The Industrial Arts in Spain
by Juan F. Riaño · English · Gutenberg #39602 · 496,958 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: The Industrial Arts in Spain
Author: Juan F. Riaño
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Language: English
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[Illustration: image of the book's cover
Spanish Arts
BY
JUAN F. RIAÑO.]
FREDERICK P. PRITCHARD
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.
SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
_This Volume, forming one of the Series of Art Handbooks issued under
the authority of the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, has
been prepared by_ SEÑOR JUAN F. RIAÑO, _of Madrid, whose Catalogue of
Art Objects of Spanish production in the South Kensington Museum, issued
in 1872, has proved of great value and interest._
_April, 1879._
THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS
IN SPAIN.
BY
JUAN F. RIAÑO.
WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS
[Illustration]
_Published for the Committee of Council on Education,_
BY
CHAPMAN AND HALL, LIMITED,
LONDON.
1890.
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,
LONDON AND BUNGAY.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
GOLD AND SILVER WORK 1
IRON WORK 58
BRONZES 68
ARMS 79
FURNITURE 109
IVORIES 126
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 143
GLASS 228
TEXTILE FABRICS 250
LACE 271
ILLUSTRATIONS.
NO. PAGE
1. Votive Crown of King Swinthila, Madrid 7
2. Leaf of Triptych in Cathedral of Seville 17
3. Processional Cross, 15th century, South Kensington Museum 20
4. Chalice, 16th century, S.K.M. 30
5. Chalice, 17th century, S.K.M. 31
6. Pax, 16th century, S.K.M. 33
7. Jewel, 17th century, S.K.M. 35
8. Silver Dish, 17th century, S.K.M. 36
9. Breast Ornament set with emeralds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 37
10. Breast Ornament set with diamonds, late 17th century, S.K.M. 39
11. Moorish Keys in Cathedral of Seville 60
12. Nail heads, S.K.M. 66
13. Moorish Lamp, Archæological Museum, Madrid 72
14. Tenebrarium in Cathedral of Seville 75
15. Monstrance, dated 1537, S.K.M. 77
16. Sword of Boabdil, Villaseca Collection, Madrid 85
17. Moorish Dagger, 15th century 89
18. Rapiers, 16th and 17th centuries, S.K.M. 97
19. Breastplate, formerly in Bernal Collection 98
20. Saddle of the Cid--Armoury, Madrid 99
21. Muskets 100
22. Botica de los Templarios, from Toledo, S.K.M. 114
23. Vargueño Cabinet, 16th century, S.K.M. 121
24. Ivory cylindrical box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 128
25. Ivory rectangular box, Moorish, 10th century, S.K.M. 129
26. Ivory Casket, Moorish, 11th century, Cathedral of Pamplona 131
27. Cross of King Ferdinand I., Archæological Museum, Madrid 136
28. Samian Bowl 144
29. Plateau, (probably of Valencia), S.K.M. 152
30. Moorish Vase at the Alhambra 155
31. Tile, (probably from the Alhambra) 157
32. Hispano-Moresco Vase, 14th or 15th century, S.K.M. 159
33. Hispano-Moresco Plateau with raised ribs and studs,
15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 160
34. Hispano-Moresco Salver, 15th or 16th century, S.K.M. 161
35. Wine Jar, "Tinaja," S.K.M. 164
36. Brim of Well from Toledo, S.K.M. 166
37. Earthenware Bowl, Talavera ware, S.K.M. 174
38. Earthenware Plaque, Alcora ware, S.K.M. 194
39. Marks and Signatures of Painters who worked at Alcora 204--210
40. Room decorated with Buen-Retiro porcelain in
the Palace at Madrid 217
41. Vase, Buen Retiro porcelain, S.K.M. 220
42. Marks used at the porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro 221--223
43. Glass Vase, 16th century, S.K.M 232
44. Pilgrim's Bottle, Glass, 17th century, S.K.M. 233
45. Glass Bottle, modern, S.K.M. 237
46. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 238
47. Glass Vase, Cadalso, 17th century, S.K.M. 239
48. Vase, Green glass with black handle and ribs,
17th century, S.K.M. 242
49. Glass Vessels, S.K.M. 245
50. Tapestry at Cathedral of Gerona, 11th century 267
_The Department of Science and Art is indebted to_ MR. JOHN MURRAY _for
the use of the Woodcuts Nos. 19, 20, 30, and 31. No. 50 is from a
Spanish Woodcut._
SPANISH INDUSTRIAL ART.
GOLD AND SILVER WORK.
The Greek and Latin authors who have described the Spanish Peninsula,
state that the quantity of gold and silver ore found there was very
great, and that hence the district became an important centre of
commercial activity of Ph[oe]nicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans.
Some authors have gone so far as to assert that the Ph[oe]nicians made
the anchors of their ships of gold and silver, and that the
Carthaginians were astonished to find in Andalusia, that the mangers and
vases for holding wine and oil were made of the same materials. These
references have been constantly mentioned in ancient Spanish authors.
Ambrosio de Morales, in his "Antiguedades de España," Alcala 1577,
enters into every detail on this subject.
I have seen a specimen of this period, a bowl of an earlier and
different style to Roman silversmiths' work, which belongs to a
collector in the province of Cordova. This bowl is of a conical shape:
it is perfectly plain, and has an inscription in Iberian characters
engraved on one of its sides: there are signs outside and at the bottom
which indicate that this bowl was made on the wheel. Velazquez in his
"Ensayo sobre las letras desconocidas," Madrid, 1752, describes a silver
bowl of a similar kind, which was found in Andalusia in 1618 full of
Iberian coins: this bowl weighed ten ounces. Several ornaments, chiefly
consisting of necklaces and earrings, may be studied at the Academy of
History, and private collections, in Madrid; they have been classified
by antiquarians as belonging to this uncertain period, and are similar
in style to others which have been frequently found in England and the
north of Europe. The most interesting objects of this kind which I have
seen in Spain, are gold ornaments proceeding from Galicia; they were
found there by Sr. Villaamil, who gave a description of them in the
"Museo Español de Antiguedades," vol. iii. p. 545.
The information and remains which have reached us illustrating silver
and gold work of the Roman domination are more important; we find,
however, in this and similar artistic industries that, as a general
rule, the Romans imposed their style and system on the inhabitants of
the countries which they conquered, and it is not easy to point out any
one example which can be given as an exception to this general rule. It
is, undoubtedly, a fact that objects of all kinds in gold and silver
were used in Spain to a very great extent--for, notwithstanding the
destruction of ages, we still possess inscriptions which allude to
silver statues, and a large number of objects in the precious metals
exist in museums and private collections. See "Inscrip. Hisp. lat.," by
Dr. Emile Hübner, Berlin, 1869. Of these it will be sufficient to
mention one of the most important. It is known in the province of
Santander by the name of the dish of Otañez; and belongs to a gentleman
who lives in that locality. It was found at Otañez at the end of the
last century, buried in a stone quarry. This dish is made of silver, it
weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a vessel;
another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a barrel
which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules. On
each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations
are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS. VMERITANA, and at the
back is engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P. CORNELIANI.
PIII....
Another very interesting silver dish may be seen at the Academia de la
Historia, Madrid. Although not of Spanish manufacture, it deserves
special notice in a description of works of this style. This dish was
found in 1847, buried in a field at Almendralejo, province of
Estremadura: it is 28-6/8 English inches in diameter, and weighs 533
ounces. It is ornamented with fine figures in relief, representing the
Emperor Theodosius appointing a magistrate. The emperor is seated on his
throne in the centre, at the sides are his sons Arcadius and Honorius,
with four soldiers of the guard, and the magistrate, who receives the
volume. In the lower part there is an allegorical representation of a
nymph holding the horn of abundance, winged angels, and ears of wheat,
probably alluding to the abundance and plenty of the empire. Round the
rim is the following inscription:--
D. N. THEODOSIVS PERPET.
AVG OB DIEM FELI CISSIMVM.
At the back, in points, are the following Greek words.
[Greek: POS N MET]
We can form a very good idea of the jewel work of the Visigothic period
from the discovery of the treasure of Guarrazar. These jewels were found
in 1858 at the village of this name, six miles from Toledo, on the spot
where, in the Visigothic period, a Christian sanctuary had existed. The
objects found, which may be seen at the Museum of Cluny, Paris, and
Armeria Real, Madrid, constitute the most important collection in Europe
of the jewel work of that period. No less than eleven votive crowns,
some of extraordinary magnificence; two crosses with inscriptions, and
a large number of fragments of all kinds, of gold and precious stones,
were found at Guarrazar. Unfortunately a great part of the treasure has
been lost, for the labourers, who were the first to find it, sold
several objects to the silversmiths at Toledo, who melted and destroyed
specimens of the highest artistic interest. Those that remain in Spain
are--
At the Royal Armoury of Madrid: A gold crown of Swinthila inlaid with
precious stones, with pendent cross, and inscriptions of letters hanging
from it: SVINTHILANVS REX. OFFERET. See woodcut on p. 7. A similar crown
of Theodosius, with the inscription: OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM. SCO STEFANO
ETHODOSIVS. ABBA. The cross of Lucetius with the following inscription:
+ IN NOMINE DNI. IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET LVCETIVS: E. Fragments of another
crown and of large crosses: several stones and fragments, and an
emerald, on which is engraved _en creux_ the Annunciation of the Virgin.
At the Archæological Museum, and in several private collections in
Spain, may be seen a large number of stones and pearls which were found
at Guarrazar.
Among the objects at the Archæological Museum at Madrid, a small
section, which proceed from a different locality, have also been
classified as Visigothic. They consist of necklaces, earrings, and
rings, and are less important in workmanship than those found at
Guarrazar. The student will find further details in "Museo Español de
Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 137.
The objects forming part of the treasure of Guarrazar now in the Museum
of Cluny, Paris are: Crown of Recesvinthus, with pendent cross and
inscription: + RECESVINTHVS REX OFFERET. A similar crown, without
inscription. Four crowns formed to imitate basket work, with crosses
hanging from the centres. Three crowns, the rims of which are formed of
_repoussé_ work, only one of which is ornamented with precious stones,
and without pendent crosses. The cross of Sonnicus with the following
inscription: [sign of Maltese cross] IN [=D]I NOMINE OFFERET SONNICA
[=S C E] MARIE IN SORBACES.
Swinthila reigned from 624 to 631, A.D.; Recesvinthus from 650 to 672
A.D.; hence these crowns belong to the 7th century, and the remaining
objects are certainly of the same period.
Much has been written on these Visigothic jewels by French and Spanish
authors, the most interesting and valuable studies are:--"Descrip. du
Trésor de Guarrazar, par M. Lasteyrie. Paris. 1860." "El arte Latino
Bizantino en España y las Coronas de Guarrazar," by Señor Rios, Madrid,
1861. Consult also his article in "Monumentos Arq. de España." "Coronas
de Guarrazar que se conservan en la Armeria Real de Madrid," by Señor
Rada. Museo Español, vol. iii. Madrid, 1874.
The importance of this goldsmith's work has led these authors to discuss
several archaeological and artistic points which deserve attention. I
will also give my opinions on this subject, which in some respects
differ from those hitherto advanced. In the Middle Ages the name of
crown was equally applied to those worn on the head, to the votive
crowns hung before altars, and to the pendent lamps which were also of
this circular form. The "Etimologies" of San Isidoro help us,
unfortunately, but little on this subject; but Du Cange, in his
"Glossarium Mediæ et infimæ Latinitatis" gives us sufficient details to
understand the differences between them. I refer the student to two
works on this subject, which treat especially of crowns of light, which
none of the authors who have written on Guarrazar have consulted:
"Tratado de la Sagrada Luminaria," by Gonzalez Villar, Madrid, 1798. "De
Lucernis Pensilibus," by Fanceulli, Maceratae, 1802.
The crowns found at Guarrazar were undoubtedly votive offerings, for
they all have chains by which they were suspended in the sanctuary in
which they were found. Their size and the structure of their rims lead
us to suppose that they may have been worn on the head. The same
observation applies to a similar crown at the Cluny Museum; if so, the
chains, cross, and pendent letters were added when the crown was offered
to the sanctuary.
Although details which appear in the handwork of these jewels betray a
certain rudeness, not uncommon in the time they were made, their beauty
and richness are truly surprising. These crowns are decorated round
their rims with rosettes of pearls and sapphires, and a delicate
ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
red glass. From the upper part are attached four chains formed of leaves
_percées à jour_, these are united to a double gold rosette with pendent
sapphires, in the centre of which is set a piece of rock crystal. In the
cross of Recesvinthus the pendant is in the form of a capital, and from
it hangs a small cross of the same style of work: from the lower rim of
the crown are suspended the letters, which are ornamented with the same
vitreous paste, _cloisonné_, and from each hang large single pearls and
sapphires.
The border of some of these crowns is formed of a net-work of small gold
massive balustrades; having between them square spaces in which pearls
and sapphires are set. Others are made simply of _repoussé_ gold, their
chief interest consisting in the ornamentation which has been so
artistically carried out. Some of them have inscriptions and a few
stones set at intervals. The pendants from these crowns are inferior in
richness to the others already described. The pendent crosses are
ornamented in the same style, either with _cloisonné_ work or _repoussé_
inscriptions.
[Illustration: VOTIVE CROWN OF KING SWINTHILA, MADRID.]
One of the most interesting results produced by the study of the
treasure of Guarrazar has been to show us the immense luxury which it
represents, if we remember the period of decay and poverty of the
Visigothic monarchy. We find this magnificence frequently alluded to by
ancient writers. The Arabs when they took possession of Toledo in the
8th century, mention in different works the immense quantity of jewels
of all kinds which they found and carried away. The gold and
silversmith's work of this period was everywhere in a very high state of
development. We find it constantly alluded to in the works of Paul
Silentiarium and other writers of the time of Justinian, and in the
inventories and references given by Du Sommerard of the jewel work
anterior to the Carlovingian period in Italy and France. The Visigothic
kings, who copied from the Eastern emperors even their legal forms,
followed this rule to a great extent in everything which bore relation
to their daily life.
The most important question is to determine the origin and locality
where these jewels were made. M. de Lasteyrie considers that jewellery
ornamented with red glass _cloisonné_ work was only made by nations of
the Germanic race. To prove this he presents, among other arguments, the
comparison of a fragment of the ornamentation which appears on the crown
of Recesvinthus, with a similar one on the Evangelistiarium of
Theodolinda in the treasure of Monza, which he considers to be of German
workmanship. These theories are untenable. Sr. Rios is of a different
opinion, and considers these jewels to have been made in Spain, owing to
the similarity of ornamentation with different specimens which occur in
Spain in architectural remains of the Roman and Visigothic periods.
Both these writers give in my opinion the decorative elements of the
crowns of Guarrazar an importance which they do not possess. The
ornamentation which most frequently occurs consists of a combination of
circles, imbrication, and palms of such an elementary kind that it would
be difficult to ascertain its origin; it appears equally in mosaic work
of the later Roman period, in vases and other objects of the best times
of Greek art, and in Asiatic and archaic works. It may be affirmed that
the ornamentation of the goldsmith's work of the north and south of
Europe are derived from a common origin; from the oriental civilization
which in the first centuries of the Middle Ages penetrated into Europe;
it may also be affirmed that its manufacture and technical proceedings
are precisely similar. Later on, the ornamentation and manufacture of
these jewels received from the western nations some slight
modifications; but this artistic industry by no means proceeded from
them.
One example will be enough to prove this. Setting apart the famous
_cloisonné pectorale_ at the Boulac Museum, Cairo, and other jewels of
the queen, Aah-Hotep, 17th century B.C.; the hawk of a similar period,
Louvre Museum (Paris), and a number of analogous objects in the British
Museum, we have enough specimens of this kind to show that _cloisonné_
work was known in the east from the very earliest period. I will draw
especial attention to the _plaque_ in the Museum of Wiesbaden, found at
Wolfsheim in 1870. It is formed of gold, with a circular and triangular
ornamentation and squares, _découpés à jour_, set with jacinths, or red
glass paste. At the back may be read an inscription in Persian
characters, which gives the name of a Sassanide king, Artachshaber, of
the 3rd century of our era. (See A. von Cohausen, "Roemischer
Schmelzenschmuck," Wiesbaden, 1873). I know no more ancient specimen in
the north of Europe of these jewels with coloured stones, nor can I give
a better example of their oriental origin. Those who may wish to make a
more profound study on this subject, can also examine the interesting
jewels with stones found at Petrossa, Wallachia, in 1835, now in the
Museum of Bucharest. They are attributed to the Visigothic King
Athanaric, who lived towards the middle of the 4th century of our era,
and are considered in the present day of undoubted Sassanide origin.
The artistic and technical origin of the jewels of Guarrazar must be
looked for in the East; their manufacture was most probably Spanish. On
part of these jewels, inscriptions of the names of the _donatarios_
appear, and it is highly improbable that they were made in another
country. We cannot imagine the extraordinary magnificence of the
Visigothic court, so similar to that of Constantinople and other
contemporary ones, without the presence at each of a group of artists
whose task was to satisfy these demands.
The Visigothic style continued to be followed in Spain at the court of
the Christian kings, until the 11th century, notwithstanding the Moorish
invasion, and the poverty of the kingdom. The specimens at the treasury
of the cathedral of Oviedo, and others which will be described farther
on, will give a good idea of the manufacture of jewels of this period.
Among the relics which are kept in the shrine called the _Camara Santa_,
at Oviedo, are two most interesting gold processional crosses studded
with stones, which are known by the names of _Cruz de los Angeles_, and
_Cruz de la Victoria_ or _de Pelayo_. The _Cruz de los Angeles_ is
16-1/2 inches high, by 16 inches wide, it is covered at the back with an
ornamentation in fine filigree work, set with different stones. In the
front are five medallions, and an inscription in the vacant spaces.
