Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Harmony" to "Heanor"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Harmony" to "Heanor"
Author: Various
Release date: May 5, 2012 [eBook #39632]
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39632
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "HARMONY" TO "HEANOR" ***
Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE HARMONY: "So strong is the identity of the tonic in major
and minor mode that Haydn and Mozart had no scruple in annexing,
with certain reservations, the key-relationships of either as an
addition to those of the other." 'identity' amended from
'indentity'.
ARTICLE HARMOTOME: "... Andreasberg in the Harz. Morvenite (from
Morven in Argyllshire) is the name given to small transparent
crystals formerly referred to as phillipsite." 'as' added.
ARTICLE HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM: "The record of his public work covers
nearly the whole field of sanitary legislation during the last
thirty years of his life." 'thirty' amended from 'thrity'.
ARTICLE HART, SIR ROBERT: "In the following year he received an
appointment as student-interpreter in the China consular service,
..." 'appointment' amended from 'appointemnt'.
ARTICLE HARVEY, WILLIAM: "'I found him,' he says, 'with a cheerful
and sprightly countenance investigating, like Democritus, the
nature of things. Asking if all were well with him ..." 'cheerful'
amended from 'cheeerful'.
ARTICLE HATHRAS: "Hathras is connected by a light railway with
Muttra, and by a branch with Hathras junction, on the East Indian
main line." 'Indian' amended from 'Indain'.
ARTICLE HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT: "He seems to have kept this
appointment for about five years. In 1856 a cantata, ..."
'appointment' amended from 'apppointment'.
ARTICLE HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT: "In 1875 he went to Stuttgart, and
wrote an oratorio, Hezekiah, given at the Crystal Palace in 1877;
like all his larger works it met with very moderate success."
'Crystal' amended from 'Cyrstal'.
ARTICLE HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHELEMY: "... whose works, being often
anonymous, raise many problems of attribution, and, though
deficient in originality of thought and style, ..." 'originality'
amended from 'orginality'.
ARTICLE HAUSER, KASPAR: "... and Earl Stanhope also took part in
the discussion by publishing Materialien zur Geschichte K. Hausers
(Heidelberg, 1836)." 'Materialien' amended from 'Materialen'.
ARTICLE HAVANA: "English squadrons threatened the city several
times in the first half of the 18th century, but it was not until
1762 that an investment, ..." 'that' amended from 'than'.
ARTICLE HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY: "In 1854 he became
quartermaster-general, then full colonel, and lastly
adjutant-general of the troops in India." 'adjutant' amended from
'ajdutant'.
ARTICLE HAWAII: "He made John Young (c. 1775-1835) and Isaac Davis,
Americans from one of the ships of Captain Metcalf which visited
the island in 1789, ..." 'Davis' amended from 'Dayis'.
ARTICLE HAWKE, EDWARD HAWKE: "There is a story that he was
dismissed from the service for having left the line to engage the
'Poder,' and was restored by the king's order." added 'from'.
ARTICLE HAWKSHAW, SIR JOHN: "... but many years previously he had
investigated for himself the question of a tunnel under the Strait
of Dover from an engineering point of view, and had come to a
belief in its feasibility, ..." 'himself' amended from 'himsself'.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
_All rights reserved_
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIII
HARMONY to HURSTMONCEAUX
New York
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
VOLUME XIII, SLICE I
Harmony to Heanor
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
HARMONY HATHERLEY, WILLIAM PAGE WOOD
HARMOTOME HATHERTON, EDWARD JOHN LITTLETON
HARMS, CLAUS HATHRAS
HARNACK, ADOLF HATTIESBURG
HARNESS HATTINGEN
HARO, CLAMEUR DE HATTO I.
HAROLD I. HATTON, SIR CHRISTOPHER
HAROLD II. HATTON, JOHN LIPTROT
HARP HAUCH, JOHANNES CARSTEN
HARPENDEN HAUER, FRANZ
HARPER'S FERRY HAUFF, WILHELM
HARPIES HAUG, MARTIN
HARPIGNIES, HENRI HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN
HARP-LUTE HAUGESUND
HARPOCRATES HAUGHTON, SAMUEL
HARPOCRATION, VALERIUS HAUGHTON, WILLIAM
HARPOON HAUGWITZ, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH KURT
HARPSICHORD HAUNTINGS
HARPY HAUPT, MORITZ
HARRAN HAUPTMANN, GERHART
HARRAR HAUPTMANN, MORITZ
HARRATIN HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHELEMY
HARRIER HAUSA
HARRIGAN, EDWARD HAUSER, KASPAR
HARRIMAN, EDWARD HENRY HAUSMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH LUDWIG
HARRIMAN HAUSRATH, ADOLPH
HARRINGTON, EARLS OF HAUSSER, LUDWIG
HARRINGTON, JAMES HAUSSMANN, GEORGES EUGENE
HARRIOT, THOMAS HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH DE CLERON
HARRIS, GEORGE HAUTE-GARONNE
HARRIS, JAMES HAUTE-LOIRE
HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER HAUTE-MARNE
HARRIS, JOHN HAUTERIVE, ALEXANDRE DE LANAUTTE
HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE HAUTES ALPES
HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW HAUTE-SAONE
HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY HAUTE-SAVOIE
HARRISBURG HAUTES-PYRENEES
HARRISMITH HAUTE-VIENNE
HARRISON, BENJAMIN HAUT-RHIN
HARRISON, FREDERIC HAUY, RENE JUST
HARRISON, JOHN HAVANA
HARRISON, THOMAS HAVANT
HARRISON, THOMAS ALEXANDER HAVEL
HARRISON, WILLIAM HAVELBERG
HARRISON, WILLIAM HENRY HAVELOCK, SIR HENRY
HARRISON (New Jersey, U.S.A.) HAVELOK THE DANE
HARRODSBURG HAVERFORDWEST
HARROGATE HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY
HARROW HAVERHILL (England)
HARROWBY, DUDLEY RYDER HAVERHILL (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)
HARROWING OF HELL HAVERSACK
HARROW-ON-THE-HILL HAVERSTRAW
HARRY THE MINSTREL HAVET, EUGENE AUGUSTE ERNEST
HARSDORFFER, GEORG PHILIPP HAVET, JULIEN
HARSHA HAVRE, LE
HARSNETT, SAMUEL HAWAII
HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL HAWARDEN
HART, CHARLES HAWAWIR
HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD
HART, SIR ROBERT HAWES, STEPHEN
HART, WILLIAM HAWES, WILLIAM
HARTE, FRANCIS BRET HAWFINCH
HARTEBEEST HAWICK
HARTFORD HAWK
HARTFORD CITY HAWKE, EDWARD HAWKE
HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN
HARTLEPOOL HAWKERS and PEDLARS
HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS HAWKESWORTH, JOHN
HARTLEY, DAVID HAWKHURST
HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY
HARTLIB, SAMUEL HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (British admiral)
HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (British writer)
HARTMANN, MORITZ HAWKINS, SIR RICHARD
HARTMANN VON AUE HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER
HARTSHORN, SPIRITS OF HAWKSHAW, SIR JOHN
HARTZENBUSCH, JUAN EUGENIO HAWKSLEY, THOMAS
HARUN AL-RASHID HAWKSMOOR, NICHOLAS
HARUSPICES HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN
HARVARD UNIVERSITY HAWLEY, HENRY
HARVEST HAWLEY, JOSEPH ROSWELL
HARVEST-BUG HAWORTH
HARVESTER HAWSER
HARVEY, GABRIEL HAWTHORN (Australian city)
HARVEY, SIR GEORGE HAWTHORN (genus of shrubs)
HARVEY, WILLIAM HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL
HARVEY (Illinois, U.S.A.) HAWTREY, CHARLES HENRY
HARWICH HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN
HARZBURG HAXO, FRANCOIS NICOLAS BENOIT
HARZ MOUNTAINS HAXTHAUSEN, AUGUST FRANZ LUDWIG MARIA
HASA, EL HAY, GEORGE
HASAN and HOSAIN HAY, GILBERT
HASAN UL-BASRI HAY, JOHN
HASBEYA HAY (Australia)
HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT HAY (Wales)
HASDEU, BOGDAN PETRICEICU HAY (dried grass)
HASDRUBAL HAYASHI, TADASU
HASE, CARL BENEDICT HAYDEN, FERDINAND VANDEVEER
HASE, KARL AUGUST VON HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH
HASHISH HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT
HASLEMERE HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD
HASLINGDEN HAY FEVER
HASPE HAYLEY, WILLIAM
HASSAM, CHILDE HAYM, RUDOLF
HASSAN HAYNAU, JULIUS JACOB
HASSANIA HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG
HASSAN IBN THABIT HAYTER, SIR GEORGE
HASSE, JOHANN ADOLPH HAYTON
HASSELQUIST, FREDERIK HAYWARD, ABRAHAM
HASSELT, ANDRE CONSTANT VAN HAYWARD, SIR JOHN
HASSELT HAYWOOD, ELIZA
HASSENPFLUG, HANS FRIEDRICH HAZARA (race of Afghanistan)
HASTINAPUR HAZARA (district of British India)
HASTINGS (English family) HAZARD
HASTINGS, RAWDON-HASTINGS HAZARIBAGH
HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY HAZEBROUCK
HASTINGS, WARREN HAZEL
HASTINGS (Sussex, England) HAZLETON
HASTINGS (Nebraska, U.S.A.) HAZLITT, WILLIAM
HAT HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER
HATCH, EDWIN HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND
HATCH HEAD
HATCHET HEAD-HUNTING
HATCHETTITE HEALTH
HATCHMENT HEALY, GEORGE PETER ALEXANDER
HATFIELD HEANOR
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. E. G.*
REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D.
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of
Theology and the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of
_Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus_, &c.
Heresy (_in part_).
A. D.
HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article, DOBSON, H. A.
Hogarth.
A. E. T. W.
ALFRED EDWARD THOMAS WATSON.
Editor of the _Badminton Library_ and _Badminton Magazine_.
Formerly Editor of the _Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News_.
Author of _The Racing World and its Inhabitants_: &c.
Horse-Racing (_in part_);
Hunting.
A. C. S.
ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.
See the biographical article, SWINBURNE, A. C.
Hugo, Victor.
A. Cy.
ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LITT.D.
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
College.
Hebrew Language;
Hebrew Literature.
A. F. P.
ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
of All Souls College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford),
1892, Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the
Protector Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.
Heath, Nicholas;
Henry VIII. of England;
Hooper, Bishop;
Humphrey, Lawrence.
A. Go.*
REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.
Hofmann, Melchior;
Hotman.
A. H. S.
REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LITT.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H.
Humboldt, Karl W. Von.
A. H.-S.
SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.
General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.
Hormuz (_in part_).
A. J. H.
ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903).
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College
of Music, London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music
Exhibition, 1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris
Exhibition, 1900. Author of _Musical Instruments_; &c.
Harp (_in part_).
A. L.
ANDREW LANG.
See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW.
Hauntings.
A. M. C.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M.
Herschel, Sir F. W. (_in part_);
Herschel, Sir J. F. W. (_in part_);
Hevelius;
Hipparchus;
Horrocks;
Huggins;
Humboldt.
A. N.
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.
Harpy;
Harrier;
Hawfinch;
Hawk;
Heron;
Hoactzin;
Honeyeater;
Honey Guide;
Hoopoe;
Hornbill;
Humming-Bird.
A. Sl.
ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P.
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of
_Industrial Efficiency_; _The London Water Supply_; _Drink,
Temperance and Legislation_.
Housing.
A. W. H.*
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
Gray's Inn, 1900.
Henry IV.: _Roman Emperor_;
Hide;
Hohenzollern;
Honorius II.: _Anti-Pope_.
A. W. W.
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article, WARD, A. W.
Hrosvitha.
C. A. M. F.
CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D.
Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's
_Odes and Fragments_; and of the _Stanford Dictionary of
Anglicised Words and Phrases_.
Hercules.
C. B.*
CHARLES BEMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article, BEMONT, C.
Havet;
Hozier.
C. El.
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D.,
D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of
Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and
Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent
and Consul-General at Zanzibar; and Consul-General for German East
Africa, 1900-1904.
Hissar (_in part_);
Hungary: _Language_;
Huns.
C. F. A.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
Harbour_.
Hohenlohe (_in part_).
C. H. Ha.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
City. Member of the American Historical Association.
Honorius II., III., IV.
C. J. L.
SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).
Secretary Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of
King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India, Home
Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces,
India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic
Poetry_; &c.
Hindostani Literature.
C. L. K.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_, and Stow's _Survey of
London_.
Henry IV., V., VI.: _of England_.
C. Mo.
WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.
See the biographical article, MONKHOUSE, W. C.
Hunt, W. Holman.
C. P.
REV. CHARLES PRITCHARD, M.A.
See the biographical article, PRITCHARD, CHARLES.
Herschel, Sir F. W. (_in part_);
Herschel, Sir J. F. W. (_in part_).
C. Pf.
CHRISTIAN PEISTER, D.-ES-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of
Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_.
Hunald.
C. R. B.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham.
Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
in the History of Geography. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; _The
Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c.
Hayton;
Henry the Navigator.
C. S.
CARL SCHURZ, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SCHURZ, CARL.
Hayes, Rutherford B.
C. W. W.
SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American
Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the
Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance
Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education,
1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord
Clive_; &c.
Hierapolis (_in part_).
D. B. M.
DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., LITT.D.
See the biographical article, MONRO, DAVID BINNING.
Homer.
D. F. T.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising _The Classical
Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analyses of many other
classical works.
Harmony.
D. Gi.
SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.SC.
H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served in
Geodetic Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension
Island to determine the Solar Parallax by observations of Mars.
Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony and Rhodesia.
Author of _Geodetic Survey of South Africa_; _Catalogues of Stars
for the Equinoxes_ (1850, 1860, 1885, 1890, 1900); &c.
Heliometer.
D. G. H.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900.
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
Heraclea (_in part_);
Hierapolis (_in part_);
Hittites.
D. H.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.
Heyn;
Hood, Viscount;
Howe, Earl;
Humour.
D. Mn.
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of
_Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c.
Henderson, Alexander (_in part_).
D. S.*
DAVID SHARP, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Editor of the _Zoological Record_. Formerly Curator of Museum of
Zoology, University of Cambridge. President of Entomological
Society of London. Author of "Insecta" (_Cambridge Natural
History_); &c.
Hexapoda (_in part_).
E. C. B.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
Palladius" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.
Hieronymites;
Hilarion, Saint.
E. D. B.
EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD.
Author of _Boat-Racing_; &c.
Horse: _History_;
Horse-Racing (_in part_).
E. D. Bu.
EDWARD DUNDAS BUTLER.
Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British
Museum. Foreign Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Author of _Hungarian Poems and Fables for English Readers_; &c.
Hungary: _Literature_ (_in part_).
E. E. S.
ERNEST EDWARD SIKES, M.A.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer, St John's College, Cambridge. Newton
Student at Athens, 1890. Editor of the _Prometheus Vinctus_ of
Aeschylus, and of _The Homeric Hymns_.
Hephaestus;
Hera;
Hermes.
E. F. S.
EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE.
Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.
Member of Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art
subjects. Joint-editor of Bell's "Cathedral" Series.
Hiroshige;
Hokusai.
E. G.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND, W.
Heroic Romances;
Heroic Verse;
Herrick;
Holberg.
Ed. M.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (OXON.), LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author
of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_;
_Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_.
Hormizd.
E. M. W.
REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
Herodotus (_in part_).
E. O.*
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of
Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.
Heart: _Surgery_;
Hernia.
E. Pr.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of
Manchester. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and
Lisbon Geographical Society.
Herculano de Carvalho e Araiyo.
E. Re.*
EMIL REICH, DOC.JURIS., F.R.HIST.S.
Author of _Hungarian Literature_; _History of Civilization_; &c.
Hungary: _Literature_ (_in part_).
E. R. B.
EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Author of _The House of Seleucus_; _Jerusalem
under the High Priests_.
Hellenism.
F. B.
FELICE BARNABEI, LITT.D.
Formerly Director of Museum of Antiquities at Rome. Author of
archaeological papers in Italian reviews and in the _Athenaeum_.
Herculaneum.
F. C. C.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of
Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.
Holy Water.
F. G. M. B.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
Heruli.
F. G. P.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
College of Surgeons.
Heart: _Anatomy_.
F. G. S.
F. G. STEPHENS.
Formerly art critic of the _Athenaeum_. Author of _Artists at
Home_; _George Cruikshank_; _Memorials of W. Mulready_; _French
and Flemish Pictures_; _Sir E. Landseer_; _T. C. Hook, R.A._; &c.
Holl, Frank.
F. H. B.
FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A.
Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of the Royal School of Mines.
Honey;
Hunter, John;
Hunter, William.
F. Ll. G.
FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the
Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt
Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological
Institute.
Heliopolis;
Hermes Trismegistus;
Horus.
F. O. B.
FREDERICK ORPEN BOWER, D.SC., F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. Author of
_Practical Botany for Beginners_.
Hofmeister.
F. Px.
FRANK PUAUX.
President of the Societe de l'Histoire du Protestantisme francais.
Author of _Les Precurseurs francais de la tolerance_; _Histoire de
l'etablissement des protestants francais en Suede_; _L'Eglise
reformee de France_; &c.
Huguenots.
G. A. Gr.
GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of
Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic
Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The Languages
of India_; &c.
Hindostani.
G. C. R.
GEORGE CROOM ROBERTSON, M.A.
See the biographical article, ROBERTSON, G. C.
Hobbes, Thomas (_in part_).
G. C. W.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Portrait
Miniatures_; _Life of Richard Cosway_, R.A.; _George Engleheart_;
_Portrait Drawings_; &c. Editor of new edition of Bryan's
_Dictionary of Printers and Engravers_.
Hilliard, Lawrence;
Hilliard, Nicholas;
Hoskins;
Humphry, Ozias.
G. G. S.
GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A.
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast.
Author of The _Days of James IV._; _The Transition Period_;
_Specimens of Middle Scots_; &c.
Henryson.
G. E.
REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign
Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.
Holland: _History_.
Holland: _County and Province of_.
G. H. C.
GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
President of the Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the
Royal Irish Academy. Author of _Insects: their Structure and
Life_; &c.
Hemiptera;
Hexapoda (_in part_).
G. J. T.
GEORGE JAMES TURNER.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of _Select Pleas for the
Forests_ for the Selden Society.
Hundred.
G. K.
GUSTAV KRUGER.
Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author
of _Das Papsttum_; &c.
Hippolytus.
G. R.
REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A.
See the biographical article, RAWLINSON, GEORGE.
Herodotus (_in part_).
G. W. T.
REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Hasan-ul-Basri;
Hassan ibn Thabit;
Hisham ibn al-Kalbi.
H.
LORD HOUGHTON.
See the biographical article, HOUGHTON, 1ST BARON.
