A Greek Primer: For Beginners in New Testament Greek

by Wallace N. Stearns · English · Gutenberg #39292 · 42,567 chars · public domain (US)

The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Greek Primer: For Beginners in New Testament Greek

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: A Greek Primer: For Beginners in New Testament Greek

Author: Wallace N. Stearns

Release date: March 28, 2012 [eBook #39292]

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39292

Credits: Produced by Stanley A. Bridgeford

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GREEK PRIMER: FOR BEGINNERS IN NEW TESTAMENT GREEK ***

Produced by Stanley A. Bridgeford

A GREEK PRIMER
For Beginners in New Testament Greek

μηδὲν ἄγαν

Wallace N. Stearns

[image: logo]

THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN
NEW YORK CINCINNATI

WALLACE N. STEARNS

A scholarly knowledge of Greek requires some time and effort.
Every preacher and teacher of the New Testament books would be
greatly helped by being able even to refer to the dictionary
and to pick out the critical notes in a high-grade commentary.

In many instances memory has grown dim, and there is need of
some not too pretentious guide to a new beginning.

Out of many such experiences this meager outline has come, an
attempt built up on the old maxim, "Do not in the beginning
attempt too much."

SUGGESTIONS

1 Learn principles. Language preceded grammar, and the
latter is at best a generalization of the former.
2 Learn words. Acquire a vocabulary. The first step is
to know words and, further, to know them in their Greek
dress.
3 Read aloud. The ear lends efficient help to the eye.
There is an indefinable swing even to Greek prose that
facilitates study.
4 Commit passages—however brief—to memory. Better than
rules is a fund of actual examples, stored up in the memory,
of Greek as it was spoken and written.
5 With this outline the text of the forth Gospel should
be used from the start (see notice on next page) for study,
reading aloud, and for memorizing.
6 Remember that in the end all methods avail little.
The way to do a thing is to do it.

ABBREVIATIONS USED

B. M. T. Burton's New Testament Moods and Tenses.
Bt. Babbit's Grammar of Attic and Ionic Greek.
G. Gildersleeve's Syntax of Classical Greek.
Gl. Goodell's School Grammar of Attic Greek.
G. M. T. Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses.
Gn. Goodwin's Greek Grammar.
H.A. Hadley and Allen's Greek Grammar.

Useful beginning books are:

Huddilston's Essentials of New Testament Greek
(Macmillan, 65 cents).

The Gospel of John in Greek, issued by the Massachusetts
Bible Society (10 cents a copy).

Moulton's Brief Dictionary of New Testament Greek
(Hinds and Noble, $1.00); or Green's Greek-English
Lexicon to the New Testament (with supplement. Hastings,
Boston, 75 cents).

I. THE ALPHABET

1. In learning a new alphabet attention need be paid only to
such letters as are not already know. Of the Greek alphabet
only twelve characters are unfamiliar:

A, Β, Γ, Δ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ, Ι, Κ, Λ, Μ,
α, β, γ, δ, ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, κ, λ, μ,
a, b, g, d, ĕ, z, ē, th, i, k, l, m,

Ν, Ξ, Ο, Π, Ρ, Σ, Τ, Υ, Φ, Χ, Ψ, Ω,
ν, ξ, ο, π, ρ, σ(ς), τ, υ, φ, χ, ψ, ω,
n, ks, ŏ, p, r, s, t, u, ph, ch, ps, ō,

Note.—The small letters, most used, should be learned. The
capital letters may be learned as they occur.

2. ε, ο are always short; η, ω, always long; α, ι, υ, sometimes
long, sometimes short.

ā as "a" in father. ī as "i" in machine.
ă as "a" in papa. ĭ as "i" in pin.
η as "e" in fete. ω as "o" in note.
ε as "e" in met. ο as "o" in obey.
υ equals approximately "eu" in feud or the French u.

Note 1.—In diphthongs with a long vowel ι is subscribed.

Note 2.—As in music, the difference between long and short
is one of time, as musical notes image A difference in quality
actually appears in pronunciation.