Among the gems there is a good cameo, and seven engraved stones in the
Gnostic style. (Consult "Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España, Camara
Santa"). The inscription on this cross shows us that it was made, A.D.
808.
"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xpi
Hoc signo tuetur pius
Hoc signo vincitur inimicus
Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
Fulmine divino intereat ipse
Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCCXLVI."
The cross of Victory is supposed to have been the same wooden one borne
by Don Pelayo when he began, early in the 8th century, his struggles
against the Mahomedan invasion, it was decorated in the next century
with gold platings and precious stones. It is 36 inches high by 28-1/2
inches wide; the ornamentation is similar to the former one, and in the
vacant spaces at the back appears the following inscription, by which
we learn it was made at the Castle of Gauzon, Asturias, A.D. 828.
"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemæna Regina
Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
Fulmine divino intereat ipse
Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis
Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
Et opera us est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.
XLII. discurrente Era DCCCLXVI."
Another most interesting object at this shrine is Don Fruela's casket,
which is ornamented with agates set in gold, and is similar in style.
The inscription, which appears outside, gives the date A.D. 910.
"Operatum est Era DCCCCXLVIII."
A diptych which belongs to the same shrine may also be mentioned. It was
given by Bishop Don Gonzalo, who was bishop of Oviedo from A.D. 1162 to
1175. Round it are the words--_Gundisalvus Episcopus me jussit fieri._
This diptych is 5 inches long by 7 wide: it is ornamented with ivory
figures, stones, crystals and engraved gems. Although I do not consider
it to be of Spanish workmanship, it is necessary to mention the splendid
_Arca Santa_, in which it is believed many of the relics were taken to
Oviedo. It is covered with silver plates, with _repoussé_ and chiselled
work representing different religious subjects: the Crucifixion, Our
Lord surrounded by the attributes of the Evangelists, saints, apostles,
angels, and a fine ornamental border with letters, imitating Cufic
inscriptions. This splendid casket is 3 feet 9-1/2 inches long, by 3 and
3-1/2 wide, and 28-1/2 inches high, and appears to have been made
between the 10th and 12th centuries. The figures are similar in style to
the paintings and sculpture of this period, and it is highly probable
that it may have been the work of Italian artists. The Cufic inscription
is illegible, and is interrupted in the angles by the symbols of the
Evangelists. This style of simulated inscriptions was frequently used by
Italian artists.
A cross of the same style as those already described exists at the
cathedral of Santiago. It is made of wood covered with gold platings and
precious stones; some of these are old intagli, which are set in
delicate filigree work. Round it runs a long inscription, from which it
appears that it was a present from _Adefonsus Princeps cum conjuge
Scemena Regina_, and that it was made in Era DCCCCA. Duodecima; A.D.
874. The number of gems which have reached us, after so many centuries
of ruin, the similarity of the different specimens, and the statement
which appears on the cross of King Pelayo, that it was made at the
castle of Gauzon, prove that the goldsmith's industry had attained great
importance in Spain during this period.
By studying the different objects of silver and gold work which still
exist in Spanish churches, we can form a good idea of the historical
progress of this industry in the following centuries of the Middle Ages;
but before we do so, it is well to make some observations upon objects
of _orfèvrerie_, the work of the Moors. There is a constant connection
between these objects and those made of ivory: the same characteristics
exist which I shall hereafter point out as appearing in Moorish ivory
carvings. The art of ivory carving was imported from the East, the
subjects are much alike in ivory and metal when men and animals are
represented, and the inscriptions and bands of ornamentation are similar
in style. The main variations consist in the different systems employed
in metal work, by which the work differs according to the proceedings
adopted, of _repoussé_ or chiselling, filigree, niellos or enamels.
A fine Casket belongs to this kind of oriental work which still may be
seen on the high altar of the cathedral of Gerona, Spain. This casket is
15 inches long by 9 wide and 10-1/2 high. It is made in the usual manner
of wood covered with silver gilt platings with a heavy _repoussé_
ornamentation of leaves enclosed within circles of pearls. Round the
rim of the cover runs the following Cufic inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. The blessing of God and happiness and prosperity
and permanent joy for the servant of God, Alhakem Emir Amumenin
Almostanser Billah, because he ordered this casket to be made for Abdul
walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished by the
hands of Hudzen Ibn Bothla."
Alhakem reigned in Spain from A.D. 961 to 976, in which year he was
succeeded by his son Hischem II. This casket belongs, therefore, to this
period, and is especially interesting as giving the artist's name. Two
other silver Arabian caskets may be seen at the Archæological Museum,
Madrid, which were formerly at the shrine of San Isidoro of Leon, but
they possess less artistic interest than the casket at Gerona. One of
these is elliptical in form; it is ornamented with a good design of
leaves and tendrils, and Cufic inscription; the whole of the casket is
enamelled in black. The ornamentation belongs to the 12th century. The
inscription only mentions the owner's name, Abdo Shakir. The other
casket is silver-gilt, square in form, and rather poorly ornamented. The
two Cufic inscriptions which surround it are laudatory. At the cathedral
of Oviedo there is another silver casket with a laudatory inscription
and medallions with figures, in which from very early times, the remains
of S^{ta.} Eulalia have been kept. I suspect that this casket and the
former one are not of Spanish Arab workmanship, for besides the
circumstance that their inscriptions can be applied to any owner, their
ornamentation is unlike others of the same kind. In the first casket it
is insignificant, but on the shrine of S^{ta.} Eulalia the background
of the medallions is covered with an imbricated pattern which I have
never seen repeated on any Arab or Moorish example in Spain. It is
highly probable that they were productions of Oriental industry and were
imported commercially.
Several specimens of the 14th and 15th centuries, the last period of the
Moorish domination, exist in Spain. They consist of jewels and sword
handles. The most interesting trinkets are a bracelet and fragments of a
necklace and earrings which are at the Archæological Museum, Madrid.
They are made of gold, covered with a geometrical _repoussé_
ornamentation, and a delicate filigree pattern. There are specimens also
at the Kensington Museum, Nos. 1455 to 1447, 70, consisting of a
bracelet, silver-gilt, formed of seven alternate oval and rectangular
plaques, with impressed pattern and applied filigree and bossed
ornament, and earrings made of gold, formed of clusters of united
circles and lozenges with filigree bosses. Other jewels of less
importance are known to exist, consisting of bracelets, amulets,
earrings, and rings, mostly made of silver niello-work, these are
ornamented with geometrical patterns and inscriptions of little
importance.
Moorish arms are most artistic; they are fully described in the article
Arms. The most important specimens are in the Royal Armoury, and noble
house of Villaseca, Madrid; another fine example of a similar style is
at the Generalife of Granada. The hilt and settings of the sheath are of
solid silver, gilt, and covered with geometrical patterns ornamented in
high relief, parts of which are filled with translucid _cloisonné_
enamel. In some instances the hilt is made of ivory. It is impossible
(see plate on p. 85) to find anything more beautiful than the
ornamentation of these swords, or greater perfection in every detail. It
is evident, therefore, that this industry had reached a very high grade
of perfection at Granada in the second part of the 15th century. The
sword now in the possession of the Villaseca family belonged to Boabdil,
the last Moorish king; the one at Granada to one of Boabdil's nearest
relations.
In continuing our description of Christian silver-work in the 11th and
12th centuries, we meet with two historical chalices of the highest
interest. One was made by the order of Saint Domingo de Silos [A.D.
1045-1074] when abbot of this church. This chalice still exists there,
with the following inscription:--
_In nomine Domini ob honorem Sci Sebastiani Dominico abbas
fecit._
It is ornamented with fine filigree work, forming zones and horse-shoe
arches, in a similar style to that of the silversmiths' work of
Asturias, which has never been completely abandoned in Spain. The author
of the life of this saint, Fr. Juan de Castro, Madrid 1688, says, p.
297, that he does not consider it was ever used for the sacrifice of the
mass, owing to its great height [13 inches]. The other chalice might
have been seen until very lately at San Isidoro, Leon; it has been
temporarily concealed owing to political disturbances. The cup and foot
are of agate, probably specimens of the classic period; the mounting,
which dates from the time of D^{na}. Urraca, is studded with a profusion
of precious stones and pastes. Some of the gems of the chalice and paten
are antiques.[A] In the centre of the paten is set a splendid flat onyx.
Round the lower part runs the following inscription:--
+ _In nomine D[=n]i Urraca Fredi[=n][=a]di._
[A] For further details of this interesting work of art, see "Monumentos
Arquitectonicos de España," in which a good reproduction is given.
Dona Urraca, who was a sister of Alfonso VI., and was generally called
_Urraca Fernandez_, bestowed many important gifts on the church of San
Isidoro. She died A.D. 1101. Another interesting chalice of the same
period, although not of the same importance as those just named, belongs
to Cardinal Moreno, archbishop of Toledo. Round the stem are represented
the emblems of the Evangelists, and the inscription: _Pelagius abbas me
fecit_; this formula appears so frequently that it must be understood
in the sense of _fecit fieri_, ordered to be made.
The Santo Caliz at Valencia has been traditionally held as the cup used
by Our Saviour at the Last Supper. This chalice consists of a circular
cup hollowed out from a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded
round the lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These
are united by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which
are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are
set round the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires and
emeralds. This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the
mounts are of a later date. Other specimens of jewellers' work of the
Roman period might be mentioned which exist in Spain, but I do not find
sufficient evidence to justify the opinion that they were made in that
country. I consider those that I have described to be of Spanish origin,
for they keep to the same technical modes of workmanship as the jewel
work of Asturias, and the inscriptions which appear on them refer to
historical personages. It would be difficult, considering all things, to
suppose they were imported.
[Illustration: ONE LEAF OF TRIPTYCH IN CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
We can mention in the thirteenth century a specimen of Spanish
silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style,
and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the Italian
Renaissance--I refer to the interesting triptych at the Cathedral of
Seville, known as the "Tablas Alfonsinas," made by the order of Don
Alfonso el Sabio for holding relics. It is of wood, covered inside and
out with silver-gilt plates; it is 22 inches high by 39 wide when its
three leaves are open (the woodcut opposite represents the outside of
left leaf), and is divided inside into fifteen compartments full of
minute ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules
covered with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an
inscription of enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with
sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves. The outside of
this triptych is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms
of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are repeated
alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi and Annunciation
of the Virgin, which are also _repoussé_. In the centres are eagles,
which S^{r}. Rios supposes to allude to Don Alonso's claim to be crowned
Emperor, in which case it was made in the year 1274. (See Mus. esp. de
Antig., vol. ii. p. 83.) The ornamentation which surrounds the panels
belongs to the 16th century. S^{r}. Rios suggests that the possible or
probable author of this interesting object of silversmith work was
Maestro Jorge, a silversmith of Toledo, who is praised by Don Alonso in
his Cantigas--he also mentions the names of Don Lorenzo and Don Niculas
as silversmiths of Seville who worked in this period.
The most important example of Spanish silversmith's work of the 14th
century is the Retablo and Baldaquino of the cathedral of Gerona. Mr.
Street, in his Gothic Arch. in Spain, p. 326, describes this work of art
in the following manner: "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with
silver plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and
canopies: each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is
introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels.
Each panel has a cinque-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and
pinnacles on either side. The straight line of the top is broken by
three niches, which rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre
is the Blessed Virgin with our Lord; on the right San Narcisso; and on
the left St. Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of
saints, subjects from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from
the life of our Lord."
At the base of this Retablo may be read the words--_Pere Bernec me
feu_--Peter Bernec made me. Bernec was a silversmith of Valencia, and in
another document he was called Barners. It has been supposed that two
other contemporary silversmiths, whose names appear in papers of the
cathedral, worked also at the Retablo. Their names were Raimundo Andreu,
and Master Bartolomé. Formerly in front of this altar there was a
magnificent silver and gold frontal studded with stones, a fine work of
the 11th century--which was unfortunately carried off by the French in
their invasion of the Peninsula early in the present century, and was
probably with other innumerable priceless treasures melted by them. See
further details in "Viage Literario de Villanueva," vol. xii. p. 180.
In the Sala Capitular of the Cathedral of Gerona there are three
splendid processional crosses belonging to the 15th and 16th centuries;
one of them is of enamelled gold, and is undoubtedly one of the most
artistic works of the kind in Spain.
Among Spanish art treasures of the 15th century of a historical style
must be mentioned the splendid silver throne of king Don Martin de
Aragon, d. 1410, still existing in the cathedral of Barcelona; it is
covered with chiselled ornamentation, and a band of velvet embroidered
with gold and completely studded with precious stones. This throne is
carried in the procession of Corpus Christi. The monstrance, a splendid
work of art in the Gothic style, ornamented with delicate pinnacles and
jewel work, is placed on a fine silver foot and carried on this day in
front of this throne. This monstrance is covered also with jewels of
great value which almost conceal it, the gifts of royal personages. The
fine Gothic silver-gilt cross must also be mentioned, known at Toledo by
the name of _Guion de Mendoza_; it was borne before the great Cardinal
Mendoza, and was the first cross placed on the highest point of the
Alhambra Torre de la Vela on the day of the conquest, 2nd January, 1492.
The following woodcut represents a processional cross of Spanish work of
the beginning of the 15th century, in the South Kensington Museum, No.
514-'73. It is of wood covered with plates of silver-gilt _repoussé_
work. On one side is a rood with the Virgin and St. John. Over the
figure of Christ is the word Inri. At the extremities angels in high
relief bear the emblems of the Passion. On each side of the figure of
Christ are plaques of translucent enamel representing the penitent and
impenitent thief, at the foot of the cross the Resurrection and
Adoration of the Magi, and above the figure of Christ the Nativity.
[Illustration: SPANISH PROCESSIONAL CROSS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
At the back there is a figure in high relief of the Almighty; in the
four extremities the emblems of the Evangelists in high relief and
enamelled plaques representing the Annunciation, Flight into Egypt,
Christ's descent into Hades.
This cross, which is three feet in height, is marked in several places
with the name of
+-----+ +-----+
| | | |
| PE | | MAR |
| DRO | | TIN |
| | | |
+-----+ +-----+
A large number of images exist in Spain belonging to this period, and
even to an earlier date, chiefly consisting of images of the Blessed
Virgin; their garments are formed of silver platings, chiselled and
_repoussé_ in the traditional Byzantine style. Among the most remarkable
may be mentioned those preserved in the cathedrals of Seville, Pamplona
and Astorga. The following document undoubtedly alludes to one of these
figures. It is dated 12th May, 1367:--
"I Sancho Martinez Orebse, silversmith, native of Seville, inform you,
the dean and chapter of the church of Seville, that it was agreed I
should make an image of Saint Mary with its tabernacle, that it should
be finished at a given time, and that you were to give me the silver and
stones required to make it."
Notwithstanding the poverty of the Spanish monarchs, their personal
ornaments were rich and splendid. We find in "Memorials of Henry the
VIIth," edited by Gairdner, an interesting description by Machado, the
herald or king-of-arms of Henry VII., of the embassy sent to Spain in
1489, to ask for the hand of the Princess Catharine for the Prince of
Wales. The account he gives us of the jewels worn by Queen Isabel la
Catolica is most interesting. They varied at every interview. In one of
these she wore "a line of trimming composed of oblong bosses, of gold,
each decorated with fine and valuable jewels, so rich that no one has
ever seen the like. She wore round her waist a girdle of leather made in
a man's style; the pouch was decorated with a large balass ruby, the
size of a tennis ball, between five rich diamonds and other stones, the
size of a bean. The rest of the girdle was decorated with other precious
stones. Round her neck she wore a rich gold necklace composed of white
and red roses, adorned with jewels. Two ribbons were suspended from her
breast adorned with diamonds, balass and other rubies, pearls, and other
jewels of great value to the number of a hundred or more" (p. 341.)
"After the King came the Queen, mounted on a fine mule, and all the
harness of the said mule was adorned with pearls and other precious
stones. She was dressed in a robe of a rich woven cloth of gold made in
the fashion of the kingdom, and over that a mantilla all spangled with
lozenges of crimson and black velvet, and on each lozenge was a large
pearl. And with each of these pearls was a rich balass ruby the size of
a beech nut, the richest thing that could be seen, no man ever saw
anything equal to it. She had on her neck a large necklace, adorned with
large diamonds, balass rubies, carbuncles, large pearls, and a great
number of other rich precious stones. She had upon her head-dress two
balass rubies as pendants, the size of a pigeon's egg, and at the end of
the said rubies a large pearl, which jewel was supposed to be worth
12,000 crowns" (p. 348.)
In the specimens described belonging to the Visigothic period, and many
others to which we might refer, we find constant similarity in form with
silversmith's work of other European countries. It is true that we
occasionally meet with Moorish _orfèvrerie_, and some details, such as
filigree work, due to oriental influence; but in general Byzantine,
Roman, and Gothic styles were adopted and copied in Spain; and the
technical details were the same with those followed in other countries,
with the exception of _champlevé_ enamel, which appears to have been
almost exclusively used at Limoges in the middle ages. It is
interesting, however, and worthy of remark, that important objects are
also found in Spain decorated with _champlevé_ enamel, such as the
splendid altars of San Miguel in Excelsis (Navarre), and Santo Domingo
de Silos (Rioja), and the image of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban
(Salamanca), three specimens of the greatest importance.
In the Renaissance period, Spanish _orfèvrerie_ enters into its most
brilliant epoch, not only on account of the beauty of the form of the
objects produced, but also owing to its great richness. Among objects of
this period the most important are the _Custodias_ or monstrances of the
cathedrals; these are exclusively peculiar to Spanish art. The almost
incalculable quantity of silver-work produced at this period is
accounted for by the reconquest of the Peninsula from the Moors, the
discovery and possession of America, and other circumstances which
increased the power and wealth of Spain, and elevated the country to
great importance.