Hood, Thomas.
H. Br.
HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D.
Joint-editor of the _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford). Fellow of
the British Academy. Author of _The Story of the Goths_; _The
Making of English_; &c.
Heliand.
H. Bt.
SIR HENRY BURDETT, K.C.B., K.C.V.O.
Founder and Editor of _The Hospital_. Formerly Superintendent of
the Queen's Hospital, Birmingham, and the Seamen's Hospital,
Greenwich. Author of _Hospitals and Asylums of the World_; &c.
Hospital.
H. Ch.
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the
10th edition.
Howe, Samuel Gridley.
H. De.
HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
_Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta sanctorum_.
Helena, St;
Hubert, St.
H. L.
HENRI LABROSSE.
Assistant Librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Officer
of the Academy.
Hugh of St Cher.
H. L. C.
HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D.
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly
Professor of Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in
University College, London.
Heat.
H. M. V.
HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A.
Keble College, Oxford. Author of _The Last of the Royal Stuarts_;
_The Medici Popes_; _The Last Stuart Queen_.
Henry, Stuart (Cardinal York).
H. W. C. D.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls
College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
and Angevins_; Charlemagne.
Henry I., II., III,: _Of England_.
Henry of Huntingdon.
H. W. R.*
REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A.
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior
Kennicott Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Author of _Hebrew Psychology in
Relation to Pauline Anthropology_ (in Mansfield College Essays);
&c.
Hosea (_in part_).
H. W. S.
H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of _The Times_ at Vienna. Correspondent of _The
Times_ at Rome, 1897-1902.
Humbert, King.
H. Y.
SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B.
See the biographical article, YULE, SIR H.
Hormuz (_in part_);
Hsuan Tsang (_in part_).
I. A.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of
Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of
England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c.
Hasdai ibn Shaprut;
Herzl;
Hirsch, Samson R.
J. A. C.
SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G.
See the biographical article, CROWE, SIR J. A.
Hobbema;
Holbein.
J. A. R.
VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, D.D.
Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of
Christ's College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Christ's College,
Cambridge, and Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University.
Author of _Some Thoughts on the Incarnation_; &c.
Hippolytus, The Canons of.
J. Bt.
JAMES BARTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
&c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects.
Member of Institute of Junior Engineers.
Heating.
J. B. T.
SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.S. (EDIN.), D.SC., LL.D.
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom.
Medical Director of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for
the Universities of Edinburgh and St Andrews, 1900-1910.
Hippocrates.
J. Da.
REV. JAMES DAVIES, M.A. (1820-1883).
Formerly Head Master of Ludlow Grammar School and Prebendary of
Hereford Cathedral. Translated classical authors for Bohn's
"Classical Library." Author of volumes in Collins's _Ancient
Classics for English Readers_.
Hesiod (_in part_).
J. E.
H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D.
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, University of
Edinburgh. Formerly Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic
Society.
Hinduism.
J. F. F.
JOHN FAITHFULL FLEET, C.I.E.
Commissioner of Central and Southern Divisions of Bombay,
1891-1897. Author of _Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings_; &c.
Hindu Chronology.
J. F. H. B.
SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D.
Physician to Out-Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
Hampstead General Hospital. Assistant Physician to the London
Fever Hospital. Author of _Heart Disease and Aneurysm_; &c.
Heart: _Heart Disease_.
J. G.*
REV. JAMES GOW, M.A., LITT.D.
Head Master of Westminster School. Fellow of King's College,
London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of
Horace's Odes and Satires. Author of _A Companion to the School
Classics_; &c.
Horace (_in part_).
J. Ga.
JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B.
See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J.
Henry VII.: _of England_.
J. G. M.
JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.)
Emeritus Professor of Physiology at the University of Glasgow.
Author of _Life in Motion_; _Life of Helmholtz_; &c.
Hearing; Helmholtz.
J. G. R.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer
on the English Language, Strassburg University. Author of _History
of German Literature_; &c.
Heine (_in part_);
Hildebrand, Lay of;
Hoffmann, E. T. W.
J. Hn.
JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn.
Author of _Das Rheinland unter der franzosischen Herrschaft_.
Hecker, F. F. K.;
Hertzberg, Count Von;
Hormayr.
J. H. A. H.
JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College,
Cambridge.
Herod;
Herodians.
J. H. F.
JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
Herald;
Hesiod (_in part_).
J. H. Mu.
JOHN HENRY MUIRHEAD, M.A., LL.D.
Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham. Author of
_Elements of Ethics_; _Philosophy and Life_; &c. Editor of
_Library of Philosophy_.
Hegel: _Hegelianism in England_.
J. H. R.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family
History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_.
Hereward.
J. J. F.
REV. JAMES J. FOX.
St Thomas's College, Brookland, D.C., U.S.A.
Hecker, I. T.
J. K. L.
SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D.
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London, Secretary of
the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in
China, 1856-1859. Honorary Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London. Author of _Physical
Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents_;
_Studies in Naval History_; _Sea Fights and Adventures_; &c.
Hood of Avalon.
J. M. M.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics,
East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of
Grote's _History of Greece_.
Heraclitus;
Hume, David (_in part_).
J. P.-B.
JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the _Guardian_ (London).
Hepplewhite.
J. P. Pe.
REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of
Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the
University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of _Nippur,
or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_.
Hillah;
Hit.
J. S. Co.
JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A.
Editor of _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_. Hon. Secretary of the
Egyptian Exploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's
College, Oxford. Author of _India_ in the "Citizen" Series; &c.
Hastings, Warren.
J. S. F.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
of London.
Hornfels.
J. T. Be.
JOHN T. BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
_Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
_Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.
Hissar (_in part_).
J. T. C.
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London.
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor
of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh and Naturalist
to the Marine Biological Association.
Herring.
J. T. Mo.
JOHN TORREY MORSE, Jr.
Author of _The Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes_.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell.
J. T. S.*
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
History.
J. V.*
JULES VIARD.
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public
Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_;
&c.
Hundred Years' War.
J. V. B.
JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of
_The Apostolic Age_; &c.
Hebrews, Epistle to the;
Hermas, Shepherd of.
J. Ws.
JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S.
Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County Council. Author
of _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_; _French Market Gardening_;
&c.
Hippeastrum;
Honeysuckle;
Horticulture (_in part_).
J. W.*
JAMES WARD, D.SC., LL.D.
Professor of Mental Philosophy and Logic in the University of
Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the
British Academy. Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Herbart.
J. W. F.
J. WALTER FERRIER.
Translated _George Eliot and Judaism_ from the German of Kaufmann.
Author of _Mottiscliffe_.
Heine (_in part_).
J. W. Fo.
THE HON. JOHN WATSON FOSTER, A.M., LL.D.
Professor of American Diplomatics, George Washington University,
Washington, U.S.A. Formerly U.S. Secretary of State. Author of
_Diplomatic Memoirs_; &c.
Harrison, Benjamin.
K. S.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of _The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
Instruments of the Orchestra_.
Harp (_in part_);
Harp-Lute;
Harpsichord;
Holztrompete;
Horn;
Hurdy-Gurdy.
L. H. B.
LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY, LL.D.
Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
Chairman of Roosevelt Commission on Country Life.
Horticulture: _American Calendar_ (_in part_).
L. J. S.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly
Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar.
Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.
Harmotome;
Hemimorphite;
Heulandite;
Hornblende;
Humite.
L. W.
LUCIEN WOLF.
Vice-President of the Jewish Historical Society of England.
Formerly President of the Society. Joint-editor of the
_Bibliotheca Anglo-judaica_.
Hirsch, Baron.
M. G.
MOSES GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig).
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England.
Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester
Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and
1891. President, Folk lore Society of England. Vice-President
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular
Literature_; &c.
Hasdeu.
M. Ha.
MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of
"Protozoa" in _Cambridge Natural History_; and papers for various
scientific journals.
Heliozoa.
M. H. C.
MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L.
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Honorary Fellow, St
John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Member
of the General Council of the Bar and of the Council of Legal
Education, and Standing Counsel to the University of Oxford.
Herschell, 1st Baron.
M. N. T.
MARCUS NIEHBUR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_.
Helots.
M. O. B. C.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.
Heraclius.
M. T. M.
MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.R.S. (1833-1907).
Formerly Editor of _Gardeners' Chronicle_; and Lecturer on Botany,
St George's Hospital, London. Author of _Plant Life_; _Botany for
Beginners_; and numerous monographs in botanical works.
Horticulture (_in part_).
N. D. M.
NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D.
Author of _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_.
Henry, Patrick;
Homestead and Exemption Laws.
O. Ba.
OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.
Editor of _The Ancestor_, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing
Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
Heraldry;
Herbert: _family_;
Howard: _family_.
O. Br.
OSCAR BRILIANT.
Hungary: _Geography and Statistics_.
O. C. W.
REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Professor of Hebrew, Biblical
Exegesis and Theology, and Theological Tutor, Cheshunt College,
Cambridge.
Hebrew Religion.
P. A.
PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique des hautes
etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les
heterodoxes Latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_.
Henry of Lausanne;
Hugh of St Victor;
Humiliati.
P. C. M.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.SC., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Examiner in Zoology to the
University of London, 1903. Author of _Outlines of Biology_; &c.
Hemichorda;
Heredity.
P. C. Y.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of _Letters of Princess Elizabeth
of England_.
Holles, Baron.
P. H.
PETER HENDERSON (1823-1890).
Formerly Horticulturist, Jersey City and New York. Author of
_Gardening for Profit_; _Garden and Farm Topics_.
Horticulture: _American Calendar_ (_in part_).
P. H. P.-S.
PHILIP HENRY PYE-SMITH, M.D., F.R.S.
Consulting Physician to Guy's Hospital, London. Formerly
Vice-Chancellor of the University of London. Joint-author of _A
Text Book of Medicine_; &c.
Harvey, William.
P. La.
PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge
University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of
_Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and Editor
of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_.
Himalaya: _Geology_.
R. A.*
ROBERT ANCHEL.
Archivist to the Department de l'Eure.
Herault de Sechelles.
R. Ad.
ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article, ADAMSON, R.
Hume, David (_in part_).
R. A. S. M.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
Palestine Exploration Fund.
Hebron;
Hor, Mt.
R. A. W.
Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. Colonel, Royal
Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation,
and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission,
Pamirs, 1895; &c.
Hasa, El;
Hejaz.
R. H. S.
RICHARD HENRY STODDARD.
See the biographical article, STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel.
R. I. P.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
Harvester;
Hibernation.
R. J. M.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
_St James's Gazette_, London.
Hely-Hutchinson.
R. J. S.
HON. ROBERT JOHN STRUTT, M.A., F.R.S.
Professor of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and
Technology, South Kensington. Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge.
Helium.
R. K. D.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British
Museum, and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author
of _The Language and Literature of China_; &c.
Hsuan Tsang (_in part_).
R. L.*
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the
British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
Africa_; &c.
Hedgehog;
Hippopotamus; Horse (_in part_);
Howler.
R. N. B.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
_Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe, the
Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.
Hopken;
Horn, A. B., Count;
Hungary: _History_ (_in part_);
Hunyadi, Janos;
Hunyadi, Laszlo.
R. Po.
RENE POUPARDIN, D.-ES-L.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence
sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_;
&c.
Hinemar.
R. P. S.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy,
London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and
Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the
Institute of France. Editor of _Fergusson's History of
Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c.
House.
R. S. C.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Author of _The Italic Dialects_.
Hernici;
Hirpini.
R. S. T.
RALPH STOCKMAN TARR.
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University.
Hudson River.
R. W.
ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh
University, and Garton. Lecturer on Colonial and Indian
Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., Cirencester,
1882-1885. Author of _Farm Live Stock of Great Britain_; _The
Agriculture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand_;
_Farming Industries of Cape Colony_; &c.
Horse (_in part_).
S. F. B.
SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD, LL.D.
See the biographical article, BAIRD, S. F.
Henry, Joseph.
S. A. C.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses
and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament
History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.
Hezekiah;
Hoshea.
T. A. I.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Holiday.
T. As.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.).
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly
Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington
Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute.
Heraclea (_in part_);
Hispellum.
T. Ba.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the
Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of
Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and
Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
High Seas.
T. B.*
THOMAS BROWN.
Incorporated Weaving, Dyeing and Printing College, Glasgow.
Hosiery.
T. F. H.
T. F. HENDERSON.
Author of _The Casket Letters and Mary Queen of Scots_; _Life of
Robert Burns_; &c.
Hooker, Richard.
T. Gi.
THOMAS GILRAY, M.A.
Formerly Professor of Modern History and English Literature,
University College, Dundee.
Henderson, Alexander (_in part_).
T. H. H.*
COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON.
D.SC.
Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist,
R.G.S., London, 1887. Author of _The Indian Borderland_; _The
Countries of the King's Award_; _India_; _Tibet_; &c.
Helmund;
Herat;
Himalaya;
Hindu Kush.
T. L. H.
SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.SC.
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge.
Hero of Alexandria.
T. Se.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and
Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman,
Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of _Dictionary of National
Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of _The Age of Johnson_;
joint-author of _Bookman History of English Literature_; &c.
Hayward, Abraham;
Hughes, Thomas.
T. Wo.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
College, Dundee.
Hose-Pipe.
T. W. A.
THOMAS WILLIAM ALLEN, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. Joint-editor of _The
Homeric Hymns_.
Homer (_in part_).
W. A. B. C
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
_The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.
Hautes Alpes;
Haute-Savoie;
Herzog, Hans.
W. A. P.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.
Hohenlohe (_in part_);
Holy Alliance, The;
Honorius I.;
Hungary: _History_ (_in part_).
W. Ba.
WILLIAM BACHER, D.PH.
Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary,
Budapest.
Hillel.
W. Fr.
WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1907).
Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of
Edinburgh, and Agricultural Correspondent of _The Times_.
Hop;
Horse (_in part_).
W. F. C
WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's
College, London. Editor of _Archbold's Criminal Pleading_ (23rd
ed.).
Homicide.
W. G. H.
WALTER GEORGE HEADLAM (1866-1908).
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Editor of Herodas. Translator
of the plays of Aeschylus.
Herodas.
W. H. F.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H.
Horse (_in part_).
W. H. Ha.
WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., MUS.DOC.
Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow
and Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal
College of Music. Editor of _Oxford History of Music_. Author of
_Studies in Modern Music_; &c.
Haydn.
W. L. G.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit
Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of _Acts
of the Privy Council_, Colonial Series; _Canadian Constitutional
Development_ (in collaboration).
Howe, Joseph.
W. M. R.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
Haydon, Benjamin Robert.
W. P. J.
WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.
University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. High Bailiff of
County Courts, Cardiff. Author of _Romantic Professions_; &c.
Henley, W. E.
W. R. Nl.
SIR WILLIAM ROBERTSON NICOLL, LL.D.
See the biographical article, NICOLL, SIR W. R.
Harris, Thomas Lake.
W. R. S.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
Hosea (_in part_).
W. R. S.-R.
WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum.
Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c.
Hertzen.
W. R. W.
WILLIAM ROBERT WORTHINGTON WILLIAMS, F.L.S.
Superintendent of London County Council Botany Centre. Assistant
Lecturer in Botany, Birkbeck College (University of London).
Member of the Geologists' Association.
Horticulture (_in part_).
W. T. H.
WILLIAM TOD HELMUTH, M.D., LL.D. (d. 1901).
Formerly Professor of Surgery and Dean of the Homoeopathic and
Medical College and Hospital New York. President of the Collins
State Homoeopathic Hospital. Sometime President of the American
Institute of Homoeopathy and the New York State Homoeopathic
Medical Society. Author of _Treatise on Diphtheria_; _System of
Surgery_; &c.
Homoeopathy.
W. W.
WILLIAM WALLACE, LL.D.
See the biographical article, WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
Hegel (_in part_).
W. Wr.
WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of _History
of the Congregational Churches in the United States_; _The
Reformation_; _John Calvin_; &c.
Hopkins, Samuel.
W. Y. S.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SELLAR, W. Y.
Horace (_in part_).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Harrow. Heligoland. High Place.
Hartford. Heliostat. Highway.
Hartlepool. Hellebore. Hockey.
Harvard University. Helmet. Holly.
Harz Mountains. Hemp. Homily.
Hat. Herbarium. Honduras.
Havana. Herefordshire. Hong-Kong.
Hawaii. Hero. Hostage.
Hazel. Hertfordshire. Hottentots.
Health. Hesse. Household, Royal.
Heath. Hesse-Cassel. Hudson's Bay Company.
Hebrides, The. Hesse-Darmstadt. Huntingdonshire.
Heidelberg Catechism.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
the final volume.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIII
HARMONY (Gr. [Greek: harmonia], a concord of musical sounds, [Greek:
harmozein] to join; [Greek: harmonike] (sc. [Greek: techne]) meant the
science or art of music, [Greek: mousike] being of wider significance),
a combination of parts so that the effect should be aesthetically
pleasing. In its earliest sense in English it is applied, in music, to a
pleasing combination of musical sounds, but technically it is confined
to the science of the combination of sounds of different pitch.
I. _Concord and Discord._--By means of harmony modern music has attained
the dignity of an independent art. In ancient times, as at the present
day among nations that have not come under the influence of European
music, the harmonic sense was, if not altogether absent, at all events
so obscure and undeveloped as to have no organizing power in the art.
The formation by the Greeks of a scale substantially the same as that
which has received our harmonic system shows a latent harmonic sense,
but shows it in a form which positively excludes harmony as an artistic
principle. The Greek perception of certain _successions_ of sounds as
concordant rests on a principle identifiable with the scientific basis
of concord in simultaneous sounds. But the Greeks did not conceive of
musical simultaneity as consisting of anything but identical sounds; and
when they developed the practice of _magadizing_--i.e. singing in
octaves--they did so because, while the difference between high and low
voices was a source of pleasure, a note and its octave were then, as
now, perceived to be in a certain sense identical. We will now start
from this fundamental identity of the octave, and with it trace the
genesis of other concords and discords; bearing in mind that the history
of harmony is the history of artistic instincts and not a series of
progressive scientific theories.
[Illustration: Ex. 1.--The notes marked * are out of tune.]
The unisonous quality of octaves is easily explained when we examine the
"harmonic series" of upper partials (see SOUND). Every musical sound, if
of a timbre at all rich (and hence pre-eminently the human voice),
contains some of these upper partials. Hence, if one voice produce a
note which is an upper partial of another note sung at the same time by
another voice, the higher voice adds nothing new to the lower but only
reinforces what is already there. Moreover, the upper partials of the
higher voice will also coincide with some of the lower. Thus, if a note
and its octave be sung together, the upper octave is itself No. 2 in the
harmonic series of the lower, No. 2 of its own series is No. 4 of the
lower, and its No. 3 is No. 6, and so on. The impression of identity
thus produced is so strong that we often find among people unacquainted
with music a firm conviction that a man is singing in unison with a boy
or an instrument when he is really singing in the octave below. And even
musical people find a difficulty in realizing more than a certain
brightness and richness of single tone when a violinist plays octaves
perfectly in tune and with a strong emphasis on the lower notes.
