Science and Practice in Farm Cultivation
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Title: Science and Practice in Farm Cultivation
Author: James Buckman
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SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
IN
FARM CULTIVATION.
BY
JAMES BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S.
LATE PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND RURAL ECONOMY AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE.
LONDON:
ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.
1865.
COX AND WYMAN,
ORIENTAL, CLASSICAL, AND GENERAL PRINTERS,
GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.
TO
JOHN CHALMERS MORTON, ESQ.,
_The talented Editor of the_ “AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE,”
MANY OF THE FACTS AND OPINIONS ALREADY DETAILED
IN WHICH INFLUENTIAL JOURNAL
ARE HERE BUT REPEATED,
THIS WORK
IS DEDICATED
AS A SMALL TOKEN OF ADMIRATION AND RESPECT,
BY HIS FAITHFUL FRIEND,
THE AUTHOR.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
HOW TO GROW GOOD ROOTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
I. On the Origin of Root Crops 1
II. On the Origin of Sorts of Roots 9
III. On Trueness of Sorts in Roots 13
IV. On Degenerate Roots 18
V. Effects of Growing Seed from Degenerate Roots 23
VI. On the Adulteration of Seed, more particularly of
Turnips 29
VII. On the Art and Mystery of Turnip-seed Adulteration 37
VIII. General Conclusions 49
PART II.
HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.
IX. On the Nature of Meadows and Pastures 51
X. On the Species of Meadow Grasses 56
XI. On Meadow Plants other than Grasses 73
XII. On the Weeds of Pastures 78
XIII. On the Irrigated Meadow 87
XIV. On the Laying Down of Permanent Pastures 92
XV. On the Management of Permanent Pastures 98
XVI. On the Management of Lawns 102
PART III.
HOW TO GROW GOOD CLOVERS.
XVII. On the Nature and Properties of the Clover Family of
Plants 109
XVIII. On the Farm Species of Clovers 113
XIX. On the Varieties of Red Clovers 121
XX. On the Clover Allies 125
XXI. On Clover Sickness 137
XXII. On the Weeds of Clovers 148
XXIII. On the Parasites of Clovers 156
PART IV.
HOW TO GROW GOOD CORN.
XXIV. Nature of Corn 161
XXV. Wheat: its Origin and Acclimatization 163
XXVI. The Wild Oat as the Origin of the Cultivated Varieties 168
XXVII. On the supposed Origin of Barley and Rye 176
XXVIII. Epiphytical Parasites (Vegetable Blights) of Corn
Crops 180
XXIX. Insects (Animal Blights) affecting Corn Crops 192
XXX. Science in the Cultivation of Corn 204
XXXI. On Harvesting Corn 213
PART V.
HOW TO GROW GOOD FENCES.
XXXII. On the Nature of Fences 217
XXXIII. On the Plants for “Live” Fences 220
XXXIV. On the Hearing and Planting of Hedges 227
XXXV. Weeds of Hedge-row Fences 234
XXXVI. On Hedge-row Timber 239
XXXVII. On the Vermin of Fences 246
XXXVIII. On the Management of Hedge-row Fences 254
XXXIX. Covenants with regard to Fences, &c. 259
PART VI.
HOW TO GROW GOOD TIMBER.
XL. On the Value of Timber for Ornament and Profit 265
XLI. On the Kinds of Timber best adapted for different
Situations 274
XLII. On the British Oak 278
XLIII. On the Chestnut and Walnut 291
XLIV. On the Elm 296
XLV. On the Ash, Beech, and other White-wooded Trees 302
XLVI. On Soft-wooded Forest Trees 313
PART VII.
HOW TO GROW GOOD ORCHARDS.
XLVII. On the Apple and Pear as Orchard Fruits 319
XLVIII. On the Production and Choice of Fruit Trees 328
XLIX. On the Gathering and Storing of Fruit 338
L. On Cider-making and Management 345
LI. On the Uses and Economy of Cider and Perry 351
POSTSCRIPT 357
THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
OF
ROOT CULTIVATION.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE ORIGIN OF ROOT CROPS.
Few people who have studied the matter attentively but have arrived at
the conclusion that those plants which we cultivate for their roots were
not naturally endowed with the root portion of their structure either of
the size or form which would now be considered as essential for a
perfect crop plant. Thus the parsnip, carrot, turnip, beet, &c., as we
find them in nature, have nowhere the large, fleshy, smooth appearance
which belongs to their cultivated forms; and hence all the varieties of
these that we meet with in cultivation must be considered as
_derivatives_ from original wild forms, obtained by _cultivative
processes_; that is, collecting their seed, planting it in a prepared
bed, stimulating the growth of the plants with manures, thinning,
regulating, weeding, and such other acts as constitute farming or
gardening, as the case may be.
Hence, then, it is concluded that such plants as are grown for their
roots have a peculiar aptitude for laying on tissue, and thus increasing
the bulk of their “descending axis,” that is, that portion of their
structure which grows downwards—root. Besides this, they are remarkable
for their capability of producing varieties—a fact which, united with a
constancy in the maintenance of an induced form, renders it exceedingly
easy to bring out new sorts which will maintain their characteristics
under great diversities of climate, soil, and treatment.
The facility with which different sorts of roots may be procured
can readily be understood from the many varieties, not only of
_turnip_—which may perhaps be considered as an original species—but also
of swede, which is a hybrid of the turnip and rape plant. Of the former
we have more than thirty sorts grown by the farmer, and as many
peculiar to the garden; whilst there are probably more than twenty
well-recognized sorts of swedes. Of beets, with mangel-wurzel, we have
almost as great a variety; so also of carrots. Of parsnips we have fewer
varieties, to which may now be added the new form called the Student
parsnip, the growth of which is so interesting that we shall here give a
short history of its production, as an illustration of the origin of
root crops.
In 1847 we collected some wild parsnip seed from the top of the
Cotteswolds, where this is among the most frequent of weeds. This seed,
after having been kept carefully during the winter, was sown in a
prepared bed, in the spring of 1848, in drills about eighteen inches
apart. As the plants grew they were duly thinned out, leaving for the
crop, as far as it could be done, the specimens that had leaves with
the broadest divisions, lightest colour, and fewest hairs. As cultivated
parsnips offer a curious contrast with the wild specimens in these
respects, we place the following notes, side by side, on the root-leaves
of plants of the same period of growth.
1st. WILD PARSNIP. | 2nd. STUDENT PARSNIP.
Ft. in. | Ft. in.
Whole length from the | Whole length from the
base of the petiole to | base of the petiole to
the apex of the leaf 0 8 | the tip of the leaf 2 0
Breadth of leaflets 0 0¾ | Breadth of leaflets 3 0¼
Length of ditto 0 1 | Length of leaflets 0 6½
Petiole and leaflets, | Petiole and leaflets
hairy. Colour, dark | without hair. Colour,
green. | light green.
[Illustration: _Figures 1 and 2._—Roots of Wild Parsnips. Natural size.]
We have before remarked that neither in size nor form are the wild roots
at all comparable with the cultivated ones. Our figures 1 and 2 were
taken from fine roots of the wild parsnip of the first year’s growth;
that is to say, just at the same time as a crop parsnip would be at its
best. They were purposely taken from specimens obtained from the same
district as the seed with which our experiments were commenced.
Our first crop of roots from the wild seed presented great diversities
in shape, being for the most part even more forked than the originals,
but still with a general tendency to fleshiness. Of these the best
shaped were reserved for seeding; and having been kept the greater part
of the winter in sand, some six of the best were planted in another plot
for seed. The seed, then, of 1849 was sown in the spring of 1850, in a
freshly-prepared bed, the plants being treated as before, the results
showing a decided improvement, with tendencies in some examples in the
following directions:—
1st. The round-topped long-root, having a resemblance to the
Guernsey parsnip. (_Panais long_ of the French.)
2nd. The hollow-crowned long-root. “Hollow-headed” of the gardener.
(_Panais Lisbonais_ type.)
3rd. The short, thick turnip-shaped root. “Turnip-rooted” of the
gardener. (_Panais rond_ form.)
These three forms were all of them much mis-shapen, with forked roots,
that is, _fingers and toes_; but still each of them offered
opportunities of procuring three original varieties from this new
source.
As an example of progress, we offer the following engraving of a
specimen of our Round-topped parsnip of 1852. Fig. 3.
This it will be seen has strong, fleshy forks, and a tendency to form
divided tap-roots; otherwise the shape is greatly improved, and the skin
is tolerably smooth.
At this time our stock was for the most part fleshy and soft on boiling;
the flavour, too, though much stronger than that of the usual esculent
parsnip, was rather agreeable than otherwise.
This matter of flavour is a subject of interest, as most lovers of the
parsnip, as a garden esculent, had got to complain of this root becoming
more and more tasteless. That this was so our own experience most fully
confirms; we have now, however, mended this root very materially in this
respect.
Our experiments were only carried on with examples of the Hollow-crowned
form, which following out from year to year, we at length obtained so
perfect in form, clean in outline, delicate in skin, and unexceptionable
in flavour, that we were induced to cause its seed to be distributed
through the medium of the trade.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._—Round-topped Parsnip, five generations from
wild root.]
In 1881 we sowed a parcel of seed in our own garden obtained from the
Messrs. Sutton, after having received from them the following notes upon
the growth of the roots in their grounds:—
We are happy to tell you that in lifting some of each of all the
varieties of parsnips in our trial-ground, your “Student” was
decidedly the best shape, varying in length, but always clean and
straight.
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._—Student Parsnip of 1861. Two-thirds of natural
size.]
The engraving (Fig. 4) is taken from our garden stock of 1861, as being
a common shape of this new variety. It is not quite so long and slender
as the usual Long-horned parsnip, but its clean unbranched outline and
solidity of structure recommend it as a good variety, whilst its flavour
has been highly extolled by the lover of this, to some, favorite root.
In size it is scarcely large enough for a field crop, but though not at
present recommenced for the farm, its history may well serve to explain
the origin of crop plants, as derived from the cultivation and
improvement of wild species.[1]
[1] It may here be noted that the Student parsnip took the first prize
for this root at the International Show at the Horticultural Society’s
Gardens in 1862.
CHAPTER II.
ON THE ORIGIN OF SORTS OF ROOTS.
As crop plants are derived from wild ones, as the effect of cultivation,
it follows as a matter of course that these will be varied, both in form
and constitution, according to the circumstances under which they have
been produced. Thus we may expect that any attempts to ennoble a wild
root in different countries would not, even if successful, be sure to
bring about the same results. Much depends even upon the individual root
with which our trial may be started, and more upon the judgment employed
in selecting the stock from which the experiments are to be continued.
That position and soil may make a great difference may be inferred from
the fact that the attempts to improve the wild parsnip and carrot have
met with varied success. De Candolle is reported to have tried to
improve the carrot with success, whilst with the parsnip he utterly
failed; whilst Professor Lindley, in Morton’s “Cyclopædia of
Agriculture,” tells us that M. Ponsard has ascertained that “the wild
parsnip becomes improved immediately when cultivated, and that
experiments in improving its quality promise well:” how well, indeed,
may be seen from the foregoing chapter. But still, we utterly failed
with the wild carrot. Having collected seeds of the _Daucus Carota_ (the
common wild carrot) from some fine specimens growing on the road-side
between Cirencester and Cheltenham, they were subjected to experiment at
the same time as the parsnip, but with little, if any, favourable
result. Upon this plant Professor Lindley observes as follows:—
That the hard-rooted wild carrot is really the parent of our
cultivated varieties, remarkable as they are for the succulence and
tenderness of their roots, has been experimentally proved by M.
Vilmorin, who succeeded in obtaining by cultivation perfectly
tender, eatable roots, from seeds saved from plants only three or
four generations off the wild species.
Still, a modern French naturalist of great experience, M. Decaisne,
tells us that he has tried to ennoble the wild carrot, and has not
succeeded; and from this he draws the conclusion that our cultivated
forms were created specially for the use of man. As we should suppose
that very few botanists agree to this theory, we shall let the facts we
have already brought forward stand in maintenance of its opposite,
namely, that cultivated forms are derived from wild species often
apparently very different; but at the same time it may be well to state,
that in all probability some of the discrepancies of experimenters may
have arisen from some confusion in the species operated upon.
In 1860 we gathered some seed of the _Daucus maritima_ (sea-side carrot)
at Bognor, which, on being sown in a prepared plot the following spring,
certainly resulted in fairly succulent roots, which on being cooked were
pronounced by our party of four to be excellent. While on this subject,
it may be mentioned as not a little remarkable, that so many of our
garden esculents should be derived from sea-side plants. Thus, probably
carrot, but certainly celery, sea-kale, asparagus, and cabbage. This
would seem to point to the fact that cultivation requires a complete
change of the circumstances necessary to maintain a wild condition; and
hence cultivated plants can only be kept up by the labours of a
cultivator.
Now, as regards the sea-side carrot, we are after all inclined to the
belief that it is the parent of the cultivated varieties, whilst, on the
other hand, we view the _Daucus Carota_ (the wild inland carrot) as a
probable descendant from the cultivated or garden stock; and if this be
so, the _Daucus maritima_ is the original species from which both the
wild and cultivated races have descended. Bentham, indeed, carries this
view a little further, the following remarks tending to throw doubts
upon the carrot in any form as being a true native. Under the heading of
_Daucus Carota_ he says:—
Probably an original native of the sea-coasts of modern Europe, but
of very ancient cultivation, and sows itself most readily, soon
degenerating to the wild form, with a slender root, and _now_ most
abundant in fields, pastures, waste places, &c., throughout Europe
and Russian Asia; common in Britain, especially near the sea.
_Flowers the whole summer and autumn._ A decidedly maritime
variety, with the leaves somewhat fleshy, with shorter segments,
more or less thickened peduncles, more spreading umbels, and more
flattened prickles to the fruits, is often considered as a distinct
species.
Seeing then that crop plants are derivatives from a wild stock, we can
readily understand how the varying circumstances attendant upon the
development of the former should tend to the production of varieties,
and this merely as the result of the treatment of the fairly derived
legitimate seed. If, again, we take these variations for the purpose of
obtaining hybrids, we need not wonder at the infinite variety of sorts
which can be brought about, but rather that any sort could be maintained
in that trueness of character or in that state of permanency which we
sometimes find to be the case.
CHAPTER III.
ON TRUENESS OF SORT IN ROOT CROPS.
The importance of trueness and purity of seed arises from the evenness
of growth of a good genuine strain; while if this quality be wanting we
have some parts of our crop growing well, whilst others get on but
poorly. Thus a free-growing plant beside one over which it has got the
advantage, maintains it for the most part through the whole period of
growth. Again, some sorts are of value for being early, others for
lateness of growth, and some kinds are better fitted for early than late
sowing; if, therefore, we have a mixture in these respects, we may at
least expect a partial failure; for whichever is _best_ for our purpose,
if mixed will be accompanied by those which are not so good. A want of
trueness to sort may arise principally from the following causes:—
1st. Want of selection in seeding bulbs.
2nd. Hybridization.
3rd. A mixture of seeds.
1st. The propriety of selecting the specimens from which seed is to be
grown is admitted by all: by the seedsman, who always advertises his
turnip and swede seed, for example, as being “from selected bulbs;” and
by the farmer, as this announcement is only made to induce him to buy.
It is not only important that the roots should be selected, but that
they should be stored and then planted in a fresh soil; for as these
latter are among the _cultivative processes_ by which sorts have been
obtained, so should they be repeated in order to ensure a continuance of
the induced condition. Seeding upon the same soil and in the same bed in
which the seed is sown is hardly the way to keep up a form induced by
cultivation, as this is exactly what would be done by the plants in a
state of wildness.
In selecting roots for seeding, care should be taken to choose
good-shaped examples, in which a clean unbranched bulb, not too large,
with a small tap-root and a small top, confined to a single central bud;
a branched root and a many-headed top being true signs of degeneracy.
And no less so is neckiness in swedes and mangels, as well as a coarse
corrugated skin in roots of all kinds.
Taking such points as these into consideration, how absurd must appear
most of the huge mis-shapen roots to which prizes are usually awarded at
shows, where the specimens are chosen for size, and trimmed up with the
knife, to make them look more presentable. As an evidence of the
mistaken principles upon which prizes are awarded to bundles of roots,
let any one seed such examples, and we will venture to assert that such
seed would produce a large proportion of degenerate examples, without
affording so good a crop as would seed, from middle-sized but
well-shapen specimens.
2nd. Some of the forms of roots, and more especially those belonging to
the _Brassicaceæ_, such as turnips and swedes, seem to have a wonderful
facility for hybridizing; and this not only to the extent of one sort of
turnip with another, but sports may be caused by the fertilization of
the turnip with rape and its congeners. Indeed, the hybrid with turnip
and rape is doubtless the origin of the Swedish turnip; but there is
reason to believe that mixtures may accidentally be made with such wild
plants as charlocks and mustards, the growth of which in the vicinity of
a seeding crop tends to the production of degeneracy. Seeding-patches,
then, and the ground about them, cannot be kept too clean.
Again, if trueness be aimed at, there should be no mixture of sorts in
seeding examples; all of the same kind should be selected for
seeding-plots, as even one or two of a wrong sort may result in a very
mixed sample, as it would seem that sometimes strange plants exert more
than ordinary influence.
Of course, the putting seeding-patches of different sorts side by side
is to be reprehended. If more than one sort be seeded in a season, it is
advisable to place the patches as remote from each other as possible.
And we would here remark, that, for seeding, the roots should, as a
rule, be farther apart than when grown for bulbs, both in rows and in
sets; as, if too close, the stems grow up thin instead of robust, and a
smaller seed, with a tendency to the growth of smaller roots, will be
the result.
3rd. Mixtures of seeds should be avoided for the reason assigned, that
“sorts” do not usually grow evenly; and when one sees (as is by no means
infrequent) a patch of swedes overshadowed by a mixture of some large
early turnip,—the Tankard, for example, our crop of swedes will
certainly suffer for it, even supposing the turnip to be as useful as
the swede, which is seldom the case.
Mixtures, again, do not come up at the same time; sorts may differ in
this respect, but especially do old and new seeds vary as to their
germinating powers: two-year-old seeds taking four or five days more to
come up than a new sample; thus giving a greater chance for the ravages
of the flea-beetle than where the seed all comes up quickly.
Now, as a practical application of these remarks, we here quote from an
article in the _Agricultural Gazette_ of May 24th, 1862.