We find frequent mention at this time of silversmiths, many of whom came
from Germany, France, or Italy, attracted by the large number of works
ordered. Many settled in Spain, such as Enrique de Arphe, Jacome Trezzo,
Mateo Aleman, Hans Belta, and others. The Spaniards who joined them were
greater in number, and not inferior in merit. Silversmiths were already
at that time divided into different groups, according to the technical
proceedings which each one adopted: _plateros de la plata_, workers in
silver, was the name given to those who worked exclusively in _repoussé_
and chiselled work, and imitated sculpture and architectural models;
goldsmiths, those who worked jewels with stones, enamels, and
niello-work. Even within these groups were workers in filigree, and
those who decorated different objects with painted or mosaic work,
_atauxia_, in the Moorish style. Almost all the most important Spanish
towns were large centres of these industries. Leon, Burgos, Valladolid,
Cuenca, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville rivalled each other in the number
and quality of their productions. The Venetian ambassador, Navagiero,
who visited Valladolid in 1527, says, "Sono in Valladolid assai artefici
di ogni sorte, e se vi lavora benissimo di tutti le arti, e sopra tutto
d' argenti, e vi son tanti argenten quanti non sono in due altri terre,
le prime di Spagna" ("Il Viaggio di Spagna," Vinegia, 1563, p. 35.)
In order to complete the study of this subject, it is necessary,
besides, to give some notice of the legal dispositions contained in the
Municipal Ordinances and in other laws of a more general character.
In Capmany's "Memorias," vol. i., part 3, p. 88, are to be found several
statutes concerning the silversmiths of Barcelona from the 14th century,
proving the importance of this guild in 1301. At this period three of
its members formed part of the town Council. The introduction of a
statute of 1489 proves the excellence of the works which they made.
"Experience having shown us in past times, and proof existing at the
present time, that such clever silversmiths have existed and exist at
Barcelona that their works are highly reputed by kings and great people,
and held in great honour and estimation in the town itself." The
Silversmiths' guild still preserve the folio volumes full of drawings,
and the description of the different objects which they presented for
the approbation of the jury, during the 16th and 17th centuries. The
designs contained in these volumes constitute a most interesting
collection of jewels, giving a good idea of the great height of this
industry in Barcelona.
Baron C. H. Davillier is about to publish a volume on Spanish
silversmiths, in which etchings of several of these designs will be
reproduced. In the list of artists which follows I give the names of the
most remarkable of those who worked at Barcelona.
In the Municipal Ordinances of Toledo of the year 1494, some laws
relating to silversmiths appeared; they are, however, uninteresting. The
same thing occurs with the Ordinances of Seville, which were re-compiled
in 1526. The guild of silversmiths of Toledo must have been most
important, for in 1423 they already formed a brotherhood or guild under
the protection of St. Eloy, in which they agreed to help the members of
the guild in every way. See "Documentos Ineditos," published by Zarco
del Valle, p. 166. The Ordinances of Granada enter more into details
concerning the technical proceedings of silversmith's work. These
Ordinances appeared in 1538; the work in the Moorish style is described
in full detail; it appears to have been preserved in this locality more
than elsewhere.
We can judge of the enormous quantities of objects which were made by
those still to be seen in Spanish cathedrals and churches, having
survived the French invasion of the present century. For full details of
the barbarous treatment of these works of art during the French
invasion, see Ford's "Handbook of Spain." The expropriations of the
Spanish government during the civil wars of 1833 to 1840, and the
injudicious law of expropriations of 1869 for the purpose of collecting
artistic objects, have brought about the destruction and disappearance
of numberless works of art in order not to give them up to the
government.
The same splendour and abundance of silver objects of every kind existed
in the royal palaces and houses of the grandees. Madame d'Aunoy in her
"Voyage en Espagne, Lyon, 1643," p. 109, says: "L'on ne se sert point de
vaisselle d'étain, celle d'argent ou de terre sont les seules qui soient
en usage. Le duc d'Alburquerque est mort, il y a déjà quelque tems; l'on
m'a dit que l'on avoit employé six semaines à écrire sa vaisselle d'or
et d'argent. Il y avoit 1400 douzaines d'assiettes, 500 grands plats, et
700 petits, tout le reste à proportion, et 40 échelles d'argent pour
monter au haut de son buffet, qui étoit par gradins comme un autel placé
dans une grande salle." The splendid silver table belonging to the
Marquis of Villaseca at Madrid gives a good idea of the furniture of
this time. In the Inventories, a great number of which exist, we find
numerous details of silver objects of every kind. In one which was drawn
up in 1574, of the effects of Princess Da Juana (MS. folio, Acad. de la
Historia), the sister of Philip II., we find mention, without counting
the jewels, of a silver balustrade, weighing 121 pounds, to be placed
round the bed. The greater part of the kitchen utensils were also made
of silver.
Among the most important objects of Spanish silversmith work are
undoubtedly, as I have said before, the custodias.
The name of custodia is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or
ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of
temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which
is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus
Christi day. In order to distinguish these objects one from another, the
name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the consecrated host;
it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount
ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are generally
objects of the greatest importance both from their artistic and
intrinsic value. The description of one of them will be sufficient to
give an idea of their construction.
Although a fine custodia existed formerly at Toledo, which we know
weighed 164 pounds, Cardinal Ximenez de Cisneros wished a finer one to
be made, and caused the plan to be furnished by competition. Diego
Copin, Juan de Borgoña, and Enrique de Arphe presented designs; the one
by Enrique de Arphe was selected. Arphe began his work in 1517, and
continued exclusively employed in this, and without the help of other
master silversmiths, until April, 1524, when he gave up the monstrance
to the authorities of the cathedral. The silversmith, Lainez, finished
in 1523 the gold and jewelled cross which is on the top. It represents a
Gothic hexagonal temple, 8 feet high, of three orders, with all the
variety and number of necessary architectural details such as
pilasters, arches, columns, pyramids, canopies, crest-work, &c., to the
closing of the vaulted roof; the whole is _percé à jour_, and so
delicate that it looks like lace. From the roof hang bells and
incense-holders of filigree work; in the key-stone are studded precious
gems. Carvings in relief, representing passages of the life of Our
Saviour, appear on the base of the six pedestals; they are admirably
carved. In the centre of the second order is a figure representing the
Resurrection of Our Lord. On the pilasters and brackets which appear in
the temple there are more than 260 statues of different sizes, all of
which are executed with the same skill. This monstrance was mounted on
iron wires; and Archbishop Fonseca, wishing that the whole of it should
be made of silver, gave orders that Arphe himself should alter it, which
he did in 1525, when the total weight was found to be 388 pounds. The
_viril_ was then placed inside it, this was made of the first gold
brought from America. It is completely covered with precious stones, and
was bought by Cisneros from Queen Isabel (the Catholic); it weighs 29
pounds of gold. The tabernacle was ordered to be gilt in 1595 by
Archbishop Quiroga; this was done by the Masters Diego de Valdivieso and
Francisco Merino. This splendid work of art remains in this state, and
may be seen at the cathedral of Toledo; it was most fortunately saved
from the rapacity of the French, by being sent to Cadiz during the war.
In 1513 the monstrance at the cathedral of Cordova was also made by
Arphe, it is similar in style and importance to that of Toledo. Before
this, he had also finished the splendid one formerly at Leon, which was
destroyed by the French, as was likewise a similar smaller one, also by
Arphe, formerly at the Monastery of St. Benito, at Sahagun.
The custodia made by Juan de Arphe in 1587, a Leonese artist, and
grandson of Enrique, for the cathedral of Seville, competes with that of
Toledo. It is formed in the same manner as a temple, but in the
Græco-Roman style, covered with an immense number of statuettes, some of
which are upwards of a foot high, and reliefs of all kinds, and
delicate ornamentation, worked with the utmost skill. The chapter of the
cathedral commissioned the theologian, Francisco Pacheco, to direct the
subjects which were to be represented, and when it was finished Arphe
published a full description of the monstrance, which he does not
hesitate to call "the largest and finest work in silver known of its
kind." This opinion is hardly an exaggerated one if we look at this
splendid work of art. Its plan is circular, and measures 3-1/2 yards
high, and weighs 1082 pounds of silver. For details consult Cean
Bermudez' "Diccionario," Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla, Museo
Español de Antiguedades, vol. viii., p. I.
Besides these two celebrated silversmiths there was another of the same
family, the son of Enrique, and father of Juan, Antonio Arphe, an artist
also of great merit, who made in 1554 the custodia which still exists at
the cathedral of Santiago.
Cean Bermudez says in his "Diccionario," "that in the same manner as the
city of Leon gave Spain three illustrious silversmiths, Cuenca gave them
other three in the Becerrils," these were Alonso and Francisco Becerril
brothers, and Christoval, the son of Francisco. They all worked at the
famous and splendid custodia of Cuenca, and between them they produced a
most important series of works from 1528 to 1584.
It is extremely difficult to give in so small a space the description of
the works and names of the numerous artists on silver and gold work, who
worked in Spain during the 16th century. At the present time,
notwithstanding the innumerable objects lost, a long list would remain
of the specimens which have reached us, and their different forms and
applications, still visible in the churches of Toledo, Seville,
Zaragoza, Palencia, Santiago, and others of the Spanish peninsula. Some
idea may be gathered of the importance this art attained in Spain by
looking through the following list of artists who worked in silver and
gold, upwards of 450 of whom I have added to the 95 given by Cean in his
dictionary. It must be borne in mind that the objects on a large scale
which reproduce an architectural model, adopt three styles during the
century, all three of them admirable as regards beauty of form. The
first is Gothic, a reminiscence of the former time, improved by the
change which had already taken place, in drawing and modelling. The
second style is known by the name of _plateresque_, when applied to
architecture, and consists in copying the general structure of buildings
in the classical style, and applying the orders and pointed arch, while
keeping to the profusion of decoration of the earlier period, and
modifying the general plan with the object of introducing the greatest
quantity of ornamentation. The third style is the Greco-Roman; it is
more sober in decoration, and has a greater tendency to keep to the
imitation of the classical school.
Besides the objects described, which may be considered as original works
and the most important examples of Spanish silversmiths' work, I must
mention those which came from South America, chiefly from Mexico, which
possess a certain aspect; they consist of carved and _repoussé_ work
ornamented with flora of the country adapted in an oriental style;
others consist of filigree work, double-headed crowned eagles are
frequently met with in the same style as those made at Cordova and
Salamanca.
There are interesting specimens at the Kensington Museum which give an
excellent idea of Spanish silversmiths' work. Besides those already
described attention must be drawn to
No. 305-66. A silver-gilt cross ornamented with foliage, statuettes of
saints and the Evangelists with their emblems, Marked NOE/M. About 1560.
Height 3 feet 2 inches.
No. 302-66. Silver-gilt chalice, ornamented with foliated scroll work
and half figures beaten and chiselled. Marked Estorga. About 1540.
No. 132-73. A silver-gilt chalice, the bowl inscribed outside "+ Sangvis
mevs vere est potvs;" the stem is of baluster form, in several tiers,
ornamented with brackets and large chatons set with crystal, and a band
of cherubim. The foot is chased with masques, festoons, harpies, and
birds, and surrounded by eight semicircular projections, on which are an
armorial shield and a cross set with emeralds and lapis lazuli. Engraved
at bottom "S. I. de Salinas." [See woodcut] With it is a paten dated
1549.
[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 481-75. Chalice, silver-gilt; the bowl chased in relief with the
instruments of the Passion; on the knop are ten applied figures of
Apostles on ground of translucent blue enamel; the foot, which has eight
semicircular projections, is _repoussé_ with representations of the
Evangelists, cherub and other heads, the Crucifixion, and a shield with
the initials L. B. P. around a crown of thorns enclosing a heart. 17th
century. [See woodcut, p. 31.]
No. 314-64. Silver-gilt pax of architectural design; in the centre is a
group in full relief of the Virgin giving the chasuble to St. Ildefonso.
About 1540-50. [See woodcut, p. 33.]
No. 1129-64. Incense holder, boat-shaped, of rock crystal mounted in
silver-gilt. Around the rim is a band of guilloche pattern, set with
amethysts and garnets; on the lids a band inscribed "Oratio mea
dirigatur sicut incensum." About 1540-50.
[Illustration: SPANISH CHALICE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
No. 93-65. Silver triptych with suspending chain, the interior painted
in oils, the exterior engraved in arabesque. About 1550.
We find that Spanish jewels were as magnificent in the 16th century as
were the large architectural objects for ecclesiastical use. One of the
most important in richness and artistic merit was the splendid crown
belonging to the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo, which it is deeply to be
regretted disappeared in 1868. This crown was made in 1556 by the
silversmith Hernando de Carrion; it then consisted of a gold circle with
chiselled and enamelled ornamentation, set with pearls, emeralds and
rubies. In 1574 Cardinal Loaisa wished to enrich it, and ordered a
silver worker called Alejo de Montoya to add to it an upper part, formed
as an imperial crown, which Montoya agreed to do by a special agreement.
This addition was formed of small figures of angels of enamelled gold,
in pairs supporting the side bands, which met in the upper part forming
a group of allegorical figures, upon which was placed a spherical
emerald, without a flaw, 1-1/2 inches in diameter, which served as a
base to the cross. The bands were studded with precious stones and
ornamented inside with subjects of the life of the Blessed Virgin in
enamel. The height of this crown was 10-1/2 inches by 8-1/2 wide.
Montoya took 12 years to do this work--he finished it in 1586. The fine
bracelets belonging to this crown, which have also disappeared, were
made at the same time by Julian Hernando.
The jewels worn by the Spanish kings and grandees were equally
magnificent. In the description of the gems which Prince Don Carlos, the
son of Philip II, left to be distributed at his death, are included a
sword the hilt of which was of solid gold enamelled in different
colours: this Don Carlos bequeathed to the Grand Master of the Order of
St. John:--a halberd composed of 27 pieces of enamelled gold in high
relief; and a sword with gold mount enamelled in colours with masks,
medals and festoons in the Roman style, made by Rodrigo Reynalti.
Consult "Coleccion de Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de España,"
vol. 27, Madrid, 1855. I owe to the courtesy of Count Valencia de Don
Juan, the following description of arms made by _Toto platero de su
Alteza_ in 1554. [Archives of Simancas legajo, No. 37.] These arms
belonged to Prince Don Carlos.
[Illustration: SPANISH PAX. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
A gold sword, the cross of which is ornamented with masks of white,
grey, and black enamel.
A gold dagger, and sword-belt belonging to the same sword, ornamented in
a similar manner.
Also a gold sword, belt and dagger ornamented with figures of children
in solid gold and enamel.
Although the greater part of these silversmiths were Spaniards, the
Milanese artist, Jacome de Trezzo was very celebrated during the reign
of Philip II. He made several jewels of great importance for the king
and royal family. The splendid tabernacle which was taken by the French
in 1810 from the Escorial was one of his finest works; they carried off
at the same time the superb shrines, the gifts of kings and princes, and
everything they could lay their hands on of gold and silver, loading ten
campaign carts. Consult, "Historia del Escorial," by Quevedo. Madrid,
1849, p. 220.
At the South Kensington Museum are several objects of this kind, which
will give an excellent idea of Spanish jewel work.
No. 334-70. A gold enamelled pendant, in form of a chained dog,
supported on a scroll from which small pearls depend, and suspended by
two chains of alternate enamelled and plain links, united to a fastening
crowned by a bird.
No. 335-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a pelican and her young,
enriched with a carbuncle and pearls, and suspended by pearl links.
No. 336-70. Enamelled gold pendant in form of a dog enriched with
jewels.
No. 337-70. Enamelled gold pendant, in form of a parrot, set with
hyacinth, suspended by chains.
No.340-70. Enamelled gold pendant representing the Virgin of the
Immaculate Conception.
Nos. 341 and 342-70. Pendants representing the Virgen del Pilar
Saragossa, attended by saints. [See woodcut opposite.]
[Illustration: SPANISH JEWEL, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
Spanish jewel work does not decrease during the 17th century, the
number of artists who worked was very great, and the quantity of objects
of all kinds which were made by them to enrich the shrines of churches,
and the houses of grandees, was remarkable, although their artistic
merit was far inferior to the work of the 16th century. The general
decay of art, which produces in Europe the _barroco_ style, appears in
Spain more exaggerated and to a greater extent than elsewhere. The
objects made during this period reproduce until the beginning of the
18th century the lines and extravagant ornamentation which we meet with
in architecture, the handiwork however continued to be excellent, and no
expense was spared to give an aspect of richness to the objects made.
[Illustration: SILVER DISH. SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
The large quantity of objects of all kinds made of silver, and the
quantity also used in wearing apparel, gave rise to constant
prohibitions restricting its use from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel,
and even to a far greater extent at the beginning of the 16th century.
In a Decree, issued at Madrid in 1594, "it is forbidden to make or sell
cabinets, escritoires, caskets, brasiers, _chapines_ (clogs), tables,
commodes decorated with silver, either beat in _repoussé_, stamped,
carved or plain, and whoever makes, sells, or buys them, is to lose
them." Notwithstanding this and other restrictions which appeared in the
17th century, this abuse can hardly have been checked, judging by the
number of these objects which have reached us, not counting those
preserved in the shrines of Spanish churches and cathedrals.
The luxury which was apparent in this century of great decay for Spain
will be found in the numerous descriptions which exist of different
feasts and ceremonies.
A good idea may be had of this style of silversmiths' work from the
silver dishes in the South Kensington Museum. An engraving of one of
these appears on the preceding page.
[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH EMERALDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH
CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
During the 17th century, jewellery underwent a complete
transformation--the proceedings and _renaissance_ forms of the Italian
school were abandoned, with all their richness of sculptures, enamels,
and variety of stones. Instead of this, jewels were formed of emeralds,
diamonds or rubies in gold setting, _percés à jour_, producing an
excellent effect. The exceptions to this rule are the objects in which
enamelled work still predominates, a reminiscence of the former century.
