Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I
by Arnold James Cooley · English · Gutenberg #39733 · 4,919,257 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume I
Author: Arnold James Cooley
Richard Vine Tuson
Release date: May 19, 2012 [eBook #39733]
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39733
Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Leonora Dias de Lima, Henry
Gardiner and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COOLEY'S CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS AND COLLATERAL INFORMATION IN THE ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES..., SIXTH EDITION, VOLUME I ***
Produced by Chris Curnow, Leonora Dias de Lima, Henry
Gardiner and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net
* * * * *
Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been replicated
faithfully except as shown in the TRANSCRIBER'S AMENDMENTS at the end of
the text. This etext presumes a mono-spaced font on the user's device,
such as Courier New. Words in italics are indicated like _this_. Text
emphasized with bold characters or other treatment is shown like =this=.
The author indicates questionable data with (?). Superscripts are
indicated like this: S^{ta} Maria. Subscripts are indicated like this:
H_{2}O. Examples of short and long vowels: [)a]: "a" with a breve
overhead, indicating a short vowel. [=o]: "o" with a macron overhead,
indicating a long vowel. [oe] is the oe ligature.
* * * * *
COOLEY'S CYCLOPÆDIA
OF
PRACTICAL RECEIPTS
AND
COLLATERAL INFORMATION
IN THE
ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES
INCLUDING
Medicine, Pharmacy, Hygiene, and Domestic Economy
DESIGNED AS A COMPREHENSIVE
SUPPLEMENT TO THE PHARMACOP[OE]IA
AND
GENERAL BOOK OF REFERENCE
FOR THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, AMATEUR, AND
HEADS OF FAMILIES
SIXTH EDITION
REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED BY
RICHARD V. TUSON, F.I.C., F.C.S.
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE;
FORMERLY LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY AT THE CHARING CROSS HOSPITAL.
VOL. I
[Illustration]
LONDON
J. & A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET
1880
PRINTED BY ADLARD AND SON BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION
Some one has said that "when a book reaches a fifth edition it scarcely
requires a preface." If such be true of a fifth, it is probably still
truer of a sixth edition, and therefore this issue of 'Cooley's
Cyclopædia' might fairly be sent forth to the public without any prefatory
remarks whatever. It is, however, desirable to point out that the present
edition is larger than the last by about six hundred pages; that much
greater space than hitherto is devoted to Hygiène (including sanitation,
the composition and adulteration of foods) as well as to the Arts,
Pharmacy, Manufacturing Chemistry, and other subjects of importance to
those for whom the work is intended.
The articles on what is commonly termed 'Household Medicine' have been
amplified and numerically increased.
Short accounts of the more common diseases, their causes, symptoms, and
treatment, affecting the domesticated animals have been introduced. "Here,
however, it may be useful to repeat the cautions given in other parts of
this volume, as to the impropriety of unnecessarily meddling with the
healing art or neglecting a prompt application" (where and when possible)
"to a duly qualified practitioner in all cases demanding medical or
surgical aid." These remarks of Mr Cooley are as applicable to cases of
Veterinary as to those of Human Medicine.
Numerous authors have necessarily been consulted; a list of them, and the
titles of their works from which information has been derived, will be
found at the end of the second volume. When extracts have been introduced
_verbatim_ the authority is quoted in the body of the book.
Many of my scientific _confrères_ have rendered me valuable aid in
preparing this edition; but I am particularly indebted to my accomplished
and zealous friend Mr John Gardner for his hearty and constant
co-operation; to Dr Lionel Beale for his kindness in revising the articles
on "Urine," "Urinary Diseases," &c., as well as for the use of cuts from
his celebrated works on these subjects; to my friend and former pupil Mr
F. Woodland Toms for revising and rewriting the articles on "Sewage" and
"Water;" and to my assistants Mr James Bayne and Mr Cuthbert Neison for
correcting "proof."
The laborious task of preparing a sixth edition of 'Cooley' having been
accomplished, it is hoped that, due consideration being given to the
magnitude of the work and to the great variety of the subjects treated, it
will be found to be practically free from important errors, and that it
will meet with, at least, the same gratifying reception as that accorded
to its predecessors.
RICHARD V. TUSON.
CHEMICAL LABORATORY;
ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE, LONDON.
_January, 1880._
PREFACE
The design of the present work is briefly, but not completely expressed in
its title-page. Independently of a reliable and comprehensive collection
of formulæ and processes in nearly all the industrial and useful arts, it
contains a description of the leading properties and applications of the
substances referred to, together with ample directions, hints, data, and
allied information, calculated to facilitate the development of the
practical value of the book in the shop, the laboratory, the factory, and
the household. Notices of the substances embraced in the Materia Medica of
our national pharmacop[oe]ias, in addition to the whole of their
preparations, and numerous other animal and vegetable substances employed
in medicine, as well as most of those used for food, clothing, and fuel,
with their economic applications, have been included in the work. The
synonymes and references are other additions which will prove invaluable
to the reader. Lastly, there have been appended to all the principal
articles referred to brief, but clear, directions for determining their
purity and commercial value, and for detecting their presence and
proportions in compounds.
The sources from which I have derived the vast mass of materials forming
this volume are such as to render it deserving the utmost confidence. I
have invariably resorted to the best and latest authorities, and have
consulted almost innumerable volumes, both British and foreign, during its
compilation. Secondary channels of information have been scarcely ever
relied on when original authorities were within my reach. A large portion
of the work has been derived from my personal experience and observations
in the departments of applied chemistry and hygiene, and from the
processes of various laboratories and manufactories, many of which I can
the more confidently recommend from having either inspected or witnessed
their employment on an extensive scale. The indiscriminate adoption of
matter, without examination, has been uniformly avoided, and in no
instance has any formula or process been admitted into this work, unless
it rested on some well-known fact of science, had been sanctioned by
usage, or come recommended by some respectable authority. The settlement
of doubtful or disputed points has often occupied me a greater number of
hours, and not unfrequently a greater number of days, than that of the
lines of letter-press which convey the results to the public. In all cases
precedence has been given to the standard formulæ of our national
pharmacop[oe]ias, and to those processes which long experience, or
well-conducted experiments, have shown to be the most successful,
profitable, and trustworthy. In general, the sources of information have
been indicated, for the purpose of enabling the reader to form a better
estimation of their value. Whenever this is not the case, in reference to
borrowed formulæ and data, the omission has arisen from the impossibility
of determining to whom the merit is justly due.
I have endeavoured as much as possible, in the present work, to avoid
confusion of the medical weights with those commonly used in trade and
commerce--an attempt which, so far as I am aware, has not been
successfully carried out in any other quarter. For this purpose I
determined to entirely abandon the usual arbitrary signs or characters
employed to represent the divisions of the apothecaries' pound, and to
distinguish the two weights from each other, by simply printing, in
different type, the plain English names and abbreviations representing
their several denominations. The medical signs for the imperial gallon and
its subdivisions have also been abandoned for their common English names.
It would have afforded me pleasure to have reduced all the quantities to
one uniform standard, had it been practicable, or, in all cases,
advisable.
Under the names of most of the leading diseases that could be profitably
noticed in the present work, such explanations and directions have been
given as accord with the prevailing opinions and practice of the faculty
at the present day. These, when judiciously applied, will prove invaluable
to emigrants, travellers, voyagers, and other parties beyond the reach of
legitimate medical assistance; and, under opposite circumstances, will, in
general, enable those who have the care of the sick the better to second
and carry out the instructions and efforts of the physician for the
benefit of their charge. Here, however, it may be useful to repeat the
cautions given in other parts of this volume, as to the impropriety of
unnecessarily meddling with the healing art, or neglecting a prompt
application to a duly qualified practitioner, in all cases demanding
either medical or surgical aid. It is an indubitable fact that the best
efforts of the inexperienced and uninitiated in the mysteries of medical
science must be always enormously behind those of parties whose whole
lives and study have been devoted to the subject.
The nature of a condensed alphabetical arrangement not permitting
numerous articles to come under distinct heads, or to be referred to under
all their synonymes, the casual reader may often be led to suppose that
this book is most deficient where in reality it is the most copious. In
general I have attempted, as much as possible, to bring together subjects
of a closely allied character, and compounds which are analogous to each
other, either in constitution or the mode of their preparation. Thus, most
of the formulæ for Mixtures, Ointments, Pills, &c., follow in alphabetical
order the general articles under these heads; whilst those for the Oxides,
Salts, &c., follow the names of their respective bases. In like manner, a
notice of a number of preparations will be found included in that of their
principal ingredients. The names under which the leading substances appear
are generally those which are most familiar to well-informed practical
men, and which have commonly reference to either their acknowledged
chemical constitution, or to some long-known and easily recognised
quality. The following extract conveys an important lesson on this
subject, with which I perfectly agree:--"We have been unwilling to make
any unnecessary changes in the nomenclature of substances whose names are
sanctioned by the usage of the present day; for these names have been, for
the most part, rightly assigned by our predecessors, or confirmed by lapse
of time. We are indeed aware that every improvement in the knowledge of
things ought to be embodied in their names; but we must be careful, in
selecting or forming these names, not to make those points appear certain
and established which are as yet doubtful, for it is safer to be in the
rear than advance of natural history."[1]
[Footnote 1: Preface to the Ph. L., 1851.]
I have exerted myself to the utmost to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of this volume, but I feel conscious that, after all my
efforts for this purpose, some errors have crept into it, that many
subjects which deserve insertion in it have been omitted, and that many
others have been either imperfectly or too briefly noticed. "Yet these
failures, however frequent, may," I trust, "admit of extenuation and
apology. To have attempted much is always laudable, even where the
enterprise is above the strength that undertakes it. To rest below his aim
is incident to every one whose fancy is active, and whose views are
comprehensive; nor is any man satisfied with himself because he has done
much, but because he conceives little." When I commenced this work I
resolved to leave nothing within its legitimate limits unexamined or
unelucidated; and I flattered myself with a prospect of the hours which I
should thus "revel away" in a pursuit so congenial to my desires--"the
treasures with which I expected every search into those neglected mines to
reward my labour--and the triumph with which I should display my
acquisitions to mankind." But these were the dreams of a poet, doomed at
last to wake a "Cyclopædist". The long task which I had undertaken soon
exhibited its truly onerous character, and daily grew in urgency, until
that which promised to be a pleasure had been transformed into an
exhausting and continuous labour. At first, a sacrifice of the hours of
leisure only seemed necessary to the undertaking--next, those assigned to
professional and business avocations were demanded, and absorbed; but, ere
long, one by one, the hours usually devoted to repose were sucked into the
insatiable vortex, until the bright beams of the rising sun not
unfrequently illumined the lamp-lit study or the gloomy laboratory, and
surprised the author, no longer an enthusiast, at his still-enduring task.
But long ere this I had learned that to carry out my original resolutions
in all their completeness and entirety was impossible, and "that to pursue
perfection was, like the first inhabitants of Arcadia, to chase the sun,
which, when they had reached the hill where he had seemed to rest, was
still at the same distance from them."[2] All I can further say in
reference to this point is simply to assure the reader that three of the
elements usually deemed essential to give value to a technological
work--viz. zeal, industry, and capital--have not been wanting in the
production of the present one;--the first two depending on the author, and
the other chiefly on the liberality and enterprise of the publisher.
[Footnote 2: Dr Samuel Johnson's Preface to his English Dictionary.]
As heretofore, I beg to solicit my readers to apprise me of any
inaccuracies or omissions in this volume which may come beneath their
notice. I shall also thankfully receive any hints or suggestions tending
to the improvement of future editions of this work. Such communications,
to be useful, must, however be written on only one side of the paper.
Parties who may thus kindly afford me assistance will, in due course, have
their services publicly acknowledged; and their names and addresses,
unless when otherwise requested, will be published in full.
I have endeavoured to render the present volume as self-explanatory as
possible, and, in general, have appended ample directions to the several
formulæ and processes that seemed to me likely to cause embarrassment to
those inexpert in chemical manipulation; but should any party find it
otherwise, I shall be happy to reply, gratuitously, to any reasonable
questions tending to elucidate the difficulty.
In conclusion, I may add that, having now for nearly a quarter of a
century devoted my attention to the applications of chemistry in most of
the useful arts and manufactures, both British and foreign, and in
sanitation, I am in possession of many valuable processes and formulæ,
hitherto wholly unknown, or but partially developed, with various
improved plans of factories, laboratories, ventilation, &c., which the
limits of this work will not permit me to describe in its pages, but on
which I should be happy to communicate with parties interested in the
same. Persons desirous of establishing any new branch of manufacture, or
of improving an existing one, or of determining the purity or value of
articles of food, wines, liqueurs, medicines, &c., or of obtaining formulæ
or processes which are not contained in this work, may, in like manner,
have their wishes complied with, by enclosing to me samples, or the
requisite information.
ARNOLD J. COOLEY.
NAMES OF THOSE WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO, OR ASSISTED IN
THE REVISION OF, THIS EDITION
JOHN ATTFIELD, Ph.D., F.I.C., F.C.S., Professor of Practical
Chemistry to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
J. WORTLEY AXE, P.C.V.M.S., Professor of Histology in the Royal
Veterinary College.
LLOYD BULLOCK, F.I.C., F.C.S.
E. L. BARRET, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.
E. CANTON, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Charing Cross Hospital.
SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Parasitology and
Botany in the Royal Veterinary College.
STEPHEN DARBY, F.C.S.
DR DE VRIJ, of the Hague.
JOHN GARDNER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
WILLIAM HARKNESS, F.I.C., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., Assistant Chemist in
the Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department, Somerset
House.
C. W. HEATON, F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry at the
Charing Cross Hospital.
EDMUND NEISON, F.I.C., F.C.S.
WILLIAM PRITCHARD, Professor of Anatomy in the Royal Veterinary
College.
A. E. SANSOM, M.D. Lond., M.R.C.P., Physician to the Royal
Hospital for Diseases of the Chest.
J. B. SIMONDS, Principal of, and Professor of Pathology in, the
Royal Veterinary College.
JOHN SPILLER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
JOHN STENHOUSE, LL.D., F.R.S., formerly Lecturer on chemistry in
St. Bartholomew's Hospital.
ABBREVIATIONS, ETC., USED IN THIS WORK
These, for the most part, consist of the first syllable, or the initial
letter or letters of the words they stand for. As _Prep._, preparation;
_Pur._, purity; _Purif._, purification; _Obs._, observations; _Var._,
varieties, &c.--Ph., stands for _pharmacop[oe]ia_; B. P., for _British
Pharmacop[oe]ia_; Ind. Ph., for _Indian Pharmacop[oe]ia_; Cod., for
_Codex._--L., E., D., P., U. S., &c., associated with the last two
abbreviations, are the initial letters of the cities and countries which
produced the respective works; as, London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Paris,
United States, &c. When no dates are given, the last editions of the
pharmacop[oe]ias are referred to.
_lb._, _oz._, _dr._, respectively represent the _pound_, _ounce_, and
_drachm_ (1/8 oz.), AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. This is the only weight employed
in the British and last Dublin Pharmacop[oe]ias.
lb., oz., dr., and gr., refer to the _pound_, _ounce_, _drachm_, and
_grain_, APOTHECARIES' or TROY WEIGHT.
The word '_drop_' in all cases indicates a measured drop or minim.
The _names of individuals_ which appear in this work are those to whom the
immediately attached information or formula is usually attributed, or on
whose recommendation or authority it has been selected.
' denotes the _accented vowel_ or _syllable_.
'' that the following consonant coalesces with the preceding
letter in utterance.
[dagger] that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
'_obsolete_,'
* that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
'_obsolescent_,' little used, or objectionable.
[double-dagger] that the name or the definition to which it is
attached is '_colloquial_,' or popular, or used only in trade.
§ that the name or the definition to which it is attached is
'_vulgar_,'
A CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, PROCESSES, AND
COLLATERAL INFORMATION
A--ABBREVIATION
=A-, ab-, abs-.= [L.] In _composition_, from, denoting distance,
departure, separation, or opposition; as in _aberration_, _abstraction_,
_abnormal_, &c.
=A-, an-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, no, not, without, denoting the absence
or loss of some quality or thing; as in _achromatic_, _anhydrous_,
_amorphous_, &c.
=AB'ACA= (k[)a]h). A species of vegetable fibre, of several varieties,
obtained in the Philippine Islands, and remarkable for its brilliancy,
strength, and durability. The finer kinds are woven into muslins, and
other delicate fabrics; the coarser are formed into mats, cordage, and
sail-cloth. It has been recently employed in Paris for the manufacture of
various articles of furniture and dress; including bonnets, tapestry,
carpets, network, hammocks, &c. The fibre, and fabrics made of it, may be
bleached and dyed in a similar manner to flax and linen.
=ABATTOIR=. A public slaughter-house for cattle, &c., usually erected
within the walls or precincts of a continental town or city.
=ABBREVIATION=. One or more of the earlier letters of a word used to
express the whole.
1. Abbreviations in general use:--
A.B., Bachelor of Arts.
A.D., In the year of our Lord.
A.I.C., Associate of the Institute of Chemistry.
A.I.C.E., Associate of the Institute of Civil Engineers.
A.M., Master of Arts.--Before noon.
A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy.
B.A., Bachelor of Arts.
Bart., Baronet.
B.C., Before Christ.
B.D., Bachelor of Divinity.
B.Sc., Bachelor of Science.
C.B., Companion of the Bath.
C.E., Civil Engineer.
C.S., Civil Service.
D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Laws.
D.D., Doctor of Divinity.
D.G., By the Grace of God.
Dr., Doctor.--Debtor.
D.Sc., Doctor of Science.
D.V., God willing.
Ed., Editor, or Edition.
e.g., for example.
F.C.P., Fellow of the College of Preceptors.
F.C.S., Fellow of the Chemical Society.
F.G.S., Fellow of the Geological Society.
F.I.C., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry.
F.L.S., Fellow of the Linnean Society.
F.R.A.S., Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
F.R.C.P., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.R.S.E., Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
H.M.S., Her Majesty's Ship.
H.R.H., His (or Her) Royal Highness.
i.e., That is.
Inst., Instant (the present month).
I.H.S., Jesus the Saviour of Man.
K.B., Knight of the Bath.
K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath.
K.G., Knight of the Garter.
Knt., Knight.
K.St.P., Knight of St. Patrick.
K.T., Knight of the Thistle.
L.A.C., Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company.
Lat., Latitude.
L.D., Licentiate in Dentistry.
LL.D., Doctor of Laws.
L.M., Licentiate in Midwifery.
Loc. cit., The part referred to.
Lon. or Long., Longitude.
M.A., Master of Arts.
M.B., Bachelor of Medicine.
M.C., Master of Surgery.--Master of the Ceremonies.
M.C.P., Member of the College of Preceptors.
M.D., Doctor of Medicine.
M.I.B.A., Member of the Institute of British Architects.
M.R.C.P., Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
M.R.C.S., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
M.R.C.V.S., Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.
M.R.I., Member of the Royal Institution.
M.R.I.A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
MS., Manuscript.
MSS., Manuscripts.
Mus. Doc., Doctor of Music.
N.B., Mark well.
Nem. con., Without opposition.
O.H.M.S., On Her Majesty's service.
Op. cit., The work quoted.
Per cent. (often expressed by the sign %), By the hundred.
Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy.
P.M., Afternoon.
Prox., The next (month).
P.S., Postscript.
Q.C., Queen's Counsel.
Qy. (?), Query, Question.
R.A., Royal Academician--Royal Artillery.
R.E., Royal Engineers.
R.H.A., Royal Horse Artillery.
R.M., Royal Marines.
R.N., Royal Navy.
Tr., Translator.
Ult., The last (month).
v. or vide, See.
W.S., Writer to the Signet.
&, _ampersand_, and.
&c., et cetera, And so on.
2. Abbreviations used in Prescriptions:--
_A. aa._, _ana_ (Greek), of each. Equally by weight or measure.
_Abdom._, _abdomen_, the abdomen, the belly.
_Abs. febr._, _absente febre_, fever being absent.
_Ad 2 vic._, _ad secundum vicem_, to the second time; or _ad duas
vices_, for two times.
_Ad gr. acid._, _ad gratam aciditatem_, to an agreeable acidity.
_Ad def. animi_, _ad defectionem animi_, to fainting.
_Ad del. an._, _ad deliquium animi_, to fainting.
_Ad libit._, _ad libitum_, at pleasure.
_Add._, _adde_, or _addantur_, add, or let them be added; _addendus_, to
be added.
_Adjac._, _adjacens_, adjacent.
_Admov._, _admove_, _admoveatur_, _admoveantur_, apply, let it be
applied, let them be applied.
_Ads. febre_, _adstante febre_, while the fever is present.
_Alter. hor._, _alternis horis_, every other hour.
_Alvo adstr._, _alvo adstrictâ_, when the bowels are confined.
_Aq. astr._, _aqua astricta_, frozen water.
_Aq. bull._, _aqua bulliens_, boiling water.
_Aq. com._, _aqua communis_, common water.
_Aq. fluv._, _aqua fluviatilis_, river water.
_Aq. mar._, _aqua marina_, sea water.
_Aq. niv._, _aqua nivalis_, snow water.
_Aq. pluv._, _aqua pluviatilis_, or pluvialis, rain water.
_Aq. ferv._, _aqua fervens_, hot water.
_Aq. font._, _aqua fontana_, or _aqua fontis_, spring water.
_Bis ind._, _bis in dies_, twice a day.
_Bib._, _bibe_, drink.
_BB._, _Bbds._, _Barbadensis_, Barbadoes, as _aloë Barbadensis_.
_B.M._, _balneum mariæ_, or _balneum maris_, a warm-water bath.
_B. P._, or _B. Ph._, British Pharmacop[oe]ia.
_But._, _butyrum_, butter.
_B.V._, _balneum vaporis_, a vapour bath.
_Cærul._, _cæruleus_, blue.
_Cap._, _capiat_, let him (or her) take.
_Calom._, _calomelas_, calomel, subchloride of mercury.
_C. C._, _cornu cervi_, hartshorn; it may also signify cucurbitula
cruenta, the cupping-glass with scarificator.
_C.C.U._, _cornu cervi ustum_, burnt hartshorn.
_Cochleat._, _cochleatim_, by spoonfuls.
_Coch. ampl._, _cochleare amplum_, a large (or table) spoonful; about
half a fluid ounce.
_Coch. infant._, _cochleare infantis_, a child's (or tea) spoonful.
_Coch. magn._, _cochleare magnum_, a large spoonful.
_Coch. med._, _cochleare medium_, } a middling or moderate spoonful;
that is,
_Coch. mod._, _cochleare modicum_,} a dessert-spoonful--about two fluid
drachms.
_Coch. parv._, _cochleare parvum_, a small (or tea) spoonful; it
contains about one fluid drachm.
_Col._, _cola_, strain.
_Col._, _colatus_, strained.
