Jago revised his poems, and they were
published in 1784 by his friend, John Scott Hylton, as _Poems Moral and
Descriptive_.
See a notice prefixed to the edition of 1784; A. Chalmers, _English
Poets_ (vol. xvii., 1810); F. L. Colvile, _Warwickshire Worthies_
(1870); some biographical notes are to be found in the letters of
Shenstone to Jago printed in vol. iii. of Shenstone's _Works_ (1769).
JAGUAR (_Felis onca_), the largest species of the _Felidae_ found on the
American continent, where it ranges from Texas through Central and South
America to Patagonia. In the countries which bound its northern limit it
is not frequently met with, but in South America it is quite common, and
Don Felix de Azara states that when the Spaniards first settled in the
district between Montevideo and Santa Fé, as many as two thousand were
killed yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs),
and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara, dogs or
cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes following the
reptiles into the water to effect a capture, it inserts a paw between
the shells and drags out the body of the turtle by means of its sharp
claws. Occasionally after having tasted human flesh, the jaguar becomes
a confirmed man-eater. The cry of this great cat, which is heard at
night, and most frequently during the pairing season, is deep and hoarse
in tone, and consists of the sound _pu, pu_, often repeated. The female
brings forth from two to four cubs towards the close of the year, which
are able to follow their mother in about fifteen days after birth. The
ground colour of the jaguar varies greatly, ranging from white to black,
the rosette markings in the extremes being but faintly visible. The
general or typical coloration is, however, a rich tan upon the head,
neck, body, outside of legs, and tail near the root. The upper part of
the head and sides of the face are thickly marked with small black
spots, and the rest of body is covered with rosettes, formed of rings of
black spots, with a black spot in the centre, and ranged lengthwise
along the body in five to seven rows on each side. These black rings are
heaviest along the back. The lips, throat, breast and belly, the inside
of the legs and the lower sides of tail are pure white, marked with
irregular spots of black, those on the breast being long bars and on the
belly and inside of legs large blotches. The tail has large black spots
near the root, some with light centres, and from about midway of its
length to the tip it is ringed with black. The ears are black behind,
with a large buff spot near the tip. The nose and upper lip are light
rufous brown. The size varies, the total length of a very large specimen
measuring 6 ft. 9 in.; the average length, however, is about 4 ft. from
the nose to root of tail. In form the jaguar is thick-set; it does not
stand high upon its legs; and in comparison with the leopard is heavily
built; but its movements are very rapid, and it is fully as agile as its
more graceful relative. The skull resembles that of the lion and tiger,
but is much broader in proportion to its length, and may be identified
by the presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the orbit. The
species has been divided into a number of local forms, regarded by some
American naturalists as distinct species, but preferably ranked as
sub-species or races.
[Illustration: The Jaguar (_Felis onca_).]
JAGUARONDI, or YAGUARONDI (_Felis jaguarondi_), a South American wild
cat, found in Brazil, Paraguay and Guiana, ranging to north-eastern
Mexico. This relatively small cat, uniformly coloured, is generally of
some shade of brownish-grey, but in some individuals the fur has a
rufous coat, while in others grey predominates. These cats are said by
Don Felix de Azara to keep to cover, without venturing into open places.
They attack tame poultry and also young fawns. The names jaguarondi and
eyra are applied indifferently to this species and _Felis eyra_.
JAHANABAD, a town of British India in Gaya district, Bengal, situated on
a branch of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901), 7018. It was once a
flourishing trading town, and in 1760 it formed one of the eight
branches of the East India Company's central factory at Patna. Since the
introduction of Manchester goods, the trade of the town in cotton cloth
has almost entirely ceased; but large numbers of the Jolaha or
Mahommedan weaver caste live in the neighbourhood.
JAHANGIR, or JEHANGIR (1569-1627), Mogul emperor of Delhi, succeeded his
father Akbar the Great in 1605. His name was Salim, but he assumed the
title of Jahangir, "Conqueror of the World," on his accession. It was in
his reign that Sir Thomas Roe came as ambassador of James I., on behalf
of the English company. He was a dissolute ruler, much addicted to
drunkenness, and his reign is chiefly notable for the influence enjoyed
by his wife Nur Jahan, "the Light of the World." At first she influenced
Jahangir for good, but surrounding herself with her relatives she
aroused the jealousy of the imperial princes; and Jahangir died in 1627
in the midst of a rebellion headed by his son, Khurram or Shah Jahan,
and his greatest general, Mahabat Khan. The tomb of Jahangir is situated
in the gardens of Shahdera on the outskirts of Lahore.
JAHIZ (ABU 'UTHMAN 'AMR IBN BAHR UL-JAHIZ; i.e. "the man the pupils of
whose eyes are prominent") (d. 869), Arabian writer. He spent his life
and devoted himself in Basra chiefly to the study of polite literature.
A Mu'tazilite in his religious beliefs, he developed a system of his own
and founded a sect named after him. He was favoured by Ibn uz-Zaiyat,
the vizier of the caliph Wathiq.
His work, the _Kitab ul-Bayan wat-Tabyin_, a discursive treatise on
rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The
_Kitab ul-Mahasin wal-Addad_ was edited by G. van Vloten as _Le Livre
des beautés et des antithèses_ (Leiden, 1898); the _Kitab ul-Bu-hala_.
_Le Livre des avares_, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1900); two other
smaller works, the _Excellences of the Turks_ and the _Superiority in
Glory of the Blacks over the Whites_, also prepared by the same. The
_Kitab ul-Hayawan,_ or "Book of Animals," a philological and literary,
not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906). (G. W. T.)
JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778-1852), German pedagogue and patriot,
commonly called _Turnvater_ ("Father of Gymnastics"), was born in Lanz
on the 11th of August 1778. He studied theology and philology from 1796
to 1802 at Halle, Göttingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the
Prussian army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at
the Gymnasium zum Grauen as well as at the Plamann School. Brooding upon
the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon, he conceived the idea of
restoring the spirits of his countrymen by the development of their
physical and moral powers through the practice of gymnastics. The first
_Turnplatz_, or open-air gymnasium, was opened by him at Berlin in 1811,
and the movement spread rapidly, the young gymnasts being taught to
regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the emancipation of
their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was nourished in no small degree
by the writings of Jahn. Early in 1813 he took an active part at Breslau
in the formation of the famous corps of Lützow, a battalion of which he
commanded, though during the same period he was often employed in secret
service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was appointed
state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader in the formation of
the student _Burschenschaften_ (patriotic fraternities) in Jena.
A man of democratic nature, rugged, honest, eccentric and outspoken,
Jahn often came into collision with the reactionary spirit of the time,
and this conflict resulted in 1819 in the closing of the _Turnplatz_ and
the arrest of Jahn himself. Kept in semi-confinement at the fortress of
Kolberg until 1824, he was then sentenced to imprisonment for two years;
but this sentence was reversed in 1825, though he was forbidden to live
within ten miles of Berlin. He therefore took up his residence at
Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the
exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to Cölleda on a
charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by the Prussian government
with the Iron Cross for bravery in the wars against Napoleon. In the
spring of 1848 he was elected by the district of Naumburg to the German
National Parliament. Jahn died on the 15th of October 1852 in Freyburg,
where a monument was erected in his honour in 1859.
Among his works are the following: _Bereicherung des hochdeutschen
Sprachschatzes_ (Leipzig, 1806), _Deutsches Volksthum_ (Lübeck, 1810),
_Runenblätter_ (Frankfort, 1814), _Neue Runenblätter_ (Naumburg,
1828), _Merke zum deutschen Volksthum_ (Hildburghausen, 1833), and
_Selbstvertheidigung_ (Vindication) (Leipzig, 1863). A complete
edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography
by Schultheiss (Berlin, 1894), and _Jahn als Erzieher_, by Friedrich
(Munich, 1895).
JAHN, JOHANN (1750-1816), German Orientalist, was born at Tasswitz,
Moravia, on the 18th of June 1750. He studied philosophy at Olmütz, and
in 1772 began his theological studies at the Premonstratensian convent
of Bruck, near Znaim. Having been ordained in 1775, he for a short time
held a cure at Mislitz, but was soon recalled to Bruck as professor of
Oriental languages and Biblical hermeneutics. On the suppression of the
convent by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmütz, and
in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental languages,
biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 he published his _Einleitung
ins Alte Testament_ (2 vols.), which soon brought him into trouble; the
cardinal-archbishop of Vienna laid a complaint against him for having
departed from the traditional teaching of the Church, e.g. by asserting
Job, Jonah, Tobit and Judith to be didactic poems, and the cases of
demoniacal possession in the New Testament to be cases of dangerous
disease. An ecclesiastical commission reported that the views themselves
were not necessarily heretical, but that Jahn had erred in showing too
little consideration for the views of German Catholic theologians in
coming into conflict with his bishop, and in raising difficult problems
by which the unlearned might be led astray. He was accordingly advised
to modify his expressions in future. Although he appears honestly to
have accepted this judgment, the hostility of his opponents did not
cease until at last (1806) he was compelled to accept a canonry at St
Stephen's, Vienna, which involved the resignation of his chair. This
step had been preceded by the condemnation of his _Introductio in libros
sacros veteris foederis in compendium redacta_, published in 1804, and
also of his _Archaeologia biblica in compendium redacta_ (1805). The
only work of importance, outside the region of mere philology,
afterwards published by him, was the _Enchiridion Hermeneuticae_ (1812).
He died on the 16th of August 1816.
Besides the works already mentioned, he published _Hebräische
Sprachlehre für Anfänger_ (1792); _Aramäische od. Chaldäische u.
Syrische Sprachlehre für Anfänger_(1793); _Arabische Sprachlehre_
(1796); _Elementarbuch der hebr. Sprache_ (1799); _Chaldäische
Chrestomathie_ (1800); _Arabische Chrestomathie_ (1802); _Lexicon
arabico-latinum chrestomathiae accommodatum_ (1802); an edition of
the Hebrew Bible (1806); _Grammatica linguae hebraicae_ (1809); a
critical commentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament
(_Vaticinia prophetarum de Jesu Messia_, 1815). In 1821 a collection
of _Nachträge_ appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical
subjects. The English translation of the _Archaeologia_ by T. C. Upham
(1840) has passed through several editions.
JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist, and writer on
art and music, was born at Kiel on the 16th of June 1813. After the
completion of his university studies at Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he
travelled for three years in France and Italy; in 1839 he became
privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842 professor-extraordinary of archaeology
and philology at Greifswald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he
accepted the chair of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived
in 1851 for having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849.
In 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and
director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he was called
to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at Göttingen, on the 9th of
September 1869.
The following are the most important of his works: 1. Archaeological:
_Palamedes_ (1836); _Telephos u. Troilos_ (1841); _Die Gemälde des
Polygnot_ (1841); _Pentheus u. die Mänaden_ (1841); _Paris u. Oinone_
(1844); _Die hellenische Kunst_ (1846); _Peitho, die Göttin der
Überredung_ (1847); _Über einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils_
(1849); _Die Ficoronische Cista_ (1852); _Pausaniae descriptio arcis
Athenarum_ (3rd ed., 1901); _Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf
Vasenbildern_ (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal,
Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893); Censorinus
(1845); Florus (1852); Cicero's _Brutus_ (4th ed., 1877); and _Orator_
(3rd ed., 1869); the _Periochae_ of Livy (1853); the _Psyche et
Cupido_ of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867;
3rd ed. by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: _Üeber
Mendelssohn's Paulus_ (1842); _Biographie Mozarts_, a work of
extraordinary labour, and of great importance for the history of music
(3rd ed. by H. Disters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend,
1891); _Ludwig Uhland_ (1863); _Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik_
(1866); _Biographische Aufsätze_ (1866). His _Griechische
Bilderchroniken_ was published after his death, by his nephew A.
Michaelis, who has written an exhaustive biography in _Allgemeine
Deutsche Biographie_, xiii.; see also J. Vahlen, _Otto Jahn_ (1870);
C. Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_.
JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars, S.E. of
Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has thirty-three villages and is
famous for its celebrated _sháhán_ dates, which are exported in great
quantities; it also produces much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is
scanty, and most of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The
town of Jahrum, situated about 90 m. S.E. of Shiraz, is surrounded by a
mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It has a
population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the other half
outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of the surrounding
districts, has six caravanserais and a post office.
JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or
nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in India. They are
found in every province of upper Hindustan, in the cities along the
Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are more numerous to the west--in
Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper part of the Malabar coast--and are also
scattered throughout the whole of the southern peninsula. They are
mostly traders, and live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their
community gives them a social importance greater than would result from
their mere numbers. In the Indian census of 1901 they are returned as
being 1,334,140 in number. Their magnificent series of temples and
shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven wonders of India, is perhaps the
most striking outward sign of their wealth and importance.
The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent of India
of those schools of thought which grew out of the active philosophical
speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry that prevailed in
the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and 6th centuries before the
Christian era. For many centuries Jainism was so overshadowed by that
stupendous movement, born at the same time and in the same place, which
we call Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its
powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors had absorbed
the mass of the community, became thereby corrupted from its pristine
purity and gradually died away, the smaller school of the Jains, less
diametrically opposed to the victorious orthodox creed of the Brahmans,
survived, and in some degree took its place.
Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by Vaddhamana,
better known by his epithet of Maha-vira (the great hero), who was a
contemporary of Gotama, the Buddha. But the Jains, like the Buddhists,
believe that the same system had previously been proclaimed through
countless ages by each one of a succession of earlier teachers. The
Jains count twenty-four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or
Tirthankaras, that is, conquerors or leaders of schools of thought. It
is from this word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of
the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-four
Jinas contains a germ of truth. Maha-vira was not an originator; he
merely carried on, with but slight changes, a system which existed
before his time, and which probably owes its most distinguishing
features to a teacher named Parswa, who ranks in the succession of Jinas
as the predecessor of Maha-vira. Parswa is said, in the Jain chronology,
to have been born two hundred years before Maha-vira (that is, about 760
B.C.); but the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this
statement is that Parswa was considerably earlier in point of time than
Maha-vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported
in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the
twenty-four Tirthankaras. The curious will find in them many
reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the antiquary must
notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in order to recognize
the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise identical, in the
different Jain temples.