Note 3.—A diphthong is counted long. But in determining accent
final –αι– and –οι– are counted short except in the optative
mode and in a few words, οἴμοι, οἴκοι. Bt. 3-4; Gl. 5; Gn. 5;
H.A. 9-11.

3. The consonants are classified:

(1) Mutes—
Smooth Middle Rough With s
Labial, π β φ ψ
Palatal, κ γ χ ξ
Lingual, τ δ θ ζ

(2) Liquids—
λ, μ, ν, ρ, as in English, σ(ς) is a sibilant.

(3) ζ, ξ, ψ are called double consonants.
Bt. 12; Gl. 38; Gn. 18-22.

SYLLABLES

1. There are as many syllables in a word as there are separate
vowels and diphthongs.

2. Consonants are pronounced with succeeding vowels: λό-γος,
πο-λί-της, ἐ-λέ-γε-το. Where two consonants occur together,
they are not separated at the beginning of a word or in the
case of combinations that do occur at the beginning of the
words. G. 97; H.A. 91.

II. ACCENT

Accent occurs on one of the last three syllables, and represents
to the eye the movement of the voice in pronouncing words.
Its practical value is to indicate the stress of the voice in reading.

Note 1.—Accent forms are three (acute ´, grave `, and circumflex ˆ)
and may be summarized thus:

Short ultima { antepenult ´
{ short penult ´
{ long penult ˆ
{ ultima ´

Long ultima { penult ´
{ ultima ´ or `

Note 2.—In composition acute accent on the last syllable becomes
grave.

Note 3.—Accent is often arbitrary. Rules indicate where accent may
(not must) occur.

III. BREATHINGS

Words beginning with a vowel are pronounced with or without
aspiration (initial "h"). Aspiration is indicated by the sign
( ῾ ), ὅτι (hoti). Unaspirated syllables are marked ( ᾿ ),
οὐκ (ook).

American him is ῾im; horse is ῾orse.

English im is ᾿im; orse is ᾿orse.

Note 1.—Breathing stands over the vowel: in a diphthong, over
the second vowel (accent also stands over the second vowel,
and precedes the breathing). Bt. 8; Gl. 6; Gn. 11.

Note may be made of the marks of punctuation: comma (,),
colon (·), interrogation (;), period (.).

IV. DECLENSIONS

1. There are three numbers; singular, dual, and plural. In
late Greek the dual is less frequent and except the numeral
δύο, does not occur in the New Testament. Bt. 74; Gl. 57;
Gn. 155; H.A. 123.

2. The five cases are the nominative, genitive (equals of,
or a possessive), dative (equals to, for, with), accusative
(equals English objective), vocative (as in direct address).
Bt 74; Gl. 59; Gn. 160; H.A. 123.

3 The o– declension (stems end in —o—).
Sing. Dual Plural
(rare in
late Greek)
Mas. Neut. Mas. and Neut. Mas. Neut.
Nom. —ος —ον —ω —οι —ᾰ
Gen. —ου —ου —οιν —ων —ων
Dat. —ῳ —ῳ —οιν —οις —οις
Acc. —ον —ον —ω —ους —ᾰ
Voc. —ε —ον —ω —οι —ᾰ
(or same as Nom.)

(1) Masculine nouns (and a few feminines) end in –ος in
Nom. Sing.: Neuters end in –ον.

(2) The stem of an —o— noun may be found by dropping the
case-ending and adding the stem vowel —o—. Bt. 76; Gl. 62;
Gn. 192; H.A. 133.

Examples

Determine stem in each of the following words and affix the
above case-ending. Note changes in the accent and the reasons
therefor. ἄρτος, στόλος, λόγος, υἱός, ἄνθρωπος, ἱερόν; σοφός,
σοφόν; αὐτός, οὔτος.