_Colet._, _coletur_, _colat._, _colatur_, let it be strained;
_colaturæ_, to the strained liquor.
_Colent._, _colentur_, let them be strained.
_Color._, _coloretur_, let it be coloured.
_Comp._, _compositus_, compounded.
_Cong._, _congius_, a gallon.
_Cons._, _conserva_, conserve; also (_imperat. of conservo_) keep.
_Cont. rem._, or _med._, _continuentur remedia_, or _medicamenta_, let
the remedies, or the medicines, be continued.
_Coq._, _coque_, boil; _coquantur_, let them be boiled.
_Coq. ad med. consumpt._, _coque_ or _coquatur ad medietatis
consumptionem_, boil, or let it be boiled to the consumption of one
half.
_Coq. S. A._, _coque secundum artem_, boil according to art.
_Coq. in S. A._, _coque in sufficiente quantitate aquæ_, boil in a
sufficient quantity of water.
_Cort._, _cortex_, bark.
_C. v._, _cras vespere_, to-morrow evening.
_C. m. s._, _cras mane sumendus_, to be taken to-morrow morning.
_C. n._, _cras nocte_, to-morrow night.
_Crast._, _crastinus_, for to-morrow.
_Cuj._, _cujus_, of which.
_Cujusl._, _cujuslibet_, of any.
_Cyath. theæ_, _cyatho theæ_, in a cup of tea.
_Cyath._, _cyathus_, vel, a wine-glass; from an ounce and half...
_C. vinar._, _cyathus vinarius_; to two ounces and half.
_Deaur. pil._, _deaurentur pilulæ_, let the pills be gilt.
_Deb. spiss._, _debitur spissitudo_, due consistence.
_Dec._, _decanta_, pour off.
_Decub. hor._, _decubitûs horâ_, at the hour of going to bed, or at
bedtime.
_De d. in d._, _de die in diem_, from day to day.
_Deglut._, _deglutiatur_, let it be swallowed.
_Dej. alv._, _dejectiones alvi_, stools.
_Det._, _detur_, let it be given.
_Dieb. alt._, _diebus alternis_, every other day.
_Dieb. tert._, _diebus tertiis_, every third day.
_Dil._, _dilue_, _dilutus_, dilute (thin), diluted.
_Diluc._, _diluculo_, at break of day.
_Dim._, _dimidius_, one half.
_D. in 2 plo._, _deter in duplo_, let it be given in twice the quantity.
_D. in p. æq._, _dividatur in partes æquales_, let it be divided in
equal parts.
_D. P._, _directione propria_, with a proper direction.
_Donec alv. bis dej._, _donec alvus bis dejecerit_, until the bowels
have been twice opened.
_Donec alv. sol. fuer._, _donec alvus soluta fuerit_, until the bowels
have been loosened.
_Donec dol. neph. exulav._, _donec dolor nephriticus exulaverit_, until
the nephritic pain has been removed.
_D._, _dosis_, a dose.
_Eburn._, _eburneus_, made of ivory.
_Ed._, _edulcorata_, edulcorated.
_Ejusd._, _ejusdem_, of the same.
_Elect._, _electuarium_, an electuary.
_Enem._, _enema_, a clyster.
_Exhib._, _exhibeatur_, let it be administered.
_Ext. sup. alut. moll._, _extende super alutam mollem_, spread upon soft
leather.
_F._, _fac_, make; _fiat_, _fiant_, let it be made, let them be made.
_F. pil._, _fiant pilulæ_, let pills be made.
_Fasc._, _fasciculus_, a bundle.
_Feb. dur._, _febre durante_, during the fever.
_Fem. intern._, _femoribus internis_, to the inside of the thighs.
_F. venæs._, _fiat venæsectio_, let venesection be performed.
_F. H._, _fiat haustus_, let a draught be made.
_Fict._, _fictilis_, earthen.
_Fil._, _filtrum_, a filter.
_Fist. arm._, _fistula armata_, a clyster-pipe and bladder fitted for
use.
_Fl._, _fluidus_, fluid.
_F. L. A._, _fiat lege artis_, let it be made by the rules of art.
_F. M._, _fiat mistura_, let a mixture be made.
_F. S. A._, _fiat secundum artem_, let it be made according to art.
_Gel. quav._, _gelatina quavis_, in any jelly.
_G. G. G._, _gummi guttæ gambæ_, gamboge.
_Gr._, _granum_, a grain; _grana_, grains.
_Gr. vj pond._, _grana sex pondere_, six grains by weight.
_Gtt._, _gutta_, a drop; _guttæ_, drops.
_Gtt. quibusd._, _guttis quibusdam_, with some drops.
_Guttat._, _guttatim_, by drops.
_Har. pil. sum. iij_, _harum pilularum sumantur tres_, of these pills
let three be taken.
_H. D._, or _hor. decub._, _horâ decubitûs_, at bedtime.
_H. P._, _haustus purgans_, purging draught.
_H. S._, _horâ somni_, at the hour of going to sleep.
_Hor. un. spætio_, _horæ unius spatio_, at the expiration of one hour.
_Hor. interm._, _horis intermediis_, in the intermediate hours.
_Hor. 11mâ mat._, _horâ undecimâ matutinâ_, at 11 o'clock in the
morning.
_Ind._, _indies_, daily.
_In pulm._, _in pulmento_, in gruel.
_Ind. Ph._, Indian Pharmacop[oe]ia.
_Inf._, _infunde_, infuse.
_Inj. enem._, _injiciatur enema_, let a clyster be thrown up.
_Jul._, _julepus_, _julapium_, a julep.
_Kal. ppt._, _kali præparatum_, prepared kali (_potassæ carbonas_).
_Lat. dol._, _lateri dolenti_, to the affected side.
_M._, _misce_, mix; _mensurâ_, by measure; _manipulus_, a handful;
_minimum_, a minim.
_Mane pr._, _mane primo_, early in the morning.
_Man._, _manipulus_, a handful.
_Min._, _minimum_, a minim, the 60th part of a drachm measure.
_M. P._, _massa pilularum_, a pill mass.
_M.R._, _mistura_, a mixture.
_Mic. pan._, _mica panis_, crumb of bread.
_Mitt._, _mitte_, send; _mittantur_, let them be sent.
_Mitt. sang. ad [oz]xij, mitte sanguinem ad [oz]xij_, take blood to
twelve ounces.
_Mod. præscr._, _modo præscripto_, in the manner directed.
_Mor. dict._, _more dicto_, in the way ordered.
_Mor. sol._, _more solito_, in the usual way.
_Ne tr. s. num._, _ne tradas sine nummo_, do not deliver it without the
money.
_No._, _numero_, in number.
_N. M._, _nux moschata_, a nutmeg.
_O._, _octarius_, a pint.
_Ol. lini s. i._, _oleum lini sine ligné_, cold-drawn linseed oil.
_Omn. hor._, _omni horâ_, every hour.
_Omn. bid._, _omni biduo_, every two days.
_Omn. bih._, _omni bihorio_, every two hours.
_O. M._, or _omn. man._, _omni mane_, every morning.
_O. N._, or _omn. noct._, _omni nocte_, every night.
_Omn. quadr. hor._, _omni quadrante horæ_, every quarter of an hour.
_O. O. O._, _oleum olivæ optimum_, best olive oil.
_Ov._, _ovum_, an egg.
_Oz._, the ounce avoirdupois.
_P. æ._, _part. æqual._, _partes æquales_, equal parts.
_P. d._, _per deliquium_, by deliquescence.
_Past._, _pastillus_, a pastil, or ball of paste.
_P._, _pondere_, by weight.
_Ph. D._, _Pharmacop[oe]ia Dubliniensis_.
_Ph. E._, _Pharmacop[oe]ia Edinensis_.
_Ph. L._, _Pharmacop[oe]ia Londinensis_.
_Ph. U. S._, _Pharmacop[oe]ia of the United States_.
_Part. vic._, _partitis vicibus_, in divided doses.
_Per. op. emet._, _peractâ operatione emetici_, the operation of the
emetic being over.
_Pocul._, _poculum_, a cup.
_Pocill._, _pocillum_, a small cup.
_Post sing. sed. liq._, _post singulas sedes liquidas_, after every
loose stool.
_Ppt._, _præparata_, prepared.
_P. r. n._, _pro re nata_, occasionally.
_P. rat. ætat._, _pro ratione ætatis_, according to the age.
_Pug._, _pugillus_, a pinch, a gripe between the thumb and the two first
fingers.
_Pulv._, _pulvis_, _pulverizatus_, a powder, pulverised.
_Q. l._, _quantum lubet_, } as much as you
_Q. p._, _quantum placet_,} please.
_Q. s._, _quantum sufficiat_, as much as may suffice.
_Quor._, _quorum_, of which.
_Q. V._, _quantum vis_, as much as you will.
_Red. in pulv._, _redactus in pulverem_, reduced to powder.
_Redig. in pulv._, _redigatur in pulverem_, let it be reduced into
powder.
_Reg. umbil._, _regio umbilici_, the umbilical region.
_Repet._, _repetatur_, or _repetantur_, let it, or them, be repeated.
_S. A._, _secundum artem_, according to art.
_Scat._, _scatula_, a box.
_S. N._, _secundum naturam_, according to nature.
_Semidr._, _semidrachma_, half a drachm.
_Semih._, _semihora_, half an hour.
_Sesunc._, _sesuncia_, half an ounce.
_Sesquih._, _sesquihora_, an hour and a half.
_Si n. val._, _si non valeat_, if it does not answer.
_Si op. sit_, _si opus sit_, if it be necessary.
_Si vir. perm._, _si vires permittant_, if the strength allow it.
_Signat._, _signatura_, a label.
_Sign. n. pr._, _signetur nomine proprio_, let it be written upon, let
it be signed with the proper name (not the trade name).
_Sing._, _singulorum_, of each.
_S. S. S._, _stratum super stratum_, layer upon layer.
_Ss._, _semi_, a half.
_St._, _stet_, let it stand; _stent_, let them stand.
_Sub fin. coct._, _sub finem coctionis_, towards the end of boiling,
when the boiling is nearly finished.
_Sum. tal._, _sumat talem_, let the patient take one such as this.
_Summ._, _summitates_, the summits or tops.
_Sum._, _sume_, _sumat_, _sumatur_, _sumantur_, take, let him or her
take, let it be taken, let them be taken.
_S. V._, _spiritus vini_, spirit of wine.
_S. V. R._, _spiritus vini rectificatus_, rectified spirit of wine.
_S. V. T._, _spiritus vini tenuis_, proof spirit.
_Tabel._, _tabella_, a lozenge.
_Temp. dext._, _tempori dextro_, to the right temple.
_T. O._, _tinctura opii_, tincture of opium.
_T. O. C._, _tinctura opii camphorata_, camphorated tincture of opium.
_Tra._, _tinctura_, tincture.
_Ult. præscr._, _ultimo præscriptus_, last prescribed.
_U. S. Ph._, United States' Pharmacop[oe]ia.
_V. O. S._, _vitello ovi solutus_, dissolved in the yolk of an egg.
_Vom. urg._, _vomitione urgente_, the vomiting being troublesome.
_V. S. B._, _venæsectio brachii_, bleeding from the arm.
_Zz._, _zingiber_, ginger.
See FORMULA, PRESCRIPTIONS, SYMBOLS, &c.
=ABDO'MEN.= [Eng., Fr., L.] In _anatomy_, the belly, or lower belly; the
great cavity of the body extending from the thorax, or chest, to the
bottom of the pelvis. It contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
kidneys, bladder, &c.; and in the female, the uterus, ovaria. &c.
=AB'ERNE'THY MEDICINES.= These originally consisted of a calomel pill, and
subsequently of a mercurial or 'blue' pill, to be taken over-night,
followed by an aromatised black draught in the morning. The quantity of
either of the former, for an adult, was about 3 gr. to 3-1/2 gr.,
increased a little in bulk by the addition of some liquorice powder; that
of the latter, from 1 to 1-1/2 fl. oz. As, however, when frequently taken,
these pills sometimes occasioned salivation, which proved prejudicial to
their sale, a little compound extract of colocynth (_Ph. L._, 1836) was
introduced into their composition, by which this objection was obviated.
Ultimately, their composition was settled at 3 gr. of mercurial pill, and
2 gr. of compound extract of colocynth; and these proportions are still
followed as the best by those who prepare and sell them. Persons who
object to black draught, will find a dose of castor oil, or of any other
mild purgative medicine that may be more agreeable to them, equally
efficacious.
The occasional use of these medicines seldom fails to prove highly
beneficial to the plethoric, bilious, and dyspeptic. In ordinary cases of
constipation, headache, &c., arising from deranged stomach or liver,
wherein the administration of mercurials is not contra-indicated, they
will be found of great service. It need scarcely be added that these
medicines are named after Mr Abernethy, the celebrated surgeon, who is
said to have frequently employed them in his practice.
=ABERRA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABERRA'TIO, L. A wandering or deviation
from the usual course, or from the normal condition. In _optics_, the
deviation of the rays of light from the true focus, when inflected by a
lens or speculum. This arises from a difference in the physical nature of
the rays, from the figure of the lenses or specula, or from the nature of
the materials of which the media traversed are composed. See ACHROMATISM,
LENS, &c.
=Aberration of mind.= Mental alienation or wandering; insanity. A term
frequently applied, in familiar language, to a mild form of incipient
insanity or dementia, which is more or less occasional or continued,
trifling or severe, according to circumstances. The studious, nervous,
slothful, and those who are engaged in sedentary occupations and spend
much of their time in ill-ventilated apartments, or who indulge in
irregular or vicious habits, as well as 'fast livers,' are the most liable
to this affection. It also frequently arises from disordered physical
health.
_Treat., &c._ Change of scene, out-door exercise, agreeable company,
pleasing and continued mental occupation, and due attention to diet,
clothing, ventilation, &c., with the judicious use of some mild aperient
medicine and tepid bathing, will generally alleviate, and frequently
effect a cure. For the prevention of its accession, or its recurrence,
care should be taken to promote the general health, and also, where
necessary, to elevate the spirits and to divert the mind.
=ABLU'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABLU'TIO, L. In a _general sense_,
washing, cleansing, or purification by water.
=Ablution.= In _hygiène_ and the _toilet_, a washing of the whole body, or
any part of it. The value of frequent and copious affusions of pure water
to the surface of the body is well known. During life, the skin is
continually subjected to abrasion, and the processes of reproduction and
decay, by which the cuticle, its exterior portion, is being constantly
thrown off as effete and useless matter, in the shape of very minute
scales or dust. This, mingling with the oily and saline products of the
skin, acquires sufficient adhesiveness to attach itself to the surface of
the body and clothing, as well as to attract the waste particles of the
dress, and the dust and soot floating in the atmosphere. In this way, if
occasional ablutions be not had recourse to, the channels of perspiration
will become choked, and the clothing itself rendered unwholesome and unfit
for use. The consequence of the pores of the skin being obstructed is
impeded transpiration, by which its functions, as a respiratory organ, are
interfered with or suspended. This adhering pellicle of refuse matter also
acts as an irritant, and forms a favorable medium for the absorption, and
the transmission into the body, of effluvia, miasmata, poisonous gases,
and the infectious and contagious matters of disease. "The greater part of
(contagious) poisons are conveyed to us through the external surface of
our bodies; and it is fully proved that poison, already communicated, has
been by cleanliness removed, before it could actually produce any bad
effects. I here allude, in particular, to frequent washing, bathing,
rinsing the mouth, combing and brushing the hair, and often changing the
linen, clothing, and bedding." (Hufeland.) Such are the immediate effects
of neglected ablution of the skin; the further consequences are of an
equally serious character. The blood being deprived of one of its sources
of oxygen, and one of the outlets for its carbon, the functions of
nutrition become imperfect, and the animal temperature lessened. The
matters which would be thrown out of the system in the form of
perspiration are retained, and must be eliminated by other channels. The
lungs, the kidneys, the liver, and the bowels, are each, in their turn,
overtasked to perform the functions of another organ. The oppressed
viscera suffer from exhaustion, and incipient disease soon follows. Their
particular offices are languidly performed, the equilibrium of health is
disturbed, and skin diseases, or consumption, diarrh[oe]a, dropsy,
liver-complaints, visceral obesity, or some other serious diseases of the
vital organs, ensue. When it is added, that no dirty or imperfectly washed
skin can long continue healthy, and ceasing to be healthy must also cease
to be agreeable and beautiful, the argument in favour of the daily use of
water of good quality to the whole surface of the body, when possible,
will surely be complete. The inculcation of habits of personal cleanliness
cannot be too forcibly emphasized. The fact, however, cannot be
overlooked, that in order to introduce habits of cleanliness amongst the
poorer classes, a plentiful supply of water, combined with cheap baths,
are requisite. Every officer of health should inquire into the amount as
well as the character of the water supply in the district over which he
has supervision. The body should be washed all over every morning with
either cold or lukewarm water and soap. This custom is more necessary for
workmen employed in laborious and dirty occupations than for those who
live sedentary lives; but all people perspire, and from every drop of
perspiration the water evaporates, and leaves a fraction of solid matter
on and around the pores that excrete the perspiration. If this solid
matter be not washed off, it accumulates and may derange the health.
Instances have occurred in which persons suffering from extensive bodily
burns have died, not from the effect of the injury, but from the
destruction of the pores or excreting vessels, with which the skin is
covered. It is well, therefore, to bear in mind that a dirty skin does not
always come from without, but also from within. Cold ablution, that has
been so indiscriminately recommended, is not half so efficacious, nor so
safe, as lukewarm. The German aurists ascribe the presence of the large
amount of deafness in England to our habit of washing the head and ears
each morning with cold water.
=Ablution.= In _medicine_, the washing the body, externally, as by
bathing; or internally, by diluting drinks. In ancient medicine, according
to Galen, internal ablution was accomplished by the use of profuse
libations of milk-whey; an object now aimed at, by the hydropathists, by
the copious administration of pure cold water. To neglect the daily
ablution of an infant is to discard one of the greatest aids to its
healthy development and physical wellbeing. That disregard of this
precaution is a fertile source of most of the skin diseases that affect
infants and children there seems little question about amongst medical
men. Water at a temperature ranging from 80° to 90° F. should always be
used. Mr Chevasse, in his 'Counsel to a Mother,' is emphatic in his
advocacy of rain water. He also advises the employment of Castile soap,
and of glycerine soap, should there be any excoriation of the skin. Of
course the same remarks apply to children as to infants, with this
difference, that the ablution is to be performed with water a few degrees
colder; and both infants and children should be rubbed dry with a dry soft
towel. There are doubtless many persons who deem themselves cleanly
washed, if in addition to their hands and arms, neck and face, undergoing
duly daily ablution, they wash their feet once a week. These individuals
cannot reflect that, because of their less exposure to the depurating
influence of the atmosphere, the feet require to be more frequently washed
than either the hands or face. See BATHING, BATHS, HYDROPATHY, &c.
=ABNORM'AL.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABNOR'MIS, L. In _medicine_ and the
_collateral sciences_, contrary to, or without system or rule; irregular;
deformed; unnatural. In a diseased or unhealthy state.
=ABORTION IN COWS.= Abortion is the expulsion of the contents of the
pregnant womb before the full period of gestation is complete, and occurs
much more frequently in cows than in any other of the lower animals.
Abortion is often induced by shocks and injuries, feeding on ergotised
grasses, but more commonly by causes which are less obvious. Thus, bad
smells, pasturing on flooded meadows, rich and stimulating food, and even
association with other cows while aborting, are among the exciting causes
of this malady. The premonitory signs are an irritable excited state of
the animal, a discharge from the vagina, looseness and fulness of the
external organs of generation, and, occasionally, sudden enlargement of
the udder. These symptoms may continue for several days, and, if noticed
before straining or other signs of calving have appeared, the animal
should be copiously bled and placed in a comfortable loose-box, kept as
quiet as possible, moderately supplied with soft laxative food, and, if
the bowels be costive, with a pound or two of treacle daily. Powerful
purgatives are too irritant, and must, therefore, be studiously avoided.
Two ounces of laudanum, with the same quantity of sweet spirits of nitre,
should be given twice a day until all danger is over. To prevent the
continuance and spread of the evil, place the cow by herself as soon as
she aborts; remove and bury the f[oe]tus beyond the reach of other cows;
feed off the cow, if practicable, but if she be again bulled, it ought not
to be for several weeks, and until the period of heat is passing off;
remove all disagreeable smells, and see that the remainder of the herd are
moderately fed and carefully watched, so that the earliest symptoms of
abortion may be noticed.
=ABRA'SION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABRA'SIO, L. The rubbing or wearing down
of surfaces by friction. In the _arts_, the reduction or figuration of
materials by the use of an abrasive tool, or grinder, of which the
effective portion is an exact counterpart of the form to be produced.
=Abrasion.= In _numismatics_, the 'wear and tear,' or waste of the
substance of coins, in the pocket and circulation. It forms a large item
in the expense of a metallic currency. The means employed to obviate, or
to reduce it, consist in either alloying the metal to render it tougher
and harder, or raising the borders so as to lessen the surface exposed to
friction. In well-formed coin both methods are adopted.
=Abrasion.= In _pathology_ and _surgery_--1. A superficial removal or
injury of the skin by fretting or friction.
_Treat., &c._ When the injured surface is large, or exposed, it should be
protected from dirt and further injury, by applying a piece of lint or
soft linen rag, covered with spermaceti cerate, or some other simple
ointment; over which a piece of strapping, or bandage of any sort, may be
placed to keep it on. In many cases, a piece of common sticking-plaster
will be found quite sufficient.
2. A very superficial ulceration or excoriation of the intestinal or other
mucous membrane. _Treat_. Aperients of castor oil, demulcents, and a
light nutritious diet. See EXCORIATIONS.
=ABRUS PRECATORIUS.= (Ind. Ph.) Indian Liquorice Plant. _Habitat._
Tropical portions of both hemispheres, _Officinal part._ The root (_Abri
Radix_, _Indian Liquorice_). Occurs in pieces of various lengths, from 1/2
to 1 inch in diameter; pale brown externally, yellowish internally;
inodorous, taste sweetish and mucilaginous, much resembling officinal
liquorice root. _Properties and uses._ Similar to those of liquorice, for
which it forms an excellent substitute. _Preparation._ EXTRACT OF ABRUS
(_Extractum Abri_). Prepared as Extractum Glycyrrhizæ.