The Jains are divided into two great parties--the _Digambaras_, or
Sky-clad Ones, and the _Svetambaras_, or the White-robed Ones. The
latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubtfully, as far back as
the 5th century after Christ; the former are almost certainly the same
as the Niganthas, who are referred to in numerous passages of the
Buddhist Pali Pitakas, and must therefore be at least as old as the 6th
century B.C. In many of these passages the Niganthas are mentioned as
contemporaneous with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning
their leader Nigantha Nata-putta (that is, the Nigantha of the Jñatrika
clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, as the same
person as the Vaddhamana Maha-vira of the Jain books. This remarkable
confirmation, from the scriptures of a rival religion, of the Jain
tradition is conclusive as to the date of Maha-vira. The Niganthas are
referred to in one of Asoka's edicts (_Corpus Inscriptionum_, Plate
xx.). Unfortunately the account of the teachings of Nigantha Nata-putta
given in the Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's
teachings given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre.
_Jain Literature._--The Jain scriptures themselves, though based on
earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the 5th
century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are called the
forty-five Agamas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve Upangas, ten
Pakinnakas, six Chedas, four Mula-sutras and two other books. Devaddhi
Ganin, who occupies among the Jains a position very similar to that
occupied among the Buddhists by Buddhaghosa, collected the then
existing traditions and teachings of the sect into these forty-five
Agamas. Like the Buddhist scriptures, the earlier Jain books are
written in a dialect of their own, the so-called Jaina Prakrit; and it
was not till between A.D. 1000 and 1100 that the Jains adopted
Sanskrit as their literary language. Considerable progress has been
made in the publication and elucidation of these original authorities.
But a great deal remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the
possession of the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the
foundation of the existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to
the time of Bhadrabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still
older literature, on which the revision then made was based, the
so-called _Purvas_, have been lost. And the existing canonical books,
while preserving a great deal that was probably derived from them,
contain much later material. The problem remains to sort out the older
from the later, to distinguish between the earlier form of the faith
and its subsequent developments, and to collect the numerous data for
the general, social, industrial, religious and political history of
India. Professor Weber gave a fairly full and carefully-drawn-up
analysis of the whole of the more ancient books in the second part of
the second volume of his _Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. at Berlin_,
published in 1888, and in vols. xvi. and xvii. of his _Indische
Studien_. An English translation of these last was published first in
the _Indian Antiquary_, and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor
Bhandarkar gave an account of the contents of many later works in his
_Report on the Search for Sanskrit MSS._, Bombay, 1883. Only a small
beginning has been made in editing and translating these works. The
best _précis_ of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more
important features in it. And in the choice of what should be included
the _précis_-writer will often omit the points some subsequent
investigator may most especially want. All the older works ought
therefore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed.
The Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition of
their sacred books. But the critical value of this edition, and of
other editions of separate texts printed elsewhere in India, leaves
much to be desired. Professor Jacobi has edited and translated the
_Kalpa Sutra_, containing a life of the founder of the Jain order; but
this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. He has
also edited and translated the _Ayaranya Sutta_ of the Svetambara
Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages
octavo. The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document
on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of
appendices, added at different times, on the same subject. The older
part may go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets out
more especially the Jain doctrine of _tapas_ or self-mortification, in
contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism.
The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. Dr
Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the rules of
conduct for laymen, the _Uvasaga Dasao_.[1] Professor Leumann edited
another of the older works, the _Aupapatika Sutra_, and a fourth,
entitled the _Dasa-vaikalika Satra_, both of them published by the
German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more, the
_Uttaradhyayana_ and the _Sutra Kritanga_.[2] Finally Dr Barnett has
translated two others in vol. xvii. of the _Oriental Translation Fund_
(new series, London, 1907). Thus about one-fiftieth part of these
interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the European
scholar. The sect of the Svetambaras has preserved the oldest
literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of the sect
in the _Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ for 1898.
Several scholars--notably Bhagvanlal Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and
Hofrath Bühler[3]--have treated of the remarkable archaeological
discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many
details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the
Christian era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated
parts of India.
_Jainism._--The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of Maha-vira and
of his earliest followers was their practice of going quite naked,
whence the term _Digambara_. Against this custom, Gotama, the Buddha,
especially warned his followers; and it is referred to in the well-known
Greek phrase, _Gymnosophist_, used already by Megasthenes, which applies
very aptly to the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigantha, which
means "free from bonds," may not be without allusions to this curious
belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to freedom
from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues of the Jinas in
the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous size, are still always
quite naked; but the Jains themselves have abandoned the practice, the
Digambaras being sky-clad at meal-time only, and the Svetambaras being
always completely clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the
recluses or _Yatis_, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out this
practice. The Jain laity--the _Sravakas_, or disciples--do not adopt it.
The Jain views of life were, in the most important and essential
respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The two orders,
Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first, independent, but
directly opposed the one to the other. In philosophy the Jains are the
most thorough-going supporters of the old animistic position. Nearly
everything, according to them, has a soul within its outward visible
shape--not only men and animals, but also all plants, and even particles
of earth, and of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The
Buddhist theory, as is well known, is put together without the
hypothesis of "soul" at all. The word the Jains use for soul is _jiva_,
which means life; and there is much analogy between many of the
expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and atoms are
all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They regard good and evil
and space as ultimate substances which come into direct contact with the
minute souls in everything. And their best-known position in regard to
the points most discussed in philosophy is _Syad-vada_, the doctrine
that you may say "Yes" and at the same time "No" to everything. You can
affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point of view,
and at the same time deny it from another; or, at different times and in
different connexions, you may one day affirm it and another day deny it.
This position both leads to vagueness of thought and explains why
Jainism has had so little influence over other schools of philosophy in
India. On the other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of
asceticism (_tapas_) as they were compromising in their views of
philosophy. Any injury done to the "souls" being one of the worst of
iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed, the most
austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash his teeth, for
fear of injuring living things. "Subdue the body, chastise thyself,
weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood." It was by suppressing,
through such self-torture, the influence on his soul of all sensations
that the Jain could obtain salvation. It is related of the founder
himself, the Maha-vira, that after twelve years' penance he thus
obtained Nirvana (Jacobi, _Jaina Sutras_, i. 201) before he entered upon
his career as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died
at Pava, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit of
continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other hand, obtained
Nirvana in his 35th year, under the Bo tree, after he had abandoned
penance; and through the rest of his life he spoke of penance as quite
useless from his point of view.
There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is a great
deal of information on various points in the introductions to the works
referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best authority on the
history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction between the Maha-vira
and the Buddha: "Maha-vira was rather of the ordinary class of religious
men in India. He may be allowed a talent for religious matters, but he
possessed not the genius which Buddha undoubtedly had.... The Buddha's
philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas, whilst that
of Maha-vira scarcely forms a system, but is merely a sum of opinions
(_pannattis_) on various subjects, no fundamental ideas being there to
uphold the mass of metaphysical matter. Besides this ... it is the
ethical element that gives to the Buddhist writings their superiority
over those of the Jains. Maha-vira treated ethics as corollary and
subordinate to his metaphysics, with which he was chiefly concerned."
ADDITIONAL AUTHORITIES.--Bhadrabahu's _Kalpa Sutra_, the recognized
and popular manual of the Svetambara Jains, edited with English
introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hemacandra's "Yoga
S'astram," edited by Windisch, in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morg.
Ges._ for 1874; "Zwei Jaina Stotra," edited in the _Indische Studien_,
vol. xv.; _Ein Fragment der Bhagavati_, by Professor Weber; _Mémoires
de l'Académie de Berlin_ (1866); _Nirayavaliya Sutta_, edited by Dr
Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam, 1879); _Over de
godsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jainas_, by Dr Warren (his
doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); _Beiträge zur Grammatik des
Jaina-prakrit_, by Dr Edward Müller (Berlin, 1876); Colebrooke's
_Essays_, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account of the Jain
Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in Fergusson and
Burgess's _Cave Temples in India_ (London, 1880).
See also Hopkins' _Religions of India_ (London, 1896), pp. 280-96, and
J. G. Bühler _On the Indian Sect of the Jainas_, edited by J. Burgess
(London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Published in the _Bibliotheca Indica_, Calcutta, 1888.
[2] These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and
ii. of his _Jaina Sutras_, published in the _Sacred Books of the
East_ (1884, 1895).
[3] The _Hatthi Gumpha_ and three other inscriptions at Cuttack
(Leyden, 1885); _Sravana Belgola_ inscriptions (Bangalore, 1889);
_Vienna Oriental Journal_, vols. ii.-v.; _Epigraphia Indica_, vols.
i-vii.
JAIPUR, or JEYPORE, a city and native state of India in the Rajputana
agency. The city is a prosperous place of comparatively recent date. It
derives its name from the famous Maharaja Jai Singh II., who founded it
in 1728. It is built of pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is
remarkable for the width and regularity of its streets. It is the only
city in India that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and it is divided
by cross streets into six equal portions. The main streets are 111 ft.
wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The regularity of
plan, and the straight streets with the houses all built after the same
pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the East, while the painted mud
walls of the houses give it the meretricious air of stage scenery. The
huge palace of the maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another
noteworthy building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are
in metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded in
1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community of native
bankers. The city has three colleges and several hospitals. Pop. (1901),
160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur was Amber.
The STATE OF JAIPUR, which takes its name from the city, has a total
area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,658,666, showing a decrease of 6%
in the decade. The estimated revenue is £430,000, and the tribute
£27,000. The centre of the state is a sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft.
above sea-level, bounded on the E. by ranges of hills running north and
south. On the N. and W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an
offshoot of the Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert
of Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more or less
covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fuel. Towards the S.
and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is largely manufactured and
exported from the Sambhar lake, which is worked by the government of
India under an arrangement with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It
yields salt of a very high quality. The state is traversed by the
Rajputana railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi.
The maharaja of Jaipur belongs to the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs, claiming
descent from Rama, king of Ajodhya. The state is said to have been
founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from Gwalior, who with his Kachwahas is
said to have absorbed or driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house
furnished to the Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among
them were Man Singh, who fought in Orissa and Assam; Jai Singh,
commonly known by his imperial title of Mirza Raja, whose name appears
in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan; and Jai Singh II., or Sawai
Jai Singh, the famous mathematician and astronomer, and the founder of
Jaipur city. Towards the end of the 18th century the Jats of Bharatpur
and the chief of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of
Jaipur. By the end of the century the state was in great confusion,
distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions of the
Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur and Jodhpur had
brought both states to the verge of ruin, and Amir Khan with the
Pindaris was exhausting the country. By a treaty in 1818 the protection
of the British was extended to Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In
1835 there was a serious disturbance in the city, after which the
British government took measures to insist upon order and to reform the
administration as well as to support its effective action; and the state
has gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the Mutiny of
1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way that lay in his
power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C.V.O., was born in 1861, and
succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished for his enlightened
administration and his patronage of art. He was one of the princes who
visited England at the time of King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was
he who started and endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards
increased to 20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the "Indian People's Famine
Fund." The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service in the
Chitral and Tirah campaigns.
JAISALMER, or JEYSULMERE, a town and native state of India in the
Rajputana agency. The town stands on a ridge of yellowish sandstone,
crowned by a fort, which contains the palace and several ornate Jain
temples. Many of the houses and temples are finely sculptured. Pop.
(1901), 7137. The area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 73,370, showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a
consequence of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000; there is no
tribute. Jaisalmer is almost entirely a sandy waste, forming a part of
the great Indian desert. The general aspect of the country is that of an
interminable sea of sandhills, of all shapes and sizes, some rising to a
height of 150 ft. Those in the west are covered with _phog_ bushes,
those in the east with tufts of long grass. Water is scarce, and
generally brackish; the average depth of the wells is said to be about
250 ft. There are no perennial streams, and only one small river, the
Kakni, which, after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large
surface of flat ground, and forms a lake or _jhil_ called the Bhuj-Jhil.
The climate is dry and healthy. Throughout Jaisalmer only rain-crops,
such as _bajra_, _joar_, _moth_, _til_, &c., are grown; spring crops of
wheat, barley, &c., are very rare. Owing to the scant rainfall,
irrigation is almost unknown.
The main part of the population lead a wandering life, grazing their
flocks and herds. Large herds of camels, horned cattle, sheep and
goats are kept. The principal trade is in wool, _ghi_, camels, cattle
and sheep. The chief imports are grain, sugar, foreign cloth,
piece-goods, &c. Education is at a low ebb. Jain priests are the chief
schoolmasters, and their teaching is elementary. The ruler of
Jaisalmer is styled _maharawal_. The state suffered from famine in
1897, 1900 and other years, to such an extent that it has had to incur
a heavy debt for extraordinary expenditure. There are no railways.
The majority of the inhabitants are Bhatti Rajputs, who take their
name from an ancestor named Bhatti, renowned as a warrior when the
tribe were located in the Punjab. Shortly after this the clan was
driven southwards, and found a refuge in the Indian desert, which was
thenceforth its home. Deoraj, a famous prince of the Bhatti family, is
esteemed the real founder of the present Jaisalmer dynasty, and with
him the title of _rawal_ commenced. In 1156 Jaisal, the sixth in
succession from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jaisalmer, and
made it his capital. In 1294 the Bhattis so enraged the emperor
Ala-ud-din that his army captured and sacked the fort and city of
Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite deserted. After this
there is nothing to record till the time of Rawal Sabal Singh, whose
reign marks an epoch in Bhatti history in that he acknowledged the
supremacy of the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan. The Jaisalmer princes had
now arrived at the height of their power, but from this time till the
accession of Rawal Mulraj in 1762 the fortunes of the state rapidly
declined, and most of its outlying provinces were lost. In 1818 Mulraj
entered into political relations with the British. Maharawal
Salivahan, born in 1887, succeeded to the chief ship in 1891.
JAJCE (pronounced _Yaïtse_), a town of Bosnia, situated on the Pliva and
Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway from Serajevo, 62
m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce occupies a conical hill,
overlooking one of the finest waterfalls in Europe, where the Pliva
rushes down into the Vrbas, 100 ft. below. The 14th century citadel
which crowns this hill is said to have been built for Hrvoje, duke of
Spalato, on the model of the Castel del' Uovo at Naples; but the
resemblance is very slight, and although both _jajce_ and _uovo_ signify
"an egg," the town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill.
