Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Justinian II." to "Kells"
by Various · English · Gutenberg #40863 · 1,144,305 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Justinian II." to "Kells"
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Justinian II." to "Kells"
Author: Various
Release date: September 25, 2012 [eBook #40863]
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40863
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "JUSTINIAN II." TO "KELLS" ***
Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE JUTE: "The use of C. olitorius for the latter purpose dates
from very ancient times, if it may be identified ..." 'if it'
amended from 'it if'.
ARTICLE KASHI: "Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that 'the art
of glazing earthenware has, in Persia ..." 'earthenware' amended
from 'eathenware'.
ARTICLE KASHMIRI: "... a poem on Saiva philosophy by a woman named
Lalladevi, is said to be the oldest work in the language which has
survived." 'philosophy' amended from 'philosopy'.
ARTICLE KAZAN: "Kazan lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail and 253 m.
E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga." 'm.' missing.
ARTICLE KAZERUN: "... of the city on a huge mound are ruins of
buildings with underground chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i
Gabr ..." 'huge' amended from 'hugh'.
ARTICLE KEARNEY: "... where the city was planned. Kearney became a
town in 1873, a city of the second class and the county seat in
1874, and a city of the first class in 1901." 'where' amended from
'or' and 'planned' amended from 'platted'.
ARTICLE KEENE: "and as responsible for the commercial treaty
between England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the
time; it was chartered as a city in 1874." 'commercial' amended
from 'commerical'.
ARTICLE KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK: "Of his minor poems written before
that date the most important are the charming spring-song Vinterns
valde lyktar, and the satirical Mina lojen and Man eger ej snille
for det man ar galen." 'satirical' amended from 'satrical'.
ARTICLE KELLS: "The most notable is St Columbkille's house,
originally an oratory, but afterwards converted into a church, the
chancel of which was in existence in 1752." 'originally' amended
from 'orginally'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XV, SLICE VI
Justinian II. to Kells
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
JUSTINIAN II. KARAMAN
JUSTIN MARTYR KARAMANIA
JUTE KARAMNASA
JUTERBOG KARA MUSTAFA
JUTES KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH
JUTIGALPA KARA SEA
JUTLAND KARASU-BAZAR
JUTURNA KARATEGHIN
JUVENAL KARAULI
JUVENCUS, GAIUS AQUILINUS KAREN
JUVENILE OFFENDERS KAREN-NI
JUVENTAS KARIKAL
JUXON, WILLIAM KARLI
K KARLOWITZ
K2 KARLSKRONA
KA'BA, KAABA KARLSRUHE
KABARDIA KARLSTAD
KABBA KARLSTADT
KABBABISH KARMA
KABBALAH KARMAN, JOZSEF
KABINDA KARNAK
KABIR KARNAL
KABUL KAROLYI, ALOYS
KABUL RIVER KAROSS
KABYLES KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE
KACH GANDAVA KARRER, FELIX
KACHIN HILLS KARROO
KADUR KARS (province of Russia)
KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT KARS (town of Russia)
KAFFA KARSHI
KAFFIR BREAD KARST
KAFFIRS KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD
KAFFRARIA KARTIKEYA
KAFIRISTAN KARUN
KAGERA KARWAR
KAHLUR KARWI
KAHN, GUSTAVE KARYOGAMY
KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST KASAI
K'AI-FENG FU KASBEK
KAILAS KASHAN
KAIN KASHGAR
KAIRA KASHI
KAIRAWAN KASHMIR
KAISERSLAUTERN KASHMIRI
KAISERSWERTH KASHUBES
KAITHAL KASIMOV
KAKAPO KASSA
KAKAR KASSALA
KALA-AZAR KASSASSIN
KALABAGH KASSITES
KALACH KASTAMUNI
KALAHANDI KASTORIA
KALAHARI DESERT KASUR
KALAMATA KATAGUM
KALAMAZOO KATANGA
KALAPUYA KATER, HENRY
KALAT KATHA
KALAT-I-GHILZAI KATHIAWAR
KALB, JOHANN KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH
KALCKREUTH, FRIEDRICH ADOLF KATMANDU
KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD KATO, TAKA-AKIRA
KALEIDOSCOPE KATRINE, LOCH
KALERGIS, DIMITRI KATSENA
KALEWALA KATSURA, TARO
KALGAN KATTERFELTO, GUSTAVUS
KALGOORLIE KATTOWITZ
KALI KATWA
KALIDASA KATYDID
KALIMPONG KAUFBEUREN
KALINGA KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA
KALINJAR KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH
KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER KAUKAUNA
KALISCH, ISIDOR KAULBACH, WILHELM VON
KALISCH, MARCUS KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON
KALISPEL KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB
KALISZ (government of Poland) KAURI PINE
KALISZ (town of Poland) KAVA
KALK KAVADH
KALKAS KAVALA
KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH
KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON KAVANAGH, JULIA
KALMAR KAVASS
KALMUCK KAVIRONDO
KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND KAW
KALOCSA KAWARDHA
KALPI KAY, JOHN
KALUGA (government of Russia) KAY, JOSEPH
KALUGA (town of Russia) KAYAK
KALYAN KAYASTH
KAMA KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM
KAMALA KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL
KAMCHATKA KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS
KAME KAZALA
KAMENETS PODOLSKIY KAZAN (government of Russia)
KAMENZ KAZAN (town of Russia)
KAMES, HENRY HOME KAZERUN
KAMMIN KAZINCZY, FERENCZ
KAMPEN KAZVIN
KAMPTEE KEAN, EDMUND
KAMRUP KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH
KAMYSHIN KEARNEY
KANAKA KEARNY, PHILIP
KANARA KEARNY
KANARESE KEARY, ANNIE
KANARIS, CONSTANTINE KEATE, JOHN
KANAUJ KEATS, JOHN
KANDAHAR KEBLE, JOHN
KANDI KECSKEMET
KANDY KEDDAH
KANE, ELISHA KENT KEDGEREE
KANE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) KEEL
KANGAROO KEELEY, MARY ANNE
KANGAROO-RAT KEELING ISLANDS
KANGAVAR KEEL-MOULDING
KANGRA KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL
KANISHKA KEENE, LAURA
KANKAKEE KEENE (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
KANKER KEEP, ROBERT PORTER
KANO KEEP
KANSAS KEEWATIN
KANSAS CITY (Kansas, U.S.A.) KEF
KANSAS CITY (Missouri, U.S.A.) KEHL
KANSK KEIGHLEY
KAN-SUH KEI ISLANDS
KANT, IMMANUEL KEIM, KARL THEODOR
KANURI KEITH (old Scottish family)
KAOLIN KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES
KAPUNDA KEITH, GEORGE
KAPURTHALA KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE
KARACHI KEITH (burgh of Scotland)
KARAGEORGE KEJ
KARA-HISSAR KEKULE, FRIEDRICH AUGUST
KARA-HISSAR SHARKI KELLER, ALBERT
KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES KELLER, GOTTFRIED
KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH KELLER, HELEN ADAMS
KARA-KALPAKS KELLERMANN, FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE DE
KARAKORUM KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK
KARA-KUL KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE
KARA-KUM KELLS
JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669-711), East Roman emperor 685-695 and
704-711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., at the age of sixteen.
His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful
invasion he made a truce with the Arabs, which admitted them to the
joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000
Christian Maronites from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a
command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by
conquering all Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the
Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the
emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity
with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus, he extorted
the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting
costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose
under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his
surname), banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a reign
of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius
Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped
from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the
Khazars. Compelled, however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his
new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of
15,000 horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his
rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans, and
once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an
unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by
devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and
Cherson, where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected
nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his
subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus,
assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius,
was assassinated in Asia Minor, December 711.
See E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury,
1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii.
320-330, 358-367.
JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian apologists, was
born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. _Sichem_), now Nablus, in
Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, according to his own account,
were Pagans (_Dial. c. Tryph._ 28). He describes the course of his
religious development in the introduction to the dialogue with the Jew
Trypho, in which he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger
brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of
truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study
of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, Stoics and
Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge
was not to be found in them. On the other hand, he came to look upon the
Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery
and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us
in another place (_Apol._ ii. 12), must be added the deep impression
produced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion
apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places his
decisive interview with the old man, and there he had those discussions
with Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later
years set down in his _Dialogue_. After his conversion he retained his
philosopher's cloak (Euseb., _Hist. Eccl._ iv. 11. 8), the distinctive
badge of the wandering professional teacher of philosophy, and went
about from place to place discussing the truths of Christianity in the
hope of bringing educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought,
through philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, giving
lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without opposition from
his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius
(_Apol._ ii. 13). Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 16. 7-8) concludes
somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his disciple Tatian
(_Orat. ad Graec._ 19), that the accusation of Justin before the
authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we
know, from the undoubtedly genuine _Acta SS Justini et sociorum_, that
Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus between
163 and 167.
To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn
to his _Apology_ and to the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho, for the
authenticity of all other extant works attributed to him is disputed
with good reason. The _Apology_--it is more correct to speak of one
_Apology_ than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the
first, and dependent upon it--was written in Rome about 150. In the
first part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the charge of
atheism and hostility to the state. He then draws a positive
demonstration of the truth of his religion from the effects of the new
faith, and especially from the excellence of its moral teaching, and
concludes with a comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which
the latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons. As
the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity appears his
detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the old dispensation,
which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their
fulfilment in Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of
their religious worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated
themselves to God. The whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with
a reference to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians.
In the so-called _Second Apology_, Justin takes occasion from the trial
of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence of the
Christians was proved by the very persecutions.
Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his
conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a preparation for the
truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most
distinguished in the long list of those who have endeavoured to
reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists
for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the Logos
in the person of Christ, of God, righteousness and immortality, truths
which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic
religious philosophies. In this process the conviction of the
reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world and
the individual through Christ, fell into the background before the
vindication of supernatural truths intellectually conceived. Thus Justin
may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not
having given it its full value as a religion of salvation. It must not,
however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of
Christianity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view of
life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an
intimate comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he
himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the _Dialogue_
with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to deal with the Judaism that
believed in a Messiah, he was far better able to do justice to
Christianity as a revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this
work are much more completely in harmony with primitive Christian
theology than those of the _Apology_. He also displays in this work a
considerable knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful
polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish
writers.
Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church
in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have elsewhere no connected
account of this, Justin's _Apology_ contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.),
which give a vivid description of the public worship of the Church and
its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist).
And from this it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to
go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his
standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His
works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament
writings. He knows of no canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and
inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the
teachings of Jesus are the "Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are
probably to be understood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel
according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along
with the prophetic writings at the public services. From his writings we
derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at
pains to arrive at an understanding with his opponents. As a theologian,
he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat
dull. There are not many traces of any particular literary influence of
his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us.
The Church as a whole took but little interest in apologetics and
polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these
controversies that which she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus
Justin's writings were not much read, and at the present time both the
_Apology_ and the _Dialogue_ are preserved in but a single MS. (cod.
Paris, 450, A.D. 1364).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The editions of Robert Etienne (Stephanus) (1551); H.
Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis (1742) are
superseded by J. C. T. Otto, _Justini philosophi et martyris opera
quae feruntur omnia_ (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition
contains besides the _Apologies_ (vol. i.) and the _Dialogue_ (vol.
ii.) the following writings: _Speech to the Greeks_ (_Oratio_);
_Address to the Greeks_ (_Cohortatio_): _On the Monarchy of God_;
_Epistle to Diognetus_; _Fragments on the Resurrection and other
Fragments_; _Exposition of the True Faith_; _Epistle to Zenas and
Serenus_; _Refutation of certain Doctrines of Aristotle_; _Questions
and Answers to the Orthodox_; _Questions of Christians to Pagans_;
_Questions of Pagans to Christians_. None of these writings, not even
the _Cohortatio_, which former critics ascribed to Justin, can be
attributed to him. The authenticity of the _Dialogue_ has occasionally
been disputed, but without reason. For a handy edition of the
_Apology_ see G. Kruger, _Die Apologien Justins des Martyrers_ (3rd
ed. Tubingen, 1904). There is a good German translation with a
comprehensive commentary by H. Veil (1894). For English translations
consult the "Oxford Library of the Fathers" and the "Ante-Nicene
Library." Full information about Justin's history and views may be had
from the following monographs: C. Semisch, _Justin der Martyrer_ (2
vols., 1840-1842); J. Donaldson, _A Critical History of Christian
Literature and Doctrine_, vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, _St Justin_
(3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von Engelhardt, _Das Christentum Justins des
Martyrers_ (1878); T. M. Wehofer, _Die Apologie Justins des
Philosophen und Martyrers in litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten
Male untersucht_ (1897); Alfred Leonhard Feder, _Justins des Martyrers
Lehre von Jesus Christus_ (1906). On the critical questions raised by
the spurious writings consult W. Gaul, _Die Abfassungsverhaltnisse der
pseudo-justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos_ (1902); Adolf Harnack,
_Diodor von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum
Diodors nachgewiesen_ (1901). (G. K.)
JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manufacturing
scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute appears to have
been first used in 1746, when the captain of the "Wake" noted in his log
that he had sent on shore "60 bales of gunney with all the jute rope"
(_New Eng. Dict. s.v._). In 1795 W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of
the East India Company a bale of the fibre which he described as "the
jute of the natives." Importations of the substance had been made at
earlier times under the name of _pat_, an East Indian native term by
which the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early
years of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now
bears. This modern name appears to be derived from _jhot_ or _jhout_
(Sansk. _jhat_), the vernacular name by which the substance is known in
the Cuttack district, where the East India Company had extensive
roperies when Roxburgh first used the term.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Capsules of Jute Plants. a, _Corchorus
capsularis_; b, C. _olitorius_.]
The fibre is obtained from two species of _Corchorus_ (nat. ord.
_Tiliaceae_), _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_, the products of both
being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agriculture is
any distinction made between them. These and various other species of
_Corchorus_ are natives of Bengal, where they have been cultivated from
very remote times for economic purposes, although there is reason to
believe that the cultivation did not originate in the northern parts of
India. The two species cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects
very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the
relatively greater size attained by _C. capsularis_. They are annual
plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a
man's finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-green
leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 1(1/2) in. broad above the base, and
taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated; the two lower
teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow
flowers are produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves.
The capsules or seed-pods in the case of _C. capsularis_ are globular,
rough and wrinkled, while in _C. olitorius_ they are slender, quill-like
cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted
from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of _C. capsularis_ and
_C. olitorius_ respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of _C.
olitorius_.
Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account of their
fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there
extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of _C. olitorius_ for the latter
purpose dates from very ancient times, if it may be identified, as some
suppose, with the mallows ([Hebrew: maluah]) mentioned in Job xxx. 4;
hence the name Jew's mallow. It is certain that the Greeks used this
plant as a pot-herb; and by many other nations around the shores of the
Mediterranean this use of it was, and is still, common. Throughout
Bengal the name by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are
recognized is _nalita_; when on the other hand they are spoken of as
fibre-producers it is generally under the name _pat_. The cultivation of
_C. capsularis_ is most prevalent in central and eastern Bengal, while
in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however, the area under
cultivation is limited, _C. olitorius_ is principally grown. The fibre
known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the product of another plant,
_Abutilon Avicennae_, a member of the Mallow family.
_Cultivation and Cropping._--Attempts have been made to grow the jute
plant in America, Egypt, Africa and other places, but up to the present
the fibre has proved much inferior to that obtained from plants grown in
India. Here the cultivation of the plant extends from the Hugli through
eastern and northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant
demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too much rain
at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the growth, while a
very dry season is disastrous. The climate of eastern and northern
Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth of the plant.
The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a measure on
the preparation of the soil. The ground should be ploughed about four
times and all weeds removed. The seed is then sown broadcast as in the
case of flax. It is only within quite recent years that any attention
has been paid to the selection of the seed. The following extract from
_Capital_ (Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it.
"Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for 1906 has
been issued. The object of these experiments is, of course, to obtain
a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially for no other
purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural department has
about 300 maunds (25,000 lb.) of selected seed for distribution this
year. The selling price is to be _Rs._ 10 per maund. The agricultural
department of the government of Bengal are now fully alive to the
importance of fostering the jute industry by showing conclusively that
attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow
where only one maund grew before. Let them go on (as they will) till
all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated into the new system."
The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the middle of
June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time of sowing and upon
the weather, is performed from the end of June to the middle of October.
The crop is said to be ready for gathering when the flowers appear; if
gathered before, the fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is
ripe, the fibre is stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic
lustre.
The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting similar
to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of Bengal it is the
practice to stack the crop for a few days previous to retting in order
to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the stalks. It is stated that
the colour of the fibre is darkened if the leaves are allowed to remain
on during the process of retting. It is also thought that the drying of
the plants before retting facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any
simple operation which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the
operation of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be
derived from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the
bundles are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period
necessary for the completion of the retting process varies according to
the temperature and to the properties of the water, and may occupy from
two days to a month. After the first few days of immersion the stalks
are examined daily to test the progress of the retting. When the fibres
are easily separated from the stalk, the operation is complete and the
bundles should be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of
jute is taken from Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_:--
"The proper point being attained, the native operator, standing up to
his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands as he
can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the ends next
the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the whole with a
little management from end to end, without breaking either stem or
fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this half state, he
next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a large handful;
swinging it round his head he dashes it repeatedly against the surface
of the water, drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the
impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface
of the water and carefully picks off all remaining black spots. It is
now wrung out so as to remove as much water as possible, and then hung
up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the sun."
The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for sending to
one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted into different
qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enormous hydraulic
pressure from which it emerges in the shape of the well-known bales,
each weighing 400 lb.
