A Manual of Ancient History
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Title: A Manual of Ancient History
Author: A. H. L. Heeren
Translator: D. A. Talboys
Release date: May 21, 2012 [eBook #39747]
Language: English
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A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY,
Particularly with Regard to the Constitutions, the Commerce,
and the Colonies, of the States of Antiquity.
by
A. H. L. HEEREN;
Knight of the North Star and Guelphic Order; Aulic Counsellor
and Professor of History in the University of Goettingen; and
Member of Several Other Learned Societies.
Translated from the German.
THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.
Oxford:
Published By D. A. Talboys.
M DCCC XXXIII.
Oxford: Printed by Talboys and Browne.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
TO THIS EDITION.
It is to the patient industry of the historians of Germany, that we are
indebted for the first production of Manuals of history, and for those
synchronistic tables which have so much facilitated the systematic study
of ancient history; and among the various and profound treatises of this
class which enrich and adorn their literature, the works of Heeren are
distinguished by their extended range of enquiry, as well as by the
minute accuracy of their details.
The work before us embodies the result of his laborious researches
during the long period in which he has been engaged as public lecturer
and professor of history in the university of Goettingen; and if it be
any recommendation of a work to know that its writer has had ample time,
ability, and opportunity to collect and elaborate his materials, it may
be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that the author of the
present work possessed all these advantages in an eminent degree. He has
spent the greater portion of his life in lecturing upon the subjects of
which it treats, and has in every case gone for his information
immediately to the fountain head. It forms, too, an important feature of
his work, that a list of the original sources, whence his own knowledge
has been drawn, is placed at the head of each section; another is added
of the principal writers who have touched upon or illustrated the
particular portion of history under notice; both being generally
accompanied with a few words of judicious criticism, in which the value
of the writer's authority is estimated, and his sources, circumstances,
and prejudices, briefly, but fairly set forth. Besides this advantage,
the work possesses the merit of combining the convenience of the Manuals
with the synchronistic method of instruction; as the geography,
chronology, and biography of the countries and states of the ancient
world are brought at once under the eye of the reader; and so lucid is
the arrangement, that the darkest and most entangled portions of history
are seen in a clear and perspicuous light. Professor Heeren seems,
moreover, to possess in a more eminent degree than any other writer, the
power of forcing, by a very few words, the attention of the reader upon
the most important facts of history; and of conjuring up in his thoughts
a train of reflections calculated at once to instruct and enlarge the
mind. His work is not only admirably adapted to become a text-book in
the study of history, but will be found equally serviceable as a book of
reference--it will guide the student in his untried and intricate
course, and enable the more advanced scholar to methodize his collected
stores. Perhaps in no work has so much important information been
condensed into so small a compass.
The estimation in which this Manual is held on the continent, may be
gathered from the fact of its having passed through six large editions
in German, and two in French, and from its having been translated into
almost every language of Europe.
The rapidity with which the first edition, as well as the other writings
of professor Heeren, have sold in this country, is a proof that they
only required to be known here in order to be appreciated. The favour
with which these translations have been received, both by the venerable
author himself and by the British public, has been a source of the
highest gratification to the publisher. The encouragement, so kindly
bestowed, has urged him to new exertions, the fruits of which, he
trusts, will be observable in the present volume. The Manual has not
only been revised and corrected throughout, but has also been diligently
compared with the German, and has received such ameliorations as the
original text or the English style seemed to demand. When it is added to
this that a very numerous body of corrections and improvements have been
sent to the publisher by professor Heeren himself, who has patiently
examined the translation expressly for this edition, he trusts that the
public will be satisfied that it is as faithful a copy of the original
work as the nature of things will allow.
In the preface to the last edition of this Manual the publisher
announced his intention, should it be favourably received, of following
it up by the publication of another elaborate work of the same author,
viz. A Manual of the History of the States of Modern Europe and their
Colonies, as forming one political System. This work will now very
shortly appear. As an apology for the delay which has taken place, he
begs to call to their notice another equally important work by the same
author, which he has published in the mean time; the Historical
Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the
Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, with a general introduction;
the remainder of this work, containing the Historical Researches into
the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Ancient Asiatic Nations--the
Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, and Hindoos, will
appear in a few weeks.
To add to the usefulness of the work, an analysis of the contents, with
dates, has been given in the margin. The # prefixed to some of the books
denote that they are written in German.
OXFORD,
_March, 1833_.
PROFESSOR HEEREN'S WORKS.
The following catalogue of the historical works of Professor Heeren, has
been sent to the Publisher by the Professor himself. They are uniformly
printed in German, in 15 vols. 8vo. and may always be had together or
separate of the publisher of this volume.
VOL. I. II. III. Vermischte historische Schriften. (Miscellaneous
Historical Pieces).
VOL. I. Einleitung. Biographische Nachrichten ueber den Verfasser.
(Biographical Sketch of Heeren's Life, by himself.)
1. Entwickelung der politischen Folgen der Reformation fuer Europa.
(Development of the Consequences of the Reformation to the Politics
of Europe).
2. * Versuch einer Entwickelung des Ursprungs und Fortganges der
britischen Continental-interesse. (Essay on the Rise and Progress
of the British Continental interests). A translation of this Essay
will be appended to the Manual of the History of Modern Europe,
see vol. viii. ix. below.
3. Ueber den Einfluss der politischen Theorien auf Europa. (Of the
Influence of Political Theories on Europe).
VOL. II. 1. Ueber die Erhaltung der Nationalitaet besiegter Voelker.
(On the Method of Preserving the Nationality of Conquered States.)
Written in 1810, and suppressed by the French.
2. Entwickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzuege fuer Europa. (Development of
the Effects of the Crusades upon Europe: An essay which obtained the
prize of the French Institute in 1808).
3. Ueber den Einfluss der Normannen auf die franzoesische Sprache und
Poesie. (On the Influence of the Normans on the French Language and
Poetry).
4. Ueber die Colonisation von Aegypten, und ihre Folgen fuer Europa.
(On the Colonisation of Egypt, and its Probable Consequences to
Europe).
5. Der deutsche Bund in seinen Verhaltnisse zu Europa. (The
Influence of the German Federation upon Europe).
VOL. III. 1. Ueber den historischen Werth der Biographien Plutarch's.
(On the Historical Value of Plutarch's Lives).
2. Geschichte der buergerlichen Unruhen der Gracchen. (History of the
Civil Commotions under the Gracchi).
3. Fuenf archaeologische und antiquarische Aufsaetze. (Five
Archaeological and Antiquarian Tracts).
VOL. IV. V. Geschichte der classischen Litteratur im Mittelalter.
(History of Classical Literature During the Middle Ages).
VOL. VI. Biographische und litterarische Denkschriften. (Biographical
and Literary Memoirs).
1. Christian Gottlob. Heyne, biographisch dargestellt. (Biographical
Memoir of Heyne), the father-in-law of Heeren.
2. Andenken an deutsche Historiker. (Memoirs of German Historians.)
VOL. VII. * Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums.
(Manual of Ancient History, of which this volume is the second
edition of the English translation).
VOL. VIII. IX. * Handbuch der Geschichte der europaeische
Staaten-systems und seiner Colonien. (Manual of the
History of the European States-system and their Colonies).
VOL. X. * Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel
des vornehmsten Staaten der alten Welt. (Researches into the
Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Principal States of
Antiquity,--Asiatic Nations). 1. General Introduction;
2. Persians.
VOL. XI. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). 1. Phoenicians;
2. Babylonians; 3. Scythians.
VOL. XII. * Ideen, etc. (Asiatic Nations). Indians.
VOL. XIII. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). 1. Carthaginians;
2. Ethiopians.
VOL. XIV. * Ideen, etc. (African Nations). Egyptians.
VOL. XV. * Ideen, etc. (European Nations). Greeks.
Those with a * prefixed are translated into English, and are either now
published or will very shortly be so.
PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
In adding to the number of Manuals on Ancient History already published,
I feel myself bound to give an account of the plan on which the present
has been executed.
It was at first designed to be used in my public lectures, and from them
it has grown up to what it now is. In them I did not consider it
necessary to state all we know or think we know of ancient history. Many
facts highly interesting to the learned historian are not adapted for
public lectures. It was therefore my great object to make choice of such
incidents as ought to be known by my pupils in order to the effectual
prosecution of their historical studies. Consequently I have not
extended my labours so far as to give an historical account of every
nation, but have limited myself to those most remarkable for their
general civilization and political eminence.
The subjects to which I have particularly directed my attention are, the
formation of states, the changes in their constitution, the routes by
which commerce was carried on, the share which the different nations
respectively took in its pursuit, and, as immediately connected with
that department, their extension severally by means of colonies.
The favourable reception which my larger work, executed after a
different plan, has met with, would lead me to hope for a like
indulgence in this new attempt, even if the spirit of the age did not so
loudly call upon every historian to direct his chief attention to these
subjects. And for this reason I could not rest satisfied with a mere
detail of isolated facts, but have made it my study to follow the course
of events, linking them into one connected chain; so as to represent
them in a condensed form by continually and carefully forcing together
the main circumstances which contributed to the development of the
whole.
Without this, history in general would be but a lifeless study, more
especially that of republics, which were so numerous in ancient times,
and which, from their constitution being made up of political parties,
everywhere present the most difficult problems for the historian's
solution. Of all the larger divisions of my work, the arrangement of the
Greek history I have found most troublesome, on account of the number of
little states into which it is sub-divided. Historians, indeed, lighten
this labour by confining themselves merely to Athens and Sparta; but by
so doing they give us a very imperfect knowledge of the subject. I have
endeavoured to surmount the difficulty by throwing the account of the
smaller states and their colonies into the second period; by which means
I have been able in the third and most important portion, the interest
of which depends entirely upon the principal states, to carry on my
history, as a whole without interruption. But in case others, who wish
to make this Manual the groundwork of their lectures, should dislike
this arrangement, they may very easily attach these notices to the
introductory geographical survey; a plan I very often adopt in my own
lectures. Upon the arrangement of the other parts, I am not aware of the
necessity of making any observations. The sources from which I have
drawn my materials are specified in every section. Particular references
do not come within my plan; and if I have referred several times in the
first two sections to my larger work, it is only on particular points,
explanations of which may be sought for in vain elsewhere.
Some knowledge of ancient geography and the use of maps[a], if it has
not been previously acquired by the student, should, I am convinced,
always be connected with lectures on ancient history. That this need not
extend to detailed explanations of ancient geography, but that it should
be restricted to what is merely useful in the study of history, I have
observed in the body of my work. The geographical chapters which are
interspersed having been written with this intent, will, I hope, be
judged of accordingly. I have taken care to arrange them so as to
include the whole of the ancient world; it depends, therefore, only upon
the teacher to form a more or less extensive course upon them.
[a] I have made use of D'Anville.
With regard to chronology, I have followed throughout the same uniform
plan of computing time, viz. to and from the birth of Christ. By
preferring this method, so convenient and certain, to the inconvenient
and uncertain one of reckoning from the year of the world, I hope I have
deserved the thanks of my readers. I relinquish, on the other hand, all
claim to merit on the score of having more accurately defined the
chronology of events which occur before the time of Cyrus. I have, on
the contrary, in this part of my labour, often stated round numbers,
where, in many modern publications, precise dates may be found. Exact
determinations of time are only necessary, in my opinion, where a
continuous development of circumstances takes place; not where
unconnected facts are recorded.
The transactions of our own times have thrown a light upon ancient
history, and given it an interest which it could not formerly possess. A
knowledge of history, if not the only, is at least the most certain
means of obtaining a clear and unprejudiced view of the great drama now
performing around us. All direct comparisons, notwithstanding the many
opportunities which have tempted me, I considered as foreign to my plan;
but if, notwithstanding in some chapters of my work, particularly in the
history of the Roman republic, I may be thought to make a reference to
the transactions of the ten years during which this work has been
published, I do not consider it necessary to offer any excuse for so
doing. Of what use is the study of history if it do not make us wiser
and better? unless the knowledge of the past teach us to judge more
correctly of the present? Should I have contributed in any measure to
promote this object, and should I be so fortunate as to lead the minds
of my young friends to a deeper study of a science which can only in
this way reward its admirers, I shall esteem it the most delightful
recompense my labour can receive.
GOETTINGEN, Sept. 23, 1799.
PREFACE
TO THE SECOND AND FOLLOWING EDITIONS.
The call for a second edition of my Manual imposes upon me an obligation
to supply the deficiencies of my former work. Corrections have been
carefully made, and many parts completely re-written. A select list of
books which treat of the respective departments of my subject is now
first added; the former edition containing only references to the
sources from which my facts were derived. This, I trust, will be
considered an essential service to the friends of historical science,
more especially the young, for whom and not for the learned these
additions have been made. Their use in this place is particularly
obvious, where it is in every one's power to procure the books referred
to[b]. The short criticisms subjoined, where it seemed necessary, will
serve as guides for their use. In the author's department of the work
but little has been changed, while its form and appearance have been
improved by the use of different types, by more accurate running titles,
and by ranging the dates in the margin. By the adoption of the latter
method the increase in the number of pages is rendered inconsiderable,
notwithstanding the numerous additions which have been made to the
matter. In its arrangement, this work is the same as my Manual of the
History of the European States and their Colonies. Beyond this, however,
these works have no relation to each other, but have been executed upon
quite different principles; the present as a history of the _separate_
states of the ancient world, and the other as a general history of
modern states and their colonies, as forming altogether one political
system. Each, however, forms a complete work in itself, and it is by no
means my intention to fill up the gulf which time has placed between
them.
[b] [The author alludes to the public library at Goettingen. TR.]
I regret that the acute researches of M. Volney[c], upon the chronology
of Herodotus before the time of Cyrus, came too late into my hands to be
made use of in its proper place in my second edition. In the third this
has been done. I lay claim, at the same time, to the thanks of the
reader for giving, in an Appendix, the results of these researches,
together with references to the passages by which they are supported;
leaving out, however, all extraneous matter, and everything that cannot
be proved by the positive assertions of the father of history.
[c] Chronologie d'Herodote, conforme a son Texte par C. F. Volney.
Paris, 1809, 3 vols. See the _Goett. Gel. Anz._ for 1810 and 1816.
I cannot close this preface without again recurring to the advantage of
the mode now becoming more and more general, of computing time in
ancient history according to the number of years before Christ. The fact
of its being certain and convenient has often been remarked; but besides
this it possesses the great advantage of giving us at once a clear and
precise notion of the interval that separates us from the incidents
recorded; which it is impossible to obtain by the use of any other era,
whether the year of the world, the olympiads, or the year of Rome, etc.
And yet this peculiar advantage, so great in the eyes of the teacher,
has not, to the best of my knowledge, been hitherto made the subject of
remark. Even for the science of history itself, this circumstance is of
greater moment than might be at first supposed. Should an enquirer arise
who would closely examine all ancient history according to this
era--setting out from the generally received year of the birth of Christ
as from a fixed point, to which the labours of M. Volney are a good
beginning--the whole science would thereby acquire a firmer consistency.
For by this method all dates would not appear equally certain and
equally uncertain, as they do in the eras which are computed from the
year of the world; but it would be shown what is chronologically
certain, what only probable, and what completely uncertain, according as
we should recede from the clearer into the more obscure regions of
history. The old manner of reckoning from the year of the world, in
which congruity was impossible, because there was no agreement upon the
point to start from, would certainly be thrown aside; but where is the
harm if something better and more certain be substituted in its place?