The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evangelist's
burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the 15th
century. Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish fort of
Djöl-Hissar, or "the Lake-Fort." In this neighbourhood a line of
waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches for several miles,
enclosed by steep rocks and forest-clad mountains. The power supplied by
the main fall, at Jajce, is used for industrial purposes, but the beauty
of the town remains unimpaired.
From 1463 to 1528 Jajce was the principal outwork of eastern Christendom
against the Turks. Venice contributed money for its defence, and Hungary
provided armies; while the pope entreated all Christian monarchs to
avert its fall. In 1463 Mahomet II. had seized more than 75 Bosnian
fortresses, including Jajce itself; and the last independent king of
Bosnia, Stephen Tomasevic, had been beheaded, or, according to one
tradition, flayed alive, before the walls of Jajce, on a spot still
called _Kraljeva Polje_, the "King's Field." His coffin and skeleton are
still displayed in St Luke's Church. The Hungarians, under King Matthias
I., came to the rescue, and reconquered the greater part of Bosnia
during the same year; and, although Mahomet returned in 1464, he was
again defeated at Jajce, and compelled to flee before another Hungarian
advance. In 1467 Hungarian bans, or military governors, were appointed
to rule in north-west Bosnia, and in 1472 Matthias appointed Nicolaus
Ujlaki king of the country, with Jajce for his capital. This kingdom
lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in 1492,
its rulers only bore the title of _ban_, and of _vojvod_. In 1500 the
Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the Hungarians under
John Corvinus; and several other attacks were repelled between 1520 and
1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian power was destroyed at Mohács; and in
1528 Jajce was forced to surrender.
See Bräss, "Jajce, die alte Königstadt Bosniens," in _Deutsche geog.
Blätter_, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899).
JAJPUR, or JAJPORE, a town of British India, in Cuttack district,
Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river. Pop. (1901),
12,111. It was the capital of Orissa under the Kesari dynasty until the
11th century, when it was superseded by Cuttack. In Jajpur are numerous
ruins of temples, sculptures, &c., and a large and beautiful sun pillar.
JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1759-1827), German economist, was born at
Wettin on the 26th of February 1759. In 1777 he entered the university
of Halle. In 1780 he was appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and in 1791
professor of philosophy at the university. The suppression of the
university of Halle having been decreed by Napoleon, Jakob betook
himself to Russia, where in 1807 he was appointed professor of political
economy at Kharkoff, and in 1809 a member of the government commission
to inquire into the finances of the empire. In the following year he
became president of the commission for the revision of criminal law, and
he at the same time obtained an important office in the finance
department, with the rank of counsellor of state; but in 1816 he
returned to Halle to occupy the chair of political economy. He died at
Lauchstädt on the 22nd of July 1827.
Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle Jakob
had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical than the
speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at Halle
_Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie_, in which he was the first to
advocate in Germany the necessity of a distinct science dealing
specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other
works are _Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik_ (Halle, 1788); _Grundsätze
der Polizeigesetzgebung und Polizeianstalten_ (Leipzig, 1809);
_Einleitung in das Studium der Staatswissenschaften_ (Halle, 1819);
_Entwurf eines Criminalgesetzbuchs für das russische Reich_ (Halle,
1818) and _Staatsfinanzwissenschaft_ (2 vols., Halle, 1821).
JAKOVA (also written DIAKOVA, GYAKOVO and GJAKOVICA), a town of Albania,
European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo; on the river Erenik, a
right-hand tributary of the White Drin. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Jakova
is the chief town of the Alpine region which extends from the
Montenegrin frontier to the Drin and White Drin. This region has never
been thoroughly explored, or brought under effective Turkish rule, on
account of the inaccessible character of its mountains and forests, and
the lawlessness of its inhabitants--a group of two Roman Catholic and
three Moslem tribes, known collectively as the Malsia Jakovs, whose
official representative resides in Jakova.
JAKUNS, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula. They have become much
mixed with other tribes, and are found throughout the south of the
peninsula and along the coasts. The purest types are straight-haired,
exhibit marked Mongolian characteristics and are closely related to the
Malays. They are probably a branch of the Pre-Malays, the "savage
Malays" of A. R. Wallace. They are divided into two groups: (1) Jakuns
of the jungle, (2) Jakuns of the sea or Orang Laut. The latter set of
tribes now comprise the remnants of the pirates or "sea-gipsies" of the
Malaccan straits. The Jakuns, who must be studied in conjunction with
the other aboriginal peoples of the Malay Peninsula, the Semangs and the
Sakais, are not so dwarfish as those. The head is round; the skin varies
from olive-brown to dark copper; the face is flat and the lower jaw
square. The nose is thick and short, with wide, open nostrils. The
cheekbones are high and well marked. The hair has a blue-black tint,
eyes are black and the beard is scanty. The Jakuns live a wild forest
life, and in general habits much resemble the Sakai, being but little in
advance of the latter in social conditions except where they come into
close contact with the Malay peoples.
JALALABAD, or JELLALABAD, a town and province of Afghanistan. The town
lies at a height of 1950 ft. in a plain on the south side of the Kabul
river, 96 m. from Kabul and 76 from Peshawar. Estimated pop., 4000.
Between it and Peshawar intervenes the Khyber Pass, and between it and
Kabul the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd Kabul, &c. The site was chosen by
the emperor Baber, and he laid out some gardens here; but the town
itself was built by his grandson Akbar in A.D. 1560. It resembles the
city of Kabul on a smaller scale, and has one central bazaar, the
streets generally being very narrow. The most notable episode in the
history of the place is the famous defence by Sir Robert Sale during the
first Afghan war, when he held the town from November 1841 to April
1842. On its evacuation in 1842 General Pollock destroyed the defences,
but they were rebuilt in 1878. The town is now fortified, surrounded by
a high wall with bastions and loopholes. The province of Jalalabad is
about 80 m. in length by 35 in width, and includes the large district of
Laghman north of the Kabul river, as well as that on the south called
Ningrahar. The climate of Jalalabad is similar to that of Peshawar. As a
strategical centre Jalalabad is one of the most important positions in
Afghanistan, for it dominates the entrances to the Laghman and the Kunar
valleys; commanding routes to Chitral or India north of the Khyber, as
well as the Kabul-Peshawar road.
JALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous roots of _Ipomaea
Purga_, a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern declivities of
the Mexican Andes at an elevation of 5000 to 8000 ft. above the level of
the sea, more especially about the neighbourhood of Chiconquiaco, and
near San Salvador on the eastern slope of the Cofre de Perote. Jalap has
been known in Europe since the beginning of the 17th century, and
derives its name from the city of Jalapa in Mexico, near which it grows,
but its botanical source was not accurately determined until 1829, when
Dr. J. R. Coxe of Philadelphia published a description and coloured
figure taken from living plants sent him two years previously from
Mexico. The jalap plant has slender herbaceous twining stems, with
alternately placed heart-shaped pointed leaves and salver-shaped deep
purplish-pink flowers. The underground stems are slender and creeping;
their vertical roots enlarge and form turnip-shaped tubers. The roots
are dug up in Mexico throughout the year, and are suspended to dry in a
net over the hearth of the Indians' huts, and hence acquire a smoky
odour. The large tubers are often gashed to cause them to dry more
quickly. In their form they vary from spindle-shaped to ovoid or
globular, and in size from a pigeon's egg to a man's fist. Externally
they are brown and marked with small transverse paler scars, and
internally they present a dirty white resinous or starchy fracture. The
ordinary drug is distinguished in commerce as Vera Cruz jalap, from the
name of the port whence it is shipped.
[Illustration: Jalap (_Ipomaea Purga_); about half natural size.]
Jalap has been cultivated for many years in India, chiefly at
Ootacamund, and grows there as easily as a yam, often producing clusters
of tubers weighing over 9 lb.; but these, as they differ in appearance
from the commercial article, have not as yet obtained a place in the
English market. They are found, however, to be rich in resin, containing
18%. In Jamaica also the plant has been grown, at first amongst the
cinchona trees, but more recently in new ground, as it was found to
exhaust the soil.
Besides Mexican or Vera Cruz jalap, a drug called Tampico jalap has been
imported for some years in considerable quantity. It has a much more
shrivelled appearance and paler colour than ordinary jalap, and lacks
the small transverse scars present in the true drug. This kind of jalap,
the Purga de Sierra Gorda of the Mexicans, was traced by Hanbury to
_Ipomaea simulans_. It grows in Mexico along the mountain range of the
Sierra Gorda in the neighbourhood of San Luis de la Paz, from which
district it is carried down to Tampico, whence it is exported. A third
variety of jalap known as woody jalap, male jalap, or Orizaba root, or
by the Mexicans as Purgo macho, is derived from _Ipomaea orizabensis_, a
plant of Orizaba. The root occurs in fibrous pieces, which are usually
rectangular blocks of irregular shape, 2 in. or more in diameter, and
are evidently portions of a large root. It is only occasionally met with
in commerce.
The dose of jalap is from five to twenty grains, the British
Pharmacopeia directing that it must contain from 9 to 11% of the resin,
which is given in doses of two to five grains. One preparation of this
drug is in common use, the _Pulvis Jalapae Compositus_, which consists
of 5 parts of jalap, 9 of cream of tartar, and 1 of ginger. The dose is
from 20 grains to a drachm. It is best given in the maximum dose which
causes the minimum of irritation.
The chief constituents of jalap resin are two glucosides--_convolvulin_
and _jalapin_--sugar, starch and gum. Convolvulin constitutes nearly
20% of the resin. It is insoluble in ether, and is more active than
jalapin. It is not used separately in medicine. Jalapin is present in
about the same proportions. It dissolves readily in ether, and has a
soft resinous consistence. It may be given in half-grain doses. It is
the active principle of the allied drug _scammony_. According to Mayer,
the formula of convolvulin is C34H50O16, and that of jalapin C31H50O16.
Jalap is a typical hydragogue purgative, causing the excretion of more
fluid than scammony, but producing less stimulation of the muscular
wall of the bowel. For both reasons it is preferable to scammony. It
was shown by Professor Rutherford at Edinburgh to be a powerful
secretory cholagogue, an action possessed by few hydragogue purgatives.
The stimulation of the liver is said to depend upon the solution of the
resin by the intestinal secretion. The drug is largely employed in
cases of Bright's disease and dropsy from any cause, being especially
useful when the liver shares in the general venous congestion. It is
not much used in ordinary constipation.
JALAPA, XALAPA, or HALAPA, a city of the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 70
m. by rail N.W. of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop. (1900), 20,388. It is
picturesquely situated on the slopes of the sierra which separates the
central plateau from the _tierra caliente_ of the Gulf Coast, at an
elevation of 4300 ft., and with the Cofre de Perote behind it rising to
a height of 13,419 ft. Its climate is cool and healthy and the town is
frequented in the hot season by the wealthier residents of Vera Cruz.
The city is well built, in the old Spanish style. Among its public
buildings are a fine old church, a Franciscan convent founded by Cortez
in 1556, and three hospitals, one of which, that of San Juan de Dios,
dates from colonial times. The neighbouring valleys and slopes are
fertile, and in the forests of this region is found the plant (jalap),
which takes its name from the place. Jalapa was for a time the capital
of the state, but its political and commercial importance has declined
since the opening of the railway between Vera Cruz and the city of
Mexico. It manufactures pottery and leather.
JALAUN, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad division
of the United Provinces. Pop. of town (1901), 8573. Formerly it was the
residence of a Mahratta governor, but never the headquarters of the
district, which are at Orai.
The DISTRICT OF JALAUN has an area of 1477 sq. m. It lies entirely
within the level plain of Bundelkhand, north of the hill country, and is
almost surrounded by the Jumna and its tributaries the Betwa and Pahuj.
The central region thus enclosed is a dead level of cultivated land,
almost destitute of trees, and sparsely dotted with villages. The
southern portion presents almost one unbroken sheet of cultivation. The
boundary rivers form the only interesting feature in Jalaun. The river
Non flows through the centre of the district, which it drains by
innumerable small ravines instead of watering. Jalaun has suffered much
from the noxious _kans_ grass, owing to the spread of which many
villages have been abandoned and their lands thrown out of cultivation.
Pop. (1901), 399,726, showing an increase of 1%. The two largest towns
are Kunch (15,888), and Kalpi (10,139). The district is traversed by the
line of the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore. A small part
of it is watered by the Betwa canal. Grain, oil-seeds, cotton and _ghi_
are exported.
In early times Jalaun seems to have been the home of two Rajput clans,
the Chandels in the east and the Kachwahas in the west. The town of
Kalpi on the Jumna was conquered for the princes of Ghor as early as
1196. Early in the 14th century the Bundelas occupied the greater part
of Jalaun, and even succeeded in holding the fortified post of Kalpi.
That important possession was soon recovered by the Mussulmans, and
passed under the sway of the Mogul emperors. Akbar's governors at Kalpi
maintained a nominal authority over the surrounding district; and the
Bundela chiefs were in a state of chronic revolt, which culminated in
the war of independence under Chhatar Sal. On the outbreak of his
rebellion in 1671 he occupied a large province to the south of the
Jumna. Setting out from this basis, and assisted by the Mahrattas, he
reduced the whole of Bundelkhand. On his death he bequeathed one-third
of his dominions to his Mahratta allies, who before long succeeded in
annexing the whole of Bundelkhand. Under Mahratta rule the country was a
prey to constant anarchy and intestine strife. To this period must be
traced the origin of the poverty and desolation which are still
conspicuous throughout the district. In 1806 Kalpi was made over to the
British, and in 1840, on the death of Nana Gobind Ras, his possessions
lapsed to them also. Various interchanges of territory took place, and
in 1856 the present boundaries were substantially settled. Jalaun had a
bad reputation during the Mutiny. When the news of the rising at
Cawnpore reached Kalpi, the men of the 53rd native infantry deserted
their officers, and in June the Jhansi mutineers reached the district,
and began their murder of Europeans. The inhabitants everywhere revelled
in the licence of plunder and murder which the Mutiny had spread through
all Bundelkhand, and it was not till September 1858 that the rebels were
finally defeated.