The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, and upon the
attention which the fibre has received in its various stages; the yield
per acre varies in different districts. Three bales per acre, or 1200
lb. is termed a 100% crop, but the usual quantity obtained is about 2.6
bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales
each. The crop in 1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907
nearly 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued on
the 19th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., Dundee:--
+---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+----------------------+---------------------+--------------+-----------+
| | |Estimated yield| Estimated | Shipment to Europe. | Shipment to America.| Supplies to | Out-turn |
| Year. | Actual | (100% | total +-----------+----------+---------+-----------+ Indian mills |total crop.|
| | acreage. | equal 3 bales | crop. | Jute. | Cuttings.| Jute. | Cuttings. | and local | Bales. |
| | | per acre). | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | consumption. | |
+---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
|1901--1st| 2,216,500 | 94% = | 6,250,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,249,000 | 96% = | 6,500,000 | 3,528,691 | 54,427 | 295,921 | 426,331 | 3,100,000 = | 7,405,370 |
|1902--1st| 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280.000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280,000 | 2,773,621 | 39,019 | 230,415 | 207,999 | 2,600,000 = | 5,851,054 |
|1903--1st| 2,100,000 | 85% = | 5,400,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,250,000 | 93(3/4)% = | 6,500,000 | 3,161,791 | 59,562 | 329,048 | 236,959 | 3,650,000 = | 7,437,360 |
|1904--1st| 2,700,000 | 87(1/2)% = | 7,100,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,850,000 | 85% = | 7,400,000 | 2,939,940 | 44,002 | 253,882 | 290,854 | 3,475,782 = | 7,004,460 |
|1905--1st| 3,163,500 | 87% = | 8,250,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 3,145,000 | 87% = | 8,200,000 \| | | | | \ | |
| | | Outlying | 200,000 /| 3,483,315 | 63,118 | 347,974 | 245,044 | 4,018,523 / =| 8,233,358 |
| | | | Madras | 75,384 | | | | | |
|1906--1st| 3,271,400\| 87% = | 8,713,000 | | | | | | |
|Outlying | 67,000/| Madras | 100,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 3,336,400 | | 8,736,220 | | | | | | |
| (Outlying Districts and Madras, say 250,000 | | | | | | |
| bales additional) | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
Estimated consumption of jute 1906-1907.
In Europe Bales per annum.
Scotland 1,250,000
England 20,000
Ireland 25,000
France 475,000
Belgium 120,000
Germany 750,000
Austria and Bohemia 262,000
Norway and Sweden 62,500
Russia 180,000
Holland 25,000
Spain 90,000
Italy 160,000
------- 3,419,500 bales
In America 600,000
------- 600,000 "
In India--
Mills 3,900,000
Local 500,000
--------- 4,400,000 "
---------------
8,419,500 bales
Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings.
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Consumption. | 1894. | 1904. | 1906. |
| | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. |
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| United Kingdom | 1,200,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,295,000 |
| Continent | 1,100,000 | 1,800,000 | 2,124,500 |
| America | 500,000 | 500,000 | 600,000 |
| Indian mills | 1,500,000 | 2,900,000 | 3,900,000 |
| Local Indian consumption | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total jute crop consumption| 4,800,000 | 6,900,000 | 8,419,500 |
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made during 1906, and
the report showed that very encouraging results were obtained from land
manured with cow-dung. If more scientific attention be given to the
cultivation it is quite possible that what is now considered as 100%
yield may be exceeded.
_Characteristics._--The characters by which qualities of jute are judged
are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness, uniformity and
absence of roots. The best qualities are of a clear whitish-yellow
colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and smooth to the touch, and
fine, long and uniform in fibre. When the fibre is intended for goods in
the natural colour it is essential that it should be of a light shade
and uniform, but if intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark
shade, the colour is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a
fibre with a length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has
been known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly
inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing to a
peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls of the
separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness at different
points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal strength. Recently
prepared fibre is always stronger, more lustrous, softer and whiter than
such as has been stored for some time--age and exposure rendering it
brown in colour and harsh and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much
more woody in texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may
be easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate reagents; and
to that fact is due the change in colour and character it undergoes on
exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with facility, up to a certain
point, sufficient to enable it to take brilliant and delicate shades of
dye colour, but it is with great difficulty brought to a pure white by
bleaching. A very striking and remarkable fact, which has much practical
interest, is its highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and
atmosphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under damp
conditions it will absorb as much as 23%.
Sir G. Watt, in his _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_,
mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre: Serajganji,
Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswal, Bakrabadi, Bhatial,
Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are several other varieties
of minor importance. The first four form the four classes into which
the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly known as
Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Serajgunge is a soft
fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from white to grey.
Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning qualities, and
is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour, which is not so high
as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and approaches red at the
roots. All the better class yarns are spun from these two kinds.
Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, is of good quality and of
great length; its drawback is the low colour, and hence it is not so
suitable for using in natural colour. It is, however, a valuable fibre
for carpet yarns, especially for dark yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh
and low quality fibre, and is used principally for heavy wefts. Each
class is subdivided according to the quality and colour of the
material, and each class receives a distinctive mark called a baler's
mark. Thus, the finest fibres may be divided as follows:--
Superfine first marks.
Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers.
Superior first marks " " "
Standard " " " " "
Good " " " " "
Ordinary " " " " "
Good second " " " "
Ordinary " " " " "
The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Corchorus olitorius_.]
Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed equal
in equality to some standard mark. It would be impossible to give a
list of the different marks, for there are hundreds, and new marks are
constantly being added. A list of all the principal marks is issued in
book form by the Calcutta Jute Baler's association.
The relative prices of the different classes depend upon the crop,
upon the demand and upon the quality of the fibre; in 1905 the prices
of Daisee jute and First Marks were practically the same, although the
former is always considered inferior to the latter. It does not follow
that a large crop of jute will result in low prices, for the year
1906-1907 was not only a record one for crops, but also for prices. R.
F. C. grade has been as high as L40 per ton, while its lowest recorded
price is L12. Similarly the price for First Marks reached L29, 15s. in
1906 as compared with L9, 5s. per ton in 1897. The following table
shows a few well-known grades with the average prices during December
for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906.
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Class. |Dec. 1903.|Dec. 1904.|Dec. 1905.|Dec. 1906.|
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | L s. d. | L s. d. | L s. d. | L s. d. |
| First marks | 12 15 0 | 16 0 0 | 19 15 0 | 27 15 0 |
| Blacks S C C | 11 2 6 | 14 5 0 | 17 15 0 | 20 15 0 |
| Red S C C | 12 0 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 15 0 | 23 15 0 |
| Native rejections | 8 2 6 | -- | 14 10 0 | 15 17 6 |
| S 4 group | -- | -- | 25 10 0 | 38 0 0 |
| R F block D group | -- | -- | -- | 36 0 0 |
| R F circle D group| 14 10 0 | 16 15 0 | 21 10 0 | -- |
| R F D group | 11 15 0 | 14 2 6 | 17 12 6 | 22 0 0 |
| N B green D | 14 5 0 | -- | 21 0 0 | 32 0 0 |
| Heart T 4 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 22 10 0 | 34 0 0 |
| Heart T 5 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 21 0 0 | 31 0 0 |
| Daisee 2 | 12 17 6 | -- | 18 15 0 | 25 10 0 |
| Daisee assortment | 12 10 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 5 0 | -- |
| Mixed cuttings | 4 5 0 | -- | 10 0 0 | 10 0 0 |
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
_Jute Manufacture._--Long before jute came to occupy a prominent place
amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed the raw material of a
large and important industry throughout the regions of Eastern Bengal.
The Hindu population made the material up into cordage, paper and cloth,
the chief use of the latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags.
Indeed, up to 1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand
labour for this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for
bags and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been
described as follows:--
"Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called _tana para_ or warp,
are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure
of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or thread
is wound on them as warp called _tana_. The warp is taken up and
removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placed at two
ends, which are tied to the _ohari_ and _okher_ or roller; they are
made fast to the _khoti_. The _belut_ or treadle is put into the warp;
next to that is the _sarsul_; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the
warp, called _chupari_ or regulator. There is no sley used in this,
nor is a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered
with thread called _singa_ is thrown into the warp as woof, which is
beaten in by a piece of plank called _beyno_, and as the cloth is
woven it is wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood
called _khetone_, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof;
a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight."
Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the purpose to
which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and dense in texture, for
carrying such seed as poppy or rape and sugar; others less close are
used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like size, and coarser and opener
kinds again are woven for the outer cover of packages and for the sails
of country boats. There is a thin close-woven cloth made and used as
garments among the females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the
Himalayas, and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute
mixed with cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing
purposes. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied, the
following quotation may be cited from the official report of Hem Chunder
Kerr as applying to Midnapur.
"The articles manufactured from jute are principally (1) gunny bags;
(2) string, rope and cord; (3) _kampa_, a net-like bag for carrying
wood or hay on bullocks; (4) _chat_, a strip of stuff for tying bales
of cotton or cloth; (5) _dola_, a swing on which infants are rocked to
sleep; (6) _shika_, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots,
&c.; (7) _dulina_, a floor-cloth; (8) _beera_, a small circular stand
for wooden plates used particularly in _poojahs_; (9) painter's brush
and brush for white-washing; (10) _ghunsi_, a waist-band worn next to
the skin; (11) _gochh-dari_, a hair-band worn by women; (12) _mukbar_,
a net bag used as muzzle for cattle; (13) _parchula_, false hair worn
by players; (14) _rakhi-bandhan_, a slender arm-band worn at the
Rakhi-poornima festival; and (15) _dhup_, small incense sticks burned
at _poojahs_."
The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards the close
of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was spun into yarn
and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon. It is claimed that this
was the first British town to manufacture the material. For years small
quantities of jute were imported into Great Britain and other European
countries and into America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the
fibre may be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain.
The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made in this
year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experiments proved to be
the foundation of an enormous industry. It is interesting to note that
the site of Chapelshade Works was in 1907 cleared for the erection of a
large new technical college.
In common with practically all new industries progress was slow for a
time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth produced from it had
become known the development was more rapid. The pioneers of the work
were confronted with many difficulties; most people condemned the fibre
and the cloth, many warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any
attempt to mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of
deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the fact that
suitable machinery and methods of treatment had not been developed for
preparing yarns from this useful fibre. Warden in his _Linen Trade_
says:--
"For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused to
have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained a
tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch
government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns for those made from
flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for their East Indian
possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got a proper start. That
fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the spinning of the fibre
which it never lost, and since that period its progress has been truly
astonishing."
The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine hessian
yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form an important
branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks during 1906 as many as
1000 bales were despatched to Brazil, besides numerous quantities to
other parts of the world.
For many years Great Britain was the only European country engaged in
the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee. Gradually,
however, the trade began to extend, and now almost every European
country is partly engaged in the trade.
The success of the mechanical method of spinning and weaving of jute in
Dundee and district led to the introduction of textile machinery into
and around Calcutta. The first mill to be run there by power was started
in 1854, while by 1872 three others had been established. In the next
ten years no fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with
modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were
thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of the Indian
power trade may be gathered from the following particulars of the number
of looms and spindles from 1892 to 1906. In one or two cases the number
of spindles is obtained approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per
loom, which is about the average for the Indian mills.
+-------------+------------+--------------+
| Year. | Looms. | Spindles. |
+-------------+------------+--------------+
| 1892-3 | 8,479 | 177,732 |
| 1893-4 | 9,082 | 189,144 |
| 1894-5 | 9,504 | 197,673 |
| 1895-6 | 10,071 | 212,595 |
| 1896-7 | 12,276 | 254,610 |
| 1897-8 | 12,737 | 271,363 |
| 1898-9 | 13,323 | 277,398 |
| 1899-1900 | 14,021 | 293,218 |
| 1900-01 | 15,242 | 315,264 |
| 1901-02 | 16,059 | 329,300 |
| 1902-03 | 17,091 | 350,120 |
| 1904* | 19,901 | 398,020** |
| 1905* | 21,318 | 426,360** |
| 1906* | 26,799 | 520,980** |
+-------------+------------+--------------+
* End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of
March, the end of financial year.
** Approximate number of spindles.
The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few varieties of
the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success in this direction
has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the other hand, turns out not
only the commoner classes of fabrics, but a very large variety of other
fabrics. Amongst these may be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging,
tarpaulin, sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation
Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting, in
addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part.
Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which Dundee held
in its former days, but the continually increasing demands for jute
fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee to enter new markets and so
to take part in the prosperity of the trade.
The development of the trade with countries outside India from 1828 to
1906 may be seen by the following figures of exports:--
Average per year from 1828 to 1832-33 11,800 cwt.
" " " 1833-34 " 1837-38 67,483 "
" " " 1838-39 " 1842-43 117,047 "
" " " 1843-44 " 1847-48 234,055 "
" " " 1848-49 " 1852-53 439,850 "
" " " 1853-54 " 1857-58 710,826 "
" " " 1858-59 " 1862-63 969,724 "
" " " 1863-64 " 1867-68 2,628,110 "
" " " 1868-69 " 1872-73 4,858,162 "
" " " 1873-74 " 1877-78 5,362,267 "
" " " 1878-79 " 1882-83 7,274,000 "
" " " 1883-84 " 1887-88 8,223,859 "
" " " 1888-89 " 1892-93 10,372,991 "
" " " 1893-94 " 1897-98 12,084,292 "
" " " 1898-99 " 1902-03 11,959,189 "
" " " 1903-04 " 1905-06 13,693,090 "
The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an agricultural,
as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. The difference between
the production and the exports represents the native consumption, for
very little jute is sent overland. The figures are taken to the 31st of
March, the end of the Indian financial year.
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
| Year. | Acres under | Production | Exports by |
| | cultivation.| in cwt. | sea in cwt. |
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
| 1893 | 2,181,334 | 20,419,000 | 10,537,512 |
| 1894 | 2,230,570 | 17,863,000 | 8,690,133 |
| 1895 | 2,275,335 | 21,944,400 | 12,976,791 |
| 1896 | 2,248,593 | 19,825,000 | 12,266,781 |
| 1897 | 2,215,105 | 20,418,000 | 11,464,356 |
| 1898 | 2,159,908 | 24,425,000 | 15,023,325 |
| 1899 | 1,690,739 | 19,050,000 | 9,864,545 |
| 1900 | 2,070,668 | 19,329,000 | 9,725,245 |
| 1901 | 2,102,236 | 23,307,000 | 12,414,552 |
| 1902 | 2,278,205 | 26,564,000 | 14,755,115 |
| 1903 | 2,142,700 | 23,489,000 | 13,036,486 |
| 1904 | 2,275,050 | 25,861,000 | 13,721,447 |
| 1905 | 2,899,700 | 26,429,000 | 12,875,312 |
| 1906 | 3,181,600 | 29,945,000 | 14,581,307 |
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
_Manufacture._--In their general features the spinning and weaving of
jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and processes
from those employed in the manufacture of hemp and heavy flax goods.
Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to
undergo a preliminary treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the
jute industry, who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did
not know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be
remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had to
encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and hairy yarn
owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre. This peculiarity of
jute, coupled also with the fact that the machinery on which it was
first spun, although quite suitable for the stronger and more elastic
fibres for which it was designed, required certain modifications to suit
it to the weaker jute, was the cause of many annoyances and failures in
the early days of the trade.
The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. Batch
setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of selecting
the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind of
yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, indeed it
is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four or even
more varieties or marks. The "streaks"[1] or "heads" of jute as they
come from the bale are in a hard condition in consequence of having
been subjected to a high hydraulic pressure during baling; it is
therefore necessary to soften them before any further process is
entered. The streaks are sometimes partly softened or crushed by means
of a steam hammer during the process of opening the bale, then taken
to the "strikers-up" where the different varieties are selected and
hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening machine. The more
general practice, however, is to employ what is termed a "bale
opener," or "jute crusher." The essential parts of one type of bale
opener are three specially shaped rollers, the peripheries of which
contain a number of small knobs. Two of these rollers are supported in
the same horizontal plane of the framework, while the third or top
roller is kept in close contact by means of weights and springs acting
on each end of the arbor. Another type of machine termed the three
pair roller jute opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the
different bales are laid upon the feed cloth which carries them up to
the rollers, between which the layers are crushed and partly
separated. The proximity of the weighted roller or rollers to the
fixed ones depends upon the thickness of material passing through the
machine. The fibre is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth,
and the batcher usually selects small streaks of about 1(1/2) lb. to 2
lb. weight each and passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the
softening machine. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as
possible upon the feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view
of which is shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a series of
fluted rollers, each pair of which is kept in contact by spiral
springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is
sixty-three, but different lengths obtain. There is also a difference
in the structure of the flutes, some being straight, and others
spiral, and each pair may or may not contain the same number of
flutes. The springs allow the top rollers of each pair to rise as the
material passes through the machine. Advantage is taken of this slight
upward and downward movement of the top rollers to automatically
regulate the flow of water and oil upon the material. The apparatus
for this function is placed immediately over the 11th and 12th rollers
of the softening machine and an idea of its construction may be
gathered from fig. 5. In many cases the water and oil are applied by
less automatic, but equally effective, means. The main object is to
see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing
through, and to stop the supply when the machine stops or when no
fibre is passing. The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine
facilitates the subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this
preliminary process (originally by hand) constituted the first
important step in the practical solution of the difficulties of jute
spinning. The relative quantities of oil and water depend upon the
quality of the batch. Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used,
but in most cases the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 1(1/4) gallons
of oil is the usual amount given per bale of 400 lb. of jute, while
the quantity of water per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The
delivery attendants remove the streaks, give them a twist to
facilitate future handling, and place them on what are termed jute
barrows. The streaks are now handed over to the cutters who cut off
the roots, and finally the material is allowed to remain for twelve to
twenty-four hours to allow the mixture of oil and water to thoroughly
spread over the fibre.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this
article are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Jute Softening Machine.]
When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken to
the "breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department. A
certain weight of jute, termed a "dollop," is laid upon the feed cloth
for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be arranged
on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the feed cloth
and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the large
cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed, carries part
of the fibre towards the workers and strippers; the surface speed of
the workers being much slower than that of the cylinder. The pins in
the two rollers oppose each other, those of the workers being
"back-set," and this arrangement, combined with the relative angle of
the pins, and the difference in the surface speeds of the two rollers,
results in part of the fibre being broken and carried round by the
worker towards the stripper. This, as its name implies, strips the
fibre off the worker, and carries it round to the cylinder. The pins
of the stripper and cylinder point in the same direction, but since
the surface speed of the cylinder is much greater than the surface
speed of the stripper, it follows that the fibre is combed between the
two, and that part is carried forward by the cylinder to be reworked.
The strippers and workers are in pairs, of which there may be two or
more. After passing the last pair of workers and strippers the fibre
is carried forward towards the doffing roller, the pins of which are
back-set, and the fibre is removed from the cylinder by the doffer,
from which it passes between the drawing and pressing rollers into the
conductor, and finally between the delivery and pressing rollers into
the sliver can. It may be mentioned that more or less breaking takes
place between each pair of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and
that combing and drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins
pointing in the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the
drawing roller and the feed roller is termed the draft:--
surface speed of drawing roller
------------------------------- = draft.
surface speed of feed roller
In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Improved Batching Gear.]
The sliver from the can of the breaker card may be wound into balls,
or it may be taken direct to the finisher card. In the latter method
from eight to fifteen cans are placed behind the feed rollers, and all
the slivers from these cans are united before they emerge from the
machine. The main difference between a breaker card and a finisher
card is that the latter is fitted with finer pins, that it contains
two doffing rollers, and that it usually possesses a greater number of
pairs of workers and strippers--a full circular finisher card having
four sets.