In the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions, though the increase in
the number of pages is small, yet all those additions and corrections
which I deemed necessary, and which the progress of knowledge and
discovery, as in the case of Egypt and other countries, enabled me to
effect, have been most carefully and fully made. The importance of these
will be best seen by comparison.
_Goettingen_, 1828.
CONTENTS.
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
Book I. Asiatic and African states previous to Cyrus 15
General geographical outline of Asia ib.
Preliminary and General Observations upon the History and
Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires 22
History of the ancient Asiatic kingdoms before the reign of
Cyrus 25
I. Assyrian monarchy ib.
II. Median monarchy 26
III. Babylonian monarchy 27
IV. States in Asia Minor 29
1. Trojan empire ib.
2. Phrygian empire ib.
3. Lydian empire ib.
V. Phoenicia 30
VI. Syrians 33
VII. Jews 34
1. Period of the Nomad state from Abraham till the conquest
of Palestine 35
2. Period of the federative republic 36
3. Period of the monarchy from B. C. 1100-600 38
The Jewish state as one single kingdom ib.
The Jewish state as a divided kingdom 40
African Nations 45
General geographical outline of Ancient Africa ib.
I. Egyptians 47
1st Period. From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae,
about B. C. 1500 51
2nd Period. From the Sesostridae till the sole dominion
of Psammetichus, B. C. 1500-650 62
3rd Period. From the reign of Psammetichus to the
Persian conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 650-525 69
II. Carthaginians 73
1st Period. From the foundation of Carthage to the
wars with Syracuse, B. C. 880-480 74
2nd Period. From the breaking out of the wars with
Syracuse to the commencement of those with Rome,
B. C. 480-264 80
3rd Period. From the beginning of the wars with
Rome to the downfal of Carthage, B. C. 264-146 82
Book II. History of the Persian empire from B. C. 560-330 90
Book III. History of the Grecian states 112
Geographical outline of Greece ib.
1st Period. Traditional history down to the Trojan war,
about B. C. 1200 118
2nd Period. From the Trojan war to the breaking out
of the Persian war, B. C. 1200-500 127
History of the Hellenic states within Greece ib.
General history ib.
Sparta 131
Athens 136
Principal data for the history of the smaller states:
I. Within the Peloponnesus:
_a._ Arcadia 142
_b._ Argos ib.
_c._ Corinth 143
_d._ Sicyon 144
_e._ Achaia ib.
_f._ Elis 145
II. Central Greece, or Hellas:
_a._ Megaris 146
_b._ Boeotia 147
_c._ Phocis 148
_d._ Locris ib.
_e._ Aetolia ib.
_f._ Acarnania 149
III. Northern Greece:
_a._ Thessaly 149
_b._ Epirus 150
IV. Grecian Islands:
_a._ Corcyra 151
_b._ Aegina ib.
_c._ Euboea 152
_d._ The Cyclades ib.
_e._ Crete ib.
_f._ Cyprus 154
History of the Grecian colonies 155
General observations ib.
Colonies on the Western coast of Asia Minor: 157
1. Aeolian colonies 158
2. Ionian colonies 159
3. Dorian colonies 161
Colonies on the coast of the Propontis and the Black sea 162
Colonies on the coasts of Thrace and Macedonia 163
Colonies on the western coast of Greece 164
Grecian settlements in Lower Italy:
_a._ Tarentum 165
_b._ Croton 166
_c._ Sybaris ib.
_d._ Thurii 167
_e._ Locri Epizephyrii ib.
_f._ Rhegium 168
_g._ Cumae ib.
Grecian settlements in Sicily:
_a._ Syracuse 169
_b._ Agrigentum 174
_c._ The smaller Sicilian cities 175
Colonies in Sardinia and Corsica ib.
Colonies in Gaul;--Massilia 176
Colonies in Spain;--Saguntum ib.
Colonies in Africa;--Cyrene ib.
Period III. From the breaking out of the Persian wars to
Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336 178
Book IV. History of the Macedonian Monarchy:
Period I. From its origin to the death of Alexander the
Great, B. C. 800-323 206
Period II. History of the Macedonian monarchy, from the death
of Alexander the Great to the battle of Ipsus, B. C. 323-301 222
Period III. History of the separate kingdoms and states
which arose out of the dismemberment of the Macedonian
monarchy, after the battle of Ipsus 232
I. History of the Syrian empire under the Seleucidae
B. C. 312-64 232
II. History of the Egyptian kingdom under the Ptolemies,
B. C. 323-30 247
III. History of Macedonia itself and of Greece, from the
death of Alexander to the Roman conquest, B. C. 323-146 268
Achaean league 280
Aetolian league 279
IV. History of some smaller or more distant kingdoms
and states formed out of the Macedonian monarchy 290
The kingdom of Pergamus 291
Bithynia 293
Paphlagonia 294
Pontus 295
Cappadocia 297
Armenia 298
The kingdom of Parthia 299
The kingdom of Bactria 305
The restored kingdom of the Jews 306
1. Under the Persians 307
2. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucidae 308
3. Under the Maccabees 309
4. Under the family of Herod 311
Book V. History of the Roman state:
Introductory remarks on the Geography of Ancient Italy 314
Period I. From the foundation of Rome to the conquest of
Italy, and the commencement of the wars with Carthage,
B. C. 754-264, or A. U. C. 1-490 321
Period II. From the commencement of the war with Carthage
to the rise of the civil broils under the Gracchi,
B. C. 264-134, or A. U. C. 490-620 339
Period III. From the beginning of the civil broils under
the Gracchi to the fall of the republic, B. C. 134-30,
or A. U. C. 620-724 362
Period IV. History of the Roman state as a monarchy till the
overthrow of the western empire, B. C. 30-A. C. 476 402
Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces,
and other countries connected with it by war or commerce ib.
1st Section. From Augustus Caesar to the death of
Commodus, B. C. 30-A. C. 193 411
2nd Section. From the death of Commodus to Diocletian,
A. C. 193-284 437
3rd Section. From Diocletian to the overthrow of the
Roman empire in the west, A. C. 284-476 454
Appendix. Chronology of Herodotus from the time of Cyrus,
according to Volney 475
Genealogical Table of the reigning houses of Macedon 481
-------------------------------------------- the Seleucidae 482
-------------------------------------------- the Ptolemies 483
-------------------------------------------- the Jews 484
-------------------------------------------- the Caesars 485
-------------------------------------------- Constantine 486
* * * * *
OXFORD: PRINTED BY TALBOYS AND BROWNE.
* * * * *
MANUAL
OF
ANCIENT HISTORY.
* * * * *
INTRODUCTION.
I. The sources of ancient history may be ranged under two heads;
the ancient writers, and the monuments still extant. The various
writers will be mentioned in their proper places, at the different
divisions of this work. A general view of the ancient monuments, so
far as they are sources of history, will be found in:
OBERLIN, _Orbis antiqui monumentis suis illustrati primae lineae_.
Argentorati, 1790. Extremely defective, as many discoveries have
been made since it was published.
II. GENERAL TREATISES ON ANCIENT HISTORY.
1. _The more voluminous works_ on the subject. These may be divided
in two classes: _a._ The part appropriated to ancient history, in
the general treatises on universal history; _b._ Works exclusively
devoted to ancient history.
_a._ To the first class belong:
_The Universal History, ancient and modern; with maps and
additions._ Lond. 1736, 26 vols. folio. Reprinted in 8vo. in 67
vols. and again in 60 vols. with omissions and additions.
This work, compiled by a society of British scholars, has been
translated into German, and illustrated with remarks, by SIEGM.
JAC. BAUMGARTEN. Halle, 1746, 4to. The Germans frequently designate
it by the name of the Halle Universal History of the World: the
first eighteen vols. comprise the ancient part.
WILL. GUTHRIE, JOHN GRAY, _etc._ _General History of the World,
from the creation to the present time._ London, 1764-1767, 12 vols.
8vo. This work, of no estimation in the original, is rendered
valuable and useful by the labours of the German translator, C. G.
HEYNE, (_Leip._ 1766, 8vo.) who has corrected the errors, inserted
the dates, and added his own observations.
_b._ To the second class belong:
ROLLIN, _Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des
Assyriens, des Medes el des Perses, des Macedoniens, des Grecs._
Paris, 1824, 12 vols. 8vo.; revue par LETRONNE: the last and best
edition. This work, which greatly promoted the study of ancient
history in France, still maintains its well-earned reputation. [It
was translated into English, 1768: best edition, 7 vols. 8vo.:
frequently reprinted.] The above is generally accompanied by the
_Histoire Romaine_ of the same author. See below, book v. first
period, _Sources_.
JAC. BEN. BOSSUET, _Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle_. Paris,
1680, 3 vols. Frequently reprinted, being considered by the French
one of their classics.
[English translation, by RICH. SPENCER. London, 1730, 8vo.]
MILLOT, _Elemens de l'Histoire Generale_. Paris, 1772, sq.
[Translated into English, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo.: and again, an
improved edition, with additions.] Edinb. 1823, 6 vols. 8vo. The
ancient history is contained in the first two volumes.
# JOH. MATTH. SCHROECKH, _General History of the World_, for the
use of children. Leipzic, 1779, sq. 6 vols.
# J. G. EICHHORN, _History of the Ancient World_, 1799, third
edition, 1817. (First part of the History of the World.)
# DAN. G. J. HUEBLER, _Sketch of the General History of the Nations
of Antiquity, from the birth of states to the end of the Roman
commonwealth_. Freyberg, 1798-1802. Five parts; and a continuation:
_History of the Romans under the Emperors, and of the contemporary
Nations, until the great migration_, 1803; three parts. A work
rendered extremely useful, by the judicious advantage taken by the
author of the labours of other writers.
# H. LUDEN, _General History of Nations_. 1814; three parts.
# L. VON DRESCH, _General Political History_. 1815; three parts. In
each of the above works the first part contains the ancient
history, and exhibits the more modern views of the subject.
[The following is added, as well deserving the attention of the
English student: RALEGH (Sir WALTER) _History of the World, Part I.
extending to the end of the Macedonian Empire; with his Life and
Trial, by Mr. Oldys_. Lond. 1736, 2 vols. folio. Formerly the best
edition; but a new and improved one has been printed at the
Clarendon press. Oxford, 1829, 8 vols. 8vo.]
# F. VON RAUMER, _Lectures on Ancient History_, parts 1, 2. Berlin,
1821.
Works furnishing illustrations of the progressive civilization,
government, and commerce of early nations, although, strictly
speaking, not treatises on ancient history, are nevertheless very
closely connected with the subject. Among these may be mentioned:
GOGUET, _De l'Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de
leurs progres chez les anciens peuples; nouv. edit_. Paris, 1778.
[Translated by Dr. DUNN and Mr. SPEERMAN. Edinb. 1761-1775, 3 vols.
8vo.]
# A. H. L. HEEREN, _Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and
Trade of the most eminent Nations in the Ancient World_. Third
edition, with many additions. Gottingen, 1815, 8vo.; the third
part, 1821. Fourth edition. Gottingen, 1824. [This edition, the
last, contains many improvements and additions, suggested by the
great discoveries of modern travellers. Part I, Asiatic Nations, in
3 vols. Persians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Scythians, Indians. An
English translation of which is at this moment in the press. Part
II, African Nations, 2 vols. Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians.
Part III, European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has
been published.]
2. _Manuals_, or epitomes.
The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced
manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in
their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science
at the universities.
# J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World
to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses
this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense
with the earlier manuals published by that author.
# CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the
Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The
first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This
volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of
books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of
a particular work on the subject.
# J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the
creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition.
Brunswick, 1832.
# J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest
edition, 1795.
# G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the
chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into
English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:
_The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and
highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient
abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and
continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its
reputation and success to the want of a better work on the
subject.]
3. _Helps._
Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the
first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.
# D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of
Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of
the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.
1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of
nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal
affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important
objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs,
it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the
friendly relations and intercourse with other states.
Observe here the difference between universal history, or general
history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter
forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between
political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human
being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without
regard to political circumstances.
2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts:
_ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The
first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took
place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the
second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to
the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third
extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present
time.
The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the
events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that
the division of history, into that before and after the birth of
Christ, is not judicious.
3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history
does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is
known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered
from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations,
affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must
be referred to the general history of man.
It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved
in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human
race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called
an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a
separate division of history. What has been said above will
satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history
in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of
such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and
civilization of the human race.
4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general
heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The
history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which
remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in
some degree adopted by the people.
5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is
comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by
a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found
among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community.
This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly
historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to
a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and
handed down to posterity.
Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very
heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of
various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas
of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their
deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations
and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All
these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because
man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily
represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some
physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to
mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected
whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is
difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology,
and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology
should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not
without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of
antiquity.
These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier
antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his
commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of
Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of
the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of
these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in
the science of antiquity.
6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a
great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than
imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among
men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form
of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while
in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology;
and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very
naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of
poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these,
inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a
more especial manner the attention of the historian.
The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in
later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and
committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and
others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original
character.
7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than
the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be
arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into
use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under
which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological
records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real
philosophical works on history.
8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance
of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or
even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most
ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art
into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became
formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances
and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture
arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed,
for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable
events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some
particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this
nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those
of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later
period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the
great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of
any importance as regards history.
The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical
(hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The
invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly
ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape
of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication
with them, in the interior of Asia.
The general collections of inscriptions are:
LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_.
Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI,
_Supplementa_. Luccae, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquae
totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRAEVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol.
C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, auctoritate et
impensis Academiae literarum Borussicae_, vol. 1. 1827, folio.
Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient
history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia,
Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best
edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable
edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek
text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.
9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by
the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known
from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The
importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions
of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the
works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts
and fragments.
EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Praestantia Numismatum_.
Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on
this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of
antiquity is:
ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennae, 1792-1798, 8 vols.
4to. And the epitome:
# ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707,
8vo. Another very useful work is:
J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universae Rei Nummariae Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5
vols. 8vo.
10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written
historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the
use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date
than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods
of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state
chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for
their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones,
history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such
chronicles.
11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works
composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by
their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also
a development of their connection with one another, their causes and
effects.
But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the
ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance
with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To
the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are
under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or
more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal
connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most
under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence
under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of
civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the
observing and unravelling of the political connection of events
presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture.
12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place
in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are
indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially
the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be
considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are
of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place.
A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient
history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the
countries which were the theatres of the principal events.
13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each
nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient
history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be
fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be
obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the
creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has
the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater
convenience.
Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of
the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by
years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads
commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at
B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to
Cato.--The era of the Seleucidae, in the Syrian empire, commences
with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar,
commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by
Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_.
Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to
which will be found in:
# J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most
excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been
communicated to the public by:
# L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical
Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806.
# D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A
very useful and portable work.
[In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:
HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History
and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond.
1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4
vols. 8vo.
BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to
the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio.
And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory
volumes:
H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology
of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth
Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And
the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford,
1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon
the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the
first volume is principally occupied.]
14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the
fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary
science to history, all that can be expected is some general information
respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting
their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal
cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous.
Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every
nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every
early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are
peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as
civilization increases, and discovery widens its
horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the
manifold changes to which the division and the face of the
countries of the ancient world have been at various periods
subjected.
CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2
vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum
1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an
indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.
# H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg,
1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly
designated classical, from the historical and critical learning
which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain;
II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhaetia, Noricum; IV, The
Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and
the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3
parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII,
Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and
Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts.