Who among seedsmen does not profess to offer the seeds of swedes
and turnips from _selected bulbs_? And though it is quite true that
the practice is not so universal as is the profession of it, yet
the general assumption of its being so on the part of seed growers
and sellers is an admission that it would be for the advantage of
the buyer of seeds were the roots from which seeds are to be grown
carefully selected. And on the other hand, let the observant
agriculturist take a journey on any of our great lines of railway
(in early summer), and he will be struck with the many patches of
bright yellow flowers which he will not fail to notice on either
hand. In nine cases out of ten, these are fields or portions of
fields of turnips, either the Swedish or common kinds, which, from
the abundance of keep, it has been thought would be more profitable
to seed than to eat off, especially as they have so rapidly grown
out of the way. Are these patches of selected bulbs? We happen to
know, from a more than ordinarily careful examination, that not one
_per cent._ of seeding-patches are from selected roots; but they
are seeded just as they grew, and we do not know of a single
instance where in such seeding the objectionable roots have been
removed; but we do know of plenty of cases where the worst part of
a field has been saved for seed, doubtless as the most profitable
way of dealing with it under the circumstances wrought out by the
spring of 1862.
Of course, this will all come into the market, and too much of it,
under a stereotyped declaration of ‘_from selected bulbs_.’ That
all the seed grown in 1862 will be sown in 1863 is simply
impossible; but no matter, it will find a market somehow, some
time. With such facts as these before us, who can wonder that any
plant should become degenerate? Let some of the seed of this year
be watched, and we will answer for its evil results; and if these
be facts, it then behoves the farmer to look well to pedigree in
the matter of his seed.
But even here, his forethought must not end; for however select the
parent may be, there is still something in ‘bringing up;’ for,
however good the _sort_ of turnip, we shall not grow its seed in
perfection by selection merely, but we should _transplant_
well-chosen roots, and so put them in a new scene, away from
subjects which might contaminate them. This is indeed to bring them
up in a _good school_, for which their seed will amply repay the
trouble and expense.
CHAPTER IV.
ON DEGENERATE ROOTS.
If the reader revert to page 6, Fig. 3, he will see that the progress
from a wild to a better root-form is marked by a more fleshy, but still
a much forked, or finger-and-toed example. Now as it is held that a
clear unbranched outline is essential to a well-formed root crop of
every kind, whenever a crop becomes fingered-and-toed, it is looked upon
as a disease. It must be understood that we are here speaking of
finger-and-toe as distinct from anbury, which latter is a decidedly
diseased condition, whether caused by insects or resulting, as some
affirm, from a defect in the soil.
The difference in the two states may be briefly summed up as follows:—
FINGER-AND-TOE. | ANBURY.
|
Root simply branched or forked, | Root infested with irregular
with tapering fleshy rootlets; | nodular protuberances, or with
occurs in turnips, parsnips, | tumours suspended by roots,
carrots, and mangold. (See | having very much the aspect of
figs. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, | rows of ginger; occurs in
10.) | turnips alone. (See fig. 12.)
The example of a root at page 6 is a good form of a parsnip progressing
from wildness to a better cultivated form. We now offer an engraving
(fig. 5) of a hollow-crowned crop parsnip, fingered-and-toed, and
evidently of a very objectionable form, as it will be seen on
comparison how nearly alike are figs. 3 and 5.
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._—Finger-and-toed degenerate Parsnip. Half nat.
size.]
Now, as every degenerate crop of parsnips will be found to offer a large
proportion of such roots as fig. 5, we seem bound to conclude that,
inasmuch as our fig. 3 _represents a root in progress towards
ennobling_, so fig. 5 is that of a root declining to its level,—in other
words, degenerating; seed, therefore, that produces such roots can only
come from a poor stock.
Our next fig. (6) is of a parsnip that had prematurely flowered. Sending
up flowered stems the first year, in the case of a biennial, can only be
looked upon as an instance of degeneracy. Plants that “run,” as it is
termed, being comparatively useless, the best use, indeed, that can be
made of them being that of pulling them up and giving them to the pigs.
Now this propensity is always accompanied with forked roots, more
especially in carrots, which roots are even more degenerate than those
represented in figs. 3 and 5, as those were fleshy and succulent; but
when the roots of runners are examined, they are always found to be
tough and woody, and, in fact, they very nearly resemble the wild
examples.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6._ Carrot of First Year run to Seed. Half nat.
size.]
Fig. 7 is taken from a carrot that has run, and its rough, woody,
nodular, forked root is fully apparent.
[Illustration: _Fig. 7._ Forked Carrot run to seed. Half nat. size.]
[Illustration: _Fig. 8._ Forked Belgian Carrot. Half nat. size.]
Fig. 8, from a specimen of White Belgian carrot, forked as it is, is yet
not uncommon; still, here the divided roots are succulent. This differs
from the annual or run-to-seed roots, as this is a real biennial; but
its other mark of degeneracy, besides that of finger-and-toe, was in its
possessing a top (removed for experiment before the drawing was made) of
many buds or heads. Now a _multiheaded_ root, whether in turnips,
carrots, parsnip, or mangel, is another sign of degeneracy, especially
in the carrot or mangel, as the wild examples are remarkable for this
condition; and in ennobling these roots, one of the difficulties is to
get rid of this propensity. Hence, at root shows all forked examples of
bulbs, multiheaded and necky examples, should be rejected; they are,
however, sometimes made so fat with manuring that they pass muster for
size, which indeed seems to be the great quality required at shows:
which is a serious mistake, as being no sort of criterion of the state
of a field of roots, unless it be an adverse one: as a 10 lb. malformed
root, with its huge top, will require more ground to grow than will half
a dozen roots averaging 2 lbs. each; whilst the latter are certain to be
better and will keep longer.
CHAPTER V.
EFFECTS OF GROWING SEED FROM DEGENERATE ROOTS.
That the seed of malformed roots would be likely to produce a poor crop
was a subject admitted by all; but neither the form nor extent of the
mischief resulting therefrom had been stated upon the authority of exact
experiment. In order, therefore, to arrive at direct evidence upon a
point upon which so much of practical importance depends, we carefully
carried out the following experiments.
[Illustration: _Fig. 9._ A Malformed or Degenerate Parsnip. Two-thirds
of nat. size.]
On the 26th of March, 1860, we selected two roots from a store, namely,
one of a Student parsnip from our own stock and one of a Skirving’s
swede. Before committing these to the ground for the growth of seed, we
made careful portraits of the two roots, of which that of the parsnip
will be found in fig. 9, that of the swede in fig. 10.
[Illustration: _Fig. 10._ A Malformed or Degenerate Swede. Two-thirds of
nat. size.]
Now had we been going to grow the best of seed, we should of course have
selected the best-shaped roots for our purpose; but in this case, as
will be seen, the most viciously formed examples were chosen.
Both of the examples whose portraits we have here given, were planted in
our private garden (where, it is right to say, they were the only
seeding specimens), in due time their seed ripened, which was carefully
collected and stored.
Early in April, 1861, these seeds were sown in our experimental plots,
_without manure_, in the following order:—
Plot _a._ Seed obtained from the malformed parsnip, fig. 9.
_b._ Seed of Student parsnip of the same year as that of
plot _a_.
_c._ Seed of malformed swede.
The plot _b_ was sown by way of comparison, and we can only regret that
no plot of good swede seed was sown with the same object, and we must,
therefore, compare with a piece of swedes in an adjoining field.
The following are the tabulated results:—
TABLE OF RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.
lb. oz.
Plot _a_. 75 roots, forming the crop }
from seed of the malformed } 7 4
parsnip (fig. 8) weighed in all }
Plot _b_. 63 roots forming the crop } 14 0
from seed of good Student parsnips }
Plot _c_. 70 roots of swedes from }
seed of malformed plant (fig. 10.) } 19 8
70 roots from a row in the }
field, at a distance of about 30 } 35 0
yards }
The roots from plot _a_ may be described as small, though not so much
fingered-and-toed as we had expected; still there was only about half
the crop when compared with plot _b_, which latter, indeed, was only
small in weight, which may be accounted for from being grown without
manure. During their progress of growth the difference was very
perceptible—the small leaves of _a_ contrasting most unfavourably with
the broader, brighter coloured ones of _b_.
As regards the swedes, they were indeed a very poor crop, presenting all
the evils of degeneracy—neckiness, for which it will be seen that their
parent was distinguished—want of a bulboid form; none of the 70 roots
being better than a thin tap-root, and these were forked, shapeless, and
fingered-and-toed in endless variety. Their spindle-shaped roots were
quite remarkable, and they were the rule, although in good seed, however
bad the soil, they would have been the exception. Those in the field
hard by were bulboid, and averaged half a pound each—no great weight, as
the land in which they were grown is only second-rate. They, however,
were grown with manure, to which, of course, much of the difference is
due, and yet not so much as may fairly be imputed to the difference in
seed. From these experiments we conclude:—
1st. That a degenerate stock will, as a rule, result from the
employment of degenerate or badly-grown seed.
2nd. That besides ugly, malformed roots, degenerated seed does not
produce nearly the weight of crop of good seed, under the same
circumstances of growth.
3rd. That by means of selection we may produce roots that are
well-shaped, and have the capabilities of affording the best crop.
4th. That by designedly selecting malformed degenerate roots for
seeding, we may produce a seed that will result in as great or
greater degeneracy.
“That these are important conclusions”—we quote from the _Agricultural
Gazette_—“few will be disposed to deny. They have most interesting
bearings on the subject of vegetable physiology, and consequently should
be studied by the farmer.”
It is a practice much to be desired, that not only should a proper
choice be made of seeding examples, but that there be a change of
situation, and, if possible, a time of storage before being planted for
seed. These are all cultivative processes, and to the care with which
they are carried out must we look for permanence in our derivative
root-crops.
It cannot be too strongly urged, that, as an efficient sort of root has
only been arrived at as the result of great care—that is, by successful
breeding,—so every care must be taken for its maintenance. Defect in
seed results in defect in the produce of that seed; and downward
tendencies of this kind are common results of even most careful
cultivation. With carelessness in this respect we must not be surprised
at rapid degeneracy.
CHAPTER VI.
ON THE ADULTERATION OF SEEDS, MORE PARTICULARLY OF TURNIPS.
In order to make the experiments which illustrate this chapter tell
their tale to the fullest extent, we would set out with the two
following postulates:—
1st. All well-grown, well-preserved new seeds should be _capable_
of germinating to the extent of at least 90 per cent.
2nd. Seeds in general, and more especially turnip seeds, as usually
delivered to the farmer, are generally _incapable_ of germinating
to the extent of from 25 to 30 per cent., and very frequently even
more.
We shall hereafter see, that this want of germinating power is too often
the result of mixing charlock, Indian rape, and the like, by way of
adulteration, which latter are killed to prevent “their telling tales.”
But to our experiments:—
A number of tin cases were made of the following proportions: Length, 15
inches; width, 10 inches; depth, 4 inches. These, which were well
perforated at the bottom, were divided across into ten equal parts, each
of which was filled to within an inch of the rim, with a mixture of fine
mould and silver sand. In these, seeds of different sorts of turnips
were sown, and the whole was put into a bed of sand in our
forcing-house. We could, however, see no difference in the results, nor
could we trace any in the germinal or cotyledon leaves of swedes,
turnips, or charlock. But, of course, samples of turnip-seed could not
be tested as to freedom from charlock by this experiment, because
charlock is killed before being mixed with the turnip.
Now, seeing that we could get no trustworthy results by this kind of
experiment, it struck us that our germination-pans might be used to test
the germinating power, not only of the samples we had obtained for a
different purpose, but of others also. We first, then, counted a hundred
of each of the following sorts of seeds, and carefully dibbled them in a
fresh mixture of soil, in September, 1860; the results, which were as
carefully noted from day to day, are shortly given in the following
table:—
TABLE 1.—_Germination of Ten Sorts of Turnips._
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| | | Came up |No. of| |
|No.| Name, Copy of Label. |per cent.| Days.| |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| 1 | Mousetail, 1859 | 96 | 10 | |
| 2 | Pomeranian, or White Globe, 1859 | 86 | 11 | |
| 3 | Nimble Green Round, 1859 | 96 | 7 | |
| 4 | Lincolnshire new Red Globe, 1860 | 90 | 9 | |
| 5 | Yellow Tankard, 1859 | 92 | 9 | |
| 6 | Smart’s Mousetail, 1860 | 98 | 7 | |
| 7 | Green-topped Stone, 1860 | 84 | 8 | |
| 8 | Sutton’s Imperial Green Globe, 1860 | 98 | 9 | |
| 9 | Green-topped Scotch, 1860 | 90 | 9 | |
|10 | Early Six-weeks, 1860 | 90 | 10 | |
| | Came up =| 92 | | |
| | Failed =| 8 | | |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
We would remark upon these results, that the temperature of the house
was kept at between 60° and 70°, and the greater part of the seeds came
up in four days; the numbers for the days, then, have reference to the
time occupied before all that would germinate came up. Now this table is
not a little instructive, as showing that samples of turnip-seed can be
got in which only a very few of the seeds fail to germinate; but as
experience had taught us that these samples by no means represented the
usual market condition of turnip-seeds, in order to test this we begged
to be allowed permission to take samples direct from the bags of a
retail seedsman as they were exposed in his shop, and the following
results will speak for themselves.
It should, however, be here premised that the samples were not grown by
the seedsman, but were said to be just as received from the wholesale
dealers.
TABLE 2.—_Germination of Ten Sorts of Turnip Seeds from Market Samples._
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| | | Came up |No. of| |
|No.| Copy of Label. |per cent.| Days.| |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| 1 | Norfolk Green round | 76 | 9 |} |
| 2 | White Globe | 78 | 15 |} |
| 3 | Early Grey-topped Stone | 80 | 10 |} |
| 4 | Red Tankard, or Pudding | 62 | 11 |}Taken |
| 5 | Orange Jelly | 52 | 15 |}from the|
| 6 | Norfolk Round Red | 80 | 10 |}bags by |
| 7 | Purple-topped yellow Scotch | 76 | 11 |}the |
| 8 | White Dutch | 64 | 12 |}Author. |
| 9 | Early Green top | 64 | 13 |} |
|10 | Yellow Tankard Pudding | 48 | 12 |} |
| | Came up =| 68 | | |
| | Failed =| 32 | | |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
Eight samples of swedes from the same source are in the next table
associated with a sample of Skirving’s swede, grown in our own garden
(8), of the following table, and another of turnip (9), grown on a
neighbouring farm. We may remark upon the last-named sample, that we had
observed the growth of this seed, which was from a very poor crop, half
of which had decayed on the ground with the early frost of 1860, and the
rest, without transplanting or selection of any kind, was allowed to
seed. Now, as this whole crop was so degenerated that it ought never to
have been seeded at all, we were anxious to get some of the seed from
the bulk, in order to test from its growth this year whether it will not
bring forth a degenerate progeny. Its germinating qualities will be seen
from the table, and yet it is by no means the worst sample, which seems
to show that the others are not naturally bad, but so by mixture.
TABLE 3.—_Germination of Swedes, &c., from Market Samples, &c._
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| | | Came up |No. of| |
|No.| Copy of Label. |per cent.| Days.| |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| 1 | Ashcroft’s improved Purple Top | 58 | 12 |} |
| 2 | New Bangholm | 96 | 10 |} |
| 3 | Skirving’s Liverpool | 62 | 16 |} |
| 4 | Green Top | 78 | 10 |}Taken |
| 5 | Marshall’s improved Purple Top | 90 | 10 |}from the|
| 6 | Hewer’s Improved White | 68 | 17 |}bags by |
| 7 | Green Major | 86 | 10 |}the |
| 8 | Skirving’s Swede (own grown) | 96 | 10 |}Author. |
| 9 | Green Top Turnip, neighbour’s farm | 78 | 6 |} |
|10 | Fosterton Hybrid Turnip | 64 | 10 |} |
| | Came up =| 77·6 | | |
| | Failed =| 22·4 | | |
| | Failed of seedsman’s specimens =| 24·8 | | |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
Now, as “0 0 0” seed is supplied to customers under the designation here
given, for the purpose of mixing, it is of little consequence whether it
be used by the wholesale house or the retail dealer; if, however, it be
employed by both, we should, indeed, get a bad sample.
As regards the seedsman’s samples in the Tables 2 and 3, we are quite
unable to give exact details of their history, but we have reason to
believe that the stock whence they were taken was purchased in the
ordinary course of business from different “wholesale houses,” as,
though the tradesman whence the samples came combines the business of
“nurseryman” with that of seedsman, we happen to know that he is not a
grower of seeds, at least of turnip seeds. The average, then, of
eighteen samples of turnips and swedes from this source is that 28 _per
cent._ are non-germinating seeds. The next samples are from people in a
large way of business, who are not mere retailers, but to whom we must
accord all the immunities of the trade as seed-growers, wholesale and
retail seed-merchants, &c.
Before giving the tables with the results as regards these samples, it
is necessary to state that they were not sent to us direct, but were
forwarded through a farmer to whom they were sent in the ordinary small
packet samples.
We would further remark, that as all that would germinate took so few
days about it, being an average of six days, whilst those of Table 1,
being seeds partly of 1859 and partly of 1860, occupied nine days, and
those of Table 2, whose date we do not know, eleven days; in all
probability the seeds in question were tolerably new, most probably of
the last seed season.
TABLE 4.—_Germination of Ten Samples of Turnips._
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| | | Came up |No. of| |
|No.| Copy of Label. |per cent.| Days.| |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| 1 | Green Globe | 62 | 8 |} |
| 2 | Dale’s Hybrid | 84 | 4 |} |
| 3 | Red Globe | 90 | 6 |}Turnips |
| 4 | Orange Jelly | 100 | 4 |}from |
| 5 | White round, or Norfolk | 42 | 5 |}sample |
| 6 | Green Tankard | 50 | 6 |}papers |
| 7 | Scarisbrick (_sic_) | 88 | 11 |}communi-|
| 8 | White Globe | 74 | 4 |}cated. |
| 9 | Golden Yellow | 82 | 4 |} |
|10 | Green round | 30 | 6 |} |
| | Came up =| 70·2 | | |
| | Failed =| 29·8 | | |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
The specimens in next table were obtained in like manner as those of
Table 4.