JALISCO, XALISCO, or GUADALAJARA, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, of
very irregular shape, bounded, beginning on the N., by the territory of
Tepic and the states of Durango, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato,
Michoacán, and Colima. Pop. (1900), 1,153,891. Area, 31,846 sq. m.
Jalisco is traversed from N.N.W. to S.S.E. by the Sierra Madre, locally
known as the Sierra de Nayarit and Sierra de Jalisco, which divides the
state into a low heavily forested coastal plain and a high plateau
region, part of the great Anáhuac table-land, with an average elevation
of about 5000 ft., broken by spurs and flanking ranges of moderate
height. The sierra region is largely volcanic and earthquakes are
frequent; in the S. are the active volcanoes of Colima (12,750 ft.) and
the Nevado de Colima (14,363 ft.). The _tierra caliente_ zone of the
coast is tropical, humid, and unfavourable to Europeans, while the
inland plateaus vary from subtropical to temperate and are generally
drier and healthful. The greater part of the state is drained by the Rio
Grande de Lerma (called the Santiago on its lower course) and its
tributaries, chief of which is the Rio Verde. Lakes are numerous; the
largest are the Chapala, about 80 m. long by 10 to 35 m. wide, which is
considered one of the most beautiful inland sheets of water in Mexico,
the Sayula and the Magdalena, noted for their abundance of fish. The
agricultural products of Jalisco include Indian corn, wheat and beans on
the uplands, and sugar-cane, cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco in the
warmer districts. Rubber and palm oil are natural forest products of the
coastal zone. Stock-raising is an important occupation in some of the
more elevated districts. The mineral resources include silver, gold,
cinnabar, copper, bismuth, and various precious stones. There are
reduction works of the old-fashioned type and some manufactures,
including cotton and woollen goods, pottery, refined sugar and leather.
The commercial activities of the state contribute much to its
prosperity. There is a large percentage of Indians and mestizos in the
population. The capital is Guadalajara, and other important towns with
their populations in 1900 (unless otherwise stated) are: Zapotlanejo
(20,275), 21 m. E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzmán (17,374 in 1895),
60 m. N.E. of Colima; Lagos (14,716 in 1895), a mining town 100 m.
E.N.E. of Guadalajara on the Mexican Central railway; Tamazula (8783 in
1895); Sayula (7883); Autlán (7715); Teocaltiche (8881); Ameca (7212 in
1895), in a fertile agricultural region on the western slopes of the
sierras; Cocula (7090 in 1895); and Zacoalco (6516). Jalisco was first
invaded by the Spaniards about 1526 and was soon afterwards conquered by
Nuño de Guzman. It once formed part of the reyno of Nueva Galicia, which
also included Aguas Calientes and Zacatecas. In 1889 its area was much
reduced by a subdivision of its coastal zone, which was set apart as the
territory of Tepic.
JALNA, or JAULNA, a town in Hyderabad state, India, on the Godavari
branch of the Nizam's railway, and 210 m. N.E. of Bombay. Pop. (1901),
20,270. Until 1903 it was a cantonment of the Hyderabad contingent,
originally established in 1827. Its gardens produce fruit, which is
largely exported. On the opposite bank of the river Kundlika is the
trading town of Kadirabad; pop. (1901), 11,159.
JALPAIGURI, or JULPIGOREE, a town and district of British India, in the
Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is on the right
bank of the river Tista, with a station on the Eastern Bengal railway
about 300 m. due N. of Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 9708. It is the
headquarters of the commissioner of the division.
The DISTRICT OF JALPAIGURI (organized in 1869) occupies an irregularly
shaped tract south of Darjeeling and Bhutan and north of the state of
Kuch Behar. It includes the Western Dwars, annexed from Bhutan after the
war of 1864-1865. Area, 2,962 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 787,380, an increase
of 16% in the decade. The district is divided into a "regulation" tract,
lying towards the south-west, and a strip of country, about 22 m. in
width, running along the foot of the Himalayas, and known as the Western
Dwars. The former is a continuous expanse of level paddy fields, only
broken by groves of bamboos, palms, and fruit-trees. The frontier
towards Bhutan is formed by the Sinchula mountain range, some peaks of
which attain an elevation of 6000 ft. It is thickly wooded from base to
summit. The principal rivers, proceeding from west to east, are the
Mahananda, Karatoya, Tista, Jaldhaka, Duduya, Mujnai, Tursa, Kaljani,
Raidak, and Sankos. The most important is the Tista, which forms a
valuable means of water communication. Lime is quarried in the lower
Bhutan hills. The Western Dwars are the principal centre of tea
cultivation in Eastern Bengal. The other portion of the district
produces jute. Jalpaiguri is traversed by the main line of the Eastern
Bengal railway to Darjeeling. It is also served by the Bengal Dwars
railway.
JAMAICA, the largest island in the British West Indies. It lies about 80
m. S. of the eastern extremity of Cuba, between 17° 43´ and 18° 32´ N.
and 76° 10´ and 78° 20´ W., is 144 m. long, 50 m. in extreme breadth,
and has an area of 4207 sq. m. The coast-line has the form of a turtle,
the mountain ridges representing the back. A mountainous backbone runs
through the island from E. to W., throwing off a number of subsidiary
ridges, mostly in a north-westerly or south-easterly direction. In the
east this range is more distinctly marked, forming the Blue Mountains,
with cloud-capped peaks and numerous bifurcating branches. They trend W.
by N., and are crossed by five passes at altitudes varying from 3000 to
4000 ft. They culminate in Blue Mountain Peak (7360 ft.), after which
the heights gradually decrease until the range is merged into the hills
of the western plateau. Two-thirds of the island are occupied by this
limestone plateau, a region of great beauty broken by innumerable hills,
valleys and sink-holes, and covered with luxuriant vegetation. The
uplands usually terminate in steep slopes or bluffs, separated from the
sea, in most cases, by a strip of level land. On the south coast,
especially, the plains are often large, the Liguanea plain, on which
Kingston stands, having an area of 200 sq. m. Upwards of a hundred
rivers and streams find their way to the sea, besides the numerous
tributaries which issue from every ravine in the mountains. These
streams for the most part are not navigable, and in times of flood they
become devastating torrents. In the parish of Portland, the Rio Grande
receives all the smaller tributaries from the west. In St Thomas in the
east the main range is drained by the Plantain Garden river, the
tributaries of which form deep ravines and narrow gorges. The valley of
the Plantain Garden expands into a picturesque and fertile plain. The
Black river flows through a level country, and is navigable by small
craft for about 30 m. The Salt river and the Cabaritta, also in the
south, are navigable by barges. Other rivers of the south are the Rio
Cobre (on which are irrigation works for the sugar and fruit
plantations), the Yallahs and the Rio Minho; in the north are the Martha
Brae, the White river, the Great Spanish river, and the Rio Grande.
Vestiges of intermittent volcanic action occur, and there are several
medicinal springs. Jamaica has 16 harbours, the chief of which are Port
Morant, Kingston, Old Harbour, Montego Bay, Falmouth, St Ann's Bay, Port
Maria and Port Antonio.
_Geology._--The greater part of Jamaica is covered by Tertiary
deposits, but in the Blue Mountain and some of the other ranges the
older rocks rise to the surface. The foundation of the island is
formed by a series of stratified shales and conglomerates, with tuffs
and other volcanic rocks and occasional bands of marine limestone. The
limestones contain Upper Cretaceous fossils, and the whole series has
been strongly folded. Upon this foundation rests unconformably a
series of marls and limestones of Eocene and early Oligocene age. Some
of the limestones are made of Foraminifera, together with Radiolaria,
and indicate a subsidence to abyssal depths. Nevertheless, the higher
peaks of the island still remained above the sea. Towards the middle
of the Oligocene period, mountain folding took place on an extensive
scale, and the island was raised far above its present level and was
probably connected with the rest of the Greater Antilles and perhaps
with the mainland also. At the same time plutonic rocks of various
kinds were intruded into the deposits already formed, and in some
cases produced considerable metamorphism. During the Miocene and
Pliocene periods the island again sank, but never to the depths which
it reached in the Eocene period. The deposits formed were
shallow-water conglomerates, marls and limestones, with mollusca,
brachiopoda, corals, &c. Finally, a series of successive elevations of
small amount, less than 500 ft. in the aggregate, raised the island to
its present level. The terraces which mark the successive stages in
this elevation are well shown in Montego Bay and elsewhere. The
remarkable depressions of the Cockpit country and the closed basin of
the Hector river are similar in origin to swallow-holes, and were
formed by the solution of a limestone layer resting upon insoluble
rocks. The island produces a great variety of marbles, porphyrites,
granite and ochres. Traces of gold have been found associated with
some of the oxidized copper ores (blue and green carbonates) in the
Clarendon mines. Copper ores are widely diffused but are very
expensive to work; as are the lead and cobalt which are also found.
Manganese iron ores and a form of arsenic occur.
_Climate._--The climate is one of the island's chief attractions. Near
the coast it is warm and humid, but that of the uplands is delightfully
mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature ranges from 70.7° to 87.8°
F., and this is generally the average of all the low-lying coast land.
At Cinchona, 4907 ft. above the sea, it varies from 57.5° to 68.5°. The
vapours from the rivers and the ocean produce in the upper regions
clouds saturated with moisture which induce vegetation belonging to a
colder climate. During the rainy seasons there is such an accumulation
of these vapours as to cause a general coolness and occasion sudden
heavy showers, and sometimes destructive floods. The rainy seasons, in
May and October, last for about three weeks, although, as a rule no
month is quite without rain. The fall varies greatly; while the annual
average for the island is 66.3 in., at Kingston it is 32.6 in., at
Cinchona 105.5 in., and at some places in the north-east it exceeds 200
in. The climate of the Santa Cruz Mountains is extremely favourable to
sufferers from tubercular and rheumatic diseases. Excepting near
morasses and lagoons, the island is very healthy, and yellow fever, once
prevalent, now rarely occurs. In the early part of the 19th century,
hurricanes often devastated Jamaica, but now, though they pass to the
N.E. and S.W. with comparative frequency, they rarely strike the island
itself.
_Flora._--The flora is remarkable, showing types from North, Central,
and South America, with a few European forms, besides the common
plants found everywhere in the tropics. Of flowering plants there are
2180 distinct species, and of ferns 450 species, several of both being
indigenous. The largeness of these numbers may be to some extent
accounted for by differences of altitude, temperature and humidity.
There are many beautiful flowers, such as the aloe, the yucca, the
datura, the mountain pride and the _Victoria regia_; and the cactus
tribe is well represented. The Sensitive Plant grows in pastures, and
orchids in the woods. There are forest trees fit for every purpose;
including the ballata, rosewood, satinwood, mahogany, lignum vitae,
lancewood and ebony. The logwood and fustic are exported for dyeing.
There are also the Jamaica cedar, and the silk cotton tree (_Ceiba
Bombax_). Pimento (peculiar to Jamaica) is indigenous, and furnishes
the allspice. The bamboo, coffee and cocoa are well known. Several
species of palm abound,--the macaw, the fan palm, screw palm, and
palmetto royal. There are plantations of coconut palm. The other
noticeable trees and plants are the mango, the breadfruit tree, the
papaw, the lacebark tree, and the guava. The _Palma Christi_, from
which castor oil is made, is a very abundant annual. English
vegetables grow in the hills, and the plains produce plantains, cocoa,
yams, cassava, ochra, beans, pease, ginger and arrowroot. Maize and
guinea-corn are cultivated, and the guinea-grass, accidentally
introduced in 1750, is very valuable for horses and cattle,--so much
so that pen-keeping or cattle farming is a highly profitable
occupation. Among the principal fruits are the orange, shaddock, lime,
grape or cluster fruit, pine-apple, mango, banana, grapes, melons,
avocado pear, breadfruit, and tamarind.
_Fauna._--There are fourteen sorts of _lampyridae_ or fireflies,
besides the _elateridae_ or lantern beetles. There are no venomous
serpents, but numerous harmless snakes and lizards exist. The
land-crab is considered a table delicacy, and the land-turtle also is
eaten. The scorpion and centipede, though poisonous, are not very
dangerous. Ants, sandflies and mosquitoes swarm in the lowlands. There
are twenty different song-birds, and forty-three varieties of birds
are presumed to be peculiar to the island. The sea and the rivers
swarm with fish. Turtles abound, and the seal, the manatee and the
crocodile are sometimes found. The coral reefs, with their varied
polyps and anemones, the numerous alcyonarians and diverse
coral-dwelling animals are readily accessible to the student, and the
island is also celebrated for the number of species of its
land-shells.
_People._--The population of the island was estimated in 1905 at
806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawâk inhabitants.
Aboriginal petaloid celts and other implements, flattened skulls and
vessels are common, and images are sometimes found in the large
limestone caverns of the island. The present inhabitants, of whom only
2% are white, include Maroons, the descendants of the slaves of the
Spaniards who fled into the interior when the island was captured by the
British; descendants of imported African slaves; mixed race of British
and African blood; coolies from India; a few Chinese, and the British
officials and white settlers. The Maroons live by themselves and are few
in number, while the half-castes enter into trade and sometimes into the
professions. The number of white inhabitants other than British is very
small. A negro peasant population is encouraged, with a view to its
being a support to the industries of the island; but, in many cases a
field negro will not work for his employer more than four days a week.
He may till his own plot of ground on one of the other days or not, as
the spirit moves him, but four days' work a week will keep him easily.
He has little or no care for the future. He has probably squatted on
someone's land, and has no rent to pay. Clothes he need hardly buy, fuel
he needs only for cooking, and food is ready to his hand for the
picking. Unfortunately a widespread indulgence in predial larceny is a
great hindrance to agriculture as well as to moral progress. But that
habits of thrift are being inculcated is shown by the steady increase in
the accounts in the government savings banks. That gross superstition is
still prevalent is shown by the cases of _obeah_ or witchcraft that come
before the courts from time to time. Another indication of the status of
the negro may be found in the fact that more than 60% of the births are
illegitimate, a percentage that shows an unfortunate tendency to
increase rather than diminish.