=ABSCESS.= A formation of matter or pus, resulting from inflammation,
either acute or chronic. The symptoms are pain, swelling, heat, and
redness, a conical projection on the swelling, often with a white point at
the apex. Abscess or suppuration may come on any part of the body. When
the local inflammation does not yield to cold lotions, apply poultices; a
pledget of lint dipped in cold water and kept moist by means of oil-silk;
a slice of bread softened with boiling water or milk, or linseed meal,
make the best poultices. Should the pain be severe add laudanum, and
additionally rub it round the swelling. Or apply common white paint by
laying it on gently with a brush, or else tincture of marigold or arnica
in the same manner. Chronic abscesses in the glands in the neck are
usually scrofulous, and should be opened. Abscesses in the breast should
not be opened too early, or others are formed. Those in the gums may be
cut early, not so if in the tonsils. After opening with a needle or
lancet-point external abscesses, continue to poultice till the hardness
disappears, then dress with spermaceti ointment spread on lint. When the
abscess is of a dangerous nature, lose no time in consulting a medical
practitioner.
_Treatment for horses and cattle._ Mr Finlay Dun prescribes fomentations,
poultices, counter-irritants, the knife, cauterisation, carbolic-acid
dressing, stimulating injections, and the administration of sulphites and
chlorate of potash.
=ABSINTHE.= [Fr.] ABSINTHIUM, L.; WORMWOOD, E.; WERMUTH, G. This article
is met with in commerce in the form of the dried herb with the flowers of
_Artemisia Absinthium_, having a whitish-grey appearance, a soft feel, an
aromatic and unpleasant odour, and an extremely bitter and aromatic
flavour. The plant is indigenous, and grows in thickets, in mountainous
districts, and on waste ground. Its odour is due to its containing an
essential oil; its bitterness is referable to _absinthin_, a
crystallisable principle which may be extracted from the herb by water or
spirit. The name _absinthe_ is also given to an intoxicating liqueur which
is extensively drunk on the Continent, and which unfortunately appears to
be rapidly attracting consumers in this country. The remarks on this
subject by Blyth in his admirable 'Dictionary of Hygiène' are so pregnant
with important facts that they will be here produced _verbatim et
literatim_. "An analysis recently made at the _Conservatoire des Arts_
shows that absinthe now contains a large quantity of antimony, a poison
which cannot fail to add largely to the irritant effects necessarily
produced on the alimentary canal and liver by constant doses of a
concentrated alcoholic liquid. And we have recently received the results
of some experiments made by M. Magnan, of Paris. By means of successive
distillations he has been able to isolate various products--(1) a blue
oil; (2) a yellowish oil; (3) an oxygenated substance. There was besides a
yellowish residue left in the glass. These various substances were tried
on animals; ten grammes of the yellow sediment given to a small dog
produced no effect; thirty centigrammes of the blue oil produced from
eight to ten epileptiform attacks. The oxygenated product proved, however,
the most powerful toxic agent. Fifteen centigrammes of it, injected into
the veins of a large dog, caused the most violent epileptic attacks, which
followed in rapid succession, and ended in death. There was an
extraordinary rise of temperature, from 39° to 42° Centigrade, and the
_post mortem_ showed various apoplectic centres. Dr Decaisne regards the
terrible evil of this almost universal absinthe-drinking as the greatest
national calamity that has ever befallen France, and has made an eloquent
appeal to the Government to strike at once a decisive blow at the trade in
this liqueur. Originally the only important ingredient in its composition
besides alcohol was the essential oil of absinthium or wormwood; and
though this without doubt added something to the mischievous effects of
the liqueur, it would be impossible to trace to it, or to the other
comparatively trivial ingredients, the more serious of the special results
which are now observed to occur to victims of absinthe, though the
habitual drinking even in small doses of _good_ absinthe is believed by Dr
Decaisne, sooner or later, to produce disorders in the animal economy. Now
various deleterious substances are added, the most important of these
being antimony. As at present constituted, therefore, and especially when
drunk in the disastrous excess now common in Paris, and taken, as it
frequently is, on an empty stomach, absinthe forms a chronic poison of
almost unequalled virulence, both as an irritant to the stomach and
bowels, and also as a destroyer of the nervous system. The effect of
absinthe is to produce a superabundant activity of the brain, a cerebral
excitement, which at first is agreeable; intoxication comes on rapidly;
the head swims, and the effect produced is nearly the same as that of
poisoning by a narcotic, which certainly does not occur with an equal dose
of brandy. With the absinthe-drinker, as with the opium-eater, the
excitement the spirit produces diminishes daily in intensity. Each day he
is obliged to augment the dose in order to bring himself up to the right
pitch. The diseases brought on by the excessive drinking of ardent spirits
are produced with greater rapidity by the use of absinthe." The amount of
absinthe consumed in London has during the last few years been enormously
on the increase. See LIQUEURS.
=ABSINTHIN.= C_{16}H_{22}O_{5}. The bitter principle of wormwood
(_Artemisia absinthium_). A hard crystalline solid, having an intensely
bitter taste; slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, less so
in ether. Its physiological effects resemble those of extract of wormwood.
_Dose._ 1/2 gr. to 2 gr., or more; in dyspepsia; as a stomachic, to
promote the appetite, &c.; as a substitute for quinine in intermittents;
and in worms.
=ABSINTH'IUM.= [L.] See ABSINTHE.
=ABSOLUTE.= _Syns._ ABSOLUTUS, L.; ABSOLU, Fr.; UNDEBINGT, G. In
_chemistry_, pure, unmixed; as _absolute alcohol_, pure spirit of wine,
_i.e._ free from water.
=ABSORBED'= (-sorbd'). _Syn._ CHILLED; ABSORBÉ, Fr. In _painting_, a term
among French connoisseurs, to represent that state of a picture in which
the oil has sunk into the canvas or ground, leaving the colours 'flat,'
and the touches indistinct. The remedy consists in rubbing the surface of
the picture, previously well cleaned, with a soft sponge dipped in a
little drying oil, and after some days varnishing it; when it should be
kept in a warm room until perfectly dry.
=ABSORB'ENT.= _Syn._ ABSORB'ENS, L.; ABSORBANT, Fr.; ABSORBIREND, Ger.
Imbibing; that imbibes or sucks up; variously applied in science and art.
(See _below_.)
=Absorbent Ground.= In _painting_, a picture-ground prepared wholly or
chiefly in distemper or water colour, in order that the redundant oil in
the colours subsequently applied may be immediately 'absorbed,' by which
expedition is permitted, and brilliancy imparted to them.
=Absorbent Surfaces.= In the _arts_, these are usually rendered
non-absorbent, preliminary to their being bronzed, gilded, painted, or
varnished, by giving them one, or more, coats of thin size, so as to
destroy their porosity; care being taken to allow each coat to become
thoroughly dry before the application of the next one; and also, finally,
to remove any unabsorbed excess of size from the surface, by means of a
sponge dipped in warm water. This applies to ALABASTER, PAPER, WOOD,
PLASTER CASTS, &c.; and to WALLS and CEILINGS which are not exposed to the
weather, and which there is not time to prepare with drying oil. See
BRONZING, MAPS, VARNISHING, &c.
Absorption and consequent adherence in porous moulds, as those of plaster,
are usually prevented by thoroughly saturating the pores of the mould with
melted tallow, or a mixture of tallow and bees' wax; or for delicate
objects or the electrotype, with white wax. The 'dry moulds' are either
heated before the application of these substances, or they are boiled in
them; any portion that may finally remain unabsorbed, being carefully
removed with cotton-wool or a soft rag. Another method is to wash the
moulds over two or three times with drying oil, or to boil them in it;
after which they must be exposed to the air for some days, to dry and
harden. Before being used for plaster, composition, &c., the surface of
these prepared moulds require to be slightly moistened with sweet oil.
_Plaster moulds_ are generally prepared for sulphur, wax, and gutta percha
casts, by simply placing them (upright) with the back immersed in a little
water, contained in any shallow vessel, as a saucer or plate; and letting
them remain there until moisture begins to appear on the surface. The
materials to be cast, or moulded, should then be used at the lowest
possible temperature, to prevent the formation of air-bubbles.
The adherence of wax or mixtures containing it, and of gutta percha, is
best prevented by moistening the surface of the mould (whether of plaster,
metal, or gutta percha), immediately before use, with soft soap reduced to
the consistence of thin cream with water. See CASTS, MOULDS, ELECTROTYPE,
&c.
=ABSORB'ENTS.= In _anatomy_ and _physiology_, two distinct sets of small,
delicate, transparent vessels, which imbibe or suck up fluid substances,
and convey them to the blood. They are termed lacteals or lymphatics; the
former take up the chyme from the alimentary canal, the latter pervade
almost every part of the body in which they absorb lymph.
=Absorbents.= In _botany_ and _vegetable physiology_, the origins of the
different vessels constituting the vascular tissue, as they are found in
the root, where they imbibe or suck up the nutritive fluids from the soil.
See PLANTS and VEGETABLES.
=Absorbents.= In _agriculture_ and _chemistry_, substances which possess
the power of withdrawing moisture from the atmosphere; as soils,
argillaceous earths, &c. Also (but less frequently) substances which
neutralise acids; as chalk, lime, and magnesia. Absorbents differ from
'deliquescent salts'; the latter attract moisture and dissolve in it;
whilst the former merely suck it into their pores, as a sponge does water.
See ABSORPTION.
=Absorbents.= _Syn._ ABSORBEN'TIA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_,
substances which remove acidity from the stomach and bowels. Of these the
principal are--magnesia, carbonate and bicarbonate of magnesia, prepared
chalk, and the carbonates and bicarbonates of potash, soda, and ammonia.
The first four are popularly called earthy absorbents; and the others,
alkaline absorbents. See ANTACIDS.
The following absorbent mixtures are taken from Dr Kirby's valuable work,
'Selected Remedies':
1. Infusion of rhubarb, 1-1/2 oz.; compound spirit of ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.;
compound infusion of gentian to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3
times a day.
2. Bicarbonate of potash, 1-1/2 dr.; syrup, 2 drs.; compound spirit
ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; compound infusion of gentian to 6 oz. Two
tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.
3. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 dr.; spirits of chloroform, 1-1/2 dr.;
infusion of calumba to 6 oz. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 3 times a day.
=ABSORP'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ABSORP'TIO, L.; EINSAUGUNG, Ger. The act
or the power of absorbing, in various applications. (See _below_.)
=Absorption.= In _agriculture_, the power possessed by soils of absorbing
moisture from the atmosphere. The more a soil is divided by labour and
vegetation, the greater is its absorbent power, and, consequently, its
fertility. Indeed, the latter chiefly depends on its capacity for imbibing
moisture, and may be illustrated by reference to recent and disintegrated
lava. (Leslie.) The finely divided state, most penetrable by the delicate
fibres of plants, appears to derive its superior power of acting on
atmospheric vapour from the augmentation of its surface and the
multiplication of its points of contact. (Ure.) This method of increasing
the fertility of a soil is well known to scientific farmers, and seldom
neglected by them. (Loudon.) That soil must be regarded as the most
fertile which possesses this power in the greatest degree. Garden-mould
has the highest absorbent power of any mineral substance. (Leslie.)
_Process of ascertaining_ the ABSORBENT POWER OF SOILS, _and other
substances._ Thoroughly dry the article by the suitable application of a
heat not exceeding 212° Fahr., continued for several hours, and transfer
it, while still warm, into a clean dry phial furnished with a perfectly
tight ground-glass stopper. When cold, quickly and cautiously introduce
it, along with a delicate hygrometer, into a large wide-mouthed glass
bottle, the atmosphere of which has been previously rendered as damp as
possible, by suspending a piece of moistened rag or filtering paper in it.
It must now be kept closed for some hours, when the hygrometer will
indicate the degree of dryness of the enclosed air, and, consequently, the
absorbent power of the substance examined.
_Obs._ Experiments of this nature are only relatively correct, and must be
performed under exactly similar circumstances, to furnish reliable
comparative results. The whole process, in each case, must be as similar
as careful manipulation can possibly make them. With this reserve, they
will be found invaluable to the agriculturist.
=Absorption.= In _chemistry_ the passage of gases and vapours into liquid
and solid substances. Thus, water absorbs the oxygen of the air, lime
absorbs water, charcoal absorbs ammoniacal and other gases.
=Absorption.= In _medicine_ and _toxicology_, see MEDICINES and POISONS.
=Absorption.= In _perfumery_, see ENFLEURAGE.
=Absorption.= In _physics_, see HEAT, LIGHT, REFRIGERATION, &c.
=Absorption.= In _physiology_ (animal and vegetable), the function of
sucking, or taking up, of appropriate substances, by the 'absorbent
vessels.' It is one of the chief vital functions, the primary object of
which is to convey to the circulatory organs the proper supply of the
materials necessary for the support and growth of the body; and
subsequently, to remove and convey to these organs its effete and useless
portions, in order to their ultimate elimination from the system.
=Absorption.= In _surgery_, the natural process by which tumours and their
contents, morbid growths, and, sometimes, even healthy glands, &c., are
gradually taken up and disappear, by the action of the 'absorbents.'
=Absorption= (of Surfaces, Moulds, &c). See ABSORBENT SURFACES.
=ABSTERG'ENTS.= _Syn._ ABSTERGEN'TIA, L. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_,
substances which cleanse or clear away foulness from the surface of the
body or sores; as soap, lotions, &c. See DETERGENT, which has a nearly
similar meaning, and is in more general use.
=AC'ARI= (-r[=i]). [L.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ACAR'IDANS; ACAR'IDES (d[=e]z);
ACARID'IÆ. (-e-[=e]). In _entomology_, a division of arachnidans,
including the _mite_ and _tick_. All the species are either microscopic or
extremely minute, and possess such tenacity of life as to resist for some
time the action of boiling water, and to live with comparative impunity in
alcohol. Leuwenhoek had one that lived eleven weeks glued on its back to
the point of a needle, without food. The following are well known--ACARUS
AUTUMNA'LIS, the _harvest-bug_ or _wheal-worm_; A. DOMES'TICUS, the
_domestic tick_; A. DYSENTE'RIÆ, the _dysentery-tick_; A. FARI'NÆ, the
_meal mite_ (fig. _a_); A. RI''CINUS (r[)i]c-), the _dog-tick_; A.
SAC'CHARI, the _sugar-mite_ (fig. _b_); A. SI''RO, the _cheese-mite_ (fig.
_c_); A. SCABIE'I, the _itch-insect_ (fig. _d_).
The irritation of the skin, caused by these vermin, may be relieved by a
lotion of equal parts of sal volatile and water; and they may be destroyed
by tobacco water, or a lotion or ointment of stavesacre. See ITCH, MANGE,
PARASITES, PEDICULI, SCAB, &c.
=Acarus Farinæ=, or _meal-mite_ (fig. _a_). This insect is found only in
damaged flour, and is more frequently met with in the flour of the
_leguminosæ_ (beans, peas) than in that of the _gramineæ_ (wheat, rye,
oat).
Now and then a single acarus may occasionally be found in good flour, but
even one should be regarded with suspicion, and the flour should
afterwards be frequently examined to see if they are increasing.
[Illustration: FIG. _a._ Mag. 250 diams.]
=Acarus Sacchari=, or _sugar-mite_ (fig. _b_).
[Illustration: FIG. _b._ Mag. 260 diams.]
Most of the brown sugars of commerce are infested by this pest, which is
of a size sufficiently large to be visible to the naked eye. The following
method of proceeding will lead to its detection:
Dissolve 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of sugar in a large wineglass of tepid water,
and let the solution remain for an hour or so, at the expiration of which
time the acari may be found, some on the surface of the liquid, some
attaching themselves to the sides of the glass, and some at the bottom,
mixed up with the copious and dark sediment, made up of fragments of cane,
woody fibre, grit, dirt, and starch granules, which usually subside on
dissolving even a small quantity of sugar in hot water. When first hatched
this acarus is hardly visible.
Acari of all sizes--that is, in all stages of growth--may be met with in
most samples of sugar.
Dr Hassall, in seventy-two samples of sugar which he examined, found
sixty-nine containing them.
[Illustration: FIG. _c._]
=Acarus Siro=, the _cheese-mite_ (fig. _c_). The dry and powdery parts of
decayed cheese, which by careful watching may very frequently be seen in
movement, consist almost wholly of this insect and their eggs in different
stages of development. The cheese-mite can hardly be seen without the aid
of the microscope. They are very tenacious of life, even when kept without
food. Mr Blyth says that under these circumstances "it is no uncommon
sight to see them killing and devouring each other; and that cheese is
rapidly destroyed by them; they crumble it into minute pieces, and emit a
liquid substance which causes the decayed parts to spread speedily." They
may be destroyed by being exposed to a strong heat, or by putting the
cheese for a short time in whisky.
[Illustration: FIG. _d._]
=Acarus Scabiei=, the _itch-insect_ (fig. _d_). The parasitic character of
the disease known as the itch was first demonstrated by Dr Bononio, who
on turning out the contents of one of the little bladders that show
themselves between the fingers of those affected with the complaint, and
placing the fluid under the microscope, discovered a minute animal, very
nimble in its movements, covered with short hairs, having a short head, a
pair of strong mandibles or cutting-jaws, and eight legs, terminating in
remarkable appendages, each provided with a sucker and setæ.
It has no eyes; but when disturbed it quickly draws in its head and feet,
and then somewhat resembles the tortoise in appearance, its march being
precisely the same. It usually lays sixteen eggs, which are carefully
deposited in furrows under the skin, and ranged in pairs; these are
hatched in about ten days.
"To find the itch-insect," says Mr Jabez Hogg, "the operator must
carefully examine the parts surrounding each pustule; he will then see a
red line or spot communicating with it; this part, and not the pustule,
must be probed with a fine-pointed instrument. The operator must not be
disappointed by repeated failures."
=ACCIDENT'AL COLOURS.= See COLOURS (Complementary).
=ACCIDENTS.= _Black eye._ Bathe the eye frequently with a soft piece of
linen rag dipped in a lotion composed of one part of tincture of arnica
and seven parts of water.
_Burns and Scalds._ Refer to BURNS and SCALDS.
_Charcoal_, _combustion of_, _poisoning by._ Refer to CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE.
_Choking, or suffocation from substances sticking in the throat._ Refer to
CHOKING.
_Cut Finger._ Refer to CUTS.
_Precautions against Fires._ Refer to FIRES.
_Precautions against Lightning._ To take refuge under a tree during a
thunderstorm accompanied by lightning is to expose oneself to a double
danger--firstly, because by keeping the clothes dry these are prevented
becoming the non-conductors they would be if damp; and secondly, because
the tree, serving as a point of attraction for the lightning, conducts it
to the ground, and in doing so frequently rends the trunks or branches,
and kills any person or animal who happens to be close to, or in contact
with, it at the time.
Never, therefore, if overtaken by a storm of thunder and lightning fly to
the dangerous cover of a tree, pillar, hay-rick, wall, or hedge, but seek
shelter in the nearest dwelling; or if this is not at hand, get to a part
of the road or field where there is no object to attract the lightning,
and there remain till the storm has expended itself. Also avoid
particularly the proximity of iron gates, palisades, bronze statues, bell
wires, iron railings, and such like. When in the house, do not sit or
stand near the windows, doors, or walls, but place yourself in the middle
of the room, unless there should be a lamp or chandelier hanging from the
ceiling. Franklin recommends persons to keep away from the neighbourhood
of fireplaces.
_Treatment of persons struck by lightning._ In case of any person being
struck by lightning, immediately strip the body and throw bucketsful of
cold water over it for ten or fifteen minutes; continued frictions and
inhalations of the lungs must also be employed, and electricity should be
tried if it be possible.
=Accidents by Poison.= The means to be adopted in cases where poison is
taken, if the poison be known, are embodied in the antidotes, which will
be found given in this volume under the respective poisons.
Under all circumstances, however, medical aid should be sought as
expeditiously as possible, since many of the antidotes themselves being of
a dangerous, if not poisonous, character, should only be administered
under medical supervision. Pending the arrival of the doctor, no time
should be lost in giving an emetic, consisting of a teaspoonful of flour
of mustard in half a pint of warm water, supplemented by copious draughts
of warm water, and tickling the throat with the finger if necessary.
_Fish poisoning._ It is a not unfrequent occurrence to find fish when
eaten giving rise to a species of poisoning of a more or less violent
form, such as a sense of weight at the stomach, accompanied with nausea,
vertigo, headache, heat about the head and eyes, pains in the stomach,
thirst, and often an eruption of the skin resembling nettle-rash. These
symptoms may be sometimes due to the nature of the fish itself; sometimes
to its being in a state unfit to be taken as food, as, for instance, when
it is in a stale or decomposing condition; and occasionally to the
peculiarity of constitution of those who partake of it, even if in a
perfectly fresh condition. Whenever any of the symptoms above described
follow from eating fish, an emetic of mustard and water (a teaspoonful of
mustard in half a pint of water) should be administered. If subsequently a
rash should appear, it would be well to take a dose of brisk purgative
medicine, and, if necessary, a few doses of carbonate of soda 3 or 4 times
during the day.
_Poisonous Mushrooms._ The same treatment should be followed as for fish.
With some people the edible mushroom acts as a poison.
_Sinks._ See that these be securely trapped, and in the event of any
unpleasant smell from them, pour down some disinfectant, such as chloride
of lime, carbolic acid, or Condy's fluid. The foul emanations from a sink
ought to be regarded as of a most dangerous and pestilential nature.
=Accidents to Children.= Many, if not most, of the casualties to which
children are exposed are given above, together with the best course to be
pursued in the event of their being overtaken by any of them. There are,
however, a few forms of disaster which seem more especially peculiar to
children. Of these we may select--
_Swallowing a piece of broken glass._ In this case avoid giving
purgatives, but give solid farinaceous food, so as to envelope the glass
and enable it to pass through the bowels without causing injury by coming
in contact with them.
_Swallowing a coin._ Give a dose or two of castor oil, and examine the
stools until the coin is perceived.
_A small coin sticking in the windpipe._ Seize the child by the legs,
letting his head hang downwards, then administer several brisk blows on
the back with the palm of the hand, when very frequently the coin will be
coughed out of the mouth and on to the floor. If this plan do not succeed,
send immediately for medical aid.
=ACCLI'MATE=, or =ACCLI'MATISE=. In _botany_ and _zoology_, to inure a
plant or animal to a climate to which it is not indigenous. When so inured
it is said to be ACCLIMATED. In _medicine_, to habituate the body to a
foreign climate, so that it may not be peculiarly liable to its endemic
diseases; or to become so habituated. Thus, a person who has resided
several years at New Orleans without an attack of yellow fever, or having
had an attack has satisfactorily recovered, is said to be ACCLI'MATISED.
=ACCOM'PANIMENTS.= In _cookery_ and _housekeeping_, see TRIMMINGS.
=ACCUMULA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACCUMULA'TIO, L. In _medicine_, a term
applied when the effects of the first dose of any substance still continue
when the second is administered (accumulation of action); or when several
doses of insoluble substances remain inactive in the system until their
energy is developed by chemical influence (accumulation of doses). See
MEDICINES, POISONS, &c.
=ACEPH'ALANS.= _Syn._ ACEPH'ALA, CUV. In _malacology_, a class of aquatic
mollusca, having no apparent head, but a mouth between the folds of their
mantle. Several of them, as the oyster, cockle, mussel, scallop, &c., are
consumed for food.