Doubling in octaves therefore never was and never will be a process of
harmonization.
Now if we take the case of one sound doubling another in the 12th, it
will be seen that here, too, no real addition is made by the higher
sound to the lower. The 12th is No. 3 of the harmonic series, No. 2 of
the higher note will be No. 6 of the lower, No. 3 will be No. 9, and so
on. But there is an important difference between the 12th and the
octave. However much we alter the octave by transposition into other
octaves, we never get anything but unison or octaves. Two notes two
octaves apart are just as devoid of harmonic difference as a plain
octave or unison. But, when we apply our principle of the identity of
the octave to the 12th, we find that the removal of one of the notes by
an octave may produce a combination in which there is a distinct
harmonic element. If, for example, the lower note is raised by an octave
so that the higher note is a fifth from it, No. 3 of the harmonic series
of the higher note will not belong to the lower note at all. The 5th is
thus a combination of which the two notes are obviously different; and,
moreover, the principle of the identity of octaves can now operate in a
contrary direction and transfer this positive harmonic value of the 5th
to the 12th, so that we regard the 12th as a 5th plus an octave, instead
of regarding the 5th as a compressed 12th.[1] At the same time, the
relation between the two is quite close enough to give the 5th much of
the feeling of harmonic poverty and reduplication that characterizes the
octave; and hence when medieval musicians doubled a melody in 5ths and
octaves they believed themselves to be doing no more than extending and
diversifying the means by which a melody might be sung in unison by
different voices. How they came to prefer for this purpose the 4th to
the 5th seems puzzling when we consider that the 4th does not appear as
a fundamental interval in the harmonic series until that series has
passed beyond that part of it that maintains any relation to our musical
ideas. But it was of course certain that they obtained the 4th as the
inversion of the 5th; and it is at least possible that the singers of
lower voices found a peculiar pleasure in singing below higher voices in
a position which they felt harmonically as that of a top part. That is
to say, a bass, in singing a fourth below a tenor, would take pleasure
in doubling in the octave an alto singing normally a 5th above the
tenor.[2] This should also, perhaps, be taken in connexion with the fact
that the interval of the downward 4th is in melody the earliest that
became settled. And it is worth noticing that, in any singing-class
where polyphonic music is sung, there is a marked tendency among the
more timid members to find their way into their part by a gentle humming
which is generally a 4th below the nearest steady singers.
The limited compass of voices soon caused modifications in the medieval
parallelisms of 4ths and 5ths, and the introduction of independent
ornaments into one or more of the voices increased to an extent which
drew attention to other intervals. It was long, however, before the true
criterion of concord and discord was attained; and at first the notion
of concord was purely acoustic, that is to say, the ear was sensitive
only to the difference in roughness and smoothness between combinations
in themselves. And even the modern researches of Helmholtz fail to
represent classical and modern harmony, in so far as the phenomena of
beats are quite independent of the contrapuntal nature of concord and
discord which depends upon the melodic intelligibility of the motion of
the parts. Beats give rise to a strong physical sense of discord akin to
the painfulness of a flickering light (see SOUND). Accordingly, in the
earliest experiments in harmony, the ear, in the absence of other
criteria, attached much more importance to the purely acoustic roughness
of beats than our ears under the experience of modern music. This, and
the circumstance that the _imperfect_ concords[3] (the 3rds and 6ths)
long remained out of tune owing to the incompleteness of the Pythagorean
system of harmonic ratios, sufficiently explain the medieval treatment
of these combinations as discords differing only in degree from the
harshness of 2nds and 7ths. In the earliest attempts at really
contrapuntal writing (the astonishing 13th and 14th-century motets, in
which voices are made to sing different melodies at once, with what
seems to modern ears a total disregard of sound and sense) we find that
the method consists in a kind of rough-hewing by which the concords of
the octave, 5th and 4th are provided at most of the strong accents,
while the rest of the harmony is left to take care of itself. As the art
advanced the imperfect concords began to be felt as different from the
discords; but as their true nature appeared it brought with it such an
increased sense of the harmonic poverty of octaves, 5ths and 4ths, as
ended in a complete inversion of the earliest rules of harmony.
The harmonic system of the later 15th century, which culminated in the
"golden age" of the 16th-century polyphony, may be described as follows:
Imagine a flux of simultaneous independent melodies, so ordered as to
form an artistic texture based not only on the variety of the melodies
themselves, but also upon gradations between points of repose and points
in which the roughness of sound is rendered interesting and beautiful by
means of the clearness with which the melodic sense in each part
indicates the convergence of all towards the next point of repose. The
typical point of repose owes its effect not only to the acoustic
smoothness of the combination, but to the fact that it actually
consists of the essential elements present in the first five notes of
the harmonic series. The major 3rd has thus in this scheme asserted
itself as a concord, and the fundamental principle of the identity of
octaves produces the result that any combination of a bass note with a
major 3rd and a perfect 5th above it, at any distance, and with any
amount of doubling, may constitute a concord available even as the final
point of repose in the whole composition. And by degrees the _major
triad_, with its major 3rd, became so familiar that a chord consisting
of a bare 5th, with or without an octave, was regarded rather as a
skeleton triad without the 3rd than as a concord free from elements of
imperfection. Again, the identity of the octave secured for the
combination of a note with its minor 3rd and minor 6th a place among
concords; because, whether so recognized by early theorists or not, it
was certainly felt as an inversion of the major triad. The fact that its
bass note is not the fundamental note (and therefore has a series of
upper partials not compatible with the higher notes) deprives it of the
finality and perfection of the major triad, to which, however, its
relationship is too near for it to be felt otherwise than as a concord.
This sufficiently explains why the minor 6th ranks as a concord in
music, though it is acoustically nearly as rough as the discord of the
minor 7th, and considerably rougher than that of the 7th note of the
harmonic series, which has not become accepted in our musical system at
all.
[Illustration: Ex. 2.]
[Illustration: Ex. 3.]
But the major triad and its inversion are not the only concords that
will be produced by our flux of melodies. From time to time this flux
will arrest attention by producing a combination which, while it does
not appeal to the ear as being a part of the harmonic chord of nature,
yet contains in itself no elements not already present in the major
triad. Theorists have in vain tried to find in "nature" a combination of
a note with its minor 3rd and perfect 5th; and so long as harmony was
treated unhistorically and unscientifically as an a priori theory in
which every chord must needs have a "root," the minor triad, together
with nearly every other harmonic principle of any complexity, remained a
mystery. But the minor triad, as an artistic and not purely acoustic
phenomenon, is an inevitable thing. It has the character of a concord
because of our intellectual perception that it contains the same
elements as the major triad; but its absence of connexion with the
natural harmonic series deprives it of complete finality in the simple
system of 16th-century harmony, and at the same time gives it a
permanent contrast with the major triad; a contrast which is
acoustically intensified by the fact that, though its intervals are in
themselves as concordant as those of the major triad, their relative
position produces decidedly rough combinations of "resultant tones."
By the time our flux of melodies had come to include the major and minor
triads as concords, the notion of the independence of parts had become
of such paramount importance as totally to revolutionize the medieval
conception of the perfect concords. Fifths and octaves no longer formed
an oasis in a desert of cacophony, but they assumed the character of
concord so nearly approaching to unison that a pair of consecutive 5ths
or octaves began to be increasingly felt as violating the independence
of the parts. And thus it came about that in pure 16th-century
counterpoint (as indeed at the present day whenever harmony and
counterpoint are employed in their purest significance) consecutive 5ths
and octaves are strictly forbidden. When we compare our laws of
counterpoint with those of medieval discant (in which consecutive 5ths
and octaves are the rule, while consecutive 3rds and 6ths are strictly
forbidden) we are sometimes tempted to think that the very nature of the
human ear has changed. But it is now generally recognized that the
process was throughout natural and inevitable, and the above account
aims at showing that consecutive 5ths are forbidden by our harmonic
system for the very reason which inculcated them in the system of the
12th century.
II. _Tonality._--As soon as the major and minor triad and their first
inversions were well-defined entities, it became evident that the
successions of these concords and their alternations with discord
involved principles at once larger and more subtle than those of mere
difference in smoothness and artificiality. Not only was a major chord
(or at least its skeleton) necessary for the final point of repose in a
composition, but it could not itself sound final unless the concords as
well as the discords before it showed a well-defined tendency towards
it. This tendency was best realized when the penultimate concord had its
fundamental note at the distance of a 5th or a 4th above or below that
of the final chord. When the fundamental note of the penultimate chord
is a 5th above or (what is the same thing) a 4th below that of the final
chord, we have an "authentic" or "perfect" cadence, and the relation
between the two chords is very clear. While the contrast between them is
well marked, they have one note in common--for the root of the
penultimate chord is the 5th of the final chord; and the statement of
this common note, first as an octave or unison and then as a 5th,
expresses the first facts of harmony with a force which the major 3rds
of the chords can only strengthen, while it also involves in the bass
that melodic interval of the 4th or the 5th which is now known to be the
germ of all melodic scales. The relation of the final note of a scale
with its upper 5th or lower 4th thus becomes a fundamental fact of
complex harmonic significance--that is to say, of harmony modified by
melody in so far as it concerns the succession of sounds as well as
their simultaneous combination. In our modern key-system the final note
of the scale is called the _tonic_, and the 5th above or 4th below it is
the _dominant_. (In the 16th century the term "dominant" has this
meaning only in the "authentic" modes other than the Phrygian, but as an
aesthetic fact it is present in all music, though the theory here given
would not have been intelligible to any composers before the 18th
century). Another penultimate chord asserts itself as the converse of
the dominant--namely, the chord of which the root is a 5th below or a
4th above the final. This chord has not that relationship to the final
which the dominant chord shows, for its fundamental note is not in the
harmonic series of the final. But the fundamental note of the final
chord is in its harmonic series, and in fact stands to it as the
dominant stands to the final. Thus the progression from _subdominant_,
as it is called, to tonic, or final, forms a full close known as the
"plagal cadence," second only in importance to the "perfect" or
"authentic cadence." In our modern key-system these three chords, the
tonic, the dominant and the subdominant, form a firm harmonic centre in
reference to which all other chords are grouped. The tonic is the final
in which everything ultimately resolves: the dominant stands on one side
of it as a chord based on the note harmonically most closely related to
the tonic, and the subdominant stands on the other side as the converse
and opposite of the dominant, weaker than the dominant because not
directly derived from the tonic. The other triads obtainable from the
notes of the scale are all minor, and of less importance; and their
relationship to each other and to the tonic is most definite when they
are so grouped that their basses rise and fall in 4th and 5ths, because
they then tend to imitate the relationship between tonic, dominant and
subdominant.
[Illustration: Ex. 4.]
[Illustration: Ex. 5.]
[Illustration: Ex. 6.
Tonic. Supertonic. Mediant. Sub-dominant. Dominant. Sub-mediant.][4]
Here are the six common chords of the diatonic scale. The triad on the
7th degree or "leading-note" (B) is a discord, and is therefore not
given here.
Now, in the 16th century it was neither necessary nor desirable that
chords should be grouped exclusively in this way. The relation between
tonic, dominant and subdominant must necessarily appear at the final
close, and in a lesser degree at subordinate points of repose; but,
where no harmonies were dwelt on as stable and independent entities
except the major and minor triads and their first inversions, a scheme
in which these were confined to the illustration of their most
elementary relationship would be intolerably monotonous. It is therefore
neither surprising nor a sign of archaism that the tonality of modal
music is from the modern point of view often very indefinite. On the
contrary, the distinction between masterpieces and inferior works in the
16th century is nowhere more evident than in the expressive power of
modal tonality, alike where it resembles and where it differs from
modern. Nor is it too much to say that that expressive power is based on
the modern sense of key, and that a description of modal tonality in
terms of modern key will accurately represent the harmonic art of
Palestrina and the other supreme masters, though it will have almost as
little in common with 16th-century theory and inferior 16th-century
practice as it has with modern custom. We must conceive modal harmony
and tonality as a scheme in which voices move independently and
melodiously in a scale capable of bearing the three chords of the tonic,
dominant and subdominant, besides three other minor triads, but not
under such restrictions of symmetrical rhythm and melodic design as will
necessitate a confinement to schemes in which these three cardinal
chords occupy a central position. The only stipulation is that the
relationship of at least two cardinal chords shall appear at every full
close. At other points the character and drift of the harmony is
determined by quite a different principle--namely, that, the scale being
conceived as indefinitely extended, the voices are agreed in selecting a
particular section of it, the position of which determines not only the
melodic character of each part but also the harmonic character of the
whole, according to its greater or less remoteness from the scale in
which major cardinal chords occupy a central position. Historically
these modes were derived, with various errors and changes, from the
purely melodic modes of the Greeks. Aesthetically they are systems of
modern tonality adapted to conditions in which the range of harmony was
the smallest possible, and the necessity for what we may conveniently
call a clear and solid key-perspective incomparably slighter than that
for variety within so narrow a range. We may thus regard modal harmony
as an essentially modern scheme, presented to us in cross-sections of
various degrees of obliquity, and modified at every close so as either
to take us to a point of view in which we see the harmony symmetrically
(as in those modes[5] of which the final chord is normally major, namely
the Ionian, which is practically our major scale, the Mixolydian and the
Lydian, which last is almost invariably turned into Ionian by the
systematic flattening of its 4th degree) or else to transform the mode
itself so that its own notes are flattened and sharpened into suitable
final chords (as is necessary in those modes of which the triad on the
final is normally minor, namely, the Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian). In
this way we may describe Mixolydian tonality as a harmonic scheme in
which the keys of G major and C major are so combined that sometimes we
feel that we are listening to harmony in C major that is disposed to
overbalance towards the dominant, and sometimes that we are in G major
with a pronounced leaning towards the subdominant. In the Dorian mode
our sensations of tonality are more confused. We seem to be wandering
through all the key-relationships of a minor tonic without defining
anything, until at the final close the harmonies gather strength and
bring us, perhaps with poetic surprise, to a close in D with a major
chord. In the Phrygian mode the difficulty in forming the final close is
such that classical Phrygian compositions actually end in what we feel
to be a half-close, an impression which is by the great masters rendered
perfectly artistic by the strong feeling that all such parts of the
composition as do not owe their expression to the variety and
inconstancy of their harmonic drift are on the dominant of A minor.
It cannot be too strongly insisted that the expression of modal music is
a permanent artistic fact. Its refinements may be crowded out by the
later tonality, in which the much greater variety of fixed chords needs
a much more rigid harmonic scheme to control it, but they can never be
falsified. And when Beethoven in his last "Bagatelle" raises the 6th of
a minor scale for the pleasure he takes in an unexpectedly bright major
chord; or when, in the _Incarnatus_ of his _Mass in D_, he makes a free
use of the Dorian scale, he is actuated by precisely the same harmonic
and aesthetic motives as those of the wonderful opening of Palestrina's
eight-part _Stabat Mater_; just as in the Lydian figured chorale in his
_A minor Quartet_ he carries out the principle of harmonic variety, as
produceable by an oblique melodic scale, with a thoroughness from which
Palestrina himself would have shrunk. (We have noted that in
16th-century music the Lydian mode is almost invariably Ionicized.)
[Illustration: Ex. 7. Suspension.]
[Illustration: No. 8. Passing Notes.]
[Illustration: Ex. 9.]
III. _Modern Harmony and Tonality._--In the harmonic system of
Palestrina only two kinds of discord are possible, namely, _suspensions_
and _passing-notes_. The principle of the suspension is that while parts
are moving from one concord to another one of the parts remains behind,
so as to create a discord at the moment when the other parts proceed.
The suspended part then goes on to its concordant note, which must lie
on an adjacent (and in most cases a lower) degree of the scale.
Passing-notes are produced transiently by the motion of a part up or
down the scale while other parts remain stationary. The possibilities of
these two devices can be worked out logically so as to produce
combinations of extreme harshness. And, when combined with the rules
which laid on the performers the responsibility for modifying the strict
scale of the mode in order to form satisfactory closes and avoid melodic
harshness, they sometimes gave rise to combinations which the clearest
artistic intellects of the 16th century perceived as incompatible with
the modal style. For example, in a passage written thus the singer of
the lower part would be obliged to flatten his B in order to avoid the
ugly "tritone" between F and B, while the other singer would be hardly
less likely on the spur of the moment to sharpen his G under the
impression that he was making a close; and thus one of the most complex
and characteristically modern discords, that of the augmented 6th, did
frequently occur in 16th-century performances, and was not always
regarded as a blunder. But if the technical principles of 16th-century
discord left much to the good taste of composers and singers, they
nevertheless in conjunction with that good taste severely restricted the
resources of harmony; for, whatever the variety and artificiality of the
discords admitted by them, they all had this in common, that every
discord was transient and could only arise as a phenomenon of delay in
the movement of one or more parts smoothly along the scale ("in conjunct
motion") or of a more rapid motion up and down the scale in which none
but the rigorously concordant first and last notes received any
emphasis. No doubt there were many licenses (such as the
"changing-note") which introduced discords by skip, or on the strong
beat without preparation, but these were all as natural as they were
illogical. They were artistic as intelligible accidents, precisely like
those which make language idiomatic, such as "attraction of the
relative" in Greek. But when Monteverde and his fellow monodists tried
experiments with unprepared discords, they opened up possibilities far
too vast to be organized by them or by the next three generations. We
have elsewhere compared the difference between early and modern harmony
with that between classical Greek, which is absolutely literal and
concrete in expression, and modern English, which is saturated with
metaphors and abstractions. We may go further and say that a
16th-century discord, with its preparation and resolution, is, on a very
small scale, like a simile, in which both the figure and its
interpretation are given, whereas modern discord is like the metaphor,
in which the figure is a substitute for and not an addition to the
plain statement. It is not surprising that the sudden opening up of the
whole possibilities of modern harmony at the end of the 16th century at
first produced a chaos of style.