Translate and construe:

1. λέγει (says) αὐτῷ ὁ Φίλιππος.
2. ἐν τῷ τοῦ Κρόνου ἱερῷ.
3. καλεῖται (is called) οὗτος ὁ τόπος βίος.
4. περίβολος ἦν (was), ἐν αὐτῷ ἒχων (having, = with)
ἑτέρους περιβόλους δύο.
5. οὗτοι οἱ λόγοι πιστοὶ καὶ ἀληθινοί.

4. The a– declension (stems end in —a—).
Sing. Dual Plural
Fem. Mas. Fem. and Mas. Mas. and Mas.
Nom. —α, —η —ας, —ης —ᾱ —αι
Gen. —ᾱς, —ης —ου, —ου —αιν —ῶν
Dat. —ᾳ, —ῃ —ᾳ, —ῃ —αιν —αις
Acc. —αν, —ην —αν, —ην —ᾱ —ᾱς
Voc. —α, —η —α, —α —ᾱ —αι

(1) Feminine nouns in the Nom. Sing. end in –ᾰ, –ᾱ,
or –η; mas. nouns, in –ας or –ης.

(2) In the gen. sing., mas. nouns end in –ου.

(3) Except in the genitive, final –α in the sing. is short
when not preceded by ε, ι, or ρ, otherwise long.

(4) If in the mas. the –ος is preceded by ε, ι, or ρ,
(note 3), the fem. sing. nom. ends in –ᾱ, otherwise in –η.
Bt. 76; Gl. 66; Gn. 171; H.A. 132-3.

Examples—as in 1

μοῦσα, οἰκία, χώρα, τιμή; ὁπλίτης, ταμίας; αὐτή, αὔτη; ἡ ὁδός.

Translate and construe:

1. ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν.
2. καὶ αὕτη ἐστὶν (is) ἡ μαρτυρία τοῦ Ἰωάννου.
3. τὸ δὲ κέντρον τοῦ θανάτου ἡ μαρτυρία.
4. ὁ στέφανος τῆς ζωῆς.
5. ἠ πύλη τοῦ πρώτου περιβόλου.
6. Τύχη ἔστι δὲ οὐ μόνον τυφλή, ᾶλλὰ καὶ κωφή.
7. Πλάνος καὶ Ἄγνοια.

5. The Consonant declension (stems end in a consonant). With
these are grouped in the grammar (3rd declension) nouns with
stems in ι, υ, or a diphthong.

Sing. Dual Plural
(rare in
late Greek)
Mas. and Fem. Neut. Fem., Mas.,
and Neut. Mas. and Fem. Neut.
Nom. —ς, or – – —ε —ες —ᾰ
Gen. —ος —ος —οιν —ων —ων
Dat. —ι —ι —οιν —σι —σι
Acc. —ν, or —ᾰ – —ε —νς or —ᾰς —ᾰ
Voc. —ς, or — – —ε —ες —ᾰ

(1) Necessary here is the table of mutes and their forms when
combined with –s. (I, 3, 1.)

(2) All three genders occur in this declension.

(3) In gen. plural of monosyllabic nouns (as in —α— nouns)
the accent is —ῶν: in datives dual and plural of tones we
have —αῖν, —οῖν, —αῖς, and —οῖς. Bt. 76; Gl. 98; Gn. 225;
H.A. 132-3.

Examples—as in 1

θήρ (stem θερ–), σῶμα (–τος), πίναξ (–κος), σάλπιγξ (–γγος),
λαίλαψ (–πος), φλέψ (–βός), θρίξ (τριχός).

Translate and construe:

1. ἦν τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληθινόν.
2. ἡ δύναμις τῆς ἁμαρτίας ὁ νόμος ἐστίν (is).
3. καὶ ὁ λόγος σάρξ ἐγένετο (become).
4. ἦν πίναξ ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ ναοῦ.
5. ἡ Ἀφροσύνη τοῖς ἀνθρώποις Σφίγξ ἐστιν.
6. οὕτως ἐστὶν ἡ ἀνάστασις τῶν νεκρῶν.