=ACERB'ITY.= _Syn._ ACERB'ITAS, L.; ACERBITÉ, Fr.; HERBIGKEIT, Ger. In
_chemistry_, &c., sourness, with bitterness and astringency, or harshness.
See CIDER, FRUIT, WINE, &c.
=ACERBO'S ANTI-RHEUMATIC AND ANTI-CATARRH OIL.= For various horse
diseases. Gum euphorbium, 10 parts; absolute alcohol, 10 parts; olive oil,
80 parts. Digest in a warm-water bath for 24 hours, then boil until all
the spirit has evaporated, and, when cold, strain through cotton. (Hager.)
=ACER'IDES.= Plasters that do not contain wax.
=ACES'CENT.= _Syns._ ACES'CENS, L.; ACESCENT, AIGRELET, Fr.; SÄURLICH,
Ger. In _chemistry_, &c., growing sour; slightly tart or acid; having a
tendency to sourness, or to run into the acetic fermentation, as _wine_,
_beer_, _malt-wort_, &c. Hence, ACES'CENCE or ACES'CENCY (_acescen'tia_,
L.; _acescense_, _aigreur_, Fr.; _säurlichkeit_, Ger.), the tendency to
become slightly acid, or the quality of being so. See ACETIFICATION,
MALT-LIQUORS, WINE, WORT, &c.
=ACETA''RIOUS= (-t[=a]re'-e-[)u]s). Used for salads (as plants); relating
to salads (which see).
=AC'ETATE= ([)a]s'-). _Syn._ ACE'TAS, L.; ACETATE, Fr.; ESSIGSÄURE SALZE,
Ger. In _chemistry_, a salt consisting of C_{2}H_{3}O_{2} (sometimes
called the acid-radical of the acetates) with hydrogen, a metal, or a
compound basic radical; _e.g._,
Hydrogen acetate (acetic acid) HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
Potassium acetate KC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
Lead (plumbic) acetate Pb(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}
Ammonium acetate NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
Salts of acetic acid (HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2})
with the alkaloids are likewise termed acetates; _e.g._,
Morphia acetate C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3} . C_{2}H_{4}O_{2}
_Prep._ That of the commercial acetates, and of many others, is noticed
under the respective metals. In general, they may all be formed by direct
solution of the carbonate, hydrate or oxide of the metal whose acetate it
is desired to form, in dilute acetic acid; or from a solution of an
acetate and of another salt of the metal, by double decomposition. In
either case, the resulting solution must be carefully evaporated by a
gentle heat, and, where possible, crystallised.
_Prop., &c._ All the neutral acetates, except those of molybdenum and
tungsten, are more or less soluble in water, several so much so as to be
uncrystallizable; many dissolve in alcohol; they suffer decomposition at a
dull red heat, and by distillation, at that temperature, yield acetone and
water, or acetone and acetic acid, and leave a carbonaceous residuum; at a
full red-heat, those of potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, and
magnesium, are converted into carbonates, whilst the other metallic
acetates leave behind the pure metal, or its oxide. The aqueous solutions
of the alkaline acetates soon turn mouldy and suffer decomposition. No
more of them should, therefore, be dissolved at once than is required for
immediate use.
_Char., tests, &c._ The acetates are known--1. By evolving fumes of acetic
acid, recognisable by its peculiar and characteristic odour, on the
addition of strong sulphuric acid:--2. By evolving the vapour of acetic
ether (known by its peculiar and agreeable odour) when heated with a
mixture of about equal parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol.
=AC'ETATED= ([)a]s'-). In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, combined or
impregnated with acetic acid or vinegar.
=ACE'TIC.= _Syn._ ACE'TICUS, L.; ACÉTIQUE, Fr. Of or relating to vinegar;
made with acetic acid, as perfumes, &c. (See _below_.)
=ACETIC ACID.= HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ PYROLIG'NEOUS ACID (_pure_); ACID
OF VINEGAR; ACIDUM ACE'TICUM, L.; ACIDE ACETIQUE, Fr.; ACIDO ACETICO, It.;
ESSIGSÄURE, Ger.; AZYNZUUR, Dut.; EISEL, Sax. When free from water it
crystallises on cooling, and is distinguished as--ACETIC HYDRATE,
HY'DRATED ACETIC ACID, MONOHY'DRATED A. A., GLA'CIAL A. A., MONOHYDRATED
A. A., ACE'TUM GLACIA'LE, ACIDUM ACE'TICUM G., L., &c. the sour principle
of vinegar.
_Var._ Commercial acetic acid is found under the form of the pure acid of
the chemist and pharmaceutist (glacial and dilute), and of vinegar, of
which there are several varieties, which are noticed under their
respective heads.
_Sources._ Fermented liquors; the vinegars of commerce; alcoholic liquors;
wood, from which it is obtained, as pyroligneous acid, by distillation;
the commercial acetates of soda, potassa, lime, lead, copper, &c. The pure
acetic acid of the chemist and of commerce is almost wholly obtained from
the acetates, either by the action of a strong acid, which seizes on the
base, setting the acid free; or, by dry distillation, in which the high
degree of heat employed separates the acetic acid from the base in the
form of vapour. It is also obtained by the oxidation of alcohol.
_Prep._ The following are the principal processes at present adopted to
obtain pure acetic acid:--
1. From the _Acetates_ in the moist way:--
_a._ From ACETATE OF SODA:--
1. Commercial acetate of soda (_i.e._, the 'pure acetate' of the
pyroligneous acid works), in crystals, is put into the body of a stout
copper still, and a deep cavity being made in the centre of the mass,
about 35% of sulphuric acid of a sp. gr. of not less than 1·84 is poured
in; the walls of the cavity are then thrown in upon the acid, and the
whole briskly agitated, for a very short time, with a large wooden
spatula; the head of the still is next luted on, and the distillation
conducted at a gentle heat, the receiver being changed as soon as the
distillate begins to acquire a slight empyreumatic odour. The product,
when the process is well managed, is an almost colourless acid of the sp.
gr. of fully 1·05, containing about 40% of glacial acid, or between 34%
and 35% of anhydrous acid. Any trace of colour or empyreuma is removed by
agitation with some well-washed and recently ignited vegetable charcoal,
or with a very small quantity of recently ignited purified animal
charcoal, and subsequently passing it through a prepared calico
bag-filter; or by allowing it to stand, for about a fortnight, in barrels
containing some beech-wood chips; after which it is ready for sale, either
as the ordinary acetic acid or pure pyroligneous acid of commerce, or (on
dilution, &c.) as vinegar.
2. The acid of sp. gr. 1·05 (obtained as above) is distilled with fused
chloride of calcium, the distillate being run into a refrigerator; the
crystals that form are drained at a temperature below 40° or 45° Fahr.,
and after removal to a warmer temperature, where they liquefy, and
agitation with a little peroxide of lead, are submitted to a second
distillation, as before; and this is repeated until the whole of the acid
crystallises at 51° Fahr. The product is the glacial acetic acid of
commerce.
_Obs._ The above are the processes usually adopted, on the large scale, in
this country.
3. (M. Mollerat's process--without distillation.) Pure commercial acetate
of soda, in coarse powder, is placed in a hard glazed stoneware or glass
pan or receiver set in a cool situation, and 35% or 36% of concentrated
sulphuric acid, of the sp. gr. 1·843, added, in such a manner that the
acid may flow under the powder, and little heat be generated by the
operation; the whole is then allowed to remain in contact (covered) for
some hours, when crystalline grains of sulphate of soda are found covering
the bottom and sides of the vessel, and hydrated acetic acid, partly
liquid and partly in crystals, the upper portion. The temperature being
now slightly raised to a point just sufficient to cause the liquefaction
of the crystals of acetic acid (_i.e._, to from 62° to 65° Fahr.), the
fluid is poured off, and a very small quantity of pure acetate of lime
added to it gradually, until it ceases to yield any trace of free
sulphuric acid on evaporation. After sufficient repose it is carefully
decanted for use. An excellent commercial strong acetic acid is thus
obtained, without distillation, owing to the insolubility of sulphate of
soda in acetic acid; and from which glacial acid may be procured by
refrigeration. If, however, the process be badly managed, or the
proportions of the ingredients be not carefully observed, the product will
be contaminated with either a little sulphuric acid or saline matter. It
is also important to the success of this process that it be performed in a
cool apartment, and in well-cooled vessels. Perfectly pure acetic acid may
easily be obtained by rectification from this acid. The above plan of
superseding a troublesome distillation is one of the greatest improvements
yet introduced into the manufacture of acetic acid.
4. (Liebig's process.) Pure acetate of soda, thoroughly dried and finely
powdered, 3 parts, is placed in a capacious retort, and pure concentrated
sulphuric acid, 9·7 parts, poured over it through the tubulature. One
eighth of the acetic acid passes over by the heat developed by the
reaction of the ingredients. The heat of a sand bath is next applied and
continued until the contents of the retort become quite liquid. The
distillate, carefully rectified, yields two parts of pure acid, containing
only 20 per cent. of water. On exposing the latter portion which comes
over in a closed vessel to a temperature below 40° Fahr., crystals of
hydrated acetic acid are deposited. The weaker, or liquid portion, being
poured off, the crystals are again melted and re-crystallised by cooling.
The crystals of the last operation, separated from the liquid, and
carefully drained in a cool and closed vessel, are perfectly pure hydrated
acetic acid.
_Obs._ The above is an excellent process for obtaining a chemically pure
acid. The excess of sulphuric acid left from the process may be recovered
by distillation; or the whole residuum may be employed in a second
distillation with fresh acetate.
[Illustration: (_C._) A Liebig's Condenser. (The other _reference letters_
are self-explanatory.)]
Although a retort is recommended by Liebig for the distillation, and is
usually adopted, on the small scale, for the purpose, a flask closed by a
cork perforated by two tubes, as exhibited by the _engr._, will be found
more convenient and safe; as the product is then less likely to be
contaminated by the 'spirting' of the ingredients over the brim of the
vessel. The heat of a diffused gas-flame may also be often advantageously
substituted for a sand bath.
_b._ From ACETATE OF POTASH:--
1. Acetate of potash (fused and powdered) is placed in a still, or other
suitable vessel, and 50% of the strongest sulphuric acid ('oil of vitriol'
of fully 1·84 sp. gr.) being added, the mixture is distilled to dryness,
as before. The product is 50 to 51% of the weight of the acetate employed,
with a sp. gr. of about 1·0735 to 1·074, containing about 66% of anhydrous
acetic acid, or nearly 80% of ordinary glacial acid. By rectification from
a little dried acetate of lead a perfectly pure acid of almost any
strength may be obtained. The ingredients are nearly in equiv.
proportions.
_c._ From ACETATE OF LEAD:--
1. (Ure.) Take of dried acetate of lead, 4 parts; strongest oil of
vitriol, 1 part. Distil slowly to dryness. Nearly equal to the last.
2. (Liebig.) Acetate of lead, 3 parts; sulphuric acid, 8 parts; as before.
3. (Dollfuss' Concentrated Acetic Acid.) Take of dried acetate of lead, 12
oz.; sulphuric acid, 6 oz.; distil 7 ounces.
_d._ From ACETATE OF LIME:--
1. (Christl.) Raw acetate or pyrolignate of lime (prepared by Völckel's
process), 100 parts, is mixed with hydrochloric acid (20° Baumé, or sp.
gr. 1·1515), 120 parts; and after 12 hours, distilled in a copper vessel,
with a gradually applied heat. The product is 100 parts or lbs. of acetic
acid of 8° Baumé (sp. gr. 1·0556), containing about 47% of hydrated acid,
only slightly coloured and empyreumatic, fit for various manufacturing
purposes. The advantage of this process is the low price of hydrochloric
acid, and the product not being contaminated with sulphuric or sulphurous
acid.
_Obs._ It will be found that pyrolignate of lime generally contains 60% to
70% of neutral acetate; but should it contain either more or less, a
proportionate quantity must be employed. When the proper proportions are
used the distillate gives only a scarcely perceptible turbid cloud when
tested with nitrate of silver. If the hydrochloric acid used has the sp.
gr. 1·16, a less quantity being employed, the product will have the sp.
gr. of 1·058 to 1·061, and will then contain from 48 to 51% of the
monohydrate, or 41 or 42% of anhydrous acetic acid. The resin sometimes
found floating on the mixed ingredients should be carefully removed, by
skimming, before distillation.
As acid of the above strength is rarely required, and as the distillation
is more easily conducted when the ingredients are less concentrated, a
little water may be conveniently added either before or towards the end of
the distillation. Hence the following proportions have been recommended:--
2. (Völckel.) Acetate of lime (as last), 100 parts; hydrochloric acid (sp.
gr. 1·16), 90 to 95 parts; water, 25 parts; mix, and proceed as before.
Prod. 96 to 98 parts of an excellent acid, well adapted to trading
purposes, having a sp. gr. about 1·050, and containing nearly 40% of
hydrated acetic acid. It has been correctly remarked, that the acetic acid
produced with hydrochloric acid is always of better quality than that
produced with sulphuric acid; being not only less coloured, but also
entirely free from sulphurous acid. The distillation uniformly proceeds
with ease and regularity, and the whole of the acetic acid passes over
between 212° and 248° Fahr.; by which the danger of contamination with
other products, resulting from a high degree of heat, is obviated.
3. An Acetic acid sufficiently strong and pure for many ordinary purposes
may be obtained without distillation, by pouring strong sulphuric acid, 60
parts, diluted with water, 5 parts, on well-dried acetate of lime, 100
parts; digesting, with occasional agitation in a close vessel, decanting
the clear liquid, and straining the remainder.
[Illustration:
_A_, Furnace.
_B B B B_, Glass receivers.
_C_, Stoneware retort.
_D_, Bottle containing vinegar.
_E E E E_, Basins containing water.
_F F F F_, Supports for basins.
_G_, Welter safety-tube.
_H_, Supply-pipe of cold water.
_I I I I_, Cocks to supply water to the basins.
_J_, Water main.
_L_, Adapter connecting retort and globes.]
II. _From_ the _Acetates_ by _dry distillation_ with a _sulphate_:--
_a._ From ACETATE OF LEAD:--
1. Acetate of lead (dried), 5 parts; and sulphate of iron (gently
calcined), 2 parts; are separately powdered; and after thorough mixture,
carefully distilled, by the heat of a sand bath, into a well-cooled
receiver. An economical process for a strong acid, under certain
circumstances; but one now seldom adopted.
2. (Bardollier's Strong Acetous acid.) Dried acetate of lead, 10 oz.;
calcined green vitriol, 12 oz.; as the last.
_b._ From the ACETATES OF COPPER:--By substituting acetate or diacetate of
copper, in equiv. proportions, or better with excess of the sulphate.
Seldom used.
_c._ From ACETATE OF POTASH, as the last.
III. From the _Acetates per se_:--
_a._ From ACETATE OF COPPER:--AROMATIC V.[dagger]; SPIRIT OF
VERDIGRIS[dagger]; SPIRITUS VEN'ERIS[dagger], L.; ESPRIT DE VENUS, Fr.;
ACIDUM ACE'TICUM, (Ph. L. 1787.) _Process._ Carefully dry crystallised
verdigris (diacetate of copper) by a very gentle heat, and introduce it
into a large stoneware retort (see _engr._), the bottom of which has been
previously coated with a mixture of clay and horse-dung, to render it more
capable of standing the fire. Next place it in a suitable furnace, and
connect it, by an adapter, with 3 or 4 double tubulated globes, the last
of which must be furnished with a vertical tubulature, to which a double
Welter's safety-tube should be adapted; the other end being immersed in a
basin half-filled with distilled vinegar or water, while the funnel
portion communicates with the atmosphere. Then place each globe in a basin
of water, kept cool by a stream constantly passing through it; and cover
the upper portion with cloths kept continually wet with cold water. After
15 or 20 hours, fire may be applied, and must be so regulated that the
drops follow each other with considerable rapidity from the end of the
adapter, whilst the bubbles of air cause no inconvenience at the other end
of the apparatus. If otherwise, the fire must be damped a little. The
operation should be continued, and the fire gradually increased, until
vapour ceases to come over, known by the globes gradually cooling,
notwithstanding the heat of the furnace. The operation being concluded,
the whole may be allowed to cool, and the acid collected preparatory to
rectification. This may be effected in a similarly arranged apparatus,
except that it must be wholly of glass; and the retort should not be much
more than half-filled. The operation must now be very carefully
conducted, and discontinued before barely the whole of the acid has
distilled over; as the last portion is apt to injure the flavour and
colour of the rest. The first portions which come over are very weak, and
should be kept separate, until the sp. gr. reaches to about 1·372, when
the receiver should be changed, and the product collected in separate
portions, as noticed below.
_Obs._ Good diacetate of copper yields, by careful management, at a
temperature of 400° to 560° Fahr., fully one half its weight of a
greenish-coloured acid, of the sp. gr. of about 1·061, containing above
50% of hydrated acetic acid, or 43% of anhydrous acid. 20 lbs. of the
ordinary acetate yields 9-3/4 lbs. of this rough acid, leaving a residuum
of about 6-1/2 lbs. of metallic copper mixed with a little charcoal, in
the retort; the remainder (nearly 2/10ths of the acid in the acetate)
being decomposed by the heat, and lost. This 9-3/4 lbs. of crude acid
yields by rectification, and dividing the products, 1/2 lb. of acid of the
sp. gr. 1·023; 3 lbs. of the sp. gr. 1·042; and 6 lbs. of the sp. gr.
1·065; exclusive of a little acetone which comes over with it. In the
first distillation, the strongest acid is found in the third receiver, and
the weakest in the first. The acid obtained in this way is always
accompanied with a little fragrant pyro-acetic spirit; which renders it
preferable for aromatic vinegar and perfumery. It dissolves camphor,
resins, and essential oils with facility. This is one of the oldest
methods of obtaining glacial acetic acid, and the product is still
preferred for some purposes. It is the RADICAL VINEGAR of the alchemists,
and it is that which is preferred by the perfumers. Well-dried acetate of
lead, or of iron, as well as several other acetates, may be substituted
for acetate of copper in the above process; but are less economical and
convenient. In all cases, great care must be taken to avoid over-firing,
as thereby the quantity obtained is lessened, and the quality injured. The
residuum of the distillation is pyrophoric and frequently inflames
spontaneously, on exposure to the air. Due caution must be therefore
observed regarding it.
IV. _From Wood_, by _dry distillation_. See PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. The
preparation of the purified acid, by converting it into an acetate, and
subsequent distillation with a strong acid, is noticed _above._
[Illustration]
V. _From Alcohol._ (ALCOHOL VINEGAR, GERMAN ACETIC ACID.) In a bell-glass,
or an oblong glass case, perforated shelves are arranged, a few inches
apart, one above another, on which are placed a number of small flat
dishes of porcelain, earthenware, or wood. These dishes are filled with
spirit of wine or dilute alcohol; and over each is suspended a watch-glass
or capsule containing a portion of platinum-black; the whole being
arranged so that the platinum-black and the surface of the alcohol are not
more than 1-1/2 to 2 inches apart. Strips of porous paper are next so hung
in the case, that their bottom edges are immersed in the spirit, to
promote evaporation; and lastly, the apparatus, loosely covered, is set in
a light place at a temperature of from 70° to 90° Fahr.--the sunshine,
when convenient. In a short time the temperature of the platinum rises,
and the formation of acetic acid begins; and the condensed vapour trickles
down the sides of the glass and collects at the bottom of the case, whence
it is removed once or twice a day. (See _engr._) The product of a case of
twelve cubic feet content, with 7 or 8 oz. of platinum-powder, is capable
of producing daily, if well managed, nearly 1·31 lb. of hydrated acetic
acid from 1 lb. of absolute alcohol; 25 lbs. of platinum-powder and 300
lbs. of alcohol will, in like manner, furnish a daily supply of nearly 350
lbs. of pure acid, and of other strengths in proportion. Theoretically,
the product should be 130 parts of the hydrated acid for every 100 parts
of alcohol consumed; but this is never quite obtained in practice, owing
to a small portion of the alcohol mixing with the newly formed acid, and
escaping decomposition; and from another small portion of both the
alcohol, and of the newly formed aldehyd, being carried off by the air
that permeates the apparatus. The platinum-powder does not waste, and the
most inferior spirit may generally be employed.
_Rationale._ In this process, the alcohol (as in other cases of
acetification) is first converted into aldehyd; and this, as rapidly as
formed, absorbs oxygen and passes into hydrated acetic acid. The
simultaneous formation of aldehyd during the oxygenation of that already
formed, may be detected by its odour.
_Obs._ During the mutual action of the platinum-black and the vapour of
alcohol, the temperature increases, and continues to do so until all the
oxygen contained in the air enclosed in the case is consumed, when the
acetification stops. On opening the case for a short time, to admit of a
fresh supply of air, the operation recommences, thus showing its
dependence on the oxygen of the atmosphere. For this transmutation, 100
grains of alcohol require 71 grains (equal to 200 cubic inches) of oxygen,
or about 1000 cubic inches of atmospheric air. To render the process
continuous and rapid, a fresh supply of air must, therefore, be constantly
provided. This may be effected by either having a loosely covered opening
at the top of the case, and several much smaller ones near its lower part;
or (and preferably) by means of two small glass tubes passing through the
lid or cover, one of which terminates just below the point of insertion,
whilst the other divides into branches which reach to within a short
distance from the bottom, as shown in the _engraving_. In this way a very
slow current of fresh air will always be kept up in the apparatus.
[Illustration]
In practice, we find, that by loosely spreading the platinum-black on
pieces of platinum-gauze, and supporting these on small tripods or bars of
glass or porcelain (or even wood), the watch-glasses and their troublesome
suspension may be dispensed with; as also may be the strip of porous
paper, provided a temperature of not less than 90° Fahr. be maintained in
the case or acetifier, which may easily be done by the application of
artificial heat in the absence of sunshine. On the large scale, a case of
wood with a glass roof, or even a well-seasoned cask or vat may be
employed, in which case the temperature of the apparatus must be kept up
either by means of steam-pipes or flues, or by the supply of warm air. On
the small scale, a hand bell-glass placed on a dish, with a single
watch-glass or piece of platinum-gauze, and a single capsule containing
alcohol, may be used, provided the bell-glass be supported on three very
small wedges, to admit of a supply of air. A modification of this is
sometimes employed, in which the alcohol is supplied, in drops, to the
platinum-black, by means of a long, tubular funnel passing through the
mouth of the bell-glass, and having its lower extremity drawn to a very
fine point, as shown in the _engr._ To ensure success, the platinum-black
should be either fresh-prepared, or recently washed and very gently
heated, before placing it in the acetifier. Spongy platinum, though
ordered by many chemical compilers, does not answer well for this process.