Another feature of the harmonic revolution arose from the new habit of
supporting a single voice on chords played by an instrument. This,
together with the use of discords in a new sense, drew attention to the
chords as things in themselves and not as moments of greater or less
repose in a flux of independent melodies. This was as valuable an
addition to musical thought and expression as the free use of abstract
terms is in literature, but it had precisely the same dangers, and has
until recent times vitiated harmonic theory and divorced it from the
modest observation of the practice of great masters. When, early in the
18th century, Rameau devoted much of his best energy to the elaboration
of a theory of harmony, his field of observation was a series of
experiments begun in chaos and resolved, not as yet in a great art, but
in a system of conventions, for the contemporary art of Bach and Handel
was beyond the scope of contemporary theory. He showed great analytical
genius and sense of tonality in his development of the notion of the
"fundamental bass," and it is rather to his credit than otherwise that
he did not emphasize the distinction between discords on the dominant
and those on other degrees of the scale. But his system, with all
subsequent improvements, refutations and repairs only led to that bane
of 19th-century theory and source of what may be called the journalese
of harmonic style, according to which every chord (no matter how
obviously artificial and transient) must be regarded, so to speak, as a
literal fact for which a root and a scientific connexion with the
natural harmonic series must at all cost be found. Some modern theorists
have, however, gone too far in denying the existence of harmonic roots
altogether, and certainly it is neither scientific nor artistic to
regard the coincidence of the major triad with the first five notes of
the harmonic series as merely accidental. It is not likely that the
dominant 7th owes all its naturalness to a resemblance to the flat 7th
of the harmonic series, which is too far out of tune even to pass for an
augmented 6th. But the dominant major 9th certainly gains in
sonorousness from its coincidence with the 9th harmonic, and many cases
in music could be found where the dominant 7th itself would gain from
being so far flattened as to add coincidence with a natural harmonic to
its musical significance as an unprepared discord (see, for example the
"native wood-notes wild" of the distant huntsmen in the second act of
_Tristan und Isolde_, where also the 9th and 11th are involved, and,
moreover, on horns, of which the natural scale is the harmonic series
itself). If the distinction between "essential" and "unessential"
discords is, in the light of history and common sense, a difference only
in degree, it is thus none the less of great aesthetic importance.
Arithmetic and acoustics show that in proportion as musical harmony
emphasizes combinations belonging to the lower region of the harmonic
series the effect will be sonorous and natural; but common sense,
history and aesthetics also show that the interaction of melody, harmony
and rhythm must produce a host of combinations which acoustics alone
cannot possibly explain. These facts are amply competent to explain
themselves. To describe them in detail is beyond the scope of the
present article, but a few examples from different periods are given at
the end in musical type.
IV. _The Minor Mode._--When the predecessors of Bach and Handel had
succeeded in establishing a key-system able to bear the weight of free
discord, that key-system took two forms, in both of which the three
chords of tonic, dominant and subdominant occupied cardinal points. In
the one form the tonic chord was natural, that is to say, major. In the
other form the tonic chord was artificial, that is to say, minor. In the
minor mode so firm is the position of the tonic and dominant (the
dominant chord always being major) that it is no longer necessary, as in
the 16th century, to conclude with a major chord, although it long
remained a frequent practice, rather because of the inherent beauty and
surprise of the effect than because of any mere survival of ancient
customs, at least where great masters are concerned. (This final major
chord is known as the _Tierce de Picardie_.) The effect of the minor
mode is thus normally plaintive because it centres round the artificial
concord instead of the natural; and, though the keynote bears this minor
artificial triad, the ear nevertheless has an expectation (which may be
intensified into a powerful emotional effect) that the final conclusion
of the harmonic scheme may brighten out into the more sonorous harmonic
system of major chords. Let us once more recall those ecclesiastical
modes of which the 3rd degree is normally minor. We have seen how they
may be regarded as the more oblique of the various cross-sections of the
16th-century harmonic scheme. Now, the modern minor mode is too firmly
rooted in its minor tonic chord for the 16th-century feeling of an
oblique harmonic scheme to be of more than secondary importance, though
that feeling survives, as the discussion of key-relationships will show
us. But it is constantly thrust into the background by the new
possibility that the minor tonic chord with its attendant minor
harmonies may give place to the major system round the same tonic, and
by the certainty that if any change is made at the conclusion of the
work it will be upon the same tonic and not have reference to some other
harmonic centre. In other words, a major and minor key on the same tonic
are felt as identical in everything but expression (a point in which the
Tonic Sol Fa system, as hitherto practised, with its identification of
the minor key with its "relative" instead of its tonic major, shows a
most unfortunate confusion of thought). The characteristics of the major
and minor modes may of course be modified by many artistic
considerations, and it would be as absurd to develop this account into a
scheme of pigeon-holed passions as to do the same for the equally
obvious and closely parallel fact that in drama a constant source of
pathos is the placing of our sympathies in an oblique relation to the
natural sequence of events or to the more universal issues of the
subject.
V. _Key-Relationships._--On the modern sense of the identity of the
tonic in major and minor rests the whole distinctive character of modern
harmony, and the whole key-system of the classical composers. The
masters of the 16th century naturally found it necessary to make full
closes much more frequently than would be desirable if the only possible
close was that on the final of the mode. They therefore formed closes on
other notes, but they formed them on these exactly as on a final. Thus,
a close on the second degree of the Ionian mode was identical with a
Dorian final close. The notes, other than the final, on which closes
could be made were called _modulations_. And what between the three
"regular modulations" (known as the dominant, mediant, and participant)
and the "conceded modulations," of which two were generally admitted in
each mode simply in the interests of variety, a composer was at liberty
to form a full close on any note which did not involve too many
extraneous sharps or flats for its correct accomplishment. But there was
a great difference between modal and modern conceptions of modulation.
We have said that the close on the second degree of the Ionian mode was
Dorian, but such a modulation was not regarded as a visit paid to the
Dorian mode, but merely as the formation of a momentary point of repose
on the second degree of the Ionian mode. When therefore it is said that
the modulations of 16th-century music are "purposeless and shifting,"
the criticism implies a purpose in change of key which is wholly
irrelevant. The modal composers' purpose lay in purely local
relationships of harmony, in various degrees of refinement which are
often crowded out of the larger and more coarse-grained scheme of modern
harmony, but which modern harmony is perfectly capable of employing in
precisely the same sense whenever it has leisure.
Modulation, in the modern sense of the term, is a different thing. The
modern sense of tonality is so firm, and modern designs so large, that
it is desirable that different portions of a composition should be
arranged round different harmonic centres or keys, and moreover that the
relation between these keys and the primary key should be felt, and the
whole design should at last return to the primary key, to remain there
with such emphasis and proportion as shall leave upon the mind the
impression that the whole is in the primary key and that the foreign
keys have been as artistically grouped around it as its own local
harmonies. The true principles on which keys are related proved so
elastic in the hands of Beethoven that their results utterly outstripped
the earlier theory which adhered desperately to the limitations of the
16th century; and so vast is the range of key which Beethoven is able to
organize in a convincing scheme of relationship, that even modern
theory, dazzled by the true harmonic possibilities, is apt to come to
the conclusion, more lame and impotent than any ancient pedantry, that
all keys are equally related. A vague conception, dubbed "the unity of
the chromatic scale," is thus made to explain away the whole beauty and
power of Wagner's no less than Beethoven's harmonic system. We have not
space to dispute the matter here, and it must suffice to state
dogmatically and statistically the classical facts of key-relationship,
including those which Beethoven established as normal possibilities on
the suggestion of Haydn, in whose works they appear as special effects.
a. _Direct Relationships._--The first principle on which two keys are
considered to be related is a strengthening of that which determined the
so-called modulations of the 16th-century modes. Two keys are directly
related when the tonic chord of the one is among the common chords of
the other. Thus, D minor is related to C major because the tonic chord
of D minor is the common chord on the supertonic of C (see Ex. 6). In
the same way the four other related keys to C major are E minor the
mediant, F major the subdominant, G major the dominant and A minor the
submediant.
[Illustration: Ex. 10.]
This last key-relationship is sometimes called the "relative" minor,
partly because it is usually expressed by the same key-signature as the
tonic, but probably more justifiably because it is the point of view
from which to reckon the key-relationships of the minor tonic. If we
take the minor scale in its "harmonic" form (i.e. the form deducible
from its chords of minor tonic, minor subdominant and major dominant,
without regard to the exigencies of melody in concession to which the
"melodic" minor scale raises the 6th in ascent and flattens the 7th in
descent), we shall find it impossible to build a common chord upon its
mediant (Ex. 10). But we have seen that A minor is related to C major;
therefore it is absurd to suppose that C major is not related to A
minor. Clearly then we must deduce some of the relationships of a minor
tonic as the converse of those of a major tonic. Thus we may read Ex. 6
backwards and reason as follows: A minor is the submediant of C major;
therefore C major is the mediant or relative major of A minor. D minor
is the supertonic of C major; therefore C major is related to D minor
and may be called its flat 7th. Taking A minor as our standard key, G
major is then the flat 7th to A minor. The remaining major keys (C major
to E minor = F major to A minor) may be traced directly as well as
conversely; and the subdominant, being minor, does not involve an appeal
to the major scale at all. But with the dominant we find the curious
fact that while the dominant _chord_ of a minor key is major it is
impossible to regard the major dominant _key_ as directly related to the
minor tonic, since it does not contain the minor tonic chord at all;
e.g. the only chord of A in E major is A major. But the dominant minor
key contains the tonic chord of the primary minor key clearly enough as
subdominant, and therefore when we modulate from a minor tonic to a
minor dominant we feel that we have a direct key-relationship and have
not lost touch with our tonic. Thus in the minor mode modulation to the
dominant key is, though frequent and necessary, a much more uphill
process than in the major mode, because the naturally major dominant
chord has first to be contradicted. On the other hand, a contrast
between minor tonic and major dominant key is very difficult to work on
a large scale (as, for example, in the complementary key for second
subjects of sonata movements) because, while the major dominant key
behaves as if not directly related to the minor tonic, it also gives a
curious sensation of being merely _on_ the dominant instead of _in_ it;
and thus we find that in the few classical examples of a dominant major
second subject in a minor sonata-movement the second subject either
relapses into the dominant minor, as in Beethoven's _Kreutzer Sonata_
and the finale of Brahms's _Third Symphony_, or begins in it, as in the
first movement of Brahms's _Fourth Symphony_.
The effect of a modulation to a related key obviously depends upon the
change of meaning in the chords common to both keys, and also in the new
chords introduced. Thus, in modulating to the dominant we invest the
brightest chord of our first key with the finality and importance of a
tonic; our original tonic chord becomes comparatively soft in its new
position as subdominant; and a new dominant chord arises, surpassing in
brilliance the old dominant (now tonic) as that surpassed the primary
tonic. Again, in modulating to the subdominant the softest chord of the
primary key becomes tonic, the old tonic is comparatively bright, and a
new and softer subdominant chord appears. We have seen the peculiarities
of modulation to the dominant from a minor tonic, and it follows from
them that modulation from a minor tonic to the subdominant involves the
beautiful effect of a momentary conversion of the primary tonic chord to
major, the poetic and often dramatically ironical power of which is
manifested at the conclusion of more than half the finest classical slow
movements in minor keys, from Bach's E[flat] minor Prelude in the first
book of the _Forty-eight_ to the slow movement of Brahms's _G major
String Quintet_, Op. 111.
The effect of the remaining key-relationships involves contrasts between
major and minor mode; but it is otherwise far less defined, since the
primary tonic chord does not occupy a cardinal position in the second
key. These key-relationships are most important from a minor tonic, as
the change from minor to major is more vivid than the reverse change.
The smoothest changes are those to "relative" minor, "relative" major (C
to A minor; C minor to E[flat]); and mediant minor and submediant major
(C to E minor; C minor to A[flat]). The change from major tonic to
supertonic minor is extremely natural on a small scale, i.e. within the
compass of a single melody, as may be seen in countless openings of
classical sonatas. But on a large scale the identity of primary dominant
with secondary subdominant confuses the harmonic perspective, and
accordingly in classical music the supertonic minor appears neither in
the second subjects of first movements nor as the key for middle
movements.[6] But since the key-relationships of a minor tonic are at
once more obscure harmonically and more vivid in contrast, we find that
the converse key-relationship of the flat 7th, though somewhat bold and
archaic in effect on a small scale, has once or twice been given organic
function on a large scale in classical movements of exceptionally
fantastic character, of which the three great examples are the ghostly
slow movement of Beethoven's _D major Trio, Op. 70_, No. 1, the scherzo
of his _Ninth Symphony_, and the finale of Brahms's _D minor Violin
Sonata_ (where, however, the C major theme soon passes permanently into
the more orthodox dominant minor).
Thus far we have the set of key-relationships universally recognized
since the major and minor modes were established, a relationship based
entirely on the place of the primary tonic chord in the second key. It
only remains for us to protest against the orthodox description of the
five related keys as being the "relative" minor or major and the
dominant and subdominant with their "relative" minors or majors; a
conception which expresses the fallacious assumption that keys which are
related to the same key are related to one another, and which thereby
implies that all keys are equally related and that classical composers
were fools. It cannot be too strongly insisted that there is no
foundation for key-relationship except through a tonic, and that it is
through the tonic that the most distant keys have always been connected
by every composer with a wide range of modulation, from Haydn to Brahms
and (with due allowance for the conditions of his musical drama) Wagner.
b. _Indirect Relationships._--So strong is the identity of the tonic
in major and minor mode that Haydn and Mozart had no scruple in
annexing, with certain reservations, the key-relationships of either as
an addition to those of the other. The smoothness of Mozart's style
makes him prefer to annex the key-relationships of the tonic minor (e.g.
C major to A[flat], the submediant of C minor), because the primary
tonic note is in the second key, although its chord is transformed. His
range of thought does not allow him to use these keys otherwise than
episodically; but he certainly does not treat them as chaotically remote
by confining them to rapid modulations in the development-portions of
his movements. They occur characteristically as beautiful purple patches
before or during his second subjects. Haydn, with his mastery of
rational paradox, takes every opportunity, in his later works, of using
all possible indirect key-relationships in the choice of key for slow
movements and for the trios of minuets. By using them thus sectionally
(i.e. so as not to involve the organic connecting links necessary for
the complementary keys of second subjects) he gives himself a free hand;
and he rather prefers those keys which are obtained by transforming the
minor relationships of a major primary key (e.g. C to A major instead of
A minor). These relationships are of great brilliance and also of some
remoteness of effect, since the primary tonic note, as well as its
chord, disappears entirely. Haydn also obtains extreme contrasts by
changing both modes (e.g. C minor to A major, as in the _G minor
Quartet, Op. 72_, No 6, where the slow movement is in E major), and
indeed there is not one key-contrast known to Beethoven and Brahms which
Haydn does not use with complete sense of its meaning, though his art
admits it only as a surprise.
Beethoven rationalized every step in the whole possible range of
key-relationship by such harmonic means as are described in the article
BEETHOVEN. Haydn's favourite key-relationships he used for the
complementary key in first movements; and he at once discovered that the
use of the major mediant as complementary key to a major tonic implied
at all events just as much suggestion of the submediant major in the
recapitulation as would not keep the latter half of the movement for too
long out of the tonic. The converse is not the case, and where Beethoven
uses the submediant major as complementary key in a major first movement
he does not subsequently introduce the still more remote and brilliant
mediant in the recapitulation. The function of the complementary key is
that of contrast and vividness, so that if the key is to be remote it is
as well that it should be brilliant rather than sombre; and accordingly
the easier key-relationships obtainable through transforming the tonic
into minor do not appear as complementary keys until Beethoven's latest
and most subtle works, as the _Quartet in B[flat], Op. 130_ (where we
again note that the flat submediant of the exposition is temporarily
answered by the flat mediant of the recapitulation).
c. _Artificial Key-relationships._--Early in the history of the minor
mode it was discovered that the lower tetrachord could be very
effectively and naturally altered so as to resemble the upper (thus
producing the scale C D[flat] E[natural] F, G A[flat] B[natural] C).
This produces a flat supertonic (the chord of which is generally
presented in its first inversion, and is known as the Neapolitan 6th,
from its characteristic use in the works of the Neapolitan school which
did so much to establish modern tonality) and its origin, as just
described, often impels it to resolve on a major tonic chord.
Consequently it exists in the minor mode as a phenomenon not much more
artificial than the mode itself; and although the keys it thus connects
are extremely remote, and the effect of their connexion very surprising,
the connexion is none the less real, whether from a major or a minor
tonic, and is a crucial test of a composer's sense of key-perspective.
Thus Philipp Emanuel Bach in a spirit of mere caprice puts the charming
little slow movement of his _D major Symphony_ into E[flat] and
obliterates all real relationship by chaotic operatic connecting links.
Haydn's greatest pianoforte sonata (which, being probably his last, is
of course No. 1 in most editions) is in E[flat], and its slow movement
is in F[natural] major (= F[flat]). That key had already appeared, with
surprising effect, in the wanderings of the development of the first
movement. No attempt is made to indicate its connexion with E[flat]; and
the finale begins in E[flat], but its first bar is unharmonized and
starts on the one note which most contradicts E[natural] and least
prepares the mind for E[flat]. The immediate repetition of the opening
phrase a step higher on the normal supertonic strikes the note which the
opening had contradicted, and thus shows its function in the main key
without in the least degree explaining away the paradoxical effect of
the key of the slow movement. Brahms's _Violoncello Sonata Op. 99_, is
in F; a prominent episode in the development of the first movement is in
E[sharp] minor (= G[flat]), thus preparing the mind for the slow
movement, which is in F[sharp] major (= G[flat]), with a central episode
in F minor. The scherzo is in F minor, and begins on the dominant. Thus
if we play its first chord immediately after the last chord of the slow
movement we have exactly that extreme position of flat supertonic
followed by dominant which is a favourite form of cadence in Wagner, who
can even convey its meaning by its mere bass without any harmonies
(_Walkure_, Act 3, Scene 2: "Was jetzt du bist, das sage dir selbst").