# F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the
earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first
division, contains the historical, the second contains the
mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.
GOSSELIN, _Geographie des Grecs analysee_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A
development of the system of mathematical geography among the
Greeks. Partly continued in
GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens_. Paris, an.
vi. vol. 1-4.
J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to.
[Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the
benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:
RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia,
with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the
author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER,
principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of
Oxford; they are,
_Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a
map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.
_Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a
map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.
_Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a
map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.
The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to
perfection.
As useful compendiums, there are:
_An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of
Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the
Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo.
_A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton
School; illustrating the most interesting points in History,
Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of
Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and
numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly
bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol.
8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830.
BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_.
Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_,
consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated
index. 8vo.]
We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient
geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol.
[The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with
the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by
the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful
and correct.]
15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is,
according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is,
according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its
advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and
formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has
been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as
follows:
FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and
kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy,
about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated
fragments.
SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330.
THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other
parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336.
FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms
which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman
empire.
FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a
monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.
* * * * *
MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
* * * * *
THE FIRST BOOK.
HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND
STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.
I.--ASIATIC NATIONS.
_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._
See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and
Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the
African Nations. Oxford, 1831.
1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great
divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square
geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those
of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the
greatest portion of the northern temperate zone.
Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the
globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in
consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its
surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large
streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior.
2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to
the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers.
Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the
Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of
both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus
extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus,
on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the
rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from
north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the
Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea:
two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the
Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or
Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr).
3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia,
comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries
between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of
Taurus.
4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude,
(Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown
in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it,
are found in Herodotus, the father of history.
5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees
of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and
Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of
arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of
pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed
abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal
government.
Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful
influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political
history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of
the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider
that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and
from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state.
6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to
about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those
of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all
other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly
favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly
productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption
of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from
the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade,
from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America.
Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether,
according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by
agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by
which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god,
(communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest
states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable
fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the
priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on
early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by
the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land
trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes
across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to
become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra
and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris,
Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and
Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line
of Grecian and Phoenician factories.
7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the
Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to
the eastern ocean.
A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on
this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly.
between the Tigris and the Indus.
1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._
(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys
and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria.
Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna,
Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus
in Mysia.
Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital
Tarsus.
Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek
ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together
with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celaenae; Cappadocia,
with the city of Mazaca.
(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of
Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.
(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria,
properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In
the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending
along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an
island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland;
Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains:
Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead
sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes;
afterwards into the provinces, of Judaea, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria;
cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.
(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost
entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts
render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north,
Arabia Petraea, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta.
In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the
native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense;
and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India.
Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and
the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise
marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane
(Ceylon).
2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._
(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely
occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium,
Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.
(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time
without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and
Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black
sea.
(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was
separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness
of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes,
and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation,
the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates,
Borsippa.
Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size
and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the
great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad
conquerors.
3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._
(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities:
Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.
The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider
acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is
sometimes even confounded with Syria.
(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river
Choaspes, or Eulaeus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian
monarchs.
(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and
fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and
Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and
cemetery of the kings of Persia.
The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography,
taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries
between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria.
In this sense, it contains three countries towards the
south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three
central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries
towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.
(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging
along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.
(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania
and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards
the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.
(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country;
mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus.
Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the
name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media.
(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one
city, Aria or Artacoana.
(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India;
bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus
and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous
population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence
of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of
Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus.
(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of
Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during
the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and
without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the
inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation.
(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in
natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River:
Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.
Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the
north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi,
(Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this
country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has
placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium
for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we
penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like
Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international
commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles
of infant civilization.
(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes,
the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.)
Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring
Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand).
B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing
remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv.
_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of
the great Asiatic Empires._
1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of
immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their
constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were
frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same.
Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in
constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various
revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia.
2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by
Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which
inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or
circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and
carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of
southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change
in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner,
subjugated.
3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their
immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief
duration.
4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been
nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is
accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast
extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have
recourse to satrap-government.
5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable
nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was
corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political
constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic
despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign
that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic
economy.
To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms
despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE
essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in
which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of
their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,)
nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the
legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and
can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of
the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of
their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from
the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of
the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a
pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is
most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless,
be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may
therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of
the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as
citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of
the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form,
may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy,
or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called
a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing
heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and
the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious
institutions.
6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires
formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich
territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions
already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally
suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a
fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of
the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into
provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of
satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal
ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio
on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences
are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution
of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from
without.
_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to
Cyrus._
Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings,
particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets;
together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus,
Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius,
Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to
arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different
by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by
the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers
contained in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript.
VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814:
very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of
Herodotus's chronology.
I. _Assyrian monarchy._
1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the
ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus.
With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of
conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy
between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.
2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly
Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of
ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a
large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris;
traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the
east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus.
According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration,
1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus
and Eusebius.
3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological
history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the
nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the
Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia.
Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria.
2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus.
3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria.
Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib,
about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a
pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.
_Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and
Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise
of the state and the two first kings.
II. _Median monarchy._
1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to
designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common
appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to
the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before
Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a
conquering nation.
2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the
Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian
power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the
eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological
history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of
dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous
to the Persians.
_a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are
unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called.
Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling
nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their
empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east,
unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the
various nations to one another, according to their distance from
the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute.
Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder
of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers
Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military
discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the
Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He
takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was
dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by
another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the
Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus.
Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings,
between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18
_y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes,
22 _y._ Artaeus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with
the nomad races of the east, the Sacae, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14
_y._ Astyages, the last king.
_Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly
archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to
Servius Tullius.
III. _Babylonian monarchy._
Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldaean conquest, which occurred about
630. 2nd. From the Chaldaean conquest to the Persian, 630-538.
1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is
mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political
treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of
Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of
Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in
Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish
writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire.
2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation
of western Asia.--The Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there
establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest,
to the Mediterranean.
Origin of the Chaldaeans: whether that name was applied to a
distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of
Chaldaean kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by
Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the
name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747:
(probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of
the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldaeans an
exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor
his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the
six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604.
Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the
Chaldaeo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh,
near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant
period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and
Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into
Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about
Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3.
Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary
of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few
months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably
the Chaldaean Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by
Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.
See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
_Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2.
_Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of
Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus
and Servius Tullius.
IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._
The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was
probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The
most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the
Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the
Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia.
Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the
Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian.
1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of
mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological
data.
Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros
(Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy,
after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.
_Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of
Rome, 450 years.
2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and
Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the
death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the
Lydian empire, about 560.
3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Maeonians) were a branch of the
Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia;
the Atyadae down to 1232; the Heraclidae down to 727; and the Mermnadae
down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper
history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty.
Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost
uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast.
Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under
his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628.
Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of
Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia
Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a
Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor
becomes a province of the Persian empire.
_Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian
empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of
Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the
Romans, the kings.
V. _Phoenicia._
The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of
Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected
history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we
possess, we may from these trace out a general outline.
The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon
deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly
Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments
which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius,
historians of Tyre.
MIGNOT, _Memoires sur les Pheniciens_; inserted in _Mem. de
l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four
papers.
The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
_Researches on the Politics, etc._
1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not
constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of
several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally
formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful,
particularly of Tyre.
2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of
superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular
government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have
possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates
associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people,
it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length
of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we
possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete.
This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through
Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about
B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the
successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's
brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by
Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican
constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian
rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing
period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls
therefore between 1000-332.
_Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes,
and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David.
Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the
last two centuries.
3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the
establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became
as powerful as the mother states.
General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely
necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever
their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise
been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive
increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from
political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will,
or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements
in distant regions.
4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a
very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which,
however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal
countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain
(Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the
Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast
of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is likewise highly probable that they
formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands
of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).
5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the
extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much
farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations,
commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the
Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of
their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the
latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_)
Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and
the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very
probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the
northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection
with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of
the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the
Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of
India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several
extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the
circumnavigation of Africa.
6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by
caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan
trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the
Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened
them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia
and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with
Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper
utensils, etc.
7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their
stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;)
their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with
uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good
account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of
letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians.
VI. _Syrians._
1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when
Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one
single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its
separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus,
Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.
2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and
their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish
province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when
Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.
3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the
greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming
tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended,
and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and
Israel.
The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles,
were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850.
Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of
Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser,
about 740.
_Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms
of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic
colonies.--Lycurgus.
VII. _Jews._
The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of
their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the
conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of
the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in
Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a
federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C.
1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical
government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards
as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the
latter, 588.
Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges,
Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and
whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the
events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in
particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS,
as an antiquarian in his _Archaeologia_, and as a contemporary
historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_.
Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on
the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one
written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism.
The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son
origine jusqu'a la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.;
and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and
others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI
_Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly
his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his
# _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew
Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials.
I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of
Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than
a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower
Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others,
two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the
Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve
tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase
of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the
Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities.
Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of
Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine,
the land of promise.
Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not
borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national
sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies
rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and
the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of
Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests.
J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.;
translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4
vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver.
II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of
Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100.
1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation,
which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture,
was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs,
the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating
entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of
Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in
the land.
2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land,
according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the
government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch
or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of
Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state.
Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are
conjoined out of the Levite caste.
3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic
law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into
forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country,
and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.
4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common
ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together;
especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At
this time the high priests appear to have had but little political
influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved
by the dread of a foreign yoke.
5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In
seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship
of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief
magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and
as champions of the worship of the true God. The judges, particularly
Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their
history.
6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes
judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office
of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his
sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is
called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he
cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most
insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A
formal constitutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up
and deposited in the national sanctuary.
Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts
made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power.
III. _Period of the monarchy from 1100-600._
I. _The Jewish state as one single kingdom from 1100(1095)-975._
1. _Saul_, the new king, strengthened himself on the throne by a victory
over the Ammonites; and a general assembly of the nation, in which
Samuel laid down his office as judge, unanimously acknowledged his
sovereignty. But Saul, no sooner became a conqueror than he threw off
the tutelage of Samuel, and ventured himself to consult Jehovah. This
was the occasion of a feud between them. Samuel, offended, privately
anointed another young man, David the son of Jesse, as king. David
acquires fame and popularity by his heroic conduct; but has much
difficulty in escaping the jealousy of Saul.--Saul sustains himself amid
constant wars with the neighbouring nations; but at last defeated, he
and all his sons, except one, lose their lives.
2. State of the nation and constitution under Saul.--The king little
more than a military leader under the direction of Jehovah; without
either court or fixed residence.--The people still a mere agricultural
and pastoral race, without wealth or luxury; but gradually assuming the
character of a warlike nation.
3. Saul was succeeded by David; but not without opposition. Eleven
tribes declare for Ish-bosheth, the remaining son of Saul; and David is
only acknowledged by his own tribe, Judah. It is not till seven years
later, and the murder of Ish-bosheth by his own people, that David is
recognized as king by the whole nation.
4. Complete formation of the nation, and a change of constitution during
the reign of David over the united kingdom, which lasted thirty-three
years. Jerusalem is made the seat of government and of the national
sanctuary. Rigid observance of the worship of Jehovah, the exclusive
religion of the nation, considered in respect to its political
consequence.
5. Vast aggrandizement of the Jewish state by conquest. A war with
Hadadezer opens the way to the conquest of Syria and Idumaea. Extent of
the kingdom from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean; from Phoenicia to
the Red sea. Gradual decline towards despotism and seraglio government;
the political consequences of which become apparent about the end of
David's reign, in the rebellion of his sons.
6. Reign of Solomon. The brilliant government of a despot from the
interior of his seraglio; unwarlike, but civilized, and fond of parade.
New organization of the kingdom for the support of the court.
Connections formed with the neighbouring states, particularly with Tyre;
hence a participation in the southern trade carried on from the ports of
the Red sea, conquered by David; but only as a monopoly of the court.
7. The capital enriched by the splendour of the court; but the country
oppressed and impoverished, particularly the distant tribes. Gradual
internal decay hastened by the admixture of the worship of foreign gods
with that of Jehovah; although Solomon, by the erection of the temple
according to the plan of his father, seems to have wished to make the
worship of the true God the only religion of the country. An
unsuccessful attempt at rebellion made by Jeroboam; and by the Edomites,
who remain tributary under their own kings: actual secession, even
during the reign of Solomon, of the conquered province of Syria by the
foundation of the kingdom of Damascus.
8. Solomon is succeeded by his son Rehoboam, who has scarcely ascended
the throne, before the malcontents, increased in number by his
imprudence, break into open rebellion. Jeroboam is recalled from Egypt,
and ten tribes acknowledge him as their king. Only two tribes, Judah and
Benjamin, remain faithful to Rehoboam.
II. _The Jewish state as a divided kingdom, 975-588._
1. Reciprocal relations between the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel.
Although Israel was more extensive and populous than Judah, yet was
Judah, in consequence of possessing the capital, richest of the two;
thus their power was nearly balanced; and hence the struggle between
them was the more obstinate.
2. The kings of Israel seek to confirm the political division of the
nation, by establishing a new form of worship within their dominions, in
order to restrain their subjects from visiting the ancient seat of the
national worship at Jerusalem; hence they were considered as the enemies
of Jehovah. Several kings, however, even of Judah were so impolitic as
to mingle the worship of other gods with that of Jehovah. But oppression
itself serves to sustain the worship of Jehovah; the number and
political influence of the prophets increase in proportion as men feel,
amid the turbulence of the times, need of the counsels of the true God;
the idea of some future happier period under a mighty king--the idea of
the Messiah and of his kingdom--is more fully developed by the lively
recollection of the splendid reign of David.--Schools of the prophets.
3. The rivalry and wars between those two states not only continue with
slight interruption, but become more and more fraught with danger, in
consequence of the alliances entered into with foreign princes,
particularly with the kings of Damascus and Egypt. An end is at length
put to these feeble kingdoms by the rise of vast empires in Inner Asia.
Most important events in the history of the two kingdoms.
1. KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 975-722; under 19 kings, from different
families, who succeeded to the throne amid violent revolutions. 1.
Jeroboam, _d._ 954. Settlement of the royal residence at Shechem;
of the sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan, and appointment of priests,
not belonging to the tribe of Levi. Constant wars with the kings of
Judah. 2. Nadab, Jeroboam's son, murdered in 953 by 3. Baasha, _d._
930. This prince, by his alliance with the kings of Damascus,
brought the kingdom of Judah into great danger. 4. Elah murdered in
929 by one of his generals. 5. Zimri, in whose place the army
immediately elected 6. Omri: this prince, at the beginning of his
reign, had a rival to the throne in Tibni, _d._ 925. Omri founded
the new capital, Samaria, _d._ 918. He was succeeded by his son 7.
Ahab: strong connections by marriage with the kings of Sidon;
introduction of the Phoenician worship of Baal. Wars with
Damascus, in which Ahab at last perishes, 897. Under Ahab a league
formed with the king of Judah. He is succeeded by his sons, 8.
Ahaziah, _d._ 896, and 9. Jehoram. The league with Judah continues.