TABLE 5.—_Germination of Samples of Common and Swede Turnips._
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| | | Came up |No. of| |
|No.| Name. Copy of Label. |per cent.| Days.| |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
| 1 | White Stone or Stubble | 46 | 6 |} |
| 2 | Red Tankard | 60 | 5 |}Swedes &|
| 3 | White Tankard | 60 | 4 |}Turnips |
| 4 | Yellow Tankard | 88 | 5 |}from |
| 5 | Green Top Yellow Scotch | 84 | 6 |}sample |
| 6 | Purple Top ditto | 62 | 8 |}papers |
| 7 | Tankard-shaped Swede | 74 | 7 |}communi-|
| 8 | White-fleshed ditto | 84 | 8 |}cated. |
| 9 | Skirving’s Improved Purple Top ditto| 64 | 8 |} |
|10 | Lawhead Green Top | 80 | 7 |} |
| | Came up =| 70·2 | | |
| | Failed =| 29·8 | | |
+---+-------------------------------------+---------+------+---------+
Of these samples we see that within a fraction of 30 per cent. is the
average of non-germinating seeds, and this is only so low on account of
two or three unusually good samples, the general range being from 20 to
30 per cent. of non-germinating seeds for the last twenty samples.
If we compare No. 5, Table 2, with No. 4, Table 4, we see a difference
in the Orange Jelly Turnip; in the former little more than half came up,
in the latter every seed. This is of importance, as showing what genuine
seed may be, the latter being doubtless as unmixed as the former was
mixed.
Now as regards the charge of mixing, we are not going to make it without
some evidence. In looking over the tables we have now given, it will be
seen that genuine seed has but a small per-centage of non-germinating
seeds—say from 5 to 10 per cent.; but not only the examples herein
referred to, with hosts of separate ones which have fallen under our
notice, show a general amount of dead seeds, of from 20 to 30 per cent.
For these figures compare Table 1 with Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5. In those
of the first lot the samples were sent direct to us from a seedsman, and
their behaviour shows us clearly enough that good seeds are to be
obtained, but the other tables are as clear that from _some_ seedsmen,
at any rate, though inferior samples, they are as good as are actually
sold.
That seeds are mixed we have, then, good internal evidence; but we are
also in possession of facts more conclusive upon this important point,
and we shall in this next chapter endeavour to enlighten our readers as
to the art and mystery (especially) of turnip-seed adulteration.
Confining our present remarks to turnip seeds, we assert that if farmers
will try the germinating powers from the _bulk_ of the seed which may be
sent to them, they will find pretty nearly one-third to be rubbish. It
is of no use to try from samples, except in comparison with bulk; and if
all the farmers of Great Britain did this, and would communicate the
results, what an extraordinary tale would be unfolded, more especially
if the evidence be completed by notes on the purity or otherwise of the
crop grown from such seeds!
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE ART AND MYSTERY OF TURNIP-SEED ADULTERATION.
It has already been shown that turnip-seed is largely adulterated; it
remains now to point out the nature of the admixtures, which may be
summed up under the following heads:—
1st. Old seeds are mixed with new.
2nd. Charlock, “Indian rape,” and other seeds of the _Brassicaceæ_,
are mixed with genuine seed.
1st.—The crops of seeds vary so much in their produce per acre, in one
year, as compared with another, that in most years there is a
superabundance of some kinds and a scarcity of others.
Now, as most seeds are of comparatively little use except for sowing,
the surplus stock can only be disposed of at extremely low prices.
Accordingly some wholesale seedsmen buy large quantities in the “glut
season,” as it is termed, and store them until the same articles fail in
crop. For instance, swede and turnip seeds, 1857 crop, could be bought
everywhere at from 15 to 20 shillings per bushel; but owing to the
destruction of the roots in the winter of 1859, seedsmen in 1860 had to
pay the growers 50s. per bushel. Now, in 1860 there were wholesale
houses selling those seeds which they had by them for the same price.
Such people can, it is true, warrant their seeds to be genuine, as they
well know how much turnip-seeds deteriorate by keeping; the mixing of
this with good seed is still a species of adulteration; and if not mixed
at all, we can then only say that the evil is so much the greater.
As an evidence of the amount of deterioration caused to turnip-seeds by
keeping, we here re-produce the table of trials of ten sorts of good
seeds made in September, 1860, in contrast with experiments from the
same sample, in the same month of the present year (1862), premising
that the samples were kept in what we should consider a dry but not too
warm a temperature.
TABLE 6.—_Germination of Ten Sorts of Turnips._
+---+-------------------------------------+--------+--------+
| | |Came up |Came up |
|No.| Name. Copy of Label. | 1860. | 1862. |
| | |Percent.|Percent.|
+---+-------------------------------------+--------+--------+
| 1 | Mousetail, 1859 | 96 | 46 |
| 2 | Pomeranian or White Globe, 1859 | 86 | 44 |
| 3 | Nimble Green Round, 1859 | 96 | 94 |
| 4 | Lincolnshire New Red Globe, 1860 | 90 | 58 |
| 5 | Yellow Tankard, 1859 | 92 | 62 |
| 6 | Smart’s Mousetail, 1860 | 98 | 92 |
| 7 | Green-topped Stone, 1860 | 84 | 88 |
| 8 | Sutton’s Imperial Green Globe, 1860 | 98 | 80 |
| 9 | Green-topped Scotch, 1860 | 90 | 86 |
|10 | Early Six-weeks, 1860 | 90 | 70 |
| | Came up (average) =| 92 | 72 |
| | Failed =| 8 | 28 |
+---+-------------------------------------+--------+--------+
These figures are interesting as showing that though the different sorts
are not affected equally, yet the seed of 1859 failed on the average to
the extent of 38·8 per cent., as against 24·6 for the seed of 1860, and
28 as the average of the whole samples. Such is the great difference
between two and three year old seeds.
2nd.—Even the above _genuine seeds_ (!) are not unfrequently mixed, and
we may now examine the nature of some of these mixtures. Charlock and
Indian rape are all _prepared_ for this purpose: that is to say, they
are rendered incapable of germinating before mixture—“Dead men tell no
tales.” Now rubbish, so prepared, is well known in the trade as 000
seed. Under this denomination all seedsmen know it, and it can be
procured by the trade at about 7s. per bushel.
With respect to this 000 seed, we direct attention to the following
letter addressed to a most respectable firm.
SOUTHAMPTON, _April 27, 1860_.
GENTLEMEN,—Being in possession of a new and improved method of
killing seeds without the use of any chemicals, so that the seed
when in a 000 state has not that unpleasant smell it has when
killed by the old method, and does not look perished if it be
crushed. A man by the new process may kill ten or twelve quarters
per day, and the apparatus is so constructed that it is impossible
for a single seed to leave it alive; and one great advantage is,
that if you want a sack of 000 seed in a hurry you may kill a sack
of rape or turnip, or any seed, and have it fit for use in an hour.
Seed in the process of killing increases in measure and weight, and
when you send it out to be killed, of course, the seed-killers keep
the extra weight and measure. If you think it worth your attention,
I will send you a small working model, so that you may kill a few
pounds of kale or cauliflower, or any small seeds in a few minutes,
and instructions for making a large one on receipt of a Post-office
order for £2.
Yours truly,
——
To this the Messrs. Sutton append the following remarks:—
The writer of the above being unknown to us, we had the curiosity
to call at the address given, and ascertained that it was no
“hoax,” but was assured by the “inventor” that he had supplied
several tradesmen with the apparatus, and that he was _formerly_ in
the seed trade himself. We may add, that we have since heard from
the same individual at another sea-port town to which he has
removed.
Having got possession of this circular, and being desirous of becoming
acquainted with so notable an invention, we lost no time in setting on
foot a negotiation for the possession of the secret, and having traced
the inventor in his removal from Southampton to Gosport, we then had
letters addressed to him upon the subject, and, if promises had been of
any avail, we might possibly at this time have been in possession of a
very improved and expeditious method of making 000 seeds, only that we
have learnt the undesirable nature of pay beforehand.
Our next inquiry was for a sample of 000 seed itself; but, although it
is well known in the trade, we have hitherto failed in procuring it. We
had hoped that our seedsmen might have been able to procure some through
some of their friends. The result was, that we made application to a
most respectable London firm, receiving the following reply:—
LONDON, _February 27, 1861_.
SIR,—In reply to your favour received this morning, we take leave
to say that we shall have pleasure in complying with your request
for a sample of 000 turnips, if we can obtain it. But we do not
keep it ourselves, nor do we know the parties who prepare it, it
being something of a trade secret. We will, however, apply to some
of our friends here to let us have a small quantity, but doubt if
they will let us have it, as it is a matter they are rather chary
respecting, and _although perfectly well known and understood in
the trade, they do not care to have it known beyond_, and our
asking for a small quantity will be sure to lead to the question,
“What do we want it for?” We could obtain a large quantity without
hesitation.
We remain, &c.,
——
The sentence we have placed in italics will be quite sufficient to show
how well the matter of 000 seeds is understood in the trade, and how
easy it is to get bushels of it, no questions being asked, while a small
quantity, required only for investigation, may be refused.
It appears, then, that the machinery exists by which any one in the seed
trade may quietly and easily commit enormous frauds. And it is plain
that the very notoriety of this machinery, together with the condition
of many of the samples of seed which we have examined (see Chap. VI.)
prove that this machinery actually is employed by many seedsmen to the
great injury of their customers.
We cannot, then, be doing wrong in urging any one to make trial of the
seeds he is about to buy before he sows them, or even before he
purchases them. Where the experience of a number of years already
exists, the character of the seedsman is a guarantee for the good
quality of his goods, and experience of this kind is indeed a more
perfect carrying out of the system of preliminary trial or experiment,
which we recommend especially to all new customers.
CHAPTER VIII.
ON THE INJURIES CAUSED BY INSECTS.
Root-crops are especially liable to injury from the depredations of
insects. Thus the turnip may have its seed more or less destroyed by
weevils. Immediately the seed appears above the ground, commences the
attack by the turnip flea-beetles. The bulb is pierced by beetles,
ending in those excrescences called “turnip-warbles;” and there is
reason to think that even the root-fibrils are in some soils made the
depositories of the eggs of insects, which give rise to extraordinary
malformations.
Carrots and parsnips are liable to have the best-grown root made useless
by its being pierced and eaten by the larvæ or grubs of a small fly,
known as the _Psila rosæ_.
Even the mangel-wurzel, which has been so strenuously recommended as a
substitute for the turnip on account of its freedom from insect attacks,
and connected with which Curtis only describes a single insect, a
leaf-miner, called _Anthomyia Betæ_, upon which he remarks that “these
insects will seldom cause any loss to the mangel-wurzel crops should
they ever abound to any extent.” In spite, however, of this, we find
that the increased growth of this crop has caused a corresponding
increase in the insect, to such an extent that, during the last two
seasons, many crops have entirely failed from its depredations; as
witness the following communication to the _Agricultural Gazette_ for
August 23rd, 1862:—
My mangel crop was drilled the 17th May, and came up most
favourably. On Monday, the 2nd June, I asked my bailiff what was
the matter with it; he said, “Oh, it was a sharp frost last night;”
but on examination I found that instead of frost the leaves had
within them a maggot, which had caused the plant to brown and die
off. The late rains and growing weather have enabled the plant
somewhat to revive, and also fresh plants to come up (for I had
drilled 7 lb. per acre), but found to-day several leaves with
maggots in them. My man told me “a quantity had eaten themselves
out of the leaf and dropped;” and that he saw “a vast number of
sparrows picking up those maggots.” I send you herewith some plants
I brought up from the farm. My idea is that the seed was damp and
bred the maggots, or that the leaves had been “struck with a fly,”
and then the maggot followed. You will please let me have your
ideas upon these points.—S. S.
The maggot, or larvæ, here described is that of a fly called the
_Anthomyia (Pegomyia) betæ_, mangel-wurzel fly. An allied species will
sometimes be found on the common dock-leaves, mining their galleries
between the dermal cells of the leaves.
We have for some time observed the increase of this pest, and we are
prepared to state that now we seldom see a crop that is not greatly
injured by its attacks. Mr. Curtis thinks that the best method to
destroy them is to employ boys to crush the leaves between the thumb and
fingers at the part where the larvæ can be seen; and with this we fear
we must for the present be content, unless we could devise some means to
take the fly before its eggs are laid in the leaves.
We need not here dwell at length upon the natural history of those pests
of the turnip—the _Haltica nemorum_ (striped flea-beetle), and _H.
concinna_ (black flea-beetle), as the nature of their ravages are
tolerably well known. Thus much, however, may be said; namely:—
_a._ These insects are called fleas because they have the power of
hopping on being disturbed, much after the manner of a flea.
_b._ They have some five or six broods each year; the earlier ones
probably being bred on charlocks and other weeds of the same
natural order as the turnip; and hence, then, charlocks are pests,
not only as being weeds, but as breeding-places for one of our most
mischievous insects.
_c._ They migrate from their weed-haunts to the first crop of
turnips, where much of their mischief may be prevented by simply
dusting over the young plants with any fine powder, road-dirt
answering the purpose as well as anything else.
Various devices have been employed for keeping away and killing these
little creatures. We have used a contrivance for catching them, which
may be described as follows:—
Some thin board (or boards), making a surface of about 4 feet long by 2
feet wide, is furnished at one end with a pair of light wheels of just
sufficient diameter to lift the board about 2 or 3 inches above the
plants. To the other end may be attached two crooked handles in such a
manner that the machine can be wheeled flatly over the plants, or if
four wheels be employed, one at each corner, a single handle can be used
either to push or pull the implement. When used, it should have its
underside painted over with tar or any handy viscid substance.
This should be used on bright days, the operator pushing it over the
rows of turnips, so as, if possible, not to throw his shadow before. The
middle of the day will be best, not only for this reason, but also
because these creatures feed more actively at that time.
Now, our experience in the use of this simple contrivance on small
experimental plots convinces us that a small boy could easily keep under
the enemy in a good-sized field.
But now comes a very important question for consideration. Cannot we do
more than kill a few of these creatures? cannot we adopt such plans as
will render our _crops_ tolerably safe from their depredations? We think
so, and to this end advise the following method of proceeding:—
Let each turnip-grower prepare for the enemy by sowing from the eighth
to a quarter of an acre of turnips in a sunny part of the farm as early
as the first week in April. These patches would quickly attract all the
turnip flea-beetles from the wild _cruciferæ_ on which the first broods
seem to depend, and in this small compass they can be killed in detail
with the simple contrivance just described, so that when the real crop
comes up there will be none, or at least only a few, beetles to emigrate
to it; whereas, as we now manage, by the time the crop of turnips is
sown, enough of the creatures are too often bred to render it necessary
to sow two or three times before we can secure a crop.
_Anbury_ is an affection to which only the different sorts of turnips
are liable, in which case it differs from finger-and-toe, with which it
has been very much confounded, as this latter occurs in all kinds of
roots; namely, turnips, carrots, mangel-wurzel, &c., as well as both the
common and Swedish turnips.
[Illustration: _Fig. 11_ (Fig. 8 repeated). Finger-and-toe Carrot. Half
natural size.]
As a sample of an extreme case of finger-and-toe—_digitate_ root,—we
repeat the following figure of a Belgian carrot, in which it will be
seen that the forks gradually taper to the extremities; in fact, the
whole, instead of being a succulent fleshy tap or _fusiform_ root, in
which case it could readily be stored, is divided in fingers-and-toes,
which are liable to break off, and this renders the product next to
useless. Now, this affection may occur in any soil, as it is the result
of a degeneracy in the stock of the plant; but in the affection now to
be described the case is wholly different, as here the bulk of the swede
(fig. 12) is affected with rough, cancerous knobs, whilst the rootlets
support irregular knobs of a like kind, which have more the aspect of
suspended rows of ginger than fingers-and-toes.
Roots so affected soon rot, and have a fœtid odour, so that they are not
only useless themselves, but communicate canker and decay to the whole
store. In the putrid mass will be found maggots and flies and beetles of
different kinds; but as yet naturalists are not agreed as to whether the
nodules of disease are caused by insects, or whether these creatures are
merely attracted by the fœtid matter. We are, however, inclined to the
belief that some insects are connected with the diseased appearance in
the first place, whilst others afterwards step in to fatten upon the
decaying matter, induced by the first lot; but still it must be
confessed that the subject requires much more attention than it has yet
received, in order to settle these important questions.
Still it may be observed that one point has been universally admitted;
namely, that anbury only occurs to any extent in sandy soils, where
there is an absence of lime, a good dressing of which mineral is the
best safeguard against this affection. Still, in soils that are liable
to anbury, we should not recommend the continuance of turnip-growing, or
at least not so frequently in the rotation as has hitherto been the
case, and more especially as the soils which produce anbury to the
greatest extent are just those best adapted for parsnips and carrots,
which, if not wholly, may occasionally be very profitably grown in the
place of the turnip.
[Illustration: _Fig. 12._ Swede affected with Anbury. Nat. size.]
Having given a few notes on the more prominent forms of insect attacks
to which root crops are liable, we would now close this chapter, as
details of all the insect pests would occupy more space than we can here
allot to the subject; but to those who would inquire further upon this
fertile theme, we would advise the perusal of “Farm Insects,” by J.
Curtis, Esq., F.L.S., &c.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
To render our subject as complete as possible, we direct attention to
the following practical conclusions, to which our whole argument upon
the science of root-growing points:—
First.—Cultivated roots are improved wild ones, only to be obtained
by gardening on the small, or farming on the large scale; this
gardening or farming being carried on by certain operations at
certain seasons which we have comprehended under the term of
cultivation processes.
Second.—The difference in sort of roots is caused either by
cross-breeding as the result of accident or design, or of the
education of some particular propensity which has been acted upon
by the intelligent seed-grower.
Third.—The maintenance of sorts in purity depends upon careful
selection of the right variety for the seeding examples.
Fourth.—The preservation of a good outline or shape of root can
only be maintained by selecting those of good _form_ to seed from;
for, as running to seed, multiform top, forkiness, “finger-and-toe”
in roots, is evidence of wild growth, so, then, cultivated plants
assuming this form are considered as degenerate, and seed from such
roots produces a malformed and poor crop.
Fifth.—The difficulties of getting good seed—whether of trueness to
sort, from carefully selected bulbs, or free from adulteration
either of old with new seed, or a mixture of charlock and others of
the same family—are very great. Where, however, good seed can be
depended upon, it is much cheaper, though at a considerable
increase of first seeds cost, as not only quality but the quantity
of live so considerably depends upon the truth and honesty of the
seedsman.
Sixth.—Injuries from insect attacks, though serious as affecting
the yield, are yet not due to the seed; and anbury, if it be due to
insects, only occurs in the turnip-crops, and then in particular
soils. The true insect attacks to be averted by simultaneous
action.