After the fibre has been thoroughly carded by the above machines, the
cans containing the sliver from the finisher card are taken to the
first drawing frame. A very common method is to let four slivers run
into one sliver at the first drawing, then two slivers from the first
drawing are run into one sliver at the second drawing frame. There are
several types of drawing frames, e.g. push-bar or slide, rotary,
spiral, ring, open-link or chain, the spiral being generally used for
the second drawing. All, however, perform the same function, viz.,
combing out the fibres and thus laying them parallel, and in addition
drawing out the sliver. The designation of the machine indicates the
particular method in which the gill pins are moved. These pins are
much finer than those of the breaker and finisher cards, consequently
the fibres are more thoroughly separated. The draft in the first
drawing varies from three to five, while that in the second drawing is
usually five to seven. It is easy to see that a certain amount of
draft, or drawing out of the sliver, is necessary, otherwise the
various doublings would cause the sliver to emerge thicker and thicker
from each machine. The doublings play a very important part in the
appearance of the ultimate rove and yarn, for the chief reason for
doubling threads or slivers is to minimize irregularities of thickness
and of colour in the material. In an ordinary case, the total
doublings in jute from the breaker card to the end of the second
drawing is ninety-six: 12 X 4 X 2 = 96; and if the slivers were made
thinner and more of them used the ultimate result would naturally be
improved.
The final preparing process is that of roving. In this operation there
is no doubling of the slivers, but each sliver passes separately
through the machine, from the can to the spindle, is drawn out to
about eight times its length, and receives a small amount of twist to
strengthen it, in order that it may be successfully wound upon the
roving bobbin by the flyer. The chief piece of mechanism in the roving
frame is the gearing known as the "differential motion." It works in
conjunction with the disk and scroll, the cones, or the expanding
pulley, to impart an intermittingly variable speed to the bobbin (each
layer of the bobbin has its own particular speed which is constant for
the full traverse, but each change of direction of the builder is
accompanied by a quick change of speed to the bobbin). It is essential
that the bobbin should have such a motion, because the delivery of the
sliver and the speed of the flyer are constant for a given size of
rove, whereas the layers of rove on the bobbin increase in length as
the bobbin fills. In the jute roving frame the bobbin is termed the
"follower," because its revolutions per minute are fewer than those of
the flyer. Each layer of rove increases the diameter of the material
on the bobbin shank; hence, at the beginning of each layer, the speed
of the bobbin must be increased, and kept at this increased speed for
the whole traverse from top to bottom or vice versa.
Let R = the revolutions per second of the flyer;
r = the revolutions per second of the bobbin;
d = the diameter of bobbin shaft plus the material;
L = the length of sliver delivered per second;
then (R - r) d.[pi] = L.
In the above expression R, [pi] and L are constant, therefore as d
increases the term (R - r) must decrease; this can happen only when r
is increased, that is, when the bobbin revolves quicker. It is easy to
see from the above expression that if the bobbin were the "leader" its
speed would have to decrease as it filled.
The builder, which receives its motion from the disk and scroll, from
the cones, or from the expanding pulley, has also an intermittingly
variable speed. It begins at a maximum speed when the bobbin is empty,
is constant for each layer, but decreases as the bobbin fills.
The rove yarn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a further
draft of about eight is given. The principles of jute spinning are
similar to those of dry spinning for flax. For very heavy jute yarns
the spinning frame is not used--the desired amount of twist being
given at the roving frame.
The count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds of 14,400
yds., such length receiving the name of "spyndle." The finest yarns
weigh 2(3/4) lb. to 3 lb. per spyndle, but the commonest kinds are 7
lb., 8 lb., 9 lb. and 10 lb. per spyndle. The sizes rise in pounds up
to about 20 lb., then by 2 lb. up to about 50 lb. per spyndle, with
much larger jumps above this weight. It is not uncommon to find 200
lb. to 300 lb. rove yarn, while the weight occasionally reaches 450
lb. per spyndle. The different sizes of yarn are extensively used in a
large variety of fabrics, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction
with other fibres, e.g. with worsted in the various kinds of carpets,
with cotton in tapestries and household cloths, with line and tow
yarns for the same fabrics and for paddings, &c., and with wool for
horse clothing. The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant colours,
but, unfortunately, the colours are not very fast to light. The fibre
can also be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable closeness,
and advantage of this is largely taken in making stage wigs.
For detailed information regarding jute, the cloths made from it and
the machinery used, see the following works: Watts's _Dictionary of
the Economic Products of India_; Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_;
Sharp's _Flax, Tow and Jute Spinning_; Leggatt's _Jute Spinning_;
Woodhouse and Milne's _Jute and Linen Weaving_; and Woodhouse and
Milne's _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_. (T. Wo.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Also in the forms "streek," "strick" or "strike," as in Chaucer,
_Cant. Tales_, Prologue 676, where the Pardoner's hair is compared
with a "strike of flax." The term is also used of a handful of hemp
or other fibre, and is one of the many technical applications of
"strike" or "streak," which etymologically are cognate words.
JUTERBOG, or GUTERBOG, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 39 m. S.W. of Berlin, at the junction of the
main lines of railway from Berlin to Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. (1900),
7407. The town is surrounded by a medieval wall, with three gateways,
and contains two Protestant churches, of which that of St Nicholas (14th
century) is remarkable for its three fine aisles. There are also a Roman
Catholic church, an old town-hall and a modern school. Juterbog carries
on weaving and spinning both of flax and wool, and trades in the produce
of those manufactures and in cattle. Vines are cultivated in the
neighbourhood. Juterbog belonged in the later middle ages to the
archbishopric of Magdeburg, passing to electoral Saxony in 1648, and to
Prussia in 1815. It was here that a treaty over the succession to the
duchy of Julich was made in March 1611 between Saxony and Brandenburg,
and here in November 1644 the Swedes defeated the Imperialists. Two
miles S.W. of the town is the battlefield of Dennewitz where the
Prussians defeated the French on the 6th of September 1813.
JUTES, the third of the Teutonic nations which invaded Britain in the
5th century, called by Bede _Iutae_ or _Iuti_ (see BRITAIN,
ANGLO-SAXON). They settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight together with
the adjacent parts of Hampshire. In the latter case the national name is
said to have survived until Bede's own time, in the New Forest indeed
apparently very much later. In Kent, however, it seems to have soon
passed out of use, though there is good reason for believing that the
inhabitants of that kingdom were of a different nationality from their
neighbours (see KENT, KINGDOM OF). With regard to the origin of the
Jutes, Bede only says that Angulus (Angel) lay between the territories
of the Saxons and the Iutae--a statement which points to their identity
with the Iuti or Jyder of later times, i.e. the inhabitants of Jutland.
Some recent writers have preferred to identify the Jutes with a tribe
called Eucii mentioned in a letter from Theodberht to Justinian (_Mon.
Germ. Hist., Epist. iii._, p. 132 seq.) and settled apparently in the
neighbourhood of the Franks. But these people may themselves have come
from Jutland.
See Bede, _Hist. Eccles_, i. 15, iv. 16. (H. M. C.)
JUTIGALPA, or JUTICALPA, the capital of the department of Jutigalpa in
eastern Honduras, on one of the main roads from the Bay of Fonseca to
the Atlantic coast, and on a small left-hand tributary of the river
Patuca. Pop. (1905), about 18,000. Jutigalpa is the second city of
Honduras, being surpassed only by Tegucigalpa. It is the administrative
centre of a mountainous region rich in minerals, though mining is
rendered difficult by the lack of communications and the unsettled
condition of the country. The majority of the inhabitants are Indians or
half-castes, engaged in the cultivation of coffee, bananas, tobacco,
sugar or cotton.
JUTLAND (Danish _Jylland_), though embracing several islands as well as
a peninsula, may be said to belong to the continental portion of the
kingdom of Denmark. The peninsula (Chersonese or Cimbric peninsula of
ancient geography) extends northward, from a line between Lubeck and the
mouth of the Elbe, for 270 m. to the promontory of the Skaw (Skagen),
thus preventing a natural communication directly east and west between
the Baltic and North Seas. The northern portion only is Danish, and
bears the name Jutland. The southern is German, belonging to
Schleswig-Holstein. The peninsula is almost at its narrowest (36 m.) at
the frontier, but Jutland has an extreme breadth of 110 m. and the
extent from the south-western point (near Ribe) to the Skaw is 180 m.
Jutland embraces nine _amter_ (counties), namely, Hjorring, Thisted,
Aalborg, Ringkjobing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle and Ribe. The main
watershed of the peninsula lies towards the east coast; therefore such
elevated ground as exists is found on the east, while the western slope
is gentle and consists of a low sandy plain of slight undulation. The
North Sea coast (western) and Skagerrack coast (north-western) consist
mainly of a sweeping line of dunes with wide lagoons behind them. In the
south the northernmost of the North Frisian Islands (Fano) is Danish.
Towards the north a narrow mouth gives entry to the Limfjord, or
Liimfjord, which, wide and ramifying among islands to the west, narrows
to the east and pierces through to the Cattegat, thus isolating the
counties of Hjorring and Thisted (known together as Vendsyssel). It is,
however, bridged at Aalborg, and its depth rarely exceeds 12 ft. The
seaward banks of the lagoons are frequently broken in storms, and the
narrow channels through them are constantly shifting. The east coast is
slightly bolder than the west, and indented with true estuaries and
bays. From the south-east the chain of islands forming insular Denmark
extends towards Sweden, the strait between Jutland and Funen having the
name of the Little Belt. The low and dangerous coasts, off which the
seas are generally very shallow, are efficiently served by a series of
lifeboat stations. The western coast region is well compared with the
Landes of Gascony. The interior is low. The Varde, Omme, Skjerne, Stor
and Karup, sluggish and tortuous streams draining into the western
lagoons, rise in and flow through marshes, while the eastern Limfjord is
flanked by the swamps known as Vildmose. The only considerable river is
the Gudenaa, flowing from S.W. into the Randersfjord (Cattegat), and
rising among the picturesque lakes of the county of Aarhus, where the
principal elevated ground in the peninsula is found in the Himmelbjerg
and adjacent hills (exceeding 500 ft.). The German portion of the
peninsula is generally similar to that of western Jutland, the main
difference lying in the occurrence of islands (the North Frisian) off
the west coast in place of sand-bars and lagoons. Erratic blocks are of
frequent occurrence in south Jutland. (For geology, and the general
consideration of Jutland in connexion with the whole kingdom, see
DENMARK.)
Although in ancient times well wooded, the greater portion of the
interior of Jutland consisted for centuries of barren drift-sand, which
grew nothing but heather; but since 1866, chiefly through the
instrumentality of the patriotic Heath association, assisted by annual
contributions from the state, a very large proportion of this region has
been more or less reclaimed for cultivation. The means adopted are: (i.)
the plantation of trees; (ii.) the making of irrigation canals and
irrigating meadows; (iii.) exploring for, extracting and transporting
loam, a process aided by the construction of short light railways; and
(iv.), since 1889, the experimental cultivation of fenny districts. The
activity of the association takes the form partly of giving gratuitous
advice, partly of experimental attempts, and partly of model works for
imitation. The state also makes annual grants directly to owners who are
willing to place their plantations under state supervision, for the sale
of plants at half price to the poorer peasantry, for making protective
or sheltering plantations, and for free transport of marl or loam. The
species of timber almost exclusively planted are the red fir (_Picea
excelsa_) and the mountain pine (_Pinus montana_). This admirable work
quickly caused the population to increase at a more rapid rate in the
districts where it was practised than in any other part of the Danish
kingdom. The counties of Viborg, Ringkjobing and Ribe cover the
principal heath district.
Jutland is well served by railways. Two lines cross the frontier from
Germany on the east and west respectively and run northward near the
coasts. The eastern touches the ports of Kolding, Fredericia, Vejle,
Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg on Limfjord, Frederikshavn and Skagen.
On the west the only port of first importance is Esbjerg. The line runs
past Skjerne, Ringkjobing, Vemb and Holstebro to Thisted. Both throw off
many branches and are connected by lines east and west between Kolding
and Esbjerg, Skanderborg and Skjerne, Langaa and Struer on Limfjord via
Viborg. Of purely inland towns only Viborg in the midland and Hjorring
in the extreme north are of importance.
JUTURNA (older form Diuturna, the lasting), an old Latin divinity, a
personification of the never-failing springs. Her original home was on
the river Numicius near Lavinium, where there was a spring called after
her, supposed to possess healing qualities (whence the old Roman
derivation from _juvare_, to help). Her worship was early transferred to
Rome, localized by the Lacus Juturnae near the temple of Vesta, at which
Castor and Pollux, after announcing the victory of lake Regillus, were
said to have washed the sweat from their horses. At the end of the First
Punic War Lutatius Catulus erected a temple in her honour on the Campus
Martius, subsequently restored by Augustus. Juturna was associated with
two festivals: the Juturnalia on the 11th of January, probably a
dedication festival of a temple built by Augustus, and celebrated by the
college of the _fontani_, workmen employed in the construction and
maintenance of aqueducts and fountains; and the Volcanalia on the 23rd
of August, at which sacrifice was offered to Volcanus, the Nymphs and
Juturna, as protectors against outbreaks of fire. In Virgil, Juturna
appears as the sister of Turnus (probably owing to the partial
similarity of the names), on whom Jupiter, to console her for the loss
of her chastity, bestowed immortality and the control of all the lakes
and rivers of Latium. For the statement that she was the wife of Janus
and mother of Fontus (or Fons), the god of fountains, Arnobius (_Adv.
gentes_ iii. 29) is alone responsible.
See Virgil, _Aeneid_, xii. 139 and Servius _ad loc._; Ovid, _Fasti_,
ii. 583-616; Valerius Maximus, i. 8. 1; L. Deubner, "Juturna und die
Ausgrabungen auf dem romischen Forum," in _Neue Jahrb. f. das
klassische Altertum_ (1902), p. 370.
JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140), Roman poet and satirist,
was born at Aquinum. Brief accounts of his life, varying considerably in
details, are prefixed to different MSS. of the works. But their common
original cannot be traced to any competent authority, and some of their
statements are intrinsically improbable. According to the version which
appears to be the earliest:--
"Juvenal was the son or ward of a wealthy freedman; he practised
declamation till middle age, not as a professional teacher, but as an
amateur, and made his first essay in satire by writing the lines on
Paris, the actor and favourite of Domitian, now found in the seventh
satire (lines 90 seq.). Encouraged by their success, he devoted
himself diligently to this kind of composition, but refrained for a
long time from either publicly reciting or publishing his verses. When
at last he did come before the public, his recitations were attended
by great crowds and received with the utmost favour. But the lines
originally written on Paris, having been inserted in one of his new
satires, excited the jealous anger of an actor of the time, who was a
favourite of the emperor, and procured the poet's banishment under the
form of a military appointment to the extremity of Egypt. Being then
eighty years of age, he died shortly afterwards of grief and
vexation."
Some of these statements are so much in consonance with the indirect
evidence afforded by the satires that they may be a series of
conjectures based upon them. The rare passages in which the poet speaks
of his own position, as in satires xi. and xiii., indicate that he was
in comfortable but moderate circumstances. We should infer also that he
was not dependent on any professional occupation, and that he was
separated in social station, and probably too by tastes and manners,
from the higher class to which Tacitus and Pliny belonged, as he was by
character from the new men who rose to wealth by servility under the
empire. Juvenal is no organ of the pride and dignity, still less of the
urbanity, of the cultivated representatives of the great families of the
republic. He is the champion of the more sober virtues and ideas, and
perhaps the organ of the rancours and detraction, of an educated but
depressed and embittered middle class. He lets us know that he has no
leanings to philosophy (xiii. 121) and pours contempt on the serious
epic writing of the day (i. 162). The statement that he was a trained
and practised declaimer is confirmed both by his own words (i. 16) and
by the rhetorical mould in which his thoughts and illustrations are
cast. The allusions which fix the dates when his satires first appeared,
and the large experience of life which they imply, agree with the
statement that he did not come before the world as a professed satirist
till after middle age.
The statement that he continued to write satires long before he gave
them to the world accords well with the nature of their contents and the
elaborate character of their composition, and might almost be inferred
from the emphatic but yet guarded statement of Quintilian in his short
summary of Roman literature. After speaking of the merits of Lucilius,
Horace and Persius as satirists, he adds, "There are, too, in our own
day, distinguished writers of satire whose names will be heard of
hereafter" (_Inst. Or._ x. 1, 94). There is no Roman writer of satire
who could be mentioned along with those others by so judicious a critic,
except Juvenal. The motive which a writer of satire must have had for
secrecy under Domitian is sufficiently obvious; and the necessity of
concealment and self-suppression thus imposed upon the writer may have
permanently affected his whole manner of composition.
So far the original of these lives follows a not improbable tradition.
But when we come to the story of the poet's exile the case is otherwise.
The undoubted reference to Juvenal in Sidonius Apollinaris as the victim
of the rage of an actor only proves that the original story from which
all the varying versions of the lives are derived was generally believed
before the middle of the 5th century of our era. If Juvenal was banished
at the age of eighty, the author of his banishment could not have been
the "enraged actor" in reference to whom the original lines were
written, as Paris was put to death in 83, and Juvenal was certainly
writing satires long after 100. The satire in which the lines now appear
was probably first published soon after the accession of Hadrian, when
Juvenal was not an octogenarian but in the maturity of his powers. The
cause of the poet's banishment at that advanced age could not therefore
have been either the original composition or the first publication of
the lines.
An expression in xv. 45 is quoted as a proof that Juvenal had visited
Egypt. He may have done so as an exile or in a military command; but it
seems hardly consistent with the importance which the emperors attached
to the security of Egypt, or with the concern which they took in the
interests of the army, that these conditions were combined at an age so
unfit for military employment. If any conjecture is warrantable on so
obscure a subject, it is more likely that this temporary disgrace should
have been inflicted on the poet by Domitian. Among the many victims of
Juvenal's satire it is only against him and against one of the vilest
instruments of his court, the Egyptian Crispinus, that the poet seems to
be animated by personal hatred. A sense of wrong suffered at their hands
may perhaps have mingled with the detestation which he felt towards them
on public grounds. But if he was banished under Domitian, it must have
been either before or after 93, at which time, as we learn from an
epigram of Martial, Juvenal was in Rome.
More ancient evidence is supplied by an inscription found at Aquinum,
recording, so far as it has been deciphered, the dedication of an altar
to Ceres by a Iunius Iuvenalis, tribune of the first cohort of
Dalmatians, _duumvir quinquennalis_, and _flamen Divi Vespasiani_, a
provincial magistrate whose functions corresponded to those of the
censor at Rome. This Juvenalis may have been the poet, but he may
equally well have been a relation. The evidence of the satires does not
point to a prolonged absence from the metropolis. They are the product
of immediate and intimate familiarity with the life of the great city.