6. These case-endings hold for all (except indeclinables which
undergo no changes) substantives, adjectives (including the
definite article), pronouns, and participles (see verbs).
E. g.:

Relative Pronouns Definite Article
Sing. Mas. Fem. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut.
Nom. ὅς ἥ ὅ ὁ ἡ τό
Gen. οὗ ἧς οὗ τοῦ τῆς τοῦ
Dat. ᾧ ᾗ ᾧ τῷ τῇ τῷ
Acc. ὅν ἥν ὅ τόν τήν τό
etc. etc.
Bt. 144-9; Gl. 214; Gn. 421; H.A. 272-5.

The personal pronouns, as in other languages, are more irregular,
the several parts being traceable to different stems.

First Person, I Second Person, Thou
Sing. Plural Sing. Plural
Nom. ἐγώ ἡ-μεῖς σύ ὑ-μεῖς
Gen. ἐ-μοῦ ἡ-μῶν σοῦ ὑ-μῶν
Dat. ἐ-μοί ἡ-μῖν σοί ὑ-μῖν
Acc. ἐ-μέ ἡ-μᾶς σέ ὑ-μἀς
Bt. 139; Gl. 194; Gn. 389; H.A. 261.

Translate and construe:

1. ὁ προφήτης εἶ (art).
2. σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις (hast) καὶ ἐγὼ ἔργα.
3. ἐγὼ φωνὴ βοῶντος (one crying) ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ.

V. THE VERB: CONJUGATION

1. In the study of the verb four points are to be considered:
stem; tense-signs; theme vowels (short in indicative, imperative,
infinitive, and participial modes; long in the subjunctive and
merged in a diphthong in the optative); and personal endings.

2. The stem is the basic part of the inflected word. To this are
appending the various signs, as above, which in verb analysis must
again be cut off. E. g., τι-μά-ω, I honor, stem τῑμᾰ. Bt. 157-61;
Gl. 248; Gn. 404-7, 153; H.A. 153.

3. The tenses of the verb are called primary or secondary as
they have to do with present (or future) or past time. Taking
the verb λύω as a model we have:

Primary Secondary
Present, stem λυ- Imperfect, stem ἐ-λυ
Future, stem λυσ- Aorist, stem ἐ-λυς
Perfect, stem λε-λυκ- Pluperfect, stem ἐ-λε-λυκ
Future perfect, stem λε-λυσ
Bt. 162; Gl. 311; Gn. 717; H.A. 372.

4. The future tenses (future, future perfect) are indicated
by a σ(+ ο/ε) appended to the stem, as λύ-ω, λύ-σω, λε-λύ-σ-ο-μαι,
λύ-θή-σ-ο-μαι. Bt. 212; Gn. 662; Gl. 277; H.A. 372.

5. The perfect tenses (perfect, future perfect, pluperfect) are
indicated by (1) the doubling of the stem (i. e., repeating the
initial consonant with ε—), and (2) in the active voice by an
affixed —κ— (cf. Latin —v—). E. g., λύ-ω perf. λέ-λυ-κα (for λύ-λυ-κα).

Note 1.—If the verb begins with a middle or rough mute, the
reduplication occurs with the corresponding smooth mute (cf. I,3).
E. g., πέ-φυ-κα (for φέ-φυ-κα). Bt. 162; Gl. 287; Gn. 455; H.A. 300-3.

6. Secondary tenses are indicated generally be the prefix ἐ—, e.g.,
ἔ-λυ-ο-ν, ἐ-λε-λύ-κ-ε-μεν. In case the verb itself begins with a vowel,
the initial vowel is lengthened. E.g., ἀ-κού-ω, ἤ-κου-ο-ν. Bt. 171-2;
Gl. 264, 293; Gn. 465, 3; H.A. 354-7.

7. The theme vowel immediately follows the stem. In the indicative it
is —ο— before μ and ν, otherwise —ε—; in the subjunctive, —ω—or —η—;
in the optative (mode vowel), —οι— or —αι— (aorist passive indicative,
—ει—). E. g., ἔ-λυ-ο-ν, ἕ-λυ-ε-ς, λύ-ω-μαι, λύ-η-ται, λυ-οί-μην,
λυ-σαί-μην. Bt. 159-60; Gl. 294-5; Gn. 568, 719, 730; H.A. 372.