In fine.—_Good seed, of a true sort,—care in growth,—and a
watchfulness of enemies, includes the_ SCIENCE _and_ PRACTICE _of
Root Cultivation._
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=SCIENCE AND PRACTICE=
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No. 2.
=HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.=
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HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE NATURE OF MEADOWS AND PASTURES.
The terms “meadow” and “pasture” are usually employed together, as
though they were really distinct things; yet few people think of them as
different,—the fact being, that when a field is occupied with grass, it
may be called a _meadow_, in contradistinction to that land under the
plough, or _arable_: this yields meadow-hay if mowed for that purpose,
or _pasturage_ when fed off or depastured by our flocks or herds.
The meadow, then, as being fixed, is termed “permanent pasture.”
Pasture-herbage, however, is grown in the shifting crops of arable
cultivation; in which case it gets the term of “artificial pasture.” Hay
from the first of these is called “meadow-hay,” whilst the mixture of
grasses, clovers, &c., gets the name of “artificial grass,” or “hay,” as
the case may be.
As regards permanent pasture, this may be _old_ or _new_,—some meadows
having been in green herbage even for centuries, whilst others, though
sufficiently old, yet show traces of having been once arable in the more
or less high-backed ridges left by ancient ploughing. Viewed in this
way, original pasture is not so extensive as may be supposed; indeed,
there is scarcely such a thing at all, as all pastures are the result of
something like cultivation,—as, left to themselves, that is, to Nature,
they would soon resume the aspect of jungle, moor, or marsh, according
to soil and situation.
Meadows and pastures may, then, for our present purpose, be conveniently
tabulated as follows:—
A. PERMANENT PASTURES.
1. _Moors and uplands_, unenclosed or but partially fenced in.
2. _Commons_, unenclosed land, usually about villages, conferring
the right of cattle and goose grazing.
3. _River flats_ and lowlands, liable to floods.
4. _Irrigated Meadow_, in which the water is controllable.
5. _Meadows_, or permanent grass enclosures.
B. ARTIFICIAL PASTURES.
6. _Seeds_, shifting crops of some grasses, clovers, saintfoin,
&c., used either mixed or separately.
1. Moors, uplands, and downs (such as Dartmoor and Salisbury Plain) are
more or less wild according to their elevation and the geological
formation on which they occur. They consist of large tracts of land
either without fences at all, or only those of the most inefficient
kind, rather boundary-lines than otherwise. They are never used for
haymaking, nor are they cultivated beyond depasturing. These are dotted
with patches of rough grass, thorns, briers, and shrubs or stunted
trees where the surface is much broken, and the animals they are made to
carry are few; but on the more rounded and smooth lines of the downs is
a finer herbage, kept so not only from the nature of the case, but from
the fact that such a position favours the more thickly stocking it with
that close-grazing animal the sheep.
These pasturages, though very extensive, are yet being encroached upon
by a higher cultivation, and the hayfields one occasionally meets with
around the squatter’s cabin even in the wild mountainous parts of Wales
sufficiently testify to the greater productiveness of which the most
unfavourable districts are capable.
2. The village common is sometimes extensive; it, too, as the former, is
only grazed. Many of them have of late years been enclosed. Where much
depastured—and they usually carry as much stock as they can bear—there
is a remarkable absence of plants other than grasses. Indeed,
grass-herbage, and usually of the best species, will prevail, unless in
places where there may be stagnant water, in which cases a little
drainage would produce a large public benefit; but as what is
everybody’s business is done by no one, the common is too often left
much wilder, and thus made poorer than it need be.
3. The river flats here meant are, for the most part, large fields
partaking of the nature of common; that is, certain farmers and others
have the privilege of grazing during the autumn; but it is _aimed up_
early in spring, for the purpose of taking a crop of hay. Such lands
would be impoverished by such constant haymaking; but the winter floods
leave behind them a deposit of silt and fluviatile materials, and
perhaps beside act as a solvent; so that their fertility is wonderfully
maintained.
Many such wide stretches of meadow occur on the banks of the Severn, as
in the neighbourhood of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Worcester, &c., where
they get the name of _Ham_. It is much to be regretted that these hams
are not made the most of, for the same reason as applies with respect to
common, for the want of some efficient officer to direct improvements;
and so from the water here and there stagnating good herbage is ruined,
and from the floods not being controllable, even hay is lost with the
summer freshets. But where such land is vested in single enterprising
proprietors, not only is drainage insured, but embankments are made to
keep out the waters when not required, as so much met with on the banks
of the Thames; and such fields are at once an evidence of the
capabilities of river flats, and the great importance of individual
enterprise.
4. The last case approaches very nearly to that of _irrigated_ meadows;
but these latter are mostly situate on small streams, which can be
directed to flow through, not over them, at any time: they offer a most
important means of augmenting our pasturage in certain districts, and
will therefore receive a chapter to themselves.
5. Permanent grass enclosures are of very varied sizes, from hundreds of
acres, forming perhaps a park, to the small meadow of the homestead;
they may be seldom or never used for haymaking, but most of them are
aimed up for hay once, twice, or thrice in four or five years. These
form the greater part of the grass-lands of our country, and are indeed
nowhere greener or more productive than in the British Isles; still, as
we are an advocate for their cultivation—which, if it does not quite
realize the position of making two blades of grass grow where one grew
before, may at least do much in this direction—we shall reserve further
remarks upon this subject until we have particularly analyzed the
contents of a meadow.
6. As shifting crops, grasses, and other fodder plants may be made
exceedingly useful, these may therefore well occupy a chapter to
themselves.
CHAPTER X.
ON THE SPECIES OF MEADOW-GRASSES.
Although we possess more than a hundred species of native grasses, we
shall rarely find a fourth of them even in a wide range of meadows; and
if we do so, it is rather an argument against than in favour of the
quality of their herbage, as, so few are the best grasses in number,
that it is almost a law for the best meadows to contain the fewest
species of true grasses.
If, then, the good grasses be so few, whatever is not of these must be
inferior, and, indeed, so bad are some grasses that they can only be
considered as weeds. These weed-like forms are known to the farmer from
his observing that the cattle usually refuse to eat them, and hence he
has got to call them “sour grasses,”—a term which, though perhaps meant
to convey the idea that such are objectionable in flavour, yet it is
oftener that they are refused from their want of flavour, or from some
mechanical objection arising from their roughness of growth, some having
sharp serrated cutting edges to their leaves, whilst the spicular awns,
so conspicuous in the beard of barley, cause great irritation by
sticking beneath the tongue and in the gums. Of these, the first are
objectionable for pasture, the last for hay, and should, therefore, not
be found in really good meadows.
The figures and descriptions which follow are given in illustration of
some of the more usual meadow species, which, though not fully or
botanically described, will yet aid the practical farmer in estimating
the species, and their value and significance, which he will commonly
find in his fields.
[Illustration: _Fig. 13._ The Meadow Foxtail.]
The Meadow Foxtail (_Alopecurus pratensis_, fig. 13) is an early species
of the _spicate_ form—_i.e._, the flowers grow close together, into a
more or less dense head. It yields a great quantity of herbage,
especially in moist situations; and is particularly adapted for the
irrigated meadow. It should be distinguished from the _A. geniculatus_
(Kneeling Foxtail), whose spike is only about half the length and size,
as this is particularly a water species, so that if found when a meadow
is dry, it is yet an evidence that water must have lain where it occurs
for a considerable period of the year. Also from the _A. agrestis_
(Slender Foxtail), which has a longer and thinner spike, as this latter
is a weed in poor hungry clays, which is useless except as serving to
indicate that the land wants perhaps both drainage and manure. Here,
then, our first genus presents us with species indicating the varied
conditions of rich meadow, wet places, and poor arable; and it is this
variableness in adaptability that makes the grasses such important
indicators of the nature and condition of soils.
[Illustration: _Fig. 14._ The Catstail Grass.]
The Catstail Grass (_Phleum pratense_, fig. 14) in general form is not
unlike the preceding, but it is much rougher in all its parts, and is
one of the latest instead of one of our earliest species. Its name of
catstail is due to its rough flowers, an enlarged drawing of one of
which is given at _a_. It has also got the name of Timothy Grass, from
one Mr. Timothy Hanson, an American, to whom, probably, is owing its
first introduction as a “self-crop,” large fields of this useful
species, mostly by itself, being grown in Canada and the States as a
fodder plant. It is very useful in the meadow, as supplying a late crop
of stems and leaves; greatly augmenting the amount of herbage in some of
the colder though not poor districts.
We have never seen this grass used as a self-crop in England, but we are
convinced that on some of the rich alluvial flats, as in the lands
reclaimed from the Severn, and warp soils in general, it would yield a
large bulk of good feeding matter, which, though somewhat rough, would
yet mix well with clovers, &c., in chaff-cutting.
[Illustration: _Fig. 15._ The Sweet Vernal Grass.]
The Sweet Vernal Grass (_Anthoxanthum odoratum_, fig. 15) is a very
early species, with a somewhat lax spike of flowers, which usually
become of a bright straw-colour by the time the hayfield is ripe for the
scythe. It does not yield much bulk, but its grateful bitter when fresh,
and the peculiarly sweet hayfield odour which it yields on drying, would
seem to make this grass of importance, from the flavour which it imparts
to the produce of the field; indeed so much so, that much of the value
of natural meadow hay over that of artificial pasture may be traced to
the presence of this grass.
[Illustration: _Fig. 16._ The Crested Dogstail.]
The Crested Dogstail (_Cynosurus cristatus_, fig. 16) has its florets
arranged in front of a series of abortive branches, as represented at
_a_, enlarged. It has a very slender stem, which is hard and wiry when
ripe—a condition which it so universally attains, even in spite of
constant depasturing, that we never recommend its use in mixtures for
permanent pasture, as its stems are particularly innutritious, and its
herbage is so small as to be of little value. It never prevails much in
our best pastures.
[Illustration: _Fig. 17._ Rye Grass, or Ray Grass.]
Rye Grass, or Ray Grass (_Lolium perenne_, fig. 17), has no connection
with the Cereal Rye. It is one of our commonest and most useful species,
both as a plant for the natural meadow or for arable culture, especially
in mixture with clovers, which has the name of “seeds.” It yields good
bulk for the rick, and will so readily grow after cutting or close
depasturing that it commonly affords the greater part of the herbage of
a pasture. From being so valuable, its seed has been much cultivated;
and as it has a tendency to form more or less permanent varieties, so we
find in the market several different sorts; as “Pacey’s, Ruck’s,
Russell’s, Stickney’s, Rye Grass,” &c. It should always form part in any
mixture in laying down permanent pasture, in which case it should be
distinguished from the _Lolium Italicum_, the florets and seeds of
which are awned-pointed, as at _a_. This latter is useful as an annual
self-crop, but seedsmen too often mix it in permanent-pasture
collections, for the reason that it grows faster, and so makes a show
the first year, and so satisfies the customer; but it soon dies out,
while its large growth has kept under the more enduring forms. _b_
represents a bunch of the tumid flowers of the _Lolium temulentum_
(Drunken Darnel), once a pest in cornfields, but now, fortunately, of
rare occurrence, if we are to believe the tales told of its so-called
poisonous seeds.
[Illustration: _Fig. 18._ The Cocksfoot.]
The Cocksfoot (_Dactylis glomerata_, fig. 18), though a large and
somewhat coarse grass, is by no means inferior in quality, its hay being
highly nutritious, whilst its cut or cropped herbage is so quick of
growth that it is capable of yielding a great deal of keep. It sends its
root deep into the soil, so that it can grow well in poor land if dry;
but it never flourishes in very wet situations. It is constant in good
meadows, unless when they are always depastured, as there the constant
treading greatly interferes with it: it is, therefore, by no means so
abundant in sheep pastures; whence has arisen the idea with some farmers
that “too much sheep-grazing wears out the richer grasses.”
We should always recommend cocksfoot as a part of mixtures for permanent
pasture, taking care to well roll the meadow once or twice a year—a
process of great importance—to keep the turf in an even pile, and so
prevent that growing of large clusters or hassocks of one sort, a method
of growth to which the cocksfoot is somewhat prone.
[Illustration: _Fig. 19._ The Rough-stalked Meadow Grass.]
The Rough-stalked Meadow Grass (_Poa trivialis_, fig. 19) is a common
species in moist meadows, where it often forms a considerable portion of
the herbage: it is distinguished from the smooth-stalked by the
long-pointed tongue (_ligule_) to the leaves (_a_), and a stem which is
somewhat rough to the feel, especially when drawn downwards through the
fingers. This grass yields a quantity of herbage, but our experience
leads us to conclude that it does not possess quite so good a quality as
Sinclair and authors who have copied from him would lead us to suppose,
as we have found it wanting in feeding qualities, or what the farmer
calls “proof.” It usually forms a large part of the hay of the irrigated
meadow, which, though often large in quantity, is yet not equal to that
of ordinary good meadows in feeding properties.
The Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass (_Poa pratensis_), distinguished by a
blunt ligule (_b_) and smooth stem, is as abundant in dry situations as
the former is in damp ones. We confess to a great partiality for this
grass, notwithstanding that authors speak slightingly of its value; but
the truth is, that it varies with soil and situation, it being a species
which, when growing on a wild moor, is poor in both quantity and
quality. But we know of no better sign of the improvement of a bad
meadow than the increase of this grass, and its putting on, as it will
do under such circumstances, of its richest green tint.
_Poa nemoralis_ (Wood Meadow Grass) is a more slender form, whose wild
_habitat_ is in woods and shady places, especially on calcareous soils.
This points it out as a useful grass for wood-glades and positions
beneath trees, in which it may very properly be employed.
In laying down permanent pastures we should, then, employ these three
poas as follows:—
_Poa trivialis_, for low, damp situations and irrigated meadows.
_Poa pratensis_, for sound dry pastures and uplands.
_Poa nemoralis_, for rides between woods, wood-glades, and shady
places.
[Illustration: _Fig. 20._ Meadow Fescue.]
Meadow Fescue (_Festuca pratensis_, fig. 20) may be taken as the type of
the broad-leaved fescues. It is a common and good succulent grass in
rich meadows, and should always be employed in seed mixtures for such
situations, A variety, botanically known as _F. loliacea_, is
unbranched, like the lolium or rye grass. The position of this is on
rich river flats: we have seen it on the banks of the Isis at Oxford,
forming a large part of most excellent herbage.
[Illustration: _Fig. 21._ The Tall Fescue.]
The Tall Fescue (_Festuca elatior_, fig. 21) is a larger and coarser
form of _F. pratensis_, as seed of the latter will become the former by
being sown on some stiff sandy clays. It occurs abundantly on the stiff
alluvial deposits of our estuaries and river flats. It is an exceedingly
coarse grass, with a tendency to grow in large separate bunches; and
hence its presence is destructive to good pastures: it may, however, be
encouraged as a rough growth in its indicated _habitats_.
[Illustration: _Fig. 22._ Sheep’s Fescue.]
Sheep’s Fescue (_Festuca ovina_, fig. 22) may be taken as the type of
the small-leaved fescues. It is a native of our downs, and forms a large
proportion of the sweet down sheep-pastures. It is known by its fine
leaves, which come up immediately after the closest feeding; and if its
quantity equalled its quality, it would be even more valuable than it
is. A larger form, the Hard Fescue (_F. duriuscula_), is common to sound
meadows and the hill valleys. This has much the same properties as the
former, but it is taller, with longer and broader leaves. This should
always be encouraged, and in laying down grass for permanent pasture, it
should be plentifully added to the seed mixture.
The Downy Wild Oat (_Avena pubescens_, fig. 23) is a common grass on
thin calcareous soils. As it is very light in structure, and yields but
little grass, it is not worth much as a first-rate pasture plant,—and
indeed it would scarcely prefer to grow on them.
There is, however, a smaller-flowered species, the _Avena flavescens_
(Yellow Oat-grass), which is better. It, too, occurs on chalky soils;
while the _Avena pratensis_ (Meadow Oat-grass) is found too frequently
in poor clays or on starved moors, in which its rigid leaves and harsh
structure render it little, if any, better than a weed.
[Illustration: _Fig. 23._ The Downy Wild Oat.]
One of the most interesting species of the genus is the _Avena fatua_
(Wild Oat), well known as a weed in stiff arable soils. This is the
parent of the crop oats in cultivation, and there is reason to know that
by degeneracy the crop oat in some districts leaves behind a pest of
wild oats.[2]
[2] See “Natural History of British Meadow and Pasture Grasses,” by the
Author.
The Oat-like Grass (_Arrhenatherum avenaceum_, fig. 24), though a tall,
succulent-looking species, is still too common in poor soils, as its
herbage is bitter and nauseous, and not liked by cattle; and hay from it
is always inferior in quality. It is sometimes recommended by seedsmen,
and usually put with their mixtures; but we should at all times refuse
it.
[Illustration: _Fig. 24._ The Oat-like Grass.]
There is a peculiar form of this which occasionally occurs in sandy
districts, called _A. avenaceum_, variety _bulbosum_ (Onion Couch), the
trivial name of which has been given from the fact that its nodes
thicken below the soil, and present the appearance of small races of
onions. This pest is got out of the land by harrowing and hand-picking;
but as every bulb grows like joints of real couch, it is very difficult
to entirely eradicate it.
[Illustration: _Fig. 25._ The Soft Brome, or Lop Grasses.]
The Soft Brome, or Lop Grasses (_Bromus mollis_, fig. 25), and its
congeners, is an annual grass, and therefore very objectionable,
whether in the meadow or in “seeds,” to both of which, when poor and
neglected, it becomes attached. In both positions it is sometimes mixed
with a kind that droops pretty considerably to one side; from which it
has got the name of “lop.” From the meadow it is soon got rid of by
manuring and depasturing; haymaking, though it cuts off the main stem,
only encourages smaller ones to spring up late, and so the seed is sown.
In “seeds” it is frequently mixed with rye-grass seed, as it too often
occurs that a patch of rye-grass with much lop is seeded, as the most
profitable way to deal with it, as its seeds are heavy and large, and
therefore tell well, either by weight or measure. Our enlarged drawing
of a seed with its envelopes is given to contrast with rye-grass seed,
which is narrower and more pointed.