By the above elegant and economical process, perfectly pure acetic acid of
considerable strength may be produced from even impure alcohol; but it is
impossible in this way to obtain a concentrated acid without a subsequent
operation, because the action of platinum-black on absolute alcohol, or
even on strong alcohol, is so violent that the platinum soon begins to
glow, and inflammation ensues. Unfortunately the revenue laws of this
country, until lately, stood in the way of the adoption of this beautiful
process, unless duty-paid alcohol or methylated spirit be employed; but
there is no statute that prevents an individual employing pure spirit, of
any strength, on the small scale, for private consumption. In Germany, and
in the United States of America, vinegar is manufactured on this plan, and
from the low price of crude alcohol there, it will no doubt prove
ultimately to be the cheapest source of both pure acetic acid and culinary
vinegars.
VI. _Miscellaneous Formulæ_:--
1. An excellent acetic acid, of considerable strength, may be made by
soaking fresh-burnt and perfectly dry charcoal in common vinegar, and then
subjecting it to distillation. The water comes over first, and on
increasing the heat, the acid follows. Vinegar-bottoms and waste vinegar
may be used.
2. By exposing vinegar, or dilute acetic acid, to the air in very cold
weather, or to freezing mixtures, the water separates in the form of ice,
and the strong acetic acid may be obtained by draining it into suitable
glass vessels, observing to do so at a temperature sufficiently low to
keep the water solid. Said to answer well in cold climates.
3. Acetic acid containing 20% of water may be deprived of a good deal of
its superfluous water by standing over dry sulphate of soda. (Liebig.) It
may then be used either with or without distillation.
4. Acetic acid, of ordinary strength, may be concentrated to any degree,
by rectification once, or oftener, from dry acetate of potash or soda,
rejecting the first and last portions. The same acetate may be used
repeatedly. The temperature need not exceed 400°, and must not rise above
570° Fahr.
ACETIC ACID. (B. P.) _Syn._ ACIDUM ACETICUM. Water mixed with 33% of
hydrated acetic acid. Prepared by distilling acetate of soda with
sulphuric acid. Colourless sour liquid. Sp. gr. 1·044.
_Prop._ Pure hydrated acetic acid is a thin, colourless liquid above 62
Fahr.; at 50° to 55° it crystallises in large, brilliant, colourless,
transparent needles and plates, and even at 60° if a crystal of the acid
be dropped in; at 40° it is a solid crystalline mass. Sp. gr.--liquid,
1·063 (Mollerat) to 1·0635 (Mohr);[3]--crystallised, 1·135 at 55° Fahr.
(Ure). Odour, intensely pungent when concentrated, but grateful, fragrant,
and refreshing, when diffused; taste, intensely sour and acrid, becoming
agreeable and refreshing, on sufficient dilution with water; volatile;
inflammable, burning with a white flame; vapour of boiling acid highly
combustible; dissolves camphor, resins, gum resins, volatile oils,
gelatin, gliadin, coagulated albumen, and fibrin (as muscle or the
crassamentum of the blood); it coagulates casein, but not liquid albumen
(as the serum of the blood and white of egg): miscible with alcohol,
ether, and water in all proportions; boils at 248° Fahr.;[4] and is
decomposed at a red heat. Its salts are called ACETATES (which _see_).
[Footnote 3: 1·064--H. M. Witt (Ure's '_Dict., of Arts, M. & M._,' 5th
ed.); 1·063 to 1·065--Muspratt ('_Chemistry, Theor. & Prac._,' p. 2);
1·06296--Pereira (4th ed.); 1·0629--Brande; 1·062--Ure; 1·057--Berzelius
('_Jahr. ber._,' xvi, 192):--variations evidently arising from difference
of purity in the acid examined, or from difference of temperature. The sp.
gr. 1·080, with other numbers given by Prof. Lehmann ('_Chemistry_,' Day's
Transl.), is probably a misprint.]
[Footnote 4: This is the boiling-point given by the best authorities, and
confirmed by Gerhardt ('_Chimie Organique_,' i, 718). Ure made it 230°(an
error corrected in 5th ed.), Lehmann says 243·140, and others give it at
235°, 240°, &c. An acid of about 80% (sp. gr. 1·073 to 1·0743), its
maximum density, boils at 219° to 220° Fahr.]
_Char., Tests, &c._--1. Free acetic acid reddens litmus paper, like the
other acids; and may be readily recognised by its odour and
volatility:--2. Sesquichloride of iron being added, and the acid then
nearly saturated with ammonia, the fluid acquires a deep dark-red colour.
_Estim._ See ACETIMETRY. Organic mixtures that cannot be thus tested, or
from which the acid cannot be obtained by simple distillation, may be
neutralised, if acid, with carbonate of lime, boiled for a few minutes,
cooled, filtered, the lime precipitated with dilute sulphuric acid, and
the whole submitted to distillation, when the acid contents of the
distillate may be estimated as above.
_Pur._ By heat, it escapes (entirely) in vapour; nothing is precipitated
on the addition of either hydrosulphuric acid, nitrate of silver, or
chloride of barium. Sometimes it is contaminated with sulphurous acid,
which may be recognised by putting a fluid drachm of the acid, mixed with
an ounce of distilled water and half a drachm of pure hydrochloric acid,
also a few pieces of granulated zinc, into a flask. While effervescence
continues suspend a slip of white blotting-paper, moistened with solution
of sub-acetate of lead, in the upper part of the flask above the liquid,
for about five minutes. The paper should not be discoloured, and thus
indicate the absence of sulphurous acid.
_Adult._ The acetic acid of the shops is chiefly adulterated with water.
Sulphurous acid and lead are accidental contaminations; that of the latter
often reaches 2%, making the acid poisonous.
_Phys. eff., &c._ In its concentrated state it is a corrosive and an acrid
poison. Taken internally, it acts by dissolving the animal tissues, and by
thus destroying the organisation causes death, like the other acids. In
the dilute form it acts as a stimulant, rubefacient, alterative,
refrigerant, and escharotic.
_Uses._ Acetic acid is much employed by the chemist and pharmaceutist, in
the manufacture of various preparations, and in analysis; by the perfumer,
in the composition of several of his most refreshing and agreeable scents;
and in medicine, as an antiseptic, stimulant, rubefacient, alterative,
refrigerant, and escharotic. Acetic acid (B. P.) applied by means of a
piece of rag tied to the end of a small stick, is a nearly certain cure
for ring-worm and scaldhead--one or two applications generally effecting a
cure, and the severe smarting it causes is only of short duration; as a
caustic, it removes warts and corns; a piece of lint or blotting-paper
wetted with it and applied to the skin (evaporation being prevented),
forms a useful extemporaneous blister. It was once employed as a
disinfectant; but is now only used as a fumigation, to disguise the
unpleasant smell of the sickroom and crowded assemblies. It is a popular
refreshing scent in faintings, asphyxia, and nervous headache; and is a
valuable rubefacient, astringent, and local stimulant. It is also used as
a rubefacient and caustic in veterinary practice.
In the _arts_, the commercial acid (pure pyroligneous acid) is used by the
engraver to etch his plates; as an antiseptic in pickling and preserving
animal and vegetable substances used as food, and anatomical preparations;
in dyeing and calico printing, and in the manufacture of medicated
vinegars and other pharmaceutical preparations.
In the dilute state, its properties and applications are similar to those
of ordinary vinegar, and are noticed under that head.
_Poisoning_ from acetic acid is rare. When concentrated, it is capable, by
its corrosive and solvent action, of perforating the coats of the stomach
and digestive canal; and it colours the mucus of these organs by the
chemical action it exerts upon the blood. Vinegar in an excessive quantity
acts in a similar way, but in a slighter degree. The _treatment_ and
_antidotes_ are similar to those directed in cases of poisoning by the
other acids. See POISONS.
_Duty, Excise, &c._ See VINEGAR.
_Gen. commentary._ Acetic acid, on the large scale, is principally
prepared from acetate of soda, which yields by a comparatively
inexpensive, and not a difficult operation, an acid sufficiently strong
and pure for commercial purposes, without the necessity of rectification.
In this process shallow vessels of wood or of copper formed without rivets
or solder (except silver solder) in those parts exposed to the action of
the acid, are generally employed for the purpose of the distillation. A
coil of drawn copper pipe, heated by steam having a pressure of 30 to 40
lbs. to the inch, traverses the bottom of the apparatus, to impart the
necessary heat. The refrigerator consists of well-cooled earthenware,
Berlin ware, or glass vessels; and the adopter pipe is also of the same
materials. Another common form, which is even still more convenient, is a
stout copper still, furnished with a cast-iron jacket to hold
high-pressure steam, the usual refrigeratory being employed. In a few
instances the space between the still and jacket is filled with sand, oil,
tallow, or fusible metal; in which case the apparatus is set in brickwork,
and heated by a naked fire. Stills of earthenware are also frequently
employed; and even worms and condensers of silver, or silvered copper, are
sometimes used, and with advantage. With a leaden worm the product is
always contaminated with a little of that metal; the efforts of the
manufacturer to the contrary, by the exclusion of air, and by rejecting
the first and last portions of the distillate, only lessening and not
preventing this evil. A lute (if any) composed of linseed meal and water,
with or without a little powdered plaster of paris, may be employed; but
flat bands and short tubes of well-seasoned vulcanised india rubber are
infinitely more convenient and efficacious. The ingredients being placed
in the still, and well but hastily stirred together with a wooden spatula,
the head is luted on, and the distillation soon afterwards commenced. The
chief care now should be to increase the heat gradually as the
distillation proceeds; and when a steam-heat is not used, to carefully
avoid over-firing, particularly towards the close of the operation. A
little acetic ether is added by some manufacturers. In this way 4 lbs. of
acid of the sp. gr. 1·050, is obtained for every 3 lbs. of acetate of soda
employed. Should rectification be had recourse to, the addition of about 2
or 3% of bichromate of potash, peroxide of manganese, or red oxide of
lead, will remove empyreuma, if present. The first of these substances is
the most effective; the power of the others being in the order in which
they are printed. In distilling the weaker acids and vinegars, it is found
useful to add from 25 to 30% of chloride of sodium, which, by raising the
boiling-point of the liquid, allows the acid the more freely to pass over
(Stein); but this addition proves disadvantageous when any sulphuric acid
is present, in which case sulphate of soda may be employed instead. If
this addition be not made, the whole of the acid cannot be obtained
without distillation to dryness, and the generation of empyreuma.
On the small scale, glass retorts are usually directed to be used, but
glass alembics or flasks are more convenient and safe, as already noticed.
In the preparation of the pure acid, care should be taken that the acetate
of soda does not contain common salt, as the carbonate of soda prepared by
calcination, and frequently used to form the acetate, is generally
contaminated with it, and yields up its hydrochloric acid or chlorine
during the process of distillation, thus vitiating the product. In all the
methods given the product becomes more concentrated in proportion to the
dryness of the acetate and the strength of the oil of vitriol or muriatic
acid employed. By using the one dry, and the other concentrated, glacial
acid may always be obtained by collecting separately the last two fifths
that come over, and submitting this to refrigeration.
According to Melsens, pure GLACIAL ACETIC ACID is most advantageously
obtained by distilling pure and dry acetate of potash with an excess of
strong and moderately pure acetic acid, rejecting that which first passes
over.
Acetate of soda may be safely dried at a temperature of 400° to 450°,
provided care be taken to avoid ignition from contact with sparks. A less
heat is, however, quite sufficient to drive off the whole of its water of
crystallisation. It is known to be dry by its assuming the appearance of a
smooth oily liquid whilst hot. If, whilst heated, it emits fumes, it is
suffering decomposition. The same applies to the other commercial
acetates. Crystallised acetate of soda loses about 2/5ths of its weight by
thorough drying.
When acetate of soda and sulphuric acid are the ingredients employed in
the production of acetic acid, sulphate of soda is formed, which, in the
large way, the chemist returns to the manufacturer of acetate of soda (_i.
e._ to the pyroligneous acid maker), who employs it in the decomposition
of fresh acetate or pyrolignite of lime. In this way the same soda-salt is
employed over and over again, acting merely as the vehicle for the
separation of the crude acetic acid in the solid form, and its easy and
cheap transportation from one point to another. This ingenious method of
mutual assistance resulting from the application of chemical science to
provide for the wants of everyday life, offers some explanation of the
extraordinarily low price at which acetic acid may now be purchased.
The acetic acid of commerce (pure pyroligneous acid) is almost wholly
obtained from the acetates of soda and lime. The principal supply of crude
acetate (pyrolignite) of soda is from America, Norway, and Sweden; but
much is also obtained from our home manufactories. See ACETIFICATION,
ACETIMETRY, FERMENTATION, PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, SODIUM, (Acetate of),
VINEGAR, &c.
More recently, acetic acid has been obtained by decomposing with
hydrochloric acid the double salt of chloride of calcium and acetate of
lime, mentioned by Fritzsche ('Ann. de Poggend,' xxviii, 123). For this
purpose, solutions of acetate of lime and chloride of calcium are mixed
and evaporated, the combined salts readily crystallising in large needles.
These are freed from the mother-liquor and distilled with common muriatic
acid.
The acid furnished by this method requires redistillation, and is,
moreover, contaminated with some of the fatty products always present in
the crude pyrolignite.
=Anhydrous Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ ACETIC ANHYDRIDE. Acetic acid deprived of
the elements of water.
Acetic Acid. Water. Acetic Anhydride.
2C_{2}H_{4}O_{2} - H_{2}O = C_{4}H_{6}O_{3}.
=Aromat'ic Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ AROMATIC VINEGAR; A. SPIRIT OF V.; ACIDUM
ACE'TICUM AROMAT'ICUM, L.--_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1839.) Dried rosemary and
origanum, of each 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 1/2 oz.; bruised cloves, 1/2
dr.; acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·068), 1-1/2 pint; macerate for 7 days,
express, and filter. A fragrant and refreshing perfume. Omitted in Ph. E.
1841 and P. B. 1867.
2. (Ph. E. 1817.) As the last, but using distilled vinegar instead of the
strong acid of the Pharmacop[oe]ia. Inferior.
3. (P. Cod. 1839) Camphor, 2 oz.; oil of lavender, 10 gr.; oil of
cinnamon, 20 gr.; oil of cloves, 30 gr.; concentrated acetic acid, 1 pint.
Very fragrant and refreshing.
4. (Ph. Bor. 1847; Cod. Med. Hamb. 1845.) Oil of cloves, 1 dr.; oils of
lavender and citron, of each 2 scrup.; oils of bergamot and thyme, of each
1 scrup.; oil of cinnamon, 10 drops; strongest acetic acid, 1 oz.; mix.
Limpid; yellow-brown; highly fragrant and refreshing. See ACETIC ACID
(Camphorated), and VINEGAR (Aromatic).
=Beaufoy's Acetic Acid.= A superior commercial acetic acid (_i. e._
purified pyroligneous acid), having a sp. gr. of about 1·044; or
containing about 28% of real acetic acid, or 32 to 33% of the hydrated
acid. Same strength, &c., as ACETIC ACID P. B.
=Cam'phorated Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ CAMPHORATED VINEGAR; ACIDUM ACE'TICUM
CAMPHORA'TUM, L.--_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1841.) Camphor, 1/2 oz.; pulverise it
by means of a few drops of spirit of wine, and then dissolve it in acetic
acid (Ph. E.), 6-1/2 fl. oz.
2. (Ph. D. 1850.) Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; pulverise,
and dissolve in strong acetic acid (acid. acet. fort. Ph. D.), 10 fl. oz.
_Obs._ This preparation is intended as a substitute for the aromatic
acetic acid of the shops and previous pharmacop[oe]ias. It is also useful
as an embrocation, in rheumatism and neuralgia; as an extemporaneous
vesicant and counter-irritant; and as a fumigation in fevers, &c.
=Dilute' Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ACETICUM DILU'TUM, L. Acetic acid, 1
pint; distilled water, 7 pints; mix, Sp. gr. 1·006. One fluid ounce
corresponds to 16 grains of anhydrous acid (3·63 per cent.).
=Glacial Acetic Acid.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ACETICUM GLACIALE. Acetate of soda,
20 oz., is liquefied by a gentle heat, stirred till it becomes
pulverulent, and then further heated until it fuses; it is at once removed
from the fire, and, when cool, the mass is broken up, placed in a 3-pint
stoppered retort connected with a Liebig's condenser, and then treated
with sulphuric acid, 8 fl. oz. When the distillation slackens heat is to
be applied, and the process continued until 6 fl. oz. of acetic acid have
passed over. If a little of the product strikes a blue colour when mixed
with a solution of iodate of potassium containing mucilage of starch, the
whole product must be agitated with perfectly dry black oxide of
manganese, 1/4 oz., and redistilled. Sp. gr. 1·065; contains 85% of
anhydrous acid.
=ACETIC ANHYDRIDE.= See ANHYDROUS ACETIC ACID.
=ACETICA.= [L.] Medicated vinegars.
=ACETIDUX, Dr DELFER'S.= Made by Döllinger, of Berlin. For the radical and
painless removal of warts, corns, hard skin, &c. A solution of 5 grms. of
chromic acid in 15 grms. of water. (Schädler.)
=ACETIFICATION.= _Syn._ ACETIFACIO, L.; ACETIFICATION, Fr.; ESSIGMACHEN,
EINSAÜERN, Ger. In _chemistry_, the act or process of converting into
vinegar; also the state of undergoing such conversion.
Acetic acid is produced either by the partial dehydrogenation and
subsequent oxidation of bodies containing its elements, or by their
destructive distillation. The first is effected--by their exposure, in a
finely divided state, to the action of air or atmospheric oxygen, as in
the quick process of making vinegar; or--by submitting them, in
combination with ferments, to contact with a free supply of atmospheric
air, as in the old field process of making vinegar; or--by exposure to the
direct action of chemical or mechanical oxidizing agents, as condensed air
(platinum-black process), chromic and nitric acid, &c. In general, it is
alcohol more or less dilute, particularly as it exists in fermented
liquors, which is thus converted into acetic acid. In the second process
(destructive distillation), wood is the substance usually employed, and
heat is the agent which develops the acid.
The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid is not immediate and direct.
The atmospheric oxygen first oxidises two atoms of its hydrogen, aldehyd
and water being formed; and this aldehyd uniting with one atom of oxygen
produces one molecule of ACETIC ACID. The changes are represented in the
following equations:--
Alcohol. Oxygen. Aldehyd. Water.
=1.= C_{2}H_{6}O + O = C_{2}H_{4}O + H_{2}O
Aldehyd. Oxygen. Acetic Acid.
=2.= C_{2}H_{4}O + O = HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
After the first formation of aldehyd, the two processes, unless
artificially checked, go on simultaneously, as long as any undecomposed
alcohol is present.
The conversion of alcohol into acetic acid, although greatly accelerated
by the presence of nitrogenised organic matter (according to Mulder, of a
fungus--the _Mycoderma Vini_ or Vinegar Plant), is rather a case of
eremacausis (slow combustion) than of fermentation. Acetification effects
combination, as shown by the foregoing equations, whereas fermentation
resolves complex bodies into simpler ones, _e.g._ sugar into alcohol and
carbonic anhydride. Moreover, the presence of ferments is not essential to
the change, since pure alcohol becomes acetified when exposed to the
oxidising agents already named.
Another remarkable distinction between acetification and fermentation is,
that the former requires the continued presence of atmospheric oxygen;
whilst the vinous fermentation after being once established, proceeds
perfectly without it.
During the oxidation of the alcohol of vegetable solutions, some of the
other organic matters present also suffer change. A white gelatinous mass
(_mother of vinegar_)[5] is commonly deposited; but this is a secondary
result of the process, and not, as formerly supposed, one essential to it.
In ordinary cases acetification occurs only at or near the surface of the
liquid; which accounts for the length of time required for the operation
under the old process of 'fielding,' and the shorter time in which it is
accomplished by the improved process of Mr Ham. It proceeds favorably at
temperatures ranging from 60° to 90° Fahr.; and most rapidly at 95° Fahr.
(Liebig). In the 'quick process' of making vinegar a temperature of 90° to
92° is generally aimed at; but it often rises to 100°, or even to 105°,
Fahr. As the temperature falls acetification proceeds more slowly, and at
46 to 50° Fahr. it ceases altogether (Liebig).
[Footnote 5: It has generally been asserted that this substance contains
vibriones, and other low forms of organised life; but Mulder describes it,
under the name _mycoderma aceti_, as a plant of the order 'fungi.' It is
formed at the expense of the constituents of the vinegar, and often causes
whole vats of it to pass into water.]
Aldehyd (see _above_) is an exceedingly volatile substance, and easily
dissipated by a slight heat. It is, therefore, of the highest importance
to duly regulate the temperature, as well as the supply of air, during
acetification. In the 'quick process' of making vinegar the loss from this
cause is always considerable, and often very great. This loss may be
diminished by passing the heated air, as it escapes from the acetifier,
through a porcelain or silvered copper worm or refrigerator, set in a
chamber containing water of a temperature not higher than 40° to 45°
Fahr.; the connection being made at the _lower_ end of the worm, whilst
the upper end is open to the air. On the small scale, as in the
platinum-black process, the loss may be almost entirely prevented by
causing the upper air tube to pass through a vessel containing ice or a
freezing mixture; or by uniting it with the lower end of a Liebig's
condenser.
In liquors undergoing the vinous fermentation, a portion of the newly
formed alcohol is invariably acetified whenever the temperature rises
above 51° Fahr.; and at a higher temperature, this proceeds with a
rapidity often highly injurious to the quality of the liquor. In this way
there is frequently a useless loss of the alcohol, which is rendered more
apparent by the incipient, and sometimes the actual, souring of the
liquor.
=ACETIM'ETRY=. _Syn._ ACETOM'ETRY; ACÉTOMÉTRIE, Fr.; ACETIME'TRIA, &c., L.
The art or process of determining the quantity of pure acetic acid in
vinegar, or in any other liquid. The plans generally adopted for this
purpose are--
I. From the saturating power of the acid, as in the common methods of
acidimetry:--
1. The molecular weight of commercially pure bicarbonate of potash, in
crystals, being 100, whilst that of absolute acetic acid is 60, it is
evident that every ten grains of the bicarbonate will exactly equal 6
grains of the acid. To apply this practically, we have only to exactly
neutralise 100 gr. of the vinegar or solution under examination with the
bicarbonate, observing the usual precautions; then, as 10 is to 6, so is
the number of grains used, to the per-centage strength required. In this,
as in other like cases, it is convenient to form a test-solution with the
bicarbonate, by dissolving it in sufficient water to fill the 100
divisions of any simple form of 'acidimeter,' as _a_, _b_, or _c_; when
the quantity of the solution, and, consequently, of the salt used, may be
read off at once from the graduated portion of the tube. Still greater
accuracy may be obtained by dissolving the bicarbonate in exactly 1000 gr.
of distilled water contained in a 'Schuster's alkalimeter,' previously
very carefully weighed; in which case each grain of the test-solution will
indicate 1/10th of a grain, or 0·1% of absolute acetic acid, whilst every
10 grains will be equal to 1 grain, or 1%.