Among the finest and best examples may be mentioned the gold crown of
the Virgen de los Desamparados of Toledo, made in Mexico in the 17th
century. It is formed like a basket of flowers, of delicate tracery, and
richly studded with fine emeralds. Several most interesting specimens
exist at Kensington of Spanish jewellery of this kind, bought at the
sale which took place in 1870 of the jewels belonging to the Virgen del
Pilar at Zaragoza.
No. 325-70 is a breast ornament of gold scroll open work, with enamelled
flowers, set with emeralds. [See woodcut on p. 37.]
No. 320-70, a gold breast ornament with five bosses and seven pendants,
set with rose diamonds.
No. 406-73. Breast ornament, gold open strap work and floral filigree,
the lower part an oval pendant, set with table diamonds. [See woodcut on
p. 39.]
The following fine Spanish jewels of the 17th century in the Kensington
Museum are also worthy of attention:
No. 330-64. A pectoral cross, with medallions containing relics.
No. 298-66. Gold filigree cross, within which is an ivory crucifix.
No. 344-70. Enamelled gold pectoral cross set with amethysts.
No. 417, 417A.-69. A pair of earrings of gold open work, branches set
with white crystals.
No. 323, 323A.-70. Silver open work earrings set with rose diamonds.
No. 330 to 330C.-70. Four miniature ewers of silver filigree open work,
the bodies of Chinese enamelled copper.
No. 1224-71. Silver frame _repoussé_, with the Holy Dove, and a bleeding
heart encircled with thorns.
Models of the baroque or, as it is called in Spain, _Churrigueresque_
styles continued to be copied during the beginning of the 18th century,
in the same manner as in the 17th century. At this time, as in the rest
of Europe, a reaction begins in every branch of art, due in Spain to the
influence of French and Italian artists who accompanied the family of
Bourbon. The Academy of Fine Arts of St. Fernando was founded by a king
of that House towards the middle of the century, the teaching was
reduced to copying Greco-Roman models, such as they were understood at
that time.
[Illustration: BREAST ORNAMENT SET WITH DIAMONDS. SPANISH, LATE 17TH
CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
The great centres which in the 16th century had produced such splendid
works of art had almost completely ceased. No great silversmiths
remained at Valladolid, Leon, Toledo, or Seville. The only localities
which have preserved even to the present day the traditional forms of
these ornaments are Salamanca, Cordova, Astorga, and Santiago. Madrid
absorbed from the middle of the 17th century the whole of this industry.
In Larruga's "Memorias," Vol. IV., will be found every detail given on
this subject. Several important establishments for the object of making
silver work on a large scale were founded at Madrid, the most important
being that of Tomas de Buenafuente, which passed after to Francisco
Novi. Two Frenchmen called Isaac and Miguel Naudin established a
manufactory in 1772. In each the greater part of the work was machine
made. Others were founded to cut and polish precious stones, and mount
paste stones. This was done with great skill by Antonio Martinez in
1778, in a building fitted up for the purpose, which still exists
opposite the Botanical Garden of Madrid. Martinez was pensioned by
Charles III. in Paris and London to study the improvements in this
industry. The principal object of the manufactory was to teach the
technical proceedings required in order to extend this industry in the
country, and supply a school in which machinery, models, drawings, &c.,
were to be met with. Pupils of both sexes were admitted; machinery was
made in the workshops, and Martinez undertook to teach the manufacture
of gold, doublé, or steel trinkets, with or without enamel or stones.
Sword-hilts, buckles, snuff-boxes, needle-cases, handles for sticks,
brooches, necklaces, orders, and other different objects, were made
either of open work or enamelled gold.
Inkstands, dishes, dinner services, chocolate stands, cruets, knives and
forks, were made of silver in different styles, generally imitating the
English manner. [Consult Larruga, "Memorias Politicas y Economicas."
Madrid, 1789. Vol. IV., p. 116.]
The results obtained by the manufactory of Martinez were most
satisfactory; a large number of apprentices were taught there; but their
work was completely French in character; the manner and style of the
Spanish school of silversmiths was completely forgotten.
As I have already mentioned, the traditional forms were preserved in
some localities which require to be mentioned here in order to finish
this account of this industry in Spain. An interesting and varied
collection of modern Spanish peasant jewellery exists at the South
Kensington Museum. Strange to say, although this collection was formed a
very few years ago, in 1870, it would be very difficult now to make
another; for owing to the means of communication having been of late
years so much improved in Spain, the peasantry are leaving off their
national costumes, and substituting in every detail modern fashions.
Among this peasant jewellery the silver gilt necklace and reliquaries of
Astorga, No. 1114-73, deserve special attention. These necklaces were
worn round the neck and part of the body. The neck ornaments of gold and
seed pearls made at Salamanca, those of silver gilt of Santiago; the
filigree work of Cordova in the Moorish style, and the long earrings of
Cataluña with precious stones, are interesting reminiscences of older
times.
LIST OF SPANISH GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS.
10TH CENTURY
Years in which
they worked. Residence.
961. Hudzen ben Bozla, a Moor. He made a silver
casket which exists still at Gerona Cathedral Gerona.
13TH CENTURY
1279. Maestre Jorge Toledo.
1283. Modova, Pablo de Burgos.
Niculas (Don)
1262. Perez, Juan Burgos.
14TH CENTURY
1357. Andreu, Raimundo de Gerona.
1358. Barners, Pedro Gerona.
1325. Bartolomé, Maestro Gerona.
Bernec, Pere, V. Barners
1382 to } Capellades, Pedro Tortosa.
1393. }
1378. Fernai, Rodrigo Oviedo.
1334. Frau, Ramon Palma de Mallorca.
1367. Martinez, Sancho Sevilla.
1382 to } Paris, Pedro de Tortosa.
1393. }
1373. Perpiña, Juan Valencia.
1370. Ponce, Bartolomé Palma de Mallorca.
15TH CENTURY
1417. Abello, Joan Daroca.
1495. Alcaçar, Juan de Toledo.
1477. Almerique Barcelona.
1494. Berenguer, Juan Valencia.
1499. Castellano Toledo.
1454. Castelnou, Juan de Valencia.
1460. Castelnou, Jayme de, son of Juan Valencia.
1470. Cetina, Mestre Valencia.
1458 to } Diez, Pedro el Cabalan Toledo.
1463 }
1494. Diaz, Thomas Toledo.
1417. Diaz, or Diez Caro, Ferrando Daroca.
1418 to } Garcia de Valladolid, Alfonso Toledo.
1426. }
1438. Garcia, Alonso Burgos.
1442. Garcia de Pielagos, Juan Burgos.
1477. Gomez, Garcia Valencia.
1424 to } Gonzalez de Madrid, Juan Toledo.
1459. }
1477. Hance
Lorenzo, Don
1425. Medina, Juan de Toledo.
1499. Medina, Pedro de Toledo.
1470. Nadal Yvo, Maestre Valencia.
1493. Narbona, Diego Toledo.
1495. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo.
1485. Oviedo, Fernando de Burgos.
1487. Pizarro Guadalupe.
1457. Rodriguez de Villareal, Alonso Toledo.
1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Anton Toledo.
1483. Rodriguez, Gonzalo Toledo.
1496. Rodriguez, Geronimo Sevilla.
1459. Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope Toledo.
1417 to } Roiz, Pero Darroca.
1423. }
1489 to } Ruby, Maestre Toledo.
1491. }
1416. Ruiz de Astudillo, Alfonso Burgos.
1431. Ruiz de Medina Toledo.
1426. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
1498. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
1404. Sanchez, Martinez Sevilla.
1424. Sanchez, Anton Toledo.
1417. Sancho, Manuel Hernando Burgos.
1487. Segovia, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe.
1418. Valles, Juan Toledo.
1484 to } Vigil, Pedro de Valladolid.
1488. }
Yvo V. Nadal Yvo ----
16TH CENTURY
1586. Abedo de Villandrando, Diego Madrid.
1531. Aguirre, Pedro de Toledo.
1515. Aleman, Mateo Sevilla.
---- Aleman, Nicolas Sevilla.
1596. Alfaro, Francisco Sevilla.
1539. Alonso, Juan Toledo.
1552. Alvarez, Baltasar Palencia.
1568. Alvarez, Francisco Madrid.
1531. Alvarez, Juan Granada.
1560. Alvarez, Juan Madrid.
1538. Alvear, Juan de Burgos.
---- Alvear, Nicolas de Burgos.
1520 to } Andino, Cristoval de Burgos.
1521. }
---- Angel, Pedro Toledo.
1565. Anrique, Joan Toledo.
1570. Avila, Alonso de Toledo.
1567. Avila Cimbron, Diego de Toledo.
1544. Arfe, Antonio de Leon.
1595. Arfe y Villafañe, Juan de Sevilla.
1506 to } Arphe, Enrique de Leon.
1525. }
1531. Baeza, Francisco de Granada.
---- Baeza, Juan Granada.
1580. Ballesteros, Fernando de Sevilla.
1560. Baptista, Juan Toledo.
1584 to } Baroxa, Gregorio de Toledo.
1601. }
1534. Becerril, Alonso Cuenca.
1575. Becerril, Cristoval Cuenca.
1552. Becerril, Francisco Cuenca.
1590. Belta, Hanz Madrid.
Belthae, V.--see Hanz Belthae
1582. Benavente, Juan de Palencia.
1546. Benavente, Pedro de Toledo.
1556. Borgoñes, Juan Toledo.
1538. Buentalante, Alonso de Granada.
1586. Camps, Bernat Barcelona.
1547 to } Carrion, Hernando Toledo.
1561. }
1556. Carrion, Fernando Toledo.
1586. Castro, Juan de Madrid.
1531. Castro, Luis de Granada.
1505. Cetina, Bernardo Juan Valencia.
1546. Comes, Gabriel Barcelona.
1553. Conill, Antonio Barcelona.
1531. Cordova, Anton de Granada.
Cordova, Juan de Granada.
1514. Cota, Martin Toledo.
1567. Davila Cimbron, Diego Toledo.
1558. Davila, Diego Toledo.
1593. Diaz, Francisco Toledo.
1526. Diaz, Hernando Toledo.
1586. Dominguez, Juan Madrid.
1513. Donanti, Juan Sevilla.
1564 to } Dueñas, Alonso de Salamanca.
1598. }
1531. Dueñas, Juan de Granada.
1537. Escripian, Luis Toledo.
1531. Fernandez, Diego Granada.
1554. Fernandez, Manuel Sevilla.
1567 to } Fernandez, Marcos Toledo.
1593. }
---- Fernandez del Moral Madrid.
1531. Flores, Diego Granada.
1572. Font, Joan Barcelona.
1555. Francés, Juan Toledo.
1561 to } Gallego, Miguel Toledo.
1590. }
1531. Garcia, Thome Granada.
1561. Gallo, Gaspar Toledo.
1555. Goden, Juan Toledo.
1509. Gomez, Heros de Valencia.
1573. Gomez, Baltasar
1574. Gonzalez, Pedro Uveda.
1513. Gueran, Ferrer Barcelona.
1531. Hermosilla, Bartolomé de Granada.
1567. Hernandez, Gonzalo Toledo.
1531. Hernandez, Luis Granada.
1567. Hernandez, Marcos Toledo.
1524 to } Hernandez, Pedro Toledo.
1544. }
1531. Herrera, Gonzalo de Granada.
1524. Herreros y Manzanas Toledo.
1585 to } Hanz, Belthae Madrid.
1587. }
1582 to } Honrado, Julian Toledo.
1599. }
1531. Jaen, Fernando de Granada.
1562 to } Lainez, Juan Bautista Madrid.
1573. }
1524. Laynez, Rodrigo Toledo.
1559. Leon, Leoni Madrid.
1597. Leoni, Miguel Madrid.
1531. Lopez, Francisco Granada.
1548 to } Lopez, Juan Toledo.
1570. }
1530. Lopez de Leon, Juan Toledo.
1508. Madrid, Pedro de Toledo.
1531. Mar, Alonso de la Granada.
1588 to } Marques, Lorenzo Toledo.
1614. }
1522. Marquez, Cristoval Toledo.
1531. Martinez, Pero Granada.
1544 to } Martinez, Francisco Toledo.
1547. }
1553. Mas, Miguel Barcelona.
1534. Masanell, Joan Barcelona.
1517. Mayquez, Diego Toledo.
1500 to } Medina, Pedro de Toledo.
1515. }
1538. Mendoza, Alonso de Granada.
---- Mendoza, Blas de Granada.
---- Mendoza, Diego de Burgos.
1564 to } Merino, Francisco Toledo.
1601. }
1579 to } Montoya, Alejo de Toledo.
1586. }
1598. Morales, Luis Madrid.
1592. Morales, Tomas Toledo.
1515 to } Moran Toledo.
1517. }
1556. Moran, Pedro Fernandez de Burgos.
1561. Morel, Thomas du (an Englishman) Toledo.
1574 to } Montoya, Alexo Toledo.
1590. }
1573. Muñoz, Alonso Toledo.
1598. Muñoz, Antonio Madrid.
1573. Niebre, Matias de, a native of Burgundy,
living at Toledo.
1512. Nuñez, Alonso Toledo.
1531. Nuñez, Francisco Granada.
1532 to } Oña, Antonio de Burgos.
1560. }
1531. Oñate, Juan de Granada.
1537 to } Ordoñez, Andres Toledo.
1546 }
1507 to } Ordoñez, Pedro Toledo.
1510 }
1537 to} Orna, Juan de Burgos.
1528.
1581. Ortiz, Pedro Madrid.
1529 to } Oviedo, Diego de Toledo.
1546. }
1586. Pan, Juan Barcelona.
1594. Pardo, Martin Escorial.
1534. Parra, Juan de la Toledo.
1577. Pastrana, Luis de Madrid.
1595. Pedraza, Diego de Estremadura.
1593. Pedraza, Esteban
1559. Perez, Francisco Barcelona.
1598. Perez, Pedro Madrid.
1535. Pierres, a Frenchman, residing at Toledo.
1587. Poch, Pero Juan Barcelona.
1568. Poggini, Juan Pablo Madrid.
1532. Pons, Pere Barcelona.
1574. Portigniani, Juan Bautista Toledo.
1541 to } Ramirez, Pedro Toledo.
1554. }
1590. Reynalte, Francisco de Madrid.
---- Reynalte, Juan de Madrid.
---- Reynalte, Pedro de Madrid.
1590. Reynalte, Rodrigo de Madrid.
1531. Rivera, Diego Lopez de Granada.
1590. Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo {Madrid and
{ Toledo.
1557 to } Rodriguez de Babia, Juan Toledo.
1586. }
1596. Rodriguez del Castillo, Melchor Segovia.
1551. Rodriguez, Duarte Toledo.
1568. Rodriguez Machado, Juan Toledo.
1567. Ros, Felipe Barcelona.
1537. Rozas, Gregorio de Burgos.
1538. Rozas, Jeronimo de Burgos.
1584 to } Ruiz, Diego Toledo.
1590. }
1531. Ruiz, Jeronimo Granada.
1524. Ruiz, Julian, lapidary Toledo.
1590. Ruiz, Juan Toledo.
---- Ruiz, Juan, el Vandolino {Sevilla, Jaen
{and Cordova.
1545. Sabat, Benedicti Barcelona.
1566. Salamanca, Antonio de Madrid.
1590. Sanchez, Andres Toledo.
1522. San Roman, Pedro de Toledo.
1531. Sevilla, Hernando de Granada.
1524. Sigüenza, Pedro de Sevilla.
1595. Tamarit, Andreu Barcelona.
1590. Tello de Moreta Toledo.
1554. Toto Madrid.
---- Trezzo, Jacome de, an Italian, who worked at Madrid.
1589. Trezzo, a nephew of Jacome Madrid.
1590. Urbano, Juan Cordova.
1580. Usatigni, Juan Alonso Madrid.
1537. Valdes, Antonio de Barcelona.
1589. Valdes, Lucas Cordova.
1564 to } Valdivieso, Diego de Toledo.
1598. }
1593. Valdivieso, Lucas de Burgos.
1575. Valla, Narcisco Barcelona.
1548. Valladolid, Juan de Toledo.
1566. Valle, Antonio del Madrid.
1524. Valles, Hernando de Toledo.
1512. Vargas, Gutierre de Toledo.
1563. Vazquez, Baptista Toledo.
1512 to } Vazquez, Diego Toledo.
1543. }
1558. Velasco Toledo.
1580. Velez Toledo.
1569. Vergara, Nicolas de Toledo.
1546. Vicente, Mateo, lapidary Toledo.
1561. Vida, Francisco Barcelona.
1534. Villagran, Juan de Toledo.
1590. Villanueva, Juan Domingo de Toledo.
1552. Villaseca, Alexo Toledo.
1538. Vitoria, Francisco de Granada.
1538. Vitoria, Juan de Granada.
1528. Vozmediano, Diego de Sevilla.
1536. Vozmediano, Juan de Sevilla.
1561. Ximenez, Juan Barcelona.
1537. Ximenis, Rafael Barcelona.
1599. Zepes, Bartolomé de Toledo.
17TH CENTURY
1618 to } Adeba, Jusepe Madrid.
1627. }
1677. Alcario, Francisco de Sevilla.
1664. Aleman, Juan Toledo.
1623. Alonso, Jeronimo Madrid.
1676 to } Alonso de Prado, Pedro Burgos.
1714. }
1622. Alvarado, Ambrosio de Madrid.
1635. Alvarez Brizuela, Blas Madrid.
---- Alvarez, Blas Madrid.
1636. Alvarez de Peralta, Pedro Madrid.
Alvear, Andres Burgos.
1640. Alvear, Juan de Burgos.
1617. Alvear, Juan de Madrid.
1691. Arandas, Gaspar Tarragona.
---- Arfe, Joseph, a grandson of Juan de Arfe Sevilla.