Within the last few years a species of brome grass, which was formerly
very rare, has become a common weed: we mean the _B. arvensis_, Corn
Brome-grass,—a species with smaller and more numerous heads of flowers
than the one just described. This has spread with the growth of foreign
seeds, and so suddenly has it appeared in some places as to cause
farmers to come to the conclusion that poor cultivation has made the
land spontaneously bring forth “a nasty sort of wild oat,” while others
have even concluded that a cereal crop had been transformed into this
grass.
The _Bromus erectus_ (Upright Brome Grass) is very constant to poor
calcareous soils. This is a perennial species, but very poor indeed in
feeding qualities; however, it looks green in park-glades, and if kept
down by rough stock, it may then be made useful.
[Illustration: _Fig. 26._ The Bent Grass.]
The Bent Grass (_Agrostis stolonifera_, fig. 26) is probably only a
variety of the common marsh species, _A. alba_. Under the name of Fiorin
Grass, this plant has been much extolled for the meadow; but our
experience shows it to vary in value according to the nature of the
position in which it is placed: as thus, in an irrigated meadow it sends
up a large quantity of quite rich pasturage, whilst in poor or dry
districts its herbage is hard and harsh, and not at all relished by
cattle or sheep.
The form we have figured is more particularly agrarian where its
creeping underground stem forms a kind of mischievous couch, and this,
united with a tangled growth derived from shoots rooting above the
ground, renders this one of the most pernicious weeds, especially in
thin soils, on calcareous, brashy, or stony soils.
[Illustration: _Fig. 27._ Woolly Soft Grass.]
Woolly Soft Grass (_Holcus lanatus_, fig. 27), though exceedingly pretty
from its contrast in colour and form with its congeners, is still so
worthless in point of feeding properties as to be little, if any, better
than a weed. It is too abundant in some moist meadows; and where it
forms a very large portion of the herbage, it speaks of poverty as well
as wet, and would lead to the inference that a little draining, less
frequent haymaking, and liberal doses of manure, would have a most
decidedly beneficial effect.
[Illustration: _Fig. 28._ Quaking Grasses.]
Quaking Grasses (_Briza media_, fig. 28, _B. minor_, _a_, and _B.
maxima_, _b_), though certainly amongst our pretty species, are all
useless to the farmer. The common species is well known in all wet or
poor clay meadows, and where very abundant we should usually make our
calculations for something less than a ton of hay to the acre, and this
would generally be late, and offer little _aftermath_. Like the
preceding, its indications are want of draining, manure, and
depasturing. If after the drains begin to act, sheep be folded upon a
quaking-grass meadow, and fed with turnips, hay, pease, or cake, it will
soon be eradicated. _a_, the smaller species, is an annual, and is only
noticed here by way of distinction: its smaller and broader bunches of
whitish, not purple, flowers, and rectilinear branches, will distinguish
it from the common form. It is comparatively rare; but we have had some
fine specimens communicated by H. C. Watson, Esq., from Thames Ditton.
_b_ is a garden specimen, remarkable for its larger flower bunches.
The Hair Grass (_Aira cæspitosa_, fig. 29) is commonly called hassock,
or tussac grass, or bull-pates—names which its massive bunches of
root-leaves clearly indicate the meaning of. Its leaves are so rough,
with serrated edges, that cattle mostly refuse it, unless when very
young. This grass is a never-failing indicator of wet,—so much so, that
if a meadow be drained in which it abounds, the action of the drains is
clearly indicated by its more or less gradual dying out. The quickest
way, then, to subdue this large, coarse weed-grass is to drain, and then
fold sheep upon the drying meadow: these animals tread the tussac grass
into manure, which goes to feed the better species. By this means, not
only this, but other rough or “sour” grasses are more quickly and more
certainly removed than by spudding them out; and this leads us to
remark, in concluding this chapter, that in the meadow there will
usually be found growing together two sets of grasses, which may be
designated as follows:—
_a._ Grasses more or less nutritious—sweet.
_b._ Grasses more or less innutritious—sour.
[Illustration: _Fig. 29._ The Hair Tussac Grass.]
In a good meadow, the section _a_ maintain the ascendancy, and so keep
under those of _b_. In a bad meadow, the section _b_ will be master, and
so tyrannize over what would be better.
Perfect cultivation, then, of a meadow—for meadows should be
cultivated—whilst it encourages the growth of _good_ herbage, equally
discourages the progress of the _bad_.
CHAPTER XI.
ON MEADOW PLANTS OTHER THAN GRASSES.
With the grass of the field will usually be found a large proportion of
plants of a very varied, variable, and different kind. Of these, many
are useful as augmenting the mass, and even improving the quality of a
pasture; whilst, as others are altogether objectionable, we shall
presently notice them under the head of “Meadow Weeds.”
Of the more useful adjuncts of the meadow we may tabulate the
following:—
+----+------------------------+--------------------------+
|No. | Trivial Names. | Botanical Names. |
+----+------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1 | Red clover | Trifolium pratense. |
| 2 | Zigzag clover | „ medium. |
| 3 | White or Dutch clover | „ repens. |
| 4 | Birdsfoot | Lotus corniculatus. |
| 5 | Yellow vetchling | Lathyrus pratensis. |
| 6 | Purple vetchling | „ palustris. |
| 7 | Saintfoin | Onobrychis sativa. |
| 8 | Burnet | Sanguisorba officinalis. |
| 9 | False burnet | Poterium Sanguisorba. |
|10 | Tormentil | Tormentilla officinalis. |
|11 | Yarrow | Achillæa millefolia. |
|12 | Agrimony | Agrimonia Eupatoria. |
|13 | Plantain | Plantago lanceolata. |
| | Some of the smaller Compositæ. |
| | Ditto Umbelliferæ. |
+----+---------------------------------------------------+
Of these, which are arranged pretty nearly in their order of merit, the
clovers are by far the most important. These, as meadow plants, will
usually be found under the following circumstances:—
No. 1. Plentiful in good, rich, sound meadows.
„ 2. Frequent in meadows on light sandy soils.
„ 3. On thin but good soil, upland meadows.
The clovers, and indeed the clover allies, _Papilionaceæ_, as a whole,
are partial to lime,—so much so, that a dressing of this mineral to some
fields in which clovers are scarcely represented will very quickly cause
an accelerated growth of them; hence road dirt, when made from
calcareous stones, as are the _oolitic_ and mountain limestones, affords
a good vehicle for the admixture of manures or ameliorators, such as
guano, burnt ashes, soot, nitrate of soda, &c.
The following remarks upon these three clovers are from a paper by the
author in the _Bath and West of England Agricultural Journal_, vol. x.,
part 2:—
1. _Trifolium pratense_—Meadow or Broad-leaved Clover—in its wild
state is too well known to need any lengthened description. A
careful examination of field specimens will show that even in the
wild state this plant is liable to run into numberless variations;
thus, we may have the leaflets of one plant broad and almost
obcordate at the extremity, whilst others will be more or less
ovate and lancet-shaped. In some we may see dense heads of purple
flowers, varying in shade until almost white, whilst less dense
heads of flowers and general variations in height, size, and
luxuriance of the whole plant, are all circumstances in the natural
history of this species in the wild state, which will prepare us
duly to understand the nature of the many forms of the plant which
are found in cultivation. Of these we have, besides others,
English, French, American, and Dutch sorts, which differ in such
minor details as a greater or less hairiness, or variations in the
colour and size of the flowers, leaves, _&c._ The most important
point connected with the broad-leaved clover is its permanency;
some sorts scarcely maintaining a plant for two years, whilst
others are said to be more or less perennial. This, however, is a
matter which we conceive depends more upon the soil and the kind
of cultivation than upon the sort; for although all seedsmen supply
two sorts, namely, _Trifolium pratense_ and _T. pratense perenne_,
yet they run so much the one into the other, that it is oftentimes
exceedingly difficult to distinguish them. If, therefore, a farmer
wants a good strain of broad clover, he should purchase his seed
from seedsmen possessing judgment and character; for experience has
taught us that a seed which may be all that is required in one
district may result in next to a failure in another. Thus,
clover-seed from the warmer parts of England does not succeed well
when sown in cold, exposed positions; but that from the latter is
improved on transmission to the former, whilst good changes are
effected by the occasional use of foreign seed.
The sort known in the market as _T. pratense perenne_ is probably
intermediate between the wild species _T. pratense_ and _T.
medium_. Our own experiments have shown that, on cultivating _T.
medium_, which is a sand-lover, in strong land, in three years it
has been very difficult to distinguish it from some of the
varieties of _T. pratense_. We incline, therefore, to the opinion
that as the _T. medium_ holds to sandy soils in the wild state, its
seed was brought into cultivation with a view to light-soil
cropping; and from this source has probably been derived the
so-called _T. pratense perenne_, which variety is certainly more
perennial in such light soils as would be quite unfit for the true
_T. pratense_. The latter, indeed, seems to be more permanent in
soils containing a quantity of lime, while the former, where it can
be got of a good sort, is certainly best adapted for sandy soils.
2. _Trifolium medium_—Zigzag Trefoil—is distinguished from the _T.
pratense_ by its larger, but more lax, head of reddish pink (not
purple) flowers, which are solitary, on the apex of a stalk, which
at each joint is bent at a considerable angle; hence its name. Its
leaflets are elliptical, and not broader at the upper margin. This
plant is a constant denizen of sands and light soils. In fact, its
naturally growing in soils unfitted for the broad-leaved clover
seems to recommend it for cultivation; and though, as before
pointed out, we more than suspect that the so-called cow-grass
clover was originally derived from this source, and that the _T.
medium_ is after all but a variety of the _T. pratense_, it is now
quite merged as a farm-plant into the broad-clover forms; so that,
if we are to possess it as a separate plant, it must be again grown
from the wild seed; and then, if it is to be kept pure, it must not
be cultivated on clays or limestones, or, if our view be correct,
it will soon lose its true distinctive character.
3. _Trifolium repens_—White Dutch Clover—has been long in
cultivation throughout Europe and America. It is one of our
commonest native plants, and appears to have become less changed by
cultivation than most other plants; yet there is reason to think
that with careful selection a much improved strain may be brought
about. In pastures an immense accession of Dutch clover is often
seen to follow some kind or another of top-dressing, especially of
lime, old mortar, or town rubbish. This is accounted for by the
fact that this clover is in reality of universal occurrence; and
its creeping habit of growth, besides seeding, causes it soon to
make a rapid increase where its conditions of growth are made
suitable. As an agricultural plant its position is in light soils,
for which it is usually mixed with other clovers and grasses in
varied proportions.
4 and 5 are often found scattered in meadows, though not usually in any
abundance in those of the richer kind; still, in laying down land for
permanent pasture, there can be no objection to a small admixture of
their seed.
6, the _Purple Vetchling_, though local in rich river pastures, is yet a
good plant, and might perhaps be advantageously brought out as an
addendum to mixtures designed for good lowland positions.
7, _Saintfoin_, is a good pasture plant for chalks and limestones; and
in laying down land for permanent pastures in such position, should not
usually be omitted. It is also a good species to sow on railway banks,
not alone for the beauty of its flowers, but for the binding effects of
its deeply-diving roots.
8 and 9, the _Burnets_, will be found,—the _true_ in rich damp bottoms
and on river flats, the _false_ on dry, calcareous soils. They are
neither plants that we should care to grow; but in their wild state in
their respective pastures we should, on the other hand, not be inclined
to make war against them as weeds. The same opinion, indeed, might be
briefly expressed as regards Nos. 10, 12, and 13. In fact, the whole
here grouped may be said to possess more or less bitter and astringent
qualities, and so become useful in checking the vapidity which is
sometimes found in purely grass herbage.
11, the _Yarrow_, should be encouraged in most pastures, as it not only
possesses the qualities just mentioned, but its leaves are so small and
its stems and flowers so easily dry when cut, that there is no chance of
its smothering out the grass in growing, or of its retarding the process
of haymaking. It also bears constant nibbling with sheep, which are
remarkably fond of it, without injury, as it rather becomes finer for
being depastured.
12. The larger composite plants, as dandelion, the hawkweeds, blackhead,
&c., are, from their coarseness and the room they take up, highly
objectionable; but the yellow hawkbits, thrincia, and the
before-mentioned yarrow, are by no means objectionable.
13. The above remarks will equally apply to the _Umbelliferæ_. Large
plants like the cow-parsnip and common beaked parsley are objectionable
from their size and want of feeding properties, whilst the small
pimpinella and earth-nut do not offer these objections. Here, however,
it must be confessed that we are bordering on the domains of weeds in
pasture, to which we must devote a separate chapter.
CHAPTER XII.
ON THE WEEDS OF PASTURE.
“Weeds in pasture!” said an old farmer friend; “I thought hay and grass
was all weeds.” This, which is by no means an uncommon notion,
sufficiently explains the want of care in the cultivation of the best
kinds of meadow produce, which can only be effected by the destruction
of what is useless or mischievous.
Now, if we proceed upon the assumption that the best kinds of meadow are
remarkable for the possession of little else than the best kinds of the
true grasses, we shall see that pasturage should, in the main, be
composed of good grass-growth, with only some few other plants which may
be capable of augmenting quantity, by their nutritive matter, giving
flavour, or improving quality.
It follows, then, that all plants having none of these requisites must
be, to all intents and purposes, only _mischievous weeds_; as thus a
large useless plant in a meadow, as in an arable field, must not only
occupy the space that would be better taken up by good plants, but it
appropriates a large quantity of food to the prejudice of the better
crop.
Viewed in this light, then, what a mass of weeds some of our pastures
will be found to contain! In fact, what with useless plants, other than
grasses, and coarse, sour, or useless grasses themselves, we meet with
so-called meadows to which the terms of “barren moor” or waste land
would be especially applicable.
The following table is offered as an attempt at the classification of
the weeds of pasture, the different divisions of which we shall
presently describe in the order of their arrangement.
TABLE OF PASTURE WEEDS.
1. _Plants which take up space but yield no Produce._
----------------------+-----------------------+---------------------
Trivial Name. | Botanical Name. | Remarks.
----------------------+-----------------------+---------------------
| {| The leaves of these
Broad-leaved Plantain.| Plantago media {| plants grow too close
Dent-de-lion | Leontodon taraxacum {| to the ground to be
Daisy | Bellis perennis {| eaten off by cattle
| {| or to cut for hay.
| { | These plants take up
| { | much room in growing,
Cowslip | Primula veris { | they are not eaten by
Primrose | „ vulgaris { | cattle, and, as they
Green-winged Orchis | Orchis Morio { | die before haymaking,
Early Purple Orchis | „ mascula { | yield little or
| { | nothing to the rick.
2. _Plants which take up space, but simply dilute the hay with
useless matter._
| {| All common, especially
Blunt-leaved Dock | Rumex obtusifolius {| in damp meadows, are
Crisp-leaved Dock | „ crispus {| not usually depastured,
Marsh Dock | „ palustris {| and have little or no
Field Sorrel | „ acetosa {| feeding properties
| {| when made into hay.
Burdock | Arctium Lappa | Common about the
| | borders of fields.
Butter Burr | Petasites vulgaris | Common near water
| | courses.
Cow Parsnip | Heracleum Sphondylium{| Very common and
Wild-beaked Parsley | Anthriscus vulgaris {| unsightly in
| {| pastures.
Ladies’ Smock | Cardamine pratensis | In damp places.
Yellow Rattle | Rhinanthus crista | In poor cold clays.
| galli |
Larger Hawkweeds, &c. | Hieracium species | About fields in
| | upland districts.
3. _Mechanical Plants, those with Spines, Prickles, Stings, &c._
Musk Thistle | Carduus nutans | Mostly a weed in
| | “seeds.”
Welted Thistle | „ acanthoides {|
Creeping Thistle | „ arvensis {| In hedgerows, borders
Cotton Thistle | „ eriophorus {| of fields, or the
Spear Thistle | „ lanceolatus {| open meadows.
Marsh Plume Thistle | „ palustris { | Damp or marsh
Meadow Plume Thistle | „ pratensis { | meadows.
Stemless Thistle | „ acaulis {| Common to poor
Carline Thistle | Carlina vulgaris {| calcareous uplands.
Common Stinging Nettle| Urtica dioica { | About the homestead,
Smaller Stinging | „ urens { | corners of fields,
Nettle | { | &c.
Wall Barley | Hordeum murinum {| About sandy soils,
| {| both in the meadow
| {| and arable.
4. _Poisonous Pasture-weeds, &c._
Meadow Saffron | Colchicum autumnale | Usual in calcareous
| | soils or marls.
Upright Buttercup | Ranunculus acris | In damp meadows.
Diseased Grasses | Secale cornutum {| In places where mist
| {| and damp prevail.
5. _Ill-favoured Weeds or Plants which communicate bad flavour to
Produce._
Crow Garlic | Allium vineale {| More or less in
Hogs’ Garlic | „ ursinum {| meadows and corners
| {| of fields.
Jack-by-the-Hedge | Erysimum Alliaria | About the hedgerow.
6. _Useless Grasses, or Grass-like Plants._
Rough Grasses | Species | Poor land and wet
| | places.
Sedges | Species {| In boggy, marshy, or
| {| wet sandy spots.
Rushes | Species {| In sandy spots on
| {| clays and poor soils.
----------------------+-----------------------+---------------------
1. Taking the broad-leaved plantain as the type of this list, we shall
have no difficulty in estimating the amount of mischief which it does.
Here is a plant, a single specimen of which not unfrequently occupies
nearly a square foot of ground, and as its leaves grow close to the
soil, it effectually prevents the growth of the grass, while few, if
any, leaves are cut with the scythe. The bare patches which result from
the cutting up of plantains from a lawn will sufficiently establish the
first position, whilst, if one occasionally meets with a few of the
leaves cut off in haymaking, it commits the further mischief of being so
long in drying as to retard the process of haymaking, or else to
endanger the safety of the rick. It is on account of this that the
plantain has in some districts got the name of the “Fire Grass.”
These are easily removed by the spud, especially if a little salt be
added to their crowns.
2. Taking it for granted that grasses are for the most part the best
plants for pasturage and hay, it follows that the plants of this list
can only be weeds, from their taking up space and living at the expense
of the wished-for crop, when, after all, the produce is either useless,
or so inferior that the whole product of the field is vitiated by their
presence. The best way to eradicate these and other large-leaved and
tall-stemmed plants is to pull them early in the season—the true theory
being, that by the repeated destruction of the leaves the rootstock
ultimately decays. Close depasturing also keeps them under for the same
reason, as the feet of horses and cattle so damage the leaves as to ruin
the growth and progress of the other parts of the plant, which latter
are requisite for its continuance.