Jehoram is murdered by Jehu, 883. 10. Jehu: this king destroys the
house of Ahab, which had given 4 kings to Israel, and does away
with the worship of Baal. The kings of Damascus wrest from the
kingdom of Israel the lands beyond Jordan. Jehu, _d._ 856. He is
succeeded by his son 11. Jehoahaz, _d._ 840. The wars with Damascus
continue unsuccessful to Israel. 12. Jehoash, _d._ 825. He defeats
the kings of Damascus and Judah. 13. Jeroboam II. _d._ 784. He
restores the kingdom of Israel to its ancient extent. After a
turbulent interregnum of 12 years, he is succeeded by his son 14.
Zechariah, 773; who was assassinated the same year, being the last
remnant of the house of Jehu, which had given 5 kings to Israel.
His murderer, 15. Shallum, after a reign of one month, is, in his
turn, assassinated by 16. Menahem, _d._ 761: under his reign the
first expedition of the Assyrians, headed by Pul, whom he buys off
by tribute. 17. His son Pekahiah murdered in 759 by 18. Pekah,
under whose reign falls the expedition of Tiglath-Pileser the
Assyrian, and destruction of Damascus. Pekah is assassinated in 740
by 19. Hoshea, who, after an anarchy of eight years, obtains
possession of the throne. Hoshea endeavours, by an alliance with
Egypt, to shake off the Assyrian yoke; but Shalmaneser, king of
Assyria, wages war against him, conquers Samaria, and puts an end
to the kingdom of Israel, whose inhabitants he transplants to Media
in Inner Asia, 722.
2. KINGDOM OF JUDAH under 20 kings of the house of David, 975-598.
The regular line of hereditary succession is generally followed
without dispute, and is only twice interrupted by Athaliah's
usurpation, and the intervention of foreign conquerors. 1.
Rehoboam, _d._ 958. Jerusalem is still the seat of government; but
even during this reign the worship of Jehovah begins to fall into
neglect, in consequence of the introduction of foreign gods.
Besides the war with Israel, Jerusalem is attacked and plundered by
Shishak, king of Egypt. 2. Abijah, _d._ 955. 3. Asa. This prince
was attacked by the combined kings of Israel and Damascus, and, no
doubt, would have sunk in the conflict, had he not succeeded in
breaking their alliance; _d._ 914. 4. Jehoshaphat, the restorer of
the worship of Jehovah and framer of a league with the kingdom of
Israel. His attempt to reestablish the trade to Ophir, on the Red
sea, is unsuccessful, _d._ 891. 5. Jehoram. The union with Israel
is confirmed by the marriage of this prince with Ahab's daughter,
Athaliah; but Idumaea, under his reign, secedes wholly from the
kingdom of Judah, _d._ 884. 6. His son Ahaziah is, in the next
year, 883, assassinated by Jehu, the murderer and successor of
Jehoram king of Israel. 7. His mother, Athaliah, takes possession
of the throne; murders the whole royal family; only one son of
Ahaziah, 8, Joash, is, in consequence of his youth, rescued from
the carnage, secretly educated in the temple, and after seven years
forcibly placed upon the throne, by means of a revolution wrought
by the high priest, Jehoiada; and Athaliah is slaughtered, 877.
Joash rules under the tutelage of the priests, which leads to the
reestablishment of Jehovah's worship. This prince is menaced by
Hazael king of Damascus, and compelled to pay him tribute. Slain
838. 9. Amaziah: he defeats the Edomites, and is in his turn
defeated by Jehoash king of Israel, by whom Jerusalem itself is
sacked. He is slain in 811, and succeeded 10. by his son Azariah,
(or Uzziah.) This prince was leprous, and _d._ 759. His son 11.
Jotham, _d._ 743, became regent during the life of his father. The
wars with Israel and Damascus recommence. 12. Ahaz, _d._ 728. The
league between the kings of Damascus and Israel induces Ahaz to
call to his assistance Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, who
overthrows the kingdom of Damascus, and subjects Israel and Judah
to tribute. 13. Hezekiah, _d._ 699. He shakes off the Assyrian
yoke: under his reign Shalmaneser destroys Samaria, 722: and
Shalmaneser's successor, Sennacherib, undertakes his expedition
against Egypt, 714. Jerusalem is again besieged, but fortunately
relieved by the total failure of the expedition. Isaiah prophecies
during the reign of this prince. 14. Manasseh, _d._ 644. During his
55 years' reign, the worship of the Phoenician god, Baal, becomes
general; that of Jehovah falls into contempt, and the Mosaic law
into disuse. 15. Amon, murdered as early as 642. 16. Josiah
restorer of the temple, and of the worship of Jehovah. The book of
the Law, which had been cast aside and neglected, is once more
found, and a complete reform instituted according to its
principles. Palestine however is the first country attacked by
Necos, king of Egypt; and Josiah falls in battle, 611. His son, 17.
Jehoahaz, is, after a reign of three months, dethroned by
Pharaoh-Nechoh, and his brother 18. Jehoiakim placed as a tributary
prince on the throne. But in consequence of the rise of the
Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire, Pharaoh-Nechoh is deprived of his
Asiatic conquests by the loss of the battle of Circesium, 606; and
Jehoiakim becomes tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, _d._ 599. The
prophet Jeremiah flourishes. 19. Jehoiachin, son of the former
king, after three months' reign, is, together with the greater part
of the nation, transplanted into Inner Asia by Nebuchadnezzar,
after a second expedition, (commencement of the Babylonian
captivity,) and, 20. Zedekiah, brother on the father's side to
Jehoiachin, is seated on the throne as a tributary prince. Forming,
however, a league with Egypt, in order to throw off the Babylonian
yoke, Nebuchadnezzar marches a third time against Jerusalem,
conquers it, 588, and delivers it up to pillage and destruction.
Zedekiah, after being deprived of his eye-sight, and losing all his
children by the hands of the executioner, is, together with the
remaining portion of the nation, led in captivity to Babylon.
S. BERNHARDI _Commentatio de causis quibus affectum sit ut regnum
Judae diutius persisteret quam regnum Israel; cum tabula
geographica_, Lovanii, 1825, 4to. A prize essay, containing also
several valuable enquiries into the monarchical period of the
Jewish state.
# BAUER, _Manual of the History of the Hebrew Nation_, vol. i-iii,
1800. The best introduction hitherto published, not only to the
history, but also to the antiquities of the nation, from the rise
to the fall of the state.
II. AFRICAN NATIONS.
_General Geographical Outline of Ancient Africa._
See A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. African Nations.
2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.
1. Although the Phoenicians had circumnavigated Africa, the northern
part only of that quarter of the globe was known to antiquity.
With that part, however, the ancients were better acquainted than we are
at the present day, the coast being then occupied by civilized and
commercial nations, who pushed their excursions far inland. This was the
case in early times with the Carthaginians and the Egyptians; still more
so with the Macedonian Greeks, under the Ptolemies, and under the
Romans. War, hunting, and commerce, were, generally speaking, the
objects which gave rise to those excursions.
2. Considered as a whole, Africa is very different from Asia, both in
situation and form. Asia lies almost entirely within the temperate,
while Africa is almost wholly under the torrid zone. Asia abounds in
deep gulfs and large rivers; Africa constitutes a regular triangle, and
in its northern half possesses but two large rivers, the Nile and the
Niger. No wonder, then, that this portion of our globe should form, as
it were, a world in itself, distinguished by its productions and its
inhabitants.
3. Physically considered, Northern Africa may be divided into three
regions, distinguished in early antiquity by separate names. The
maritime country along the Mediterranean, with the exception of
Tripolis, or the Regio-Syrtica, consists principally of very fertile
districts, and was consequently, at all times, very thickly inhabited:
hence in Herodotus it bears the name of the _inhabited Africa_; it is
now called Barbary. Above this, and under the 30th parallel of N. lat.,
succeeds a mountainous tract, across which stretches the Atlas chain of
mountains; abounding in wild beasts and dates: hence Herodotus calls it
the _wild beast Africa_: among the Arabs it is called the land of dates,
(_Biledulgerid_.) Beyond this, and between the 30th and 20th degrees of
N. lat. the sandy region extends right across Africa and Arabia: this
part of Africa is therefore known, both among the ancients and moderns,
under the name of Africa Deserta, or the Sandy Desert, (Sahara). The
fruitful lands beyond the desert, stretching along the banks of the
Niger, were almost wholly unknown to the Greeks: by them these parts
were comprehended under the common name of Ethiopia, although that name
applied more peculiarly to the districts above Egypt. The Greeks were,
however, acquainted with some of the fruitful spots in the desert, the
Oases; such as Augila, Ammonium, and the Oases, properly so called, in
Egypt.
4. There exists no political division which comprises the whole of
Africa. The north coast alone was inhabited by civilized nations:
Egyptians, Cyrenaeans, and Carthaginians; of which the first only were
aboriginals. The rest of the inhabitants either roved about as nomad
hordes, or formed insignificant states, of whose existence we have
heard some account, though we possess no history of them. Along the
shore, reckoning from the Plinthinetic gulf, Egypt is succeeded by: 1st.
Marmarica, a tract without cities, consisting principally of sandy
deserts, occupied by nomad hordes: this country extends from the 40-47 deg.
E. long. from Ferro. 2nd. The fertile territory occupied by the Greek
colonies, called Cyrenaica, extended to the Greater Syrtis, 37-40 deg. E.
long. Cities: Cyrene, Barca. 3rd. The territory of Carthage, extending
from the Greater Syrtis to the Fair Promontory, 25-40 deg. E. long. This
territory comprised (_a_) the country between the Greater and Lesser
Syrtis, (Regio Syrtica,) which constitutes the modern kingdom of
Tripoli; a sandy tract, almost wholly occupied by nomads. (_b_) the
territory of Carthage, properly so called, (kingdom of Tunis). A very
fruitful country; the southern part, called Byzacena, the northern part
Zeugitana. Cities: Carthage, Utica, etc. 4th. Numidia and Mauritania;
occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad races. Along the shore
some Carthaginian settlements.
EGYPTIANS.
Preliminary remarks. Egypt in its superficial contents is equal to about
two-thirds of Germany, and may therefore justly be ranked among the more
extensive countries of the globe; it greatly varies, however, in its
physical properties. The soil is only sufficiently fertile for tillage
on the banks of the Nile, and as far as the floods of that river extend;
beyond that, on the west, is a sandy desert, on the east a chain of
rocky mountains. From its entrance into Egypt at Syene, the Nile flows
in one undivided stream to the city of Cercasorus, 60 geogr. miles above
its mouth, directing its source from south to north through a valley
from 8 to 16 geogr. miles broad, bounded on the west by deserts of sand,
and on the east by mountains of granite. At Cercasorus the stream first
divides itself into two main branches, which formerly discharged their
waters into the Mediterranean, the eastern near the city of Pelusium,
the western near the city of Canopus (_ostium Pelusiacum et Canopicum_;)
from these two diverged several intermediate branches; so that in the
time of Herodotus there existed seven mouths of the Nile, but the number
has not always remained the same. The tract between the two extreme arms
of the Nile bears, in consequence of its triangular form, the name of
the Delta; it was covered with cities, and highly cultivated. The
fertile part of Egypt, inhabited by civilized men, was therefore
confined to the Delta and the valley of the Nile, on the two banks of
the stream from Syene to Cercasorus; to which must be added some well
watered spots in the centre of the western desert, known under the name
of the Oases. In consequence of the perpetual absence of rain,
particularly in Upper Egypt, the fertility of the Delta and the valley
of the Nile depends on the overflowing of the river, which happens at
stated periods. This commences at the beginning of August and continues
to the end of October; so that during three whole months the
above-mentioned parts of the country are under water.
Egypt is divided into Upper, extending from Syene to the city of
Chemmis, (capital, Thebes, or Diospolis); Central from Chemmis to
Cercasorus, (capital, Memphis,) and Lower Egypt, which comprises the
Delta, and the land on both sides: it was full of cities, among which
the most remarkable was Sais.
Next above Egypt lies Ethiopia, (_Aethiopia supra Aegyptum_); which, from
the earliest times, principally through commerce, appears to have been
closely connected with the former country. The regions immediately above
Egypt, usually called Nubia, are little more than deserts of sand, still
inhabited by roving hordes of nomad robbers. The rocky mountain chain,
which forms the eastern boundary of Egypt, stretches along the Red sea,
and was formerly of great importance to Nubia, from its containing, just
above the Egyptian frontier, productive gold mines. The Nile, in this
country, makes a wide curve to the west, and becomes so full of shallows
as to render navigation difficult. The lands adjoining the river,
however, are fertile and well inhabited; and contain numerous ancient
monuments. Still higher up, reckoning from 16 deg. N. lat. the appearance
of the country changes; the region of fertility commences, and its costly
productions, its gold and its perfumes, gave rise to a profitable
commerce. Among these countries, Meroe, with its capital of the same
name, was celebrated in the days of Herodotus. By Meroe is understood a
tract of land bounded by two rivers, the Nile on the west, and the
Astaboras, (Tacazze,) which falls into the Nile, on the east; for this
reason it is frequently, although improperly, called an island. This
country extended towards the sources of the Nile, or the modern province
of Gojam, where, under the reign of Psammetichus, the Egyptian caste of
warriors, having for the most part deserted, established themselves.
Meroe itself, like the Egyptian states, was sacerdotal, with a king at
its head.--The city of Axum, or Auxume, is not indeed mentioned at so
early a period; but if we may judge by the ruins that still remain, it
was of equally high antiquity with the old Egyptian towns and with
Meroe. The same observations apply to Adule, the harbour on the Arabian
gulf.
The Egyptian history is divided into three periods of unequal duration;
the _first_ of which extends from the earliest time down to the
Sesostridae, that is to say, to about B.C. 1500: the _second_ comprises
the reigns of the Sesostridae, or the brilliant period of Egypt, down to
Psammetichus, 1500-650: the _third_ brings us from Psammetichus down to
the Persian conquest, 650-525.
FIRST PERIOD.
_From the earliest times down to the Sesostridae, about B. C. 1500._
Sources: 1. Jewish writers. _Moses._ His records contain, no doubt,
a faithful picture of the Egyptian state in his day; but no
continuous history can be deduced from them.--From Moses down to
Solomon (B.C. 1500-1000.) total silence, with respect to Egypt, of
the Hebrew writers. From Solomon down to Cyrus, (B.C. 1000-550.) a
few scanty fragments.--Importance and superiority of the Jewish
accounts, so far as they are _purely historical_. 2. Greek writers.
(_a_) _Herodotus._ The first who published a History of the
Egyptians. About seventy years after the destruction of the throne
of the Pharaohs by the Persian conquerors, this author collected,
in Egypt itself, the earliest accounts of the history of the
country; he received his information from the most capable persons,
the priests; and wrote down faithfully that information, such as he
heard it. If, therefore, we would estimate at their proper worth
the accounts given by Herodotus, it is necessary to enquire, what
did the priests themselves know of their earlier national history?
And this question cannot be answered until we have ascertained in
what manner the historical records of the earlier periods were
preserved among the Egyptians.
The earliest history of the Egyptians, like that of all other
nations, was traditional. They adopted, however, before any other
nations, a sort of writing, hieroglyphics, or allegorical picture
writing; in which the signs borrowed from natural objects served,
as modern discoveries have proved, partly to represent sounds,
(_hieroglyphes phonetiques_,) and partly to express ideas; in the
latter case they were either representative or allegorical. This
mode of writing, by its nature, is not so complete as the purely
alphabetical; since, 1. It can express only a narrow circle of
ideas, and these separately, without connection or grammatical
inflection, at least with very few exceptions. 2. As it is not so
well adapted to writing as to painting or engraving, it is not so
useful for books as for public monuments. 3. Being emblematic, it
is not intelligible without the help of a key, which could only be
preserved in some tradition connected with the monument, and which
was exclusively possessed by the priests; this key, therefore,
could hardly be preserved many centuries without falsification. 4.