The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near it is
the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. 5019), the former capital,
is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, 11¾ m. by rail west of
Kingston. Since the removal of the seat of government to Kingston, the
town has gradually sunk in importance. In the cathedral many of the
governors of the island are buried. A marble statue of Rodney
commemorates his victory over the count de Grasse off Dominica in
1782. Montego Bay (pop. 4803), on the north-west coast, is the second
town on the island, and is also a favourite bathing resort. Port
Antonio (1784) lies between two secure harbours on the north-east, and
owes its prosperity mainly to the development of the trade in fruit,
for which it is the chief place of shipment.
_Industries._--Agricultural enterprise falls into two
classes--planting and pen-keeping, i.e. the breeding of horses, mules,
cattle and sheep. The chief products are bananas, oranges, coffee,
sugar, rum, logwood, cocoa, pimento, ginger, coco-nuts, limes,
nutmegs, pineapples, tobacco, grape-fruit and mangoes. There is a
board of agriculture, with an experimental station at Hope; there is
also an agricultural society with 26 branches throughout the colony.
Bee-keeping is a growing industry, especially among the peasants. The
land as a rule is divided into small holdings, the vast majority
consisting of five acres and less. The manufactures are few. In
addition to the sugar and coffee estates and cigar factories, there
are tanneries, distilleries, breweries, electric light and gas works,
ironfoundries, potteries and factories for the production of coconut
oil, essential oils, ice, matches and mineral waters. There is an
important establishment at Spanish Town for the production of logwood
extract. The exports, more than half of which go to the United States,
mostly comprise fruit, sugar and rum. The United States also
contributes the majority of the imports. More than half the revenue of
the colony is derived from import duties, the remainder is furnished
by excise, stamps and licences. With the exception of that of the
parish boards, there is no direct taxation.
_Communications._--In 1900 an Imperial Direct West India Line of
steamers was started by Elder, Dempster & Co., to encourage the fruit
trade with England; it had a subsidy of £40,000, contributed jointly
by the Imperial and Jamaican governments. Two steamers go round the
island once a week, calling at the principal ports, the circuit
occupying about 120 hours. A number of sailing "droghers" also ply
from port to port. Jamaica has a number of good roads and bridle
paths; the main roads, controlled by the public works department,
encircle the island, with several branches from north to south. The
parochial roads are maintained by the parish boards. A railway
traverses the island from Kingston in the south-east to Montego Bay in
the north-west, and also branches to Port Antonio and to Ewarton.
Jamaica is included in the Postal Union and in the Imperial penny
post, and there is a weekly mail service to and from England by the
Royal Mail Line, but mails are also carried by other companies. The
island is connected by cable with the United States via Cuba, and with
Halifax, Nova Scotia via Bermuda.
[Illustration: Map of Jamaica.]
There is a government savings bank at Kingston with branches
throughout the island, and there are also branches of the Colonial
Bank of London and the Bank of Nova Scotia. The coins in circulation
are British gold and silver, but not bronze, instead of which local
nickel is used. United States gold passes as currency. English weights
and measures are used.
_Administration, &c._--The island is divided into three counties, Surrey
in the east, Middlesex in the centre, and Cornwall in the west, and each
of these is subdivided into five parishes. The parish is the unit of
local government, and has jurisdiction over roads, markets, sanitation,
poor relief and waterworks. The management is vested in a parish board,
the members of which are elected. The chairman or custos is appointed by
the governor. The island is administered by a governor, who bears the
old Spanish title of captain-general, assisted by a legislative council
of five _ex officio_ members, not more than ten nominated members, and
fourteen members elected on a limited suffrage. There is also a privy
council of three _ex officio_ and not more than eight nominated members.
There is an Imperial garrison of about 2000 officers and men, with
headquarters at Newcastle, consisting of Royal Engineers, Royal
Artillery, infantry and four companies of the West India Regiment. There
is a naval station at Port Royal, and the entrance to its harbour is
strongly fortified. In addition there is a militia of infantry and
artillery, about 800 strong.
Previous to 1870 the Church of England was established in Jamaica, but
in that year a disestablishment act was passed which provided for
gradual disendowment. It is still the most numerous body, and is
presided over by the bishop of Jamaica, who is also archbishop of the
West Indies. The Baptists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, Moravians and
Roman Catholics are all represented; there is a Jewish synagogue at
Kingston, and the Salvation Army has a branch on the island. The Church
of England maintains many schools, a theological college, a deaconesses'
home and an orphanage. The Baptists have a theological college; and the
Roman Catholics support a training college for teachers, two industrial
schools and two orphanages. Elementary education is in private hands,
but fostered, since 1867, by government grants; it is free but not
compulsory, although the governor has the right to compel the attendance
of all children from 6 to 14 years of age in such towns and districts as
he may designate. The teachers in these schools are for the most part
trained in the government-aided training colleges of the various
denominations. For higher education there are the University College and
high school at Hope near Kingston, Potsdam School in St Elizabeth, the
Mico School and Wolmer's Free School in Kingston, founded (for boys and
girls) in 1729, the Montego Bay secondary school, and numerous other
endowed and self-supporting establishments. The Cambridge Local
Examinations have been held regularly since 1882.
_History._--Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3rd of May 1494.
Though he called it Santiago, it has always been known by its Indian
name Jaymaca, "the island of springs," modernized in form and
pronunciation into Jamaica. Excepting that in 1505 Columbus once put in
for shelter, the island remained unvisited until 1509, when Diego, the
discoverer's son, sent Don Juan d'Esquivel to take possession, and
thenceforward it passed under Spanish rule. Sant' Iago de la Vega, or
Spanish Town, which remained the capital of the island until 1872, was
founded in 1523. Sir Anthony Shirley, a British admiral, attacked the
island in 1596, and plundered and burned the capital, but did not follow
up his victory. Upon his retirement the Spaniards restored their capital
and were unmolested until 1635, when the island was again raided by the
British under Colonel Jackson. The period of the Spanish occupation is
mainly memorable for the annihilation of the gentle and peaceful Arawâk
Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d'Esquivel was one of their cruellest
oppressors. The whole island was divided among eight noble Spanish
families, who discouraged immigration to such an extent that when
Jamaica was taken by the British the white and slave population together
did not exceed 3000. Under the vigorous foreign policy of Cromwell an
attempt was made to crush the Spanish power in the West Indies, and an
expedition under Admirals Penn and Venables succeeded in capturing and
holding Jamaica in 1655. The Spanish were entirely expelled in 1658.
Their slaves then took to the mountains, and down to the end of the 18th
century the disaffection of these Maroons, as they were called, caused
constant trouble. Jamaica continued to be governed by military authority
until 1661, when Colonel D'Oyley was appointed captain-general and
governor-in-chief with an executive council, and a constitution was
introduced resembling that of England. He was succeeded in the next year
by Lord Windsor, under whom a legislative council was established.
Jamaica soon became the chief resort of the buccaneers, who not
infrequently united the characters of merchant or planter with that of
pirate or privateer. By the Treaty of Madrid, 1670, the British title to
the island was recognized, and the buccaneers were suppressed. The Royal
African Company was formed in 1672 with a monopoly of the slave trade,
and from this time Jamaica was one of the greatest slave marts in the
world. The sugar-industry was introduced about this period, the first
pot of sugar being sent to London in 1673. An attempt was made in 1678
to saddle the island with a yearly tribute to the Crown and to restrict
the free legislature. The privileges of the legislative assembly,
however, were restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the
question of revenue settled by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook
to settle £8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to £6000) per annum on
the Crown, provided that English statute laws were made binding in
Jamaica.
During these years of political struggle the colony was thrice afflicted
by nature. A great earthquake occurred in 1692, when the chief part of
the town of Port Royal, built on a shelving bank of sand, slipped into
the sea. Two dreadful hurricanes devastated the island in 1712 and 1722,
the second of which did so much damage that the seat of commerce had to
be transferred from Port Royal to Kingston.
The only prominent event in the history of the island during the later
years of the 18th century, was the threatened invasion by the French and
Spanish in 1782, but Jamaica was saved by the victory of Rodney and Hood
off Dominica. The last attempt at invasion was made in 1806, when the
French were defeated by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was
abolished the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee,
cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large
quantities, and it was the dépôt of a very lucrative trade with the
Spanish main. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain found its echo
in the island, and in 1832 the negroes revolted, believing that
emancipation had been granted. They killed a number of whites and
destroyed a large amount of valuable property. Two years later the
Emancipation Act was passed, and, subject to a short term of
apprenticeship, the slaves were free. Emancipation left the planters in
a pitiable condition financially. The British government awarded them
compensation at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at
the time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the hands of
the planters' creditors. They were left with over-worked estates, a poor
market and a scarcity of labour. Nor was this the end of their
misfortunes. During the slavery times the British government had
protected the planter by imposing a heavy differential duty on foreign
sugar; but on the introduction of free trade the price of sugar fell by
one-half and reduced the profits of the already impoverished planter.
Many estates, already heavily mortgaged, were abandoned, and the trade
of the island was at a standstill. Differences between the executive,
the legislature, and the home government, as to the means of retrenching
the public expenditure, created much bitterness. Although some slight
improvement marked the administration of Sir Charles Metcalfe and the
earl of Elgin, when coolie immigration was introduced to supply the
scarcity and irregularity of labour and the railway was opened, the
improvement was not permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor.
Financial affairs were at their lowest ebb and the colonial treasury
showed a deficit of £80,000. To meet this difficulty new taxes were
imposed and discontent was rife among the negroes. Dr Underhill, the
secretary of a Baptist organization known as the British Union, wrote to
the colonial secretary in London, pointing out the state of affairs.
This letter became public in Jamaica, and in the opinion of the governor
added in no small measure to the popular excitement. On the 11th of
October 1865 the negroes rose at Morant Bay and murdered the custos and
most of the white inhabitants. The slight encounter which followed
filled the island with terror, and there is no doubt that many excesses
were committed on both sides. The assembly passed an act by which
martial law was proclaimed, and the legislature passed an act abrogating
the constitution.
The action of Governor Eyre, though generally approved throughout the
West Indies, caused much controversy in England, and he was recalled. A
prosecution was instituted against him, resulting in an elaborate
exposition of martial law by Chief Justice Cockburn, but the jury threw
out the bill and Eyre was discharged. He was succeeded in the government
of Jamaica by Sir Henry Storks, and under the crown colony system of
government the state of the island made slow but steady progress. In
1868 the first fruit shipment took place from Port Antonio, the
immigration of coolies was revived, and cinchona planting was
introduced. The method of government was changed in 1884, when a new
constitution, slightly modified in 1895, was granted to the island.
In the afternoon of the 14th of January 1907 a terrible earthquake
visited Kingston. Almost every building in the capital and in Port
Royal, and many in St Andrews, were destroyed or seriously injured. The
loss of life was variously estimated, but probably exceeded one
thousand. Among those killed was Sir James Fergusson, 6th baronet (b.
1832). The principal shock was followed by many more of slighter
intensity during the ensuing fortnight and later. On the 17th of January
assistance was brought by three American war-ships under Rear-Admiral
Davis, who however withdrew them on the 19th, owing to a
misunderstanding with the governor of the island, Sir Alexander
Swettenham, on the subject of the landing of marines from the vessels
with a view to preserving order. The incident caused considerable
sensation, and led to Sir A. Swettenham's resignation in the following
March, Sir Sydney Olivier, K.C.M.G., being appointed governor. Order was
speedily restored; but the destructive effect of the earthquake was a
severe check to the prosperity of the island.
See Bryan Edwards, _History of the West Indies_ (London, 1809, and
appendix, 1819); P. H. Gosse, _Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica_
(London, 1851) and _Birds of Jamaica_ (1847); _Jamaica Handbook_
(London, annual); Bacon and Aaron, _New Jamaica_ (1890); W. P.
Livingstone, _Black Jamaica_ (London, 1900), F. Cundall, _Bibliotheca
Jamaicensis_. (Kingston, 1895), and _Studies in Jamaica History_
(1900); W. J. Gardner, _History of Jamaica_ (New York, 1909). For
geology, see R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of
Jamaica," _Bull. Mus. Com. Zool. Harvard_, xxxiv. (1899).
JAMAICA, formerly a village of Queens county, Long Island, New York,
U.S.A., but after the 1st of January 1898 a part of the borough of
Queens, New York City. Pop. (1890) 5361. It is served by the Long Island
railroad, the lines of which from Brooklyn and Manhattan meet here and
then separate to serve the different regions of the island.[1] King's
Park (about 10 acres) comprises the estate of John Alsop King
(1788-1867), governor of New York in 1857-1859, from whose heirs in 1897
the land was purchased by the village trustees. In South Jamaica there
is a race track, at which meetings are held in the spring and autumn.
The headquarters of the Queens Borough Department of Public Works and
Police are in the Jamaica town-hall, and Jamaica is the seat of a city
training school for teachers (until 1905 one of the New York State
normal schools). For two guns, a coat, and a quantity of powder and
lead, several New Englanders obtained from the Indians a deed for a
tract of land here in September 1655. In March 1657 they received
permission from Governor Stuyvesant to found a town, which was chartered
in 1660 and was named Rustdorp by Stuyvesant, but the English called it
Jamaica; it was rechartered in 1666, 1686 and 1788. The village was
incorporated in 1814 and reincorporated in 1855. In 1665 it was made the
seat of justice of the north riding; in 1683-1788 it was the shire town
of Queens county. With Hempstead, Gravesend, Newtown and Flushing, also
towns of New England origin and type, Jamaica was early disaffected
towards the provincial government of New York. In 1669 these towns
complained that they had no representation in a popular assembly, and in
1670 they protested against taxation without representation. The
founders of Jamaica were mostly Presbyterians, and they organized one of
the first Presbyterian churches in America. At the beginning of the War
of Independence Jamaica was under the control of Loyalists; after the
defeat of the Americans in the battle of Long Island (27th August 1776)
it was occupied by the British; and until the end of the war it was the
headquarters of General Oliver Delancey, who had command of all Long
Island.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] In June 1908 the subway lines of the interborough system of New
York City were extended to the Flatbush (Brooklyn) station of the Long
Island railroad, thus bringing Jamaica into direct connexion with
Manhattan borough by way of the East river tunnel, completed in the
same year.