An epigram of Martial, written at the time when Juvenal was most
vigorously employed in their composition, speaks of him as settled in
Rome. He himself hints (iii. 318) that he maintained his connexion with
Aquinum, and that he had some special interest in the worship of the
"Helvinian Ceres." Nor is the tribute to the national religion implied
by the dedication of the altar to Ceres inconsistent with the beliefs
and feelings expressed in the satires. While the fables of mythology are
often treated contemptuously or humorously by him, other passages in the
satires clearly imply a conformity to, and even a respect for, the
observances of the national religion. The evidence as to the military
post filled by Juvenal is curious, when taken in connexion with the
confused tradition of his exile in a position of military importance.
But it cannot be said that the satires bear traces of military
experience; the life described in them is rather such as would present
itself to the eyes of a civilian.
The only other contemporary evidence which affords a glimpse of
Juvenal's actual life is contained in three epigrams of Martial. Two of
these (vii. 24 and 91) were written in the time of Domitian, the third
(xii. 18) early in the reign of Trajan, after Martial had retired to his
native Bilbilis. The first attests the strong regard which Martial felt
for him; but the subject of the epigram seems to hint that Juvenal was
not an easy person to get on with. In the second, addressed to Juvenal
himself, the epithet _facundus_ is applied to him, equally applicable to
his "eloquence" as satirist or rhetorician. In the last Martial imagines
his friend wandering about discontentedly through the crowded streets of
Rome, and undergoing all the discomforts incident to attendance on the
levees of the great. Two lines in the poem suggest that the satirist,
who inveighed with just severity against the worst corruptions of Roman
morals, was not too rigid a censor of the morals of his friend. Indeed,
his intimacy with Martial is a ground for not attributing to him
exceptional strictness of life.
The additional information as to the poet's life and circumstances
derivable from the satires themselves is not important. He had enjoyed
the training which all educated men received in his day (i. 15); he
speaks of his farm in the territory of Tibur (xi. 65), which furnished a
young kid and mountain asparagus for a homely dinner to which he invites
a friend during the festival of the Megalesia. From the satire in which
this invitation is contained we are able to form an idea of the style in
which he habitually lived, and to think of him as enjoying a hale and
vigorous age (203), and also as a kindly master of a household (159
seq.). The negative evidence afforded in the account of his
establishment suggests the inference that, like Lucilius and Horace,
Juvenal had no personal experience of either the cares or the softening
influence of family life. A comparison of this poem with the invitation
of Horace to Torquatus (_Ep._ i. 5) brings out strongly the differences
not in urbanity only but in kindly feeling between the two satirists.
Gaston Boissier has drawn from the indications afforded of the career
and character of the persons to whom the satires are addressed most
unfavourable conclusions as to the social circumstances and associations
of Juvenal. If we believe that these were all real people, with whom
Juvenal lived in intimacy, we should conclude that he was most
unfortunate in his associates, and that his own relations to them were
marked rather by outspoken frankness than civility. But they seem to be
more "nominis umbrae" than real men; they serve the purpose of enabling
the satirist to aim his blows at one particular object instead of
declaiming at large. They have none of the individuality and traits of
personal character discernible in the persons addressed by Horace in his
_Satires_ and _Epistles_. It is noticeable that, while Juvenal writes of
the poets and men of letters of a somewhat earlier time as if they were
still living, he makes no reference to his friend Martial or the younger
Pliny and Tacitus, who wrote their works during the years of his own
literary activity. It is equally noticeable that Juvenal's name does not
appear in Pliny's letters.
The times at which the satires were given to the world do not in all
cases coincide with those at which they were written and to which they
immediately refer. Thus the manners and personages of the age of
Domitian often supply the material of satiric representation, and are
spoken of as if they belonged to the actual life of the present,[1]
while allusions even in the earliest show that, as a finished literary
composition, it belongs to the age of Trajan. The most probable
explanation of these discrepancies is that in their present form the
satires are the work of the last thirty years of the poet's life, while
the first nine at least may have preserved with little change passages
written during his earlier manhood. The combination of the impressions,
and, perhaps of the actual compositions, of different periods also
explains a certain want of unity and continuity found in some of them.
There is no reason to doubt that the sixteen satires which we possess
were given to the world in the order in which we find them, and that
they were divided, as they are referred to in the ancient grammarians,
into five books. Book I., embracing the first five satires, was written
in the freshest vigour of the author's powers, and is animated with the
strongest hatred of Domitian. The publication of this book belongs to
the early years of Trajan. The mention of the exile of Marius (49) shows
that it was not published before 100. In the second satire, the lines 29
seq.,
"Qualis erat nuper tragico pollutus adulter
Concubitu,"
show that the memory of one of the foulest scandals of the reign of
Domitian was still fresh in the minds of men. The third satire, imitated
by Samuel Johnson in his _London_, presents such a picture as Rome may
have offered to the satirist at any time in the 1st century of our era;
but it was under the worst emperors, Nero and Domitian, that the arts of
flatterers and foreign adventurers were most successful, and that such
scenes of violence as that described at 277 seq. were most likely to
occur;[2] while the mention of Veiento (185) as still enjoying influence
is a distinct reference to the court of Domitian. The fourth, which
alone has any political significance, and reflects on the emperor as a
frivolous trifler rather than as a monster of lust and cruelty, is the
reproduction of a real or imaginary scene from the reign of Domitian,
and is animated by the profoundest scorn and loathing both of the tyrant
himself and of the worst instruments of his tyranny. The fifth is a
social picture of the degradation to which poor guests were exposed at
the banquets of the rich, but many of the epigrams of Martial and the
more sober evidence of one of Pliny's letters show that the picture
painted by Juvenal, though perhaps exaggerated in colouring, was drawn
from a state of society prevalent during and immediately subsequent to
the times of Domitian.[3] Book II. consists of the most elaborate of the
satires, by many critics regarded as the poet's masterpiece, the famous
sixth satire, directed against the whole female sex, which shares with
Domitian and his creatures the most cherished place in the poet's
antipathies. It shows certainly no diminution of vigour either in its
representation or its invective. The time at which this satire was
composed cannot be fixed with certainty, but some allusions render it
highly probable that it was given to the world in the later years of
Trajan, and before the accession of Hadrian. The date of the publication
of Book III., containing the seventh, eighth and ninth satires, seems to
be fixed by its opening line to the first years after the accession of
Hadrian. In the eighth satire another reference is made (120) to the
misgovernment of Marius in Africa as a recent event, and at line 51
there may be an allusion to the Eastern wars that occupied the last
years of Trajan's reign. The ninth has no allusion to determine its
date, but it is written with the same outspoken freedom as the second
and the sixth, and belongs to the period when the poet's power was most
vigorous, and his exposure of vice most uncompromising. In Book IV.,
comprising the famous tenth, the eleventh and the twelfth satires, the
author appears more as a moralist than as a pure satirist. In the tenth,
the theme of the "vanity of human wishes" is illustrated by great
historic instances, rather than by pictures of the men and manners of
the age; and, though the declamatory vigour and power of expression in
it are occasionally as great as in the earlier satires, and although
touches of Juvenal's saturnine humour, and especially of his misogyny,
appear in all the satires of this book, yet their general tone shows
that the white heat of his indignation is abated; and the lines of the
eleventh, already referred to (201 seq.),
"Spectent juvenes quos clamor et audax
Sponsio, quos cultae decet assedisse puellae:
Nostra bibat vernum contrada cuticula solem,"
leave no doubt that he was well advanced in years when they were
written.
Two important dates are found in Book V., comprising satires xiii.-xvi.
At xiii. 16 Juvenal speaks of his friend Calvinus as now past sixty
years of age, having been born in the consulship of Fonteius. Now L.
Fonteius Capito was consul in 67. Again at xv. 27 an event is said to
have happened in Egypt "nuper consule Iunco." There was a L. Aemilius
Iuncus consul _suffectus_ in 127. The fifth book must therefore have
been published some time after this date. More than the fourth, this
book bears the marks of age, both in the milder tone of the sentiments
expressed, and in the feebler power of composition exhibited. The last
satire is now imperfect, and the authenticity both of this and of the
fifteenth has been questioned, though on insufficient grounds.
Thus the satires were published at different intervals, and for the most
part composed between 100 and 130, but the most powerful in feeling and
vivid in conception among them deal with the experience and impressions
of the reign of Domitian, occasionally recall the memories or traditions
of the times of Nero and Claudius, and reproduce at least one startling
page from the annals of Tiberius.[4] The same overmastering feeling
which constrained Tacitus (_Agric._ 2, 3), when the time of long
endurance and silence was over, to recall the "memory of the former
oppression," acted upon Juvenal. There is no evidence that these two
great writers, who lived and wrote at the same time, who were animated
by the same hatred of the tyrant under whom the best years of their
manhood were spent, and who both felt most deeply the degradation of
their times, were even known to one another. Tacitus belonged to the
highest official and senatorial class, Juvenal apparently to the middle
class and to that of the struggling men of letters; and this difference
in position had much influence in determining the different bent of
their genius, and in forming one to be a great national historian, the
other to be a great social satirist. If the view of the satirist is
owing to this circumstance more limited in some directions, and his
taste and temper less conformable to the best ancient standards of
propriety, he is also saved by it from prejudices to which the
traditions of his class exposed the historian. But both writers are
thoroughly national in sentiment, thoroughly masculine in tone. No
ancient authors express so strong a hatred of evil. The peculiar
greatness and value of both Juvenal and Tacitus is that they did not
shut their eyes to the evil through which they had lived, but deeply
resented it--the one with a vehement and burning passion, like the
"saeva indignatio" of Swift, the other with perhaps even deeper but more
restrained emotions of mingled scorn and sorrow, like the scorn and
sorrow of Milton when "fallen on evil days and evil tongues." In one
respect there is a difference. For Tacitus the prospect is not wholly
cheerless, the detested tyranny was at an end, and its effects might
disappear with a more beneficent rule. But the gloom of Juvenal's
pessimism is unlighted by hope.
A. C. Swinburne has suggested that the secret of Juvenal's concentrated
power consisted in this, that he knew what he hated, and that what he
did hate was despotism and democracy. But it would be hardly true to say
that the animating motive of his satire was political. It is true that
he finds the most typical examples of lust, cruelty, levity and weakness
in the emperors and their wives--in Domitian, Otho, Nero, Claudius and
Messalina. It is true also that he shares in the traditional idolatry of
Brutus, that he strikes at Augustus in his mention of the "three
disciples of Sulla," and that he has no word of recognition for what
even Tacitus acknowledges as the beneficent rule of Trajan. So too his
scorn for the Roman populace of his time, who cared only for their dole
of bread and the public games, is unqualified. But it is only in
connexion with its indirect effects that he seems to think of despotism;
and he has no thought of democracy at all. It is not for the loss of
liberty and of the senatorian rule that he chafes, but for the loss of
the old national manliness and self-respect. This feeling explains his
detestation of foreign manners and superstitions, his loathing not only
of inhuman crimes and cruelties but even of the lesser derelictions from
self-respect, his scorn of luxury and of art as ministering to luxury,
his mockery of the poetry and of the stale and dilettante culture of his
time, and perhaps, too, his indifference to the schools of philosophy
and his readiness to identify all the professors of stoicism with the
reserved and close-cropped puritans, who concealed the worst vices under
an outward appearance of austerity. The great fault of his character, as
it appears in his writings, is that he too exclusively indulged this
mood. It is much more difficult to find what he loved and admired than
what he hated. But it is characteristic of his strong nature that, where
he does betray any sign of human sympathy or tenderness, it is for those
who by their weakness and position are dependent on others for their
protection--as for "the peasant boy with the little dog, his
playfellow,"[5] or for "the home-sick lad from the Sabine highlands, who
sighs for his mother whom he has not seen for a long time, and for the
little hut and the familiar kids."[6]
If Juvenal is to be ranked as a great moralist, it is not for his
greatness and consistency as a thinker on moral questions. In the
rhetorical exaggeration of the famous tenth satire, for instance, the
highest energies of patriotism--the gallant and desperate defence of
great causes, by sword or speech--are quoted as mere examples of
disappointed ambition; and, in the indiscriminate condemnation of the
arts by which men sought to gain a livelihood, he leaves no room for the
legitimate pursuits of industry. His services to morals do not consist
in any positive contributions to the notions of active duty, but in the
strength with which he has realized and expressed the restraining
influence of the old Roman and Italian ideal of character, and also of
that religious conscience which was becoming a new power in the world.
Though he disclaims any debt to philosophy (xiii. 121), yet he really
owes more to the "Stoica dogmata," then prevalent, than he is aware of.
But his highest and rarest literary quality is his power of painting
characters, scenes, incidents and actions, whether from past history or
from contemporary life. In this power, which is also the great power of
Tacitus, he has few equals and perhaps no superior among ancient
writers. The difference between Tacitus and Juvenal in power of
representation is that the prose historian is more of an imaginative
poet, the satirist more of a realist and a grotesque humorist. Juvenal
can paint great historical pictures in all their detail--as in the
famous representation of the fall of Sejanus; he can describe a
character elaborately or hit it off with a single stroke. The picture
drawn may be a caricature, or a misrepresentation of the fact--as that
of the father of Demosthenes, "blear-eyed with the soot of the glowing
mass," &c.--but it is, with rare exceptions, realistically conceived,
and it is brought before us with the vivid touches of a Defoe or a
Swift, or of the great pictorial satirist of the 18th century, Hogarth.
Yet even in this, his most characteristic talent, his proneness to
exaggeration, the attraction which coarse and repulsive images have for
his mind, and the tendency to sacrifice general effect to minuteness of
detail not infrequently mar his best effects.
The difficulty is often felt of distinguishing between a powerful
rhetorician and a genuine poet, and it is felt particularly in the case
of Juvenal. He himself knew and has well described (vii. 53 seq.) the
conditions under which a great poet could flourish; and he felt that his
own age was incapable of producing one. He has little sense of beauty
either in human life or nature. Whenever such sense is evoked it is only
as a momentary relief to his prevailing sense of the hideousness of
contemporary life, or in protest against what he regarded as the
enervating influences of art. Even his references to the great poets of
the past indicate rather a _blase_ sense of indifference and weariness
than a fresh enjoyment of them. Yet his power of touching the springs of
tragic awe and horror is a genuine poetical gift, of the same kind as
that which is displayed by some of the early English dramatists. But he
is, on the whole, more essentially a great rhetorician than a great
poet. His training, the practical bent of his understanding, his strong
but morose character, the circumstances of his time, and the materials
available for his art, all fitted him to rebuke his own age and all
after-times in the tones of a powerful preacher, rather than charm them
with the art of an accomplished poet. The composition of his various
satires shows no negligence, but rather excess of elaboration; but it
produces the impression of mechanical contrivance rather than of organic
growth. His movement is sustained and powerful, but there is no rise and
fall in it. The verse is most carefully constructed, and is also most
effective, but it is so with the rhetorical effectiveness of Lucan, not
with the musical charm of Virgil. The diction is full, even to excess,
of meaning, point and emphasis. Few writers have added so much to the
currency of quotation. But his style altogether wants the charm of ease
and simplicity. It wearies by the constant strain after effect, its
mock-heroics and allusive periphrasis, and excites distrust by its want
of moderation.
On the whole no one of the ten or twelve really great writers of ancient
Rome leaves on the mind so mixed an impression, both as a writer and as
a man, as Juvenal. He has little, if anything at all, of the high
imaginative mood--the mood of reverence and noble admiration--which made
Ennius, Lucretius and Virgil the truest poetical representatives of the
genius of Rome. He has nothing of the wide humanity of Cicero, of the
urbanity of Horace, of the ease and grace of Catullus. Yet he represents
another mood of ancient Rome, the mood natural to her before she was
humanized by the lessons of Greek art and thought. If we could imagine
the elder Cato living under Domitian, cut off from all share in public
life, and finding no outlet for his combative energy except in
literature, we should perhaps understand the motives of Juvenal's satire
and the place which is his due as a representative of the genius of his
country. As a man he shows many of the strong qualities of the old Roman
plebeian--the aggressive boldness, the intolerance of superiority and
privilege, which animated the tribunes in their opposition to the
senatorian rule. Even where we least like him we find nothing small or
mean to alienate our respect from him. Though he loses no opportunity of
being coarse, he is not licentious; though he is often truculent, he
cannot be called malignant. It is, indeed, impossible to say what
motives of personal chagrin, of love of detraction, of the mere literary
passion for effective writing, may have contributed to the indignation
which inspired his verse. But the prevailing impression we carry away
after reading him is that in all his early satires he was animated by a
sincere and manly detestation of the tyranny and cruelty, the debauchery
and luxury, the levity and effeminacy, the crimes and frauds, which we
know from other sources were then rife in Rome, and that a more serene
wisdom and a happier frame of mind were attained by him when old age had
somewhat allayed the fierce rage which vexed his manhood.
AUTHORITIES.--The remarkable statements in a "life" found in a late
Italian MS. (Barberini, viii. 18), "Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio
Iuvenale patre matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio
Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus (55) natus est, sororem habuit
Septumuleiam quae Fuscino (_Sat._ xiv. 1) nupsit," though not
necessarily false, cannot be accepted without confirmation.
The earliest evidence for the banishment of Juvenal is that of
Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 480), _Carm._ ix. 269, "Non qui tempore
Caesaris secundi | Aeterno coluit Tomos reatu | Nec qui consimili
deinde casu | Ad vulgi tenuem strepentis auram | Irati fuit histrionis
exul," lines which by the exact parallel drawn between Ovid's fate and
Juvenal's imply the belief that Juvenal died in exile. The banishment
is also mentioned by J. Malalas, a Greek historian subsequent to
Justinian, who gives the place as Pentapolis in Africa, _Chron._ x.
262, Dindorf. The inscription (on a stone now lost) is as follows, the
words and letters in brackets being the conjectural restorations of
scholars:--"[Cere] ri sacrum | [D. Iu] nius Iuvenalis | trib. coh. [I]
Delmatarum | II vir quinq. flamen | divi Vespasiani | vovit
dedicav[it] que | sua pec.," _Corp. inscr. lat._ X. 5382, xiii. 201
sqq. The best of the known manuscripts of Juvenal (P) is at
Montpellier (125); but there are several others which cannot be
neglected. Amongst these may be specially mentioned the Bodleian MS.
(Canon. Lat. 41), which contains a portion of Satire vi., the
existence of which was unknown until E. O. Winstedt published it in
the _Classical Review_ (1899), pp. 201 seq. Another fragment in the
Bibliotheque Nationale was described by C. E. Stuart in the _Classical
Quarterly_ (Jan. 1909). Numerous scholia and glossaries attest the
interest taken in Juvenal in post-classical times and the middle ages.