3. Added to the evils just adverted to, this group is injurious from its
adverse mechanical appliances in spinous leaves, stings, and the like.
As regards thistles in pasture, they certainly argue great neglect, as
they may be so readily spudded out, in which the individual is
destroyed, and all hope of its progeny. It is, however, the fact that
these plants are sometimes left to seed that makes the matter of
destruction appear so hopeless, as the winged seeds of thistles may even
find their way to a clean farm from a dirty one, and roadsides and waste
places are constant sources of annoyance from this cause.
So fast has the corn thistle increased in Tasmania, as to make the
people groan under a “plague of thistles,” for which they have invoked
the aid of special State legislation.
The spud should be kept in active operation in the field, so as to
prevent these plants seeding, or indeed at all occupying any space; and
roadsides and waste places should be freed from these pests, either as
part of the duties of some public servant, or else as a matter of
private necessity.
As an illustration of the fecundity of thistles, we append the following
estimate of their seeding powers:—
SEED-DEVELOPMENT OF THISTLES.
+-------------------+-------------+-----------------------------------+
| Name. | Seeds to a | Description. |
| |single plant.| |
+-------------------+-------------+-----------------------------------+
| Musk thistle | 3,750 | 150 seeds to a single flower-head.|
| Spear thistle | 30,000 | 300 seeds to each. |
| Corn thistle | 5,000 | This plant also increases by |
| | | creeping underground stems. |
| Stemless thistle | 600 | This is sometimes so thick on the |
| | | downs that we have seen its flying|
| | | seeds almost like a snowstorm in |
| | | quantity and whiteness. |
+-------------------+-------------+-----------------------------------+
Farmers, however, mostly refuse an early summer attack both upon
thistles and nettles, quoting the following rustic rhyme for their
neglect:—
If thistles be cut in April,
They appear in a little while;
If in May,
They peep out the next day;
If cut in June,
They reappear very soon,
If in July,
They’ll hardly die;
If cut in August,
Die they must.
The truth is, that with spring-time they will bud forth again, but
always in a weakly condition. However, towards August the thistle has
performed all its functions for the year, and so prepared its larger
rootstocks for the future season; so that he would not be altogether so
mad who, in reference to the cutting of thistles and nettles in August
and September, should say—
Kill a fool’s head of your own;
They’ll die of themselves if you let them alone.
Beating nettles in the early part of the year with lithe ash sticks is
more effectual than the cleaner cut with the scythe, as the injuries are
not so easily got over.
4. That there are many plants in pastures which if eaten exclusively
would act as poisons we can have but little doubt, but there are a few
which would seem to be dangerous, even when partaken of in grass
mixtures. Of these, the meadow saffron is one of the most powerful.
This plant is abundant on the oolitic rocks of the Cotteswolds, about
which range we constantly hear of mischief from it. We extract the
following from a Cheltenham paper for September, 1844:—
It is only a few days since a farmer at Eyeford, near
Stow-on-the-Wold (Gloucestershire), had _ten calves killed by
eating of the flowers of the colchicum_, and two or three years
since three cows were destroyed by this plant in flower in the same
neighbourhood, whilst we frequently hear of many accidents to
cattle in the spring from eating the leaves, although it is
sometimes refused by them on account of its bitter and nauseous
taste. Yet there is no doubt but that accidents would be still more
frequent were it not that farmers keep their cattle from the
meadows in which it occurs in any quantity during the spring and
autumn months.
Pulling the leaves of the meadow saffron or colchicum will destroy it;
but a much more simple remedy is that of a thorough rolling with a
Croskill at the season when the flowers begin to expand, and again when
the broad leaves come up in spring; this so crushes and bruises the
whole plant, that a season or two of such treatment will be enough to
keep it under, if not to destroy it outright.
As regards the buttercups, the most acrid one—viz., the upright tall
species, a constant plant in marshy meadows and wet places—is the only
one to be particular about. Cattle do not usually eat it, but it finds
its way into the hay, and there is reason to think to its prejudice. It
is to be got under by draining and close depasturing, so that by
treading down it shall not seed; but poverty, induced by frequent
haymaking and wet, by keeping under the growth of what is better, gives
greater facility for the success of trash of this as well as of other
kinds.
Ergotised grasses, by which we mean those affected with the black spur,
in the place of the seed, or grain, is a common affection of grasses in
autumn in low-lying or in damp places, or where fields may be enveloped
in mist, as on some of our hill-ranges. This black spur is largest in
the cereal rye, but it occurs in most other species of grasses,
differing according to the size of their seeds.
Ergot of rye is used medicinally, and there is little doubt but that
ergot in other grasses is equally active. Its effects seem to be to
favour abortion; and there is reason to believe that it has caused many
valuable animals to abort. Some few years since the late Earl Ducie
suffered a loss of calves to an extent which he calculated to equal as
much as £1,000 in one year; at that time the grasses, consisting mostly
of the perennial rye-grass, were submitted to our inspection, and they
were much affected by ergot.
Keeping the cattle away from meadows known to present much of this
affected grass is the best remedy; but this will seldom be necessary,
except in unusually wet and warm seasons, which are sure to produce
these fungoid affections.
5. All the plants in this section are known to give a garlic-like
flavour to the dairy produce of the fields in which they grow. The two
first especially render butter unfit for market; so that if abundant
they would take off a large portion of the value of the field. They
occur mostly in patches, and should be pulled out as soon as strong
enough: if this be done year by year, it will be found to diminish in an
increased ratio; and two or three seasons will be enough to rid the
field of so great a pest, and would be well worth doing if it cost
much—which it ought not to do—as these weeds usually occur in otherwise
tolerably good meadows.
The jack-by-the-hedge is usually confined to the vicinity of the fences,
and may be removed by the hand or spud. It is a prolific seeder; so that
on no account should it ever be allowed to ripen its seed.
6. Rough grasses and grass-like weeds are far too common in poor, wild,
and neglected pastures. In their action they come closely to those of
our second section; they are indications of a want of drainage, which
operation well performed soon causes the death of this group, which end
is greatly facilitated by manuring and depasturing as the drains begin
to act.
In concluding this description, it may be well to remark that many more
plants might have been included in the different sections; but enough
has been done to show that a pasture, to be good, must not consist of
any plants which chance, accident, or more commonly neglect, may throw
together. In arable culture one-half the expense is, in one way or
other, connected with weeding, and we are of opinion, that if only one
shilling per acre was spent on the weeding of pasture, it would yield
300 per cent. profit on the outlay.
CHAPTER XIII.
ON THE IRRIGATED MEADOW.
Irrigation, as a means of increasing the amount of pasturage, is so
important a process that it may be well to describe it in this place.
For a perfect irrigated meadow, we should have full command of water
whenever it may be required. This water should be capable of flowing
through, not of pouring over, and standing on the land,—this latter
being flooding. The drainage should be so perfect that the land will be
sound enough for us to walk over in the dry in a few hours after the
water has been turned off.
Where these conditions can be secured, irrigation will be found most
useful, not only in augmenting the supply of grass, but in producing it
so much earlier than in the higher meadows that the farmer hereby gets a
fresh green pasture, of great utility, especially in fattening and
bringing on early lambs. From these circumstances it follows, that
although some land is occupied in the water-conduits, yet the value is
so far increased that meadow at 30_s._ per acre before irrigation has,
under one’s own eye, become worth £5 per acre in four years. There are,
however, some necessary expenses in setting out the work, making
floodgates, &c., the extent of which will of course depend upon the
nature of the ground. In Gloucestershire, on the banks of the Churn,
where irrigation has been successfully carried on for years, there is a
permanent cost of about 6_s._ an acre for keeping the works in order,
and charges of the “drowner,” the name given to the man who overlooks
the works, in some instances of several proprietors or tenants.
A peculiarity in irrigated meadow of the best quality is, the general
absence of coarse grasses on the one hand, and of any plants other than
grasses on the other; hence, then, good succulent and nutritious herbage
is the rule, and anything that can be otherwise described is the rare
exception. Indeed, so much is this the case, that a bit of coarse
grass—such, for instance, as _Aira cæspitosa_ (Tussac Grass)—making
successful growth in any part of the meadow, is at once an evidence of a
stagnation of water at that spot—a condition that a clever drowner at
once looks to when he has discovered it.
As an evidence of the changes which go on as the process succeeds, as
well as of their nature, we give the following as the tabulated result
of the irrigation of half of a meadow whose slope was too great to allow
of the whole being operated upon. From these it will be seen that the
proportionals of different pasture plants before and after irrigation
offer a material change; and it may be added, that in some cases, what
would otherwise be a bad and useless grass, may become succulent and
useful from the beneficial action of water. One of this kind is the
_Agrostis stolonifera_ (Fiorin Grass), which is in arable couch-grass
weed, but in the irrigated meadow it becomes of a fine green colour, is
nutritive in quality, and will bear with any amount of clipping. It may
here, too, be remarked that in cases where only a part of a meadow can
be irrigated, good accrues to the whole, as in depasturing the whole is
ranged over by our cattle and sheep.
We here give the following
TABLE OF CHANGES IN GRASSES AND OTHER PLANTS UNDER IRRIGATION.
+----------------------+------------------+------+--------+--------+
| Trivial Names. |Botanical Names. | | After | After |
| | |Before|2 Years’|4 Years’|
| | | --- Irrigation. --- |
+----------------------+------------------+------+--------+--------+
|Meadow Foxtail Grass |Alopecurus | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| |pratensis | | | |
|Field Meadow Grass |Poa pratensis | 2 | 3 | 4 |
|Rough-stalked ditto | „ trivialis | 1 | 2 | 1 |
|Quaking Grass |Briza media | 2 | 0 | 0 |
|Dogstail Grass |Cynosurus | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| |cristatus | | | |
|Hassock, or Tussac |Aira cæspitosa | 1 | 0 | 0 |
|Grass | | | | |
|Marsh Bent |Agrostis | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| |stolonifera | | | |
|Cocksfoot Grass |Dactylis glomerata| 1 | 2 | 3 |
|Yellow Oat-grass |Avena flavescens | 2 | 3 | 3 |
|Soft ditto | „ pubescens | 1 | 1 | 1 |
|Meadow Barley |Hordeum pratense | 1 | 2 | 2 |
|Perennial Rye-grass |Lolium perenne | 2 | 4 | 6 |
|Meadow Crowfoot, or |Ranunculus acris | 1 | 3 | 1 |
|Buttercup | | | | |
|Bulbous ditto | „ bulbosus| 3 | 1 | 0 |
|Narrow-leaved Plantain|Plantago | 3 | 1 | 1 |
| | lanceolata| | | |
|Broad-leaved ditto | „ asiatica | 3 | 0 | 0 |
|Dutch Clover |Trifolium repens | 2 | 0 | 0 |
|Broad Clover | „ pratense | 1 | 2 | 2 |
|Common-beaked Parsley |Anthriscus | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| |vulgaris | | | |
+----------------------+------------------+------+--------+--------+
The general conclusions from this table are, that large and innutritious
herbage is, for the most part, destroyed by irrigation, and its place is
supplied by grasses; hence, then, the increased value conferred by the
regulated action of water is due to an increase in quantity and quality
of the grasses, added to a much more certain, as well as early,
production of these. Of course the districts best adapted to irrigation
will be valleys of denudation, the centres of which are occupied by more
or less copious and rapid streamlets. Some of these valleys in the
Cotteswolds having been scooped out of the oolitic freestones, have left
the spoils of the rock as a gravelly deposit, sometimes on the lias, at
others on the fuller’s earth, and then on the Oxford clays; so that,
stiff as these soils would be by themselves, they now only tend to throw
out the waters by natural drainage, which are again conducted over the
porous gravels through which they flow with great regularity; thus
fertilizing what would otherwise be but a scanty thin-soil herbage, and
to such an extent that early depasturing, haymaking, and later pasturage
(_lattermath_) are the rule year by year.
These circumstances make water-rights of great value, and which, if not
in possession, are secured at a fixed charge per acre; this, however, is
usually included in the expenses, which, as before stated, are covered
by about 6_s._ per acre.
Before concluding this chapter, we must say a few words in reference to
flooded meadows. These will be found on the banks of the larger rivers
or on streams of sufficient importance to be called rivers, as
distinguished from brooks or streamlets. Here the flooding is caused by
the water overflowing the banks, as the result of sudden thaws or an
unusual quantity of rain. Here then the flood is not under control, and
as it may happen at any and all times of the year, the grass may be
spoiled by being covered with silt and drifted materials, or even the
hay may be carried away by the flood.
These river flats, then, have seldom the requisites for carrying on
irrigation, although the waters are of course more abundant than those
supplied by the smaller streams; for even if we could by embanking so
far control the water as to get it over the field when we might wish,
yet alluvial flats like those of much of the Thames and Severn would not
readily drain.
From facts like these it will at once be seen that there is a wide
difference between irrigation and flooding; and we have hence
endeavoured to separate what is too often confounded.
CHAPTER XIV.
ON THE LAYING DOWN OF PERMANENT PASTURE.
If we reflect upon the fact that much of the meadow of Great Britain is
ribbed by the ridge and furrow of former arable culture, we shall
conclude that the laying down of land to permanent pasture is an ancient
no less than a modern process.
Formerly new pastures were made by sowing the collected seeds from a
hayloft, but as in modern farming no one in his senses would let his
grass get ripe enough for seed before cutting, present practice
necessitates the mixing of such seeds as may be considered best in
suitable quantities for our purpose. We shall have, then, in this place
to consider:—
1. The preparation of the land;
2. The kinds of seed best adapted for different places; and
3. The after-treatment of the new meadow.
1. The plan usually adopted in a preparation for grass seeds is that of
sowing our mixture with the barley crop. Now this, in the case of a
tenant who is not sure of his tenure, would obviously recommend itself;
but to a proprietor wanting a quicker and surer result it offers many
objections.
We recommend, after turnips have been fed off on the land, to make the
ground as level as possible, then harrow and roll smooth with an iron or
wooden roller. Upon this surface our mixture should be carefully sown;
then harrow with very light harrows just to cover the seed, and roll
again.
By this plan you start the seeds in good soil instead of in that from
which you have carried off a crop of ripened grass, straw, and seed; but
besides this, your grass will get a stronger constitution than when
grown as seedlings amid taller plants, which draw up the “seeds,” and
thus make them so weak and attenuated as scarcely to be able to
withstand the rigour of winter—a matter of great consequence when our
object is to get a vigorously-growing swarth quickly.
2. We come now to consider the kinds of seeds which should be sown;
these, though few in number, will yet vary according to soil and
situation.
Our remark that few kinds of grasses are required in laying down for
permanent pasture may surprise those who have seen the usual
prescriptions for this purpose; but if we start in our selection by
leaving out coarse grasses,—such, for instance, as _Phalaris
canariensis_ (Reed Canary Grass), for damp meadows; annual forms, or at
least not permanent ones, such as _Lolium Italicum_ (Italian Rye-grass);
and useless varieties, as _Poa nemoralis sempervirens_, _Phleum pratense
majus_, and the like,—we shall be then confined to as few species of
grass as we shall ever find will form the best parts of our best
meadows.
Now, as regards sowing useless or annual species, we should recollect
that the better they come up the more mischief they create, as they take
up the room that the more permanent forms should occupy, and so smother
them out. How often have we seen our friends in ecstasies at the success
of their new pasture, when the smiling face had been suddenly put upon
the matter by the quick-growing Italian rye-grass having taken a
possession, which, however, in a year or two it would most probably
yield; and so it has happened, that while the seedsman has been
advertising a certificate vaunting of success, the pasture is declining,
and the proprietor, looking for the reason for such a result, either
himself concludes, or is led so to do, that as the seeds came up well,
these were not in fault: it must then be the nature of the soil!
In giving such directions for grass mixtures as experience would seem to
warrant, we confess to a great deal of diffidence; for as scarcely two
cases are alike, the difficulty is as great as would be that of a
medical man prescribing for his various patients without seeing them;
indeed, to profess to do so in either case, as a general rule, savours
somewhat of quackery.
The following tables, then, it must be understood, are only meant to
convey some very general notions as to sorts of grasses and other fodder
plants, and their quantities, which we should employ under the specified
conditions of soil; albeit, even the quantities should be variable,
depending upon the quality of the seeds, the season, and the climate in
which they are to be sown:—
1. _Proposed selection for rich loams in best grass-growing
positions._
------------------------------+---------------------------+----------
Botanical Name. | Trivial Name. | Quantity
| | Per Acre.
------------------------------+---------------------------+----------
| | lb. oz.
Lolium perenne | Perennial Rye | 10 0
Poa pratensis | Meadow Grass | 2 0
Dactylis glomerata | Cocksfoot | 5 0
Festuca pratensis | Meadow Fescue | 3 0
„ duriuscula | Hard „ | 3 0
Alopecurus pratensis | Foxtail | 2 0
Phleum pratense | Catstail | 2 0
Anthoxanthum odoratum | Sweet Vernal | 0 8
Trifolium pratense | Common Clover | 4 0
„ repens | Dutch „ | 2 0
2. _Proposed selection for a poor stiff soil on a clay subsoil._
Lolium perenne | Perennial Rye | 12 0
Poa pratensis | Smooth Meadow Grass | 3 0
„ trivialis | Rough „ „ | 2 0
Festuca loliacea | Lolium Fescue | 2 0
„ duriuscula | Hard „ | 2 0
Phleum pratense | Catstail | 2 0
Dactylis glomerata | Cocksfoot | 6 0
Anthoxanthum odoratum | Sweet Vernal | 0 8
Trifolium pratense | Common Clover | 6 0
„ repens | Dutch „ | 2 0
3. _Proposed selection for thin uplands on calcareous soils._
Lolium perenne | Perennial Rye | 12 0
Poa pratensis | Smooth Meadow Grass | 4 0
Festuca ovina | Sheep’s Fescue | 2 0
„ duriuscula | Hard „ | 2 0
Avena flavescens | Yellow Oat-Grass | 1 0
„ pubescens | Soft „ | 1 0
Anthoxanthum odoratum | Sweet Vernal | 1 0
Trifolium pratense | Common Clover | 3 0
„ repens | Dutch „ | 5 0
Achillæa millefolia | Yarrow | 0 8
4. _Proposed selection for light soils on sands._
Lolium perenne | Perennial Rye | 14 0
Poa pratensis | Smooth Meadow | 3 0
Festuca duriuscula | Hard Fescue | 3 0
Avena flavescens | Soft Oat-Grass | 1 0
Anthoxanthum odoratum | Sweet Vernal | 0 8
Trifolium medium | Zigzag Clover | 4 0
„ pratense | Meadow or Corn Clover | 2 0
„ repens | Dutch Clover | 5 0
Lotus corniculatus | Birdsfoot Trefoil | 0 8
Achillæa millefolia | Yarrow | 0 8
------------------------------+---------------------------+----------
The above positions may so far be considered to present generic types of
land which would be laid down in permanent pasture in the ordinary
course of farming. Selections for park glades, covert, and the like, are
exceptional, which must be provided for according to circumstances.