JAMB (from Fr. _jambe_, leg), in architecture, the side-post or lining
of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window outside the frame
are called "reveals." Small shafts to doors and windows with caps and
bases are known as "jamb-shafts"; when in the inside arris of the jamb
of a window they are sometimes called "scoinsons."
JAMES (a variant of the name Jacob, Heb. [Hebrew: Yaacov], one who holds
by the heel, outwitter, through O. Fr. _James_, another form of
_Jacques_, _Jaques_, from Low Lat. _Jacobus_; cf. Ital. _Jacopo_
[Jacob], _Giacomo_ [James], Prov. _Jacme_, Cat. _Jaume_, Cast.
_Jaime_), a masculine proper name popular in Christian countries as
having been that of two of Christ's apostles. It has been borne by many
sovereigns and other princes, the most important of whom are noticed
below, after the heading devoted to the characters in the New Testament,
in the following order: (1) kings of England and Scotland, (2) other
kings in the alphabetical order of their countries, (3) the "Old
Pretender." The article on the Epistle of James in the New Testament
follows after the remaining biographical articles in which James is a
surname.
JAMES (Gr. [Greek: Iakôbos], the Heb. _Ya'akob_ or Jacob), the name of
several persons mentioned in the New Testament.
1. JAMES, the son of Zebedee. He was among the first who were called to
be Christ's immediate followers (Mark i. 19 seq.; Matt. iv. 21 seq., and
perhaps Luke v. 10), and afterwards obtained an honoured place in the
apostolic band, his name twice occupying the second place after Peter's
in the lists (Mark iii. 17; Acts i. 13), while on at least three notable
occasions he was, along with Peter and his brother John, specially
chosen by Jesus to be with him (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. i, xxvi. 37).
This same prominence may have contributed partly to the title
"Boanerges" or "sons of thunder" which, according to Mark iii. 17, Jesus
himself gave to the two brothers. But its most natural interpretation is
to be found in the impetuous disposition which would have called down
fire from heaven on the offending Samaritan villagers (Luke ix. 54), and
afterwards found expression, though in a different way, in the ambitious
request to occupy the places of honour in Christ's kingdom (Mark x. 35
seq.). James is included among those who after the ascension waited at
Jerusalem (Acts i. 13) for the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of
Pentecost. And though on this occasion only his name is mentioned, he
must have been a zealous and prominent member of the Christian
community, to judge from the fact that when a victim had to be chosen
from among the apostles, who should be sacrificed to the animosity of
the Jews, it was on James that the blow fell first. The brief notice is
given in Acts xii. 1, 2. Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ ii. 9) has preserved
for us from Clement of Alexandria the additional information that the
accuser of the apostle "beholding his confession and moved thereby,
confessed that he too was a Christian. So they were both led away to
execution together; and on the road the accuser asked James for
forgiveness. Gazing on him for a little while, he said, 'Peace be with
thee,' and kissed him. And then both were beheaded together."
The later, and wholly untrustworthy, legends which tell of the
apostle's preaching in Spain, and of the translation of his body to
Santiago de Compostela, are to be found in the _Acta Sanctorum_ (July
25), vi. 1-124; see also Mrs Jameson's _Sacred and Legendary Art_, i.
230-241.
2. JAMES, the son of Alphaeus. He also was one of the apostles, and is
mentioned in all the four lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15;
Acts i. 13) by this name. We know nothing further regarding him, unless
we believe him to be the same as James "the little."
3. JAMES, the little. He is described as the son of a Mary (Matt, xxvii.
56; Mark xv. 40), who was in all probability the wife of Clopas (John
xix. 25). And on the ground that Clopas is another form of the name
Alphaeus, this James has been thought by some to be the same as 2. But
the evidence of the Syriac versions, which render Alphaeus by
_Chalphai_, while Clopas is simply transliterated _Kleopha_, makes it
extremely improbable that the two names are to be identified. And as we
have no better ground for finding in Clopas the Cleopas of Luke xxiv.
18, we must be content to admit that James the little is again an almost
wholly unknown personality, and has no connexion with any of the other
Jameses mentioned in the New Testament.
4. JAMES, the father of Judas. There can be no doubt that in the mention
of "Judas of James" in Luke vi. 16 the ellipsis should be supplied by
"the son" and not as in the A.V. by "the brother" (cf. Luke iii. 1, vi.
14; Acts xii. 2, where the word [Greek: adelphos] is inserted). This
Judas, known as Thaddaeus by Matthew and Mark, afterwards became one of
the apostles, and is expressly distinguished by St John from the traitor
as "not Iscariot" (John xiv. 22).
5. JAMES, the Lord's brother. In Matt. xiii. 55 and Mark vi. 3 we read
of a certain James as, along with Joses and Judas and Simon, a "brother"
of the Lord. The exact nature of the relationship there implied has been
the subject of much discussion. Jerome's view (_de vir. ill._ 2), that
the "brothers" were in reality cousins, "sons of Mary the sister of the
Lord's mother," rests on too many unproved assumptions to be entitled to
much weight, and may be said to have been finally disposed of by Bishop
Lightfoot in his essay on "The Brothers of the Lord" (_Galatians_, pp.
252 sqq., _Dissertations on the Apostolic Age_, pp. 1 sqq.). Even
however if we understand the word "brethren" in its natural sense, it
may be applied either to the sons of Joseph by a former wife, in which
case they would be the step-brothers of Jesus, or to sons born to Joseph
and Mary after the birth of Jesus. The former of these views, generally
known as the _Epiphanian_ view from its most zealous advocate in the 4th
century, can claim for its support the preponderating voice of tradition
(see the catena of references given by Lightfoot, _loc. cit._, who
himself inclines to this view). On the other hand the _Helvidian_ theory
as propounded by Helvidius, and apparently accepted by Tertullian (cf.
_adv. Marc._ iv. 29), which makes James a brother of the Lord, as truly
as Mary was his mother, undoubtedly seems more in keeping with the
direct statements of the Gospels, and also with the after history of the
brothers in the Church (see W. Patrick, _James the Brother of the Lord_,
1906, p. 5). In any case, whatever the exact nature of James's
antecedents, there can be no question as to the important place which he
occupied in the early Church. Converted to a full belief in the living
Lord, perhaps through the special revelation that was granted to him (1
Cor. xv. 7), he became the recognized head of the Church at Jerusalem
(Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18), and is called by St Paul (Gal. ii. 9),
along with Peter and John, a "pillar" of the Christian community. He was
traditionally the author of the epistle in the New Testament which bears
his name (see JAMES, EPISTLE OF). From the New Testament we learn no
more of the history of James the Lord's brother, but Eusebius (_Hist.
Eccl._ ii. 23) has preserved for us from Hegesippus the earliest
ecclesiastical traditions concerning him. By that authority he is
described as having been a Nazarite, and on account of his eminent
righteousness called "Just" and "Oblias." So great was his influence
with the people that he was appealed to by the scribes and Pharisees for
a true and (as they hoped) unfavourable judgment about the Messiahship
of Christ. Placed, to give the greater publicity to his words, on a
pinnacle of the temple, he, when solemnly appealed to, made confession
of his faith, and was at once thrown down and murdered. This happened
immediately before the siege. Josephus (_Antiq._ xx. 9, 1) tells that it
was by order of Ananus the high priest, in the interval between the
death of Festus and the arrival of his successor Albinus, that James was
put to death; and his narrative gives the idea of some sort of judicial
examination, for he says that along with some others James was brought
before an assembly of judges, by whom they were condemned and delivered
to be stoned. Josephus is also cited by Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ ii. 23)
to the effect that the miseries of the siege were due to divine
vengeance for the murder of James. Later writers describe James as an
[Greek: episkopos] (Clem. Al. _apud_ Eus. _Hist. Ecc._ ii. 1) and even
as an [Greek: episkopos episkopôn] (Clem. _Hom., ad init._). According
to Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 19) his episcopal chair was still shown
at Jerusalem at the time when Eusebius wrote.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the relevant literature cited above, see
the articles under the heading "James" in Hastings's _Dictionary of
the Bible_ (Mayor) and _Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels_
(Fulford), and in the _Encycl. Biblica_ (O. Cone); also the
introductions to the Commentaries on the Epistle of James by Mayor and
Knowling. Zahn has an elaborate essay on _Brüder und Vettern Jesu_
("The Brothers and Cousins of Jesus") in the _Forschungen zur
Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons_, vi. 2 (Leipzig, 1900).
(G. Mi.)
JAMES I. (1566-1625), king of Great Britain and Ireland, formerly king
of Scotland as James VI., was the only child of Mary Queen of Scots, and
her second husband, Henry Stewart Lord Darnley. He was born in the
castle of Edinburgh on the 19th of June 1566, and was proclaimed king of
Scotland on the 24th of July 1567, upon the forced abdication of his
mother. Until 1578 he was treated as being incapable of taking any real
part in public affairs, and was kept in the castle of Stirling for
safety's sake amid the confused fighting of the early years of his
minority.
The young king was a very weakly boy. It is said that he could not stand
without support until he was seven, and although he lived until he was
nearly sixty, he was never a strong man. In after life he was a constant
and even a reckless rider, but the weakness in his legs was never quite
cured. During a great part of his life he found it necessary to be tied
to the saddle. When on one occasion in 1621 his horse threw him into the
New River near his palace of Theobalds in the neighbourhood of London,
he had a very narrow escape of being drowned; yet he continued to ride
as before. At all times he preferred to lean on the shoulder of an
attendant when walking. This feebleness of body, which had no doubt a
large share in causing certain corresponding deficiencies of character,
was attributed to the agitations and the violent efforts forced on his
mother by the murder of her secretary Rizzio when she was in the sixth
month of her pregnancy. The fact that James was a bold rider, in spite
of this serious disqualification for athletic exercise, should be borne
in mind when he is accused of having been a coward.
The circumstances surrounding him in boyhood were not favourable to the
development of his character. His immediate guardian or foster-father,
the earl of Mar, was indeed an honourable man, and the countess, who had
charge of the nursing of the king, discharged her duty so as to win his
lasting confidence. James afterwards entrusted her with the care of his
eldest son, Henry. When the earl died in 1572 his place was well filled
by his brother, Sir Alexander Erskine. The king's education was placed
under the care of George Buchanan, assisted by Peter Young, and two
other tutors. Buchanan, who did not spare the rod, and the other
teachers, who had more reverence for the royal person, gave the boy a
sound training in languages. The English envoy, Sir Henry Killigrew, who
saw him in 1574, testified to his proficiency in translating from and
into Latin and French. As it was very desirable that he should be
trained a Protestant king, he was well instructed in theology. The
exceptionally scholastic quality of his education helped to give him a
taste for learning, but also tended to make him a pedant.
James was only twelve when the earl of Morton was driven from the
regency, and for some time after he can have been no more than a puppet
in the hands of intriguers and party leaders. When, for instance, in
1582 he was seized by the faction of nobles who carried out the
so-called raid of Ruthven, which was in fact a kidnapping enterprise
carried out in the interest of the Protestant party, he cried like a
child. One of the conspirators, the master of Glamis, Sir Thomas Lyon,
told him that it was better "bairns should greet [children should cry]
than bearded men." It was not indeed till 1583, when he broke away from
his captors, that James began to govern in reality.
For the history of his reign reference may be made to the articles on
the histories of England and Scotland. James's work as a ruler can be
divided, without violating any sound rule of criticism, into black and
white--into the part which was a failure and a preparation for future
disaster, and the part which was solid achievement, honourable to
himself and profitable to his people. His native kingdom of Scotland had
the benefit of the second. Between 1583 and 1603 he reduced the
anarchical baronage of Scotland to obedience, and replaced the
subdivision of sovereignty and consequent confusion, which had been the
very essence of feudalism, by a strong centralized royal authority. In
fact he did in Scotland the work which had been done by the Tudors in
England, by Louis XI. in France, and by Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain.
It was the work of all the strong rulers of the Renaissance. But James
not only brought his disobedient and intriguing barons to order--that
was a comparatively easy achievement and might well have been performed
by more than one of his predecessors, had their lives been prolonged--he
also quelled the attempts of the Protestants to found what Hallam has
well defined as a "Presbyterian Hildebrandism." He enforced the
superiority of the state over the church. Both before his accession to
the throne of England (1603) and afterwards he took an intelligent
interest in the prosperity of his Scottish kingdom, and did much for the
pacification of the Hebrides, for the enforcement of order on the
Borders, and for the development of industry. That he did so much
although the crown was poor (largely it must be confessed because he
made profuse gifts of the secularized church lands), and although the
armed force at his disposal was so small that to the very end he was
exposed to the attacks of would-be kidnappers (as in the case of the
Gowrie conspiracy of 1600), is proof positive that he was neither the
mere poltroon nor the mere learned fool he has often been called.