The same image seems frequently to have been used to express very
different objects.--It follows, that the Egyptian history, as
deduced from the lips of the priests, can hardly have been any
thing more than records connected with, and depending upon, public
monuments: consisting, therefore, of mere fragments, and reducible
to no consistent chronology, it ultimately admitted only of
allegorical translation, and consequently was very liable to be
misinterpreted. Besides their hieroglyphics, the Egyptians
certainly had two other species of writing: the _hieratic_,
confined to the priests, and the _demotic_, used in common life.
Both, however, seem to have been nothing more than running hands
derived from the hieroglyphic system; and we have no instance of
the employment of either the one or the other in public monuments
of the time of the Pharaohs. That the use of papyrus, a material on
which all the above kinds of writing were employed, had its origin
in the highest antiquity, or at least in the more brilliant period
of the Pharaohs, we now know for certain, written documents
belonging to those times having been obtained from the tombs.
CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, _Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des anciens
Egyptiens_. Paris, 1824. The main work on this subject, of which
the _Lettre a M. Dacier_, 1822, is but the precursor, and the two
_Lettres a M. le duc de Blacas_ the continuation. The new method of
deciphering has received its principal confirmation from the work
of the British consul in Egypt, SALT, _Essay on the Phonetic System
of Hieroglyphics_, 1825, on the authority of a comparison with the
Egyptian monuments themselves. Hitherto, however, little more has
been made out than the names and titles of the kings, distinguished
by being always enclosed within a border.
These preliminary remarks on the earlier Egyptian history, will
derive abundant support from a perusal of the account given by
Herodotus (ii, 99-150), of the Egyptian kings previous to
Psammetichus. The study of that author proves beyond all doubt,
that: I. The whole history is throughout founded on public
monuments, and on monuments too, either in or near _Memphis_. We
may even restrict ourselves to one single monument at Memphis, to
the temple of Vulcan, or Phtha, the chief temple of that city. The
history commences with Menes, the founder of that edifice, (c.
99.), and we are informed, respecting each of his successors, what
was done towards the augmentation and embellishment of the
building: those who made no addition to that temple, but left other
monuments, (as the builders of the pyramids,) are denominated
oppressors of the people, and contemners of the gods: of those
princes who left no monuments at all, the priests could give no
other information than a catalogue of names. II. Hence this line of
kings, although the priests gave it to Herodotus as such, is not
without interruptions, but, as is clearly proved by a comparison
with Diodorus, contains many wide chasms: therefore no
chronological system can be erected upon such a basis. III. The
whole history is interwoven with narrations derived from
hieroglyphic representations, and for that very reason allegorical,
the meaning of which it is no longer possible to unravel, the
priests themselves being either unable or unwilling to explain it,
and even inclining, it appears, to introduce false interpretations.
To this class of narrations belongs, for instance, that of the
robbery of Rhampsinitus's treasury; that of his journey into hell,
where he played at dice with Ceres, (c. 121, 122); that concerning
the daughter of Cheops, (c. 127.); concerning the blindness of
Pheron, and the manner in which he was cured, etc. (c. 111.) To
prove that this charge is not without foundation, it will suffice
to adduce two examples; one from c. 131, where Herodotus himself
observes that such was the case; the other from c. 141, the true
meaning of which we gather from other sources. Even in the time of
Herodotus, it was customary with the priests to endeavour to
conciliate the Greek and Egyptian authorities; a fact in proof of
which there are many arguments which cannot escape the critic:
such, for instance, as the completely _Graecised_ history of king
Proteus, c. 112-115.--The general result of the above observations
on Herodotus's Egyptian history is, that it is nothing more than a
narration connected with public monuments. To this inference but
one objection can possibly be made, namely, that the Egyptian
priests possessed, besides their hieroglyphics, an alphabetical
mode of writing; consequently, that, over and above the public
monuments, they might likewise refer to written annals; but this
objection is overthrown by Herodotus himself. All the information
the priests could give him beyond what has been above alluded to,
consisted in the names of 330 kings subsequent to Menes; these
they read from a papyrus roll, but knew nothing more of the kings
who bore them, because _those sovereigns had left no monuments
behind them_, (c. 100.)
(_b_) Besides Herodotus, _Diodorus_ (lib. i.) likewise furnishes us
with the names of some Egyptian kings. This author, who wrote 400
years subsequently to Herodotus, visited Egypt, and collected his
history, partly from the oral and written documents of the priests
of _Thebes_, partly from the more ancient Greek writers, and
particularly Hecataeus. If we consider Herodotus's line of kings as
not continuous or uninterrupted, all appearance of contradiction
between the two historians vanishes. Diodorus, like Herodotus, did
not intend to give a complete enumeration of the Egyptian kings;
but only of the most remarkable; indicating the interruptions by
the number of generations which they contained.
(_c_) Finally, different from both the above is the Egyptian
_Manetho_, high priest at _Heliopolis_, who flourished under the
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B. C. 260. He wrote the
_Aegyptiaca_, of which, besides several fragments in Josephus, the
enumeration of the kings has been preserved in the chronicles of
Eusebius and Syncellus. This catalogue is divided into three
sections, (tomos,) each of which contains several dynasties, in all
31, enumerated according to the different cities of Egypt. In each
dynasty the number of kings belonging to it and the years of their
reigns are marked. The authenticity of Manetho is now completely
established; since the names of the Pharaohs mentioned by him have
been deciphered on the Egyptian monuments. To this period belong
the first seventeen dynasties; in the eighteenth begins the second
and brilliant period, to which the yet remaining monuments of Upper
Egypt, bearing the names of the founders, are to be ascribed. It is
worthy of observation, that in Herodotus we have the documents of
the priests of Memphis, in Diodorus those of the priests of Thebes,
in Manetho those of the priests of Heliopolis--the three principal
seats of sacerdotal learning:--perfect consistency cannot,
therefore, be expected in the accounts of those historians.
The modern writers on Egyptian antiquities, from KIRCHER, _Oedipus
Aegyptiacus_, 1670, to DE PAUW, _Recherches sur les Egyptiens et sur
les Chinois_, 1772, have too often substituted their own dreams and
hypotheses for truth. The principal attempts at a chronological
arrangement of the dynasties have been made by MARSHAM, in his
_Canon Chronicus_; and by GATTERER, in his # _Synchronistic History
of the World_.--Among the principal works on this subject may be
reckoned:
JABLONSKI _Pantheon Mythicum Aegyptiacum_, 1750, 8vo.
GATTERER, _Commentationes de Theogonia Aegypt_. in _Commentat.
Societ. Gotting._ t. vii.
_De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, auctore_ G. ZOEGA; Romae, 1797.
_L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou Recherches sur la Geographie, la
Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et l'Histoire de l'Egypte avant
l'invasion de Cambyse, par_ CHAMPOLLION LE JEUNE, t. i, ii. 1814.
These two volumes, dedicated to the geography, contain the
restoration of the ancient Egyptian names of provinces and cities
deduced from Coptic authorities.
_Commentationes Herodoteae, scribebat_ FRID. CREUZER. _Aegyptica et
Hellenica, pars 1._ Lips. 1819. A series of most acute and learned
illustrations of different points in Egyptian antiquity, introduced
by different passages of Herodotus.
The volume in HEEREN'S _Historical Researches_, etc. 1831, vol. ii,
concerning the Egyptians; and particularly the introduction on
hieroglyphic writing. For the best representations of the Egyptian
monuments, we are indebted to the French expedition. Those of Denon
in his _Voyage en Egypte_, are far superior to those of Pococke and
Norden; but Denon's, in their turn, have been greatly surpassed in
the magnificent work:
_Description de l'Egypte, Antiquites_, P. i, ii, iii. P. i,
contains the monuments of Upper Egypt, from the frontiers of Nubia
to Thebes; P. ii, iii, contain the monuments of Thebes alone.
BELZONI, _Researches in Egypt_, London, 1824, with an atlas.
# MINUTOLI, _Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and Egypt_, 1824.
L. BURCKHARDT, _Travels in Nubia_, London, 1819.
F. C. GAU, _Antiquites de la Nubie_, Paris, 1824. A worthy
continuation of the great French work on Egypt.
FR. CAILLAUD, _Voyage a Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc_, Paris, 1825,
contains the description of the monuments of Meroe.
1. Political civilization commenced in Egypt at a much earlier period
than that to which history reaches; for even in the days of Abraham,
and still more so in those of Moses, the government seems to have been
so well organized, that a long period must necessarily have elapsed in
order to raise the nation to that degree of civilization which we see it
had then attained. It may, therefore, be safely asserted, that Egypt
ranks among the most ancient countries of our globe in which political
associations existed; although we cannot determine with equal certainty
whether they did not exist still earlier in India.
2. The causes which contributed to render Egypt thus early a civilized
state, may be found in the natural features of the country, and its
favourable situation, when compared with the rest of Africa. It is the
only tract in all northern Africa situated on a large uninterrupted
navigable stream: had it not been for this, it would, like the other
parts of Africa under the same parallel, have been a mere desert. To
this must be added two extraordinary circumstances: on the one hand, the
overflowing of the river so perfectly prepares the soil, that to scatter
the seed is almost the only labour of the husbandman; and yet, on the
other hand, so many obstacles impede the progress of agriculture, (by
the necessity of canals, dams, etc.) that the invention of man must
necessarily have been awakened. When agriculture, and the kind of
knowledge requisite for its ulterior development had introduced a
certain degree of civilization into Egypt, the situation of that
country, between Asia and Africa, and in the neighbourhood of the rich
land of gold and spices, must have been highly favourable to the
purposes of international commerce; hence Egypt appears in all ages to
have been one of the chief seats of the inland or caravan trade.
3. It is obvious, therefore, that in the fertile valley of the Nile, the
course of things must have been very different from what it was in the
desert of Libya. Several small states appear to have been formed in this
valley long before the existence of any great Egyptian kingdom. Their
origin, as might naturally be supposed, is enveloped in an obscurity,
which history can no longer entirely penetrate. It may still, however,
be gathered from monuments and records, that Upper Egypt was first the
seat of civilization; which, originating in the south, spread by the
settlement of colonies towards the north. It is probable that this took
place in consequence of the migration of some tribe, differing from the
negroes, as is proved by the representations, both in sculpture and in
painting, found on the yet remaining monuments of Egypt.
4. The records of the high antiquity of political civilization, not only
in India, but likewise in Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, particularly in
Meroe, and the evident vestiges of ancient intercourse between the
southern nations of our globe, prove with sufficient evidence the truth
of such migrations, although they cannot be chronologically determined.
It is certain, however, that religion had no small share in producing
them. The national bond of union in Egypt not only continued in later
times, entirely dependent upon religion, but was originally grounded
upon it. Thus every step in political civilization must have depended,
if not solely, at least principally, on the caste of priests and on
their extension.
General development of the idea of division into castes. Originating
at first in the variety of tribes settled in one and the same
country, and their different modes of life.--Its further progress
in despotic and in theocratic kingdoms.--Application to Egypt and
to the Egyptian caste of priests, as an original, civilized tribe.
5. The peculiarity of this caste was the worship of certain deities, the
principal of which were Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha, confounded by the
Greeks with their Jupiter, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The spread of this
worship, which was always connected with temples, affords, therefore,
the most evident vestiges of the spread of the caste itself; and those
vestiges combined with the records of the Egyptians, lead us to conclude
that this caste was a tribe which migrated from the south, from beyond
Meroe in Ethiopia, and by the establishment of inland colonies around
the temples founded by them, gradually extended and made the worship of
their gods the dominant religion in Egypt.
Proof of the accuracy of the above theory deduced from monuments and
express testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon from
Meroe; it might have been inferred from the preservation of the
worship of Ammon in the latter place. Memphis, again, and other
cities in the valley of the Nile, are commonly supposed to have been
founded by detachments from Thebes.
6. This conjecture, which agrees with the usual progress of population,
is corroborated by the very ancient division of the country into
districts, or nomes. This division was intimately connected with the
chief temples, each of which represented a separate colony of the caste
of priests; so that the inhabitants of every home belonged to the chief
temple, and joined in the religious worship there performed.
7. To the gradual extension of this civilized tribe, which comprised,
not only the caste of the priests, but certainly also that of the
warriors, and perhaps some others, may be attributed the formation of
several small states along the banks of the Nile; the central point of
each being always such a colony as we have just now described; although
each state consisted both of the aboriginal tribes of the neighbourhood,
and of those that had migrated into the country. The bond which united
every separate state was, therefore, as in most of those formed in the
infancy of mankind, a common worship, in which all the members
participated. But what, by reason of the peculiarities of soil and
climate, could not take place in southern Africa, took place in Egypt:
agriculture, and its progressive improvement, became the great support
of civilization; and, as being the true foundation of states, formed the
principal political object of the ruling caste.
Refutation of the idea, that the Egyptian priests were in possession
of great speculative knowledge; since their knowledge rather had
constant reference to practical life, and, therefore, was in their
hands the _instrumentum dominationis_ over the people, by which they
rendered themselves indispensable, and kept the former in a state of
dependence.--Explanation of the close reference which their gods,
their astronomical and mathematical sciences bore to agriculture.
8. According to Manetho's catalogues, these separate Egyptian states
existed first in Upper and Middle Egypt; in the former were Thebes,
Elephantine, This, and Heraclea; in the latter, Memphis. It is only in
the last division of his work that we meet with states in Lower Egypt,
such as Tanis, Mendes, Bubastis, and Sebennytus.
To these states, therefore, no doubt, belong the 330 kings after
Menes, whose names the priests read to Herodotus; as also those whom
Diodorus mentions as reigning previous to Sesostris, among whom are
remarked Busiris II. founder of Thebes, and Uchoreus, the founder of
Memphis. Eusebius and Syncellus have preserved from Manetho the names
of several of those kings, which Marsham has endeavoured to compare
and arrange.
9. In the absence of a certain and continuous chronology, it is
impossible to determine accurately which of these states were
contemporary, and which succeeded the others. There can be no question
that Thebes was one of the earliest, if not indeed the most ancient of
them all; certainly prior to Memphis, which was founded by it. According
to the natural order of things, some of these states became wealthy and
mighty, and swallowed up the others. Even at this early period, Thebes
and Memphis had obtained a superiority over the rest.
This and Elephantine appear to have been united to Thebes; as were the
states of Lower Egypt to Memphis.
10. The Mosaic records prove, that even in Joseph's time the state of
Memphis (the real place, it appears, of his residence, not On, or
Heliopolis,) comprised Middle and Lower Egypt. It possessed a numerous
and brilliant court; castes of priests and warriors. Its agriculture
flourished, and several of its institutions indicated a deeply-rooted
civilization. But after the establishment of vassalage in this state by
Joseph, when the class of free proprietors was destroyed, by making the
king the only landholder except the priests, the troubles which already
threatened the kingdom must have assumed a more dangerous and alarming
aspect.