1613. Avalos, Diego de Madrid.
1604. Avendaño de Tudela, Luis Madrid.
1677. Avila, Agustin de Sevilla.
1620. Barinci, Juan Bautista Escorial.
1624. Baraona, Antonio Madrid.
1638. Barona, Pedro Barcelona.
---- Bellicis, V. Bardi
1650. Bardi, Bellicis Barcelona.
1604. Belta, Pedro Madrid.
1602. Benavente, Pedro Toledo.
1645. Belorado, Antonio de Burgos.
1630. Bonino, Pedro Madrid.
1616. Bracho, Alexandro Toledo.
1628. Brizuela, Gaspar Miguel de Madrid.
1622. Calvo, Juan Madrid.
1626. Camanyes or Comanes, Aloy Tortosa.
1650. Campo, Juan del Burgos.
1646. Campo, Juan de Madrid.
1643 to } Carcaba, Felipa, the wife of
1664. } Andres Salinas, worked at Toledo.
1621. Carranza Alvear, Juan de Madrid.
1622. Carranza, Martin de Madrid.
1615. Castro, Juan Madrid.
1651 to } Ciga, Miguel de Burgos.
1670. }
1646. Comañes, Aloy Tortosa.
1668. Concepcion, Friar Juan de la Escorial.
---- Cruz, Friar Eugenio de la Escorial.
1620. Cuello, Amaro Madrid.
1661. Dandez, Agustin Barcelona.
1623. Delgado Maldonado, Miguel Madrid.
1660. Diaz, Juan Segovia.
1619. Dominguez, Luis Madrid.
1613. Duarte, Cristoval de Madrid.
1671. Duran, Juan Toledo.
1613 to } Duran, Jusepe Madrid.
1624. }
1664. Ebrart, Pedro Toledo.
1660. Elizes, Alonso de Toledo.
1642. Espinosa, Juan de Madrid.
1640. Espluga, Tomas Barcelona.
---- Estrada, Manuel de Sevilla.
1624. Estrada, Sebastian Madrid.
1655 to } Faneli, Virgilio Toledo.
1678. }
1630. Franconio, Juan Bautista Sevilla.
1657. Fernandez, Andres Burgos.
1679 to } Fernandez, Gamonal Joseph Toledo.
1694. }
1631. Fernandez de Angulo, Miguel Madrid.
1612. Fernandez de Castro, Juan Madrid.
1618. Fernandez, Martin Madrid.
1627. Fernandez de Tapia, Andres Madrid.
---- Fernandez de Tapia, Juan Madrid.
1667 to } Fortuna, Juan de Toledo.
1670. }
1629. Gallo, Alonso Madrid.
1615. Gamonar, Mathieu de Madrid.
1600 to } Garcia, Alonso Toledo.
1635. }
1622. Garcia, Diego Madrid.
1618. Garcia, Francisco Madrid.
1613. Garcia, Martin Madrid.
1600. Garrido, Gaspar Madrid.
1620. Generino, Francisco Escorial.
1610. Gomez, Antonio Madrid.
---- Gomez, Diego Madrid.
1626. Gomez, Juan Madrid.
1610. Gomez, Marcelo Madrid.
1615. Gonzales, Gonzalo Madrid.
1613. Gonzales, Enrique Madrid.
1634. Gonzales, Francisco Madrid.
1630 to } Gonzales, Pascual Madrid.
1640. }
1654. Gonzales, Rafael Segovia.
1607. Guardia, Melchor, a native of Milan Barcelona.
1679. Güergo, Domingo de Burgos.
1639. Guigelmo, Eugenio Madrid.
1627 to } Guigelmo, Juan Madrid.
1634. }
1618. Heredia, Juan de Madrid.
---- Heredia, Sebastian Madrid.
1631. Hurtado, Luis Madrid.
1694 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo.
1698. }
1650. Landeras, Jeronimo de Burgos.
1611. Leal, Sebastian Madrid.
1606. Leoni, Pompeyo Madrid.
1620. Lopez, Domingo Madrid.
1639. Lopez, Francisco Madrid.
1611. Lopez de Alvarado, Antonio Madrid.
1676. Lopez Barona, Andres Burgos.
1617. Lorenzo, Juan Valladolid.
1638 to } Maestre, Luis Toledo.
1646. }
1611. Marisanz, Pedro Madrid.
1653. Martinez, Juan Burgos.
1673. Mata, Francisco de Burgos.
1677. Mata, Pedro de Burgos.
1686. Mayares, Miguel Madrid.
1614 to } Maymó, Bernardo Tarragona.
1625. }
1639. Medina, Juan Bautista de Madrid.
1628. Medina Requexo, Bautista de Madrid.
1641. Mendez, Duarte Madrid.
1614. Mexia, Juan Madrid.
1604. Mimbreño, Alonso Roman Madrid.
1641. Miñano, Juan de Madrid.
1626. Miranda, Alonso de Madrid.
1611. Moles, Juan Madrid.
1639. Montero, Francisco Madrid.
1630. Morales, Francisco Madrid.
---- Morales, Manuel de Madrid.
1695. Muñoz, Juan Madrid.
1661. Nadal, Andres Barcelona.
1620. Nadal, Martin Madrid.
1621 to } Navarrete Escarraman, Bartolomé de Madrid.
1629. }
1613 to } Navarro, Cristoval Toledo.
1623. }
1624 to } Navarro, Manuel Madrid.
1628. }
1626. Nuñez, Antonio Madrid.
1630. Oliva, Gregorio de Madrid.
1650 to } Ortiz de la Revilla, Juan Madrid.
1675. }
1615. Oviedo, Martin de Madrid.
1619. Oviedo, Pedro de Madrid.
1611. Paiba, Vicente de Madrid.
1665. Palomo, Diego Toledo.
1640. Pallares, Juan de Madrid.
1628. Pancorvo, Cristoval de Madrid.
1624. Paradiñas, Andres de Madrid.
1659. Pedraza, Bernardo de Toledo.
1632. Perez, Alonso Madrid.
1652 to } Perez, Antonio Toledo.
1658. }
1680. Perez de Montalto, Antonio Toledo.
1685 to } Perez de Montalto, Miguel Toledo.
1688. }
1630. Puig, Luis alencia.
1627. Quero, Juan de Madrid.
1632. Quixano, Marcos Madrid.
1617. Ramirez, Agustin Madrid.
1627. Ramos, Juan Madrid.
1628. Reynalte, Juan Madrid.
1660. Riba, Manuel de Toledo.
1624. Ribera, Martin de Madrid.
1617. Rios, Esteban de Madrid.
1626 to } Roda, Agustin ortosa.
1646. }
1626. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Madrid.
1631. Rodriguez, Eugenio Toledo.
1645. Rodriguez, Gabriel Madrid.
1618. Rodriguez, Diego Madrid.
1613. Rodriguez, Jeronimo Madrid.
1617. Rodriguez, Juan Madrid.
---- Rodriguez Bermudez, Gonzalo Madrid.
1623. Romano Valmaseda, Juan Madrid.
1607 to } Ros, Pedro Barcelona.
1625. }
1617. Rosales, Francisco de Madrid.
1611. Ruiz, Eugenio Madrid.
---- Ruiz, Juan Bautista Madrid.
---- Ruiz de Valdevieso Burgos.
1675. Ruiz de Velasco, Juan Burgos.
1684. Salazar, Francisco Burgos.
1604 to } Salinas, Andres de {Toledo and
1635. } {Madrid.
1639 to} Salinas, Francisco de Toledo.
1670. }
1639 to } Salinas, Vicente de Toledo.
1680. }
1616. Sanchez, Francisco Toledo.
1659 to } Sanchez Ormachea, Pedro Toledo.
1661. }
1614. San Martin, Juan de Toledo.
1610 to } Santillana, Antonio de Madrid.
1617. }
1642. Santo Domingo, Hipolito Madrid.
1653. San Vicente, Jacinto de Burgos.
1640. Sarabia, Cristoval de Sevilla.
1668. Segura, Juan de Sevilla.
1632. Serrano, Francisco Madrid.
1640. Soler, Baltasar Madrid.
1629. Soria, Francisco Madrid.
1608. Soria, Jeronimo de Madrid.
1617. Soria, Lucas de Madrid.
1620. Spagna, Juliano Madrid.
1694. Scase, Gaspar Sevilla.
1662. Suer, or Sueur, Esteban, a Frenchman who
worked at Toledo.
1671. Tellez, Juan Toledo.
---- Tebres, Antonio Toledo.
1677. Tello, Mateo, a German, worked at Sevilla.
1617. Tofino, Alonso Madrid.
1618 to } Valera, Domingo de Madrid.
1623. }
1619. Valedomar, Angel de Madrid.
1626. Valle, Juan del Madrid.
---- Valmaseda, V. Juan Romano ----
1624. Vega, Juan de Madrid.
1672. Velasco Ganado, Pedro Toledo.
1625. Velasquez, Juan Madrid.
1627. Villalta, Antonio Madrid.
1600 to } Villamayor, Baltasar Toledo.
1626. }
1638. Villarago, J. Barcelona.
1622. Villarroel, Andres de Madrid.
1614. Villegas, Martin de Toledo.
1645. Vivanco, Simon Madrid.
1615. Xabier, Antonio Madrid.
1610. Zabalza, Diego de Madrid.
1615 to } Zaldivia, Lucas de Burgos.
1633. }
---- Zoga, Miguel de ----
18TH CENTURY
1746. Aguilar, Geronimo Cordova.
1794. Alamo, Bernardo de Toledo.
1703. Aragon, Diego de Segovia.
1716. Aranda, Alberto Madrid.
1746. Aviles, Manuel de Cordova.
End of } Balmet, Bartolomé Madrid.
18th cent. }
1740. Ballestero, Manuel Cordova.
1730 to } Bargas, Manuel de Toledo.
1752. }
1702. Bargas, Mateo de Toledo.
1739. Bargas y Machuca, Manuel de Toledo.
1789 to } Bargas Machuca, Manuel Timoteo Madrid.
1797. }
1753. Bautista, Vicente Toledo.
18th cent. Benitez, Pedro Salamanca.
End of } Buenafuente, Tomas Madrid.
18th cent. }
1746. Bustamante, Franco Cordova.
1734. Bustos, Floro de Sevilla.
1784. Calzado, José, enameller Malaga.
1746. Camacho, Lorenzo Cordova.
1746. Camacho, Rafael Cordova.
1713. Campo, Matias del Soria.
1734. Castillo, Matias del Aranda del Duero.
1746. Castro, Damian de Cordova.
1748. Castro, Diego Toledo.
18th cent. Chevalier, Luis Claudio, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
1728. Colomes, Pedro, worked at the mounts of silver
knives made at Alcora.
End of } Conde, Domingo Madrid.
18th cent. }
1754. Cros, Josef Valencia.
---- Cuerda, Feliz de la Toledo.
1738 to } Cuerda, Jose de la Toledo.
1745. }
1722 to } Dominguez, Juan Antonio Toledo.
1748. }
1776. Elosua, Antonio Burgos.
1776. Elosua, Manuel de Burgos.
1790. Fernandez, Pablo Burgos.
18th cent. Fernandez Clemente, Melchor Salamanca.
1741. Fernandez de la Fuente, Antonio Toledo.
1778. Ferroni, Juan Madrid.
1701. Figueroa, Juan Salamanca.
1688. Fornaguera, Buenaventura Barcelona.
1790. Gallardo, Vicente Sevilla.
1710. Gamonal y Guzman, Juan Toledo.
1746. Garcia, Jose Cordova.
1760 to } Garcia Reyna, Manuel Toledo.
1766. }
1753. Garcia Crespo, Manuel Salamanca.
1772. Gaudin, Isaac, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
---- Gaudin, Miguel, a Frenchman, residing at Madrid.
1714. Gomez, Pedro Alcala de Henares.
1746. Hidalgo, Gabriel Cordova.
1700 to } Jaranta, Juan de Toledo.
1717. }
1743. Jaranta y Zapata, Juan de Toledo.
1717 to } Jaranta, Lorenzo Toledo.
1732. }
1746. Jurado, Jose Cordova.
1746. Lara, Diego de Cordova.
1790. Lecaroz, Antonio Sevilla.
1745. Lopez, Bernardino Toledo.
1784. Lopez, Manuel Burgos.
1746. Luna, Andres de Cordova.
---- Luque, Juan de Cordova.
1700. Llanos, Manuel de Burgos.
1746. Madueño, Francisco Cordova.
1790. Mairod y Vassner, José Sevilla.
1734. Manrique, Franco Esteban Aranda de Duero.
1784. Marti, Jose Barcelona.
1778. Martinez, Antonio Martinez.
1754. Martinez, Estanislao Valencia.
End of } Martinez, Gregorio Madrid.
18th cent. }
1703. Martinez del Valle, Jose Segovia.
1693. Matons, Juan Tarragona.
End of } Mendeluce, Fermin Navarra.
18th cent. }
End of } Molinez, Francisco Zaragoza.
18th cent. }
1722. Monteman y Cusens, Lorenzo Salamanca.
1746. Moreno, Manuel Cordova.
1725. Muñoz de Amador, Bernardo Madrid.
1746. Muñoz, Francisco Cordova.
---- Navas, Fernando de Cordova.
1784. Nieva, Antonio de Malaga.
1770 to } Niño, Jose Toledo.
1776. }
1767 to } Niño, Jose Bernardo Toledo.
1777. }
End of } Nivel, Juan Madrid.
18th cent. }
End of } Novi, Francisco Madrid.
18th cent. }
1786. Olivares, Fermin Madrid.
1746. Palomino, Jose Sevilla.
1784. Pechenet, Juan Madrid.
1734. Perez de Oviedo, Francisco Granada.
1746. Pineda, Manuel Cordova.
---- Quintero, José
1760 to } Reyna, Manuel Toledo.
1777. }
1743. Reyno, Tomas Toledo.
End of } Roche, Nicholas Madrid.
18th cent. }
1715 to } Rodriguez de Castro, Juan Burgos.
1757. }
1784. Rovira, José Barcelona.
1746. Roxelio, Francisco Cordova.
1791. Ruiz, Donata Burgos.
1746. Ruiz, Juan Cordova.
---- Ruiz, Miguel Cordova.
1777. Ruiz, Pedro Burgos.
1746. Sanchez, Francisco Cordova.
1731. Sanchez Renentes, Tomas Sevilla.
1767 to } Sanchez Niño, Jose Toledo.
1777. }
1731. Sanz, Pedro Sevilla.
18th cent. Sanz de Velasco, Toribio Salamanca.
1700. Simancas, Francisco de Burgos.
1716. Supuesta, Juan Madrid.
1731. Tamaral, Ignacio Sevilla.
1746. Torralvo, Sebastian Cordova.
1755. Torrijos, Lucas de Burgos.
1771. Urqueza, Domingo Madrid.
---- Valadrez Romero, Luis Sevilla.
1746. Vargas, Jose de Cordova.
---- Vega, Pedro de la Cordova.
1754. Vicente, Bautista Valencia.
1728. Vicente, Luis Valencia.
1734. Villa, Andres de Sevilla.
1713 to } Zurreño, Antonio Madrid.
1715. }
1799 to } Ximenez, Manuel Toledo.
1800. }
I owe to the courtesy of Baron Ch. Davillier the names of the following
artists, which appear in his "Histoire des Principaux Orfèvres
Espagnols," Paris, 1879.
Perez de las Cellas, Antonio, a native of Saragossa;
he worked at Rome in 1456
Ruiz, Alonso; he worked at Toledo in 1431
Ferrandez, Garci; he worked at Toledo in 1431
Pielagos, Juan Garcia, Burgos 1442
Fernai, Rodrigo, a Frenchman, who worked at Oviedo in 1368
Bells, Antonio, Barcelona 1458
Closes, Francisco, Barcelona 1464
Rodriguez de Villareal, Lope, Toledo 1466
Sano, Salvador, Barcelona 1475
Zobarola, Francisco, Banet 1480
Jujuce, a Valencian jew, Pamplona 1356
Freset, Perrin, } Frenchmen working at Olite, Navarre, in 1444
Rodez, Conrat de, }
Bonte, Daniel de, a German, working at Olite, in Navarre about 1400
Valdubia, Maestro Ferrando, Rome 1525
Fuente, Gonsalvo de, Rome 1539
Alfonso, Rome 1546
IRON WORK.
Numerous iron mines have existed in Spain, especially in the Cantabrian
provinces, and have been worked from very early times. They are
mentioned by Pliny, lib. 34, cap. xii., and have given rise to the
development of excellent metal works in the Spanish Peninsula: although
in many localities this tradition has been continued until our days, the
Basque Provinces have in all times excelled in this artistic industry.
The want of durability and the little care taken of objects of
iron-work, owing to the insignificant value of the material employed,
prevent us from being able to mention any important examples of a very
early date. After drawing attention to some interesting specimens which
have reached us from the Spanish-Arabs, we must begin the history of
iron-work in Spain in the second half of the 15th century; it continues
to progress in the 16th, and produced undoubtedly at that period works
which were unrivalled in Europe. The _rejas_ or chancel screens
enclosing chapels in the cathedrals of Toledo, Seville, Granada,
Salamanca, and other churches in Spain, of which it is much to be
deplored no drawings or photographs exist, deserve the especial
attention of those who follow this industry in the present day, owing to
the beauty of their forms, and the inexhaustible variety of models which
they present to the manufacturer.
Besides specimens of Iron-work connected with arms which will be
described in a separate article, the most interesting examples of
Moorish manufacture which have reached us are keys of most delicate
tracery; their perfect state of preservation shows that they have only
been used as symbols of cities or fortresses, which on given occasions
were offered to kings or great people. Even in the present day the
ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who
stay at the royal palace of Madrid, and in a similar manner as far back
as the Middle Ages, keys have been presented to Spanish sovereigns on
their visiting such towns as Toledo or Seville, and a ceremonial is gone
through of swearing to uphold their privileges, a reminiscence probably
of what occurred when these towns were conquered from the Moors.