James's methods of achieving ends in themselves honourable and
profitable were indeed of a kind which has made posterity unjust to his
real merits. The circumstances in which he passed his youth developed in
him a natural tendency to craft. He boasted indeed of his "king-craft"
and probably believed that he owed it to his studies. But it was in
reality the resource of the weak, the art of playing off one possible
enemy against another by trickery, and so deceiving all. The marquis de
Fontenay, the French ambassador, who saw him in the early part of his
reign, speaks of him as cowed by the violence about him. It is certain
that James was most unscrupulous in making promises which he never meant
to keep, and the terror in which he passed his youth sufficiently
explains his preference for guile. He would make promises to everybody,
as when he wrote to the pope in 1584 more than hinting that he would be
a good Roman Catholic if helped in his need. His very natural desire to
escape from the poverty and insecurity of Scotland to the opulent
English throne not only kept him busy in intrigues to placate the Roman
Catholics or anybody else who could help or hinder him, but led him to
behave basely in regard to the execution of his mother in 1587. He
blustered to give himself an air of courage, but took good care to do
nothing to offend Elizabeth. When the time came for fulfilling his
promises and half-promises, he was not able, even if he had been
willing, to keep his word to everybody. The methods which had helped him
to success in Scotland did him harm in England, where his reign prepared
the way for the great civil war. In his southern kingdom his failure was
in fact complete. Although England accepted him as the alternative to
civil war, and although he was received and surrounded with fulsome
flattery, he did not win the respect of his English subjects. His
undignified personal appearance was against him, and so were his
garrulity, his Scottish accent, his slovenliness and his toleration of
disorders in his court, but, above all, his favour for handsome male
favourites, whom he loaded with gifts and caressed with demonstrations
of affection which laid him open to vile suspicions. In ecclesiastical
matters he offended many, who contrasted his severity and rudeness to
the Puritan divines at the Hampton Court conference (1604) with his
politeness to the Roman Catholics, whom he, however, worried by fits and
starts. In a country where the authority of the state had been firmly
established and the problem was how to keep it from degenerating into
the mere instrument of a king's passions, his insistence on the doctrine
of divine right aroused distrust and hostility. In itself, and in its
origin, the doctrine was nothing more than a necessary assertion of the
independence of the state in face of the "Hildebrandism" of Rome and
Geneva alike. But when Englishmen were told that the king alone had
indefeasible rights, and that all the privileges of subjects were
revocable gifts, they were roused to hostility. His weaknesses cast
suspicion on his best-meant schemes. His favour for his countrymen
helped to defeat his wise wish to bring about a full union between
England and Scotland. His profusion, which had been bad in the poverty
of Scotland and was boundless amid the wealth of England, kept him
necessitous, and drove him to shifts. Posterity can give him credit for
his desire to forward religious peace in Europe, but his Protestant
subjects were simply frightened when he sought a matrimonial alliance
with Spain. Sagacious men among his contemporaries could not see the
consistency of a king who married his daughter Elizabeth to the elector
palatine, a leader of the German Protestants, and also sought to marry
his son to an infanta of Spain. The king's subservience to Spain was
indeed almost besotted. He could not see her real weakness, and he
allowed himself to be befooled by the ministers of Philip III. and
Philip IV. The end of his scheming was that he was dragged into a
needless war with Spain by his son Charles and his favourite George
Villiers, duke of Buckingham, just before his death on the 5th of March
1625 at his favourite residence, Theobalds.
James married in 1589 Anne, second daughter of Frederick II., king of
Denmark. His voyage to meet his bride, whose ship had been driven into a
Norwegian port by bad weather, is the only episode of a romantic
character in the life of this very prosaic member of a poetic family. By
this wife James had three children who survived infancy: Henry
Frederick, prince of Wales, who died in 1612; Charles, the future king;
and Elizabeth, wife of the elector palatine, Frederick V.
Not the least of James's many ambitions was the desire to excel as an
author. He left a body of writings which, though of mediocre quality as
literature, entitle him to a unique place among English kings since
Alfred for width of intellectual interest and literary faculty. His
efforts were inspired by his preceptor George Buchanan, whose memory he
cherished in later years. His first work was in verse, _Essayes of a
Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie_ (Edin. Vautrollier, 1584),
containing fifteen sonnets, "Ane Metaphoricall invention of a tragedie
called Phoenix," a short poem "Of Time," translations from Du Bartas,
Lucan and the Book of Psalms ("out of Tremellius"), and a prose tract
entitled "Ane short treatise, containing some Reulis and Cautelis to be
observit and eschewit in Scottis Poesie." The volume is introduced by
commendatory sonnets, including one by Alexander Montgomerie. The chief
interest of the book lies in the "Treatise" and the prefatory sonnets
"To the Reader" and "Sonnet decifring the perfyte poete." There is
little originality in this youthful production. It has been surmised
that it was compiled from the exercises written when the author was
Buchanan's pupil at Stirling, and that it was directly suggested by his
preceptor's _De Prosodia_ and his annotations on Vives. On the other
hand, it shows intimate acquaintance with the critical reflections of
Ronsard and Du Bellay, and of Gascoigne in his _Notes of Instruction_
(1575). In 1591 James published _Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres_,
including a translation of the _Furies_ of Du Bartas, his own _Lepanto_,
and Du Bartas's version of it, _La Lepanthe_. His _Daemonologie_, a
prose treatise denouncing witchcraft and exhorting the civil power to
the strongest measures of suppression, appeared in 1599. In the same
year he printed the first edition (seven copies) of his _Basilikon
Doron_, strongly Protestant in tone. A French edition, specially
translated for presentation to the pope, has a disingenuous preface
explaining that certain phrases (e.g. "papistical doctrine") are
omitted, because of the difficulty of rendering them in a foreign
tongue. The original edition was, however, translated by order of the
suspicious pope, and was immediately placed on the Index. Shortly after
going to England James produced his famous _Counterblaste to Tobacco_
(London, 1604), in which he forsakes his Scots tongue for Southern
English. The volume was published anonymously. James's prose works
(including his speeches) were collected and edited (folio, 1616) by
James Montagu, bishop of Winchester, and were translated into Latin by
the same hand in a companion folio, in 1619 (also Frankfort, 1689). A
tract, entitled "The True Law of Free Monarchies," appeared in 1603; "An
Apology for the Oath of Allegiance" in 1607; and a "_Déclaration du Roy
Jacques I. ... pour le droit des Rois_" in 1615. In 1588 and 1589 James
issued two small volumes of _Meditations_ on some verses of (a)
Revelations and (b) 1 Chronicles. Other two "meditations" were printed
posthumously.
See T. F. Henderson, _James I. and VI._ (London, 1904); P. Hume Brown,
_History of Scotland_, vol. ii. (Edinburgh and Cambridge, 1902); and
Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1902) and
_James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (London, 1902); _The Register of
the Privy Council of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1877, &c.), vols. ii. to
xiii.; S. R. Gardiner, _History of England 1603-1642_ (London,
1883-1884). A comprehensive bibliography will be found in the
_Cambridge Modern Hist._ iii. 847 (Cambridge, 1904).
For James's literary work, see Edward Arber's reprint of the _Essayes
and Counterblaste_ ("English Reprints," 1869, &c.); R. S. Rait's
_Lusus Regius_ (1900); G. Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical
Essays_ (1904), vol. i., where the _Treatise_ is edited for the first
time; A. O. Meyer's "Clemens VIII. und Jacob I. von England" in
_Quellen und Forschungen_ (Preuss. Hist. Inst.), VII. ii., for an
account of the issues of the _Basilikon Doron_; P. Hume Brown's
_George Buchanan_ (1890), pp. 250-261, for a sketch of James's
association with Buchanan.
JAMES II. (1633-1701), king of Great Britain and Ireland, second
surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at St James's
on the 15th of October 1633, and created duke of York in January 1643.
During the Civil War James was taken prisoner by Fairfax (1646), but
contrived to escape to Holland in 1648. Subsequently he served in the
French army under Turenne, and in the Spanish under Condé, and was
applauded by both commanders for his brilliant personal courage.
Returning to England with Charles II. in 1660 he was appointed lord high
admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports. Pepys, who was secretary to the
navy, has recorded the patient industry and unflinching probity of his
naval administration. His victory over the Dutch in 1665, and his drawn
battle with De Ruyter in 1672, show that he was a good naval commander
as well as an excellent administrator. These achievements won him a
reputation for high courage, which, until the close of 1688, was amply
deserved. His private record was not as good as his public. In December
1660 he admitted to having contracted, under discreditable
circumstances, a secret marriage with Anne Hyde (1637-1671), daughter of
Lord Clarendon, in the previous September. Both before and after the
marriage he seems to have been a libertine as unblushing though not so
fastidious as Charles himself. In 1672 he made a public avowal of his
conversion to Roman Catholicism. Charles II. had opposed this project,
but in 1673 allowed him to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena as his
second wife. Both houses of parliament, who viewed this union with
abhorrence, now passed the Test Act, forbidding Catholics to hold
office. In consequence of this James was forced to resign his posts. It
was in vain that he married his daughter Mary to the Protestant prince
of Orange in 1677. Anti-Catholic feeling ran so high that, after the
discovery of the Popish Plot, he found it wiser to retire to Brussels
(1679), while Shaftesbury and the Whigs planned to exclude him from the
succession. He was lord high commissioner of Scotland (1680-1682), where
he occupied himself in a severe persecution of the Covenanters. In 1684
Charles, having triumphed over the Exclusionists, restored James to the
office of high admiral by use of his dispensing power.
James ascended the throne on the 16th of February 1685. The nation
showed its loyalty by its firm adherence to him during the rebellions of
Argyll in Scotland and Monmouth in England (1685). The savage reprisals
on their suppression, in especial the "Bloody Assizes" of Jeffreys,
produced a revulsion of public feeling. James had promised to defend the
existing Church and government, but the people now became suspicious.
James was not a mere tyrant and bigot, as the popular imagination
speedily assumed him to be. He was rather a mediocre but not altogether
obtuse man, who mistook tributary streams for the main currents of
national thought. Thus he greatly underrated the strength of the
Establishment, and preposterously exaggerated that of Dissent and
Catholicism. He perceived that opinion was seriously divided in the
Established Church, and thought that a vigorous policy would soon prove
effective. Hence he publicly celebrated Mass, prohibited preaching
against Catholicism, and showed exceptional favour to renegades from the
Establishment. By undue pressure he secured a decision of the judges, in
the test case of _Godden_ v. _Hale_ (1687), by which he was allowed to
dispense Catholics from the Test Act. Catholics were now admitted to the
chief offices in the army, and to some important posts in the state, in
virtue of the dispensing power of James. The judges had been intimidated
or corrupted, and the royal promise to protect the Establishment
violated. The army had been increased to 20,000 men and encamped at
Hounslow Heath to overawe the capital. Public alarm was speedily
manifested and suspicion to a high degree awakened. In 1687 James made a
bid for the support of the Dissenters by advocating a system of joint
toleration for Catholics and Dissenters. In April 1687 he published a
Declaration of Indulgence--exempting Catholics and Dissenters from penal
statutes. He followed up this measure by dissolving parliament and
attacking the universities. By an unscrupulous use of the dispensing
power he introduced Dissenters and Catholics into all departments of
state and into the municipal corporations, which were remodelled in
their interests. Then in April 1688 he took the suicidal step of issuing
a proclamation to force the clergy and bishops to read the Declaration
in their pulpits, and thus personally advocate a measure they detested.
Seven bishops refused, were indicted by James for libel, but acquitted
amid the indescribable enthusiasm of the populace. Protestant nobles of
England, enraged at the tolerant policy of James, had been in
negotiation with William of Orange since 1687. The trial of the seven
bishops, and the birth of a son to James, now induced them to send
William a definite invitation (June 30, 1688). James remained in a
fool's paradise till the last, and only awakened to his danger when
William landed at Torbay (November 5, 1688) and swept all before him.
James pretended to treat, and in the midst of the negotiations fled to
France. He was intercepted at Faversham and brought back, but the
politic prince of Orange allowed him to escape a second time (December
23, 1688).
At the end of 1688 James seemed to have lost his old courage. After his
defeat at the Boyne (July 1, 1690) he speedily departed from Ireland,
where he had so conducted himself that his English followers had been
ashamed of his incapacity, while French officers had derided him. His
proclamations and policy towards England during these years show
unmistakable traces of the same incompetence. On the 17th of May 1692 he
saw the French fleet destroyed before his very eyes off Cape La Hogue.
He was aware of, though not an open advocate of the "Assassination
Plot," which was directed against William. By its revelation and failure
(February 10, 1696) the third and last serious attempt of James for his
restoration failed. He refused in the same year to accept the French
influence in favour of his candidature to the Polish throne, on the
ground that it would exclude him from the English. Henceforward he
neglected politics, and Louis of France ceased to consider him as a
political factor. A mysterious conversion had been effected in him by an
austere Cistercian abbot. The world saw with astonishment this vicious,
rough, coarse-fibred man of the world transformed into an austere
penitent, who worked miracles of healing. Surrounded by this odour of
sanctity, which greatly edified the faithful, James lived at St Germain
until his death on the 17th of September 1701.
The political ineptitude of James is clear; he often showed firmness
when conciliation was needful, and weakness when resolution alone could
have saved the day. Moreover, though he mismanaged almost every
political problem with which he personally dealt, he was singularly
tactless and impatient of advice. But in general political morality he
was not below his age, and in his advocacy of toleration decidedly above
it. He was more honest and sincere than Charles II., more genuinely
patriotic in his foreign policy, and more consistent in his religious
attitude. That his brother retained the throne while James lost it is an
ironical demonstration that a more pitiless fate awaits the ruler whose
faults are of the intellect, than one whose faults are of the heart.
By Anne Hyde James had eight children, of whom two only, Mary and Anne,
both queens of England, survived their father. By Mary of Modena he had
seven children, among them being James Francis Edward (the Old
Pretender) and Louisa Maria Theresa, who died at St Germain in 1712. By
one mistress, Arabella Churchill (1648-1730), he had two sons, James,
duke of Berwick, and Henry (1673-1702), titular duke of Albemarle and
grand prior of France, and a daughter, Henrietta (1667-1730), who
married Sir Henry Waldegrave, afterwards Baron Waldegrave; and by
another, Catherine Sedley, countess of Dorchester (1657-1717), a
daughter, Catherine (d. 1743), who married James Annesley, 5th earl of
Anglesey, and afterwards John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham and
Normanby.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Original Authorities_: J. S. Clarke, _James II. Life_
(London, 1816); James Macpherson, _Original Papers_ (2 vols., London,
1775); Gilbert Burnet, _Supplement to History_, ed. H. C. Foxcroft
(Oxford, 1902); Earl of Clarendon and Earl of Rochester,
_Correspondence_, vol. ii. (London, 1828); John Evelyn, _Diary and
Correspondence and Life_, edited by Bray and Wheatley (London, 1906);
Sir John Reresby, _Memoirs_, ed. A. Ivatt (1904); _Somers Tracts_,
vols, ix.-xi. (London, 1823). _Modern Works_: Lord Acton, _Lectures on
Modern History_, pp. 195-276 (London, 1906); Moritz Brosch,
_Geschichte von England_, Bd. viii. (Gotha, 1903); Onno Klopp, _Der
Fall des Hauses Stuart_, Bde. i.-ix. (Vienna, 1875-1878); L. von
Ranke, _History of England_, vols, iv.-vi. (Oxford, 1875); and Allan
Fea, _James II. and his Wives_ (1908).