Converse harmonic relationships are, as we have seen, always weaker than
their direct forms. And thus the relation of C major to B major or minor
(as shown in the central episode of the slow movement just mentioned) is
rare. Still more rare is the obtaining of indirect artificial
relationships, of which the episode in the first movement just mentioned
is an illustration in so far as it enhances the effect of the slow
movement, but is inconclusive in so far as it is episodic. For with
remote key-relationships everything depends upon whether they are used
with what may be called cardinal function (like complementary keys) or
not. Even a near key may occur in the course of wandering modulations
without producing any effect of relationship at all, and this should
always be borne in mind whenever we accumulate statistics from classical
music.
d. _Contrary and Unconnected Keys._--There remain only two pairs of
keys that classical music has not brought into connexion, a circumstance
which has co-operated with the utter vagueness of orthodox theories on
the subject to confirm the conventionally progressive critic in his
conviction that all modulations are alike. We have seen how the effect
of modulation from major tonic to minor supertonic is, on a large scale,
obscured by the identity of the primary dominant with the secondary
subdominant, though the one chord is major and the other minor. Now when
the supertonic becomes major this difference no longer obviates the
confusion, and modulation from C major to D major, though extremely
easy, is of so bewildering effect that it is used by classical composers
only in moments of intensely dramatic surprise, as, for example, in the
recapitulation of the first subject of Beethoven's _Eroica Symphony_,
and the last variation (or coda) of the slow movement of his _Trio in
B[flat], Op. 97._ And in both cases the balance is restored by the
converse (and equally if not more contradictory) modulation between
major tonic and major flat 7th, though in the slow movement of the
_B[flat] Trio_ the latter is represented only by its dominant chord
which is "enharmonically" resolved into quite another key. The frequent
attempts made by easy-going innovators to treat these key-contrasts on
another footing than that of paradox, dramatic surprise or hesitation,
only show a deficient sense of tonality, which must also mean an
inability to see the intensely powerful effect of the true use of such
modulations in classical music, an effect which is entirely independent
of any ability to formulate a theory to explain it.[7] There now
remains only one pair of keys that have never been related, namely,
those that (whether major or minor) are at the distance of a tritone
4th. In the first place they are unrelated because there is no means of
putting any form of a tonic chord of F[sharp] into any form of the key
of C, or vice versa; and in the second place because it is impossible to
tell which of two precisely opposite keys the second key may be (e.g. we
have no means of knowing that a direct modulation from C to F[sharp] is
not from C to G[flat], which is exactly the same distance in the
opposite direction). And this brings us to the only remaining subjects
of importance in the science and art of harmony, namely, those of the
tempered scale, enharmonic ambiguity and just intonation. Before
proceeding we subjoin a table of all the key-relationships from major
and minor tonics, representing the degrees by capital Roman figures when
the second key is major and small figures when minor. Thus I represents
tonic major, iv represents subdominant minor, and so on. A flat or a
sharp after the figure indicates that the normal degree of the standard
scale has been lowered or raised a semitone, even when in any particular
pair of keys it would not be expressed by a flat or a sharp. Thus
vi[flat] would, from the tonic of B[flat] major, express the position of
the slow movement of Beethoven's _Sonata, Op. 106_, which is written in
F[sharp] minor since G[flat] minor is beyond the practical limits of
notation.
TABLES OF KEY-RELATIONSHIPS
_A. From Major Tonic_
I Direct Relationships ii iii IV V vi
----------------------|------------------------------|-----|------|----|-----|--
| | | | | |
| Indirect through both | | | | |
| i and the second key | | iv v |
|------------------------------|-----|-----------------|--
| | | |
| | | |
Indirect, through i \ Indirect through the | | |
III[flat] VI[flat] \ second key | III VI
--|-----------|----------\---------------------------|--------------------------
| | \ |
Doubly indirect through the \ |
former indirect keys \ |
iii[flat] vi[flat] \ |
-------------------------------\---------------------|--------------------------
\ |
\ |
Artificial, direct II[flat] \ | VII & vii
-------------\----------------|--------------------------
\ |
Artificial, indirect[8] ii[flat] \ |
-----------------\------------|--------------------------
\ |
\ |
\ |
\ |
\ |
-------------------------------------------------\---|--------------------------
\ |
\ | IV[sharp] & iv[sharp] =
Unrelated \| V[flat] & v[flat]
-----------------------------------------------------\--------------------------
|\
| \
| \
Contradictory II VII[flat] & vii[flat]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
_B. From Minor Tonic_[9]
i Direct Relationships III iv v VI VII
----------------------|------------------------------|-----|------|----|-----|--
| | | | | |
| Indirect through both | | | | |
| i and the second key | IV V | |
| -----------------------------|-----------------|-----|--
\ | | |
\ | | |
Indirect, through i \ Indirect through the | | |
iii[sharp] vi[sharp] \ second key iii vi |
--|-----------|------------\-------------------------------------------------|--
| | \ /
| | \ /
Doubly indirect \ /
III[sharp] VI[sharp] | /
------------------------------|----------------------------------------/--------
\ /
\ /
Artificial, direct \ II[flat] |
\ |
\-----------------------------|------------
Artificial, indirect[10] \ ii[flat] VII[sharp] | & vii[sharp]
\---------------------------|------------
\ |
\ |
\ |
\ |
\ |
------------------------------------------------\------------------|-------------
\ |
\ IV[sharp] & | = V[flat] &
Unrelated \ iv[sharp | v[flat]
----------------------------------------------------\--------------|--------------
\ |
\ |
\ |
Contradictory[11] ii II vii[flat]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VI. _Temperament and Enharmonic Changes._--As the facts of artistic
harmony increased in complexity and range, the purely acoustic
principles which (as Helmholtz has shown) go so far to explain
16th-century aesthetics became more and more inadequate; and grave
practical obstacles to euphonious tuning began to assert themselves. The
scientific (or natural) ratios of the diatonic scale were not interfered
with by art so long as no discords were "fundamental"; but when discords
began to assume independence, one and the same note often became
assignable on scientific grounds to two slightly different positions in
pitch, or at all events to a position incompatible with even tolerable
effect in performance. Thus, the chord of the diminished 7th is said to
be intolerably harsh in "just intonation," that is to say, intonation
based upon the exact ratios of a normal minor scale. In practical
performance the diminished 7th contains three minor 3rds and two
imperfect 5ths (such as that which is present in the dominant 7th),
while the peculiarly dissonant interval from which the chord takes its
name is very nearly the same as a major 6th. Now it can only be said
that an intonation which makes nonsense of chords of which every
classical composer from the time of Corelli has made excellent sense, is
a very unjust intonation indeed; and to anybody who realizes the
universal relation between art and nature it is obvious that the chord
of the diminished 7th must owe its naturalness to its close
approximation to the natural ratios of the minor scale, while it owes
its artistic possibility to the extremely minute instinctive
modification by which its dissonance becomes tolerable. As a matter of
fact, although we have shown here and in the article Music how
artificial is the origin and nature of all but the very scantiest
materials of the musical language, there is no art in which the element
of practical compromise is so minute and so hard for any but trained
scientific observation to perceive. If a painter could have a scale of
light and shade as nearly approaching nature as the practical intonation
of music approaches the acoustic facts it really involves, a visit to a
picture gallery would be a severe strain on the strongest eyes, as
Ruskin constantly points out. Yet music is in this respect exactly on
the same footing as other arts. It constitutes no exception to the
universal law that artistic ideas must be realized, not in spite of, but
by means of practical necessities. However independent the treatment of
discords, they assert themselves in the long run as transient. They
resolve into permanent points of repose of which the basis is natural;
but the transient phenomena float through the harmonic world adapting
themselves, as best they can, to their environment, showing as much
dependence upon the stable scheme of "just intonation" as a crowd of
metaphors and abstractions in language shows a dependence upon the rules
of the syllogism. As much and no more, but that is no doubt a great
deal. Yet the attempt to determine the point in modern harmony where
just intonation should end and the tempered scale begin, is as vexatious
as the attempt to define in etymology the point at which the literal
meaning of a word gives places to a metaphorical meaning. And it is as
unsound scientifically as the conviction of the typical circle-squarer
that he is unravelling a mystery and measuring a quantity hitherto
unknown. Just intonation is a reality in so far as it emphasizes the
contrast between concord and discord; but when it forbids artistic
interaction between harmony and melody it is a chimera. It is sometimes
said that Bach, by the example of his forty-eight preludes and fugues in
all the major and minor keys, first fixed the modern scale. This is true
practically, but not aesthetically. By writing a series of movements in
every key of which the keynote was present in the normal organ and
harpsichord manuals of his and later times, he enforced the system by
which all facts of modern musical harmony are represented on keyed
instruments by dividing the octave into twelve equal semitones, instead
of tuning a few much-used keys as accurately as possible and sacrificing
the euphony of all the rest. This system of _equal temperament_, with
twelve equal semitones in the octave, obviously annihilates important
distinctions, and in the most used keys it sours the concords and blunts
the discords more than unequal temperament; but it is never harsh; and
where it does not express harmonic subtleties the ear instinctively
supplies the interpretation; as the observing faculty, indeed, always
does wherever the resources of art indicate more than they express.
Now it frequently happens that discords or artificial chords are not
merely obscure in their intonation, whether ideally or practically, but
as produced in practice they are capable of two sharply distinct
interpretations. And it is possible for music to take advantage of this
and to approach a chord in one significance and quit it with another.
Where this happens in just intonation (in so far as that represents a
real musical conception) such chords will, so to speak, quiver from one
meaning into the other. And even in the tempered scale the ear will
interpret the change of meaning as involving a minute difference of
intonation. The chord of the diminished 7th has in this way four
different meanings--
[Illustration: Ex. 11.]
and the chord of the augmented 6th, when accompanied by the fifth, may
become a dominant 7th or vice versa, as in the passage already cited in
the coda of the slow movement of Beethoven's _B[flat] Trio, Op. 97._
Such modulations are called _enharmonic_. We have seen that all the more
complex musical phenomena involve distinctions enharmonic in the sense
of intervals smaller than a semitone, as, for instance, whenever the
progression D E in the scale of C, which is a minor tone, is identified
with the progression of D E in the scale of D, which is a major tone
(differing from the former as 8/9 from 9/10). But the special musical
meaning of the word "enharmonic" is restricted to the difference between
such pairs of sharps with flats or naturals as can be represented on a
keyboard by the same note, this difference being the most impressive to
the ear in "just intonation" and to the imagination in the tempered
scale.
Not every progression of chords which is, so to speak, spelt
enharmonically is an enharmonic modulation in itself. Thus a modulation
from D flat to E major looks violently enharmonic on paper, as in the
first movement of Beethoven's _Sonata, Op. 110_. But E major with four
sharps is merely the most convenient way of expressing F flat, a key
which would need six flats and a double flat. The reality of an
enharmonic modulation can be easily tested by transporting the passage a
semitone. Thus, the passage just cited, put a semitone lower, becomes a
perfectly diatonic modulation from C to E flat. But no transposition of
the sixteen bars before the return of the main theme in the scherzo of
Beethoven's _Sonata in E[flat], Op. 31_, No. 3, will get rid of the fact
that the diminished 7th (G B[flat] D[flat] E[natural]), on the dominant
of F minor, must have changed into G B[flat] D[flat] F[flat] (although
Beethoven does not take the trouble to alter the spelling) before it
could resolve, as it does, upon the dominant of A[flat]. But though
there is thus a distinction between real and apparent enharmonic
modulations, it frequently happens that a series of modulations
perfectly diatonic in themselves returns to the original key by a
process which can only be called an enharmonic circle. Thus the whole
series of keys now in practical use can be arranged in what is called
the circle of fifths (C G D A E B F[sharp] [= G[flat]] D[flat] A[flat]
B[flat] F C, from which series we now see the meaning of what was said
in the discussion of key-relationships as to the ambiguity of the
relationships between keys a tritone fourth apart). Now no human memory
is capable of distinguishing the difference of pitch between the keys
of C and B[sharp] after a wide series of modulations. The difference
would be perceptible enough in immediate juxtaposition, but after some
interval of time the memory will certainly accept two keys so near in
pitch as identical, whether in "just intonation" or not. And hence the
enharmonic circle of fifths is a conception of musical harmony by which
infinity is at once rationalized and avoided, just as some modern
mathematicians are trying to rationalize the infinity of space by a
non-Euclidian space so curved in the fourth dimension as to return upon
itself. A similar enharmonic circle progressing in major 3rds is of
frequent occurrence and of very rich effect. For example, the keys of
the movements of Brahms's _C Minor Symphony_ are C minor, E major,
A[flat] major (= G[sharp]), and C (= B[sharp]). And the same circle
occurs in the opposite direction in the first movement of his _Third
Symphony_, where the first subject is in F, the transition passes
directly to D[flat] and thence by exactly the same step to A (=
B[flat][flat]). The exposition is repeated, which of course means that
in "just intonation" the first subject would begin in G[flat][flat] and
then pass through a transition in E[flat][flat][flat] to the second
subject in C[flat][flat][flat]. As the development contains another
spurious enharmonic modulation, and the recapitulation repeats in
another position the first spurious enharmonic modulation of the
exposition, it would follow that Brahms's movement began in F and ended
in C sextuple-flat! So much, then, for the application of bad
metaphysics and circle-squaring mathematics to the art of music. Neither
in mathematics nor in art is an approximation to be confused with an
imperfection. Brahms's movement begins and ends in F much more exactly
than any wooden diagonal fits a wooden square.
The following series of musical illustrations show the genesis of
typical harmonic resources of classical and modern music.
[Illustration: Ex. 12.--Three concords (ionic, first inversion of
subdominant, and dominant of A minor, a possible 16th-century cadence
in the Phrygian mode).]
[Illustration: Ex. 13.--The same chords varied by a suspension (*).]
[Illustration: Ex. 14.--Ditto, with the further addition of a double
suspension (*) and two passing notes ([dagger][dagger]).]
[Illustration: Ex. 15.--Ditto, with a chromatic alteration of the
second chord (*) and an "essential" discord (dominant 7th) at
([dagger]).]
[Illustration: Ex. 16.--Ditto, with chromatic passing notes (**) and
appoggiaturas ([dagger][dagger]).]
[Illustration: Ex. 17.--The last two chords of Ex. 16 attacked
unexpectedly, the first appoggiatura (*) prolonged till it seems to
make a strange foreign chord before it resolves on the short note at
[Dagger], while the second appoggiatura ([dagger]) is chromatic.]
[Illustration: Ex. 18.--The same enharmonically transformed so as to
become a variation of the "dominant ninth" of C minor. The G[sharp] at
* is really A[flat], and [Dagger] is no longer a note of resolution,
but a chromatic passing-note._
_Definitions._
(Intended to comprise the general conceptions set forth in the above
article.)
1. _Musical sounds_, or _notes_, are sensations produced by regular
periodical vibrations in the air, sufficiently rapid to coalesce in a
single continuous sensation, and not too rapid for the mechanism of
the human ear to respond.
2. The _pitch_ of a note is the sensation corresponding to the degree
of rapidity of its vibrations; being _low_ or _grave_ where these are
slow, and _high_ or _acute_ where they are rapid.
3. An _interval_ is the difference in pitch between two notes.
4. _Rhythm_ is the organization, in a musical scheme, of sounds in
respect of time.
5. _Melody_ is the organization, in a musical scheme, of rhythmic
notes in respect of pitch.
6. _Harmony_ is the organization, in a musical scheme, of simultaneous
combinations of notes on principles whereby their acoustic properties
interact with laws of rhythm and melody.
7. The _harmonic series_ is an infinite series of notes produced by
the subdivision of a vibrating body or column of air into aliquot
parts, such notes being generally inaudible except in the form of the
timbre which their presence in various proportions imparts to the
fundamental note produced by the whole vibrating body or air-column.
8. A _concord_ is a combination which, both by its acoustic smoothness
and by its logical origin and purpose in a musical scheme, can form a
point of repose.
9. A _discord_ is a combination in which both its logical origin in a
musical scheme and its acoustic roughness show that it cannot form a
point of repose.
10. The _perfect concords_ and _perfect intervals_ are those comprised
within the first four members of the harmonic series, namely, the
octave, as between numbers 1 and 2 of the series (see Ex. 1 above);
the 5th, as between Nos. 2 and 3; and the 4th, as between Nos. 3 and
4.
11. All notes exactly one or more octaves apart are regarded as
harmonically identical.
12. The _root_ of a chord is that note from which the whole or the
most important parts of the chord appear (if distributed in the right
octaves) as members of the harmonic series.
13. A chord is inverted when its lowest note is not its root.
14. The _major triad_ is a concord containing three different notes
which (octaves being disregarded) are identical with the first, third
and fifth members of the harmonic series (the second and fourth
members being negligible as octaves).
15. The _minor triad_ is a concord containing the same intervals as
the major triad in a different order; in consequence it is artificial,
as one of its notes is not derivable from the harmonic series.
16. _Unessential discords_ are those that are treated purely as the
phenomena of transition, delay or ornament, in an otherwise concordant
harmony.
17. _Essential discords_ are those which are so treated that the mind
tends to regard them as definite chords possessing roots.
18. A _key_ is an harmonic system in which there is never any doubt as
to which note or triad shall be the final note of music in that
system, nor of the relations between that note or chord and the other
notes or chords. (In this sense the church modes are either not keys
or else they are subtle mixtures of keys.)
19. This final note of a key is called its _tonic_.
20. The _major_ mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and the
two other cardinal triads are major.
21. The _minor_ mode is that of keys in which the tonic triad and one
other cardinal triad are minor.
22. A _diatonic scale_ is a series of the notes essential to one major
or minor key, arranged in order of pitch and repeating itself in other
octaves on reaching the limit of an octave.
23. _Modulation_ is the passing from one key to another.
24. _Chromatic_ notes and chords are those which do not belong to the
diatonic scale of the passage in which they occur, but which are not
so used as to cause modulation.
25. _Enharmonic_ intervals are minute intervals which never occur in
music as directly measured quantities, though they exist as
differences between approximately equal ordinary intervals, diatonic
or chromatic. In an enharmonic modulation, two chords differing by an
enharmonic quantity are treated as identical.
26. _Pedal_ or _organ point_ is the sustaining of a single note in the
bass (or, in the case of an _inverted pedal_, in an upper part) while
the harmonies move independently. Unless the harmonies are sometimes
foreign to the sustained note, it does not constitute a pedal. In
modern music pedals take place on either the tonic or the dominant,
other pedal-notes being rare and of complex meaning. Double pedals (of
tonic and dominant, with tonic below) are not unusual. The device is
capable of very free treatment, and has produced many very bold and
rich harmonic effects in music since the earlier works of Beethoven.
It probably accounts for many so-called "essential discords."
In the form of _drones_ the pedal is the only real harmonic device of
ancient and primitive music. The ancient Greeks sometimes used a
reiterated instrumental note as an accompaniment _above_ the melody.
These primitive devices, though harmonic in the true modern sense of
the word, are out of the line of harmonic development, and did not
help it in any definite way.
27. The _fundamental bass_ of a harmonic passage is an imaginary bass
consisting of the roots of the chords.
28. A _figured bass_, or _continuo_, is the bass of a composition
supplied with numerals indicating the chords to be filled in by the
accompanist. _Thorough-bass_ (Ger. _Generalbass_) is the art of
interpreting such figures. (D. F. T.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Musical intervals are reckoned numerically upwards along the
degrees of the diatonic scales (described below). Intervals greater
than an octave are called compound, and are referred to their simple
forms, e.g. the 12th is a compound 5th.
[2] It is at least probable that this is one of the several rather
obscure reasons for the peculiar instability of the 4th in modern
harmony, which is not yet satisfactorily explained.
[3] The perfect concords are the octave, unison, 5th and 4th. Other
diatonic combinations, whether concords or discords, are called
imperfect.
[4] The submediant is so-called because if the subdominant is taken a
5th below the tonic, the submediant will come midway between it and
the tonic, as the mediant comes midway between tonic and dominant.
[5] See PLAIN SONG.
[6] Until Beethoven developed the resources for a wider scheme of
key-contrasts, the only keys for second subjects of sonata-movements
were the dominant (when the tonic was major) and the "relative" major
or dominant minor (when the tonic was minor). A wider range was
possible only in the irresponsible style of D. Scarlatti.