11. These troubles came from abroad. Egypt, surrounded on all sides by
nomad tribes, had often suffered from their irruptions, which sometimes
poured in from the south, sometimes from the east. But never were these
invasions so frequent and durable as in the period which immediately
followed the administration of Joseph. Lower Egypt was overrun by the
Bedouin Arabs, whose chieftains, called by the Egyptians _Hyksos_,
settled in the country, fortified Avaris, or Pelusium, and extended
their dominion to Memphis, which they made probably the seat of their
government. They are depicted as the oppressors of religion, and of the
caste of priests; but when we consider that Moses flourished in their
time, we are led to infer that, like the Mongols in China, they must
have gradually adopted Egyptian manners and civilization. They do not
appear to have gained possession of Thebes in Upper Egypt; and it seems
highly probable, that the long struggle against them was never, or at
least but for a short time, suspended.
The dominion of the Arabian Hyksos falls between B. C. 1800-1600; and
consequently was contemporary with Moses and the exodus of the Jews.
Josephus gives 500 years to their dominion, in which he probably
comprises the long periods of earlier wars.
12. Defeat, and final expulsion of the Hyksos from Upper Egypt by
Thutmosis king of Thebes. The consequence of this event was not only
the restoration of freedom and independence to Egypt, but also the
union of the different states into one kingdom; as the rulers of Thebes
now became monarchs over all Egypt. This expulsion of the Hyksos, which
in itself cannot be considered otherwise than as a vast national effort,
must have been the more deeply impressed on the memory of the people, as
it laid the foundation of the splendid period which immediately
followed.
The expulsion of the Hyksos appears to have been one of the chief
subjects on which the Egyptian artists exercised their talents: it
is supposed to have been represented upon one of the large temples
in Thebes. Denon, plate cxxxiii.
SECOND PERIOD.
_From the Sesostridae until the sole dominion of Psammetichus.
B. C. 1500-650._
The sources for this period are the same as for the foregoing; and
the history still preserves the character of records handed down by
hieroglyphics. To this period belongs the line of kings subsequent
to Sesostris, given both by Herodotus and Diodorus. Those two
historians nearly agree, if we regard Herodotus's line of kings,
not as uninterrupted, but as the fragments of a series deduced
solely from public monuments: this will be demonstrated by the
following table, in which the predecessors of Sesostris have
likewise been indicated.
HERODOTUS. DIODORUS.
_Menes._ _Menes._
He was followed by three Followed by fifty-two successors,
hundred and thirty kings ranging over a period of more
belonging to the previous than 1400 years.
period, concerning which our
information is very incomplete: _Busiris I._ and eight successors;
among those sovereigns were the last of whom was
eighteen Ethiopians, and one
queen named Nitocris. _Busiris II._ the founder of
Thebes.
_Osymandyas_ and eight successors;
the last of whom was
_Uchoreus_, founder of Memphis.
_Aegyptus_, grandson of the
foregoing. After the lapse
of twelve generations,
_Moeris._ _Moeris._
Seven generations.
_Sesostris._ _Sesostris_ or _Sesoosis_.
_Pheron_, son of Sesostris. _Sesostris II._ son of the
foregoing: he assumed his
father's name.
Interval comprising several
generations.
_Amasis_, and the Ethiopian,
_Actisanus._
_Mendes_ or _Manes_, builder
of the labyrinth.
Anarchy which lasted five
generations.
_Proteus_, in the time of the _Proteus_ or _Cetes_, in the time
Trojan war. of the Trojan war.
_Rhampsinitus._ _Remphis_, son of the foregoing.
Seven generations, in the course
of which flourished _Nileus_,
from whom the Nile derives
its name.
_Cheops_, builder of the great _Chemmis_ or _Chembes_, from
pyramid. Memphis, builder of the great
pyramid.
_Chephres_, brother to the _Cephren_, brother to the
foregoing, builder of a pyramid. foregoing, builder of a pyramid.
_Mycerinus_, son of Cheops, _Mycerinus_, son of Chemmis,
builder of a pyramid. builder of a pyramid.
_Asychis_ the legislator. _Bochoris_ the legislator.
_Anysis_, who was blind. Interval of several generations.
_Sabaco_, the Ethiopian. _Sabaco_, the Ethiopian
_Anysis_, king for the second
time.
_Sethos_, a priest of Vulcan.
Dodecarchy. Dodecarchy.
_Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole _Psammetichus_ of Sais, sole
ruler. ruler.
This comparative table demonstrates evidently, not only that
Herodotus's line is often interrupted, but likewise that it is
impossible to establish any continuous chronology, since Diodorus,
more than once leaves the number of generations undetermined. Great
importance, nevertheless, attaches to the date fixed by Herodotus,
ii, 13, where he declares that king Moeris flourished 900 years
before his own visit to Egypt: consequently between B.C. 1500 and
1450. And if, as seems highly probable, the age of Sesostris was
the 15th century B.C. (see ZOEGA, _de Obeliscis_), it cannot be
denied but that we have some general epochs; and with these we must
remain content until more satisfactory information can be
discovered on the monuments. It should likewise be observed, that
the discrepancy between the names of the kings mentioned by
Herodotus and Diodorus, and those furnished by Manetho, may be
accounted for by the fact, that the sovereigns were distinguished
by different names on the monuments and in common life.
Of the dynasties of Manetho, the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 22nd, belong
to this period; more especially the two first, which contain the
most important of the Pharaohs.
1. The following period, nearly to its termination, was the brilliant
age of Egypt, during which it formed but one empire; the kings being
represented as sovereign lords of the whole country. And, indeed, it was
natural that the expulsion of the invaders should be followed by a
period in which the military force and ardour of the nation would be
developed, and directed to external conquest. The capital of the empire
was, no doubt, Thebes, the great monuments of which were erected in this
period; that honour, however, seems to have alternately belonged to
Memphis, Herodotus's line of kings being deduced from the monuments of
that city, and more especially from the temple of Phtha.
The more powerful of the Pharaohs of this period, and the founders
of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt, on which their
names are found, are the following: belonging to the 18th dynasty,
somewhere about 1600-1500.
_Amenophis I._ His name is likewise found beyond Egypt on the
temple of Amada, in Nubia.
_Thutmosis I._ Commencement of the expulsion of the Hyksos.
_Amenophis II._ The Memnon of the Greeks. Complete expulsion of the
Hyksos, and commencement of several of the great edifices. His name
is also found on the monuments of Thebes, Elephantine, and even in
Nubia, on the distant temple of Soleb. Builder of the palace of
Luxor.
_Thutmosis II._ His name found in Carnac, and on the obelisk at the
Lateran.
_Ramesses I._ Supposed to be the Danaus of the Greeks. Expelled by
his brother:
_Ramesses II._ Miamun. Builder of the palace of Medinet-Abu in
Thebes. One of the royal graves that have been opened belongs to
this king.
_Amenophis III._ Renewed invasion of the Hyksos; he flees before
them into Ethiopia; but returns victorious with his son Ramesses.
Belonging to the 19th dynasty, between 1500 and 1400.
_Ramesses III._, called the Great, and sometimes _Sesostris_;
founder of the dynasty, liberator of Egypt, and a great conqueror.
His name and titles, his wars and triumphs, are found on the
temples and palaces of Luxor and Carnac, in Thebes and Nubia. His
son and follower:
_Ramesses IV._ Pheron, rules long in peace. His name is found in
the great pillared hall of the palace of Carnac, and on many other
buildings.
Among his successors but few names have been preserved until we
come to Scheschonk or Sisac, of the 22nd dynasty, between 970 and
950; he took Jerusalem under the reign of Rehoboam, and therefore
furnishes a fixed date.
# R. V. L. (RUEHLE VON LILIENSTERN), _Graphic Illustrations of the
most ancient History and Geography of Egypt and Ethiopia, with an
atlas, 1827_. A work containing every thing necessary for
understanding the discoveries hitherto made in this department of
history.
2. For this splendour, the empire was principally indebted to Sesostris,
son of Amenophis. This prince is justly entitled to the surname of
Great, which was given him by the Egyptians. No one will, to the letter,
credit the narrative of his deeds, exaggerated as they were by the
traditions of the priests, or represented, as they still appear, on the
buildings of Thebes; but who can doubt the existence of a monarch of
whom so many and such various monuments within and without Egypt bear
witness?
Critical examination of the accounts of the nine years' campaign, and
conquests of Sesostris. His arms were principally directed against
wealthy commercial countries; probably by land against Ethiopia, Asia
Minor, and part of Thrace; by sea against Arabia Felix, perhaps even
the Indian peninsula. Can the performance of these exploits be deemed
improbable, in an age when western Asia did not contain a single
great empire? The vast undertakings attributed to Sesostris in the
interior of his dominions; extensive buildings, canals, division of
the land, and imposition of taxes, according to a regular survey,
prove that he must have been the sovereign of all Egypt.
3. Notwithstanding the great changes that were made, the constitution
still bore the same general character, that of a sacerdotal aristocracy
combined with a monarchy. Although the Egyptian kings, like the Indian
princes, were distinct from the priests, yet their power was limited in
various ways by that caste. The high priest shared the royal authority;
the king was shackled by religious ceremonies, both in public and
private life; he was obliged to evince his veneration for the
established worship by the erection of public monuments; and all the
high offices of state were in the hands of the priests. It cannot be
denied that on the personal character of the king depended much of his
power; but how strong must have been this aristocracy, when even
successful conquerors were obliged to conciliate its approbation!
4. It was probably about this time that the domestic relations of the
people, the division into castes, was completed. The sacerdotal caste
being in exclusive possession of all scientific knowledge, remained for
that reason in possession of the offices of state. The caste of warriors
could hardly have assumed its complete form before the country was
united into one empire: in like manner that of the navigators could not
have been completely established before the canals were excavated;
although the origin of all may have been of a much earlier date.
Comparison of the accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus of the
division into castes. Not only precedence in time, but likewise the
discrepancies between the two, declare in favour of Herodotus.
5. It appears, therefore, that the most prosperous period of the kingdom
of the Pharaohs must be placed somewhere between B. C. 1500-900:
although, according to Diodorus, even this period was interrupted by a
long anarchy. The splendour of the empire was obscured towards the end.
Sabaco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia, (probably from Meroe,)
subjugated Egypt; after his departure from the country, Sethos, a
priest of Phtha, contrary to all precedent, seated himself upon the
throne. He was, consequently, considered an usurper; he offended the
caste of warriors, and could not have escaped the dangers of an
irruption threatened by the Assyrian, Sennacherib, had not a pestilence
compelled the invader and his host to retreat.
The dynasty of Sabaco, Seuechus, and Tarhaco in Meroe, who as
conquerors subjected Upper Egypt, is comprised between B. C. 800-700.
Their names likewise have been already discovered on monuments; some
at Abydos in Egypt, others in Nubia.
6. The Egyptian monarchy, however, at length fell, and was replaced by
an oligarchy; (or perhaps a return was only made to the division of the
earlier kingdoms;) twelve princes sharing among themselves the sovereign
power. A certain degree of unity seems to have existed at first in this
government; but quarrels soon sprung up among the princes, and they
compelled one of their number, Psammetichus of Sais, to take flight. The
exiled prince, supported by Greek and Carian mercenaries, contrived to
avenge his wrongs; he drove away his rivals, and became the sole ruler.
THIRD PERIOD.
_From the reign of Psammetichus as sole monarch to the Persian conquest
of Egypt by Cambyses. B. C. 650-525._
Herodotus, (l. ii, c. 125, etc.) is still the principal authority
for this portion of history. His statements, however, are no longer
derived from hieroglyphics: they are purely historical. During the
reign of Psammetichus, the Greeks who had migrated into Egypt gave
rise to the caste of interpreters, [Greek: hermeneis], who acted
both as ciceroni for strangers, and as brokers between the
Egyptians and Greeks: these people were enabled to give information
respecting the history of the country. It is not, therefore,
surprising that Herodotus should assure us, that from this time the
history was authentic.--The names of the succeeding Pharaohs are
likewise found on the monuments; in the erection of which they
rivaled their predecessors.
_Contemporary_: Asia: rise and fall of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian
empire; rise of the Persian monarchy.--Rome: kings from Numa
Pompilius to Servius Tullius.--Athens: Draco; Solon;
Pisistratus.--Jews: the last period and fall of the kingdom of
Judah; Babylonish captivity.
1. From this epoch Egypt remained uninterruptedly one kingdom, the
capital of which was Memphis, although Sais, in Lower Egypt, was the
general residence of the royal family. Strangers, and more particularly
Greeks, admitted into Egypt; partly as mercenaries, partly as merchants.
Influence of this innovation upon the national character, and upon the
political system in particular. A spirit of conquest gradually inherited
by the Egyptian kings, is directed principally against Asia: hence the
formation of a navy, and wars with the great rising monarchies of Asia.
Continued, but declining influence of the sacerdotal caste, and proofs
of the veneration of the kings for the priesthood deduced from the
erection and embellishment of temples, particularly of that consecrated
to Phtha in Memphis.
2. _Psammetichus._ He obtains sole power through the assistance of Greek
and Carian mercenaries, who are continued as a standing army in the
country. The caste of Egyptian warriors, taking umbrage in consequence,
emigrate for the most part to Ethiopia, where they settle. The southern
portico of the temple of Phtha is erected, and projects of conquest are
formed against Asia.
3. _Neco_, son and successor of Psammetichus. His extensive plans of
conquest. First formation of a naval power; and unsuccessful attempt to
unite by a canal the Mediterranean with the Red sea. Conquests in Asia
as far as the Euphrates; but quick secession of the conquered, in
consequence of the loss of the battle of Circesium. Circumnavigation of
Africa undertaken at his command by the Phoenicians, and successfully
performed.
4. _Psammis his son and successor._ Expedition against Ethiopia, and
conquests in the interior of Africa.
5. Reign of _Apries_, (the Pharaoh-hophra of the Hebrews). Plans of
conquest against Asia;--siege of Sidon, and naval battle with the
Tyrians;--expedition against Cyrene in Africa; its fatal result. A
revolution caused thereby in Egypt, the inhabitants of which were averse
to foreign wars, carried on mostly by mercenary aliens: the revolution
headed by Amasis. In the civil war which Apries now wages with his
mercenaries against the Egyptians commanded by Amasis, he loses both his
throne and life; and with him ends the family of Psammetichus, which had
reigned to this time.
6. The usurper _Amasis_ took possession of the sovereign power; and
although he had to contend with a strong party, who despised him on
account of his low origin, he contrived by popular measures, and by the
respect he showed to the sacerdotal caste, to establish himself upon the
throne.--His monuments, both at Sais and Memphis.--The Egyptians and
Greeks become better acquainted and more closely connected with each
other, partly in consequence of the marriage of the king with a Greek
woman; but principally owing to the mouths of the Nile being opened to
the Greek merchants, and the cession of Naucratis as a factory for their
merchandise. Great and beneficial consequences to Egypt, which, under
the long reign of Amasis, reaches its highest pitch of prosperity. This
prince had already been engaged in disputes with the Persian conqueror,
Cyrus, whose son and successor, Cambyses, led an expedition against
Egypt, which Amasis, however, luckily for himself, escaped by a
seasonable death.
7. His son Psammenitus, the last of the Egyptian Pharaohs, is attacked
by Cambyses in the very first year of his reign. After a single battle,
fought at Pelusium, and a short siege of Memphis, the empire of the
Pharaohs is overthrown, and Egypt merges into a Persian province. The
powerful caste of the priests suffered most from the hatred of the
conqueror; but the persecution to which they were subjected must be
attributed rather to policy than fanaticism.