There are two classes of scholia--the older or "Pithoeana," first
published by P. Pithoeus, and the "Cornutus scholia" of less value,
specimens of which have been published by various scholars. The
earliest edition which need now be mentioned is that of P. Pithoeus,
1585, in which P was first used for the text. Amongst later ones we
may mention the commentaries of Ruperti (1819) and C. F. Heinrich
(1839, with the old scholia), O. Jahn (1851, critical with the old
scholia), A. Weidner (1889), L. Friedlander (1895, with a full verbal
index). The most useful English commentaries are those of J. E. B.
Mayor (a voluminous and learned commentary on thirteen of the
_Satires_, ii., vi. and ix. being omitted), J. D. Lewis (1882, with a
prose translation) and J. D. Duff (1898, expurgated, and ii. and ix.
being omitted). There are recent critical texts: conservative and
chiefly based on P, by F. Buecheler (1893, with selections from the
scholia) and S. G. Owen (in the Oxford Series of Texts); on the other
side, by A. E. Housman (1905) and by the same, but with fewer
innovations, in the new _Corpus poetarum latinorum_, fasc. v. The two
last-named editors alone give the newly discovered lines of Satire vi.
There are no recent translations of Juvenal into English verse. Dryden
translated i., iii., vi., x. and xvi., the others being committed to
inferior hands. Other versions are Gifford's (1802), of some merit,
and C. Badham's (1814). Johnson's imitations of Satires iii. and x.
are well known. For the numerous articles and contributions to the
criticism and elucidation of the _Satires_, reference should be made
to Teuffel's _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_ (Eng. trans. by
Warre), S 331, and Schanz, ditto (1901, ii. S 2, S 420a).
(W. Y. S.; J. P. P.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] This is especially noticeable in the seventh satire, but it
applies also to the mention of Crispinus, Latinus, the class of
_delatores_, &c., in the first, to the notice of Veiento in the
third, of Rubellius Blandus in the eighth, of Gallicus in the
thirteenth, &c.
[2] Cf. Tacitus, _Annals_, xiii. 25.
[3] Pliny's remarks on the vulgarity as well as the ostentation of
his host imply that he regarded such behaviour as exceptional, at
least in the circle in which he himself lived (_Ep._ ii. 6).
[4] x. 56-107.
[5]
... "Meliusne hic rusticus infans
Cum matre et casulis et conlusore catello," &c.--ix. 60.
[6] xi. 152, 153.
JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS, Christian poet, flourished during the
reign of Constantine the Great. Nothing is known of him except that he
was a Spanish presbyter of distinguished family. About 330 he published
his _Libri evangeliorum IV._, each book containing about 800 hexameters.
The division into books is possibly a reminiscence of the number of the
Gospels. The work itself, written with the idea of ousting the
absurdities of Pagan mythology and replacing them by the truths of
Christianity, may be called the first Christian epic. In the _Praefatio_
the author expresses the hope that the sacredness of his subject may
procure him safety at the final conflagration of the world and admission
into heaven. The whole is, in the main, a poetical version of the Gospel
of Matthew, the other evangelists only being used for supplementary
details. It is founded upon a pre-vulgate Latin translation, although
there is evidence that Juvencus also consulted the Greek. In spite of
metrical irregularities, the language and style are simple and show good
taste, being free from the artificiality of other Christian poets and
prose writers, and the author has made excellent use of Virgil (his
chief model) and other classical writers. Juvencus set the fashion of
verse translations of the Bible, and the large number of MSS. of his
poem mentioned in lists and still extant are sufficient evidence of its
great popularity. According to Jerome, he was also the author of some
poems on the sacraments, but no trace of these has survived. The Latin
_Heptateuch_, a hexameter version of the first seven books of the Old
Testament, has been attributed to Juvencus amongst others; but it is now
generally supposed to be the work of a certain Cyprianus, a Gaul who
lived in the 6th century, possibly a bishop of Toulon, author of the
_Life of Caesarius_, bishop of Arelate (Arles).
See M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_
(1891); A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des
Mittelalters_, vol. i. (1889); editions of Juvencus by C. Marold
(1886); J. Humer in _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum_,
vol. xxiv. (Vienna, 1891); J. T. Hatfield, _A Study of Juvencus_
(1890), dealing with syntax, metre and language; editions of the
_Heptateuch_ by J. E. B. Mayor (1889; reviewed by W. Sanday in
_Classical Review_, October 1889, and by J. T. Hatfield in _American
Journal of Philology_, vol. xi., 1890), and R. Peiper, vol. xxiii. of
the Vienna series above.
JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the question of the proper
penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non-adult) offenders has been
increasingly discussed; and the reformatory principle, first applied in
the case of children, has even been extended to reclaimable adult
offenders (juveniles in crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them
sufficiently within the same category to be noticed in this article. In
the old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal methods
for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke the law he was
sent to prison like his elders. It was only in comparatively recent
times that it was realized that child criminals were too often the
victims to circumstances beyond their own control. They were cursed with
inherited taint; they were brought up among evil surroundings; they
suffered from the culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more
from bad example and pernicious promptings. They were rather potential
than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration rather than
vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a painstaking English gaol
chaplain calculated that 58% of all criminals had made their first lapse
at fifteen. Boys and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of
thirteen and fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or
seventeen times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in
prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The chief
lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquaintance with the
demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at one time in London 200
"flash houses" frequented by 6000 boys trained and proficient in
thieving and depredation.
The substantial movement for reform dates from the protests of Charles
Dickens, who roused public opinion to such an extent that the first
Reformatory School Act was passed in 1854. Sporadic efforts to meet the
evil had indeed been made earlier. In 1756 the Marine Society
established a school for the reception and reform of younger criminals;
in 1788 the City of London formed a similar institution, which grew much
later into the farm school at Redhlll. In 1838 an act of parliament
created an establishment at Parkhurst for the detention and correction
of juvenile offenders, to whom pardon was given conditional on their
entrance into some charitable institution. Parkhurst was technically a
prison, and the system combined industrial training with religious and
educational instruction. These earlier efforts had, however, been quite
insufficient to meet the evils, for in the years immediately preceding
1854 crime was being so constantly reinforced in its beginnings, under
the existing penal system, that it threatened to swamp the country.
Unofficial, but more or less accurate, figures showed that between
11,000 and 12,000 juveniles passed annually through the prisons of
England and Wales, a third of the whole number being contributed by
London alone. In 1854 the total reached 14,000. The ages of offenders
ranged from less than twelve to seventeen; 60% of the whole were between
fourteen and seventeen; 46% had been committed more than once; 18% four
times and more.
The Reformatory School Act 1854, which was thrashed out at conferences
held in Birmingham in 1851 and 1853, substituted the school for the
gaol, and all judicial benches were empowered to send delinquents to
schools when they had been guilty of acts punishable by short
imprisonment, the limit of which was at first fourteen and became
afterwards ten days. A serious flaw in this act long survived; this was
the provision that a short period of imprisonment in gaol must precede
reception into the reformatory; it was upheld by well-meaning but
mistaken people as essential for deterrence. But more enlightened
opinion condemned the rule as inflicting an indelible prison taint and
breeding contamination, even with ample and effective safeguards. Wiser
legislation has followed, and an act of 1899 abolished preliminary
imprisonment.
Existing reformatories, or "senior home office schools" as they are
officially styled, in England numbered 44 in 1907. They receive all
juvenile offenders, up to the age of sixteen, who have been convicted of
an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment. The number
of these during the years between 1894 and 1906 constantly varied, but
the figure of the earliest date, 6604, was never exceeded, and in some
years it was considerably less, while in 1906 it was no more than 5586,
though the general population had increased by several millions in the
period. These figures, in comparison with those of 1854, must be deemed
highly satisfactory, even when we take into account that the latter went
up to the age of seventeen. Older offenders, between sixteen and
twenty-one, come within the category of juvenile adults and are dealt
with differently (see _Borstal Scheme_ below).
Other schools must be classed with the reformatory, although they have
no connexion with prisons and deal with youths who are only potential
criminals. The first in importance are the industrial schools. When the
newly devised reformatories were doing excellent service it was realized
that many of the rising generation might some day lapse into evil ways
but were still on the right side and might with proper precautions be
kept there. They wanted preventive, not punitive treatment, and for them
industrial schools were instituted. The germ of these establishments
existed in the Ragged Schools, "intended to educate destitute children
and save them from vagrancy and crime." They had been invented by John
Pounds (1766-1839), a Portsmouth shoemaker, who, early in the 19th
century, was moved with sympathy for these little outcasts and devoted
himself to this good work. The ragged school movement found powerful
support in active philanthropists when public attention was aroused to
the prevalence of juvenile delinquency. The first Industrial School Act
was passed in 1856 and applied only to Scotland. Next year its
provisions were extended to England, and their growth was rapid. There
were 45 schools in the beginning; in 1878 the number had more than been
doubled; in 1907 there were 102 in England and Wales and 31 in Scotland.
The provisions of the Education Acts 1871 and 1876 led to a large
increase in the number of children committed for breaches of the law and
to the establishment of two kinds of subsidiary industrial schools,
short detention of truant schools and day industrial schools in which
children do not reside but receive their meals, their elementary
education and a certain amount of industrial training. The total
admissions to truant schools in 1907 were 1368 boys, and the numbers
actually in the schools on the last day of that year were 1125 with 2568
on licence. The average length of detention was fourteen weeks and three
days on first admission, seventeen weeks and five days on first
re-admission, and twenty-three weeks six days on second re-admission.
The total number of admissions into truant schools from 1878 to the end
of 1907 was 44,315, of whom just half had been licensed and not
returned, 11,239 had been licensed and once re-admitted, 8900 had been
re-admitted twice or oftener.
The day industrial schools owed their origin to another reason than the
enforcement of the Education Acts. It was found that some special
treatment was required for large masses of youths in large cities, who
were in such a neglected or degraded condition that there was little
hope of their growing into healthy men and women or becoming good
citizens. They were left unclean, were ill-fed and insufficiently
clothed, and were not usefully taught. The total number who attended
these day schools in 1907 was 1951 boys and 1232 girls.
The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned upon the
establishment or institution system, as opposed to that of the "family"
or "boarding out" systems adopted in some countries, and some
controversy has been aroused as to the comparative value of the methods.
The British practice has always favoured the well-governed school, with
the proviso that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his
charges. But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by
dividing the boys into "houses," each containing a small manageable
total as a family under an official father or head. Under this system
the idea of the home is maintained, while uniformity of treatment and
discipline is secured by grouping several houses together under one
general authority. The plan of "boarding out" is not generally approved
of in England; the value of the domestic training is questionable and of
uncertain quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of
the foster-parents secured. Education must be less systematic in the
private home, industrial training is less easily carried out, and there
can be none of that _esprit de corps_ that stimulates effort in physical
training as applied to athletics and the playing of games. No very
definite decision has been arrived at as to the comparative merits of
institution life and boarding out. Among the Latin races--France, Italy,
Portugal and Spain--the former is as a rule preferred; also in Belgium;
in Germany, Holland and the United States placing out in private
families is very much the rule; in Austria-Hungary and Russia both
methods are in use.
The total admissions to English reformatory schools from their
creation to the 31st of December 1907 amounted to 76,455, or 64,031
boys and 12,424 girls. The total discharges for the same period were
70,890, or 59,081 boys and 11,809 girls. The results may be tested by
the figures for those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906:--
_Boys._--3573 were placed out, of whom 66 had died, leaving 3507; of
these it was found that 2735 (or about 78%) were in regular
employment; 158 (or about 4%) were in casual employment; 439 (or about
13%) had been convicted; and 175 (or about 5%) were unknown.
_Girls._--480, of whom 11 had died, leaving 469; of these it was found
that 384 (or about 82%) were in regular employment; 28 (or about 6%)
were in casual employment; 17 (or about 4%) had been convicted, and 40
(or about 8%) were unknown.
For industrial schools, including truant and day schools, the total
admissions, up to the 31st of December 1907, were 153,893, or 120,955
boys and 32,938 girls. The total discharges to the same date
(excluding transfers) were 136,961, or 108,398 boys and 28,563 girls.
The results as tested by those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906 were
as follow:--
_Boys._--8909 were placed out, of whom 118 had since died, leaving
8791 to be reported on; of these it was found that 7547 (or about 86%)
were in regular employment; 415 (or about 4.7%) were in casual
employment; 419 (or about 4.7%) convicted or re-committed; and 410 (or
about 4.6%) unknown.
_Girls._--2505 placed out, of whom 50 had died, leaving 2455; of these
2180 (or about 89%) were in regular employment; 112 (or about 4%) were
in casual employment; 21 (or about 1%) convicted or re-committed; and
142 (or about 6%) unknown.
These results are of course wholly independent of those achieved by
the juvenile-adult prison reformatory at Borstal instituted in October
1902. The record of the first year's work of this excellent system
showed that 50% of cases placed out had done well, thanks to the
system and philanthropic labours of the Borstal Association.
An interesting point in regard to the reclamation of these criminally
inclined juveniles is the nature of the employments to which they have
been recommended, and in which, as shown, they have done so well. In
1904, 1905 and 1906, the total number of boys discharged and placed
was 12,482. By far the largest number of these, nearly a sixth, joined
the army, 679 of them entering the bands; 292 joined the navy; 961 the
mercantile marine; 1567 went to farm service; 414 worked in factories
or mills as skilled hands; but others joined as labourers, a general
class the total of which was 1096. Other jobs found included miners
(629), carters (352), iron or steel workers (214), mechanics (301),
shoemakers (181), tailors (161), shop assistants (228), carpenters
(178), bakers (131), messengers and porters, including 112 errand boys
(315). The balance found employment in smaller numbers at other
trades. The fate of 585 was unknown, 858 had been re-convicted, and
the balance were in unrecorded or casual employment.
The outlets found by the girls from these various schools naturally
follow lines appropriate to their sex and the instruction received.
Out of a total of 2985 discharged in the three years mentioned, 1235
became general servants, 268 housemaids, 203 laundry-maids, 52 cooks,
98 nursemaids, 65 dressmakers, 221 were engaged in factories and
mills, and the balance was made up by marriage, death or casual
employment.
In Ireland the reformatory and industrial school system conforms to
that of Great Britain. There were in 1905 six reformatory and 70
industrial schools in Ireland, mostly under Roman Catholic management.
A short account of the reformatory methods of dealing with juvenile
offenders in certain other countries will fitly find a place here.
_Austria-Hungary._--The law leaves children of less than ten years of
age to domestic discipline, as also children above that age if not
exactly criminal, although the latter may be sent to correctional
schools. There they are detained for varying periods, but never after
twenty years of age, and they may be sent out on licence to situations
or employment found for them. These schools also receive children
between ten and fourteen guilty of crimes which are, however, by law
deemed "contraventions" only; also the destitute between the same ages
and the incorrigible whose parents cannot manage them.
In Hungary the penal code prescribes that children of less than twelve
cannot be charged with offences; those between twelve and sixteen may be
deemed to have acted without discretion, and thus escape sentence, but
are sent to a correctional school where they may be detained till they
are twenty years of age. An excellent system prevails in Hungary by
which the supervision of those liberated is entrusted to a "protector,"
a philanthropic person in the district who visits and reports upon the
conduct of the boys, much like the "probation officer" in the United
States.
_Belgium._--The law of November 1891 places the whole mass of
juveniles--those who are likely to give trouble and those who have
already done so--at the disposal of the state. The system is very
elastic, realizing the infinite variety of childish natures. The purely
paternal regime would be wasted upon the really vicious; a severe
discipline would press too heavily on the well-disposed. Accordingly,
all juveniles, male and female, are divided into six principal classes
with a corresponding treatment, it being strictly ruled that there is no
intermingling of the classes; the very youngest, rescued early, are
never to be associated with the older, who may be already vicious and
degraded and who could not fail to exercise a pernicious influence. One
of the great merits of the Belgian system is that the regulations may be
relaxed, and children of whose amendment good hopes are entertained may
be released provisionally, either to the care of parents and guardians
or to employers, artisans or agriculturists who will teach them a trade.
_Denmark._--There were 61 establishments of all classes for juveniles in
Denmark in 1906, holding some 2000 inmates. In 1874, by the will of
Countess Danner, a large female refuge was founded at Castle Jagerspris,
which holds some 360 girls. Another of the same class is the Royal
Vodrofsvei Bonnehjem at Copenhagen, founded in the same year by Mlle
Schneider. The regime preferred in Denmark is that of the family or the
very small school. The Jagerspris system is to divide the whole number
of 360 into small parties of 20 each under a nurse or official mother.
Employment in Danish schools is mainly agricultural, field labour and
gardening, with a certain amount of industrial training; and on
discharge the inmates go to farms or to apprenticeship, while a few
emigrate.
_France._--There are five methods of disposing of juvenile offenders in
France:--
1. The preliminary or preventative prison (_maisons d'arret_ and _de
justice_) for those arrested and accused.
2. The ordinary prison for all sentenced to less than six months,
whose time of detention is too short to admit of their transfer to a
provincial colony. It also receives children whom parents have found
unmanageable.
3. The public or private penitentiary colony for the irresponsible
children, acquitted as "without discretion," as well as for the guilty
sentenced to more than six months' and less than two years' detention.
4. The correctional colony, where the system is more severe, receiving
all sentenced for more than two years and all who have misconducted
themselves in the milder establishments.
5. Various penitentiary houses for young females, whatever their
particular sentence.
Foremost among French penal reformers stands the name of F. A. Demetz
(1796-1873), the founder of the famous colony of Mettray. M. Demetz was
a judge who, aghast at the evils inflicted upon children whom he was
compelled by law to imprison, left the bench and undertook to find some
other outlet for them. At that time the French law, while it acquitted
minors shown to have acted without discretion, still consigned them for
safe keeping and inevitable contamination to the common gaols. M. Demetz
conceived the idea of an agricultural colony, and in 1840 organized a
small "_societe paternelle_," as it was called, of which he became
vice-president. Another philanthropist, the Vicomte de Bretignieres de
Courteilles, a landed proprietor in Touraine, associated himself in the
enterprise and endowed the institution with land at Mettray near Tours.
The earliest labours at Mettray were in the development of the
institution, but as this approached completion they were applied to
farmwork, agricultural employment being the chief feature of the place.
The motto and device of Mettray was "the moralization of youth by the
cultivation of the soil"; a healthy life in the open air was to replace
the enervating and demoralizing influences of the confined prisons; and
this was effected in the usual farming operations, to which were added
gardening, vine-dressing, the raising of stock and the breeding of
silkworms. The labour was not light; on the contrary, the directors of
the colony sought by constant employment to send their charges to bed
tired, ready to sleep soundly and not romp and chatter in their
dormitories. The excellence of its aims, and the manifestly good results
that were growing out of the system, soon made Mettray a model for
imitation in France and beyond it. Many establishments were planned upon
it, started by the state or private enterprise; penitentiary colonies
were created for boys in connexion with some of the great central
prisons. The colony of Val de Yevre has a good record. It was started by
a private philanthropist, Charles J. M. Lucas, (1803-1889) but after
five-and-twenty years was handed over to the state. Other cognate
establishments are those of Petit Quevilly near Rouen, Petit Bourg near
Paris, St Hiliar and Eysses. There are several female colonies,
especially that of Darnetal at Rouen.