(1) In aorist tenses except second aorist and aorist passive, the
theme vowel is —α—.

(2) In the perfect active the them vowel is —α—, in the pluperfect
active it is —ε—.

(3) In the pluperfect middle and passive the theme vowel is omitted.
E. g., λε-λύ-σ-α-μεν, λε-λύ-κ-α-τε, ἐ-λε-λύ-κ-ε-μεν, λέ-λυ-μαι,
ἐ-λε-λύ-μην. Bt. 201, 222-4; Gl. 279, 288-9, 298; Gn. 669, 682-3, 698;
H.A. 428, 446, 459, 461-3.

8. The sign of the passive voice is often —θε—, sometimes lengthened
to —θη— in conjugation, e. g., λυ-θή-σ-ο-μαι. Bt. 231-2; Gl. 302;
Gn. 707; H.A. 468.

9. The person of the verb is indicated by a letter or syllable
(in origin a personal pronoun) added to end of verb.
E. g., λύ-ο-μαι, ἔ-λυ-ο-ν.

10. The middle and passive voices are alike except in two tenses,
the future and the aorist. Bt. 167; Gl. 263; Gn. 552; H.A. 376-80.

11. There are two sets (or double sets) of personal ending; one set
for the active (primary and secondary) tenses, and one for the tenses
of the middle and passive (except second aorist and aorist passive).
Bt. 166; Gl. 263, 271; Gn. 551-3; H.A. 375.

12. The personal ending may be shown thus:

Primary Tenses
Sing. { —ω —μαι
{ —εις —σαι
{ —ει —ται

Dual { —τον —σθον
{ —τον —σθην

Plur. { —μεν —μεθα
{ —τε —σθε
{ —ουσι(ν) —νται

Secondary Tenses

Sing. { —ν —μην
{ —ς —σο
{ — — —το

Dual { —τον —σθον
{ —την —σθην

Plur. { —μεν —μεθα
{ —τε —σθε
{ —ν —ντο

(1) The longer, softer endings generally indicate middle or
passive voice.

(2) In verbs as in noun the dual is less frequent in later Greek.

13. The endings of the active participle to indicate gender are
respectively —ων, —ουσα, —ον. The form —ουσα is of the first
declension; the others (—οντ, Gn. 25; Gl. 119) are of the third.

14. Middle participles are of the first and second declensions and
may be recognized by the syllable —μεν—. E. g., λυ-ό-μεν-ος.

15. The active infinitive regularly ends in —ειν —εν + theme
vowel —ε—, contracted, —ειν). E. g., λύ-ειν (for λυ-ε-εν). The
passive and middle (i.e., when used as passive) infinitives
regularly end in —σθαι. E. g., λύ-ε-σθαι, λύ-σ-α-σθαι. The aorist
passive infinitive ends in —ναι. E. g., λυ-θῆ-ναι. Bt. 167;
Gl. 162, 273, 275; Gn. 301, 334.

16. Variations from the regular forms occur in the endings of
the imperative:

Active Middle and Passive
Sing. { 2. —, aorist —ν
{ (—θι, —ς) —σο aorist —αι
{ (contracts with con. vowels ιο —ον)
3. —τω —σθω

Dual { 2. —τον —σθον
{ 3. —των —σθων

Plur. { 2. —τε —σθε
{ 3. —ντων (or
τωσαν) —σθων (or —σθωσαν)
Bt. 167; Gl. 270-2; Gn. 746; H.A. 376.

17. The principal parts of the verb (which should be memorized)
are the first person singular of the active indicative present,
future, first aorist, and perfect; the middle perfect; and the
passive aorist. Bt 162-3; Gl. 311; Gn. 462-5; H.A. 304c.