One of these keys at Valencia, belonging to Count de Trigona, measures
9-1/2 inches long, and was originally gilt; its handle or bow is closed,
and covered with delicate work in relief. The wards are ornamented in
the same manner with a combination of several words written in Cufic
letters of difficult interpretation. Round the handle we can read most
distinctly in Arabic the name of the artist: "It was made by Ahmed
Ahsan."
This key appears to be of the 13th to 14th century. Two similar ones
existed in the town hall of Valencia of a most monumental character;
they were considered of great antiquity, but it has been ascertained
that they were made in 1632, by the locksmith Juan Marti.
In the shrine of the Cathedral of Seville there are two interesting keys
(_see_ woodcut); one of them is of iron, the other of silver, of a
similar style. For further details see "Museo Español de Antiguedades,"
vol. ii., p. I. The first, which is represented to the right, is of
genuine Moorish workmanship; the wards are covered with letters in Cufic
characters, which several oriental scholars have tried to interpret,
without coming to a satisfactory conclusion, probably owing to the
confused, or double meaning of the letters. It is supposed with good
foundation that this was the identical key which was given to King St.
Ferdinand, the conqueror of Seville, in 1248, the day he took possession
of the city. The silver key, to the left of the plate, has traces of
gold and niello work, representing in the upper part, ships, castles and
lions. Round the handle runs an inscription in Hebrew--"The King of
Kings will open; the King of the whole Earth will enter." In the wards
appear in delicate open work carving the following words in Spanish,
"God will open; the king will enter. Dios abrirá; rey entrará." It may
be affirmed to have been made in the 14th century, and in that case,
symbolizes some event of the life of King Pedro the Cruel, a great
protector of the Jewish race. Five Moorish keys of a similar kind, but
inferior merit, may be seen in the local Museum of Segovia, and the
Archæological Museum of Madrid.
[Illustration: MOORISH KEYS IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
The objects of iron-work made by the Christian artists of this period in
Spain must have been good, for although no specimens exist, we have at
any rate historical information which confirms this. In the Consistorial
Ordinances of Barcelona, Capmany, "Memoirs," vol. i., we find that
ironsmiths formed an extensive guild in the 13th century; in 1257 four
of its members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
increased in importance in the following centuries. The Ordinances of
Seville of the 15th century, which were reformed in 1502, and those of
Toledo, also re-enforced in 1582, give an idea of what was done by
workers in bronze, the methods of workmanship and other details of
interest. The Ordinances of Seville mention _rejas_ made in Biscay, and
give a good idea of the styles adopted by the iron-masters there. The
Ordinances of Granada repeat almost exactly the former prescriptions.
The Cathedrals and large churches in Spain lent themselves in an
admirable manner to the construction of objects of all kinds in iron
work, especially the railings enclosing the side chapels, or sepulchres,
and the double screens required for the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_,
owing to the ancient Spanish custom of constructing the choir in the
centre of the principal nave of the cathedral. Hence we meet with names
of the iron-masters, _rejeros_, mentioned in early documents as attached
to the different cathedrals in the same manner as painters and
architects. We find Bartolomé Morey working at Palma de Mallorca in 1389
to 1397. He was succeeded by his son Juan, from 1401 to 1407. See
Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas de España." Maestro Basil worked at
Burgos, and Maestro Pablo at Toledo and its dioceses towards the end of
the same century. Maestro Juan Francés worked at Toledo in 1482. By this
same artist is the beautiful _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of the
_Colegiata_ of Alcala de Henares; it is signed, "Maestre Juan Francés,
maestro mayor de las obras de fierro en España." From this time the
names of iron-masters are well known and numerous; we may safely affirm
that those who lived in the 16th century have left us the most important
works.
One of the finest specimens of this artistic industry is the splendid
_reja_ which divides the nave at the royal chapel of Granada. Its
immense size has enabled the artist to carry out a splendid
ornamentation in the "plateresque style," combined with reliefs on a
large scale of figures of apostles and saints, terminated at the upper
part with a wide band of ornamentation of leaves and flowers, crowned
with a Rood, with the Virgin and St. John on either side. The splendid
balustrades and supports are forged with the hammer; the figures and
circular piers are formed of large plates, _repoussé_ and carved in the
most admirable manner, and give a good idea of the difficulties of this
work, which the artists of this time had overcome, long before the
various technical facilities of the present day existed. The
ornamentation of this _reja_ was originally gilt, and the figures are
painted in oils. It was made about the year 1520 to 1530; in the lock,
formed as a Gothic pinnacle, is a small inscription, "Maestro Bartolome
me fec." This same artist worked at Jaen and Seville. Cean Bermudez
calls him "sculptor and iron-master."
Two most important specimens of iron-work exist also at the cathedral of
Toledo, enclosing the _Capilla Mayor_ and _Coro_. The _reja_ of the
Capilla Mayor is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests on a pediment
of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work, upon which rises the
_reja_, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of
ornamentation, and this again vertically in five compartments. In each
vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of _repoussé_
plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the renaissance style, this
is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The
second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in an horizontal
sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is
terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety
of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from
a thick chain supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood, of
admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there
are labels with mottos in Latin; in one of them appears the following
inscription, and the date of 1548 when this splendid work was finished:
"Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P. M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez
Siliccus. Archipiscopus. Tolet. Hispaniae. Primat." The railings of this
_reja_ are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist
who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid; this
model was chosen among those of several artists, who presented their
plans in competition before the ecclesiastical authorities; it is
calculated that ten years elapsed before it was finally finished in
1548. Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a sculptor and
architect. In 1563 a book was printed after his death of a translation
he made of the work on architecture by Sebastian Serlio. Other
remarkable bronze works of art, which will be described further on, were
also by him.
The _reja_ of the coro, which is placed opposite that of the Capilla
Mayor, is almost exactly similar in size. It is less rich in
ornamentation, but so pure and sober in its general lines, and its
ornamentation is so perfect, that it is perhaps superior to the other.
This _reja_ consists of a single architectonical body, divided in six
vertical compartments, covered with bas reliefs of such delicate work
that they appear rather to be by the hand of a silversmith than by an
iron-master. An innumerable number of figures are combined with the
ornamentation in the base, terminations of the columns and coronation;
in the same manner it is full of banderoles with Latin mottos, and gilt
and silvered; it was finished in 1548, as we see by the inscription.
This _reja_ was made by Domingo de Cespedes, a native of Toledo, with
the help of his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo; the design was also chosen
by competition, and it was finished in seven years. Both these admirable
models of iron-work belong to the best productions of the renaissance
school, and contain models which might be adapted with great advantage
to ironwork of every description in the present day.
It would be an interminable task to describe the multitude of railings
similar in richness and good taste to these which happily survive in
Spanish cathedrals and churches. It is sufficient to call attention to
the following. The _reja_ of the Capilla del Condestable in the
cathedral of Burgos, by Christoval de Andino in 1523, has been
considered one of the finest specimens of its kind, owing to the
perfection with which every detail is carried out. A contemporary
writer in describing it says: "Good workmen, and those who wish that
their work may have authority and be blameless, must endeavour to be
guided by ancient models, as your fellow-citizen, Cristoval de Andino;
his works are thereby more elegant and excellent than any others which I
have seen up to the present time; if not, judge of his work by looking
at the _reja_ which he is making for your lord the Condestable, which is
undoubtedly superior to all those which have hitherto been made in
Spain." Sagredo--"Medidas del Romano," quoted by Cean Bermudez. In the
centre of the upper part, towards the middle, appears the inscription:
"Ab. Andino, A.D. MDXXIII." The _reja_ of the _coro_ of the cathedral of
Seville, made by the iron-master, Sancho Muñoz in 1519, a native of
Cuenca, is also very remarkable; besides the finer ornamentation which
covers it, it has figures of kings and prophets representing the
genealogy of Our Lord. The _reja_ belonging to the _capilla mayor_ of
the same cathedral was the work of Friar Francisco de Salamanca,
1518-1533; it is covered with an open-work ornamentation, figures of
angels and bas-reliefs, and is terminated in the upper part with a
representation of the Entombment of Our Lord. The large _reja_ of the
cathedral of Cuenca, made by Arenas in 1517, those at Palencia, by
Andino, 1520, and Rodriguez, 1555; the one at the church of Sn. Juan de
la Penitencia, Toledo; the beautiful railing at the chapel of
Palenzuela, in the cathedral of Salamanca, 1524, and a number of objects
of smaller size, such as iron pulpits in the cathedrals of Barcelona,
and in some chapels at Burgos, Avila, Palencia, and Toledo, several of
which are anterior to the 16th century, are all worthy of the student's
especial notice. Among these objects of smaller dimensions special
reference must be made to the fine and picturesque _reja_ surrounding
the sepulchre of Archbishop Diego de Anaya, in the chapel of Sn.
Bartolomé, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca. The beauty of
its details and the open-worked inscription which surrounds it, place
it at once among the finest specimens of ironwork of the 15th century.
The two window _rejas_ at the house called "de las Conchas" in the same
town--an admirable specimen of Burgundian architecture, although
restored--may be quoted as excellent models of ironwork applied to civil
buildings.
Iron pulpits have been made in Spain with great success. Two interesting
examples of the end of the 15th century still exist at the cathedral of
Avila. They are hexagonal in shape, and supported by lions' claws; they
were originally gilt. One of these pulpits is ornamented in the
Flamboyant style, the other in good Renaissance; consult Sir Digby
Wyatt's "Architect's Note Book in Spain." Friar Francisco de Salamanca
made two interesting iron pulpits for the cathedral of Seville; they are
covered with bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and subjects taken
from the Acts of the Apostles and the Apocalypse. The pulpit at the
parish church of S^{n.} Gil de Burgos must also be mentioned. Mr. Street,
notwithstanding his want of sympathy with every object not strictly of
the Middle Ages, says: "It is of very late date, end of the 15th
century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The support is of
iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The framework at the
angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the ironwork is laid. The
traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid one over the other,
and the ironwork is in part gilded, but I do not think that this is
original. The canopy is of the same age and character, and the whole
effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw other
pulpits, but none so old as this."
Among the applications of iron to decorations of civil architecture must
be specially mentioned the nails and knockers on the doors of houses,
which are so characteristic of Toledo and other old Spanish towns. This
style was imitated from the Moors. Some doors still exist at the
Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous heads of nails of a
half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These same nails are
constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which are added in the
angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order. A large number of these
nails from Toledo, are in the Kensington Museum. Examples of two are
given.
[Illustration: SPANISH NAIL HEADS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
After the 16th century this industry loses its artistic interest and
importance. Ironwork becomes simply practical and useful, and ceases to
reproduce the grand carved and chiselled works of former times. The
artistic objects are reduced to specimens on a small scale: door-locks,
of which an excellent example exists at the church of Calatravas,
Madrid; a weighing machine, made by the locksmith Salinas for the Mint
in the 17th century, which was exhibited at the Special Loan Collection
of Scientific Apparatus at Kensington in 1876, the fine ornamentation of
the clock of the cathedral of Seville, made in the last century by Friar
Josef Cordero, and the very remarkable iron locks made by Millan at the
beginning of the present century, for the rooms at the palace of the
Escurial, called "Piezas de Maderas finas." The art of inlaying iron
with gold and silver, constitutes in Spain a special industry; the
principal artists who carry it out at the present time with great skill
are Messrs. Zuluaga at Madrid, and Alvarez at Toledo. The splendid
sepulchre of General Prim at the church of Atocha, Madrid, made entirely
of damasquiné ironwork, is worthy of the greatest commendation; the fine
vases and shields of _repoussé_ ironwork inlaid with gold, made by
Alvarez of Toledo, are artistic and excellent revivals of the Milanese
work of the 16th century.
IRON MASTERS.
Year in which Locality of
they worked. Name. their Residence.
1520. Avila, Fr. Juan de Guadalupe.
1527. Andino, Pedro Seville.
1540. Andino, Christoval Toledo.
1557. Arenas, Hernando Cuenca.
1523. Bartolmé, El Maestro Jaen and Seville.
1555. Barco, Alonso Palencia.
1559. Brabo, Hernando Toledo.
1579. Cela, Juan Tomas Zaragoza.
1541. Cespédes, Domingo de Burgos.
1561. Corral, Ruy Diaz del Toledo.
1604. Celma, Juan Bautista Aragon y Galicia.
1692. Conde, Sebastian Seville.
1797. Cordero, Fr. Josef Seville.
1537. Delgado, Juan Seville.
1540. Domingo, Maestro Toledo.
1518. Elias, Joan de Palencia.
1519. Esteban, Maestro Seville.
1494. Frances, Juan Toledo.
1555. Herreros, Llorente Palencia.
1522. Idrobo, Diego Seville.
1524. Juan, Fray Seville.
1518. Lopez, Juan do Urisarri Palencia.
1531. Lemosin Cuenca.
1518. Muñoz, Sancho Cuenca.
1389. Morey, Bartolomo Palma de Mallorca.
1555. Moreno, Benegno Palencia.
1565. Pedro, Maestre Palencia.
1533. Palencia, Antonis de Seville.
1607. Peñafiel, Luis de Toledo.
1510. Prieto, Fernando Seville.
1512. Prelojero, Juan Palencia.
1555. Rodriguez, Gaspar Palencia.
1607. Rodriguez, Bartolomé Toledo.
1607. Silva, Francisco de Toledo.
1533. Salamanca, Francisco de Seville.
1518. Urisarri, Lopez Palencia.
1561. Villalpando Toledo.
1518. Yepes, Juan de Seville.
BRONZES.
Objects of bronze of native origin are less frequently met with in Spain
than those of silver and iron. Many foreign artists worked at this
industry, the history of which only begins in the 16th century. The
specimens of bronze work made by the Moors will be described in their
proper place. It is true that examples of bronze made by the Iberians
and Romans are frequently met with in excavations; they consist chiefly
of hatchets and other arms, bracelets, fibulas, etc., but they are
similar in every respect to objects of the same kind found in other
European countries. During the Middle Ages, objects of enamelled gilt
bronze were used on a very large scale in churches; specimens of a very
high order may be seen in Spain, such as the splendid altar at San
Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre; that at Santo Domingo de Silos, and the
statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban, Salamanca. These
objects were, however, probably made at Limoges, or in some other
locality out of Spain. We hardly can trace any bronze of this period but
cathedral bells. One was made at Puig-Valencia as early as A.D. 622,
melted in 1550, the only trace of the early work being the inscription
and date, which are given by contemporary authors.
Another bell, about half a foot high, of A.D. 875, exists at the Local
Museum of Cordova, with the inscription: "_Offert hoc munus Samson
abbatis in domum Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ DCCCCXIII." We
find the name of "_Joannes Calcena me fecit Anno Domini 1306_," on a
bell at the cathedral of Valencia, and on one of Lerida was to be read:
"_Fecit factum per magistrum Joannem Adam Anno Dei 1418 in mense
Aprili_;" the author appears to have been, by reference to the documents
of the church, "_de burgo Sanctæ Mariæ Turlensis diocesis regni
Franciæ_," for details see Villanueva, vol. ii., p. 147-152, xvi. 88.
Before entering into the renaissance period, I must mention some
remarkable specimens which have reached us, the work of the Spanish
Arabs. Probably the most ancient and interesting is a sculpture
representing a stag, now at the Provincial Museum of Cordova, which
evidently belonged to a fountain. It was found in the ruins of the
palace of Medina Az Zahra, the construction of which corresponds to the
time of Abd er Rahman III., (961); it is undoubtedly work of this
period, and probably belonged to this palace, so celebrated by Oriental
writers. The fragments of a bronze fountain and several lamps, at the
Museum of Granada, are of a later date; they were found in the
excavations of the early city of Illiberis, which was abandoned in the
11th century, when its inhabitants chose the present site of Granada.
The fragments, which are supposed to have belonged originally to a
fountain, consist of a small temple 22 inches high, of an hexagonal
base, with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes,
cupola, and turrets: in the angles are birds. There are six lamps, all
of which are mutilated and incomplete; their form and object is
indicated by the remains of chains which suspended them. Some of them
are half melted, giving testimony to the conflagration which the mosque
suffered in the time of the Arabs. Other bronze fragments have been
found in the same locality. All these objects are artistic in their
general lines, but the workmanship is indifferent, and the ornamentation
heavy and coarse.
A bronze lion and a mortar, found some years since in the province of
Palencia, are more artistic in form and general details. The mortar was
found near Monzon, and the lion not far from it. Remains still exist of
a castle, which was founded by the Arabs, in the locality, and which at
the beginning of the 11th century was in the hands of the Christians; it
is highly probable that these objects belonged to its Moorish
inhabitants. If we take into account how frequently we find Oriental
remains in this locality, both these objects may be safely classified as
belonging to the 10th century, although there are details in their
ornamentation which appear rather to be of a later period. The lion is
12-1/2 inches high by 14-1/2 inches long; an aperture in the lower part
which communicates with the mouth of the animal, appears to suggest that
it belonged to a fountain, the water of which issued, or not, owing to
the movement of the tail, which rotates and acts as a key. The shape of
this lion recalls those at the Alhambra; its forms are stiff and
angular, in the conventional Oriental manner of reproducing animated
beings. The surface is covered with ornamentation, the mane is arranged
in mannered and symmetrical curls, like those so common in Assyrian
sculptures. On the back and two sides is the following inscription in
Cufic characters:
[Illustration: Arabic "Perfect blessing. Complete happiness."]
This object is similar in detail and the inscription to a bronze griffin
at the cemetery of Pisa; it belonged to the collection of the painter
Fortuny, and at the sale in 1875 it was bought by Mr. E. Piot.