It is for the magistrate or _juge d'instruction_ to select the class of
establishment to which the juvenile delinquents brought before him shall
be committed. The very young, those of twelve years of age and under,
are placed out in the country with families, unless they can be again
entrusted to their parents or committed to _maisons paternels_,
containing very limited numbers, twenty or thirty, in charge of a large
staff. After twelve, and from that age to fourteen or fifteen, the
"ungrateful age" as the French call it, boys are sent to a reformatory
or "preservative school," where they will be under stronger discipline.
For the third class, from fifteen to sixteen or eighteen, stricter
measures are necessary, so as to dispose of them in specially selected
penal colonies, as has already been done at Eysses, where the discipline
is severe, while embodying technical and industrial instruction.
_Germany._--In most parts of the German Empire juvenile delinquents and
neglected youths are treated in the same establishments. No child of
less than twelve years of age can be proceeded against in a court of
law, although in some German states destitute or abandoned children have
been taken at the ages of six, five and even three years. Youths between
twelve and eighteen may be convicted, but their offences are passed over
if they are proved to have acted without discretion. There are many
kinds of correctional institutions and a number of schools not of a
correctional character. These last are generally very small, the largest
taking barely a hundred, but are very numerous. Many private persons
have devoted themselves to the work. Count A. von der Recke-Volmerstein
(1791-1878) about 1821 founded a refuge for neglected children in
Dusselthal, between Dusseldorf and Elberstadt. Pastor T. F. Fliedner
(1800-1864) built up a fine establishment at Kaiserswerth from 1833, in
which was an infant school, a penitentiary and an orphan asylum. Another
famous name is that of W. von Turk (1774-1846), who studied under
Pestalozzi in Switzerland.
A school which has largely influenced public opinion in Great Britain,
as in Germany, is the Rauhe Haus, near Hamburg, founded by Dr Wickern in
1833. This began with a single cottage but had grown in twenty years to
a hamlet of twenty houses, with from twelve to sixteen inmates in each.
The establishment is a Lutheran one; both boys and girls are admitted,
in separate houses, and a marked feature of the place is the number of
"brothers," young men of good character qualifying for rescue work as
superintendents of homes, prison officers and schoolmasters. They take
part in the work and are in constant touch with the boys whom they
closely supervise, being bound to "keep them in sight day and night, eat
with them, sleep in their dormitories, direct their labour, accompany
them to chapel, join in their recreations and sports." These "brothers"
are honourably known throughout the world and have performed a large
work in distant lands as missionaries, prison officers and
schoolmasters. The Rauhe Haus receives three classes of juveniles:
first, the boys, mostly street arabs; second, girls of the same
category; third, children taken as boarders from private families, who
confess their inability to manage them. The instruction given is in
trades, in farming operations, gardening and fruit-raising. The pupils
are largely assisted on release, through the good offices of the
citizens of Hamburg.
_Holland._--In the Low Countries, refuges, called "Godshuis," were
founded as early as the 14th century, intended for the care and shelter
of neglected youth and indigent old age. In the 17th century people came
from all parts of Europe to learn from the Dutch how orphans and
unfortunate children could best be cared for. The Godshuis of Amsterdam
was a vast establishment, into which as many as 4000 juveniles were
sometimes crowded, with such disastrous effects that its name was
changed to that of "pesthuis," and the government in the beginning of
the present century ordered it to be emptied and closed. Other
reformatory institutions in Holland are the Netherlands Mettray, the
reform school of Zetten, near the Arnheim railway station, for
Protestant girls; and that of Alkmaar for boys; the reformatory school
of St Vincent de Paul at Amsterdam for both sexes; the Amsterdam
reformatory for young vagabonds, male and female; the reform school of
Smallepod at Amsterdam. The Netherlands Mettray, which is about five
hours' journey from Amsterdam on a farm called Rissjelt, near Zutphen,
is planned on the model of the French Mettray and was founded about 1855
by M. Suringar, a veteran Dutch philanthropist, long vice-president of
the directors of prisons in Amsterdam.
_Italy._--In Italy there is no distinction between the treatment of the
offending and the neglected or deserted in youth. There are seventeen or
more correctional establishments, eight of which are state institutions
and the rest founded by private benevolence or by charitable
associations or local communities. None of these is exclusively
agricultural; ten are industrial, seven industrial and agricultural
combined. In Italy the age of responsibility is nine, below which no
child can be charged with an offence. The Italian schools are mostly
planned on a large scale. That of Marchiondi Spagliardi accommodates
550, divided among three houses under one supreme head. The Turazza
institution at Treviso holds 380, and there are eight others with from
200 to 300 inmates. The regime is very various; the larger number of
schools are on the congregate system, with daily labour in association
and isolation by night. The "family" method is also practised with small
groups, divisions or companies, into which the children are formed
according to age or conduct.
_Sweden._--All children below the age of sixteen may be sent to a
correctional establishment or boarded out in respectable families:--
1. If they have committed acts punishable by law which indicate moral
perversity and it is deemed advisable to correct them.
2. If they are neglected, ill-used, or if their moral deterioration is
feared from the vicious life and character of parents or friends.
3. If their conduct at school or at home is such that a more severe
correctional treatment is necessary for their rescue.
Under this law the state is also to provide special schools to take all
above ten who have shown peculiar depravity; all who have reached
eighteen and who are not yet thought fit for freedom; all who have
relapsed after provisional release. Sweden is rich in institutions
devoted to the care of destitute and deserted children, all due to the
efforts of the charitable. The largest correctional establishment is
that founded at Hall, near the town of Sodertelge on the shores of the
Baltic. This admirable agricultural colony, modelled on that of Mettray,
owes its existence to the "Oscar-Josephine society," founded by Queen
Josephine, widow of Oscar I.
_United States._--In the words of a report made in 1878 by F. B.
Sanborn, secretary of the American Social Science Society, "America can
justly plume herself upon the work accomplished by her juvenile
reformatories since their inauguration down to the present time." The
first in point of date and still the most considerable of the
reformatories in the United States is that founded in 1825, thanks to
the unwearied efforts of the great American publicist and philanthropist
Edward Livingston, which now has its home on Randall's Island in New
York City. In the following year a reformatory of the same class was
founded in Boston, and another in the year after in Philadelphia. All
were intended to receive criminal youth. There are state reformatories
now in almost all the states of the Union, and those for juvenile adults
in New York and Massachusetts have attracted world-wide attention,
aiming so high and with such an elaboration of means that they deserve
particular description.
The great state reformatory establishment of Elmira, New York, called
into existence in 1889 with the avowed aim of compassing the reformation
of the criminal by new processes, partakes of the system involved in the
treatment of juvenile offenders. It was based upon the principle that
crime ought to be attacked in its beginnings by other than ordinary
punitive and prison methods. Under this view, the right of society to
defend itself by punishment was denied, and it was held that a youthful
offender was more sinned against than sinning. It was urged that his
crime, due largely to inherited defects, mental or physical and vicious
surroundings, was not his own fault, and he had a paramount claim to be
treated differently by the state when in custody. The state was not
justified in using powers of repression to imprison him in the usual
mechanical hard and fast fashion and then return him to society, no
better, possibly worse, than before; it was bound to regenerate him, to
change his nature, improve his physique, and give him a new mental
equipment, so that when again at large he might be fitted to take his
place amongst honest citizens, to earn his living by reputable means and
escape all temptation to drift back into crime. This is the plausible
explanation given for the state reformatory movement, which led to the
creation on such costly and extensive lines of Elmira, and of Concord in
Massachusetts, a cognate establishment. There is very little penal about
the treatment, which is that of a boarding school; the education,
thorough and carried far, includes languages, music, science and
industrial art; diet is plentiful, even luxurious; amusements and varied
recreation are permitted; well stocked libraries are provided with
entertaining books; a prison newspaper is issued (edited by an inmate).
Physical development is sedulously cultivated both by gymnastics and
military exercises, and the whole course is well adapted to change
entirely the character of the individual subjected to it. The trouble
taken in the hope of transforming erring youth into useful members of
society goes still further. The original sentence has been indefinite,
and release on parole will be granted to inmates who pass through the
various courses with credit and are supposed to have satisfied the
authorities of their desire to amend. The limit of detention need not
exceed twelve months, after which parole is possible, although the
average period passed before it is granted is twenty-two months. The
hope of permanent amendment is further sought by the fact that a
situation, generally with good wages and congenial work, provided by the
authorities, awaits every inmate at the time of his discharge. The
inmates, selected from a very large class, are first offenders, but
guilty generally of criminal offences, which include manslaughter,
burglary, forgery, fraud, robbery and receiving. The exact measure of
reformation achieved can never be exactly known, from the absence of
authentic statistics and the difficulty of following up the surveillance
of individuals when released on parole. Reports issued by the manager of
Elmira claim that 81% of those paroled have done well, but these results
are not definitely authenticated. They are based upon the ascertained
good conduct during the term of surveillance, six or twelve months only,
during which time these subjects have not yet spent the gratuities
earned and have probably still kept the situations found for them on
discharge. No doubt the material treated at Elmira and Concord is of a
kind to encourage hope of reformation, as they are first offenders and
presumably not of the criminal classes. Although the processes are open
to criticism, the discipline enforced in these state reformatories does
not err in excessive leniency. They are not "hotels," as has been
sometimes said in ridicule, where prisoners go to enjoy themselves, have
a good time, study Plato and conic sections, and pass out to an assured
future. There is plenty of hard work, mental and physical, and the
"inmates" rather envy their fellows in state prisons. A point to which
great attention is paid is that physical degeneracy lies at the bottom
of the criminal character, and great attention is paid to the
development of nervous energy and strengthening by every means the
normal and healthful functions of the body. A leading feature in the
treatment is the frequency and perfection with which bathing is carried
out. A series of Turkish baths forms a part of the course of
instruction; the baths being fitted elaborately with all the adjuncts of
shower bath, cold douche, ending with gymnastic exercises.
A remarkable and unique institution is the state reformatory for women
at Sherborn, Massachusetts, for women with sentences of more than a
year, who in the opinion of the court are fit subjects for reformatory
treatment. The majority of the inmates were convicted of drunkenness, an
offence which the law of Massachusetts visits with severity--a sentence
of two years being very common. This at once differentiates the class of
women from that in ordinary penal establishments. At the same time we
find that other women guilty of serious crime are sent by the courts to
this prison with a view to their reform. Thus of 352 inmates, while no
fewer than 200 were convicted of drunkenness, there were also 63 cases
of offences against chastity and 30 of larceny. The average age was
thirty-one and the average duration of sentence just over a year. In
appearance and in character it more resembles a hospital or home for
inebriates than a state convict prison. A system of grades or divisions
is relied upon as a stimulus to reform. The difference in grades is
denoted by small and scarcely perceptible variations of the little
details of everyday life, such as are supposed in a peculiar degree to
affect the appreciation of women, e.g. in the lowest division the women
have their meals off old and chipped china; in the next the china is
less chipped; in the highest there is no chipped china; in the next
prettily set out with tumblers, cruet-stands and a pepper pot to each
prisoner. The superintendent relies greatly also on the moralizing
influence of animals and birds. Well-behaved convicts are allowed to
tend sheep, calves, pigs, chickens, canaries and parrots. This privilege
is highly esteemed and productive, it is said, of the most softening
influences.
The "George Junior Republic" (q.v.) is a remarkable institution
established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New York State, by
Mr. William Reuben George. The original features of the institution are
that the motto "Nothing without labour" is rigidly enforced, and that
self-government is carried to a point that, with mere children, would
appear whimsical were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name
implies, a miniature "republic" with laws, legislature, courts and
administration of its own, all made and carried on by the "citizens"
themselves. The tone and spirit of the place appeared to be excellent
and there is much evidence that in many cases strong and independent
character is developed in children whose antecedents have been almost
hopeless.
_Borstal Scheme in England._--The American system of state reformatories
as above described has been sharply criticized, but the principle that
underlies it is recognized as, in a measure, sound, and it has been
adopted by the English authorities. Some time back the experiment of
establishing a penal reformatory for offenders above the age hitherto
committed to reformatory schools was resolved upon. This led to the
foundation of the Borstal scheme, which was first formally started in
October 1902. The arguments which had led to it may be briefly stated
here. It had been conclusively shown that quite half the whole number of
professional criminals had been first convicted when under twenty-one
years of age, when still at a malleable period of development, when in
short the criminal habit had not yet been definitely formed. Moreover
these adolescents escaped special reformatory treatment, for sixteen is
in Great Britain the age of criminal majority, after which no youthful
offenders can be committed to the state reformatory schools. But there
was always a formidable contingent of juvenile adults between sixteen and
twenty-one, sent to penal servitude, and their numbers although
diminishing rose to an average total of 15,000. It was accordingly
decided to create a penal establishment under state control, which should
be a half-way house between the prison and the reformatory school. A
selection was made of juvenile adults, sentenced to not less than six
months and sent to Borstal in 1902 to be treated under rules approved by
the home secretary. They were to be divided on arrival into three
separate classes, penal, ordinary and special, with promotion by industry
and good conduct from the lowest to the highest, in which they enjoyed
distinctive privileges. The general system, educational and disciplinary,
was intelligent and governed by common sense. Instruction, both manual
and educational, was well suited to the recipients; the first embraced
field work, market gardening, and a knowledge of useful handicrafts; the
second was elementary but sound, aided by well-chosen libraries and
brightened by the privilege of evening association to play harmless but
interesting games. Physical development was also guaranteed by gymnastics
and regular exercises. The results were distinctly encouraging. They
arrived at Borstal "rough, untrained cubs," but rapidly improved in
demeanour and inward character, gaining self-reliance and self-respect,
and left the prison on the high road to regeneration. It was wisely
remembered that to secure lasting amendment it is not enough to chasten
the erring subject, to train his hands, to strengthen his moral sense
while still in durance; it is essential to assist him on discharge by
helping him to find work, and encourage him by timely advice to keep him
in the straight path. Too much praise cannot be accorded to the agencies
and associations which labour strenuously and unceasingly to this
excellent end. Especial good work has been done by the Borstal
association, founded under the patronage of the best known and most
distinguished persons in English public life--archbishops, judges,
cabinet ministers and privy councillors--which receives the juvenile
adults on their release and helps them to employment. Their labours,
backed by generous voluntary contributions, have produced very gratifying
results. Although the offenders originally selected to undergo the
Borstal treatment were those committed for a period of six months, it was
recognized that this limit was experimental, and that thoroughly
satisfactory results could only be obtained with sentences of at least a
year's duration, so as to give the reforming agencies ample time to
operate. In the second year's working of the system it was formally
applied to young convicts sentenced to penal servitude between the ages
of sixteen and twenty-one. In the next year it was adopted for all
offenders between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one committed to prison,
as far as the length of sentence would permit. The commissioners of
prisons, in their _Report_ for the year 1908 (Cd. 4300) thus expressed
themselves on the working of the experiment:--
"Experience soon began to point to the probable success of this
general application of the principle, in spite of the fact that the
prevailing shortness of sentences operated against full benefit being
derived from reformatory effort. The success was most marked in those
localities where magistrates, or other benevolent persons, personally
co-operated in making the scheme a success. Local Borstal committees
were established at all prisons, and it was arranged that those
members of the local committees should become _ex officio_ honorary
members of the Central Borstal Association, which it was intended
should become, what it now is, the parent society directing the
general aid on discharge of this category of young prisoners."
In spite of the general adoption of the Borstal system, there was a
large class of young criminals who were outside its effects, those who
were sentenced to terms of ten days and under for trifling offences.
These juvenile adults, once having had the fear of prison taken away by
actual experience, were found to come back again and again. To remedy
this state of affairs, a bill was introduced in 1907 to give effect to
the principle of a long period of detention for all those showing a
tendency to embark on a criminal career. The bill was, however, dropped,
but a somewhat similar bill was introduced the next year and became law
under the title of The Prevention of Crime Act 1908. This measure
introduces a new departure in the treatment of professional crime by
initiating a system of detention for habitual criminals (see
RECIDIVISM). The act attempts the reformation of young offenders by
giving the court power to pass sentence of detention in a Borstal
institution for a term of not less than one year nor more than three on
those between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one who by reason of
criminal habits or tendencies or association with persons of bad
character require such instruction and discipline as appear most
conducive to their reformation. The power of detention applies also to
reformatory school offences, while such persons as are already
undergoing penal servitude or imprisonment may be transferred to a
Borstal institution if detention would conduce to their advantage. The
establishment of other Borstal institutions is authorized by the act,
while a very useful provision is the power to release on licence if
there is a reasonable probability that the offender will abstain from
crime and lead a useful and industrious life. The licence is issued on
condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of some
society or person willing to take charge of him. Supervision is
introduced after the expiration of the term of sentence, and power is
given to transfer to prison incorrigibles or those exercising a bad
influence on the other inmates of a Borstal institution. The act marks a
noteworthy advance in the endeavour to arrest the growing habit of
crime. (A. G.; T. A. I.)
JUVENTAS (Latin for "youth": later _Juventus_), in Roman mythology, the
tutelar goddess of young men. She was worshipped at Rome from very early
times. In the front court of the temple of Minerva on the Capitol there
was a chapel of Juventas, in which a coin had to be deposited by each
youth on his assumption of the _toga virilis_, and sacrifices were
offered on behalf of the rising manhood of the state. In connexion with
this chapel it is related that, when the temple was in course of
erection, Terminus, the god of boundaries, and Juventas refused to quit
the sites they had already appropriated as sacred to themselves, which
accordingly became part of the new sanctuary. This was interpreted as a
sign of the immovable boundaries and eternal youth of the Roman state.
It should be observed that in the oldest accounts there is no mention of
Juventas, whose name (with that of Mars) was added in support of the
augural prediction. After the Second Punic War Greek elements were
introduced into her cult. In 218 B.C., by order of the Sibylline books,
a _lectisternium_ was prepared for Juventas and a public thanksgiving to
Hercules, an association which shows the influence of the Greek Hebe,
the wife of Heracles. In 207 Marcus Livius Salinator, after the defeat
of Hasdrubal at the battle of Sena, vowed another temple to Juventas in
the Circus Maximus, which was dedicated in 191 by C. (or M.) Licinius
Lucullus; it was destroyed by fire in 16 B.C. and rebuilt by Augustus.
In imperial times, Juventas personified, not the youth of the Roman
state, but of the future emperor.