JAMES I. (1394-1437), king of Scotland and poet, the son of King Robert
III., was born at Dunfermline in July 1394. After the death of his
mother, Annabella Drummond of Stobhall, in 1402, he was placed under the
care of Henry Wardlaw (d. 1440), who became bishop of St Andrews in
1403, but soon his father resolved to send him to France. Robert
doubtless decided upon this course owing to the fact that in 1402 his
elder son, David, duke of Rothesay, had met his death in a mysterious
fashion, being probably murdered by his uncle, Robert, duke of Albany,
who, as the king was an invalid, was virtually the ruler of Scotland. On
the way to France, however, James fell into the hands of some English
sailors and was sent to Henry IV., who refused to admit him to ransom.
The chronicler Thomas Walsingham, says that James's imprisonment began
in 1406, while the future king himself places it in 1404; February 1406
is probably the correct date. On the death of Robert III. in April 1406
James became nominally king of Scotland, but he remained a captive in
England, the government being conducted by his uncle, Robert of Albany,
who showed no anxiety to procure his nephew's release. Dying in 1420,
Albany was succeeded as regent by his son, Murdoch. At first James was
confined in the Tower of London, but in June 1407 he was removed to the
castle at Nottingham, whence about a month later he was taken to
Evesham. His education was continued by capable tutors, and he not only
attained excellence in all manly sports, but became perhaps more
cultured than any other prince of his age. In person he was short and
stout, but well-proportioned and very strong. His agility was not less
remarkable than his strength; he excelled in all athletic feats which
demanded suppleness of limb and quickness of eye. As regards his
intellectual attainments he is reported to have been acquainted with
philosophy, and it is evident from his subsequent career that he had
studied jurisprudence; moreover, besides being proficient in vocal and
instrumental music, he cultivated the art of poetry with much success.
When Henry V. became king in March 1413, James was again imprisoned in
the Tower of London, but soon afterwards he was taken to Windsor and was
treated with great consideration by the English king. In 1420, with the
intention of detaching the Scottish auxiliaries from the French
standard, he was sent to take part in Henry's campaign in France; this
move failed in its immediate object and he returned to England after
Henry's death in 1422. About this time negotiations for the release of
James were begun in earnest, and in September 1423 a treaty was signed
at York, the Scottish nation undertaking to pay a ransom of 60,000 marks
"for his maintenance in England." By the terms of the treaty James was
to wed a noble English lady, and on the 12th of February 1424 he was
married at Southwark to Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of
Somerset, a lady to whom he was faithful through life. Ten thousand
marks of his ransom were remitted as Jane's dowry, and in April 1424
James and his bride entered Scotland.
With the reign of James I., whose coronation took place at Scone on the
21st of May 1424, constitutional sovereignty may be said to begin in
Scotland. By the introduction of a system of statute law, modelled to
some extent on that of England, and by the additional importance
assigned to parliament, the leaven was prepared which was to work
towards the destruction of the indefinite authority of the king, and of
the unbridled licence of the nobles. During the parliament held at Perth
in March 1425 James arrested Murdoch, duke of Albany, and his son,
Alexander; together with Albany's eldest son, Walter, and Duncan, earl
of Lennox, who had been seized previously; they were sentenced to death,
and the four were executed at Stirling. In a parliament held at
Inverness in 1427 the king arrested many turbulent northern chiefs, and
his whole policy was directed towards crushing the power of the nobles.
In this he was very successful. Expeditions reduced the Highlands to
order; earldom after earldom was forfeited; but this vigour aroused the
desire for revenge, and at length cost James his life. Having been
warned that he would never again cross the Forth, the king went to
reside in Perth just before Christmas 1436. Among those whom he had
angered was Sir Robert Graham (d. 1437), who had been banished by his
orders. Instigated by the king's uncle, Walter Stewart, earl of Atholl
(d. 1437), and aided by the royal chamberlain, Sir Robert Stewart, and
by a band of Highlanders, Graham burst into the presence of James on the
night of the 20th of February 1437 and stabbed the king to death. Graham
and Atholl were afterwards tortured and executed. James had two sons:
Alexander, who died young, and James II., who succeeded to the throne;
and six daughters, among them being Margaret, the queen of Louis XI. of
France. His widow, Jane, married Sir James Stewart, the "black knight of
Lorne," and died on the 15th of July 1445.
During the latter part of James's reign difficulties arose between
Scotland and England and also between Scotland and the papacy. Part of
the king's ransom was still owing to England; other causes of discord
between the two nations existed, and in 1436 these culminated in a short
war. In ecclesiastical matters James showed himself merciless towards
heretics, but his desire to reform the Scottish Church and to make it
less dependent on Rome brought him into collision with Popes Martin V.
and Eugenius IV.
James was the author of two poems, the _Kingis Quair_ and _Good Counsel_
(a short piece of three stanzas). The _Song of Absence_, _Peblis to the
Play_ and _Christis Kirk on the Greene_ have been ascribed to him
without evidence. _The Kingis Quair_ (preserved in the Selden MS. B. 24
in the Bodleian) is an allegorical poem of the _cours d'amour_ type,
written in seven-lined Chaucerian stanzas and extending to 1379 lines.
It was composed during James's captivity in England and celebrates his
courtship of Lady Jane Beaufort. Though in many respects a Chaucerian
_pastiche_, it not rarely equals its model in verbal and metrical
felicity. Its language is an artificial blend of northern and southern
(Chaucerian) forms, of the type shown in _Lancelot of the Laik_ and the
_Quair of Jelusy_.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The contemporary authorities for the reign of James I.
are Andrew of Wyntoun, _The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland_, edited by
D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); and Walter Bower's continuation of
John of Fordun's _Scotichronicon_, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1722).
See also J. Pinkerton, _History of Scotland_ (1797); A. Lang, _History
of Scotland_, vol. i. (1900); and G. Burnett, _Introduction to the
Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1878-1901). _The Kingis
Quair_ was first printed in the _Poetical Remains of James the First_,
edited by William Tytler (1783). Later editions are Morison's reprint
(Perth, 1786); J. Sibbald's, in his _Chronicle of Scottish Poetry_
(1802, vol. i.); Thomson's in 1815 and 1824; G. Chalmers's, in his
_Poetic Remains of some of the Scottish Kings_ (1824); Rogers's
_Poetical Remains of King James the First_ (1873); Skeat's edition
published by the Scottish Text Society (1884). An attempt has been
made to dispute James's authorship of the poem, but the arguments
elaborated by J. T. T. Brown (_The Authorship of the Kingis Quair_,
Glasgow, 1896) have been convincingly answered by Jusserand in his
_Jacques I^{er} d'Écosse fut-il poète? Étude sur l'authenticité du
cahier du roi_ (Paris, 1897, reprinted from the _Revue historique_,
vol. lxiv.). See also the full correspondence in the _Athenaeum_
(July-Aug. 1896 and Dec. 1899); W. A. Neilson, _Origins and Sources of
the Court of Love_ (Boston, 1899) pp. 152 &c., 235 &c.; and Gregory
Smith, _Transition Period_ (1900), pp. 40, 41.
JAMES II. (1430-1460), king of Scotland, the only surviving son of James
I. and his wife, Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset, was
born on the 16th of October 1430. Crowned king at Holyrood in March
1437, shortly after the murder of his father, he was at first under the
guardianship of his mother, while Archibald, 5th earl of Douglas, was
regent of the kingdom, and considerable power was possessed by Sir
Alexander Livingstone and Sir William Crichton (d. 1454). When about
1439 Queen Jane was married to Sir James Stewart, the knight of Lorne,
Livingstone obtained the custody of the young king, whose minority was
marked by fierce hostility between the Douglases and the Crichtons, with
Livingstone first on one side and then on the other. About 1443 the
royal cause was espoused by William, 8th earl of Douglas, who attacked
Crichton in the king's name, and civil war lasted until about 1446. In
July 1449 James was married to Mary (d. 1463), daughter of Arnold, duke
of Gelderland, and undertook the government himself; and almost
immediately Livingstone was arrested, but Douglas retained the royal
favour for a few months more. In 1452, however, this powerful earl was
invited to Stirling by the king, and, charged with treachery, was
stabbed by James and then killed by the attendants. Civil war broke out
at once between James and the Douglases, whose lands were ravaged; but
after the Scots parliament had exonerated the king, James, the new earl
of Douglas, made his submission. Early in 1455 this struggle was
renewed. Marching against the rebels James gained several victories,
after which Douglas was attainted and his lands forfeited. Fortified by
this success and assured of the support of the parliament and of the
great nobles, James, acting as an absolute king, could view without
alarm the war which had broken out with England. After two expeditions
across the borders, a truce was made in July 1457, and the king employed
the period of peace in strengthening his authority in the Highlands.
During the Wars of the Roses he showed his sympathy with the Lancastrian
party after the defeat of Henry VI. at Northampton by attacking the
English possessions to the south of Scotland. It was while conducting
the siege of Roxburgh Castle that James was killed, through the bursting
of a cannon, on the 3rd of August 1460. He left three sons, his
successor, James III., Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, and John
Stewart, earl of Mar (d. 1479); and two daughters. James, who is
sometimes called "Fiery Face," was a vigorous and popular prince, and,
although not a scholar like his father, showed interest in education.
His reign is a period of some importance in the legislative history of
Scotland, as measures were passed with regard to the tenure of land, the
reformation of the coinage, and the protection of the poor, while the
organization for the administration of justice was greatly improved.
JAMES III. (1451-1488), king of Scotland, eldest son of James II., was
born on the 10th of July 1451. Becoming king in 1460 he was crowned at
Kelso. After the death of his mother in 1463, and of her principal
supporter, James Kennedy, bishop of St Andrews, two years later, the
person of the young king, and with it the chief authority in the
kingdom, were seized by Sir Alexander Boyd and his brother Lord Boyd,
while the latter's son, Thomas, was created earl of Arran and married to
the king's sister, Mary. In July 1469 James himself was married to
Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and
Norway, but before the wedding the Boyds had lost their power. Having
undertaken the government in person, the king received the submission of
the powerful earl of Ross, and strengthened his authority in other ways.
But his preference for a sedentary and not for an active life and his
increasing attachment to favourites of humble birth diminished his
popularity, and he had some differences with his parliament. About 1479,
probably with reason both suspicious and jealous, James arrested his
brothers, Alexander, duke of Albany, and John, earl of Mar; Mar met his
death in a mysterious fashion at Craigmillar, but Albany escaped to
France and then visited England, where in 1482 Edward IV. recognized him
as king of Scotland by the gift of the king of England. War broke out
with England, but James, made a prisoner by his nobles, was unable to
prevent Albany and his ally, Richard, duke of Gloucester (afterwards
Richard III.), from taking Berwick and marching to Edinburgh. Peace with
Albany followed, but soon afterwards the duke was again in
communication with Edward, and was condemned by the parliament after
the death of the English king in April 1483. Albany's death in France in
1485 did not end the king's troubles. His policy of living at peace with
England and of arranging marriages between the members of the royal
families of the two countries did not commend itself to the turbulent
section of his nobles; his artistic tastes and lavish expenditure added
to the discontent, and a rebellion broke out. Fleeing into the north of
his kingdom James collected an army and came to terms with his foes; but
the rebels, having seized the person of the king's eldest son,
afterwards James IV., renewed the struggle. The rival armies met at the
Sauchieburn near Bannockburn, and James soon fled. Reaching Beaton's
Mill he revealed his identity, and, according to the popular story, was
killed on the 11th of June 1488 by a soldier in the guise of a priest
who had been called in to shrive him. He left three sons--his successor,
James IV.; James Stewart, duke of Ross, afterwards archbishop of St
Andrews, and John Stewart, earl of Mar. James was a cultured prince with
a taste for music and architecture, but was a weak and incapable king.
His character is thus described by a chronicler: "He was ane man that
loved solitude, and desired nevir to hear of warre, bot delighted more
in musick and policie and building nor he did in the government of the
realme."
JAMES IV. (1473-1513), king of Scotland, eldest son of James III., was
born on the 17th of March 1473. He was nominally the leader of the
rebels who defeated the troops of James III. at the Sauchieburn in June
1488, and became king when his father was killed. As he adopted an
entirely different policy with the nobles from that of his father, and,
moreover, showed great affability towards the lower class of his
subjects, among whom he delighted to wander incognito, few if any of the
kings of Scotland have won such general popularity, or passed a reign so
untroubled by intestine strife. Crowned at Scone a few days after his
accession, James began at once to take an active part in the business of
government. A slight insurrection was easily suppressed, and a plot
formed by some nobles to hand him over to the English king, Henry VII.,
came to nothing. In spite of this proceeding Henry wished to live at
peace with his northern neighbour, and soon contemplated marrying his
daughter to James, but the Scottish king was not equally pacific. When,
in 1495, Perkin Warbeck, pretending to be the duke of York, Edward IV.'s
younger son, came to Scotland, James bestowed upon him both an income
and a bride, and prepared to invade England in his interests. For
various reasons the war was confined to a few border forays. After
Warbeck left Scotland in 1497, the Spanish ambassador negotiated a
peace, and in 1502 a marriage was definitely arranged between James and
Henry's daughter Margaret (1489-1541). The wedding took place at
Holyrood in August 1503, and it was this union which led to the
accession of the Stewart dynasty to the English throne.
About the same time James crushed a rebellion in the western isles, into
which he had previously led expeditions, and parliament took measures to
strengthen the royal authority therein. At this date too, or a little
earlier, the king of Scotland began to treat as an equal with the
powerful princes of Europe, Maximilian I., Louis XII. and others;
sending assistance to his uncle Hans, king of Denmark, and receiving
special marks of favour from Pope Julius II., anxious to obtain his
support. But his position was weakened when Henry VIII. followed Henry
VII. on the English throne in 1509. Causes of quarrel already existed,
and other causes, both public and private, soon arose between the two
kings; sea-fights took place between their ships, while war was brought
nearer by the treaty of alliance which James concluded with Louis XII.
in 1512. Henry made a vain effort to prevent, or to postpone, the
outbreak of hostilities; but urged on by his French ally and his queen,
James declared for war, in spite of the counsels of some of his
advisers, and (it is said) of the warning of an apparition. Gathering a
large and well-arm
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