[Illustration]
The test-solution may also be prepared from bicarbonate of soda, or from
the carbonates of soda or potash, care being taken that the quantity of
the salt dissolved be in proportion to its molecular weight.
2. (Brande.) A small piece of white marble, clean and dry, is weighed, and
then suspended by a silk thread in a weighed sample (say 100 or 1000 grs.)
of the vinegar or acid under examination; the action being promoted by
occasionally stirring the liquid with a glass rod, until the whole of the
acid is saturated, as shown by no further action on the marble being
observable on close inspection. The marble is then withdrawn, washed in
distilled water, dried and weighed. The loss in weight which it has
sustained will be nearly equal to the acetic acid present, or strictly, as
50 (marble) to 60 (absolute acetic acid). The only precautions required
are, to avoid striking the piece of marble with the rod whilst stirring
the solution, or causing loss of substance in it after its withdrawal; and
to allow ample time for the action of the acid on it. If the sample
consists of strong acid, it should be diluted with twice or thrice its
weight of water before suspending the marble in it.
3. (Ure.) 100 grains of the sample under examination is slightly reddened
with tincture of litmus, and ammonia of the sp. gr. 0·992 is added drop by
drop (from an acetimeter holding 1000 water-gr. measure, divided into 100
divisions) until precise neutralisation is effected, indicated by the blue
colour of the litmus being restored. The number of the divisions of the
acetimeter used, multiplied by 60, and the first two right-hand figures of
the product cut off as decimals, gives a number which represents the exact
quantity of absolute acetic acid in the sample. In practice, it is found
more convenient to keep the test-ammonia ready tinged with litmus.
The mode of estimating the per-centage of acetic acid in beers, when
finding their original gravities, is a slight modification of the above. A
test-solution of ammonia is prepared of such a strength that a given bulk
of it will exactly neutralise one per cent. of absolute acetic acid in an
equal bulk of beer, so that, if 100 fluid grains of the solution are
sufficient to neutralise the acid in 1000 fluid grains of beer, such beer
contains one tenth per cent. of acid. A solution of ammonia, diluted with
distilled water until it has the sp. gr. ·9986 at 60°, is of the exact
strength required.
An acetimeter holding 1000 grains, and graduated downwards to 100 equal
divisions, is filled to 0 of the scale with the test-ammonia, which is
then added, drop by drop, to 1000 measured grains of the beer, until
neutralisation takes place. Every division of the acetimeter
(corresponding to ten fluid grains), so emptied, indicates ·01 per cent.
of acetic acid in the beer. The progress of the neutralisation is tested
from time to time with a slip of reddened litmus paper, which should be
suffered to become faintly blue before ceasing to add the ammonia. By this
method the exact per-centage of absolute acetic acid in any sample may be
accurately determined. The only precaution necessary is to be certain that
the 'test-ammonia' has the required sp. gr. (·9986). Test-solutions may
also be prepared with pure potash or pure soda.
II. From the specific gravity of the liquid after it has been neutralised
with hydrate of lime:--
Common hydrate of lime (freshly slaked lime), in powder, is added
gradually to the sample under examination, until it is saturated, when the
sp. gr. of the resulting clear solution of acetate of lime is taken by
Taylor's ACETIMETER. This instrument is so adjusted and graduated as to
float at the mark on the stem called 'proof,' in a solution containing 5%
of absolute acetic acid (No. 24 vinegar). For vinegars stronger than proof
small weights are provided, each of which indicates an additional 5 per
cent. To ascertain the per-centage of real acid, 5% must therefore be
added to the acetimeter number. Thus, without being loaded, the
instrument, floating at the 'proof mark,' indicates a vinegar of 5%; with
one weight, a vinegar of 10%; with two weights, 15%, and so on. According
to this system of notation, each 5% is called a 'vinegar.' An acid of 10%
is said to contain two vinegars; one of 15%, three vinegars, &c. It is
also common to speak of the degrees of the acetimeter as proof or
over-proof. Thus, No. 24 vinegar is said to be proof; one of 5 acetimeter
degrees, 5 over-proof; one of 10 degrees, 10 over-proof, &c. For malt and
wine vinegars, which contain gluten and mucilage, this method is not
strictly accurate, as a portion of these substances escapes precipitation
by the lime, and consequently alters the specific gravity. A small weight
marked 'M' is generally supplied with the acetimeters for trying such
vinegars.
III. From the specific gravity:--
The sp. gr. of the sample (carefully determined by any of the usual
methods) is sought in one of the following Tables, when the corresponding
per-centage content of acetic acid is at once seen.
This method furnishes reliable results only with pure, or nearly pure
solutions which do not contain much above 50% of glacial acid, or which
have a sp. gr. not higher than 1·062. It is also more to be depended on
for weak solutions than strong ones. By carefully diluting a strong acid
with an equal weight, or twice or thrice its weight of water, and allowing
the mixture to again acquire its normal temperature, the sp. gr. may be
taken as a guide in all cases in which great accuracy is not required.
When such dilution is made it only becomes necessary to multiply the
indication furnished in the Tables by 2, 3, or 4, as the case may be. As,
however, authorities are not agreed as to the precise sp. gr. of the
monohydrate or glacial acid, and of its solutions, extreme accuracy must
not be expected by this method.
TABLE I.--_Adapted to the Specific Gravities of common
vinegar_. By Messrs J. and P. TAYLOR.
per
sp. gr. cent.
1·0085 contains of anhydrous or real acetic acid 5
1·0170 " " 10
1·0257 " " 15
1·0320 " " 20
1·0470 " " 30
1·0580 " " 40
TABLE II.--_Exhibiting the quantity of_ ABSOLUTE _or_
GLACIAL ACETIC ACID (HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}), _in acetic acid
of successive strengths_. By Mr COOLEY.
+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+
|Absolute | |Absolute | |Absolute | |Absolute | |
| Acetic |Sp. Gr.| Acetic |Sp. Gr.| Acetic |Sp. Gr.| Acetic |Sp. Gr.|
| Acid, | | Acid, | | Acid, | | Acid, | |
|per cent.| |per cent.| |per cent.| |per cent.| |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+
| _Pure | | | | | | | |
| acid_, | | 75 |1·0731 | 49 |1·0593 | 23 |1·0320 |
| or 100 |1·0630 | 74 |1·0732 | 48 |1·0582 | 22 |1·0311 |
| 99 |1·0648 | 73 |1·0728 | 47 |1·0568 | 21 |1·0292 |
| 98 |1·0663 | 72 |1·0721 | 46 |1·0557 | 20 |1·0275 |
| 97 |1·0677 | 71 |1·0718 | 45 |1·0553 | 19 |1·0264 |
| 96 |1·0685 | 70 |1·0713 | 44 |1·0544 | 18 |1·0253 |
| 95 |1·0696 | 69 |1·0711 | 43 |1·0535 | 17 |1·0241 |
| 94 |1·0704 | 68 |1·0708 | 42 |1·0525 | 16 |1·0229 |
| 93 |1·0708 | 67 |1·0702 | 41 |1·0518 | 15 |1·0218 |
| 92 |1·0715 | 66 |1·0701 | 40 |1·0513 | 14 |1·0200 |
| 91 |1·0721 | 65 |1·0693 | 39 |1·0502 | 13 |1·0173 |
| 90 |1·0726 | 64 |1·0692 | 38 |1·0492 | 12 |1·0172 |
| 89 |1·0729 | 63 |1·0685 | 37 |1·0482 | 11 |1·0161 |
| 88 |1·0730 | 62 |1·0679 | 36 |1·0473 | 10 |1·0150 |
| 87 |1·0731 | 61 |1·0675 | 35 |1·0460 | 09 |1·0131 |
| 86 |1·0732 | 60 |1·0672 | 34 |1·0449 | 08 |1·0121 |
| 85 |1·0733 | 59 |1·0665 | 33 |1·0439 | 07 |1·0102 |
| 84 |1·0734 | 58 |1·0662 | 32 |1·0425 | 06 |1·0085 |
| 83 |1·07343| 57 |1·0653 | 31 |1·0413 | 05 |1·0071 |
| 82 |1·0735 | 56 |1·0645 | 30 |1·0402 | 04 |1·0057 |
| 81 |1·0738 | 55 |1·0641 | 29 |1·0392 | 03 |1·0042 |
| 80 |1·0743 | 54 |1·0632 | 28 |1·0380 | 02 |1·0025 |
| 79 |1·0742 | 53 |1·0628 | 27 |1·0364 | 01 |1·0012 |
| 78 |1·0740 | 52 |1·0616 | 26 |1·0352 | _Pure |1·0000 |
| 77 |1·0739 | 51 |1·0610 | 25 |1·0341 | water._ | |
| 76 |1·0736 | 50 |1·0602 | 24 |1·0330 | | |
+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+
_Concluding remarks_. Before applying the above processes, account should
be taken of any mineral acid which may be present in the sample, such
being not unfrequently added to vinegar to impart artificial strength; and
in those depending on the sp. gr., gum, gluten, &c., must also be allowed
for. The methods depending on the saturating power of the acid will be
found appropriate to acetic acid of all strengths, when unadulterated with
the mineral acid. The method based on the sp. gr. is also very convenient,
and is sufficiently accurate for distilled vinegars and for pure acids of
moderate strength.
It is found that the decimal fraction of the sp. gr. of pure or nearly
pure vinegar is doubled by its conversion into acetate of lime. Thus,
1·0085 in vinegar becomes 1·0170 when converted into a solution of acetate
of lime. In malt vinegar, however, 0·005 may be deducted from the sp. gr.
for mucilage and gluten. The quantity of foreign matter present in vinegar
may therefore be approximatively ascertained, by deducting the decimal of
the sp. gr. of the solution of acetate of lime from double that of the
decimal part of the sp. gr. of the vinegar. Thus:--the sp. gr. of a sample
of vinegar being 1·014, and after saturation with hydrate of calcium
1·023, the sp. gr. of the pure vinegar would be 1·009, and that due to
foreign matter ·005. For--
·028 - ·023 = ·005
and--
1·014 - ·005 = 1·009
The reason why proof-vinegar is called, in commerce, No. 24, is that 1 fl.
oz. of it requires exactly 24 gr. of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda to
neutralise it. Weaker vinegars are represented in the same 'notation' by
the Nos. 22, 20, 18, &c., according to their respective strengths
estimated by their saturating power.
=ACETINE.= An essence for the removal of corns. Concentrated vinegar (1·04
sp. gr.) slightly tinged with fuchsine, 15 grms. (Hager.)
=ACETINE, HOCHSTETTER'S.= Prepared by J. C. F. Witte, Berlin. A remedy for
corns, warts, and hard skin. Diluted vinegar, coloured with blue carmine,
16 grms. (Schälder.)
=ACETOLATS.= [Fr.] _Syn._ ESPRITS ACÉTIQUES. In _French pharmacy_,
medicated vinegars obtained by distillation.
=ACETOLES.= [Fr.] In _French pharmacy_, medicated vinegars obtained by
maceration.
=ACETOUS FERMENTATION.= See ACETIFICATION.
=ACETUM.= [L.] Vinegar.
=ACETYL.= _Syn._ ACETYLE. A name originally given to a hypothetical body,
having the formula C_{2}H_{3}, and regarded by Berzelius as the radical of
the acetates and their congeners. The acetyl of Gerhardt (C_{2}H_{3}O)
is, however, according to that chemist, the true radical of the acetates.
Williamson, in order to remove the confusion of terms occasioned by the
application of the same name to compounds of different composition,
proposed the title of othyl for the radical C_{2}H_{3}O.
=ACHAR.= See PICKLES.
=ACEIILE'INE= (-k[)i]l-). A peculiar bitter principle obtained from
achillé a millefolium (Linn.), or yarrow.
=A'CHOR=, (-k[)o]r). [Gr.] See SCALD-HEAD.
=ACHROMAT'IC= ([)a]k-ro-). _Syn._ ACHROMATIQUE, Fr. In _optics_, devoid of
colour; bodies that transmit light without decomposition, and
consequently, without the formation of coloured rings or fringes; applied
to compound lenses, prisms, &c., and to instruments fitted with them.
=ACRO'MATISM.= _Syn._ ACHROMATISME, Fr. In _optics_, the state of being
achromatic; the absence of coloured fringes in the images of objects seen
through a lens or prism.
Light is not homogeneous, but decomposable by refraction, absorption, or
reflection, into coloured rays of unequal refrangibility. A ray of white
light, in passing through a glass prism, is entirely separated into the
coloured rays forming the 'prismatic spectrum,' and when it passes through
a lens, an analogous resolution into coloured rays still occurs, though
not so readily observed, and that to an extent often incompatible with
distinct vision. Now, if a convex lens be regarded as a number of prisms
united by their bases round a common centre, and a concave lens, as a
similar number of prisms with their apices in contact, the action of
lenticular and prismatic glasses on light will be reduced to a common
principle. A beam of light thrown on a simple converging lens not only
suffers refraction at the spherical surface (SPHERICAL ABERRATION), but
the different coloured rays of which it is composed, from the causes
mentioned, being unequally bent or refracted, diverge from their original
course (CHROMATIC ABERRATION), forming as many foci on the axis of the
lens as there are colours, and fall separately, instead of together, on
the eye or object which receives them. Hence arise the coloured fringes or
halos that surround objects viewed through ordinary glasses, and which
form the great impediments to the construction of perfect lenses. This
effect, like the refractive power and focal distance, varies in degree in
different diaphanous substances.
The correction of the chromatic aberration of lenses is commonly effected
by combining two, or more, made of materials possessing different
'dispersive' powers. Thus, the spectrum formed by flint glass is longer
than that formed by crown glass, for the same deviation. When the two are
combined, so as to form a compound lens, the one tends to correct the
'dispersion' of the other. On this principle ACHROMATIC GLASSES are
generally formed in this country. A convex lens of crown glass is combined
with a weaker concave lens of flint glass, the latter counteracting the
dispersion of the former, without materially interfering with its
refractive power. The resulting combination is not absolutely achromatic,
but is sufficiently so for all ordinary purposes. According to Dr Blair, a
compound lens perfectly achromatic for the intermediate, as well as for
the extreme rays, may be made by confining certain fluids, as hydrochloric
acid, between two lenses of crown glass. In order to produce nearly
perfect achromatism in the object-glasses of telescopes, microscopes,
cameras, &c., a concave lens of flint glass is commonly placed between two
convex lenses of crown or plate glass, the adjacent surfaces being
cemented with the purest Canada balsam, to prevent the loss of light by
reflection from so many surfaces.
_Obs._ The production of perfect achromatism in lenses is a subject not
less fraught with difficulty than with practical importance to the
astronomer, the mariner, the microscopist, and the photographer; and it
has hence engaged the attention of the leading mathematicians and artists
of Europe up to the present time. All the larger object-glasses lately
manufactured are said to consist of only two lenses; the resulting
achromatism proving sufficiently exact for all useful purposes. Those of
recent production have come chiefly from the workshops of Dollond, of
London, and the opticians of Bavaria and Switzerland. The achromatism of
prisms depends upon the same principles, and it is effected in the same
way as that of lenses.
=ACIC'ULAR.= Needle-shaped; slender or sharp pointed; spicular; in
_botany_, applied to leaves, and in _chemistry_, to crystals. The last are
also sometimes termed ACIC'ULÆ.
=ACID=, _Syn._ ACIDUM, L.; ACIDE, Fr.; ACIDO, Ital.; SÄURE, G. In familiar
language, any substance possessing a sour taste. In _chemistry_,
substances are said to be acid, or to have an acid reaction, when they are
capable of turning blue litmus red. In _chemistry_, also, the term acid is
applied to a very large class of compounds containing hydrogen (hydrogen
salts), and in which one or more atoms of that element may be replaced by
an equivalent quantity of a metal or other basic radical; _e.g._--
1. The one atom of hydrogen in hydrochloric acid (HCl) may be replaced by
sodium, producing the salt sodium chloride (NaCl).
2. The one atom of hydrogen in nitric acid (HNO_{3}) may be replaced by
silver, producing the salt silver nitrate (AgNO_{3}).
3. One atom of hydrogen in acetic acid (HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2})[6] may be
replaced by the basic radical ammonium (NH_{4}), producing the salt
ammonium acetate (NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}).
[Footnote 6: Symbols indicating the number of atoms of replaceable
hydrogen occupy the foremost position in the formulæ of acids, as shown in
the text.]
Acids which, like those mentioned in the foregoing examples, contain
one atom of replaceable hydrogen are called monobasic; those which
contain two such atoms (_e.g._ sulphuric acid, H_{2}SO_{4}; tartaric
acid, H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}),[7] dibasic; those which contain three
such atoms (_e.g._ phosphoric acid, H_{3}PO_{4}; citric acid,
H_{3}C_{6}H_{5}O_{7}),[7] tribasic; and so on with acids of higher
basicity. Acids of greater basicity than unity are frequently termed
polybasic.
[Footnote 7: See footnote, p. 26.]
Besides containing replaceable or basic hydrogen, acids are further
characterised by the property of combining with alkaloids to form salts;
_e.g._--
Sulphuric Acid. Quinia.
H_{2}SO_{4} + 2C_{24}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2} =
Quinia Sulphate.
(C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2})_{2} . H_{2}SO_{4}
Acetic Acid. Morphia.
HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} + C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3} =
Morphia Acetate.
C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3} . HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}
=Dibasic Acids.= See ACID.
=Fatty Acids.= Acids separable from fats or oils; _e.g._ stearic acid,
oleic acid, butyric acid, &c.
=Inorganic Acids.= Same as MINERAL ACIDS (which _see_).
=Mineral Acids.= Acids chiefly or wholly derived from the mineral kingdom.
In _medicine_, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, are commonly so
called.
=Monobasic Acids.= See ACID.
=Organic Acids.= Acids formed by, or derived from organic substances;
_e.g._ acetic acid, tartaric acid, uric acid, &c.
=Polybasic Acids.= See ACID.
=Pyro-acids.= Acids resulting from the decomposition by heat of other
acids, _e.g._ gallic acid, when heated, yields pyro-gallic acid.
=Tribasic Acids.= See ACID.
=ACIDIFICA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ACIDIFICA'TIO, L. In _chemistry_, the
act, process, or state of acidifying, or of making, becoming, or
impregnated with acid.
=ACIDIM'ETER.= _Syn._ ACIDOM'ETER; ACIDIME'TRUM, &c., L.; ACIDIMÈTRE, Fr.
An instrument or apparatus employed in acidimetry.
The ordinary acidimeters of the chemist are small tubes, constructed to
hold exactly 1000 grains of distilled water, at 60° Fahr., within the
limits of their scale, which is accurately graduated into 100 divisions.
They are used to contain the alkaline solutions (TEST-LIQUORS, NORMAL or
STANDARD SOLUTIONS) employed in the following processes.
Beaumé's Acidimeter, and others of the same class, are HYDROMETERS, and
are described under that 'head.'
=ACIDIM'ETRY.= _Syn._ ACIDOM'ETRY; ACIDIME'TRIA, &c., L.; ACIDIMÉTRIE, Fr.
The estimation of the strength or quantity of acid, in a free state,
contained in any liquid. It is the reverse of 'alkalimetry.' Acidimetrical
assays are understood to refer to the relative strengths of the same acids
(_i. e._, the quantity of real acid of the same kind contained in the
solutions examined), and not to the comparative strengths of acids of
different composition or names.
_Acidimetrical processes._ These are founded chiefly on the capacity of
the acids to saturate the bases; and, in some of the liquid acids, on the
specific gravity.
_a._ VOLUMETRICALLY:--
1. The sample of the acid to be examined (100 gr., or any convenient
aliquot part thereof) is placed in a suitable glass vessel, and if it be
one of the stronger acids, diluted with six or eight times its weight of
water, or if solid (as oxalic, or citric acid), dissolved in a like
quantity. This liquid is then exactly neutralised with an alkali.
This point is usually determined, by the addition of a small quantity of
litmus solution, which turns just blue when the solution is neutralised,
but when a carbonate is used for the alkaline solution, the acid must be
boiled a short time after each addition to expel the carbonic acid. The
quantity of the alkaline solution consumed for this purpose represents an
equivalent quantity of acid, and thus gives us the acid content of the
sample under examination. The common practice is to dissolve one
equivalent of the alkaline test in grains or grammes in water, and to make
up the solution to exactly 1000 parts by measure (_i. e._, 1000
'water-grains' or grammes), so as to accurately fill the 100 divisions of
an acidimeter; when the quantity, in grains or grammes, of the sample
tested, bears the same proportion to the equivalent number of the acid
under examination, that the number of acidimeter divisions of the
test-liquor consumed bear to the per-centage of acid sought.
Thus:--suppose 50 gr. of a sample of sulphuric acid take 25 acidimeter
divisions (300 parts or water-grains measure) of the test-liquid to
neutralise it, what is its content of real acid?
The equivalent of sulphuric acid is 49 (half its atomic weight); so, by
the rule of proportion,
50 : 49 :: 25 : 24-1/2
It therefore contains 24-1/2 parts of real sulphuric acid, in 50.
If the 1000 parts or grain-measures, instead of the number of the
acidimeter divisions, be taken for the calculation, it will, of course, be
necessary to point off the first right-hand figure of the result as a
decimal. Thus; repeating the above example--
50 : 49 :: 250 : 24·5
Or, since the equivalent of the test-liquid is 100, it will bear the same
proportion to the equiv. of the acid examined as the number of the
acidimeter divisions of the test-liquid consumed in neutralising 100 gr.,
do to the per-centage sought. Thus:--50 gr. of hydrochloric acid take 45
acidimeter divisions to effect neutralisation, what is its real
strength?--The equiv. of hydrochloric acid is 36·5: therefore--
100 : 36·5 :: 45 : 16·425%
and, since only 50 gr. (instead of 100 gr.) were examined--
16·425 × 2 = 32·85%
Some operators prefer employing 100 gr. instead of the equivalent weights
of the given tests in making their test-solutions, in which case each gr.
or 1000th part represents 1/10th, and each acidimeter degree 1 gr. of the
alkali or carbonate employed; when a similar proportion will obtain to
that first above given.
In technical analysis it is more convenient if the number of acidimeter
divisions of the 'test-liquid' consumed express the per-centage strength
of the acid, without further calculation. For this purpose the number of
grains of the acid taken for the assay should correspond to the equivalent
number of such acid (see _Table_ I, below); or to some convenient aliquot
part of it, as the 1/2, 1/4, 1/5, or 1/10th; the per-centage answer, in
the last case, being doubled, quadrupled, &c., according to the aliquot
part taken. The reason of this is obvious.