18. A small class of verbs (about equal to the number of
irregular verbs in English) retain the more primitive personal
endings (e.g., act. ind. pres. sing., —μι, —σι, —τι, remains of
old pronominal forms). Of such are τί-θη-μι, δί-δω-μι, ἴ-στη-μι.
Bt. 251-8; Gl. 372-4; Gn. 500-509; H.A. 476-92.

19. Certain verbs with vowel stems, as τιμά-ω, φιλέ-ω, δηλό-ω,
by contraction with initial vowels in the personal endings assume
forms not found in the regular verb paradigms. E. g., τιμά-εις,
τίμᾶς; ἐ-τίμα-ε, ἐτίμα; ἐ-τίμα-ο-ν, ἐ-τίμων. Bt. 248-50; Gl. 313-15;
Gn. 492-94; H.A. 337-41. For changes in accent see: Bt. 65; Gl. 29,
Gn. 117; H.A. 37-39.

(1) These forms are best studied as they occur by reference
to the grammars.

VI. SEQUENCE

1. It is a principle in Greek, as in other languages, that a
certain relation must hold between the verbs of dependent
clauses and those of the independent clauses on which they are based.

2. In Latin the sequence is one of tenses, primary tenses depending
on primary tenses and secondary tenses on secondary tenses. But in
Greek the tenses of the dependent modes do not, in general, express
distinctions of time. G. M. T. 785, 20.

3. In Greek the subjunctive in dependent clauses is treated (usually)
as though it were a primary mode: the optative as though it were a
secondary mode. E. g.:

τοῦτο πράττει ἵνα καλῶς ἔχη
τοῦτο ἔπραττε ἵνα καλῶς ἔχοι

But in the Greek of the New Testament. (B. M. T. 174, 259, 344) and in
Latin (Hale and Buck's Latin Grammar, 459) there is not optative in use,
and the above distinction in modes no longer exits. Bt. 517, 2; Gl. 662;
Gn. 448, 1249, 1267; H.A. 876. The trend of sequence is from the primary
tenses of the indicative through subjunctive and optative in that order
to the past tenses of the indicative. See under VII.

VII. THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

1. A conditional sentence is one that assumes what may or may not be
true (in reality), and bases on it some other statement (i. e., the
supposition is assumed to be true). Bt. 600-1; Gl. 645; Gn. 1381;
H.A. 889.

2. A simple supposition implying nothing as to fulfillment, has the
indicative (or an equivalent; Bt. 602, notes) in both clauses.

(1) If a specific sequence is made in present time, then the present
indicative stands in both clauses. If in past time, a past indicative
occurs in both clauses. E. g.:

Present: εἰ τοῦτο πράττει, καλῶς ἔχει
Past: εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραττε, καλῶς εἶχε

Note 1.—The same tense need not necessarily stand in both clauses,
e. g., εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραττε, καλῶς ἔχει.

(2) A general reference if in present time, expressing a customary
or repeated action or a general truth, has ἐάν with the subjunctive
in the if-clause and in the conclusion the present indicative or some
form denoting present repetition, e. g., ἐὰν τοὺτο ποιῇ, καλῶς ἔχει.
If the supposition is in the past time, the if-clause will have the
optative with εἰ and in the conclusion will stand the imperfect
indicative or some form denoting past repetition, e. g., εἰ τοῦτο
πράττοι, καλῶς εἶχε. Bt. 608-10; Gl. 651; Gn. 1393; H.A. 890, 892-4.

3. The supposition may imply something as to the likelihood of
fulfillment.

(1) If fulfillment is likely (and such contingencies are related to
future time), then the if-clause will have ἐάν with the subjunctive
and a future indicative (or an equivalent) will stand in the conclusion.
This form is styled "future vivid." E. g., ἐὰν τοῦτο πράττῃ, καλῶς ἕξοι.
If fulfillment is less than likely ("future less vivid"), εἰ with the
optative will stand in the if-clause, the optative with ἄν (potential
optative) in the conclusion. E. g., εἰ τοῦτο πράττοι καλῶς ἄν ἔχοι.
Bt. 604-5; Gl. 650-1; Gn. 1403.