8. Condition and fate of Egypt as a Persian province. After the death of
Cambyses, the country received a Persian governor, and consequently
became a satrapy. Immediately after the first tempest of war had blown
over, Egypt was treated with mildness by the Persians. The country paid
a moderate tribute, together with some royal gifts, among others the
produce of the fisheries in lake Moeris; nevertheless, repeated revolts
occurred, which may be principally attributed to the hatred and
influence of the sacerdotal caste. The first took place under Darius
Hystaspes, and was quelled by Xerxes. An increase of tribute was the
consequence. The second, under king Inarus, fomented and supported by
the Athenians, happened during the reign of Artaxerxes I.; it was
quelled by Megabyzus. The third occurred under Darius II. and in
consequence of the support which the Egyptians received from the Greeks,
was of longer duration than either of the former, the throne of the
Pharaoh's being in some measure restored.
This third secession of the Egyptians lasted till 354. During
this period various kings were appointed; Amyrtaeus, _d._ 408;
Psammetichus, about 400; Nephreus, about 397; Pausiris, _d._ 375;
Nectanebus I. _d._ 365; Tachos, _d._ 363; Nectanebus II. conquered
by Artaxerxes III. 354.
CARTHAGINIANS.
Sources. The first great republic which ancient records mention as
applying both to trade and war, is undoubtedly a phenomenon well
deserving the attention of the historical enquirer. Our knowledge,
however, of Carthaginian history is unfortunately very deficient,
as we possess no author who has made it the principal object of his
attention. The immediate subject of the Greek and Roman writers was
the history of their own country, and they only allude to that of
Carthage in so far as it is connected with their main topic. This
observation applies as well to Polybius and Diodorus, as to Livy
and Appian. Even the information given by Justin, the only author
who says any thing concerning the early state of Carthage, is
miserably defective, although taken from Theopompus. (Cf. _Comment.
de fontibus_ JUSTINI _in Commentat. Soc. Gotting._ vol. xv.)
Moreover, as Herodotus here fails us, we have not the writings of
any author whatever who witnessed Carthage in the days of her
prosperity: Polybius did not see that country till after the
decline of its power; the other historians, wrote long afterwards.
But although an uninterrupted history of Carthage does not exist,
we are yet able to trace the main outlines of the picture of that
state.--The modern writers on Carthage are:
HENDRICH, _de Republica Carthaginiensium_, 1664. A useful
compilation.
# _History of the Republic of Carthage_, 2 vols. Franckfort, 1781.
A mere history of the wars.
DAMPMARTIN, _Histoire de la Rivalite de Carthage et de Rome_, tom.
i, ii. Very superficial.
# W. BOETTICHER, _History of Carthage_, part i. Berlin, 1827.
The best work on the subject; in which use has been made of modern
researches.
Concerning the Carthaginians, see HEEREN'S _African Nations_,
2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1831.
The history of Carthage is most conveniently divided into three periods:
I. From the foundation of the city to the commencement of the wars with
Syracuse, B. C. 880-480. II. From the commencement of the wars with
Syracuse to those with Rome, 480-264. III. From the commencement of the
wars with Rome to the destruction of Carthage, 264-146.
FIRST PERIOD.
_From the foundation of Carthage to the wars with Syracuse, B. C.
880-480._
_Contemporary_: Inner Asia: kingdoms of the Assyrians, Babylonians,
and first half of the Persian monarchy. Greeks: period from
Lycurgus to Themistocles. Romans: period of the kings, and of the
commonwealth until the establishment of the tribunes of the people.
1. The foundation and primitive history of Carthage, like all very early
and important events in national history, have, by long tradition, been
wrapt in the veil of romance. The account given of Dido, the supposed
founder of the city, cannot be reduced to the standard of pure
historical truth, though it appears to justify the inference that some
political commotions in the mother city, Tyre, induced a party of
emigrants to proceed to the northern shores of Africa; where other
Phoenician establishments had already taken place: here, by engaging to
pay a yearly tribute, they purchased from the natives permission to
found a city, the site of which was so happily chosen, that it only
depended upon the inhabitants to raise it to that greatness which it
afterwards attained.
2. It is probable that Carthage advanced at first by slow steps; yet
even at the end of this first period she had reached to such a height of
power, that she was mistress of a large territory in Africa, and of
foreign possessions still more extensive. Establishment of the
Carthaginian dominion in Africa by the subjection of the neighbouring
aboriginal tribes, and the foundation of Carthaginian settlements within
their territories; the natives, Liby-Phoenicians, gradually mingled with
the inhabitants of those colonies, and imbibed from them a love of
agriculture and fixed abodes. The inhabitants of the fertile territory
extending southward as far as the lake Triton, were, without exception,
Carthaginian subjects.
3. Her connection, however, with the ancient Phoenician towns along the
coast, particularly Utica, was of a different nature. For although
possessed a certain authority over them, she did not claim absolute
dominion, but rather stood at the head of a federation; thus affording a
protection which must frequently have degenerated into oppression.
4. In consequence of a treaty with the neighbouring republic of Cyrene,
the whole territory extending between the two Syrtes was also ceded to
the Carthaginians. The Lotophagi and Nasamones, inhabitants of this
district, preserved their nomad mode of life; they must, however, from
their trade with the interior parts of Africa, have been of the highest
importance to Carthage.
5. System of colonization, and, as a necessary result, that of conquest
without Africa. It was evidently the aim of the Carthaginians to settle
on islands, and to subject them to their dominion. Those lying in the
western part of the Mediterranean occupied the first place in their plan
of conquest, which was completely executed in Sardinia, the Baleares,
and other small islands; perhaps in Corsica; in Sicily, however, they
could never succeed to the full extent of their wishes. There is also
every probability that the Canary islands and Madeira were entirely in
their possession. On the other hand, the Carthaginians, previous to
their wars with Rome, were in the practice of establishing separate
settlements on the main land, partly in Spain, and partly on the western
shore of Africa. In the latter, they adopted the policy of their
ancestors, the Phoenicians, making the settlements so small, and
confining them within such narrow bounds, that the mother country might
always ensure their dependence.
6. The glory of extending the territory of Carthage, by important
conquests, belongs principally to the family of Mago, who, together with
his two sons and six grandsons, established the dominion of the republic
in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. This occurred about the same time that
Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius were laying the foundation of the Persian
monarchy, with which Carthage even then entered into connection. The
Carthaginians, therefore, made their first appearance, as extensive
conquerors, in the fourth century from the foundation of their
commonwealth; and it is at this period that mention is made of their
first naval engagement, in which the Phocaeans were their adversaries. In
the same period may be dated the establishment of their colonies beyond
the Pillars of Hercules by Hanno and Himilco--both probably sons of
Mago;--by the former on the coast of Africa, by the latter on that of
Spain. To the same period likewise is referred the first commercial
treaty between the Carthaginians and Romans, in which the former appear
as already masters of Sardinia, Africa, and a portion of Sicily.
7. To complete these conquests, and to preserve them when completed, the
formation and support of vast fleets and armies were indispensably
necessary. According to the usual practice of those nations who apply
both to trade and to war, the Carthaginian armies were composed for the
most part of mercenaries. No nation, however, followed this plan so
extensively as the Carthaginians, for to them half Africa and Europe
furnished warriors.--Description of a Carthaginian army; development of
the advantages and disadvantages of its organization.--Organization of
their navy. The state supported very numerous fleets of war-ships, with
a multitude of slaves who laboured at the oar, and were it seems public
property.
8. The political constitution of Carthage, like that of all wealthy
trading states, was an aristocracy composed of the noble and the
opulent, though at all times combined with a certain admixture of
democracy. The affairs of the state were confided to the hands of the
two suffetes or kings,--who, in all probability, held their office for
life--and to those of the senate ([Greek: Boule]) which contained within
itself a more select council (the [Greek: gerousia]). The privilege of
electing the magistrates resided with the people at large, who also
shared the legislative power with the suffetes. Civil and military power
was usually divided: the offices of general and magistrate not being
always, as at Rome, united in the same individual,--although such an
instance might not be of impossible occurrence:--to each military chief,
on the contrary, was appointed a committee from the senate, on which he
was more or less dependent.
9. The high state tribunal of the HUNDRED was instituted as a barrier to
the constitution against the attempts of the more powerful aristocrats,
particularly the military leaders; indeed the brilliancy of Mago's
conquests seemed to threaten the republic with a military government;
and immediately previous to his time one of the generals, Malchus, had
actually made an attempt to enslave Carthage. The object of the
institution was no doubt attained; but in later times the council
assumed to itself a power which increased to absolute despotism. It is
not improbable that this court likewise constituted the select committee
(the [Greek: gerousia]) of the senate.
10. Our information respecting the financial system of the Carthaginians
is extremely meagre. The following seem to have been the principal
sources of the public revenue. 1. The tribute drawn from the federate
cities, and their African subjects. The former paid in money, the latter
for the most part in kind; this tribute was imposed at the will of the
government, so that in pressing cases the taxed nations were obliged to
give one half of their income. 2. The case was the same with their
external provinces, particularly with Sardinia. 3. The tribute
furnished by the nomad hordes, partly by those in the Regio-Syrtica, and
occasionally also by those on the western side. 4. The customs, which
were levied with extreme rigour, not only in Carthage, but likewise in
all the colonies. 5. The products of their rich mines, particularly
those of Spain. In considering the financial system of the
Carthaginians, it should not be forgotten that many of the nations with
whom they traded, or who served in their armies, were unacquainted with
the use of money.
11. System and extent of their commerce. Their object was to secure a
monopoly of the western trade; hence the practice of restricting the
growth of their colonies, and of removing as much as possible all
strangers from their commercial marts. Their trade was carried on partly
by sea, and partly by land. Their sea trade, arising from the colonies,
extended beyond the Mediterranean, certainly as far as the coasts of
Britain and Guinea. Their land trade was carried on by caravans,
consisting principally of the nomad tribes resident between the Syrtes:
the caravans travelled eastward to Ammonium and Upper Egypt, southward
to the land of the Garamantes, (Fezzan,) and even still further into the
interior of Africa.
SECOND PERIOD.
_From the breaking out of the wars with Syracuse, to the commencement of
those with Rome, B. C. 480-264._
1. The great object of Carthaginian policy during the whole of the above
period, was to subdue Sicily; this object the nation pursued with
extraordinary pertinacity, often approximating to, but never obtaining,
complete success. The growing power of Syracuse, which likewise aimed at
the sole possession of the island, laid the foundation of that national
hatred which now arose between the Sicilian Greeks and the
Carthaginians.
2. First attempt, arising out of the league formed with Xerxes I. upon
his irruption into Greece. Gelon of Syracuse, in a victory more decisive
even than that gained by Themistocles over the Persians at Salamis,
routs the Carthaginians near Himera, and compels them to accede to a
disgraceful peace.
3. This defeat was followed by a period of tranquillity lasting seventy
years, during which we know little about Carthage. All that we can say
with any probability is, that in the mean time the struggle for
territory between Cyrene and Carthage commenced and terminated to the
advantage of the latter state, whose dominion was generally extended and
confirmed in Africa by wars with the aboriginal tribes.
4. But the accession of Dionysius I. to the throne of Syracuse, and the
ambitious project formed by him and his successors, of subjecting to
their rule all Sicily and Magna-Grecia, rekindled once more the embers
of war, which had only smouldered for a short time, to burst forth with
additional violence.
Repeated and bloody wars with Dionysius I. between the years
410-368. Neither party able to expel the other: terms of the last
peace; that each party should remain in possession of what he then
occupied. Second commercial treaty with Rome.
Crafty advantage taken by the Carthaginians of the internal
commotions at Syracuse during and subsequent to the reign of
Dionysius II: they endeavour to obtain their end; but are thwarted
by the heroism of Timoleon, 345-340.
A new and frightful war with Agathocles, the seat of which is
transferred from Sicily into Africa itself; it at last terminates
in favour of Carthage, 311-307.
The war with Pyrrhus, 277-275, whose ambition gave rise to an
alliance between Carthage and Rome, contributed likewise to
increase the preponderance of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and
probably the perseverance of that people, and their skill in
profiting by circumstances, would at last have enabled them to
attain their object, had not the seeds of war been thereby
scattered between Carthage and Rome.
5. What effect these Sicilian wars had upon the state we are not
informed. They were probably regarded in Carthage as a beneficial
channel for carrying off the popular fermentation;--nevertheless, two
attempts, both unsuccessful, were made by some of the aristocratical
party, to overthrow the constitution; first by Hanno, 340, and
afterwards by Bomilcar, 308.--At the breaking out, however, of the war
with Rome, the commonwealth was so formidable and mighty, that even the
finances of the state do not appear to have been at all affected; a
circumstance of the highest importance. What consequence was it to
Carthage whether 100,000 barbarians more or less existed in the world,
so long as there remained plenty of men willing to suffer themselves to
be sold, and she possessed money to purchase them?
THIRD PERIOD.
_From the beginning of the wars with Rome, to the downfal of Carthage,
B. C. 264-146._
1. The wars between Carthage and Rome were the necessary consequences of
a desire of aggrandizement in two conquering nations; any one might have
foreseen the struggle between the two rivals as soon as their conquests
should once begin to clash. It is, therefore, a question of little
importance, to enquire which was the aggressor; and although Rome may
not be entirely cleared of that charge, we cannot help observing that,
according to the principles of sound policy, the security of Italy was
hardly compatible with the sole dominion of the Carthaginians over the
island of Sicily.
First war with Rome, 264-241, (twenty-three years,) waged for the
possession of Sicily, and decided almost at its commencement by
Hiero's passing over to the Roman side. (For the history of it,
see below, in the Roman history, Book V. Period ii, parag. 2 sq.)
2. This war cost the republic, Sicily and the sovereignty of the
Mediterranean, by which the fate of its other external possessions was
already predetermined. But that which appeared at the first view to
threaten the greatest danger, was the total exhaustion of its finances;
a circumstance which will no longer surprise us, when we consider how
many fleets had been destroyed and replaced, how many armies had been
annihilated and renewed. Carthage had never before been engaged in such
an obstinate struggle as this; and the immediate consequences were more
terrific even than the war itself.
3. The impossibility of paying the mercenaries produced a mutiny among
the troops, which rapidly grew into a rebellion of the subject nations,
who had been most cruelly oppressed during the war. The consequence was
a civil war of three years and a half, which probably would have spared
the Romans the trouble of destroying Carthage, had not the state been
snatched from ruin by the heroism of Hamilcar.
This war, which lasted from 240 to 237, produced lasting consequences
to the state; it gave rise to the feud between Hamilcar and Hanno the
Great, which compelled Hamilcar to seek for support against the senate
by becoming the leader of a democratic faction.
4. The revolt spread abroad; it reached Sardinia and caused the loss of
that most important island, of which the Romans, flushed with power,
took possession, in spite of the terms of the peace.
5. The influence of the family of the Barcas, supported in their
disputes with the senate by the popular party, now got the upper hand
in Carthage; and the first fruit of their power was the new and gigantic
project of repairing the loss of Sicily and Sardinia by the conquest of
Spain; a country where the Carthaginians already had some possessions
and commercial connections. The immediate object of the Barcas was the
support of their family and party; but the Spanish silver mines soon
furnished the republic with the means of renewing the contest with Rome
also.
6. During the nine years in which Hamilcar commanded, and in the
following eight in which Hasdrubal, his son-in-law and successor, was at
the head of the army, the whole of the south of Spain, as far as the
Iberus, was brought under subjection to Carthage, either by negotiation
or force of arms. The further progress of the Carthaginians was only
arrested by a treaty with the Romans, in which the Iberus was fixed upon
as a frontier line, and the freedom of Saguntum acknowledged by both
powers. Hasdrubal crowned his victories as a general and as a statesman
by the foundation of New Carthage, (Carthagena,) which was to be the
future seat of Carthaginian power in the newly-conquered country.