See Dion. Halic., iii. 69, iv. 15; Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36.
JUXON, WILLIAM (1582-1663), English prelate, was the son of Robert Juxon
and was born probably at Chichester, being educated at Merchant Taylors'
School, London, and at St John's College, Oxford, where he was elected
to a scholarship in 1598. He studied law at Oxford, but afterwards he
took holy orders, and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, a living
which he retained until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in
1615. In December 1621 he succeeded his friend, William Laud, as
president of St John's College, and in 1626 and 1627 he was
vice-chancellor of the university. Juxon soon obtained other important
positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles I. In 1627
he was made dean of Worcester and in 1632 he was nominated to the
bishopric of Hereford, an event which led him to resign the presidency
of St John's in January 1633. However, he never took up his episcopal
duties at Hereford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of
London in succession to Laud. He appears to have been an excellent
bishop, and in March 1636 Charles I. entrusted him with important
secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England; thus for
the next five years he was dealing with the many financial and other
difficulties which beset the king and his advisers. He resigned the
treasurership in May 1641. During the Civil War the bishop, against whom
no charges were brought in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham
Palace, and his advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high
opinion of him, and who at his execution selected him to be with him on
the scaffold and to administer to him the last consolations of religion.
Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1649 and retired to Little
Compton in Gloucestershire, where he had bought an estate, and here he
became famous as the owner of a pack of hounds. At the restoration of
Charles II. he became archbishop of Canterbury and in his official
capacity he took part in the coronation of this king, but his health
soon began to fail and he died at Lambeth on the 4th of June 1663. By
his will the archbishop was a benefactor to St John's College, where he
was buried; he also aided the work of restoring St Paul's Cathedral and
rebuilt the great hall at Lambeth Palace.
See W. H. Marah, _Memoirs of Archbishop Juxon and his Times_ (1869);
the best authority for the archbishop's life is the article by W. H.
Hutton in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1892).
K The eleventh letter in the Phoenician alphabet and in its descendant
Greek, the tenth in Latin owing to the omission of Teth (see I), and
once more the eleventh in the alphabets of Western Europe owing to the
insertion of J. In its long history the shape of K has changed very
little. It is on the inscription of the Moabite Stone (early 9th cent.
B.C.) in the form (written from right to left) of [symbol] and [symbol].
Similar forms are also found in early Aramaic, but another form [symbol]
or [symbol], which is found in the Phoenician of Cyprus in the 9th or
10th century B.C. has had more effect upon the later development of the
Semitic forms. The length of the two back strokes and the manner in
which they join the upright are the only variations in Greek. In various
places the back strokes, treated as an angle <, become more rounded (,
so that the letter appears as K, a form which in Latin probably affected
the development of C (q.v.). In Crete it is elaborated into [symbol] and
[symbol]. In Latin K, which is found in the earliest inscriptions, was
soon replaced by C, and survived only in the abbreviations for
_Kalendae_ and the proper name _Kaeso_. The original name Kaph became in
Greek _Kappa_. The sound of K throughout has been that of the unvoiced
guttural, varying to some extent in its pronunciation according to the
nature of the vowel sound which followed it. In Anglo-Saxon C replaced K
through Latin influence, writing being almost entirely in the hands of
ecclesiastics. As the sound-changes have been discussed under C it is
necessary here only to refer to the palatalization of K followed earlier
by a final _e_ as in _watch_ (Middle English _wacche_, Anglo-Saxon
_waecce_) by the side of _wake_ (M.E. _waken_, A.-S. _wacan_); batch,
bake, &c. Sometimes an older form of the substantive survives, as in the
Elizabethan and Northern _make_ = _mate_ alongside _match_. (P. Gi.)
K2, or MT GODWIN-AUSTEN, the second highest mountain in the world,
ranking after Mt Everest. It is a peak of the Karakoram extension of the
Muztagh range dividing Kashmir from Chinese Turkestan. The height of K2
as at present determined by triangulation is 28,250 ft., but it is
possible that an ultimate revision of the values of refraction at high
altitudes may have the effect of lowering the height of K2, while it
would elevate those of Everest and Kinchinjunga. The latter mountain
would then rank second, and K2 third, in the scale of altitude, Everest
always maintaining its ascendancy. K2 was ascended for the first time by
the duke of the Abruzzi in June 1909, being the highest elevation on the
earth's surface ever reached by man.
KA'BA, KAABA, or KAABEH, the sacred shrine of Mahommedanism, containing
the "black stone," in the middle of the great mosque at Mecca (q.v.).
KABARDIA, a territory of S. Russia, now part of the province of Terek.
It is divided into Great and Little Kabardia by the upper river Terek,
and covers 3780 sq. m. on the northern slopes of the Caucasus range
(from Mount Elbruz to Pasis-mta, or Edena), including the Black
Mountains (Kara-dagh) and the high plains on their northern slope.
Before the Russian conquest it extended as far as the Sea of Azov. Its
population is now about 70,000. One-fourth of the territory is owned by
the aristocracy and the remainder is divided among the _auls_ or
villages. A great portion is under permanent pasture, part under
forests, and some under perpetual snow. Excellent breeds of horses are
reared, and the peasants own many cattle. The land is well cultivated in
the lower parts, the chief crops being millet, maize, wheat and oats.
Bee-keeping is extensively practised, and Kabardian honey is in repute.
Wood-cutting and the manufacture of wooden wares, the making of _burkas_
(felt and fur cloaks), and saddlery are very general. Nalchik is the
chief town.
The Kabardians are a branch of the Adyghe (Circassians). The policy of
Russia was always to be friendly with the Kabardian aristocracy, who
were possessed of feudal rights over the Ossetes, the Ingushes, the
Abkhasians and the mountain Tatars, and had command of the roads leading
into Transcaucasia. Ivan the Terrible took Kabardia under his protection
in the 16th century. Later, Russian influence was counterbalanced by
that of the Crimean khans, but the Kabardian nobles nevertheless
supported Peter the Great during his Caucasian campaign in 1722-23. In
1739 Kabardia was recognized as being under the double protectorate of
Russia and Turkey, but thirty-five years later it was definitively
annexed to Russia, and risings of the population in 1804 and 1822 were
cruelly suppressed. Kabardia is considered as a school of good manners
in Caucasia; the Kabardian dress sets the fashion to all the
mountaineers. Kabardians constitute the best detachment of the personal
Imperial Guards at St Petersburg.
A short grammar of the Kabardian language and a Russian-Kabardian
dictionary, by Lopatinsky, were published in _Sbornik Materialov dla
Opisaniya Kavkaza_ (vol. xii., Tiflis, 1891). Fragments of the poem
"Sosyruko," some Persian tales, and the tenets of the Mussulman
religion were printed in Kabardian in 1864, by Kazi Atazhukin and
Shardanov. The common law of the Kabardians has been studied by Maxim
Kovalevsky and Vsevolod Miller.
KABBA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria,
situated chiefly on the right bank of the Niger, between 7 deg. 5' and 8
deg. 45' N. and 5 deg. 30' and 7 deg. E. It has an area of 7800 sq. m.
and an estimated population of about 70,000. The province consists of
relatively healthy uplands interspersed with fertile valleys. It formed
part at one time of the Nupe emirate, and under Fula rule the armies of
Bida regularly raided for slaves and laid waste the country. Amongst the
native inhabitants the Igbira are very industrious, and crops of
tobacco, indigo, all the African grains, and a good quantity of cotton
are already grown. The sylvan products are valuable and include palm
oil, kolas, shea and rubber. Lokoja, a town which up to 1902 was the
principal British station in the protectorate, is situated in this
province. The site of Lokoja, with a surrounding tract of country at the
junction of the Benue and the Niger, was ceded to the British government
in 1841 by the _attah_ of Idah, whose dominions at that time extended to
the right bank of the river. The first British settlement was a failure.
In 1854 MacGregor Laird, who had taken an active part in promoting the
exploration of the river, sent thither Dr W. B. Baikie, who was
successful in dealing with the natives and in 1857 became the first
British consul in the interior. The town of Lokoja was founded by him in
1860. In 1868 the consulate was abolished and the settlement was left
wholly to commercial interests. In 1879 Sir George Goldie formed the
Royal Niger Company, which bought out its foreign rivals and acquired a
charter from the British government. In 1886 the company made Lokoja its
military centre, and on the transfer of the company's territories to the
Crown it remained for a time the capital of Northern Nigeria. In 1902
the political capital of the protectorate was shifted to Zungeru in the
province of Zaria, but Lokoja remains the commercial centre. The
distance of Lokoja from the sea at the Niger mouth is about 250 m.
In the absence of any central native authority the province is entirely
dependent for administration upon British initiative. It has been
divided into four administrative divisions. British and native courts of
justice have been established. A British station has been established at
Kabba town, which is an admirable site some 50 m. W. by N. of Lokoja,
about 1300 ft. above the sea, and a good road has been made from Kabba
to Lokoja. Roads have been opened through the province. (See NIGERIA.)
KABBABISH ("goatherds": James Bruce derives the name from _Hebsh_,
sheep), a tribe of African nomads of Semitic origin. It is perhaps the
largest "Arab" tribe in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and its many clans are
scattered over the country extending S.W. from the province of Dongola
to the confines of Darfur. The Kabbabish speak Arabic, but their
pronunciation differs much from that of the true Arabs. The Kabbabish
have a tradition that they came from Tunisia and are of Mogrebin or
western descent; but while the chiefs look like Arabs, the tribesmen
resemble the Beja family. They themselves declare that one of their
clans, Kawahla, is not of Kabbabish blood, but was affiliated to them
long ago. Kawahla is a name of Arab formation, and J. L. Burckhardt
spoke of the clan as a distinct one living about Abu Haraz and on the
Atbara. The Kabbabish probably received Arab rulers, as did the Ababda.
They are chiefly employed in cattle, camel and sheep breeding, and
before the Sudan wars of 1883-99 they had a monopoly of all transport
from the Nile, north of Abu Gussi, to Kordofan. They also cultivate the
lowlands which border the Nile, where they have permanent villages. They
are of fine physique, dark with black wiry hair, carefully arranged in
tightly rolled curls which cling to the head, with regular features and
rather thick aquiline noses. Some of the tribes wear large hats like
those of the Kabyles of Algeria and Tunisia.
See James Bruce, _Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile_ (1790);
A. H. Keane, _Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan_ (1884); _Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan_ (edited by Count Gleichen, 1905).
KABBALAH (late Hebrew _kabbalah_, _qabbalah_), the technical name for
the system of Jewish theosophy which played an important part in the
Christian Church in the middle ages. The term primarily denotes
"reception" and then "doctrines received by tradition." In the older
Jewish literature the name is applied to the whole body of received
religious doctrine with the exception of the Pentateuch, thus including
the Prophets and Hagiographa as well as the oral traditions ultimately
embodied in the Mishnah.[1] It is only since the 11th or 12th century
that Kabbalah has become the exclusive appellation for the renowned
system of theosophy which claims to have been transmitted
uninterruptedly by the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets ever since
the creation of the first man.
Doctrine of the Sephiroth.
The cardinal doctrines of the Kabbalah embrace the nature of the Deity,
the Divine emanations or _Sephiroth_, the cosmogony, the creation of
angels and man, their destiny, and the import of the revealed law.
According to this esoteric doctrine, God, who is boundless, and above
everything, even above being and thinking, is called _En Soph_ ([Greek:
apeiros]); He is the space of the universe containing [Greek: to pan],
but the universe is not his space. In this boundlessness He could not be
comprehended by the intellect or described in words, and as such the En
Soph was in a certain sense _Ayin_, non-existent (_Zohar_, iii. 283).[2]
To make his existence known and comprehensible, the En Soph had to
become active and creative. As creation involves intention, desire,
thought and work, and as these are properties which imply limit and
belong to a finite being, and moreover as the imperfect and
circumscribed nature of this creation precludes the idea of its being
the direct work of the infinite and perfect, the En Soph had to become
creative, through the medium of ten Sephiroth or intelligences, which
emanated from him like rays proceeding from a luminary.
Now the wish to become manifest and known, and hence the idea of
creation, is co-eternal with the inscrutable Deity, and the first
manifestation of this primordial will is called the first _Sephirah_ or
emanation. This first Sephirah, this spiritual substance which existed
in the En Soph from all eternity, contained nine other intelligences or
_Sephiroth_. These again emanated one from the other, the second from
the first, the third from the second, and so on up to ten.
The ten Sephiroth, which form among themselves and with the En Soph a
strict unity, and which simply represent different aspects of one and
the same being, are respectively denominated (1) the Crown, (2)
Wisdom, (3) Intelligence, (4) Love, (5) Justice, (6) Beauty, (7)
Firmness, (8) Splendour, (9) Foundation, and (10) Kingdom. Their
evolution was as follows: "When the Holy Aged, the concealed of all
concealed, assumed a form, he produced everything in the form of male
and female, as things could not continue in any other form. Hence
Wisdom, the second Sephirah, and the beginning of development, when it
proceeded from the Holy Aged (another name of the first Sephirah)
emanated in male and female, for Wisdom expanded, and Intelligence,
the third Sephirah, proceeded from it, and thus were obtained male and
female, viz. Wisdom the father and Intelligence the mother, from whose
union the other pairs of Sephiroth successively emanated" (_Zohar_,
iii. 290). These two opposite potencies, viz. the masculine Wisdom or
Sephirah No. 2 and the feminine Intelligence or Sephirah No. 3 are
joined together by the first potency, the Crown or Sephirah No. 1;
they yield the first triad of the Sephiric decade, and constitute the
divine head of the archetypal man.
From the junction of Sephiroth Nos. 2 and 3 emanated the masculine
potency Love or Mercy (4) and the feminine potency Justice (5), and
from the junction of the latter two emanated again the uniting potency
Beauty (6). Beauty, the sixth Sephirah, constitutes the chest in the
archetypal man, and unites Love (4) and Justice (5), which constitute
the divine arms, thus yielding the second triad of the Sephiric
decade. From this second conjunction emanated again the masculine
potency Firmness (7) and the feminine potency Splendour (8), which
constitute the divine legs of the archetypal man; and these sent forth
Foundation (9), which is the genital organ and medium of union between
them, thus yielding the third triad in the Sephiric decade. Kingdom
(10), which emanated from the ninth Sephirah, encircles all the other
nine, inasmuch as it is the Shechinah, the divine halo, which
encompasses the whole by its all-glorious presence.
In their totality and unity the ten Sephiroth are not only denominated
the World of Sephiroth, or the World of Emanations, but, owing to the
above representation, are called the primordial or archetypal man (=
[Greek: protogonos]) and the heavenly man. It is this form which, as we
are assured, the prophet Ezekiel saw in the mysterious chariot (Ezek. i.
1-28), and of which the earthly man is a faint copy.
As the three triads respectively represent intellectual, moral and
physical qualities, the first is called the Intellectual, the second the
Moral or Sensuous, and the third the Material World. According to this
theory of the archetypal man the three Sephiroth on the right-hand side
are masculine and represent the principle of rigour, the three on the
left are feminine and represent the principle of mercy, and the four
central or uniting Sephiroth represent the principle of mildness. Hence
the right is called "the Pillar of Judgment," the left "the Pillar of
Mercy," and the centre "the Middle Pillar." The middle Sephiroth are
synecdochically used to represent the worlds or triads of which they are
the uniting potencies. Hence the Crown, the first Sephirah, which unites
Wisdom and Intelligence to constitute the first triad, is by itself
denominated the Intellectual World. So Beauty is by itself described as
the Sensuous World, and in this capacity is called the Sacred King or
simply the King, whilst Kingdom, the tenth Sephirah, which unites all
the nine Sephiroth, is used to denote the Material World, and as such is
denominated the Queen or the Matron. Thus a trinity of units, viz. the
Crown, Beauty and Kingdom, is obtained within the trinity of triads. But
further, each Sephirah is as it were a trinity in itself. It (1) has its
own absolute character, (2) receives from above, and (3) communicates to
what is below. "Just as the Sacred Aged is represented by the number
three, so are all the other lights (Sephiroth) of a threefold nature"
(_Zohar_, iii. 288). In this all-important doctrine of the Sephiroth,
the Kabbalah insists upon the fact that these potencies are not
creations of the En Soph, which would be a diminution of strength; that
they form among themselves and with the En Soph a strict unity, and
simply represent different aspects of the same being, just as the
different rays which proceed from the light, and which appear different
things to the eye, are only different manifestations of one and the same
light; that for this reason they all alike partake of the perfections of
the En Soph; and that as emanations from the Infinite, the Sephiroth are
infinite and perfect like the En Soph, and yet constitute the first
finite things. They are infinite and perfect when the En Soph imparts
his fullness to them, and finite and imperfect when that fullness is
withdrawn from them.
The Universe.
The conjunction of the Sephiroth, or, according to the language of the
Kabbalah, the union of the crowned King and Queen, produced the universe
in their own image. Worlds came into existence before the En Soph
manifested himself in the human form of emanations, but they could not
continue, and necessarily perished because the conditions of development
which obtained with the sexual opposites of the Sephiroth did not exist.
These worlds which perished are compared to sparks which fly out from a
red-hot iron beaten by a hammer, and which are extinguished according to
the distance they are removed from the burning mass. Creation is not
_ex nihilo_; it is simply a further expansion or evolution of the
Sephiroth.[3] The world reveals and makes visible the Boundless and the
concealed of the concealed. And, though it exhibits the Deity in less
splendour than its Sephiric parents exhibit the En Soph, because it is
farther removed from the primordial source of light than the Sephiroth,
still, as it is God manifested, all the multifarious forms in the world
point out the unity which they represent. Hence nothing in the whole
universe can be annihilated. Everything, spirit as well as body, must
return to the source whence it emanated (_Zohar_, ii. 218). The universe
consists of four different worlds, each of which forms a separate
Sephiric system of a decade of emanations.
They were evolved in the following order. (1) The World Of Emanations,
also called the Image and the Heavenly or Archetypal Man, is, as we
have seen, a direct emanation from the En Soph. Hence it is most
intimately allied to the Deity, and is perfect and immutable. From the
conjunction of the King and Queen (i.e. these ten Sephiroth) is
produced (2) the World of Creation, or the Briatic world, also called
"the Throne." Its ten Sephiroth, being farther removed from the En
Soph, are of a more limited and circumscribed potency, though the
substances they comprise are of the purest nature and without any
admixture of matter. The angel Metatron inhabits this world. He alone
constitutes the world of pure spirit, and is the garment of Shaddai,
i.e. the visible manifestation of the Deity. His name is numerically
equivalent to that of the Lord (_Zohar_, iii. 231). He governs the
visible world, preserves the harmony and guides the revolutions of all
the spheres, and is the captain of all the myriads of angelic beings.