For the test-solutions, ammonia, and the dry and crystallised carbonates
and bicarbonates of potash and soda, are used, and are made by dissolving
in water their constituents except ammonia, of which 1000 grains, or one
litre, of solution of specific gravity 0·992 contains exactly one
equivalent.
53 grains (or grammes) of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, prepared by
gradually heating to redness the crystallised salt, constitute one
equivalent (half the atomic weight), and 69 grains (or grammes) of pure
dry carbonate of potash. Of the crystallised salt 143 grains of carbonate
of soda will be required, and 84 grains (grammes) of the crystallised
bicarbonate of soda, and 100 of the crystallised bicarbonate of potash.
Occasionally solutions containing in one thousand parts, 50 of pure
carbonate of lime or chalk, or 28 of pure caustic lime, are used.
Besides these, a process known as Kiefer's is practised, and an ammoniacal
solution of oxide of copper is employed as the 'test-liquor,' and the
'point of neutralisation' is known by the turbidity observed as soon as
the free acid present is completely saturated.
The normal solution or test-liquor is prepared by adding to an aqueous
solution of sulphate of copper, pure ammonia water, until the precipitate,
which at first forms, is just redissolved, carefully avoiding excess. Or
better, by adding a rather strong solution of sulphate of copper, to a
quantity of a rather strong solution of ammonia containing exactly 17 gr.,
or one equiv. of pure ammonia, as long as the precipitate which forms is
redissolved on agitation; the resulting liquid being afterwards diluted
with pure distilled water, until it accurately measures 1000 water-grains,
or fills 100 divisions of an acidimeter, at 60° Fahr. In either case, the
strength of the resulting 'test-solution' must be carefully determined by
means of standard sulphuric acid, and adjusted, if necessary.
This method answers well with all the stronger acids (excepting oxalic
acid), even when dilute; and it has the advantage of not being affected by
the presence of a neutral metallic salt with an acid reaction, as sulphate
of copper, or of zinc.
Besides this process a solution of lime in sugar may be used, as proposed
by M. Peligot, and made as follows:--
Pure caustic lime is carefully slaked by sprinkling with water, and 50
grains (or grammes), made up by water to a milky solution, and 100 grains
of pure sugar candy dissolved in 1000 grains of water, are added, and the
whole well shaken. It is allowed to settle in a closed bottle, and the
clear solution poured off and diluted, until 1000 grains neutralise
exactly 100 grains of pure hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. 1·1812. Of course
it only answers with acids whose calcium salts are readily soluble in
water.
_b._ GRAVERMETRICALLY:--
The test-liquors or standard solutions of the above methods are made up so
as to _weigh_ exactly 1000 grains, instead of to 'measure' 100 acidimeter
divisions. Every grain of the test-liquor thus represents 1/10th gr. of
alkali; and every 10 gr., 1 gr. of alkali; or respectively, 1/10th per
cent. and 1 per cent. The vessel used for containing the solutions is
carefully weighed whilst empty, and 1000 gr. being placed in the opposite
scale, the test-solution, containing exactly one equivalent of base, is
poured in, and the whole made up with distilled water (if necessary) so as
to restore the balance to an equilibrium. After the process of
neutralisation, the acidimeter, with its contents, is again placed in the
scales; its previous weight still remaining there. The number of grains
required to restore the equilibrium of the balance (_i.e._, the loss of
weight), gives the exact weight of the test-liquor consumed. In all other
respects the process is the same as in the 'volumetrical method' already
described.
Another method for estimating the strength of the sample of acid is by
weighing the amount of carbonic acid expelled during saturation. (Method
of Fresenius and Will.) This depends on the weight of gaseous carbonic
acid which a given weight of the acid-sample under examination is capable
of expelling from pure bicarbonate of soda (or of potash), which is
estimated by the loss of weight in the acidimeter, or apparatus, after the
gas, rendered perfectly dry by passing through sulphuric acid, has escaped
into the air.
TABLE I.--_Weights of the respective acids equivalent
to the given weight of the principal bases, hydrogen
being taken as unity._
{51 Acetic acid (anhydrous).
{60 " " (crystallised or glacial).
{99 Arsenious acid (dry).
{35 Boracic acid (anhydrous).
17 gr. of pure ammonia.[8] } {62 " " (crystallised).
31 " anhydrous soda.[9] } {22 Carbonic acid (dry).
40 " hydrate of soda.[9] } {67 Citric acid (crystallised).
53 " dry carbonate of soda.[10] } {85 Gallic acid (dried at 212°).
143 " crystallised carbonate of } {94 " " (crystallised).
soda.[11] } {127-1/2 Hydriodic acid (dry or gaseous).
84 " crystallised bicarbonate } {27 Hydrocyanic acid (anhydrous).
of soda. } {36-1/2 Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous).
47 " anhydrous potassa.[9] } {109 " " (liquid, sp. gr. 1·162).
56 " hydrate of potassa.[9] } are {166-1/2 Iodic acid.
69 " dry carbonate of potassa.[10]} exactly {54 Nitric acid (anhydrous).
100 " crystallised bicarbonate } neutralised {63 " " (liquid, _monohydrated_, sp. gr.
of potassa. } by { 1·517 to 1·521).
50 " {pure chalk. } {67-1/2 " " (liquid, _sesquihydrated_, sp. gr.
{pure marble. } { 1·5033 to 1·504).
28 " pure caustic lime. } {72 " " (liquid, _binhydrated_, sp. gr.
37 " hydrate of lime (fresh). } { 1·486).
44 " dry carbonic acid (when } {90 " " (liquid, sp. gr 1·42).
the bicarbonate of } {36 Oxalic acid (anhydrous).
potassa or soda is } {63 " " (crystallised).
used for testing in } {72 Phosphoric acid (anhydrous).
the process of Fresenius } {81 " " (glacial).
and Will). } {50 Succinic acid (dry or anhydrous crystals).
22 " dry carbonic acid (when } {59 " " (ordinary crystals).
a dry carbonate is } {40 Sulphuric acid (anhydrous).
used). } {49 " " (liquid, _monohydrated_, sp.
{ gr. 1·8485).
{75 Tartaric acid (crystallised).
{212 Tannic acid (carefully dried).
[Footnote 8: 1000 water-grains measure of pure liquor of ammonia, sp. gr.
0·992, contains exactly 17 gr., or 1 equiv. of pure gaseous ammonia. A
standard liquor of this strength may be most conveniently prepared by
cautious dilution of a stronger solution, until a hydrostatic bead,
corresponding to the sp. gr., floats indifferently in the middle of the
new solution, at 60° Fahr. By keeping two hydrostatic beads in the
solution--the one made barely to float, and the other barely to sink--we
shall always be able to detect any change of strength or temperature which
it may suffer; since the "loss of a single hundredth part of a grain of
ammonia per cent., or the difference of a single degree of heat, will
cause the beads to" vary their positions. To preserve its integrity it
must be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. (See below.)]
[Footnote 9: These substances, as well as 'test-solutions' containing
them, must be perfectly free from carbonic acid, and must be carefully
preserved to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere.
Mohr states that a dilute solution of either of them is best preserved in
a flask or bottle well closed with a cork fitted with a small bulb tube
(resembling a chloride of calcium tube), filled with a finely triturated
mixture of sulphate of soda and caustic lime, and bearing a very thin open
tube in the exit aperture. Fresenius, and most other foreign chemists,
prefer 'test-solutions' of pure soda. With test-solutions containing
caustic alkalies, exact neutralisation of an acid is not only more easily
effected, but more readily perceived, particularly when either solution is
tinted with litmus.]
[Footnote 10: Prepared by gradually heating the pure crystallised
carbonate to redness. From being uniform in composition, and easily
procured or prepared, they are much employed; preference being usually
given to the soda-salt.]
[Footnote 11: The crystals must be free from attached water, but not the
least effloresced.]
_Oper._ A determined amount of the acid under examination is accurately
weighed into the flask _A_ (see _engr._); and if it be a concentrated
acid, or a solid, it is mixed with or dissolved in 6 or 8 times its weight
of water. The little glass tube (_e_) is then nearly filled to the brim
with pure bicarbonate of soda, in powder, and a fine silken thread is tied
round the neck of the tube, by means of which it can be lowered down into
the flask (_A_), so as to remain perpendicularly suspended when the cork
is placed in the latter; the cord being held between the cork and the
mouth of the flask. The flask (_B_) is next about half filled with oil of
vitriol, and the tubes being arranged in their places, as represented in
the _engr._; and time having been allowed for the mixture of acid and
water to cool completely, after the increase of heat caused by mixing, the
whole apparatus is very accurately weighed. The cork in the flask (_A_) is
then slightly loosened, so as to allow the little tube containing the
bicarbonate of soda to fall into the acid, and is again instantly fixed
AIR-TIGHT in its place. The evolution of carbonic acid now commences, and
continues until the acid in the flask (_A_) is neutralised. When this
takes place, which is easily seen by no bubbles being emitted on shaking
the apparatus, the flask (_A_) is put into hot water (120° to 130°
Fahr.), and kept there, with occasional agitation, until the renewed
evolution of gas has completely ceased. The little wax stopper is then
taken off the tube (_a_), the apparatus taken out of the hot water, wiped
dry, and suction applied, by means of a perforated cork, or a small
india-rubber tube, and the mouth, to the end of the tube (_d_), until the
sucked air no longer tastes of carbonic acid. The whole is then allowed to
become quite cold, when it is replaced in the balance (the other scale
still containing the original weights), and weights added to restore the
equilibrium.
[Illustration:
(_A_) A wide-mouthed flask, capable of holding 2-1/2 to 8 oz.,
containing sample for trial (_f_).
(_B_) Ditto, capable of holding 1-1/2 to 2 oz., partly filled with
oil of vitriol (_g_).
(_a_, _c_, _d_) Tubes fitting air-tight in the flasks by means of
the corks (_i_) and (_j_).
(_b_) Piece of wax fitting air-tight on the end of _a_.
(_e_) Small tube capable of holding about 1 drachm of powdered
bicarbonate of soda or potash.
(_h_) Open end of the tube (_d_).
(_k_) Silk cord fastened to the tube (_e_).]
The loss of weight represents the exact quantity of dry carbonic
anhydride, or anhydrous carbonic acid gas, that has been expelled from the
bicarbonate of soda, by the action of the acid in the sample examined.
The quantity of real acid it contained is then deduced by the following
calculation:--One equivalent of gaseous carbonic anhydride, or anhydrous
carbonic acid (= 44) bears the same proportion to one equivalent of the
acid in question, as the amount of the carbonic anhydride expelled does to
the amount of the acid sought. Thus, suppose a dilute sulphuric acid
expels 3 gr. of carbonic anhydride, the arrangement is--
44 : 49 :: 3 : 3·349
Consequently the sample operated on contained 3·5 (nearly) grains of true
sulphuric acid.
Instead of the above calculation, we may multiply the weights of the
respective acids required to expel 1 gr. of carbonic acid (as exhibited in
the following table) by the number of gr. of dry carbonic acid evolved
during the above operation. The product represents the per-centage
strength, when 100 gr. of the acid have been examined. When only 50, 25,
20, or 10 gr. have been tested, this product must, of course, be doubled,
quadrupled, &c., as the case may be.
TABLE II.
Multipliers.
Acetic acid (anhydrous) 1·159
" " (hydrated or glacial) 1·364
Citric acid (crystallised) 1·523
Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous) ·829
" " (sp. gr. 1·16) 2·478
Nitric acid (anhydrous) 1·227
" " (sp. gr. 1·5) 1·523
" " (sp. gr. 1·42) 2·045
Oxalic acid (crystallised) 1·432
Sulphuric acid (anhydrous) ·909
" " (sp. gr. 1·8485) 1·114
Tartaric acid (anhydrous) 1·500
" " (crystallised) 1·705
Even this easy calculation may be avoided, in technical analysis, by
simply taking for the assay such a weight of the respective acids as is
capable of disengaging exactly 10 gr. of dry carbonic acid from the
bicarbonate. In this case, the loss of weight in grains, from the
operation, multiplied by 10, at once indicates the exact per-centage
strength sought. The proper weight of any acid to be taken to give
per-centage results is found by simply dividing ten times the equiv. of
that acid by 44. For, taking sulphuric acid as an example,
as-- 44: 49 :: 10 : 11·1318
or 11·13 nearly.
On this principle are obtained the weights to be taken, as given in--
TABLE III.
Grains.
Acetic acid (anhydrous) 11·59
" " (hydrated or glacial) 13·64
Citric acid (crystallised) 15·23
Hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous) 8·29
" " (sp. gr. 1·16) 24·78
Nitric acid (anhydrous) 12·27
" " (sp. gr. 1·5) 15·23
" " (sp. gr. 1·42) 20·45
Oxalic acid (crystallised) 14·32
Sulphuric acid (anhydrous) 9·09
" " (sp. gr. 1·845) 11·14
Tartaric acid (anhydrous) 15·00
" " (crystallised) 17·05
2. A convenient modification of the preceding method of acidimetry
consists in using the common apparatus figured in the margin and employing
fused chloride of calcium to dry the evolved carbonic acid gas, instead of
concentrated sulphuric acid. The mode of conducting the process and
obtaining the results is precisely the same as in that last explained, and
need not, therefore, be repeated. In this case, however, suction must be
applied to the small tube (_g_), instead of (_d_) in the accompanying
engraving.
_Obs._ These methods, though apparently complicated, are not difficult to
perform, when once well understood. The application of heat after the
completion of the operation is indispensable, as, if it were neglected,
from 0·3 to 0·4 of a gr. of carbonic acid would be retained in the liquid.
The bicarbonate of soda must be pure, and perfectly free from any neutral
carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda. To ensure this, the bicarbonate of
commerce is reduced to a uniform powder, put into a glass jar, and covered
with its own weight of cold distilled or rain water, and allowed to stand
for twenty-four hours, with frequent stirring. It is then placed upon a
funnel, the tube of which is stopped with loose cotton, so as to allow the
lye to drain off. It is next washed several times with small quantities of
cold distilled or rain water, and after being dried by pressure between
some sheets of blotting-paper, without the aid of heat, is kept for use in
a well-closed glass bottle. Before use, it may be tested to ascertain its
purity. If pure, it neither reddens turmeric paper, nor gives a brick-red
precipitate with a solution of bichloride of mercury. Pure bicarbonate of
potassa may be used instead of bicarbonate of soda; but in either case it
is always proper to use an excess, so as to leave some undecomposed
carbonate after the operation has ended. The presence of a little sodium
chloride or sulphate in the bicarbonate will not interfere in the least,
but the absence of every trace of neutral carbonate is a _sine quâ non_.
[Illustration:
(_a_) Wide-mouthed flask, containing the sample for examination,
hermetically stopped by the cork (_e_) and supporting the
tubes (_b_) and (_c_).
(_b_) Bulbous tube, containing fragments of fused chloride of
calcium, terminating in a capillary tube (_g_).
(_c_) Bent tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask (_a_).
(_d_) Small tube containing bicarbonate of soda.
(_e_) Cork fitting bottle (_a_), and the tubes (_b_) and (_c_),
hermetically.
(_f_) Silken thread, suspending the small tube (_d_).]
The two above methods of estimating the amount of acid are only superior
to the generally used methods first described, when the presence of
colouring matter interferes with the reaction of the litmus used to show
the point of neutralisation.
_Observations._ When great accuracy is required in conducting the
neutralisation of the solution in estimating volumetrically with litmus as
an indicator, it is proper to prepare and keep standard solutions of
sulphuric acid and oxalic acid, with which occasionally to try the
alkaline test-liquor. The only difficulty in the process is to avoid
over-saturation of the acid-sample. Great care must be taken not to exceed
the precise point of neutralisation of the acid. After adding each portion
of the test-liquor, the solution should be well stirred up, and as soon as
the effervescence becomes languid the greatest caution must be observed in
adding more. The proper point is arrived at when the liquor ceases to
redden litmus, and does not alter the colour of turmeric paper; if it
turns the latter brown, too much of the test-liquid has been added, and
the operation becomes useless. Towards the end of the experiment, when
great precision is required, a gentle heat may be applied, in order to
expel the free carbonic acid in the liquor; but otherwise this is
unnecessary. The peculiar soapy odour gradually acquired by the liquor as
it nears saturation will materially assist the operator when testing
vinegars, and some of the other vegetable acids. A good method is to tint
either the acid-sample or the test-liquid with a few drops of litmus, as
noticed under ACETIMETRY; when the reddish shade will gradually deepen
into 'purple,' or the purple into 'red,' as the point of saturation is
approached; and the blue colour will be perfectly restored as soon as this
point is reached. Dr Ure recommends keeping the ammonia-test ready tinged
with litmus, and the same applies to other test-liquors.
In commerce, the strength of acids is frequently reckoned with reference
to a standard, termed 100 acidimetric degrees. This is taken from the
circumstance that 91 gr. of commercial oil of vitriol, of a sp. gr. of
1·845, exactly saturate 100 gr. of dried carbonate of soda. An acid
requiring only 35, 50, or any other number of grains of the carbonate to
saturate it, is in like manner termed of so many degrees strong; the
number of grains representing in each case an equal number of degrees.
This method originated with the French chemists, and though only
conventional, and principally confined to commercial purposes, is
especially adapted to practical men but little conversant with chemistry,
yet very ready in retaining or calculating anything on the centesimal
scale, from its similarity to monetary language and reckoning.
=ACID'ITY.= _Syn._ ACID'ITAS, L.; ACIDITÉ, Fr.; SÄURE, Ger. In
_chemistry_, the state of being acid. In _physiology_, &c., the impression
given to the organs of taste by tart or acid substances. Sourness. See
FERMENTATION, MALT-LIQUORS, WINES, &c.
=Gas'tric Acidity.= Acidity of the stomach; a common and well-known
symptom of weak or disordered digestion.
_Treat., &c._ Small doses of absorbents or antacids, three or four times
daily, to which some tonic bitter, as calumba, cascarilla, chamomile,
gentian, or orange-peel, may be added. Stomachic stimulants, as capsicum,
ginger, mustard, or wine, &c., taken with, or after, meals, are also
useful. The diet should be light and nutritious; and acescent vegetables,
over-ripe fruit, and weak new beer or other liquors avoided as much as
possible. The bowels should be kept regular, but not open, by the
occasional use of mild aperients, as rhubarb, aloes, castor oil, senna, or
mercurial pill, or compounds containing them. Excessive looseness or
diarrh[oe]a may be checked by a few doses of carbonate of soda,
chalk-mixture, or astringents.
In INFANCY this affection is usually accompanied by restlessness,
continual crying, drawing up of the legs forcibly towards the body,
hiccups, vomiting, diarrh[oe]a, sour eructations, griping pains, green
stools, and debility; often followed, when the irritation is considerable,
by convulsions. The treatment consists in relieving the bowels of all
offending matter by a few doses of rhubarb-and-magnesia. The looseness or
diarrh[oe]a may be checked by a few small doses of carbonate of soda or
chalk mixture; or better, in an infant which is fed by lime-water (1 or 2
fl. oz.) mixed with as much milk. Two or three drops of caraway, cinnamon,
dill, or peppermint water, on sugar (not with the food) will tend to
promote the expulsion, and prevent the undue generation of gases. The
flatulence usually disappears with the acidity. The occasional
administration of 1 to 3 gr. of quicksilver-with-chalk ('grey powder'),
will frequently remove the complaint, and prevent its recurrence, when all
other means fail. The diet of both nurse and infant should be carefully
regulated.
See ANTACIDS, DYSPEPSIA, &c.
_Treatment for Horses._ Alkalies, their carbonates and bicarbonates;
alterative doses of aloes with alkalies; chalk, carbonate of magnesia;
mineral acids; bismuth, arsenic, nux vomica, or strychnia.
=ACIDS, EFFECTS OF, ON VEGETATION.= This subject has been ably
investigated of recent years by Dr Angus Smith and Mr Rothwell, and the
practical importance of their labours is shown by the circumstance that an
Act of Parliament passed in 1875 renders it penal for the proprietors of
alkali works to condense not less than 95 per cent. of the hydrochloric
acid evolved in the process of manufacturing 'soda,' also to allow air,
smoke, or chimney gases to escape into the atmosphere containing more than
one fifth of a grain of hydrochloric acid per cubic foot. Every owner of
an alkali work is likewise required to 'use the best practical means of
preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of all other noxious gases
arising from such work, or of rendering such gases harmless when
discharged.'
The injurious effects of acids on vegetation are indicated chiefly by the
shrivelled-up appearance which the leaves of herbage, trees, &c., exhibit
in the vicinity of chemical works in which the condensation of noxious
gases (hydrochloric acid, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, sulphuretted
hydrogen, nitric acid, and oxides of nitrogen and chlorine) is not
effectually carried out. According to Mr Rothwell, 'in fields exposed to
acid vapours handfuls of dead grass may be pulled up in the spring,
smelling strongly of the vapour, and that trees, under similar influences,
become bark-bound.'
The following is a list of trees arranged in the order of their
susceptibility. (Rothwell.)
_Forest Trees._ Larch, spruce fir, Scotch fir, black Italian poplar,
Lombardy poplar, ash, oak, elm, birch, alder, sycamore.
_Fruit Trees._ Damson, greengage, Halewood plum, Jacob plum, pears,
apples, cherries.
_Shrubs, Evergreens, and Wild Plants._ British laurels, Portugal laurels,
_Aucuba_ _Japonica_, Barberry evergreen, hazel, guelder rose, sloe thorn,
hawthorn, raspberries, gooseberries, blackberries, gorse, hollies.
_Farm Crops._ Potatoes, mangel, white clover and rhubarb, red clover,
trefoil, rye-grass, wheat, oats, barley, common turnips, swedes.
_Second list of Plants affected by Noxious Vapours, mixing the classes
according to the effects produced on each._
I. Fern--only in the summer.
Scotch firs, spruce, and larches--a little in winter.
Clover (white and red), trefoil, rye-grass, poplars, hawthorn,
potatoes--receive damage in winter to roots.
II. Wheat receives some damage in winter.
Oats in May, when in the grass state, soon receive damage.
Barley, mangel, common turnips, rhubarb.
III. Laurels (British and Portugal), aucubas, yews, holly, gorse--receive
damage in winter, but more in summer.
Old grass meadows and pastures receive much damage in winter.
IV. Ashes, oaks, hazels, horse-chestnuts, walnuts, Spanish chestnuts, sloe
thorn.
V. Swedish turnip and cabbages, damson, other fruit trees, beech, elm,
birch, alder, sycamores.
=ACIDULÆ.= [L. pl.] In _medicine_, mineral waters rich in carbonic acid.
=ACIDULATED=. _Syn_. ACIDULATUS, L.; ACIDULÉ, Fr. Blended or flavoured
with an acid; made slightly sour. See KALI (Acidulated), DROPS, LOZENGES,
&c. In _chemistry_, the addition of an acid to a neutral or alkaline
liquid until it reddens blue litmus paper.