The mortar is circular in form, and is surrounded by twelve prismatic
sections. Two lions' heads serve to support the hanging rings or
handles. The whole of the outside is most delicately carved with
arabesques, among which are to be met frequently figures of birds and
quadrupeds. See "El arte en Esp.," vol. iii., Madrid, 1864. The
following inscription in elegant Cufic characters runs round the upper
part: it is repeated twice. "Complete blessing, and ever-increasing
happiness and prosperity of every kind, and an elevated and happy
social position for its owner." From the richness of the ornamentation
of this object, it is probable that it was used to pound aromatic drugs.
A bronze lamp of a similar ornamentation was found some years ago at
Cordova--it is not unlike in form and shape Roman lamps of the same kind
made of earthenware. It is engraved all over, and the subject of a dog
pursuing a hare appears often repeated. None of these objects of bronze
work are however equal in importance to a lamp made during the reign of
Mohammed III. of Granada, now at the Archæological Museum, Madrid [See
Plate.] It is composed in its base of a body destined to hold the light,
upon which is supported a large four-sided piece in the form of a
pyramid, which is completed with an octagonal body which surmounts it.
Four graduated balls suspend it. The height of this lamp is 2-1/2 yards,
and taking into account its general structure, it appears as if the
chains or intermediate pieces are wanting, which probably existed on the
inverted bell of the base. The manufacture and elegance of decoration of
this object is of a very high order, and may be compared with bronze
work of Damascus. The greater part of the pieces are covered with
pierced open work, and the motto of the Kings of Granada, "There is no
conqueror but God." In the lower part of the large pyramid, truncated in
four sides, is a long inscription in Arabian characters, stating the
lamp to have been made by order of Mohammed III. year of the Hegira, 705
(A.D. 1305).
The remaining objects of bronze work of Spanish-Moorish production are
less important. They are interesting notwithstanding. The spherical
perfume-burners which were used to roll on the pavement are highly
artistic and might be adopted in the present day. One or two bronze
buckets of a well exist at the Madrid Archæological Museum, with some
small objects of little importance found at Cordova. This artistic
industry has continued until the present day in Spain in the form of
objects of domestic use, such as brasiers, mortars and lamps, several of
which preserve their ancient traditional form.
[Illustration: MOORISH LAMP. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM, MADRID.]
In metal work as in architecture, a large number of instances exist in
Spain in which the Christian and Moorish styles are blended--as an
example of this style may be mentioned the fine bronze gates of the
cathedral of Toledo. These doors, which are 18 ft. high by 12 ft. wide,
are covered on both sides with bronze plates; the outer side is
decorated with a geometrical Moorish design and small Arabic
inscriptions, alternating with castles and a number of Arabic mottoes.
In one of the side bands and in the lower part may be read in Spanish
the following inscription:
"Estas puertas fueron acabadas en el mes de Marzo era de mil c ccc.
setanta e cinco años."
"These doors were finished in the month of March, in the era of 1375
years" (A.D. 1337).
The fine doors of the cathedral of Cordova, del Perdon, are similar in
style. They are made of wood and covered with bronze plating, and Gothic
and Arabic inscriptions,--the word "Deus," and
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The empire belongs to God, all is His." Round these doors, alternating
with the arms of Castille and Leon, is the following inscription. "Dia
dos del mes de Marzo de la era del Cesar de 1415 años, (A.D. 1377.)
Reinante el muy alto et poderoso D. Enrique, rey de Castilla." These
doors were restored in 1539.
The Puerta del Perdon of the cathedral of Seville is similar in style,
and a good example of moresque bronze work.
Returning to the bronze work of the Christian artists of the renaissance
period, the general rule which may be established with reference to
statues is that they have been made by foreign artists. This is the case
with the splendid groups of figures at the high altar and presbytery of
the Escorial by Pompeyo Leoni, the equestrian statue of Philip IV. by
Pedro Tacca, and others of a similar kind. One of the very few
exceptions to this rule occurs in Bartolomé Morel, a Spaniard, the
author of the statue called the "Giralda" on the tower of the cathedral
of Seville, the desk of the choir, and _Tenebrarium_ at the same church.
These objects were all by him, and are among the finest specimens of
bronze work in Spain. The _Tenebrarium_ is described by Cean Bermudez in
his "Descripcion artistica de la catedral de Sevilla," p. 129, in the
following manner: "This object is better executed and more graceful in
design than any of its kind in Spain. It consists of a triangular
candelabrum, which is used during matins in the three last days of Holy
Week with fifteen tapers, which are extinguished on reading each psalm.
"It was designed and executed by Bartolomé Morel in 1562. Juan Giralte,
a native of the Low Countries, and Juan Bita Vazquez helped him to make
the statues which are at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro
Delgado, a sculptor of great renown, worked at the foot.
"It is 8 yards and a half high, and the triangular upper part is 3 yards
wide: it is surmounted by fifteen statues which represent Our Saviour,
the Apostles and two other disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space
of the triangle there is a circle ornamented with foliage, in the centre
of which is a figure in high relief of the Blessed Virgin, underneath is
a medallion bust of a king. This centre is of bronzed wood, and is
supported by four small bronze columns, below which are four caryatides,
resting on a nobly designed border ornamented with lions and other
animals in the renaissance style." See woodcut on next page.
[Illustration: THE TENEBRARIUM IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.]
Villalpando distinguished himself at the cathedral of Toledo in the same
way as Morel at Seville. The splendid _reja_ at the Capilla Mayor with
the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions,
1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the
coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of
the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their
sides are admirably decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite work
divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The
door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates
ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in
their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been
copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreño y Dominguez.
Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir
books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt
bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the
Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by
Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some
years afterwards.
Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century
for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the
cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between
the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the
saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the
inscriptions may be read: "_Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria
pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostellæ faciebat._" The other
artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of
the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79.
Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in
the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural
shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in
the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The
other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a
triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine
surmounted by a crucifix.
[Illustration: SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli,
Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs
of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar
frontal, at the burial-place of the kings of Spain at the Escorial, is
a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa
Forma, also at the Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship--both
these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de
la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the
reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze.
The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of
artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes--the bas-reliefs of this
metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of
Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad
taste. They are by Narciso Thomé; the architecture, painting, statues
and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as
appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in
1734.
On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects
were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so
general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present
century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his
auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects
of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the
porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of
pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there
produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and
the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial.
ARMS.
Those who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in
Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils
of this period at the Muséo Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found
in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of
hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are
similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and
centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the
implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European
races of the prehistoric period.
The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze,
are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muséo of
Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of
swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the
same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of
a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on
both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the
centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade,
and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches
long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the
centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow
points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the
numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The
hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their
handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones.
One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a
dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S^{r}. Villaamil:
it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muséo
Español de Antiguedades, iv. 63.)
The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of
doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their
discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some
evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom
the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and
MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have
investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish
authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no
reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this
subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear
that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time
as the iron ones.
In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find
that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well
known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary
books on archæology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans
imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important
exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must
have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the
Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in
which they were tempered. Suidas says: _Romani patriis gladiis depositis
Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et
fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt._ The locality where the best
swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon),
the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the
river Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals,
says, _Salone qui ferrum gelat._ These swords were wide, and cut on both
edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs
of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be
seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long.
The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the
name of _falcata_, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has
been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in
proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like
a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in
the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum,
is 22-1/2 inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very
famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of
Julius Cæsar, says, in mentioning them: _Ima toletano præcingant ilia
cultro_; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great
importance.
I must end by mentioning the _funda_, or slings, and leaden plummets
(_glandes_), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the
Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great
praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities. _Funda._)
During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been
introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to
the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental
influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and
explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies,"
lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general
rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths,
and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the
breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the
legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail
or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing
these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different
sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in
Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body
was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th
century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain.
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to
use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish
arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is
similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of
this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only
exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the
Moorish conquest and influence.
The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the
8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and
weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models;
their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other
weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it
is chiefly confined to their decoration.
None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so
delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the
Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years
of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in
India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre
where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic
manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the _Treatise on steel
blades_ in the library of Gotha, that on _Different kinds of arms, with
the properties of lances, swords, and horses_, in the Library of Leyden,
and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the
"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed
in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those
in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this
industry during the Middle Ages.
The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they
invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the
traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of
tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852)
reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al
Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don
Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the
industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs
during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous
for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on
Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been
derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, V. I. and V.). Almeria, Murcia,
Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture
during the domination of the Arabs in Spain.
We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also
famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron,
copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i.
p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says,
"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and
scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper
for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that
the mere thought of it confuses the imagination."
The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The
steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much
time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in
this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the
Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In
the following century we find in the will of King D^{n}. Pedro, "I also
endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville,
ornamented with stones and gold."
No specimens of Hispaño moresque swords exist previous to the 15th
century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period,
all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of
civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword,
dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic
costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the
possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were
gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482
at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of
the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have
been kept as heirlooms since that time.
The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the
hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S^{r}. Fernandez, in his
article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been
added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo
blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso
Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre."
I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the
other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has
likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest
that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly
fit the sheath, which is the original one.
[Illustration: Arabic]
[Illustration: Arabic]
The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue,
white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars.
The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are
on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters: (may
you) "obtain your object." On the other side: "in saving his life."
[Illustration: SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.]
Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the
following inscription in rather illegible characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity
but he, happiness proceeds from God alone."
In the lower part in similar shields we read:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at
first, for it is their habit to err."
On the pommel is the following inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was
engendered."
Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..."
[Illustration: Arabic]
On the other side: "was neither created, nor engendered, and has no
equal."
On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following
letters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God is gifted with the best memory."
The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D^{n} Pascual de Gayangos, is
of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the
shoulder blades. A small bag, _tahali_, probably hung also from the
leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca.
The _montante_, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt
inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God alone is the conqueror."
The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent.
The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron,
ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is
damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"].
On the opposite side:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"It was made by Reduan."
The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of
silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet
embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold
thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which
possesses no artistic interest.
The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a
Moorish dagger of the 15th century.
A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at
Granada at the _Administrador's_ of the Generalife. It belongs to the
marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who
was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an
interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de
Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the
Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a
saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo
Arqueologico, Madrid.
The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the
Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the
importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have
been greater. The _almofar_, which appears by its name to have been
originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents
from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar
form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood
made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon
it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal
Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very
remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of
Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They are decorated with
gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best
oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to
the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which
belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria.
[Illustration: MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.]
The _adargas_, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted
by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in
the centre, _ombilicus_, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose
of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick
cowhide, _vacaries_, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways,
sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming
arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and
leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and
pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used,
terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a
sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the
paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection
of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not
earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them
are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are
exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the
latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they
appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V.
Ivories, p. 130], dated A.D. 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of
that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm
these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add.
ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the
monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109.
Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of
these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent
Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are
interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the
Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This
resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the
costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period
were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the
fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the
ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German
and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of
our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on
the disc."
These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the
Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are
adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date
to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides
the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza,
Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers
of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's _bilbo_, a rapier made at Bilbao
in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in
the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done
at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the
heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name
of _perrillo_ were highly esteemed in Spain during the 15th and 16th
centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes
mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and
"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had
been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of
Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at
Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit
excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry.
During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established
in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was
concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of
sword making.
We find that the Municipal Ordinances of the Middle Ages give very
little information by which we can judge of the merits of the objects
produced. A Guild of Armourers existed at Barcelona as early as 1257,
and of Sword makers from the 14th century; but the information given
concerning this subject is very slight. We find more details in the
Ordinances of Toledo, Seville, and Granada, whence we learn that
manufactories of arms existed in these towns.
The sword manufactory of Toledo acquires its greatest importance during
the Renaissance period until the end of the 17th century, when it
terminated. It was re-established again in 1760 under the patronage of
the Government, and continues to work in the present day. Don Francisco
de Santiago Palomares wrote, in 1772, an "Account of the Sword
Manufactory of Toledo," the manuscript of which exists at the Academia
de la Historia (E. 41). The most interesting part of this study consists
in the details given upon the manner of tempering the blades. The names
he has collected of the most remarkable artists, are taken from the
original dies of their marks which existed at the Archives of the
Ayuntamiento at Toledo. These marks have been published in the "Catalogo
de la Armeria," Madrid, 1849, from which I copy them. It must be borne
in mind that Palomares, after quoting the text by the Poet Gracio
Falisco, which I have given at the beginning, does not establish any
definite fact which enables us to study the historical progress of this
manufactory during the Middle Ages. The author says, p. 111: "At the
beginning of this industry there was no centralization or monopoly in
this manufactory, some armourers formed a guild, placing each artist in
his proper place. The kings of Castille granted them privileges of
different kinds."
Bowles says, in his "Introduction to the Natural and Geographical
History of Spain," that the steel used at the manufactory of Toledo was
taken from an iron mine existing at a league from Mondragon, the only
one then known in Spain.
The celebrity of Toledo blades has excited the curiosity of many who
wished to ascertain the cause of their great excellence and renown. Some
supposed the sword manufacturers of Toledo possessed a secret for
tempering their arms: it was not so, however; their only secret being
the waters of the Tagus and the fine white sand on its banks. This sand
was used for cooling the steel: when the steel was red-hot, and began to
give forth sparks, it was uncovered a little and sprinkled with sand,
and sent on to the forgers. As soon as the blade was ready it was
tempered in the following manner: a line of fire was made and the blade
placed in it in such a manner that only four-fifths of its length should
touch the fire. As soon as the blade was red-hot it was dropped
perpendicularly into a bucket of Tagus water; when cold, if it was found
to be bent, a small portion of sand was poured on the yoke, the blade
was placed upon it, and beaten until properly straightened. After this
the fifth part of the blade was fired, and when red-hot was seized with
tongs and rubbed with suet, which soon began to melt; after this the
blade was sent to the grinding-stones, and finished by being polished by
wooden wheels with emery powder.
Charles the Third, a year after he became King of Spain, re-established
officially the manufactory of arms of Toledo. He placed it in a
building near the Miradero Alto, and the works began in 1761. The king
soon found the building too small for the purpose, and ordered his
architect, Sabatini to build the present one, outside the town near the
river Tagus, which was finished in 1783, and from this time has been
under the superintendence of the Royal Artillery. Not a single sword
maker existed in 1760 of any note who was competent to be placed at the
head of the works, and it was found necessary to bring a proper person
from Valencia.
Palomares, who was present, says: "As soon as the building was ready and
disposed for working, Luis Calisto, a famous sword maker, began to work.
Calisto was a native of Valencia, and more than 70 years of age when he
was appointed. Other artists were chosen at the same time by the
Director. In the short space of time in which that chief master armourer
lived, he made most excellent weapons; he was most skilful, and was
probably imitated by his successor."
NAMES OF THE SWORD MAKERS OF TOLEDO.
The numbers given correspond to the plates of their marks, given in
"Catalogo de la Real Armeria."
1. Alonso de Sahagun, el _viejo_, 1570.
2. Alonso de Sahagun, el _mozo_.
3. Alonso Perez.
4. Alonso de los Rios; he also worked at Cordova.
5. Alonso de Cava.
6. Andres Martinez.
7. Andres Herraez; he also worked at Cuenca.
8. Andres Munesten; worked at Calatayud.
9. Andres Garcia.
10. Antonio de Baena.
11. Antonio Gutierrez.
12. Antonio Gutierrez, a son of the former.
13. Antonio Ruiz, 1520; he used the initial letter of his name.
14. Adrian de Zafra; worked at Sn. Clemente.
15. Bartolomé de Nieva.
16. Casaldo y Campañeros; worked at Cuellar and Badajoz.
17. Domingo de Orozco.
18. Domingo Maestre, el _viejo_.
19. Domingo Maestre, el _mozo_.
20. Domingo Rodriguez.
21. Domingo Sanchez; called el Tigerero.
22. Domingo de Aguirre.
23. Domingo de Lama.
24. Domingo Corrientes; worked also at Madrid.
25. Fabrian de Zafra; hijo de Adrian.
26. Francisco Ruiz, el _viejo_, 1617.
27. Francisco Ruiz, el _mozo_.
28. Francisco Gomez.
29. Francisco de Zamora; worked also at Seville.
30. Francisco de Alcozer; worked at Madrid.
31. Francisco Lurdi.
32. Francisco Cordiu.
33. Francisco Perez.
34. Giraldo Reliz.
35. Gonzalo Simon, 1617.
36. Gabriel Martinez.
37. Gil de Almau.
38. Hortuño de Aguirre, 1604.
39. Juan Martin.
40. Juan de Leizalde; worked at Seville.
41. Juan Martinez, el _viejo_.
42. Juan Martinez, el _mozo_, 1617.
43. Juan de Almau, 1550.
44. Juan de Toro.
45. Juan Ruiz.
46. Juan Martinez de Garata.
47. Juan Martinez Menchaca; he lived at the beginning of the 16th
century, and worked at Lisbon, Seville, and Madrid.
48. Juan Ros.
49. Juan Moreno.
50. Juan de Saludo.
51. Juan de Meladoria.
52. Juan de Vargas.
53. Juan de la Horta, 1545.
54. Juanes de Toledo.
55. Juanes de Algruniva.
56. Juanes de Muleto.
57. Juanes, el _viejo_.
58. Juanes de Uriza.
59. Julian del Rey, the Moor; he worked for Boabdil, King of
Granada, 15th century.