Hasdrubal having fallen by the hand of an assassin in the year 221, the
party of the Barcas succeeded in appointing Hamilcar's son, Hannibal, a
young man of one-and-twenty, for his successor. Hannibal found every
thing already prepared in Spain for the furtherance of the hereditary
project of his family, which was a renewal of the contest with Rome; and
the vigour with which this project was pursued, clearly proves how great
must have been the preponderance of the Barcine influence, at that
time, in Carthage. Had the commonwealth attended to the marine with the
same ardour as their great general did to the land service, the fate of
Rome would perhaps have been very different.
Second war with Rome, 218-201, (seventeen years,) first in Italy
and Spain, afterwards, from 203, in Africa itself. (See the
history of this war below, in the Roman history, Book V, Period
ii, parag. 6 sqq.)
7. Until Africa became the scene of action, the second war cost the
republic much less than the first; the expenses being principally
defrayed by Spain and Italy. Hanno, however, was at the head of a
powerful party at home, who were clamorous for peace, and who can say
they were wrong? As might be expected, the family of the Barcas were for
war, and their influence carried the day. That general who, with hardly
any support from Carthage, was yet able to maintain a footing in the
country of his powerful foes for no less than fifteen years, and that,
too, as much by policy as by force of arms, must extort our admiration.
It cannot, however, be denied, that during the struggle one favourable
opportunity, at least, was let slip of making peace; a fatal omission,
for which the hero of Cannae paid dearly enough, by the failure of his
darling project.
8. By the second peace with Rome, Carthage was deprived of all her
possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of
the Romans. She was now to be a mere trading city under the tutelage of
Rome. But Carthage found by this peace her most formidable enemy on the
soil of Africa itself. Massinissa had been elevated to the dignity of
king of Numidia; and his endeavours to form his nomads into an
agricultural people, and to collect them into cities, must have changed
the military system that Carthage had hitherto followed. Roman policy,
moreover, had taken care that the article inserted in his favour in the
last treaty of peace, should be so ambiguously worded, as to leave
abundant openings for dispute.
9. Even after this disgraceful peace, the family of the Barcas still
preserved their influence, and Hannibal was placed as supreme magistrate
at the head of the republic. He attempts to reform the constitution and
the finances, by destroying the oligarchy of the hundred, by whom the
finances had been thrown into confusion. Complete as was the success of
the first blow, it soon became apparent that aristocratic factions are
not so readily annihilated as armies.
The democratic faction to which even the Barcas owed their first
elevation, was the cause of the degeneracy of the Carthaginian
constitution. By that faction the legislative authority of the
senate and magistrates was withdrawn and transferred to the _ordo
judicum_--probably the same as the high state tribunal of the
hundred--which now assumed the character of an omnipotent national
inquisition; and the members being chosen for life exercised
oppressive despotism. This tribunal was formed of those who had
served the office of ministers of finance, with whom it shared
unblushingly the revenues of the state. Hannibal destroyed this
oligarchy by a law, enacting that the members should hold their
office but for one year; whereas before they held it for life. In
the reform wrought by this law in the finances it was seen, that
after all wars and losses, the revenues of the republic were still
sufficient, not only for the usual expenditure and the payment of
tribute to Rome, but also for leaving a surplus in the public
treasury. Ten years had hardly elapsed before Carthage was enabled
to pay down at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged
to furnish by instalments.
10. The defeated party, whose interests were now the same with those of
Rome, joined the Romans, to whom they discovered Hannibal's plan of
renewing the war in conjunction with Antiochus the Great, king of Syria.
A Roman embassy was sent over to Africa, under some other pretext, to
demand that Hannibal should be given up. The Carthaginian general
secretly fled to king Antiochus, at whose court he became the chief
fomenter of the war against Rome; although unsuccessful in his endeavour
to implicate the Carthaginian republic in the struggle.
See hereafter the history of Syria, Book IV, Period iii, separate
kingdoms. I. Seleucidae, parag. 18; and Book V, Period ii, parag.
10 sq.
11. In consequence of the absence of Hannibal, Carthage fell once more
under the dominion of the Romans, who contrived, by taking a crafty
advantage of the state of parties, to give a show of generosity to the
exercise of their power. Even the patriotic faction, if we may judge by
the violent steps which they took more than once against Massinissa and
his partisans, seem to have been but a tool in the hands of Rome.
12. Disputes with Massinissa, which led to the gradual partition of the
Carthaginian territory in Africa. The manner in which this territory had
been acquired, facilitated the discovery of claims upon each of the
component parts; and the interference of Rome, sometimes disinterested,
but oftener swayed by party feeling, ensured the possession of the
territory to the Numidian.
Even in 199, a disadvantageous treaty framed with Massinissa for
fifty years: nevertheless the rich province of Emporia is lost in
193.--Loss of another province unnamed, to which Massinissa
inherited some claims from his father.--Seizure of the province of
Tysca, with fifty cities, about 174. Probable date of Cato's
embassy, who returned in disgust, because his decision had been
rejected, and became the fomenter of a project to destroy
Carthage.--New disputes about 152.--Massinissa's party is expelled
Carthage.--War breaks out in consequence, during which the king in
his ninetieth year personally defeats the Carthaginians; and what
with famine and the sword, Hasdrubal's army, which had been
surrounded by the enemy, was nearly exterminated; in the mean while
the Roman ambassadors, who had come to act as mediators, obeying
their private instructions, looked on with quiet indifference.
13. Though it is evident that the party spirit raging between Cato and
Scipio Nasica had a considerable influence in hastening the destruction
of Carthage; and though it is equally clear that Massinissa's late
victory paved the way for the immediate execution of that project; yet
it is difficult to unravel the web, by which, long before the
declaration of war now about to follow, treachery prepared the final
scene of this great tragedy. Was the account that Cato at his return
gave of the resuscitated power of Carthage consonant to truth? Was not
the sudden secession of Ariobarzanes, the grandson of Syphax, who was to
have led a Numidian army to defend Carthage against Massinissa,
previously arranged with Rome? Was not the turbulent Gisgo, who first
incited the populace to insult the Roman ambassadors, and then
opportunely rescued them from the fury of the mob, in the pay of Rome?
These questions give rise to suspicions, although they cannot
satisfactorily be answered. At any rate, it may be said, that the
conduct of Rome, after war had broken out, corroborates the suspicion.
The whole history of the last period sufficiently proves, that it was
not so much the debased character of the nation, as party spirit, and
the avarice of the great, which produced the fall of Carthage. Advantage
was taken of that party spirit and avarice by Roman policy, which,
although acting according to the dictates of blind passion, knew how to
profit by dark and base intrigue.
Third war with Rome and destruction of Carthage, 150-146. See
hereafter the Roman history, Book V, Period ii, parag. 19 sq.
* * * * *
SECOND BOOK.
_History of the Persian Empire, from B. C. 560-330._
Sources. Preservation of historic records among the Persians
themselves under the form of royal annals; origin and nature of
those annals. As these have been destroyed, we are obliged to
deduce the history from foreign writers, some of whom, however,
availed themselves of the Persian annals. 1. _Greeks_: their
authority as writers, contemporary, but not always sufficiently
acquainted with the east. (_a_) CTESIAS. His court history compiled
from Persian annals, would be the principal work did we possess the
whole; we have, however, only an extract from it preserved by
Photius. (_b_) HERODOTUS: who probably availed himself of similar
sources in some portion of his work. (_c_) XENOPHON. To this period
of history belong, not only his Anabasis and Hellenica, but also
his Cyropaedia, or portraiture of a happy empire and an accomplished
ruler, according to eastern ideas, exhibited in the example of
Cyrus: of use so far as pure historic records are interwoven with
the narrative. (_d_) DIODORUS, etc. 2. _Jewish writers._ The books
of ESDRAS and NEHEMIAH; and more particularly that of ESTHER, as
containing a faithful representation of the Persian court and its
manners. 3. The accounts of the later _Persian chroniclers_,
MIRKHOND in particular, who flourished in the thirteenth century of
the christian era, can have no weight in the scale of criticism;
they are nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they make us
acquainted with the ideas that the inhabitants of the east form of
their early history.
The modern authors on Persian history are principally those who
have written on ancient history in general: see p. 2. A treatise on
Persian history, deduced from eastern sources, will be found in the
_Ancient Universal History_, vol. iv.
BRISSONIUS, _de Regno Persarum_, 1591, 8vo. A very laborious
compilation.
The section concerning the Persians in # HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc.
vol. i, part 1.
[MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, _History of Persia_, from the earliest ages to
the present times. Lond. 1816, 4to. 2 vols. "A valuable work."]
1. State of the Persian nation previous to Cyrus; a highland people,
subject to the Medes, dwelling in the mountainous parts of the province
of Persis, and leading wholly, or for the most part, a nomad life.
Division into ten clans, among which that of the _Pasargadae_, the
noblest and ruling horde, is particularly remarkable on account of the
figure it makes in subsequent history.--The result of this division was
a patriarchal government, the vestiges of which remain visible in the
whole of the following history of the Persians. Permanent distinction
between the tribes in reference to their mode of life, observable even
during the most flourishing period of the Persian state: three of the
nobles or warriors, three of the husbandmen, and four of the shepherds.
Argument thence deduced, that the history of the Persians as a dominant
nation, _is that of the nobler clans alone, and of the_ PASARGADAE _more
especially_.
2. The personal history of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy,
was, even in the time of Herodotus, so obscured under the veil of
romance, that it was no longer possible to detect the real truth. It is,
however, evident, that the course of the revolution wrought by him was,
on the whole, the same as was followed in all similar empires founded in
Asia. Gengis-khan, in a later age, was placed at the head of all the
Mogol hordes; in the same manner was Cyrus elected chief of all the
Persian tribes, by whose assistance he became a mighty conqueror, at the
time that the Babylonian and Median kingdoms of Inner Asia were on the
decline, and before the Lydian empire, under Croesus, had been firmly
established.
Descent of Cyrus from the family of Achaemenes, (Jamshid?). That
family belonged to the Pasargadae tribe, and therefore remained the
ruling house.
3. Rise of the Persian dominion, in consequence of the overthrow of the
Medo-Bactrian empire, after the defeat of Astyages at Pasargada. Rapid
extension by further conquest. Subjection of Asia Minor after the
victory won by Cyrus in person over Croesus, and capture of the Greek
colonies by the generals of the Persian monarch. Conquest of Babylon and
all the Babylonian provinces. The Phoenician cities submit themselves of
their own accord. Even in Cyrus's time, therefore, the frontiers of the
Persian empire had been extended in southern Asia to the Mediterranean,
to the Oxus, and to the Indus; but the campaign against the nomad races,
inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, was unsuccessful; and Cyrus
himself fell in the contest.
It cannot be denied but that in the narration of the separate wars
waged by Cyrus, discrepancies are found in Herodotus and Ctesias;
those two authors, however, agree in the main facts: and, indeed,
the differences which exist between them cannot be considered always
as direct contradictions.
4. Immediate consequences of this great revolution in respect both of
the conquerors and the conquered. Among the former, even in the time of
Cyrus, the civilization and luxury of the Medes, their legislation and
national religion, and the sacerdotal caste of the magi, who were
guardians of that religion, had been introduced, and the whole system of
the Persian court had been remodelled upon that of the Medes.
Description of Zoroaster's legislation, and of the magian national
religion, according to the Zend-avesta. How far the dogmas of
Zoroaster can be considered as dominant among the Persians?--Proof
that they were adopted only by the nobler tribes, more particularly
the Pasargadae. Their great and beneficial influence on agriculture.
ANQUETIL DU PERRON, _Zend-avesta, ouvrage de_ ZOROASTRE, _traduit
en Francois sur l'original Zend_. Paris, 1771. 4to. This work has
been much improved by the critical discussions added to the German
translation by J. L. KLEUKER. Compare the dissertations on
Zoroaster by MEINERS and TYCHSEN, in _Comment. Soc. Gotting._ and
HEEREN, _Ideas_, etc. vol. i.
HYDE, _De Religione veterum Persarum_; Oxon. 1700, 4to. Replete
with learned research, and the first work that excited enquiry on
the subject.
# J. S. RHODE, _Sacred Traditions of the East_; Breslau, 1821. An
excellent work for the study of the Zend-avesta, the magian religion,
and the antiquities of the Medes and Persians.
5. First political constitution of the Persian empire under Cyrus. No
general new organization; but for the most part the original
institutions are preserved among the conquered, who are compelled to pay
tribute. Royal officers, appointed to collect the tribute, are
associated with the generals, who with numerous armies keep in
subjection the inhabitants of the conquered countries. For the support
of the empire large standing armies are kept in pay, besides which,
recourse is frequently had to the transplanting of whole nations; while,
as was the case with the Jews, some who had been formerly transplanted
are restored to their country. With the same view injunctions are
issued, as in the case of the Lydians, to effect the enervation of
warlike races by a luxurious and effeminate system of education.
6. Cyrus leaves two sons, the elder of whom, Cambyses, succeeds as
king; the younger, Smerdis, (the _Tanyoxarces_ of Ctesias,) becomes
independent lord of Bactria and the eastern territories; but is soon
after murdered by the command of his elder brother.
7. Under Cambyses the conquering arms of the Persians are directed
against Africa. Egypt becomes a Persian province, and the neighbouring
Libya, together with Cyrene, assume the yoke of their own accord. But
the twofold expedition against the opulent commercial establishments,
Ammonium in the west, and Meroe in the south, is wholly unsuccessful;
that against Carthage is arrested in its commencement by the refusal of
the Tyrians to join the naval armament. A colony of six thousand
Egyptians is transplanted into Susiana.
8. The cruelty with which Cambyses is accused of treating the Egyptians
was directed rather against the powerful caste of the priests, than
against the whole nation; and originated more in political than in
religious motives. It must be observed, however, that we ought to be
particularly on our guard against all the evil that is related of
Cambyses, inasmuch as our information respecting that prince is derived
entirely from his enemies, the Egyptian priests.
9. The usurpation of the Pseudo-Smerdis, (or _Tanyoxarces_,) was an
attempt of the magi to replace a Median dynasty on the throne, by means
of a plot hatched within the seraglio. It was the occasion of an
accident which cost Cambyses his life, after a reign of seven years and
a half: (or, according to Ctesias, of eighteen.)
10. The Pseudo-Smerdis kept his seat on the throne eight months, during
which he attempted to bring over the conquered nations to his interest
by a remission of all tribute for three years; but the discovery of his
cheat gave rise to a conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians, who
could not brook the rule of a Mede, and the usurper lost his life.
11. It could not be expected that the political organization of the
kingdom should advance to completion during the reign of Cambyses, who
was almost always absent in the prosecution of war; or during the brief
rule of the Pseudo-Smerdis. It remained, therefore, in the same state as
under Cyrus. But the introduction of the Median court-ceremonial among
the ruling tribe of the Persians, and the adoption of fixed dwellings by
that tribe, rendered it necessary that royal residences should be
erected for the reception of the king's court; among these Persepolis,
(see above, p. 20,) probably commenced by Cyrus, was completed under
Darius and Xerxes.
The best drawings of the monuments of Persepolis, remarkable alike
for their architecture, their sculpture, and their inscriptions in
the arrow-headed character, are to be found in the Travels
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