[7] Many theorists mistake the usual extreme emphasis on the dominant
chord of the dominant key, in preparation for second subjects, for a
modulation to the major supertonic, but this can deceive no one with
any sense of tonality. A good practical test is to see what becomes
of such passages when translated into the minor mode. Illusory
modulation to the flat 7th frequently occurs as a bold method of
throwing strong emphasis on to the subdominant at the outset of a
movement, as in Beethoven's _Sonata, Op. 31_, No. 1.
[8] Very rare, but the slow movement of Schubert's _C major String
Quintet_ demonstrates it magnificently.
[9] All the indirect relationships from a minor tonic are distinctly
strained and, except in the violently contrasted doubly indirect
keys, obscure as being themselves minor. But the direct artificial
modulation is quite smooth, and rich rather than remote. See
Beethoven's _C[sharp] minor Quartet._
[10] No classical example, though the clearer converse from a major
tonic occurs effectively.
[11] Not (with the exception of II) so violent as when from major
tonic. Bach, whose range seldom exceeds direct key-relationships, is
not afraid to drift from D minor to C minor, though nothing would
induce him to go from D major to C major or minor.
HARMOTOME, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous barium
and aluminium silicate, H2BaAl2(SiO3)5 + 5H2O. Usually a small amount of
potassium is present replacing part of the barium. The system of
crystallization is monoclinic; only complex twinned crystals are known.
A common and characteristic form of twinned crystal, such as is
represented in the figure, consists of four intercrossing individuals
twinned together according to two twin-laws; the compound group
resembles a tetragonal crystal with prism and pyramid, but may be
distinguished from this by the grooves along the edges of the
pseudo-prism. The faces of the crystals are marked by characteristic
striations, as indicated in the figure. Twinned crystals of exactly the
same kind are also frequent in phillipsite (q.v.). Crystals are usually
white and translucent, with a vitreous lustre. The hardness is 4(1/2),
and the specific gravity 2.5.
[Illustration]
The name harmotome (from [Greek: harmos], "a joint," and [Greek:
temnein], "to cut") was given by R. J. Hauy in 1801, and has a
crystallographic signification. Earlier names are cross-stone (Ger.
_Kreuzstein_), ercinite, andreasbergolite and andreolite, the two last
being derived from the locality, Andreasberg in the Harz. Morvenite
(from Morven in Argyllshire) is the name given to small transparent
crystals formerly referred to as phillipsite.
Like other zeolites, harmotome occurs with calcite in the amygdaloidal
cavities of volcanic rocks, for example, in the dolerites of
Dumbartonshire, and as fine crystals in the agate-lined cavities in the
melaphyre of Oberstein in Germany. It also occurs in gneiss, and
sometimes in metalliferous veins. At Andreasberg in the Harz it is found
in the lead and silver veins; and at Strontian in Argyllshire in lead
veins, associated with brewsterite (a strontium and barium zeolite),
barytes and calcite. (L. J. S.)
HARMS, CLAUS (1778-1855), German divine, was born at Fahrstedt in
Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of May 1778, and in his youth worked in
his father's mill. At the university of Kiel he repudiated the
prevailing rationalism and under the influence of Schleiermacher became
a fervent Evangelical preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel
(1816). His trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great
service for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 300th anniversary
of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther's theses,
ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as "the pope of our time" who
"dismisses Christ from the altar and throws God's word from the pulpit."
He also had some fame as a hymn-writer, and besides volumes of sermons
published a good book on _Pastoraltheologie_ (1830). He resigned his
pastorate on account of blindness in 1849, and died on the 1st of
February 1855.
See _Autobiography_ (2nd ed., Kiel, 1852); M. Baumgarten, _Ein Denkmal
fur C. Harms_ (Brunswick, 1855).
HARNACK, ADOLF (1851- ), German theologian, was born on the 7th of May
1851 at Dorpat, in Russia, where his father, Theodosius Harnack
(1817-1889), held a professorship of pastoral theology.
Theodosius Harnack was a staunch Lutheran and a prolific writer on
theological subjects; his chief field of work was practical theology,
and his important book on that subject, summing up his long experience
and teaching, appeared at Erlangen (1877-1878, 2 vols.). The liturgy of
the Lutheran church of Russia has, since 1898, been based on his
_Liturgische Formulare_ (1872).
The son pursued his studies at Dorpat (1869-1872) and at Leipzig, where
he took his degree; and soon afterwards (1874) began lecturing as a
_Privatdozent_. These lectures, which dealt with such special subjects as
Gnosticism and the Apocalypse, attracted considerable attention, and in
1876 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. In the same year he
began the publication, in conjunction with O. L. von Gebhardt and T.
Zahn, of an edition of the works of the Apostolic Fathers, _Patrum
apostolicorum opera_, a smaller edition of which appeared in 1877. Three
years later he was called to Giessen as professor ordinarius of church
history. There he collaborated with Oscar Leopold von Gebhardt in _Texte
und Untersuchungen zur Geschithte der altchristlichen Litteratur_ (1882
sqq.), an irregular periodical, containing only essays in New Testament
and patristic fields. In 1881 he published a work on monasticism, _Das
Monchtum, seine Ideale und seine Geschichte_ (5th ed., 1900; English
translation, 1901), and became joint-editor with Emil Schurer of the
_Theologische Literaturzeitung_. In 1885 he published the first volume of
his epoch-making work, _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (3rd ed. in three
volumes, 1894-1898; English translation in seven volumes, 1894-1899). In
this work Harnack traces the rise of dogma, by which he understands the
authoritative doctrinal system of the 4th century and its development
down to the Reformation. He considers that in its earliest origins
Christian faith and the methods of Greek thought were so closely
intermingled that much that is not essential to Christianity found its
way into the resultant system. Therefore Protestants are not only free,
but bound, to criticize it; indeed, for a Protestant Christian, dogma
cannot be said to exist. An abridgment of this appeared in 1889 with the
title _Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte_ (3rd ed., 1898). In 1886 Harnack
was called to Marburg; and in 1888, in spite of violent opposition from
the conservative section of the church authorities, to Berlin. In 1890 he
became a member of the Academy of Sciences. At Berlin, somewhat against
his will, he was drawn into a controversy on the Apostles' Creed, in
which the party antagonisms within the Prussian Church had found
expression. Harnack's view is that the creed contains both too much and
too little to be a satisfactory test for candidates for ordination, and
he would prefer a briefer symbol which could be rigorously exacted from
all (cf. his _Das apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis. Ein geschichtlicher
Bericht nebst einem Nachworte_, 1892; 27th ed., 1896). At Berlin Harnack
continued his literary labours. In 1893 he published a history of early
Christian literature down to Eusebius, _Geschichte der altchristl.
Litteratur bis Eusebius_ (part 2 of vol. i., 1897); and in 1900 appeared
his popular lectures, _Das Wesen des Christentums_ (5th ed., 1901;
English translation, _What is Christianity?_ 1901; 3rd ed., 1904). One of
his more recent historical works is _Die Mission und Ausbreitung des
Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_ (1902; English translation
in two volumes, 1904-1905). It has been followed by some very interesting
and important New Testament studies (_Beitrage zur Einleitung in das neue
Testament_, 1906 sqq.; Engl. trans.: _Luke the Physician_, 1907; _The
Sayings of Jesus_, 1908). Harnack, both as lecturer and writer, was one
of the most prolific and most stimulating of modern critical scholars,
and trained up in his "_Seminar_" a whole generation of teachers, who
carried his ideas and methods throughout the whole of Germany and even
beyond its borders. His distinctive characteristics are his claim for
absolute freedom in the study of church history and the New Testament;
his distrust of speculative theology, whether orthodox or liberal; his
interest in practical Christianity as a religious life and not a system
of theology. Some of his addresses on social matters have been published
under the heading "Essays on the Social Gospel" (1907).
HARNESS (from O. Fr. _harneis_ or _harnois_; the ultimate origin is
obscure; the Celtic origin which connects it with the Welsh _haiarn_,
iron, has phonetic and other difficulties; the French is the origin of
the Span. _arnes_, and Ger. _Harnisch_), probably, in origin, gear,
tackle, equipment in general, but early applied particularly to the body
armour of a soldier, including the trappings of the horse; now the
general term for the gear of an animal used for draft purposes, traces,
collar, bridle, girth, breeching, &c. It is usually not applied to the
saddle or bridle of a riding animal. The word, in its original meaning
of tackle or working apparatus, is still found in weaving, for the
mechanism which shifts the warp-threads to form the "shed," and in
bell-hanging, for the apparatus by which a large bell is hung. The _New
English Dictionary_ quotes an early use of the word for the lines, rod
and hooks of an angler (_Fysshing with an Angle_, c. 1450).
HARO, CLAMEUR DE, the ancient Norman custom of "crying for justice,"
still surviving in the Channel Islands. The wronged party must on his
knees and before witnesses cry: "Haro! Haro! Haro! a l'aide, mon prince,
on me fait tort." This appeal has to be respected, and the alleged
trespass or tort must cease till the matter has been thrashed out in the
courts. The "cry" thus acts as an interim injunction, and no inhabitant
of the Channel Islands would think of resisting it. The custom is
undoubtedly very ancient, dating from times when there were no courts
and no justice except such as was meted out by princes personally. The
popular derivation for the name is that which explains "Haro" as an
abbreviation of "Ha! Rollo," a direct appeal to Rollo, first duke of
Normandy. It is far more probable that haro is simply an exclamation to
call attention (O.H.G. _hero_, _hara_, "here"!). Indeed it is clear that
the "cry for justice" was in no sense an institution of Rollo, but was a
method of appeal recognized in many countries. It is said to be
identical with the "Legatro of the Bavarians and the Thuringians," and
the first mention of it in France is to be found in the "Grand coutumier
de Normandie." A similar custom, only observed in criminal charges, was
recognized by the Saxon laws under the name of "Clamor Violentiae." Thus
there is reason to think that William the Conqueror on his arrival in
England found the "cry" fully established as far as criminal matters
were concerned. Later the "cry" was made applicable to civil wrongs,
and, when the administration of justice became systematized, disappeared
altogether in criminal cases. It naturally tended to become obsolete as
the administration of justice became systematized, but it was long
retained in north-western France in cases of disputed possession, and
was not actually repealed until the close of the 18th century. A
survival of the English form of haro is possibly to be found in the
"Ara," a cry at fairs when "settling time" arrived.
HAROLD I. (d. 1040), surnamed Harefoot, the illegitimate son of Canute,
king of England, and Aelfgifu of Northampton. On the death of his father
in 1035, he claimed the crown of England in opposition to Canute's
legitimate son, Hardicanute. His claims were supported by Leofric, earl
of Mercia, and the north; those of Hardicanute by his mother, Queen
Emma, Godwine, earl of the West-Saxons and the south. Eventually Harold
was temporarily elected regent, pending a final settlement on
Hardicanute's return from Denmark. Hardicanute, however, tarried, and
meanwhile Harold's party increased rapidly. In 1037 he was definitely
elected king, and banished Emma from the kingdom. The only events of his
brief reign are ineffectual inroads of the Welsh and Scots. Hardicanute
was preparing to invade England in support of his claims when Harold
died at Oxford on the 10th of March 1040.
HAROLD II. (c. 1022-1066), king of the English, the second son of Earl
Godwine, was born about 1022. While still very young (before 1045) he
was appointed to the earldom of the East-Angles. He shared his father's
outlawry and banishment in 1051; but while Godwine went to Flanders,
Harold with his brother Leofwine took refuge in Ireland. In 1052 Harold
and Leofwine returned. Having plundered in the west of England, they
joined their father, and were with him at the assembly which decreed the
restoration of the whole family. Harold was now restored to his earldom
of the East-Angles, and on his father's death in 1053 he succeeded him
in the greater earldom of the West-Saxons. He was now the chief man in
the kingdom, and when the older earls Leofric and Siward died his power
increased yet more, and the latter part of Edward's reign was virtually
the reign of Harold. In 1055 he drove back the Welsh, who had burned
Hereford. In 1063 came the great Welsh war, in which Harold, with the
help of his brother Tostig, crushed the power of Gruffyd, who was killed
by his own people. But in spite of his power and his prowess, Harold was
the minister of the king rather than his personal favourite. This latter
position rather belonged to Tostig, who on the death of Siward in 1055
received the earldom of Northumberland. Here, however, his harshness
soon provoked enmity, and in 1065 the Northumbrians revolted against
him, choosing Morkere in his place. Harold acted as mediator between the
king and the insurgents, and at length agreed to the choice of Morkere,
and the banishment of his brother. At the beginning of 1066 Edward died,
with his last breath recommending Harold as his successor. He was
accordingly elected at once and crowned. The men of Northumberland at
first refused to acknowledge him, but Harold won them over. The rest of
his brief reign was taken up with preparations against the attacks which
threatened him on both sides at once. William challenged the crown,
alleging both a bequest of Edward in bis favour and a personal
engagement which Harold had contracted towards him--probably in 1064;
and prepared for the invasion of England. Meanwhile Tostig was trying
all means to bring about his own restoration. He first attacked the Isle
of Wight, then Lindesey, but was compelled to take shelter in Scotland.
From May to September the king kept the coast with a great force by sea
and land, but at last provisions failed and the land army was dispersed.
Harold then came to London, ready to meet whichever enemy came first. By
this time Tostig had engaged Harold Hardrada of Norway to invade
England. Together they sailed up the Humber, defeated Edwin and Morkere,
and received the submission of York. Harold hurried northwards; and on
the 25th of September he came on the Northmen at Stamford Bridge and won
a complete victory, in which Tostig and Harold Hardrada were slain. But
two days later William landed at Pevensey. Harold marched southward as
fast as possible. He gathered his army in London from all southern and
eastern England, but Edwin and Morkere kept back the forces of the
north. The king then marched into Sussex and engaged the Normans on the
hill of Senlac near Battle (see Hastings). After a fight which lasted
from morning till evening, the Normans had the victory, and Harold and
his two brothers lay dead on the field (14th of October 1066).
HARP (Fr. _harpe_; Ger. _Harfe_; Ital. _arpa_), a member of the class of
stringed instruments of which the strings are twanged or vibrated by the
fingers. The harp is an instrument of beautiful proportions,
approximating to a triangular form, the strings diminishing in length as
they ascend in pitch. The mechanism is concealed within the different
parts of which the instrument is composed, (1) the pedestal or
pedal-box, on which rest (2) the vertical pillar, and (3) the inclined
convex body in which the soundboard is fixed, (4) the curved neck, with
(5) the comb concealing the mechanism for stopping the strings,
supported by the pillar and the body.
(1) The _pedestal_ or _pedal-box_ forms the base of the harp and
contains seven pedals both in single and double action harps, the
difference being that in the single action the pedals are only capable
of raising the strings one semitone by means of a drop into a notch,
whereas with the double action the pedals, after a first drop, can by
a further drop into a second and lower notch shorten the string a
second semitone, whereby each string is made to serve in turn for
flat, natural and sharp. The harp is normally in the key of C flat
major, and each of the seven pedals acts upon one of the notes of this
diatonic scale throughout the compass. The choice of this method of
tuning was imposed by the construction of the harp with double action.
The pedals remain in the notches until released by the foot, when the
pedal returns to its normal position through the action of a spiral
spring, which may be seen under each of the pedals by turning the harp
up.
(2) The _vertical pillar_ is a kind of tunnel in which are placed the
seven rods worked by the pedals, which set in motion the mechanism
situated in the neck of the instrument. Although the pillar apparently
rests on the pedestal, it is really supported by a brass shoulder
firmly screwed to the beam which forms the lowest part of the body, a
connexion which remains undisturbed when the pedal box and its cover
are removed.
(3) The _body_ or _sound-chest_ of the harp is in shape like the
longitudinal section of a cone. It was formerly composed of staves
joined together as in the lute and mandoline. Erard was the first to
make it in two pieces of wood, generally sycamore, with the addition
of a flat soundboard of Swiss pine. The body is strengthened on the
inside, in order to resist the tension of the strings, by means of
ribs; there are five soundholes in the back, which in the older models
were furnished with swell shutters opened at will by the swell pedal,
the fourth from the left worked by the left foot. As the increase of
sound obtained by means of the swell was infinitesimal, the device has
now been discarded. The harp is strung by knotting the end of the
string and passing it through its hole in the centre of the
soundboard, where it is kept in position by means of a grooved peg
which grips the string.
(4) The _neck_ consists of a curved piece of wood resting on the body
at the treble end of the instrument and joining the pillar at the bass
end. In the neck are set the tuning pins round which are wound the
strings.
(5) The _comb_ is the name given to two brass plates or covers which
fit over both sides of the neck, concealing part of the mechanism for
shortening the strings and raising their pitch a semitone when
actuated by the pedals. On the front plate of the comb, to the left of
the player, is a row of brass bridges against which the strings rest
below the tuning pins, and which determine the vibrating length of the
string reckoned from the peg in the soundboard. Below the bridges are
two rows of brass disks, known as forks, connected by steel levers;
each disk is equipped with two studs for grasping the string and
shortening it. The mechanism is ingenious. When a pedal is depressed
to the first notch, the corresponding lower disk turns a little way on
a mandrel keeping the studs clear of the string. The upper disk, set
in motion by the steel levers connecting the disks, revolves
simultaneously till the string is caught by the two studs which thus
form a new bridge, shortening the vibrating length of the string by
just the length necessary to raise the pitch a semitone. If the same
pedal be depressed to the second notch, another movement causes the
lower disk to revolve again till the string is a second time seized
and shortened, the upper disk remaining stationary. The hidden
mechanism meanwhile has gone through a series of movements; the pedal
is really a lever set upon a spring, and when depressed it draws down
the connecting rod in the pillar which sets in motion chains governing
the mandrels of the disks.
The harp usually has forty-six strings, of gut in the middle and upper
registers, and of covered steel wire in the bass; the C strings are
red and the F strings blue. The compass thus has a range of 6(1/2)
octaves from [music notes]. The double stave is used as for the
pianoforte. The single action harp used to be tuned to the key of
E[flat] major.
The modern harp with double action is the only instrument with fixed
tones, not determined by the ear or touch of the performer, which has
separate notes for naturals, sharps and flats, giving it an enharmonic
compass. On the harp the appreciable interval between D[sharp] and
E[flat] can be played. The harp in its normal condition is tuned to
C[flat] major; it rests with the performer to transpose it at will in
a few seconds into any other key by means of the pedals. Each of the
pedals influences one note of the scale throughout the compass,
beginning at the left with D, C, and B worked by the left foot.
Missing the fourth or forte pedal, and continuing towards the right we
get the E, F, G and A pedals worked by the right foot. By lowering the
D pedal into the first notch the D[flat] becomes D[natural], and into
the second notch D[sharp], and so on for all the pedals. If, for
example, a piece be written in the key of E major, the harp is
transposed into that key by depressing the E, A, and B pedals to the
first notch, and those for F, G, C and D to the second or sharp notch
and so on through all the keys. Accidentals and modulations are
readily played by means of the pedals, provided the transitions be not
too rapid. The harp is the instrument upon which transposition
presents the least difficulty, for the fingering is the same for all
keys. The strings are twanged with the thumbs and the first three
fingers.