=ACIDUM.= [L.] An acid.
=ACNE.= [_Syn._ PIMPLED FACE.] There are two forms of this affection. 1st.
In young persons of both sexes; generally in phlegmatic habits. The
disease shows itself by hard pimples, with a small black spot on the apex,
unaccompanied with redness or inflammation at first, but after a while
they become red and inflamed, and sometimes suppurate, with a greasy look
of the skin between them. In this form of acne the black spots should be
picked out with a needle or a small pair of tweezers. A long piece of
thick matter, like a worm, is extracted; but is no worm. Afterwards wash
the face with water in which a small piece of Quillar bark has been
steeped, or with bitter almond emulsion, or borax, one drachm, water 4 oz.
When there is no inflammation, use Eau de Cologne, or a few drops of oil
of rosemary dissolved in spirit of wine, taking a small dose of magnesia
in the morning, or milk of sulphur daily. When the pimples are very
sluggish the cautious application of tincture of iodine, or of ointment of
nitrate of mercury, will be found serviceable.
2nd. Arises from intemperance. In this case a gradual change of habits is
essential. The use of soap should be avoided, and recourse had to warm
fomentations of slippery elm, or thin oat gruel. The following should be
applied to the pimples:--Cold cream, 1 oz., Goulard's extract 20 drops,
mixed together; or lemon juice diluted, or solution of borax in water. The
internal administration of the mineral acids combined with bitter tonics,
or small doses of iodide of potassium, will be found effectual.
_Treatment._ Fomentations, poultices, chloride of zinc solution
externally; sulphur and alteratives internally.
=ACOLOGY=. _Syn._ In _medicine_, the doctrine of, or a discourse on,
remedies or the materia medica.
=ACONITE.= (-nite). _Syn._ ACON'ITUM, L.; ACONIT, Fr.: AKONITUM, EISENHUT,
STURMHUT, Ger. Monkshood; wolfsbane. In _botany_, a genus of exogenous
plants. _Nat. ord._, Ranunculaceæ; _Sex. syst._, Polyandria Trigynia. They
are characterised by showy purple or yellow helmet-shaped flowers growing
in panicles, deeply cut leaves, and perennial (usually) tap-shaped or
tapering roots. The whole plant is highly poisonous, the roots being more
poisonous than the leaves. In _medicine_ and _materia medica_, the plant
Aconitum Napellus (which _see_).
_Symptoms._ Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, which are
parched; followed by giddiness, dimness of sight, and (sometimes)
delirium, but seldom complete coma; there is numbness and tingling of the
limbs, a loss of power in the legs, (in some cases) frothing at the mouth,
severe abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting, and diarrh[oe]a; tremors or
twitchings of the voluntary muscles, (sometimes) convulsions (in animals,
but not in man); sharp cries; pupil (generally) dilated, very rarely
contracted; pulse fitful and sinking; skin cold and livid; difficulty of
breathing; general prostration; loss of sensation or feeling,
insensibility, general trembling, fainting, and sudden death. The eyes are
often glaring; and, in some cases, the patient is completely paralysed,
yet retains consciousness to the last. The case generally proves fatal in
from 1 to 8 hours. If it last beyond this period there is hope of
recovery. (Fleming.)
_Antidotes._ Ammonia, or brandy, with artificial respiration if necessary:
cold affusion and friction, with warm towels to the back and limbs. See
ALKALOIDS.
=ACONITE LEAVES= (B. Ph.). _Syn._ ACONITI FOLIA, L. The fresh leaves and
flowering tops of _aconitum napellus_, Linn., gathered when about one
third of the flowers are expanded, from plants cultivated in Britain.
_Char._ Leaves smooth, palmate, divided into five deeply cut wedge-shaped
segments; excizing slowly, when chewed, a sensation of tingling. Flowers
numerous, irregular, deep blue, in dense racemes.
_Prep._ Extractum aconiti.
=ACONITE ROOT.= (B. Ph.). _Syn._ ACONITI RADIX, L. The dried root of
_aconitum napellus_. Imported from Germany, or cultivated in Britain, and
collected in the winter or early spring before the leaves have appeared.
_Prep._ Aconitia, the active principle; Linimentum Aconiti, 1 ounce to 1
fluid ounce; Tinctura Aconiti, 54-1/2 grains to 1 fluid ounce.
_Char._ Usually from one to three inches long, not thicker than the finger
at the crown, tapering, blackish-brown, internally whitish. A _minute_
portion, cautiously chewed, causes prolonged tingling and numbness.
=ACONITI FOLIA.= See ACONITE LEAVES.
=ACONITI RADIX.= See ACONITE ROOT.
=ACONITIA.= C_{30}H_{47}O_{7}N. (B. P.) _Syn._ ACONITIA, L. An alkaloid
obtained from aconite.
Take of
Aconite root, in coarse powder, 14 pounds.
Rectified spirit }
Distilled water } of each
Solution or ammonia } a sufficiency.
Pure ether }
Diluted sulphuric acid}
Pour upon the aconite root three gallons of the spirit, mix them well, and
heat until ebullition commences; then cool and macerate for four days.
Transfer the whole to a displacement apparatus, and percolate, adding more
spirit, when requisite, until the root is exhausted. Distil off the
greater part of the spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the remainder
over a water bath until the whole of the alcohol has been dissipated. Mix
the residual extract thoroughly with twice its weight of boiling distilled
water, and when it has cooled to the temperature of the atmosphere, filter
through paper. To the filtered liquid add solution of ammonia in slight
excess, and heat them gently over a water bath. Separate the precipitate
on a filter, and dry it. Reduce this to coarse powder, and macerate it in
successive portions of the pure ether with frequent agitation. Decant the
several products, mix and distil off the ether until the extract is dry.
Dissolve the dry extract in warm distilled water acidulated with the
sulphuric acid; and, when the solution is cold, precipitate it by the
cautious addition of solution of ammonia diluted with four times its bulk
of distilled water. Wash the precipitate on a filter with a small quantity
of cold distilled water, and dry it by slight pressure between folds of
filtering paper.
_Characters and Tests._ A white, usually amorphous, solid, soluble in 150
parts of cold, and 50 of hot water, and much more soluble in alcohol and
in ether; strongly alkaline to reddened litmus, neutralising acids, and
precipitated from them by the caustic alkalies, but not by carbonate of
ammonia or the bicarbonates of soda or potash. It melts with heat, and
burns with a smoky flame, leaving no residue when burned with free access
of air. When rubbed on the skin it causes a tingling sensation, followed
by prolonged numbness. It is a very active poison.
=ACONITIA, CRYSTALLISED.= C_{27}H_{40}NO_{10}. Exhaust the root of wild
aconite, carefully picked and powdered, with very strong alcohol, to which
1 per cent. of tartaric acid has been added. Distil at a gentle heat, and
sheltered from the air, to recover the alcohol. Treat the extract with
water to separate all the fatty and resinous matters. The solution which
contains the aconite in the state of acid tartrate is first shaken with
ether to remove colouring matters, and then the alkaloid is set free by
the addition of alkaline bicarbonate, until the cessation of
effervescence. A fresh treatment with ether of this alkaline solution
removes the alkaloid, which crystallizes upon the concentration of the
ethereal liquid, with an addition of petroleum spirit. The crystals are
colourless tables, rhombic or hexagonal, according to the modifications
produced principally in the acute angles. Crystallized aconitia is soluble
in alcohol, ether, benzine, and chloroform; insoluble in petroleum oils
and glycerine.
ACONITIA NITRATE, CRYSTALLISED. Crystallised aconitine q. s.; nitric acid,
sp. gr. 1·442, q. s. Saturate the nitric acid with the aconitine and
evaporate. Voluminous crystals are easily obtained (from 'Formulæ for New
Medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society').--'Pharm.
Journal.' Owing to the decomposition which this alkaloid undergoes in the
animal organism, as well as to its liability to decompose during the
process of evaporation, and exposure to the air, it often becomes
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain it in a separate state
in conducting a _post-mortem_ examination. The physiological effects seem
to furnish the most prominent and characteristic evidence of its presence
in such cases, or at any rate these may serve as a valuable guide to the
toxicologist.
Uncrystallised aconitia is sometimes contaminated with delphinia, as well
as with aconella, another constituent of aconite root. For the dissection
of these see ALKALOIDS. One fiftieth of a grain of aconitia is stated to
have killed a dog.
_Antidotes._ See ACONITE.
=ACONITIC ACID.= (Identical with _Pyrocitric Acid_.) An acid extracted by
Peschier from _aconitum napellus_, and by Bracconnot from _equisetum
fluviatile_. It exists in these plants chiefly in the form of aconitate of
calcium.
_Properties._ A white, colourless, semi-crystalline mass.
=ACONITINA.= See ACONITIA.
=ACONITINE.= See ACONITIA.
=ACONI'TUM.= [L.] Aconite. The pharmacop[oe]ial name of _aconitum
napellus_(see _below_).
=Aconitum Ferox.= (Ind. P.) _Habitat_. Temperate and sub-Alpine Himalaya,
at 10,000 to 14,000 feet elevation, from Gurhwal to Sikkim.
_Officinal part._ The dried root (_Aconiti ferocis Radix_), in common with
those of other Himalayan species, viz., _aconitum napellus_, _a.
palmatum_, and _a. luridum_, constitutes the drug well known in the
bazaars of Upper India under the Hindostani name of _Bish_ or _Bikh_.
It occurs in the form of tuberous roots of a more or less conical form,
from two to three inches in length, and from half an inch to one inch in
thickness at their upper end. They have usually a shrunken appearance, and
are covered with a dark shrivelled bark; fracture shining and resinous;
sometimes waxy, varying in colour from pale to deep brown. Some specimens
are white and spongy; and these, it is asserted, are superior in activity
to the more compact kinds. Inodorous; taste at first slightly bitter,
leaving a peculiar sense of numbness on the tongue and fauces. Active
principle, aconitia.
_Medical Properties and Uses._ Similar to those of _aconitum napellus_ of
Europe. _Preparations._ This root may be advantageously used for the
manufacture of aconitia, the proportion of this alkaloid being much larger
than in the European drug; and also for the preparation of Linimentum
Aconiti. From its greater activity, however, it is unsuited for the
preparation of this tincture, which is intended for external use.
=Aconitum Hetorophyllum.= (Ind. P.) _Habitat_. Western temperate Himalaya,
at 8000 to 13,000 feet elevation; from Indus to Kumaon. _Officinal part._
The dried root (_Aconiti heterophylli Radix_). Ovoid tuberous roots,
tapering downwards to a point, from one to one and a half inches or more
in length, and from three eighths to half an inch in thickness. The
surface, which is covered with a thin greyish epidermis, is slightly
wrinkled longitudinally, and marked here and there with root scars. It is
inodorous, and of a bitter taste, devoid of acridity. Does not contain
aconitia. It may be readily distinguished from other roots sold in the
bazaars under the same vernacular name (Atis) by its characteristic
bitterness. _Properties._ Tonic and antiperiodic. It may be administered
internally with safety, as it contains no poisonous principle.
_Therapeutic uses_. In convalescence after debilitating diseases, and in
intermittent and other paroxysmal fevers, it has been found an efficient
remedy. _Doses._ Tonic, 5 to 10 grains thrice daily; antiperiodic, 20 to
30 grains of the powdered root every three or four hours, irrespective of
the presence of pyrexia.
=Aconitum Napell'us.= [Linn.] _Syn._ ACONI'TUM, Ph. L., E., & D.;
ACONITNAPÈL, CHAPERON DE MOINE, Fr.; EISENHUT, BLAUERSTURMHUT, Ger. Early
blue wolfsbane, or deadly aconite. _Hab._ Various parts of Europe; grows
wild in England, flowering in June and July. The fresh and dried leaves
(ACONITI FO''LIUM), Ph. L. & E. The root (ACONITI RA'DIX), Ph. L. & D.
This is the species of aconite ordered in the pharmacop[oe]ias, and
commonly used in medicine. When chewed it imparts a sensation of acrimony,
followed by a pungent heat of the lips, gums, palate, and fauces, which is
succeeded by a general tremor and chilliness. The juice applied to a wound
or the unsound skin affects the whole nervous system. Even by remaining
long in the hand, or on the bosom, it produces unpleasant symptoms. Fatal
cases of poisoning, by eating the root in mistake for horseradish, have
been common of late years. The two roots may be, however, easily
distinguished from one another; when scraped aconite emits an earthy, and
horseradish its well-known pungent odour. Moreover, the shape of the roots
is very different. In the accompanying figure _a_ represents aconite root,
and _b_ horseradish root.
[Illustration]
The leaves should be gathered as soon as the flowers appear. The root
should be taken up in autumn. When the whole plant is employed, it should
be gathered as soon as the flowers begin to open. The strength (richness
in aconitia) varies considerably with the time of the year. 1 oz. of the
fresh root contains 1/4 to 3/4 gr. of aconitia; 1 lb. of the dried English
root contains from 12 to 36 gr. (Herapath). The leaves possess the
greatest activity just before flowering; the root, after it. The root is
at all times fully six times as strong as the leaves or herb. The wild
plant contains much more aconitia than that which is cultivated. The herb,
and all its preparations, lose their efficacy if long kept. The powder,
more particularly, cannot be relied on. Mr Holmes says it is difficult to
find in a commercial sample of aconite root one root in a dozen, which
upon fracture appears sound and in good condition.
_Properties, Antidotes, &c._ See ACONITE.
_Tests, &c._ See ACONITE.
_Uses, &c._ In small doses aconite is narcotic, powerfully diaphoretic,
and sometimes diuretic; in larger ones, the symptoms are similar to those
produced by aconitia. It acts as a powerful sedative on the heart's
action, and destroys sensibility without disturbing the mental faculties.
It has been given in chronic rheumatism, gout, paralysis, scirrhus,
scrofula, cancers, venereal nodes, epilepsy, amaurosis, intermittents,
&c.; but its exhibition requires the greatest possible caution. As a
topical benumber it has been used with great advantage in painful
affections depending on increased sensibility of the nerves. Externally it
"is most valuable for the cure of neuralgic and rheumatic pains. In
neuralgia, no remedy, I believe, will be found equal to it. One
application of the tincture produces some amelioration; and after a few
times' use, it frequently happens that the patient is cured. In some
cases, the benefit appears almost magical. In others, however, it entirely
fails to give permanent relief." "I do not think that in any (case) it
proves injurious." "When it succeeds, it gives more or less relief at the
first application. When the disease depends on inflammation, aconite will
be found, I think, an unavailing remedy." "In rheumatic pains,
unaccompanied with local swelling or redness, aconite is frequently of
very great service." (Pereira, iii, 691.) _Dose_, of the powder, 1 to 2
gr., gradually increased to 6 or 8. Dr Stocrk was the first who gave
wolfsbane internally, about the year 1762. It has since been successfully
employed in Germany in cases of chronic rheumatism, gout, &c., some of
which were of long standing and had resisted every other remedy. In
England it has been less extensively used.
=Aconitum Panicula'tum.= Panicled wolfsbane; a species formerly ordered in
the Ph. L.; and, with _a. napellus_, also in the Ph. U. S. It is less
active than the officinal species.
=A'CORN.= _Syn._ GLANS. QUER'CUS, L. The seed or fruit of the oak. In the
early ages of the world, acorns probably formed one of the principal
articles of the food of man. (Ovid, _Met._, i, 106; Virgil, _Georg._, i,
8; &c.) In modern times, during periods of scarcity, they have been
consumed as food on the Continent. Besides starch, they contain a peculiar
species of sugar, which crystallises in prisms, and is unfermentable; they
also contain tannic and gallic acids. Mannite and dulcose are the
substances which it most nearly resembles. (M. Dessaignes.) During the
autumn, acorns are said to be sometimes poisonous to cattle and sheep.
Supposed cases of so-called acorn poisoning are best treated by
withdrawing the supply of acorns, or removing the animals from the
pastures on which the acorns fall, and by the administration of aperients,
alkalies, and stimulants.
=AC'ORUS CAL'AMUS.= See SWEET FLAG.
=ACOTYLE'DONS= (-ko-te-l[=e]'-). _Syn._ ACOTYLE'DONES (d[)o]n-[=e]z; L.,
prim. Gr.), Jussieu; ACOTYLÉDONS, Fr.; OHNE SAMENLAPPEN, Ger. In _botany_,
plants whose seeds are not furnished with distinct cotyledons or
seed-lobes. _Acotyledonous plants_ form one of the two great divisions of
the vegetable kingdom, according to the natural system. They are
remarkable by increasing chiefly in length, by additions to their end; and
not by addition to the outside, as in Exogens; nor to the inside, as in
Endogens. They are also termed ASEX'UAL and FLOWERLESS PLANTS, and answer
to the CRYPTOGAMIA of the Linnean system. See ACROGENS, CELLULARES,
THALLOGENS, &c.
=ACOUS'TICS= (-kow'-). The science of audition and sound; that branch of
physics which treats of their cause, nature, and phenomena. The doctrine
of the production and transmission of sound is termed DIACOUS'TICS; that
of reflected sound CATACOUS'TICS.
=Acoustics.= In _medicine_, remedies employed to relieve deafness. See
DEAFNESS and DROPS, ACOUSTIC.
=ACQUETTA.= [IT., _Little Water._] _Syn._ AQUA TOFFANA; A. TOFFANIA;
ACQUETTA DI NAPOLI DELLA TOFFANA, IT. A celebrated poison, prepared by an
Italian woman named Toffano, or Tophana, and in great request in Rome
about the middle of the 17th century. The composition of this poison has
been a matter of frequent controversy. Pope Alexander VII, in his
proclamation, described it as "aquafortis distilled into arsenic." This
would produce a concentrated solution of arsenic acid. The Emperor Charles
VI, who was governor of Naples during Toffano's trial, declared to his
physician, Garelli, that it was arsenic (arsenious acid) dissolved in
_aqua cymbalariá_. According to Gerarde this cymbalarià was an aquatic
species of pennywort, highly poisonous. The only objection to the latter
statement is the smallness of the dose, regard being had to the
comparative insolubility of arsenious acid; but if the woman Toffano
prepared two poisons, as is probable from history--one, a single dose of
which was fatal, and another, of which the dose required repetition, and
which was more gradual in its activity--the discrepancy will be at once
removed.
=AC'RID.= _Syn._ AC'ER, AC'RIS, L.; ACRE (âcre), Fr.; BEISSEND, SCHARF,
Ger. In _chemistry_ and _medicine_, sharp, pungent, acrimonious. Acrid
substances are such as excite a sensation of pungency and heat when
tasted, and which irritate and inflame the skin; as mustard, turpentine,
cantharides, &c.
=ACRIDITY.= _Syn._ ACRETÉ, Fr.; ACRITUDO, L. The quality of being acrid.
=AC'RIMONY.= _Syn._ ACRIMO'NIA, L.; ACRIMONIÉ, ACRETÉ, Fr.; SCHARFE, Ger.
In _medicine_ and _chemistry_, the quality or property of inflaming,
irritating, corroding, dissolving, or destroying other bodies.
=ACROGENS.= _Syn._ ACROGENÆ, L.; ACROGÈNES, Fr. In _botany_, acotyledonous
or cryptogamic plants, in which stems and leaves, or an organisation
approaching leaves, are distinguishable; which have stomates or breathing
spores on their surface, are propagated by spores, and increase by the
growth of the stem at the point only. Ferns and club-mosses are examples
of this class of plants.
=ACROLEIN.= _Syn._ ACRYLIC ALCOHOL. This substance occurs amongst the
products of decomposition when glycerine or any of its compounds is
subjected to ordinary distillation. It derives its name from its violently
irritant effect upon the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory
organs. It is best prepared by the process of Redtenbacher (see 'Leibig's
Ann.,' xlvii, 114), by distilling in a capacious retort, a mixture of
glycerine with phosphoric anhydride, or with hydric-potassic sulphate (the
acid sulphate or bisulphate of potash); the vapours must be condensed in a
properly cooled receiver, which is luted on to the retort and provided
with a tube opening into a chimney having a good draught. The distilled
liquid separates into two layers, the upper one consisting of acrolein,
and the lower one of an aqueous solution of the same substance mixed with
a quantity of acrylic acid. This distillate, after digestion with finely
powdered litharge, with the object of neutralising the acid, must be
rectified by the heat of a water bath: the acrolein so obtained must be
submitted to a second rectification from calcic chloride. All these
operations must be conducted in vessels filled with carbonic anhydride
(carbonic acid) because acrolein becomes rapidly oxidized when exposed to
the air.
Acrolein is a clear colourless liquid, lighter than water, boiling at
about 125° F. It has great refracting power and a burning taste; when pure
it is neutral to test paper.
=AC'ROSPIRE= (-spire). _Syn._ ACROSPI'RA, L.; PLUMULE, Fr.; BLATTKEIM,
Ger. The shoot or sprout of a seed, when it begins to grow; the part of a
germinating seed termed the plume, or plumula.
When the growth of a seed begins to be developed, the germ, from which the
stem originates, shoots forth under the form of a delicate curved fibre,
which, gradually bursting its covering, makes its appearance at the end of
the seed. The fibrils of the radicle first sprout forth from the tip of
the grain; a white elevation appears, that soon divides into three or more
radicles, which rapidly grow larger, and are succeeded by the plumula,
which peeps forth at the same point, in the form of a pale green leaflet,
which, twisting thence beneath the husk to the other end of the seed,
ultimately bursts its prison-house, and becomes a perfect leaf. See
GERMINATION and MALTING.
=ACTINIC RAYS.= See ACTINISM.
=ACTINISM.= _Syn._ ACTINIC RAYS; CHEMICAL RAYS. A term given to a supposed
principle accompanying the heat and light of the sunbeam. Actinic rays
chiefly exist beyond the violet extremity of the solar spectrum, and are
characterised by the power of exciting chemical change, _e.g._, the
decomposition of certain silver salts (in photography); the combination of
a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, &c. The so-called vital functions of
animals and plants are also greatly influenced by the actinic or chemical
rays.
=ACTINOGRAPH.= An instrument for registering the intensity of the chemical
influence (_actinism_) of the sun's rays.
=ACT, TOWNS IMPROVEMENT CLAUSES, 1847= (10 & 11 Vict., c. 34), The
following provisions of this Act are incorporated in the Public Health
Act, 1875, and refer exclusively to urban districts:--
1. With respect to naming the streets and numbering the houses.
2. With respect to improving the line of the streets and removing the
obstructions.
3. With respect to ruinous or dangerous buildings.
4. With respect to precautions during the construction and repair of
sewers, streets, and houses.
5. With respect to the regulation of slaughter houses.
Notices for alterations under the 69th, 70th, and 71st sections,
directions under the 73rd section, and orders under the 74th section of
the said Towns Improvement Clauses Act, may, at the option of the urban
authority, be served on owners instead
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/39733