60. Julian Garcia; worked also at Cuenca.
61. Julian de Zamora.
62. José Gomez.
63. Jusepe de la Hera, el _viejo_.
64. Jusepe de la Hera, el _mozo_.
65. Jusepe de la Hera, el _nieto_.
66. Jusepe de la Hera, el _visnieto_.
67. Jusepe del Haza.
68. Ignacio Fernandez, el _viejo_.
69. Ignacio Fernandez, el _mozo_.
70. Luis de Nieves.
71. Luis de Ayala.
72. Luis de Belmonte.
73. Luis de Sahagun.
74. Luis de Sahagun.
75. Luis de Nieva; worked at Calatayud.
76. Lupus Aguado, 1567.
77. Miguel Cantero, 1564.
78. Miguel Sanchez.
79. Melchor Suarez; worked at Lisbon.
80. Nicolas Hortuño de Aguirre, 1637.
81. Pedro de Toro.
82. Pedro de Arechiga.
83. Pedro Lopez; worked at Orgaz.
84. Pedro de Lerzama; worked at Seville.
85. Pedro de Lazaretea; worked at Bilbao.
86. Pedro de Orozco.
87. Pedro de Belmonte.
88. Roque Hernandez.
Sarabal; used no mark.
89. Sebastian Hernandez, el _viejo_, 1637.
90. Sebastian Hernandez, el _mozo_; he worked also at Seville.
91. Silvestre Nieto.
92. Silvestre Nieto.
93. Tomas de Ayala, 1625.
94. Zamorano, el Toledano.
Nos. 95, 96, 97, 98, and 99, are the marks of sword makers whose names
are unknown.
Miguel y Manuel Fernandez; worked at Toledo in 1786.
Pedro de Barreta; at Bilbao at the end of the 16th century.
The following names may be added to this list--
Luis Calisto, 1760; and the four following artists are mentioned by
Palomares as working at Toledo.
Juan de Valladolid.
Sebastian Herbás, 1617.
Manuel Ruiz, 1700.
Ignacio Fernandez, 1708.
Juan Orenga, 15th century; worked at Tortosa, and mentioned in the
"Corvacho" of the Arcipreste de Talavera, fol. xi.
Martin Garro, v. p. 120, "Almanaque de la Industria."
Alonso Gutierrez, master of sword making at Madrid in 1625.
This artist, and the eleven following, are mentioned in original
documents at the Academia de San Fernando.
Francisco de Borja, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1634.
Gaspar Martin, sword maker; working at Madrid in 1637.
Juan Mazon de Santorcas, sword maker and gilder; Madrid, 1636.
Juan de Medina; Madrid, 1620.
Lorenzo de los Rios; Madrid, 1585.
Miguel de Berrio; Madrid, 1575.
Pedro Casado, sword maker; Madrid, 1636.
Francisco de Elias, an apprentice of Pedro Casadós.
Francisco de Salinas; Madrid, 1636.
Acheza----; Toledo.
Camilo, 1500.
Two fine rapiers are in the Kensington Museum, Nos. 626, '68, and 2214,
'55, which belong to the 16th and 17th centuries, and give a good idea
of this industry of Toledo. Woodcuts of these appear on the opposite
page. One of the blades is marked with the name of Francisco Ruiz. A
large and most important collection of rapiers, swords, and other arms
exists at the Royal Armoury of Madrid.
The breastplates are unusually fine, but the finest among them are by
Milanese artists. A good example, which has been considered Spanish, was
formerly in the Bernal Collection (see woodcut on p. 98); it gives an
excellent idea of the artistic importance attained by this industry.
[Illustration: SPANISH RAPIERS. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
The saddles used in Spain were similar to those of other European
countries, for we find the same names adapted to the Spanish language.
In the poem of the Cid, 13th century, and other works of the Middle
Ages, _gallega_ and _barda_ saddles are mentioned which were peculiar to
Spain. The _gallega_ saddles were called so from being made in Gallicia;
the _barda_ proceeded from the Moors. We find no details which explain
their exact structure.
[Illustration: BREASTPLATE, FORMERLY IN THE BERNAL COLLECTION.]
A very remarkable collection of saddles of every description may be
studied at the fine collection of armour at Madrid; among them are two
of special interest--No. 2311 of "Catalogue of Armoury"--traditionally
supposed to have belonged to the Cid, and No. 1310, which was used by
King James the Conqueror in the 13th century. The Cid's saddle (see
woodcut) is intended for a war-horse; its bows are covered with black
metal plating, ornamented with a design of leaves and pilgrims' shells,
partially gilt, and the word "Fides," considered to be the Cid's
devise. Much has been written on the origin and authenticity of this
saddle. Cervantes alludes to it in the 49th Chapter of "Don Quixote,"
Part I. For further details see "Catalogue of the Armeria."
[Illustration: SADDLE OF THE CID. ARMOURY, MADRID.]
The greatest novelty which was introduced during the Renaissance period
was the use of fire-arms. The only names of ancient artists that I have
met with, who had any connection with the manufactory of large pieces of
artillery were Pedro Burgues, an iron master of Barcelona, who lived in
1393; Rodrigo de Almanza, and Pedro Colomer, who made fire-arms at
Barcelona in 1413; and the Moor, Alfarax Darhin, an iron master of
Tarazona; V. Fernandez Duro. [Museo Español, vol. v. p. 18.]
Portable fire-arms were introduced into Spain towards the middle of the
15th century. Count Clonard, in treating this subject in the "Memorias
de la Academia de la Historia," ix. p. 214, says:--"Alfonso de Palencia
tells us the _espingarda_, or large hand musket (see woodcut), and
_arbatana_ culverin, were used in the insurrection at Toledo in July,
1467. He assures us they had been very recently invented and named. They
had been mentioned as early as 1449. In the siege of Toledo, Don Alvaro
de Luna could not be kept back from the dangerous position in which he
had placed himself, notwithstanding the shower of stones, rockets,
arrows, and shots of _espingardas_ which were thrown into the town."
[Illustration: SPANISH MUSKETS.]
At the same time as these portable fire-arms were used in Spain, the
ancient _ballestas_, crossbows, so generally used in the Middle Ages,
were very popular. Several artists became very famous in their
manufacture. Alonso Martinez de Espinar enters into many details of this
implement in his rare volume on the "Arte de Ballesteria y Monteria,"
Madrid, 1644, 4to, from which I copy the following passage, p. 11:--"The
crossbow is more secure and less dangerous than the arquebuse; for it
has never been known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the
string or cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a
considerable extent. The crossbow has many advantages over the
arquebuse: it kills, but does not frighten game; this cannot be done
with the arquebuse, for the sound it makes alarms and frightens the
game, and is heard everywhere. Once set, its shot is secure; which is
not the case with the arquebuse, which often misses fire.
"This weapon has been used in Spain from very early times, and has been
made by the best masters; the most famous among them were--
Azcoitia el Viejo.
Pedro de la Fuente.
Christoval de Azcoitia.
Juan Hernandez.
Juan Perez de Villadiego.
Juan Azcoitia.
Vzedo.
Hortega.
"The only famous maker of crossbows of the present time is Juan de
Lastra."
Espinar does not mention the name of Miguel, a crossbow maker of
Zaragoza, or another celebrated maker who lived at Barbastro. The
ambassador Salinas alludes to them both in an hitherto unedited letter
written to King Ferdinand of Hungary, the brother of the Emperor Charles
V. He says:--"Before I was able to find a lodging in this town of Monzon
(Aragon), which was about five or six days, I went to Balbastro,
Barbastro, and there occupied myself in making a pair of crossbows for
your Majesty. I believe they are so made that they will satisfy the
desires which were required; they were made in my presence and according
to my wishes, and as your Majesty is annoyed when they do not go off as
you wish, I determined to make them in the following manner: One of them
weighs l. ounces, which is considered here a very great weight. I,
knowing your Majesty's wishes, had another made of lvi. ounces, that is
to say 3-1/2 lbs. of Castille, carved and worked in such a manner that
the cords should not break; and that it be pleasant to shoot, I can
affirm your Majesty that the maker is the best which exists in Spain,
and yet he has never made so fine a crossbow as this one which is now
sent to your Majesty; and if not to your liking, I do not expect you
ever will be pleased with one. I have sent them to Victoria in order
that the screws may be made to fit the cords, and have ordered them to
be made without delay; and as soon as they are ready they are to be sent
to Bilbao to be forwarded to Flanders to the Queen, to whom your Majesty
must write, in order that whatever you may wish may be done with them.
When we leave here, it is said, we are to go to Zaragoza, where your
Majesty will stay ten or twelve days. I will order two crossbows from
_Maestro Michel_, who competes with the maker at Barbastro. I will do
the same with these as the others. I entreat your Majesty should provide
that the best of the two should not be lost. I am thoroughly satisfied
with it, and am sure it will please your Majesty. From Monzon, 27th day
of August, MDXXXIII." (Copy of a letter by Martin de Salinas to
Ferdinand, King of Bohemia and Hungary, MS. fol. Acad. of History, c.
71).
Martinez de Espinar gives in his "Arte de Ballesteria," p. 41, the names
of the best Spanish arquebuse or musket makers, and says: "The first
cannon brought to Spain came from Germany; the artist who made them used
the following marks:--
"Two heads.
"A vase.
"A vase and pine.
"A pair of tongs.
"Flames.
"A knife.
"An excellent artificer worked formerly in Italy called Lazari Cominaz,
but many bad cannons have been attributed to him.
"The best Spanish masters were--
"Maestre Simon, el viejo.
"Maestre Pedro, his brother, who made at Madrid excellent cannon and
locks.
"They came over with the Emperor Charles V., and worked also for the
Kings Philip II. and III., and marked the pieces they made with three
sickles.
"Maestre Simon had four sons; all of them followed his profession.
Felipe and Simon Marcuarte have worked for Philip III. and IV. Simon
Marcuarte is still alive. They mark with a sickle in a shield, and make
also excellent hunting-knives, archers' knives, halberds, and other
things. Pedro, their brother, is also an excellent artificer.
"Juan Salado worked in several localities, and died at Salamanca. He was
an excellent arquebuse maker. His mark was the letter of his name and a
horse.
"Sanchez de Mirveña, his son-in-law, followed him. He marked with a lion
and his initials.
"Gaspar Fernandez was brought by King Ferdinand from Salamanca, and the
arms he makes are the best in Spain.
"Pedro Muñoz worked at Seville. He was surnamed El Toledano, and marked
with all the letters of his name.
"Juan de Metola did the same.
"Leguizamo worked at Seville. He marked with his name and two stags.
"Francisco Hernandez used his full name.
"Andres Herraez was a native of Cuenca. He made every sort of arm, and
marked with an eagle and his initials.
"Maestre Cristoval de Ricla marked with an X.
"Pedro Palacios with P P."
A fine musket exists by Palacios at the Royal Armoury of Madrid--No.
427. By Cristoval de Ricla there is a cannon of worked iron, No. 2319,
mounted on its gun-carriage, with the following inscription, "Hizome en
Ricla Cristoval Frisleva año, 1565." A fine gun, also at the Armeria, is
by the same artist.
Juan de Espinar does not mention the following artists, who lived at his
time at Madrid. I find their names given in original documents in the
Library of the Academia de San Fernando.
Bartolomé de Orgaz 1643
Juan de la Cruz 1629
Juan de Mazo 1613
Juan de Pozo 1625
Juan de Zuazo, armourer of his Majesty 1645
Lucas de Ros, armourer of his Majesty 1623-1628
Matias Suezo, was arquebusier of the guards of Seville in 1625
Rafael Villato in 1625
Pero Matia appears in documents of the archives of Simancas as musket-maker
living at the Alhambra at the end of the 16th century.
By extracting the information on this subject which is given in the
introduction to the Catalogue of the Armoury, we find this list can be
brought down to our time:--
Gaspar Hernandez had two excellent pupils.
Domingo Garcia and Juan Belen, who marked with a lion with a lifted paw.
He was appointed gunsmith to King Charles II. in 1699.
Alonso Martinez was an excellent artist; he marked his work with the
letters of his name.
Luis Santos, 1739.
Nicolas Bis.
Matias Baeza, gunsmith of King Philip V., 1739.
Alonso Martinez, 1732.
Diego Esquivel.
Juan Fernandez, appointed in 1726.
Diego Ventura, appointed gunsmith to Charles III., 1760.
Luis Santos.
Matias Baeza, 1740.
Francisco Bis.
Ignacio Barcina.
Sebastian Santos, 1752.
Gabriel de Algora, appointed gunsmith to Ferdinand VI., 1746.
Juan Fernandez.
Manuel Sutil, an excellent artist.
José Cano, 1740.
Joaquin Celaya, 1749.
José Lopez.
Diego Ventura.
Benito San Martin.
Juan Santos.
Francisco Lopez, a great artist, gunsmith of King Charles III., in 1761.
José Cano.
Diego Alvarez, 1775.
Joaquin Celaya.
Salvador Cenarro, 1762.
Antonio Gomez, 1762.
Pedro Ramirez.
Agustin Bustindui.
Sebastian Santos.
Pedro Fernandez.
Gabriel de Algora.
Agustin Ortiz, 1761.
Miguel Cegarra, 1768.
Francisco Lopez.
Francisco Garcia, 1788.
Isidoro Soler, 1792.
Francisco Targarona, 1792.
Gregorio Lopez, 1792.
Agustin Ortiz.
Pedro Fernandez.
Carlos Rodriguez.
Antonio Navarro.
Diego Alvarez.
Valentin Lopez.
Juan de Soto.
Carlos Montargis, 1783.
Manuel Cantero, 1792.
Hilario Mateo.
Antonio Gomez.
Juan Lopez.
Ramon Martinez.
Basilio Escalante.
Manuel Soler.
Melchor Alvarez, the first gunsmith who forged spiral cannon in Spain,
and made double-barrelled guns.
Gregorio Lopez.
Aquilino Aparicio.
Ramon Zuloaga.
Eusebio Zuloaga.
*** The marks used by these artists are given in plate 9 of "Catalogo de
la Armeria de Madrid," 1849.
Daggers, knives, scissors, and other small arms made in Spain, have been
famous from early times. A good example of a dagger is No. 2238, 55 at
the Kensington Museum. A great number of towns have been distinguished
for this industry, such as Albacete, Murcia, Alcazar de San Juan, and
Guadix, where even in the present day much cutlery is produced. The
cutlery made in Spain preserves the traditional Moorish forms. Al
Makkari says, in speaking of these objects, in his "Moham. Dyn. in
Spain," vol. i., p. 93:--"Murcia was likewise famous for the manufacture
of coats of mail, breast-plates, and steel armour inlaid with gold; all
kinds of instruments of brass and iron, such as knives, scissors, and
other trinkets, and especially weapons and other warlike instruments,
wrought in such perfection as to dazzle with their brightness the eyes
of the beholder." The translator adds, p. 393: "Several towns in the
province are renowned for this industry. At Albacete there are several
manufactures of well-tempered scissors, daggers, and knives, which, from
the shape of their blades, betray their Moorish origin. Since the
expulsion of the Moriscos, the Spaniards have kept up this manufacture,
and daggers and knives of the end of the last century are often met with
bearing Arabic inscriptions and verses from the Koran. I have seen one
which on one side has the following inscription, 'I shall certainly kill
thy enemies with the help of God,' and on the reverse, 'Fabrica de
Navajas de Antonio Gonzalez, Albacete, 1705.'"
Sr. Rico y Sinovas has published an interesting article on ironwork in
the "Almanaque de el Museo de la Industria," 1872. He gives the names of
the following artists who were famous in this industry.
Aguas, Juan; he worked at Guadix in 1735.
Albacete, signed Cel, 18th century.
Ambrosio, worked at Mora in the 18th century.
Arbell, Ramon, worked at Olot, Cataluña, in the 17th century.
Beson, Manuel, worked at Madrid.
Castellanos, el _viejo_, worked at Albacete in 1766.
Castellanos, el _mozo_, worked at Albacete in the 18th century.
Castello, Gregorio, 16th century.
Cerda, Miguel de la, worked at Madrid and Segovia in 1590.
Diaz, Pedro, worked at Albacete in the early half of the 18th
century.
Escobar, Cristoval, 16th century.
Escobar, Juan, 17th century.
Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jose, master cutler of the 18th century.
Garcia de la Torre, Teodoro, 18th century.
Garijo, master cutler of Albacete; he worked in 1771.
Gomez, Mateo, worked at Albacete in 1659.
Grande, Juan, 1643.
Gutierrez, worked at Chinchilla, 1701.
Herrezuelo, el _viejo_, worked at Baeza in 1643.
Herrezuelo, el _mozo_, worked at Baeza in 1643.
Horbeira, Angel, worked at Madrid in the second half of the 17th
century.
Lallave, Juan, locksmith of Madrid in 1820.
Leon, worked at Albacete early in the 18th century.
Llorens, Pablo, worked at Olot in 1699.
Moro, worked at Madrid late in the last century.
Ramirez, Juan, worked at Mexico in 1590.
Romero, worked at Albacete in 1769.
Rosel, worked at Mora.
San José, worked at Jaen in 1673.
Selva, Juan, worked at Cartagena in 1780.
Segura, worked at Mora towards the end of the last century.
Sierra, Juan, worked at Albacete in 1771.
Sosa, Madrid, 17th century.
Torres, Albacete, 17th century.
Vicen Perez, worked at Albacete in 1674.
Vilarosa, Antonio, worked in the 17th century.
Vicen Perez, Julian, worked at Albacete in 1710.
Zervantes, Francisco, Toledo, 17th century.
The following artists' names may be added; they consist of master
cutlers of Madrid, and are to be found in a bundle of original documents
at the Academy of San Fernando.
Alcocer, Francisco, 1635.
Baltanos, Lucas de, 1611.
Castillo, Rafael del, 1625.
Cuenca, Francisco de, 1613.
Fuente, Pedro de la, worked at Mora and Madrid in 1628.
Garcia, Bartolomé, 1642.
Gonzalez, Marcos, 1624, 1625.
Heras, Antonio de las, 1611.
Luzon, Andres de, 1611.
Martin, Alonso, 1643.
Martinez de Machuca, Pedro, 1611.
Morel, Alonso, 1643.
Rodriguez de Quiñones, Pedro, 1611.
Torres, Antonio de, 1622.
Valsarias, Lucas de, 1611.
The following names of artists are given in Calomarde's "Historia
Poli
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