The quality of tone does not vary much in the different registers, but
it has the greatest brilliancy in keys with many flats, for the
strings are then open and not shortened by the forks. Various effects
can be obtained on the harp: (1) by harmonics, (2) by damping, (3) by
guitar tones, (4) by the glissando. (1) Harmonics are produced by
resting the ball of the hand on the middle of the string and setting
it in vibration by the thumb or the first two fingers of the same
hand, whereby a mysterious and beautiful tone is obtained. Two or
three harmonics can be played together with the left hand, and by
using both hands at once as many as four are possible. (2) Damping is
effected by laying the palm against the string in the bass and the
back of the finger in the treble. (3) Guitar or pizzicato notes are
obtained by twanging the strings sharply at the lower end near the
soundboard with the nails. (4) The glissando effect is produced, as on
the pianoforte, by sliding the thumb or finger along the strings in
quick succession; this does not necessarily give the diatonic scale,
for by means of the pedals the harp can be tuned beforehand to chords.
It is possible to play on the harp all kinds of diatonic and arpeggio
passages, but no chromatic, except in very slow tempo, on account of
the time required by the mechanism of the pedals; and chords of three
or four notes in each hand, shakes, turns, successions of double notes
can be easily acquired. The same note can also be repeated slowly or
quickly, the next string being tuned to a duplicate note, and the two
strings plucked alternately in order to give the string time to
vibrate.
Pleyel's chromatic harp, patented in 1894 and improved in 1903 by
Gustave Lyon, manager of the firm of Pleyel, Wolff & Co., is an
instrument practically without mechanism which has already won great
favour in France and Belgium, notably in the orchestra. It has been
constructed on the familiar lines of the pianoforte. Henry Pape, a
piano manufacturer, had in 1845 conceived the idea of a chromatic harp
of which the strings crossed in the centre as in the piano, and a
report on the construction was published at the time; the instrument,
however, was not considered successful, and was relegated to oblivion
until Mr Lyon revised the matter and brought out a successful and
practical instrument. The advantages claimed for this harp are the
abandonment of the whole pedal mechanism, a metal framing which
insures the strings keeping in tune as long as those of a piano, and
an easily acquired technique. The chromatic harp consists of (1) a
pedestal on castors, (2) a steel pillar without internal mechanism,
(3) a wide neck containing two brass wrest-planks in which are fixed
two rows of tuning pins, and (4) a soundchest in which is firmly
riveted the steel plate to which the strings are fastened, and the
soundboard pierced with eyelet holes through which the strings are
drawn to the string plate. There is a string for every chromatic
semitone of the scale of C major, the white strings representing the
white keys of the piano keyboard, and the black strings corresponding
to the black keys. The tuning pins for the black strings are set in
the left side of the neck in alternate groups of twos and threes, and
those for the white in the right side in alternate groups of threes
and fours. The strings cross half-way between neck and soundboard,
this being the point where they are plucked; the left hand finds the
black notes above, and the right hand below the crossing. There is
besides in the neck a set of twelve tuning buttons, each one of which
on being pressed gives out one note of the chromatic scale tuned to
the pitch of the diapason normal. It is obvious that the repertoire
for this harp is very extensive, including many compositions written
for the piano, which however cannot be played with any legato effects,
these being still impossible on this chromatic harp.
_History._--While the instrument is of great antiquity, it is yet from
northern Europe that the modern harp and its name are derived. The
Greeks and Romans preferred to it the lyre in its different varieties,
and a Latin writer, Venantius Fortunatus,[1] describes it in the 7th
century of our era as an instrument of the barbarians--"Romanusque
lyra, plaudat tibi barbarus harpa." This is believed to be the
earliest mention of the name, which is clearly Teutonic,--O.H.Ger.
_harapha_, A.-S. _hearpe_, Old Norse _harpa_. The modern Fr. _harpe_
retains the aspirate; in the Spanish and Italian _arpa_ it is dropped.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
The earliest delineations of the harp in Egypt give no indication that
it had not existed long before. There are, indeed, representations in
Egyptian paintings of stringed instruments of a bow-form having
affinities with both primitive harp and _nefer_ (a kind of oval
guitar) that support the idea of the invention of the harp from the
tense string of the warrior's or hunter's bow. This primitive-looking
instrument, called _nanga_, had a boat-shaped sound-chest with a
parchment or skin soundboard, down the centre of which one end of the
string was fastened to a strip of wood, whilst the other was wound
round pegs in the upper part of the bow. The nanga was played
horizontally, being borne upon the performer's shoulder.[2] Between it
and the grand vertical harps in the frescos of the time of Rameses
III., more than 3000 years old, discovered by the traveller Bruce[3]
(fig. 1), there are varieties that permit us to bind the whole, from
the simplest bow-form to the almost triangular harp, into one family
(see fig. 2).
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
The Egyptian harp had no front pillar, and as it was strung with
catgut the tension and pitch must necessarily have been low. The harps
above-mentioned depicted in the tomb at Thebes, assumed from the
players to be more than 6 ft. high, have not many strings, the one
having ten, the other thirteen. What the accordance of these strings
was it would be hard to recover. We must be content with the knowledge
that the old Egyptians possessed harps in principle like our own, the
largest having pedestals upon which they bestowed a wealth of
decoration, as if to show how much they prized them.
The ancient Assyrians had harps like those of Egypt in being without a
front pillar, but differing from them in having the sound-body
uppermost, in which we find the early use of soundholes; while the
lower portion was a bar to which the strings were tied and by means of
which the tuning was apparently effected.[4] What the Hebrew harp was,
whether it followed the Egyptian or the Assyrian, we do not know. That
King David played upon the harp as commonly depicted is rather a
modern idea. Medieval artists frequently gave King David the psaltery,
a horizontal stringed instrument from which has gradually developed
the modern piano. The Hebrew "kinnor" may have been a kind of
trigonon, a triangular stringed instrument between a small harp and a
psaltery, sounded by a plectrum, or more probably, as advocated by Dr
Stainer in his essay on the music of the Bible, a kind of lyre.
The earliest records that we possess of the Celtic race, whether
Gaelic or Cymric, give the harp a prominent place and harpists
peculiar veneration and distinction. The names for the harp are,
however, quite different from the Teutonic. The Irish "clairseach,"
the Highland Scottish "clarsach," the Welsh, Cornish, Breton "telyn,"
"telein," "telen," show no etymological kinship to the other European
names. The first syllable in clairseach or clarsach is derived from
the Gaelic "clar," a board or table (soundboard), while the first
syllable of telyn is distinctly Old Welsh, and has a tensile meaning;
thus resonance supplies the one idea, tension the other.
The literature of these Celtic harps may be most directly found in
Bunting's _Ancient Music of Ireland_ (Dublin, 1840), Gunn's
_Historical Enquiry respecting the Performance on the Harp in the
Highlands of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1807), and E. Jones's _Musical and
Poetical Memoirs of the Welsh Bards_ (London, 1784). The treatises of
Walker, Dalyell, and others may also be consulted; but in all these
authorities due care must be taken of the bias of patriotism, and the
delusive aim to reconstruct much that we must be content to receive as
only vaguely indicated in records and old monuments. There is,
however, one early Irish monument about which there can be no mistake,
the harp upon a cross belonging to the ancient church of Ullard near
Kilkenny, the date of which cannot be later than 830; the sculpture is
rude, but the instrument is clearly shown by the drawing in Bunting's
work to have no front pillar. This remarkable structural likeness to
the old harps of Egypt and Assyria may be accidental, but permits the
plausible hypothesis of Eastern descent. The oldest specimen of the
beautiful form by which the Irish harp is now recognized, with
gracefully curved front pillar and sweep of neck (the latter known as
the harmonic curve), is the famous harp in Trinity College, Dublin,
the possession of which has been attributed to King Brian Boiroimhe.
From this mythic ownership Dr Petrie (see essay in Bunting) has
delivered it; but he can only deduce the age from the ornamentation
and heraldry, which fix its date in the 14th century or a little
later. There is a cast of it in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The
next oldest is in the Highlands of Scotland, the _Clarsach Lumanach_,
or Lamont's Clarschoe, belonging, with another of later date, to the
old Perthshire family of Robertson of Lude. Both are described in
detail by Gunn. This Lamont harp was taken by a lady of that family
from Argyleshire about 1460, on her marriage into the family of Lude.
It had about thirty strings tuned singly, but the scale was sometimes
doubled in pairs of unisons like lutes and other contemporary
instruments. The Dalway harp in Ireland (fig. 3) inscribed "Ego sum
Regina Cithararum," and dated 1621, appears to have had pairs of
strings in the centre only. These were of brass wire, and played with
the pointed finger-nails. The Italian contemporary "Arpa Doppia" was
entirely upon the duplex principle, but with gut strings played by the
fleshy ends of the fingers. When E. Bunting met at Belfast in 1792 as
many Irish harpers as could be at that late date assembled, he found
the compass of their harps to comprise [music notes] thirty notes
which were tuned diatonically in the key of G, under certain
circumstances transposable to C and rarely to D, the scales being the
major of these keys. The harp first appeared in the coat of arms of
Ireland in the reign of Henry VIII.; and some years after in a map of
1567 preserved in a volume of state papers, we find it truly drawn
according to the outlines of the national Irish instrument.[5]
References to the Highlands of Scotland are of necessity included with
Ireland; and in both we find another name erroneously applied by
lexicographers to the harp, viz. "cruit." Bunting particularly
mentions the "cinnard cruit" (harp with a high head) and the "crom
cruit" (the curved harp). In the Ossianic MSS. of the Dean of Lismore
(1512) the word "crwt" occurs several times, and in Neill M'Alpine's
_Gaelic Dictionary_ (1832), which gives the dialect of Islay, closely
related to that of Ulster, the word "cruit" is rendered "harp." The
confusion doubtless arose from the fact that from the 11th century
cithara is glossed _hearpan_ in Anglo-Saxon MSS., a word which, like
_citharisare_ in medieval Latin, referred to plucking or twanging of
strings in contradistinction to those instruments vibrated by means of
the bow. In Irish of the 8th and 9th centuries (Zeuss) cithara is
always glossed by "crot." The modern Welsh "crwth" is not a harp but a
"rotta" (see CROWD). An old Welsh harp, not triple strung, exists,
which bears a great resemblance to the Irish harp in neck, soundboard
and soundholes. But this does not imply derivation of the harp of
Wales from that of Ireland or the reverse. There is really no good
historical evidence, and there may have been a common or distinct
origin on which ethnology only can throw light.[6] The Welsh like the
Irish harp was often an hereditary instrument to be preserved with
great care and veneration, and used by the bards of the family, who
were alike the poet-musicians and historians. A slave was not allowed
to touch a harp, and it was exempted by the Welsh laws from seizure
for debt. The old Welsh harp appears to have been at one time strung
with horse-hair, and by the Eisteddfod laws the pupil spent his
noviciate of three years in the practice of a harp with that
stringing. The comparatively modern Welsh triple harp (fig. 4) is
always strung with gut. It has a rising neck as before stated, and
three rows of strings,--the outer rows tuned diatonic, the centre one
chromatic for the sharps and flats. Jones gives it 98 strings and a
compass of 5 octaves and one note, from violoncello C. As in all
Celtic harps, the left is the treble hand, and in the triple harps
there are 27 strings on that side, the right or bass hand having 37,
and the middle or chromatic row 34.
[Illustration: FIG. 3. Irish (Dalway) Harp.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4. Welsh Triple Harp.]
The first pattern of the modern harp is discovered in German and
Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS. as far back as the 9th century.[7] A
diatonic instrument, it must have been common throughout Europe, as
Orcagna, Fra Angelico, and other famous Italian painters depict it
over and over again in their masterpieces. No accidental semitones
were possible with this instrument, unless the strings were shortened
by the player's fingers. This lasted until the 17th century, when a
Tirolese maker adapted hooks[8] (perhaps suggested by the fretted or
bonded clavichord) that, screwed into the neck, could be turned
downwards to fix the desired semitone at pleasure. At last, somewhere
about 1720, Hochbrucker, a Bavarian, invented pedals that, acting
through the pedestal of the instrument, governed by mechanism the
stopping, and thus left the player's hands free, an indisputable
advantage; and it became possible at once to play in no less than
eight major scales. By a sequence of improvements, in which two
Frenchmen named Cousineau took an important part, the various defects
inherent in Hochbrucker's plan became ameliorated. The pedals were
doubled, and, the tuning of the instrument being changed from the key
of E[flat] to C[flat], it became possible to play in fifteen keys,
thus exceeding the power of the keyboard instruments, over which the
harp has another important advantage in the simplicity of the
fingering, which is the same for every key.
It is to Sebastian Erard we owe the perfecting of the pedal harp (fig.
5), a triumph he gained in Paris by unremitting studies begun when he
adopted a "fork" mechanism in 1786 and ended in 1810 when he had
attained complete success with the double action pedal mechanism
already described above. Erard's merit was not confined to this
improvement only; he modified the structure of the comb that conceals
the mechanism, and constructed the sound-body of the instrument upon a
modern principle more advantageous to the tone.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Modern Erard Harp.]
Notwithstanding these improvements and the great beauty of tone the
harp possesses, the domestic use of it in modern times has almost
disappeared. The great cost of a good harp, and the trouble to many
amateurs of tuning, may have led to the supplanting of the harp by the
more convenient and useful pianoforte. With this comes naturally a
diminution in the number of solo-players on the instrument. Were it
not for the increasing use of the harp in the orchestra, the colour of
its tone having attracted the masters of instrumentation, so that the
great scores of Meyerbeer and Gounod, of Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner are
not complete without it, we should perhaps know little more of the
harp than of the dulcimer, in spite of the efforts of distinguished
virtuosi whose devotion to their instrument maintains its technique on
an equality with that of any other, even the most in public favour.
The first record of the use of harps in the orchestra occurs in the
account of the _Ballet comique de la royne_ performed at the chateau
de Moutiers on the occasion of the marriage of Mary of Lorraine with
the duc de Joyeuse in 1581, when harps formed part of the _concert de
musique_.
See in addition to the works already referred to, Engel's _Musical
Instruments in the South Kensington Museum_ (1874); and the articles
"Harp," in Rees's _Cyclopaedia_, written by Dr Burney, in Stainer and
Barrett's _Dictionary of Musical Terms_ (1876), and in Grove's
_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_. On the origins of the instrument
see _Proceedings of British Association_ (1904) (address of president
of anthropological section). (K. S.; A. J. H.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] _Poemata_, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245, Migne's _Patrologiae cursus
completus_ (Paris, 1857-1866, vol. 88).
[2] A few nangas (c. 1500 B.C.) are preserved among the Egyptian
antiquities at the British Museum, fourth Egyptian room.
[3] Bruce's harps are reproduced by Champollion, tome iii. p. 261.
[4] Representations of these may be seen among the musical scenes in
the Nimrod Gallery at the British Museum.
[5] See also a woodcut in John Derrick's _Image of Ireland_ (1581),
pl. iii. (Edinburgh ed. 1883).
[6] See the fine volume _Musical Instruments_ on the Irish and
Scottish harps by Robert Bruce Armstrong (1904), vol. i. Vol. ii.,
which deals with the Welsh harp, has unfortunately been withdrawn
from sale.
[7] See for the medieval harp a careful article by Hortense Panum,
"Harfe und Lyra im alten Nord-Europa," in _Intern. Mus. Ges._ vol.
vii. pt. 1 (Leipzig, 1905); and for references as to illuminated
MSS., early woodcuts, paintings, &c. see Hugo Leichtentritt, "Was
lehren uns die Bildwerke des 14-17 Jahrhunderts uber die
Instrumentalmusik ihrer Zeit?" ibid. vol. vii. p. 3 (Leipzig, 1906).
[8] See Nauwerk, "Die Hakenharfe, Die Vervollkommnung des Mechanismus
an der deutschen Harfe." in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1815), p.
545 seq.
HARPENDEN, an urban district in the Mid or St Albans parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. by N. from London by the
Midland railway, served also by a branch of the Great Northern railway.
Pop. (1901) 4725. It is a favourite outlying residential district for
those whose work lies in London. The church of St Nicholas is a modern
reconstruction with the exception of the Perpendicular tower. In the
Lawes Testimonial Laboratory there is a vast collection of samples of
experimentally grown produce, annual products, ashes and soils. Sir John
Bennet Lawes (d. 1900) provided an endowment of L100,000 for the
perpetuation of the agricultural experiments which he inaugurated here
at his seat of Rothamsted Park. The success of his association of
chemistry with botany is shown by the fact that soil has been made to
bear wheat without intermission for upwards of half a century without
manure. The country neighbouring to Harpenden is very pleasant,
including the gorse-covered Harpenden Common and the narrow well-wooded
valley of the upper Lea.
HARPER'S FERRY, a town of Jefferson county, West Virginia, U.S.A.,
finely situated at the confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers
(which here pass through a beautiful gorge in the Blue Ridge), 55 m.
N.W. of Washington. Pop. (1900) 896; (1910) 766. It is served by the
Baltimore & Ohio railway, which crosses the Potomac here, by the
Winchester & Potomac railway (Baltimore & Ohio) of which it is a
terminus, and by boats on the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, which passes
along the Maryland side of the Potomac. Across the Potomac on the north
rise the Maryland Heights; across the Shenandoah, on the West Virginia
side, the Virginia or Loudoun Heights; and behind the town to the W. the
Bolivar Heights. A United States arsenal and armoury were established at
Harper's Ferry in 1796, the site being chosen because of the good
water-power; these were seized on the 16th of October 1859 by John
Brown (q.v.), the abolitionist, and some 21 of his followers. For four
months before the raid Brown and his men lived on the Kennedy Farm, in
Washington county, Maryland, about 4 m. N.W. of Harper's Ferry. The
engine-house in which Brown was captured was exhibited at the Columbian
Exposition at Chicago and was later rebuilt on Bolivar Heights; a marble
pillar, marked "John Brown's Fort," has been erected on its original
site. On Camp Hill is Storer College (state-aided), a normal school for
negroes, which was established under Free Baptist control in 1867, and
has academic, normal, biblical, musical and industrial departments.
The first settlement here was made about 1747 by Robert Harper, who ran
a ferry across the Potomac. The position of Harper's Ferry at the lower
end of the Shenandoah Valley rendered it a place of strategic importance
during the Civil War. On the 18th of April 1861, the day after Virginia
passed her ordinance of secession, when a considerable force of Virginia
militia under General Kenton Harper approached the town--an attack
having been planned in Richmond two days before--the Federal garrison of
45 men under Lieutenant Roger Jones set fire to the arsenal and fled.