This Briatic world again gave rise to (3) the World of Formation, or
Yetziratic World. Its ten Sephiroth, being still farther removed from
the Primordial Source, are of a less refined substance. Still they are
yet without matter. It is the abode of the angels, who are wrapped in
luminous garments, and who assume a sensuous form when they appear to
men. The myriads of the angelic hosts who people this world are
divided into ten ranks, answering to the ten Sephiroth, and each one
of these numerous angels is set over a different part of the universe,
and derives his name from the heavenly body or element which he guards
(_Zohar_, i. 42). From this world finally emanated (4) the World of
Action, also called the World of Matter. Its ten Sephiroth are made up
of the grosser elements of the former three worlds; they consist of
material substance limited by space and perceptible to the senses in a
multiplicity of forms. This world is subject to constant changes and
corruption, and is the dwelling of the evil spirits. These, the
grossest and most deficient of all forms, are also divided into ten
degrees, each lower than the other. The first two are nothing more
than the absence of all visible form and organization; the third
degree is the abode of darkness; whilst the remaining seven are "the
seven infernal halls," occupied by the demons, who are the incarnation
of all human vices. These seven hells are subdivided into innumerable
compartments corresponding to every species of sin, where the demons
torture the poor deluded human beings who have suffered themselves to
be led astray whilst on earth. The prince of this region of darkness
is Samael, the evil spirit, the serpent who seduced Eve. His wife is
the Harlot or the Woman of Whoredom. The two are treated as one
person, and are called "the Beast" (_Zohar_, ii. 255-259, with i. 35).
Doctrine of Man.
The whole universe, however, was incomplete, and did not receive its
finishing stroke till man was formed, who is the acme of the creation
and the microcosm. "The heavenly Adam (i.e. the ten Sephiroth) who
emanated from the highest primordial obscurity (i.e. the En Soph)
created the earthly Adam" (_Zohar_, ii. 70). "Man is both the import and
the highest degree of creation, for which reason he was formed on the
sixth day. As soon as man was created everything was complete, including
the upper and nether worlds, for everything is comprised in man. He
unites in himself all forms" (_Zohar_, iii. 48). Each member of his body
corresponds to a part of the visible universe. "Just as we see in the
firmament above, covering all things, different signs which are formed
of the stars and the planets, and which contain secret things and
profound mysteries studied by those who are wise and expert in these
things; so there are in the skin, which is the cover of the body of the
son of man, and which is like the sky that covers all things above,
signs and features which are the stars and planets of the skin,
indicating secret things and profound mysteries whereby the wise are
attracted who understand the reading of the mysteries in the human
face" (_Zohar_, ii. 76). The human form is shaped after the four letters
which constitute the Jewish Tetragrammaton (q.v.; see also JEHOVAH). The
head is in the shape of [Hebrew: iod], the arms and the shoulders are
like [Hebrew: hei], the breast like [Hebrew: vav], and the two legs with
the back again resemble [Hebrew: hei] (_Zohar_, ii. 72). The souls of
the whole human race pre-exist in the World of Emanations, and are all
destined to inhabit human bodies. Like the Sephiroth from which it
emanates, every soul has ten potencies, consisting of a trinity of
triads. (1) The Spirit (_neshamah_), which is the highest degree of
being, corresponds to and is operated upon by the Crown, which is the
highest triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Intellectual World;
(2) the Soul (_ruah_), which is the seat of the moral qualities,
corresponds to and is operated upon by Beauty, which is the second triad
in the Sephiroth, and is called the Moral World; and (3) the Cruder Soul
(_nephesh_), which is immediately connected with the body, and is the
cause of its lower instincts and the animal life, corresponds to and is
operated upon by Foundation, the third triad in the Sephiroth, called
the Material World. Each soul prior to its entering into this world
consists of male and female united into one being. When it descends on
this earth the two parts are separated and animate two different bodies.
"At the time of marriage the Holy One, blessed be he, who knows all
souls and spirits, unites them again as they were before; and they again
constitute one body and one soul, forming as it were the right and the
left of the individual.... This union, however, is influenced by the
deeds of the man and by the ways in which he walks. If the man is pure
and his conduct is pleasing in the sight of God, he is united with that
female part of the soul which was his component part prior to his birth"
(_Zohar_, i. 91). The soul's destiny upon earth is to develop those
perfections the germs of which are eternally implanted in it, and it
ultimately must return to the infinite source from which it emanated.
Hence, if, after assuming a body and sojourning upon earth, it becomes
polluted by sin and fails to acquire the experience for which it
descends from heaven, it must three times reinhabit a body, till it is
able to ascend in a purified state through repeated trials. If, after
its third residence in a human body, it is still too weak to withstand
the contamination of sin, it is united with another soul, in order that
by their combined efforts it may resist the pollution which by itself it
was unable to conquer. When the whole pleroma of pre-existent souls in
the world of the Sephiroth shall have descended and occupied human
bodies and have passed their period of probation and have returned
purified to the bosom of the infinite Source, then the soul of Messiah
will descend from the region of souls; then the great Jubilee will
commence. There shall be no more sin, no more temptation, no more
suffering. Universal restoration will take place. Satan himself, "the
venomous Beast," will be restored to his angelic nature. Life will be an
everlasting feast, a Sabbath without end. All souls will be united with
the Highest Soul, and will supplement each other in the Holy of Holies
of the Seven Halls (_Zohar_, i. 45, 168; ii. 97).
Antiquity and Influence of Kabbalah.
According to the Kabbalah all these esoteric doctrines are contained in
the Hebrew Scriptures. The uninitiated cannot perceive them; but they
are plainly revealed to the spiritually minded, who discern the profound
import of this theosophy beneath the surface of the letters and words of
Holy Writ. "If the law simply consists of ordinary expressions and
narratives, such as the words of Esau, Hagar, Laban, the ass of Balaam
or Balaam himself, why should it be called the law of truth, the perfect
law, the true witness of God? Each word contains a sublime source, each
narrative points not only to the single instance in question, but also
to generals" (_Zohar_, iii. 149, cf. 152).
To obtain these heavenly mysteries, which alone make the Torah
superior to profane codes, definite hermeneutical rules are employed,
of which the following are the most important. (1) The words of
several verses in the Hebrew Scriptures which are regarded as
containing a recondite sense are placed over each other, and the
letters are formed into new words by reading them vertically. (2) The
words of the text are ranged in squares in such a manner as to be read
either vertically or boustrophedon. (3) The words are joined together
and redivided. (4) The initials and final letters of several words are
formed into separate words. (5) Every letter of a word is reduced to
its numerical value, and the word is explained by another of the same
quantity. (6) Every letter of a word is taken to be the initial or
abbreviation of a word. (7) The twenty-two letters of the alphabet are
divided into two halves; one half is placed above the other; and the
two letters which thus become associated are interchanged. By this
permutation, _Aleph_, the first letter of the alphabet, becomes
_Lamed_, the twelfth letter; _Beth_ becomes _Mem_, and so on. This
cipher alphabet is called _Albam_, from the first interchangeable
pairs. (8) The commutation of the twenty-two letters is effected by
the last letter of the alphabet taking the place of the first, the
last but one the place of the second, and so forth. This cipher is
called _Atbash_. These hermeneutical canons are much older than the
Kabbalah. They obtained in the synagogue from time immemorial, and
were used by the Christian fathers in the interpretation of
Scripture.[4] Thus Canon V., according to which a word is reduced to
its numerical value and interpreted by another word of the same value,
is recognized in the New Testament (cf. Rev. xiii. 18). Canon VI. is
adopted by Irenaeus, who tells us that, according to the learned among
the Hebrews, the name Jesus contains two letters and a half, and
signifies that Lord who contains heaven and earth [[Hebrew: ieshu] =
[Hebrew: ieova shamaim vaaretz]] (_Against Heresies_, ii. xxiv., i.
205, ed. Clark). The cipher _Atbash_ (Canon VIII.) is used in Jeremiah
xxv. 26, li. 41, where Sheshach is written for Babel. In Jer. li. 1,
[Hebrew: lev kamai], _Leb-Kamai_ ("the heart of them that rise up
against me"), is written for [Hebrew: kasdim], _Chaldea_, by the same
rule.
Exegesis of this sort is not the characteristic of any single circle,
people or century; unscientific methods of biblical interpretation have
prevailed from Philo's treatment of the Pentateuch to modern apologetic
interpretations of Genesis, ch. i.[5] The Kabbalah itself is but an
extreme and remarkable development of certain forms of thought which had
never been absent from Judaism; it is bound up with earlier tendencies
to mysticism, with man's inherent striving to enter into communion with
the Deity. To seek its sources would be futile. The Pythagorean theory
of numbers, Neoplatonic ideas of emanation, the Logos, the personified
Wisdom, Gnosticism--these and many other features combine to show the
antiquity of tendencies which, clad in other shapes, are already found
in the old pre-Christian Oriental religions.[6] In its more mature form
the Kabbalah belongs to the period when medieval Christian mysticism was
beginning to manifest itself (viz. in Eckhart, towards end of 13th
century); it is an age which also produced the rationalism of Maimonides
(q.v.). Although some of its foremost exponents were famous Talmudists,
it was a protest against excessive intellectualism and Aristotelian
scholasticism. It laid stress, not on external authority, as did the
Jewish law, but on individual experience and inward meditation. "The
mystics accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a
mystical progress towards God, demanding a state of ecstasy."[7] As a
result, some of the finest specimens of Jewish devotional literature and
some of the best types of Jewish individual character have been
Kabbalist.[8] On the other hand, the Kabbalah has been condemned, and
nowhere more strongly than among the Jews themselves. Jewish orthodoxy
found itself attacked by the more revolutionary aspects of mysticism and
its tendencies to alter established customs. While the medieval
scholasticism denied the possibility of knowing anything unattainable by
reason, the spirit of the Kabbalah held that the Deity could be
realized, and it sought to bridge the gulf. Thus it encouraged an
unrestrained emotionalism, rank superstition, an unhealthy asceticism,
and the employment of artificial means to induce the ecstatic state.
That this brought moral laxity was a stronger reason for condemning the
Kabbalah, and the evil effects of nervous degeneration find a more
recent illustration in the mysticism of the Chasidim (_Hasidim_,
"saints"), a Jewish sect in eastern Europe which started from a movement
in the 18th century against the exaggerated casuistry of contemporary
rabbis, and combined much that was spiritual and beautiful with extreme
emotionalism and degradation.[9] The appearance of the Kabbalah and of
other forms of mysticism in Judaism may seem contrary to ordinary and
narrow conceptions of orthodox Jewish legalism. Its interest lies, not
in its doctrines, which have often been absurdly over-estimated
(particularly among Christians), but in its contribution to the study of
human thought. It supplied a want which has always been felt by certain
types, and it became a movement which had mischievous effects upon
ill-balanced minds. As usual, the excessive self-introspection was not
checked by a rational criticism; the individual was guided by his own
reason, the limitations of which he did not realize; and in becoming a
law unto himself he ignored the accumulated experiences of civilized
humanity.[10]
A feature of greater interest is the extraordinary part which this
theosophy played in the Christian Church, especially at the time of the
Renaissance. We have already seen that the Sephiric decade or the
archetypal man, like Christ, is considered to be of a double nature,
both infinite and finite, perfect and imperfect. More distinct, however,
is the doctrine of the Trinity. In Deut. vi. 43, where Yahweh occurs
first, then Elohenu, and then again Yahweh, we are told "The voice
though one, consists of three elements, fire (i.e. warmth), air (i.e.
breath), and water (i.e. humidity), yet all three are one in the mystery
of the voice and can only be one. Thus also Yahweh, Elohenu, Yahweh,
constitute one--three forms which are one" (_Zohar_, ii. 43; compare
iii. 65). Discussing the thrice holy in Isaiah vi. 3, one codex of the
_Zohar_ had the following remark: "The first holy denotes the Holy
Father, the second the Holy Son, and the third the Holy Ghost" (cf.
Galatinus, _De arcanis cathol._ lib. ii. c. 3, p. 31; Wolf, _Bibliotheca
hebraica_, i. 1136). Still more distinct is the doctrine of the
atonement. "The Messiah invokes all the sufferings, pain, and
afflictions of Israel to come upon Him. Now if He did not remove them
thus and take them upon Himself, no man could endure the sufferings of
Israel, due as their punishment for transgressing the law; as it is
written (Isa. liii. 4), Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our
sorrows" (_Zohar_, ii. 12). These and similar statements favouring the
doctrines of the New Testament made many Kabbalists of the highest
position in the synagogue embrace the Christian faith and write
elaborate books to win their Jewish brethren over to Christ. As early as
1450 a company of Jewish converts in Spain, at the head of which were
Paul de Heredia, Vidal de Saragossa de Aragon, and Davila, published
compilations of Kabbalistic treatises to prove from them the doctrines
of Christianity. They were followed by Paul Rici, professor at Pavia,
and physician to the emperor Maximilian I. Among the best-known
non-Jewish exponents of the Kabbalah were the Italian count Pico di
Mirandola (1463-1494), the renowned Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522),
Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim (1487-1535), Theophrastus
Paracelsus (1493-1541), and, later, the Englishman Robert Fludd
(1574-1637). Prominent among the "nine hundred theses" which Mirandola
had placarded in Rome, and which he undertook to defend in the presence
of all European scholars, whom he invited to the Eternal City, promising
to defray their travelling expenses, was the following: "No science
yields greater proof of the divinity of Christ than magic and the
Kabbalah." Mirandola so convinced Pope Sixtus of the paramount
importance of the Kabbalah as an auxiliary to Christianity that his
holiness exerted himself to have Kabbalistic writings translated into
Latin for the use of divinity students. With equal zeal did Reuchlin act
as the apostle of the Kabbalah. His treatises exercised an almost magic
influence upon the greatest thinkers of the time. Pope Leo X. and the
early Reformers were alike captivated by the charms of the Kabbalah as
propounded by Reuchlin, and not only divines, but statesmen and
warriors, began to study the Oriental languages in order to be able to
fathom the mysteries of Jewish theosophy. The _Zohar_, that farrago of
absurdity and spiritual devotion, was the weapon with which these
Christians defended Jewish literature against hostile ecclesiastic
bodies (Abrahams, _Jew. Lit._ p. 106). Thus the Kabbalah linked the old
scholasticism with the new and independent inquiries in learning and
philosophy after the Renaissance, and although it had evolved a
remarkably bizarre conception of the universe, it partly anticipated, in
its own way, the scientific study of natural philosophy.[11] Jewish
theosophy, then, with its good and evil tendencies, and with its varied
results, may thus claim to have played no unimportant part in the
history of European scholarship and thought.
The main sources to be noticed are:--
Main Sources.
1. The _Sepher Yesirah_, or "book of creation," not the old Hilkoth Y.
("rules of creation"), which belongs to the Talmudic period (on which
see Kohler, _Jew. Ency._ xii. 602 seq.), but a later treatise, a
combination of medieval natural philosophy and mysticism. It has been
variously ascribed to the patriarch Abraham and to the illustrious
rabbi 'Aqiba; its essential elements, however, maybe of the 3rd or 4th
century A.D., and it is apparently earlier than the 9th (see L.
Ginzberg, _op. cit._ 603 sqq.). It has "had a greater influence on the
development of the Jewish mind than almost any other book after the
completion of the Talmud" (ibid.).
2. The _Bahir_ ("brilliant," Job. xxxvii. 21), though ascribed to
Nehunyah b. Haqqanah (1st century A.D.), is first quoted by
Nahmanides, and is now attributed to his teacher Ezra or Azriel
(1160-1238). It shows the influence of the _Sepher Yesirah_, is marked
by the teaching of a celestial Trinity, is a rough outline of what the
_Zohar_ was destined to be, and gave the first opening to a thorough
study of metaphysics among the Jews. (See further 1. Broyde, _Jew.
Ency._ ii. 442 seq.).
3. The _Zohar_ ("shining," Dan. xii. 3) is a commentary on the
Pentateuch, according to its division into fifty-two hebdomadal
lessons. It begins with the exposition of Gen. i. 4 ("let there be
light") and includes eleven dissertations: (1) "Additions and
Supplements"; (2) "The Mansions and Abodes," describing the structure
of paradise and hell; (3) "The Mysteries of the Pentateuch,"
describing the evolution of the Sephiroth, &c.; (4) "The Hidden
Interpretation," deducing esoteric doctrine from the narratives in the
Pentateuch; (5) "The Faithful Shepherd," recording discussions between
Moses the faithful shepherd, the prophet Elijah and R. Simon b. Yohai,
the reputed compiler of the _Zohar_; (6) "The Secret of Secrets," a
treatise on physiognomy and psychology; (7) "The Aged," i.e. the
prophet Elijah, discoursing with R. Simon on the doctrine of
transmigration as evolved from Exod. xxi. 1-xxiv. 18; (8) "The Book of
Secrets," discourses on cosmogony and demonology; (9) "The Great
Assembly," discourses of R. Simon to his numerous assembly of
disciples on the form of the Deity and on pneumatology; (10) "The
Young Man," discourses by young men of superhuman origin on the
mysteries of ablutions; and (11) "The Small Assembly," containing the
discourses on the Sephiroth which R. Simon delivered to the small
congregation of six surviving disciples. The _Zohar_ pretends to be a
compilation made by Simon b. Yohai (the second century A.D.) of
doctrines which God communicated to Adam in Paradise, and which have
been received uninterruptedly from the mouths of the patriarchs and
prophets. It was discovered, so the story went, in a cavern in Galilee
where it had been hidden for a thousand years. Amongst the many facts,
however, established by modern criticism which prove the _Zohar_ to be
a compilation of the 13th century, are the following: (1) the _Zohar_
itself praises most fulsomely R. Simon, its reputed author, and exalts
him above Moses; (2) it mystically explains the Hebrew vowel points,
which did not obtain till 570; (3) the compiler borrows two verses
from the celebrated hymn called "The Royal Diadem," written by Ibn
Gabirol, who was born about 1021; (4) it mentions the capture of
Jerusalem by the crusaders and the re-taking of the Holy City by the
Saracens; (5) it speaks of the comet which appeared at Rome, 15th July
1264, under the pontificate of Urban IV.; (6) by a slip the _Zohar_
assigns a reason why its contents were not revealed before 5060-5066
A.M., i.e. 1300-1306 A.D., (7) the doctrine of the En Soph and the
Sephiroth was not known before the 13th century; and (8) the very
existence of the _Zohar_ itself was not known prior to the 13th
century. Hence it is now believed that Moses de Leon (d. 1305), who
first circulated and sold the _Zohar_ as the production of R. Simon,
was himself the author or compiler. That eminent scholars both in the
synagogue and in the church should have been induced to believe in its
antiquity is owing to the fact that the _Zohar_ embodies many older
opinions and doctrines, and the undoubted antiquity of some of them
has served as a lever in the minds
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/40863