We should advise care in the selection of these seeds; the newer and
fresher they are the better, as, perhaps, no seeds suffer more from
keeping than do those of the grasses. And we would further add that, as
a rule, we should prefer to procure our seeds separately and mix them
ourselves: for this we should expect to have more to pay at most houses,
but they will be much better. Of course, in all such strictures about
seeds, we mean them to apply only to those who are not sufficiently
particular to keep from trade tricks, or who do not observe that care in
selection and mixing that would be necessary to ensure the fullest
amount of success; for, as we are well aware that seeds, however old or
worthless, are seldom destroyed, we should expect to have some of them
sold to us if we did not look to the character, position, and judgment
of our seedsman on the one hand, and be prepared to go to such, and so
pay a fair price, on the other.
We will now suppose that the seed has come up regularly, and so must
describe the after-treatment. In the first year it will be all-important
to look after weeds: should these make their appearance, it will be well
to hoe or spud them out at once before they can seed, as then the grass
will not only have a better chance, but little provision will be left
for weed-continuance.
In the following winter, say about January, if the weather will suit, a
slight but even dressing of not over-rotten manure will act as a
protection to the young plants, and provide food for their spring growth
by its gradual decomposition and mixing with the soil.
Towards the latter end of February, or early in March, bush-harrowing
should be employed to break up and disseminate the manure, and then the
roller should be actively used to consolidate the whole; and, if the
grasses have at all thrown out, the croskill will prove a most efficient
implement. In the following May we should stock with sheep just thick
enough to prevent any extent of seeding; and if the next year should
show vacant spaces, which it would be likely to do from failure or
wire-worm (the latter will be less than when corn is grown), we must
re-sow, mixing our seeds with a little mixed guano and soot.
These, then, are some of the simple rules upon which to act in growing a
permanent pasture; and the more rigidly they are kept to at first, the
sooner and the more perfect will our meadow assume the aspect we should
desire for permanency.
CHAPTER XV.
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF PERMANENT PASTURES.
However good our meadows and pastures may be, it is but natural that we
should wish to keep them in good condition, and, if not so good, our
object should be to improve them.
We have already adverted to weeding as a requisite in the improvement of
meadow; we are equally clear upon the subject of draining. On both of
these points, however, we have met with opposition. The farmer who
considers that all is hay that he can get together in a rick, may look
more to mass than quality, though even here we are inclined to think
that if we take hay and pasture together, the more grasses and the less
of rubbish we can get a field to grow, the greater will be our produce
in quantity and quality.
With regard to draining, we are told that it takes the goodness out of
the meadow; but if we have a meadow on clay—we will suppose lias or
Oxford clay,—with only a few inches of a stiff soil at the surface, we
shall find that those few inches are the only available root ground.
Drain, and then we shall soon see that air will follow the water: this
united, air and water will decompose plant-feeding matter never before
reached.
Now, where the mistake has been made is, that from this time the herbage
gets less and less coarse, and perhaps in some seasons would not produce
the weight of hay; but what there is both of hay and grass would be
much improved, and would become capable of carrying better stock.
The following reply[3] of Mr. Bailey Denton to some objectors to
draining in Middlesex is, we think, much to the point on this important
subject:—
Mr. Denton stated that he had been recently over the estate of Lord
Northwick, near Harrow, in company with the noble lord and some
friends and tenants. On that occasion the question of the
reluctance of hay farmers to drain the land was discussed, and the
farmers said that as they always had a great deal of custom in
London for hay, of whatever quality it was, they did not seek so
much for quality as for quantity, and consequently did not think it
worth while to drain the land for feeding purposes, although they
admitted that draining made the herbage sweeter and better for
cattle. The present system, under which the grass-land of the
Harrow district had been cultivated for many years, alike
impoverished the hay farmers and the land; and he was of opinion
that if drained, the latter would produce grass of a much better
quality, and equally as much in quantity. He thought a good plan
would be to feed off part of the land and put the other into hay.
[3] Discussion Royal Agricultural Society, March 21, 1863.
If asked what would be our criteria as to the necessity of draining, we
should say stagnant water at any time.
Plants, however, afford evidence to be depended upon; as thus take the
indications of a few weeds common to wet meadows:—
Sedges } Show a want of }
Rushes } thorough drainage. }
Bull-pates and other } } _Perhaps_ partial }
coarse Grasses } or grip drainage } Full
Devil’s-bit Scabious } may do. } drainage
Buttercups (R. acris) } _Perhaps_ less } certainly
Lousewort } } haymaking and more } required.
Field Orchids } manure is indicated, }
Cowslips } and draining _may_ }
Moss } be done without. }
Now, as regards very wet meadows, it is found that they are seldom if
ever manured; for, just as I was told as regards some of the low lands
on the banks of the Yeo, in Somersetshire, that it did not pay to manure
them; so one might easily imagine that where the land is full of water,
and perhaps of moist _humus_, manure would not tend to the increase of
good grass, though it might to that of thistles and buttercups.
Meadows that are sufficiently sound to yield tolerable hay are too much
worked to this end, and are, we think, getting poorer. The Cheshire
pastures offer a good example of the effects of greed in this matter. A
century ago we feel sure its grass-producing powers were far beyond what
they are now. Grass is gone in hay and bones and cheese, but for
generations the farmer has gone on depasturing to make manure; but as it
will be seen, on reflection, that cattle can only deposit as manure,
matter which they have taken from the field and converted into manurial
substance, they cannot add any new material: so then this method of
restoration must fail at last. Another restoration employed in this
county was that of using their salt as a top-dressing. This, as it
killed all the coarse grass, and so converted it into manure, recovered
the pasture, by, out of bad and rough grass, growing good ones; but this
too would fail in time. Hay, the framework of growing cattle, and
cheese, have gone on converting the phosphates and the bone matted of
the soil into their substances, and it is now found that returning this
in the shape of bones and superphosphates is rapidly effecting an
improvement.
Hence, then, we would recommend less of greed in haymaking. Do not
ripen the grasses too much before cutting. Don’t trust to grazing for
restoring the phosphates and other ingredients of the hay, but bring
them in the shape of manure.
Use heavy rollers in spring to smooth and consolidate the soil; replant
the roots thrown out by worms; mat the turf more thoroughly together;
and crush larger but useless plants.
There is, then, less difference between the cultivation of pasture and
of arable land than would at first be thought.
Drainage, acts of husbandry, amelioration of soil by rubbish of all
kinds where too tenacious, manuring them by farmyard dung, or, failing
this, such artificial manures as bones, superphosphates, guano,
nitrates, soot, &c.,—these are the sheet anchors in the improvement of
our pastures; and by these we should realize the hope of _making two
blades of good grass grow where one did before_.
CHAPTER XVI.
ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LAWNS.
The homes of our fair country are so much beautified by our
nicely-shaven lawns, which nowhere are so green and smooth as in “Merrye
Englande,” that a few words upon their management can hardly be out of
place in a treatise on grasses; we would, therefore, direct attention to
the following questions connected with the maintenance of lawns in a
good condition.
1. Lawns should have grasses which combine the finest possible
leaf-growth with a capability of restoring growth and colour under
constant cutting.
2. Lawns should be entirely free from plants other than grasses, unless
we except the Dutch clover.
3. Lawn grasses should possess the property of intimately weaving one
with the other.
4. After cutting, they should grow as near the same height as possible.
1. _Fine Lawn Grasses._—The annexed engraving (_Festuca ovina_)
represents one of our finest-leaved grasses; it is one, too, that will
even bear the constant nibbling of sheep without losing either its
vitality or its colour. This, and a larger variety called the _F.
duriuscula_, are two forms of this genus well adapted for lawns.
If to these we add the _Lolium perenne_, _Poa pratensis_, and
_Cynosurus cristatus_, we shall have nearly all the useful lawn grasses.
As regards _Poa pratensis_, we should, however, leave it out where we
have borders cut in the turf, as its creeping underground stems are
mischievous, from their habit of getting into the borders with the
flowers. This, of course, would lead us to discourage any couch-like
grass. If, then, we have plots, and the soil of the lawn be sufficiently
moist, we should recommend _Poa trivialis_ to be sought in its stead.
[Illustration: _Fig. 22_ (_bis_). Sheep’s Fescue.]
Something like uniformity of colour is desirable; as, if we see bunches
of the silvery-leaved Soft Grass, or the brown patches of the _Fiorin_,
it is so unsightly that we should feel the necessity of introducing a
new turf where it occurs.
2. _Lawn Weeds._—Plantains, dandelions, and daisies can only be
considered weeds whenever they occur in grass, but especially in the
lawn. They are easily guarded against, if in laying down turf we only
choose clean specimens, or in laying down seeds we obtain pure samples,
and sow them on well-cleaned ground. But however careful we may be, we
shall be sure of a few weeds. These can be kept under by cutting them
out with a knife, taking care to drop a pinch of salt on the crowns that
we leave behind; and then, if we use a little fine lawn-grass seed to
the vacant places, and well roll after the process, we shall certainly
keep them under. This should be done in spring, and not in autumn, as we
shall then be more certain of success, upon the principle before
explained.
If, despite all we do, a few crowns still send up shoots, our mowing
must always be frequent enough to prevent their seeding; and as in the
height of summer, seeding, in the case of all three of the plants, will
take place in a few days, such neglect as our own lawn once got when we
were away for a month’s vacation, in not being mowed sufficiently often,
may take years to remedy.
3. _The Mixture of Grasses_ is secured by constant mowing and rolling,
by which means anything like a wild method of grass-growth is avoided.
When, however, a lawn is left for a long time without such careful
treatment, some of the grasses are sure to stool out and grow bunchy. In
this case, the quickest way of putting the matter to rights will be to
remove the offending tufts, and introduce new turf, taking care to keep
the whole in order by the scythe and the roller.
Talking, however, of these implements of lawn-culture reminds one to
remark that with some the scythe and roller are almost discarded, at
least in summer. Our own lawn is rolled with an iron roller during the
winter and early spring; but when mowing begins, we prefer the new
lawn-mowing machines. We have now used one of Samuelson’s for four
years, and it has not cost us a single sixpence for repairs; a strong
boy can use it, and it possesses the advantages of cutting close and
evenly, collecting not only the cut grass but scattered leaves as it
goes, and, withal, most completely rolling the turf at the same time. We
are, too, not awoke by scythe whetting at four o’clock in the morning,
to secure the dew upon the grass, as the dry part of the day is perhaps
the best for the use of the mowing-machine.
There is, then, no excuse for weeds or bunchy grass with a
mowing-machine, as the whole operation, as here described, is done in
less time than was formerly occupied in the scythe in mowing alone.
4. _Evenness in height_ is a matter of importance for the lawn; for if
we have grasses together, some of which make three inches of growth
while the majority are growing but one inch, the whole look uneven and
ugly.
[Illustration: _Fig. 31._ The Taller Grasses.]
The annexed cut (fig. 31) shows the effects of this, the taller grass
being a root of cocksfoot, which is not only bunchy, but its leaves are
too broad for a good lawn grass, and it grows twice as fast as the
smaller species (_a_); its colour, too, would be so much lighter than
that of the surrounding herbage as to be at once visible, and to strike
one as a great blemish. Here, again, the offending patch should be
removed, and better turf introduced, which operation should be performed
in the autumn if possible, so as to have the full benefit the following
summer.
These points in the cultivation of lawns are more particularly
applicable in the process of laying down lawns with cut turves, which is
the usual practice, and especially when an immediate effect is required.
In this case, then, it cannot be too strongly urged that much trouble
and expense may be saved by choosing the finest turf for our purpose;
and the trouble of picking out an objectionable grass or weed before
laying down will be amply rewarded.
If it be thought desirable to sow grass seeds to get a lawn, we would
propose the following mixture:—
5. _Proposed mixture for lawns, cricket-grounds, bowling-greens, &c._
---------------------+---------------------+-----------
Botanical Name. | Trivial Name. | Quantity
| | Per Acre.
---------------------+---------------------+-----------
| | lb. oz.
Lolium perenne | Perennial Rye | 25 0
Festuca duriuscula | Hard Fescue | 4 0
„ ovina | Sheep’s „ | 2 0
Poa pratensis | Smooth Meadow | 1 8
„ trivialis | Rougher „ | 1 8
Cynosurus cristatus | Dogstail | 7 0
Trifolium repens[4] | Dutch Clover | 8 0
---------------------+---------------------+-----------
[4] As some people object to Clover in a lawn, we should add a little
more Sheep’s Fescue in its stead.
These seeds should be sown upon clean, well-pulverized, and
smoothly-rolled ground, and the garden roller should be actively
employed from the time the grass seeds have well come up until they are
fairly established, when, if mown the second year with the machine, its
rolling will be sufficient.
Occasionally there will be bald places in parks, such as some of the
worn spots in Hyde Park, which it would be advisable to provide seed
for, that should have an immediate effect. In this case we should mix a
small quantity of the _Poa annua_ with the above, as it not only effects
the object of making the whole look green very quickly, but so small a
grass scarcely interferes with the growth of the more permanent species,
which would meanwhile be making their position, and so ultimately drive
out the annual.
It now only remains to point out that the constant mowing of lawns,
although it only takes away young grass, must in time have the effect of
impoverishing the lawn. In such case, the grass will not be of so bright
a colour as formerly, and it will become more or less mixed with moss.
In this state of matters the grasses die, and different species of
agarics live upon the decaying roots.
In this condition we find that colour and fertility are restored by a
good sprinkling of soot, which usually operates very beneficially for
four or five years. After this period a little guano, say one part to
three parts of soot, will do better. Another method of restoring
fertility is that of an occasional use of house slops, diluted with five
parts of water; this showered evenly from a watering-pot, engine, or
hydropult, usually has a most beneficial effect.
In concluding this subject of “How to Grow Good Grass,” the author would
wish to impress upon his readers the important fact, that as our country
is so peculiarly adapted for the growth of pasturage, and as this
interesting genus of plants furnishes the best kind of herbage, so then
the grass tribe is deserving of the most careful study of the
home-producer of MEAT, MILK, CHEESE, and BUTTER.
* * * * *
NOTE.—Belcher’s Plantain Extractor and Turf Inoculator will be found a
most efficient implement in extracting plantains, and preparing good
turves to fill up the holes. We fancy, too, that it will be found useful
in laying down land for permanent pasture by a system of inoculation,
but await the result of experiments before stating more positively.—_The
Author._
[Illustration: Trifolium repens. White Clover.]
HOW TO GROW GOOD CLOVER.
CHAPTER XVII.
ON THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE CLOVER FAMILY OF PLANTS.
Clovers are admitted by all to be such important adjuncts to the fodder
plants of the farm as to render a scientific and practical treatise upon
them and their allies a matter not only of interest, but of general
agricultural utility; for, if we except the grasses, perhaps no natural
order of plants is of greater value to the farmer than that to which the
clovers belong; for, though they differ in every point of their
structure, yet in their farm products they offer an interesting
analogy. Thus, whilst in the Graminaceous plants we have cereal or
corn-seed products, and meadow and pasture herbs, in the Leguminous
plants we have a seed-producing group termed pulse, and a herb-growing
green-food or fodder series. On either hand, in both groups, there are
differently-cultivated forms; for, while the grass-cereals are wholly
the result of arable culture, the fodder grasses are for the most part
grown under conditions distinguished by the farmer as pasture. So of
leguminous plants, pulse, such as peas and beans, belongs exclusively to
the arable part of the farm; but the fodder kinds, as clover, either mix
with the grass of the meadow, or are grown by themselves or with
grasses in shifting green crops: indeed, it is by reason of clovers
eking out grass, or being used as pasturage, that they have come to be
designated “artificial grasses.”
The tribe of plants under review forms an exceedingly natural group,
which has been named _Papilionaceæ_, from the fancied resemblance in the
arrangement of its flowers to the form and varied colouring of
butterflies: by others it is designated _Leguminosæ_ from the two-valved
seed-pod, which by the botanist is termed a _legume_,—most perfect
examples of which are seen in the fruits of our more ordinary pea and
bean.
Though the flowers of the group are infinitely varied in size and in
colour, yet they afford most permanent characters in their irregular
petals, which, after all, have the same parts in the variously coloured
and showy sweet-pea as in the most minute clover; so that, once examine
the pea or bean, and the significance of the name of the order depending
upon the flowers, will be easily understood. Again, varied as is the
seed-pod, yet a little examination will show that its type is simple,
there being no structural difference between the straight legume of the
pea and the spirally-twisted one of the lucerne and medicks, or the
many-seeded smooth pod of the common broom and the single-seeded
wrinkled pod of the sainfoin.
The seeds, again, may vary in colour; some, like those of the
scarlet-runner, are curious as affording an infinite variety of
self-colours for their different sorts, from pure white to absolute
black; or these may be so pencilled as to make a _testa_ or
seed-covering as variously mottled as are the eggs of some of our birds.
Yet, whether rounded as in the pea, flat as in the bean, lenticular as
in the lentil, or kidney-shaped as in the clovers, they are all readily
referred to one group by the flat, oval eye (_hilum_ of the botanist),
and the fact of their ready capability of separating into two valves
(_cotyledons_), so observable in our split peas and beans.
But of all the varieties in their parts presented by the pea-flowered
tribe of plants,—if we except the fact that some are larger trees, as
the locust tree, ebony, laburnum, &c., whilst some are among our
smallest plants, as clovers and medicks,—the principal differences will
be found in the foliage. The grass vetchling, for example, is so named
from its leaves being not unlike those of grasses, while the yellow
vetchling, in its mature state, has the whole leaf converted into a
tendril and the appendages at the bases of the leaves (_stipules_) are
so enlarged as to be often mistaken for leaves: in another of the
vetchlings, the everlasting sweet-pea, we find that, as so much of the
leaf is converted into tendrils to enable this handsome plant to climb
over the hedges and thickets, the stem is made four-winged with
leaf-matter, to ensure the due performance of the leaf function. Now
parts called stipules are present in this whole tribe, and, like all
other parts of these plants, they vary in form, size, and markings, and
hence afford important aid in the discrimination of species. Again, the
old furze-bush will have its leaves converted into spines, though the
seedling started with a trifoliate leaf. Points like these, however,
though most interesting to the student of vegetable physiology, are
beyond the scope of the present work.