Within the next few days large numbers of Confederate volunteers
assembled here; and Harper was succeeded in command (27th April) by
"Stonewall" Jackson, who was in turn succeeded by Brigadier-General
Joseph E. Johnston on the 23rd of May. Johnston thought that the place
was unimportant, and withdrew when (15th June) the Federal forces under
General Robert Patterson and Colonel Lew Wallace approached, and
Harper's Ferry was again occupied by a Federal garrison. In September
1862, during General Lee's first invasion of the North, General
McClellan advised that the place be abandoned in order that the 10,000
men defending it might be added to his fighting force, but General
Halleck would not consent, so that when Lee needed supplies from the
Shenandoah Valley he was blocked by the garrison, then under the command
of Colonel Dixon S. Miles. On Jackson's approach they were distributed
as follows: about 7000 men on Bolivar Heights, about 2000 on Maryland
Heights, and about 1800 on the lower ground. On the 13th of September
General Lafayette McLaws carried Maryland Heights and General John G.
Walker planted a battery on Loudoun Heights. On the 14th there was some
fighting, but early on the 15th, as Jackson was about to make an assault
on Bolivar Heights, the garrison, surrounded by a superior force,
surrendered. The total Federal loss (including the garrisons at
Winchester and Martinsburg) amounted to 44 killed (the commander was
mortally wounded), 12,520 prisoners, and 13,000 small arms. For this
terrible loss to the Union army the responsibility seems to have been
General Halleck's, though the blame was officially put on Colonel Miles,
who died immediately after the surrender. Jackson rejoined Lee on the
following day in time to take part in the battle of Antietam, and after
the battle General McClellan placed a strong garrison (the 12th Corps)
at Harper's Ferry. In June 1863 the place was again abandoned to the
Confederates on their march to Pennsylvania. After their defeat at
Gettysburg, the town again fell into the hands of the Federal troops,
and it remained in their possession until the end of the war. On the 4th
of July 1864 General Franz Sigel, who was then in command here, withdrew
his troops to Maryland Heights, and from there resisted Early's attempt
to enter the town and to drive the Federal garrison from Maryland
Heights. Harper's Ferry was seriously damaged by a flood in the
Shenandoah in October 1878.
HARPIES (Gr. [Greek: Harpyiai], older form [Greek: Arepyiai], "swift
robbers"), in ancient mythology, the personification of the sweeping
storm-winds. In Homer, where they appear indifferently under the name of
[Greek: harpyiai] and [Greek: thyellai], their function is to carry off
those whose sudden disappearance is desired by the gods. Only one of
them is there mentioned (_Iliad_, xvi. 150) by name, Podarge, the mother
of the coursers of Achilles by Zephyrus, the generative wind. According
to Hesiod (_Theog._ 265) they are two in number, Aello and Ocypete,
daughters of Thaumas and Electra, winged goddesses with beautiful
locks, swifter than winds and birds in their flight, and their domain is
the air. In later times their number was increased (Celaeno being a
frequent addition and their leader in Virgil), and they were described
as hateful and repulsive creatures, birds with the faces of old women,
the ears of bears, crooked talons and hanging breasts; even in Aeschylus
(_Eumenides_, 50) they appear as ugly and misshapen monsters. Their
function of snatching away mortals to the other world brings them into
connexion with the Erinyes, with whom they are often confounded. On the
so-called Harpy monument from Lycia, now in the British Museum, the
Harpies appear carrying off some small figures, supposed to be the
daughters of Pandareus, unless they are intended to represent departed
souls. The repulsive character of the Harpies is more especially seen in
the legend of Phineus, king of Salmydessus in Thrace (Apollodorus i. 9,
21; see also Diod. Sic. iv. 43). Having been deprived of his sight by
the gods for his ill-treatment of his sons by his first wife (or for
having revealed the future to mortals), he was condemned to be tormented
by two Harpies, who carried off whatever food was placed before him. On
the arrival of the Argonauts, Phineus promised to give them particulars
of the course they should pursue and of the dangers that lay before
them, if they would deliver him from his tormentors. Accordingly, when
the Harpies appeared as usual to carry off the food from Phineus's
table, they were driven off and pursued by Calais and Zetes, the sons of
Boreas, as far as the Strophades islands in the Aegean. On promising to
cease from molesting Phineus, their lives were spared. Their place of
abode is variously placed in the Strophades, the entrance to the
under-world, or a cave in Crete. According to Cecil Smith, _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, xiii. (1892-1893), the Harpies are the hostile
spirits of the scorching south wind; E. Rohde (_Rheinisches Museum_, i.,
1895) regards them as spirits of the storm, which at the bidding of the
gods carry off human beings alive to the under-world or some spot beyond
human ken.
See articles in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and
Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. In the article GREEK ART, fig.
14 gives a representation of the winged Harpies.
HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819- ), French landscape painter, born at
Valenciennes in 1819, was intended by his parents for a business career,
but his determination to become an artist was so strong that it
conquered all obstacles, and he was allowed at the age of twenty-seven
to enter Achard's atelier in Paris. From this painter he acquired a
groundwork of sound constructive draughtsmanship, which is so marked a
feature of his landscape painting. After two years under this exacting
teacher he went to Italy, whence he returned in 1850. During the next
few years he devoted himself to the painting of children in landscape
setting, and fell in with Corot and the other Barbizon masters, whose
principles and methods are to a certain extent reflected in his own
personal art. To Corot he was united by a bond of warm friendship, and
the two artists went together to Italy in 1860. On his return, he scored
his first great success at the Salon, in 1861, with his "Lisiere de bois
sur les bords de l'Allier." After that year he was a regular exhibitor
at the old Salon; in 1886 he received his first medal for "Le Soir dans
la campagne de Rome," which was acquired for the Luxembourg Gallery.
Many of his best works were painted at Herisson in the Bourbonnais, as
well as in the Nivernais and the Auvergne. Among his chief pictures are
"Soir sur les bords de la Loire" (1861), "Les Corbeaux" (1865), "Le
Soir" (1866), "Le Saut-du-Loup" (1873), "La Loire" (1882), and "Vue de
Saint-Prive" (1883). He also did some decorative work for the Paris
Opera--the "Vallee d'Egerie" panel, which he showed at the Salon of
1870.
HARP-LUTE, or DITAL HARP, one of the many attempts to revive the
popularity of the guitar and to increase its compass, invented in 1798
by Edward Light. The harp-lute owes the first part of its name to the
characteristic mechanism for shortening the effective length of the
strings; its second name--dital harp--emphasizes the nature of the
stops, which are worked by the thumb in contradistinction to the pedals
of the harp worked by the feet. It consists of a pear-shaped body, to
which is added a curved neck supported on a front pillar or arm
springing from the body, and therefore reminiscent of the harp. There
are 12 catgut strings. The curved fingerboard, almost parallel with the
neck, is provided with frets, and has in addition a thumb-key for each
string, by means of which the accordance of the string is mechanically
raised a semitone at will. The dital or key, on being depressed, acts
upon a stop-ring or eye, which draws the string down against the fret,
and thus shortens its effective length. The fingers then stop the
strings as usual over the remaining frets. A further improvement was
patented in 1816 as the British harp-lute. Other attempts possessing
less practical merit than the dital harp were the lyra-guitarre, which
appeared in Germany at the beginning of the 19th century; the
accord-guitarre, towards the middle of the same century; and the keyed
guitar. (K. S.)
HARPOCRATES, originally an Egyptian deity, adopted by the Greeks, and
worshipped in later times both by Greeks and Romans. In Egypt,
Harpa-khruti, Horus the child, was one of the forms of Horus, the
sun-god, the child of Osiris. He was supposed to carry on war against
the powers of darkness, and hence Herodotus (ii. 144) considers him the
same as the Greek Apollo. He was represented in statues with his finger
on his mouth, a symbol of childhood. The Greeks and Romans, not
understanding the meaning of this attitude, made him the god of silence
(Ovid, _Metam._ ix. 691), and as such he became a favourite deity with
the later mystic schools of philosophy.
See articles by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
antiquites_, and by E. Meyer (_s.v._ "Horos") in Roscher's _Lexikon
der Mythologie_.
HARPOCRATION, VALERIUS, Greek grammarian of Alexandria. He is possibly
the Harpocration mentioned by Julius Capitolinus (_Life of Verus_, 2) as
the Greek tutor of Antoninus Verus (2nd century A.D.); some authorities
place him much later, on the ground that he borrowed from Athenaeus. He
is the author of a [Greek: Lexikon] (or [Greek: Peri ton lexeon) ton
deka rhetoron], which has come down to us in an incomplete form. The
work contains, in more or less alphabetical order, notes on well-known
events and persons mentioned by the orators, and explanations of legal
and commercial expressions. As nearly all the lexicons to the Greek
orators have been lost, Harpocration's work is especially valuable.
Amongst his authorities were the writers of Atthides (histories of
Attica), the grammarian Didymus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and the
lexicographer Dionysius, son of Tryphon. The book also contains
contributions to the history of Attic oratory and Greek literature
generally. Nothing is known of an [Greek: 'Antheron synagoge], a sort of
anthology or chrestomathy attributed to him by Suidas. A series of
articles in the margin of a Cambridge MS. of the lexicon forms the basis
of the _Lexicon rhetoricum Cantabrigiense_ (see DOBREE, P. P.).
The best edition is by W. Dindorf (1853); see also J. E. Sandys,
_History of Classical Scholarship_, i. (1906), p. 325; C. Boysen, _De
Harpocrationis fontibus_ (Kiel, 1876).
HARPOON (from Fr. _harpon_, a grappling-iron, O. Fr. _harpe_, a dog's
claw, an iron clamp for fastening stones together; the source of these
words is the Lat. _harpago_, _harpa_, &c., formed from Gr. [Greek:
harpage], hook, [Greek: harpazein], to snatch, tear away, cf. "harpy"),
barbed spear, particularly one used for spearing whales or other large
fish, and either thrown by hand or fired from a gun (see WHALE-FISHERY).
HARPSICHORD, HARPSICON, DOUBLE VIRGINALS (Fr. _clavecin_; Ger.
_Clavicymbel_, _Kiel-Flugel_; Ital. _arpicordo_, _cembalo_,
_clavicembalo_, _gravecembalo_; Dutch, _clavisinbal_), a large keyboard
instrument (see PIANOFORTE), belonging to the same family as the
virginal and spinet, but having 2, 3, or even 4 strings to each note,
and a case of the harp or wing shape, afterwards adopted for the grand
pianoforte. J. S. Bach's harpsichord, preserved in the museum of the
Hochschule fur Musik at Charlottenburg, has two manuals and 4 strings to
each note, one 16 ft., two 8 ft. and one 4 ft. By means of stops the
performer has within his power a number of combinations for varying the
tone and dynamic power. In all instruments of the harpsichord family
the strings, instead of being struck by tangents as in the clavichord,
or by hammers as in the pianoforte, are plucked by means of a quill
firmly embedded in the centred tongue of a jack or upright placed on the
back end of the key-lever. When the finger depresses a key, the jack is
thrown up, and in passing the crow-quill catches the string and twangs
it. It is this twanging of the string which produces the brilliant
incisive tone peculiar to the harpsichord family. What these instruments
gain in brilliancy of tone, however, they lose in power of expression
and of accent. The impossibility of commanding any emphasis necessarily
created for the harpsichord an individual technique which influenced the
music composed for it to so great an extent that it cannot be adequately
rendered upon the pianoforte.
The harpsichord assumed a position of great importance during the 16th
and 17th centuries, more especially in the orchestra, which was under
the leadership of the harpsichord player. The most famous of all
harpsichord makers, whose names form a guarantee for excellence, were
the Ruckers, established at Antwerp from the last quarter of the 16th
century. (K. S.)
HARPY, a large diurnal bird of prey, so named after the mythological
monster of the classical poets (see HARPIES),--the _Thrasaetus harpyia_
of modern ornithologists--an inhabitant of the warmer parts of America
from Southern Mexico to Brazil. Though known since the middle of the
17th century, its habits have come very little under the notice of
naturalists, and what is said of them by the older writers must be
received with some suspicion. A cursory inspection of the bird, which is
not unfrequently brought alive to Europe, its size, and its enormous
bill and talons, at once suggest the vast powers of destruction imputed
to it, and are enough to account for the stories told of its ravages on
mammals--sloths, fawns, peccaries and spider-monkeys. It has even been
asserted to attack the human race. How much of this is fabulous there
seems no means at present of determining, but some of the statements are
made by veracious travellers--D'Orbigny and Tschudi. It is not uncommon
in the forests of the isthmus of Panama, and Salvin says (_Proc. Zool.
Society_, 1864, p. 368) that its flight is slow and heavy. Indeed its
owl-like visage, its short wings and soft plumage, do not indicate a
bird of very active habits, but the weapons of offence with which it is
armed show that it must be able to cope with vigorous prey. Its
appearance is sufficiently striking--the head and lower parts, except a
pectoral band, white, the former adorned with an erectile crest, the
upper parts dark grey banded with black, the wings dusky, and the tail
barred; but the huge bill and powerful scutellated legs most of all
impress the beholder. The precise affinities of the harpy cannot be said
to have been determined. By some authors it is referred to the eagles,
by others to the buzzards, and by others again to the hawks; but
possibly the first of these alliances is the most likely to be true.
(A. N.)
[Illustration: Harpy.]
HARRAN, HARAN or CHARRAN (Sept. [Greek: Charrhran] or [Greek: Charrha]:
Strabo, [Greek: Karrhai]: Pliny, _Carrae_ or _Carrhae_; Arab. _Harran_),
in biblical history the place where Terah halted after leaving Ur, and
apparently the birthplace of Abraham, a town on the stream Jullab, some
nine hours' journey from Edessa in Syria. At this point the road from
Damascus joins the highway between Nineveh and Carchemish, and Haran had
thus considerable military and commercial value. As a strategic position
it is mentioned in inscriptions as early as the time of Tiglath Pileser
I., about 1100 B.C., and subsequently by Sargon II., who restored the
privileges lost at the rebellion which led to the conquest referred to
in 2 Kings xix. 12 (= Isa. xxxvii. 12). It was the centre of a
considerable commerce (Ezek. xxvii. 23), and one of its specialities was
the odoriferous gum derived from the strobus (Pliny, _H.N._ xii. 40). It
was here that Crassus in his eastern expedition was attacked and slain
by the Parthians (53 B.C.); and here also the emperor Caracalla was
murdered at the instigation of Macrinus (A.D. 217). Haran was the chief
home of the moon-god Sin, whose temple was rebuilt by several kings,
among them Assur-bani-pal and Nabunidus and Herodian (iv. 13, 7)
mentions the town as possessing in his day a temple of the moon. In the
middle ages it is mentioned as having been the seat of a particular
heathen sect, that of the Haranite Sabeans. It retained its importance
down to the period of the Arab ascendancy; but by Abulfeda it is
mentioned as having before his time fallen into decay. It is now wholly
in ruins. The Yahwistic writer (Gen. xxvii. 43) makes it the home of
Laban and connects it with Isaac and Jacob. But we cannot thus put Haran
in Aramnaharaim; the home of the Labanites is rather to be looked for in
the very similar word Hauran.
HARRAR (or HARAR), a city of N.E. Africa, in 8 deg. 45' N., 42 deg. 36'
E., capital of a province of Abyssinia and 220 m. S.S.W. of the ports of
Zaila (British) and Jibuti (French) on the Gulf of Aden. With Jibuti it
is connected by a railway (188 m. long) and carriage-road. Harrar is
built on the slopes of a hill at an elevation of over 5000 ft. A lofty
stone wall, pierced by five gates and flanked by twenty-four towers,
encloses the city, which has a population of about 40,000. The streets
are steep, narrow, dirty and unpaved, the roadways consisting of rough
boulders. The houses are in general made of undressed stone and mud and
are flat-topped, the general aspect of the city being Oriental and
un-Abyssinian. A few houses, including the palace of the governor and
the foreign consulates, are of more elaborate and solid construction
than the majority of the buildings. There are several mosques and an
Abyssinian church (of the usual circular construction) built of stone.
Harrar is a city of considerable commercial importance, through it
passing all the merchandise of southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla land.
The chief traders are Abyssinians, Armenians and Greeks. The principal
article of export is coffee, which is grown extensively in the
neighbouring hills and is of the finest quality. Besides coffee there is
a large trade in durra, the kat plant (used by the Mahommedans as a
drug), ghee, cattle, mules and camels, skins and hides, ivory and gums.
The import trade is largely in cotton goods, but every kind of
merchandise is included.
Harrar is believed to owe its foundation to Arab immigrants from the
Yemen in the 7th century of the Christian era. In the region of
Somaliland, now the western part of the British protectorate of that
name, the Arabs established the Moslem state of Adel or Zaila, with
their capital at Zaila on the Gulf of Aden. In the 13th century the
sultans of Adel enjoyed great power. In 1521 the then sultan Abubekr
transferred the seat of government to Harrar, probably regarding Zaila
as too exposed to the attacks of the Turkish and Portuguese navies then
contending for the mastery of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Abubekr's
successor was Mahommed III., Ahmed ibn Ibrahim el-Ghazi (1507-1543),
surnamed Gran (Granye), the left-handed. He was not an Arab but,
probably, of Somali origin. The son of a noted warrior, he quickly rose
to supreme power, becoming sultan or amir in 1525. He is famous for his
invasion of Abyssinia, of which country he was virtual master for
several years. From the beginning of the 17th century Adel suffered
greatly from the ravages of pagan Galla tribes, and Harrar sank to the
position of an amirate of little importance. It was first visited by a
European in 1854 when (Sir) Richard Burton spent ten days there in the
guise of an Arab. In 1875 Harrar was occupied by an Egyptian force under
Raouf Pasha, by whose orders the amir was strangled. The town remained
in the possession of Egypt until 1885, when the garrison was withdrawn
in consequence of the rising of the Mahdi in the Sudan. The Egyptian
garrison and many Egyptian civilians, in all 6500 persons, left Harrar
between November 1884 and the 25th of April 1885, when a son of the
ruler who had been deposed by Egypt was installed as amir, the
arrangement being carried out under the superintendence of British
officers. The new amir held power until January 1887, in which month
Harrar was conquered by Menelek II., king of Shoa (afterwards emperor of
Abyssinia). The governorship of Harrar was by Menelek entrusted to Ras
Makonnen, who held the post until his death in 1906.
The Harrari proper are of a distinct stock from the neighbouring
peoples, and speak a special language. Harrarese is "a Semitic graft
inserted into an indigenous stock" (Sir R. Burton, _First Footsteps in
East Africa_). The Harrari are Mahommedans of the Shafa'i or Persian
sect, and they employ the solar year and the Persian calendar. Besides
the native population there are in Harrar colonies of Abyssinians,
Somalis and Gall
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