(2) A supposition contrary to fact has in the if-clause εἰ with a past
indicative; in the conclusion, a past indicative with ἄν (potential
indicative). E. g., εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραττε, καλῶς ἄν εἶχε.
Bt. 606; Gl. 649; Gn. 13197; H.A. 895.

Note 1.—For summary of conditional sentences,
see Bt. 611; Gl 645; Gn. 1387; H.A. 891.

VIII. FINAL CLAUSES

1. Pure final clauses (expressing purpose or motive) take the
subjunctive when dependent on primary tenses, the optative when
dependent on secondary tenses. The conjunction is ἵνα, ὡς, or ὅπως.
E. g.,

τοῦτο πράττει ἵνα καλῶς ἔχῃ.
τοῦτο ἔπραττε ἵνα καλῶς ἔχοι

Bt. 590; Gl. 640; Gn. 365; H.A. 881.

2. Object clauses dependent on verbs denoting care, attention or
effort, regularly take the future indicative ὅπως, though the future
optative is possible when dependent on a secondary tense.
E. g.,

φροντίζει ὅπως καλῶς ἕξει,
ἐφρόντιζεν ὅπας καλῶς ἕζει
(or ἕζοι, see note).

Bt. 593; Gn. 1372; H.A. 885.

3. Subordinate clauses introduced by μή (trans. lest or that),
and dependent on verbs denoting fear, caution or danger, take the
subjunctive when dependent on primary tenses, the optative when
dependent on secondary tenses.
E. g.,

φοβεῖται μὴ τοῦτο πράττωμεν
ἐφοβεῖτο μὴ τοῦτο πράττοιμεν
(or πράττωμεν, see note).

Bt. 593; Gl. 610; Gn. 1378.

Note 1.—In rules 1-3, for greater vividness—as though using the
language of the person who conceived the purpose—the subjunctive
may be used even when dependent on a secondary tense (see examples
above). Gl. 638; Gn. 1372.

IX. INDIRECT DISCOURSE

1. A statement or question of a speaker or writer may be quoted
directly, i. e., without change in the form of the language.
E. g.:

Direct: τοῦτο πράξω
Indirect: λέγει {
or { ὅτι τοῦτο πράξει.
ἔλεγε {

Bt. 668; Gl. 623; Gn. 1475.

2. Or it may be a change to adapt it to the form of the sentence of
which it becomes a part. The form of change will depend on the introductory
verb of saying, φημί, λέγω, or εἶπον.

(1) If φημί, the main verb of the quotation will be changed to the infinitive
mode of the same tense and voice. E. g.,

Direct: τοῦτο πράττω
Indirect: φησί {
or { τούτο πράττειν.
ἔφη {

(2) If λέγω with ὅτι or ὡς, no change will occur when dependent on a
primary tense. When dependent on a secondary tense, indicatives and
subjunctives may (not must) be changed to corresponding tenses (and
voice) of the optative; optatives will remain unchanged.
E. g.:

Direct: τοῦτο πράξω
Indirect: { λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο πράξει
{ ἔλεγε ὅτι τοῦτο πράξει (or πράξοι).

(1) Note the change in person to indicate the change of speaker.

(2) εἶπον as a verb of saying requires, and λέγω in the active voice
prefers the ὅτι (ὡς) construction.

(3) Where changes of mode might occasion doubt as to the form of the
original direct discourse, no changes are made. E. g., the imperfect
or pluperfect indicative with ἄν, the potential optative with ἄν, or
the aorist indicative in a subordinate clause (cf. Bt. 675). Bt. 678;
Gl. 624; Gn. 1523; 1481, 1497.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GREEK PRIMER: FOR BEGINNERS IN NEW TESTAMENT GREEK ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg™ License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg

Project Gutenberg is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 41 Watchung Plaza #516,
Montclair NJ 07042, USA, +1 (862) 621-9288. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/39292