Like every other point connected with this interesting natural order of
plants, their uses and properties are greatly varied, and perhaps
variable. The Sennas are renowned for their medicinal properties, being
in some kinds aromatic and purgative. A powerful aroma is given off from
the Melilots, similar to that of the well-known sweet vernal grass
(_Anthoxanthum odoratum_), on which account it has been recommended to
mix a little of their seeds with clovers, or to cultivate separate
patches of either the white or the yellow Melilot to place here and
there, sandwich-wise, in the clover hay-rick.
In speaking of this matter of flavour in food for cattle, we may here
mention that the seed of one of this order, which is now being
extensively employed for its flavouring principle, is the Fœnugræc
(_Trigonella fœnum-græcum_), which was formerly used in large quantities
by horse and cattle doctors as an ingredient in drenches or drinks for
horses, cows, and pigs. Latterly, however, it has been still more
largely employed as a flavouring matter in the different kinds of
“Cattle Feeds.”[5]
[5] We have cultivated these seeds in England, and found them to ripen
very well, and if the flavouring of food be correct in principle, the
seeds might readily be ground with feeding stuffs, while the dried plant
could be mixed with hay and straw in chaff.
Now, whether medicinal properties reside as a rule in all of the order,
it would perhaps be difficult to determine; but, as we sometimes find
that certain clover crops are accused of causing “scouring,” there is
perhaps reason to conclude this, but that its amount varies according to
season, soil, and cultivation.
CHAPTER XVIII.
ON THE FARM SPECIES OF CLOVERS.
All the true clovers belong to the genus _Trifolium_, of which the
following may be tabulated as agricultural species:—
(_Flowers red or purple._)
1. _Trifolium pratense_—Broad-leaved clover.
2. _Trifolium medium_—Zigzag, or true “cow-grass” clover.
3. _Trifolium incarnatum_—Carnation clover.
(_Flowers pink._)
4. _Trifolium hybridum_—Alsike clover.
5. _Trifolium fragiferum_—Strawberry-headed clover.
(_Flowers white._)
6. _Trifolium repens_—Dutch clover.
(_Flowers yellow._)
7. _Trifolium filiforme_—Suckling clover.
8. _Trifolium procumbens_—Hop clover.
1. _Trifolium pratense_—Meadow or broad-leaved Clover,—in its wild
state, is too well known to need any lengthened description in order to
its being understood. A careful examination of field specimens, however,
will show that, even in the wild state, this plant is liable to run into
numberless variations; thus, we may have the leaflets of one plant more
or less ovate, whilst those of another may be broad and almost
obcordate. In some we may see dense heads of purple flowers, varying in
shade until almost white, whilst less dense heads of flowers and
general variations in height, size, and luxuriance of the whole plant,
are all circumstances in the natural history of this species in the wild
state which will prepare us duly to understand the nature of the many
forms of the plant which are found in cultivation. Of these we have,
besides others, English, French, American, and Dutch sorts, which differ
in such minor details, as a greater or lesser hairiness, or variations
in the colour and size of the flowers, leaves, &c. The most important
point connected with the broad-leaved clover is its permanency; some
sorts scarcely maintaining a plant for two years, whilst others are said
to be more or less perennial. This, however, is a matter which we
conceive depends more upon the soil and the kind of cultivation than
upon the sort; for, although all seedsmen supply two sorts, namely,
_Trifolium pratense_ and _Trifolium pratense perenne_, yet they run so
much the one into the other, that it is oftentimes exceedingly difficult
to distinguish them.
In order that the reader may see the differences and agreements of the
three sorts,—1, _Trifolium pratense_ (of the meadow); 2, _Trifolium
pratense_ (the arable plant); and 3, _Trifolium pratense perenne_ (also
of the arable),—we give their characters in parallel columns, on p.
115.
CHARACTERS OF CLOVERS.
+----------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
| 1. _Trifolium | 2. _Trifolium | 3. _Trifolium |
| pratense._ | pratense._ | pratense, perenne._ |
| —— | —— | —— |
| From a Natural |From Messrs. Sulton’s |From Messrs. Sulton’s |
| Pasture. | Trial Grounds. | Trial Grounds. |
+----------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|_Heads of flowers_ |_Heads of flowers_ |_Heads of flowers_ |
|dense, proceeding from|dense, with from 70 to|somewhat lax, with |
|two leaves by a very |120 sessile florets. |from 50 to 100 |
|short stem, of from 50| |florets, proceeding |
|to 80 sessile florets | |from leaves by an |
|of a more or less | |evident stem. |
|lilac or pink colour. | | |
| | | |
|_Calyx_ of 5 fine |_Calyx_, much as 1. | |
|ciliated teeth—the | | |
|lower of which is the | | |
|longest—about half the| | |
|length of the flower. | | |
| | | |
|_Corolla_, Standard |_Corolla_, much as 1. | |
|with a long straight | | |
|tube. | | |
| | | |
|_Leaves_ trifoliate, |_Leaves_ of 3 |_Leaves_ of 3 ovate |
|more or less hairy; |leaflets, more or less|leaflets, with less |
|leaflets ovate, either|ovate, with the white |distinct triangular |
|broadly lanceolate, or|triangular marking 3 |spot than 2, clothed |
|notched at the apex; |times the size of 1, |with silky hairs. |
|all having a more or |but less hairy. | |
|less triangular white | | |
|marking in their | | |
|centre. | | |
| | | |
|_Stem_ solid, |_Stem_ sometimes |_Stem_ variable, |
|channelled or angular,|fistular, more or less|sometimes fistular |
|purple. |channelled or ribbed, |mostly quite round and|
| |mostly free from |smooth sometimes; but |
| |hairs, purple upwards.|not generally hairy. |
| | | |
|_Root_ descending, but|_Root_ tapering with |_Root_ as 2. |
|considerably branched.|lateral branches. | |
| | | |
|_Whole plant_ more or |_Whole plant_, smooth,|_Whole plant_, |
|less clothed with |compared with 1, still|remarkable for its |
|silky hairs. |more or less hairy. |hairy leaves and |
| | |generally smooth round|
| | |stems. |
| | | |
|Height from 5 to 8 |Height 16 inches. |Height 18 inches. |
|inches. | | |
+----------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
Now, although the study of the characters, as here laid down with the
specimens in our hand, may render it tolerably easy to distinguish the
three forms here described, yet it must be confessed that whether we
examine a series of the wilder plants from different positions, or
different samples of the cultivated broad-leaved clovers, we shall find
great variations; the principal of these will be discussed in another
chapter: we may here, then, for the present leave this difficult subject
of how to distinguish cow-grass and broad-leaved or red clover, with the
observation that the common red clover is uniformly in flower two or
three weeks before the other.
2. _Trifolium medium_ (see Plate)—Zigzag Trefoil—gets its English name
from the peculiar bends in its stem, which being at alternate sides,
make up the zigzag outline. The stems are rounded—not channelled,—mostly
of a purple colour, and clothed with short hairs. The leaves are smooth,
with elliptical—not emarginate—leaflets, sometimes, but seldom, with the
white lunulate spot. The calyx is smooth. The heads of flowers are
solitary, on very short footstalks; they are of a bright pinkish red
hue, and not of the lilac colour of the common clover.
[Illustration: Trifolium medium. Zigzag Trefoil.]
In its wild state the zigzag clover will be found in districts
remarkable for the absence of lime, such as the sandstones. In the sandy
deposits accompanying the coal in Wales, as also in Staffordshire, this
is the prevailing form of clover. Hence, then, this species seemed to
recommend itself for sandy lands, in which the common clover does not so
well succeed; and we conceive that, as a consequence, it was brought
into cultivation for this capability of “holding on” to such soils,
which, if they will not grow the other kind, is considered clover sick.
We have reason to think that the _T. medium_ and _T. pratense_ are not
distinct species, but that the difference in their usual habitats has
determined their difference in form, and we think that the _T. pratense
perenne_ of the seedsman is a form intermediate between the two: if
so the position of the three may be expressed as follows:—
_Trifolium pratense._ _Trifolium medium._
_Trifolium pratense perenne._
At all events, if this plant was ever distinct in cultivation, it has
merged into broad clover forms; so that, if we are to possess it as a
separate plant, it must again be grown from wild seed, and then, if it
is to be kept pure, it must not be cultivated on clays or limestone, or,
if our view be correct, it will soon lose its true distinctive
characters.
3. _Trifolium incarnatum_—Annual Carnation or Crimson Clover—is a large
species with oblong heads of flowers of a fine carnation colour, hence
its common name of “Carnation Clover.” It is a native of Southern
Europe, and is said to have been found wild at the Lizard, in Cornwall.
As a cultivated plant, it has not long been introduced into England,
where it has been much grown in the southern counties, as there it can
be sown soon enough on the wheat stubbles with only just a simple
harrowing-in, when it has time to make a plant sufficiently strong to
resist winter; this soon makes growth in the spring, giving an early
feed, or it may be mown; in either case it is off the land sufficiently
early to allow of a late sowing of turnips: so that, where the climate
will allow of it, we may snatch an intermediate crop by means of the
carnation clover. It yields a large crop, but its feeding qualities,
according to Dr. Voelcker, are somewhat inferior to those of the
broad-leaved clover. It should be noted that varieties having white
flowers are in the market, and of both red and white there are earlier
and later sorts which may be useful for succession.
4. _Trifolium hybridum_—Alsike Clover—has, perhaps, got its specific
name from possessing appearances and qualities intermediate between the
broad-leaf and the Dutch clovers. This species has been introduced from
Sweden, and its growth, duration, and feeding qualities certainly
entitle it to rank high, and more especially for growth on some of the
stronger soils. In our experience we have not found it to possess such
eminent perennial habits as have been claimed for it. It thins very much
after the second year, and almost disappears in three years, unless it
be renovated by being allowed to seed, when the new plants by no means
attain to the vigour of their parents.
5. _Trifolium fragiferum_—Strawberry-headed Clover—has been named from
the strawberry-like form which its head, of enlarged coloured calyxes,
assumes after flowering; its flowers are pinkish, but otherwise of much
the same size and form as those of the Dutch clover, which latter it
again approaches in its creeping habit and form of its foliage. It is,
however, here mentioned only to point out the difference of its habits
and indications when compared with the Dutch or white clover. The
strawberry trefoil is a native of cold wet pastures, such as bear the
name of “hungry clays;” when present in quantity it is not to be
confounded with Dutch clover, which would indicate a sound fertile soil.
6. _Trifolium repens_—White Dutch Clover—is a plant of very general
cultivation, both at home and in the States, and in both of which
quarters of the globe it maintains its character with great constancy.
Dutch clover is a valuable pasture plant either in meadows or in seeds.
In the former it is much increased by the addition of nitrates, soot,
&c., with guano or superphosphate. As a plant, in seed mixtures, it is
usually sown with other trifoliate plants and rye grasses, but if the
soil be very light the Dutch clover may be increased or wholly used.
7. _Trifolium filiforme_—Small Yellow Clover—is one of the least of our
small yellow-flowered division. It is a common native species occurring
on the waysides, and has been brought into cultivation to only a limited
extent, under the impression that its small herbage is suitable as a
first bite for young stock, and hence the term “suckling clover” has
been applied to it. It is of little value, and does not seem capable of
being greatly improved. This species is often mistaken for the
following, even by pretended botanists, but its lax head of smaller
flowers will well distinguish it.
8. _Trifolium procumbens_ is called by the botanist “Hop Trefoil,” from
the fact that its dried head of persistent flowers[6] exactly resembles
small bunches of hop _strobiles_ (fruiting heads). The foliage is much
like that of _Medicago lupulina_, nonsuch, or black medick, which is the
“hop” of the farmer; but the whole plant of the true hop trefoil dries
up so quickly under the sunshine, and is withal so wanting in succulency
and quality, that it cannot be compared with _M. lupulina_ as a fodder
plant, and hence it is but little cultivated in the present day.
[6] Flowers are so called that remain enveloping the seed while it
ripens, which they do in all the clovers.
There are other clovers which have been recommended for cultivation,
but they are mostly foreign, and do not appear to possess those
qualities which should lead us to prefer them before those in common
use. There are, too, several additional wild clovers, but they possess
no agricultural interest, unless, perhaps, as indicators of soil. The
_Trifolium pratense_ (Hare’s-foot Trefoil) is a pretty, wild species,
native to light sandy soils, the seed of which is sold for growing
“bedding plants.”
CHAPTER XIX.
ON THE VARIETIES OF RED CLOVERS.
The _Trifolium pratense_ of botanical authors is remarkable for the
great number of varieties it assumes, even in its wild growth; but these
are exceeded in the number of cultivated forms: thus in any rich meadow
we may make out several sorts which may be expected to be more or less
permanent, whilst the market samples of seed will offer us several
varieties for the different countries of America, England, France,
Holland, Germany, &c.
The following are some of the more prominent of our native wild
varieties:—
1. _Trifolium pratense_—Common Red Clover.—Head of pink; flowers,
somewhat compact; leaves more or less broad; plant smooth[7] in
proportion to its size, the smaller wild specimens being usually
very hairy; stem more or less purple.
[7] In this, as well as the generality of forms, the smoother and larger
growth indicates cultivation, manuring will sometimes make the
difference.
2. _Trifolium pratense_, var. _pallidum_—Pale-flowered Clover.—Head
of very light pink; flowers large, full, and more rotund than 1,
and almost double in size and in the number of its flowers; whole
plant more or less hairy; stem green.
3. _Trifolium pratense_, var. _album_—White Clover.—Flowers white;
herbage a very light green; in other respects much the same as the
last.
4. _Trifolium pratense perenne_—Perennial Red Clover.—Flowers less
compact than the common clover, whole plant having stems inclining
to dark purple; leaves narrower.
5. _Trifolium pratense perenne_, sub-var. _pallidum_—Pale Perennial
Clover.—A larger plant than the parent form, and less hairy.
6. _Trifolium pratense perenne_, sub-var. _album_—White Perennial
Clover.—Not common, but still, like 3, an albino form, and is,
perhaps, more delicate in constitution than the coloured sorts.
Now, it appears to us that the descendants of the two types, _Trifolium
pratense_ and _T. medium_ (see Plate) form the basis of the red or
broad-leaved clover on the one hand, and the perennial or cow-grass
clover on the other; whilst the market varieties have, perhaps, been
modified by climate, soil, and probably hybridization with other sorts.
It may, indeed, be that, after all, the plants described in chapter
XVII. as two distinct species are only varieties, for though the common
form of _T. pratense_ grows everywhere on mixed soils, the more sandy
positions, as the sandstones connected with the coal in South Wales,
offer a greater abundance of the _T. medium_; and, from experiments
conducted with seed of this latter obtained from near Swansea,
Glamorgan, and sown on forest marble clay of the Cotteswolds, we
certainly obtained plants differing very much from the typical form of
_T. medium_, and assuming the usual broad-leaved clover variations.
Here, then, is opened up a curious subject for inquiry, which the
history of the seed trade as it relates to clover-seed may tend in some
measure to elucidate. Some few years ago _T. pratense_ and _T. medium_
were advertised as on sale by most seedsmen; in fact, the latter was the
name by which what is now called cow-grass clover was known. Now,
however, it is doubtful if any seedsman would pretend to send out the
_T. medium_; but the label _T. pratense perenne_ has been substituted
for it.
Sinclair’s figure of “Trifolium medium, marl-clover, cow-grass,” in the
“Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis,” facing page 141, is scarcely a true form
of the plant, as its more or less emarginate leaflets incline to the
form of _T. pratense_; and yet, at the time this author wrote, even this
was doubtful. _T. medium_ was difficult to obtain, as he says, “All the
seeds and plants I have had for this (except that from Messrs. Gibbs &
Co., which proved to be the present plant—_T. medium_ of Sinclair) have
turned out only two-year lived plants, or never exceeding three, though
cultivated on various soils.” We have repeatedly written for seed, and
ten years ago were always supplied with samples so labelled; but in no
case did we get it. Latterly seedsmen honestly confess that they have
not the seed, but can send _T. pratense perenne_.
Now, that this latter is merely a variety of the broad-leaved clover
there can be but little doubt; still the fact that it is usually more
perennial in its habit is of importance. We may easily understand why it
should be so, if we consider that the common broad-leaved clover in its
cultivation is so much earlier than the cow-grass form, so that this
enables two cuttings of the former to be made in one season, two crops
of hay being taken very commonly indeed; and as the plant gets well in
flower before it is cut the first time, and seed is saved from the
second crop, a more exhaustive plan for the crop itself or its future
perennial powers could hardly be brought about. The cow-grass clover,
however, is a fortnight and more later, which renders it difficult to
cut two crops; and so its method of growth is not so exhaustive. We know
that the common wild clover is said to last only two years, but with
constant depasturing we see no reason why the same roots should not send
up herbage for five or even ten years.
However theoretical such inquiries may be deemed, yet it must be
confessed that they are of great practical importance; for, if a plant
has a tendency to run into varieties, it makes it daily more difficult
to get its seed true to sort; and if we are liable to have a sample,
part of which may be less hardy or part more tardy in its development,
it follows that much of it may never arrive at maturity, whilst if it
does, as the crop will be uneven, it can never be reckoned upon for so
good a yield.
Much of the variable nature of the sorts which we observe in a
clover-field may be the result of the mixing of seeds from different and
distant localities: if so, it is much to be regretted. But this only
tends to show us how important it is that seed should be grown with
care, to which end, as regards clover-seed, we sadly want some
well-conducted experiments on different varieties, especially of a wild
native plant, with a view to obtain a sample with good, permanent, and
even qualities. In fact, the question of true of sort is altogether
different from that of purity of sample; but that very serious mischief
arises from the want of the latter will be discussed in another
chapter.
CHAPTER XX.
ON THE CLOVER ALLIES.
Besides the clovers proper, there are many native plants of the same
natural order that have been found useful as fodder: these it is now
proposed to comment upon, premising that as we have had them all under
cultivation, we are enabled to discuss their merits from a practical
point of view.
Of these, the following is a list of the genera:—
I. ULEX.—A spinous shrub.
II. ANTHYLLIS.—Flowers in a dense head, with white expanded
calyces.
III. LOTUS.—Flowers in lax heads; pod straight, many-see
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