Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dagupan" to "David"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dagupan" to "David"
Author: Various
Release date: February 9, 2012 [eBook #38799]
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38799
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
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Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH: "It was he upon whom the
Danes afterwards threw the blame of having invented the
Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his activities form an
important link in the chain of events which eventually led to the
solution of 1864." 'amended' from 'activites'.
ARTICLE DAHOMEY: "... L. Brunet and L. Giethlen, Dahomey et
dependances (Paris, 1900); Edouard Foa, Le Dahomey (Paris, 1895)."
'Dahomey' amended from 'Dohomey'.
ARTICLE DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING: "Most of the cheese is made from
two curds, the highly acid curd from the morning's milk being mixed
with the comparatively sweet curd from the evening's milk."
Duplicate word 'being' removed.
ARTICLE DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING: "To drysalt butter, place butter
on worker, let it drain 10 to 15 minutes, then work gently till all
the butter comes together. Place it on the scales and weigh; then
weigh salt, for slight salting, 1/4 oz.; medium, 1/2 oz.; heavy
salting, 3/4 oz." 'weigh' amended from 'weight'.
ARTICLE DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY: "Dallmeyer's position in this
workshop appears to have been an unpleasant one, and led him to
take, for a time, employment as French and German correspondent for
a commercial firm." 'correspondent' amended from 'corrrespondent'.
ARTICLE DANIEL: "The biblical account throws no light on the
subject. According to the rabbis, Daniel went back to Jerusalem
with the return of the captivity, and is supposed to have been one
of the founders of the mythical Great Synagogue." 'Jerusalem'
amended from 'Jersualem'.
ARTICLE DANIEL: "Darius Hystaspis was the father of Xerxes, and
according to Herodotus (iii. 89) established twenty satrapies."
'Hystaspis' amended from 'Hystapis'.
ARTICLE DANTE: "At that moment I saw most truly that the spirit of
life which hath its dwelling in the secretest chamber of the heart
began to tremble so violently that the least pulses of my body
shook therewith; and in trembling it said these words ..."
'trembling' amended from 'trembing'.
ARTICLE DARBOY, GEORGES: "... was born at Fayl-Billot in Haute
Marne on the 16th of January 1813." 'Haute' amended from 'Haut'.
ARTICLE DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT: "For eight years (1846 to 1854) he
was chiefly engaged upon four monographs on the recent and fossil
Cirripede Crustacea (Roy. Soc., 1851 and 1854; Palaeontograph.
Soc., 1851 and 1854)." 'Roy' amended from 'Ray'.
ARTICLE DASS, PETTER: "... a Scottish merchant of Dundee, who,
leaving his country about 1630 to 845 escape the troubles of the
Presbyterian church, settled in Bergen, and in 1646 married a Norse
girl of good family." 'church' amended from 'chursh'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME VII, SLICE IX
Dagupan to David
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
DAGUPAN DANDY
DAHABEAH DANEGELD
DAHL, HANS DANELAGH
DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN DANGERFIELD, THOMAS
DAHL, MICHAEL DANIEL (biblical figure)
DAHL, VLADIMIR IVANOVICH DANIEL (Russian travel-writer)
DAHLBERG, ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT DANIEL, GABRIEL
DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF DANIEL, SAMUEL
DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK DANIELL, JOHN FREDERIC
DAHLIA DANIELL, THOMAS
DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH DANNAT, WILLIAM T.
DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON
DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX DANNEWERK
DAHOMEY DANSVILLE
DAILLE, JEAN DANTE
DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES
DAIS DANUBE
DAISY DANVERS
DAKAR DANVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
DALAGUETE DANVILLE (Kentucky, U.S.A.)
DALBEATTIE DANVILLE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
DALBERG DANVILLE (Virginia, U.S.A.)
DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM DANZIG
DALE, SIR THOMAS DAPHLA HILLS
DALECARLIA DAPHNAE
DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE DAPHNE (Greek mythology)
DALGARNO, GEORGE DAPHNE (genus of shrubs)
DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW RAMSAY DAPHNEPHORIA
DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY DAPHNIS
DALIN, OLOF VON DARAB
DALKEITH DARBHANGA
DALKEY D'ARBLAY, FRANCES
DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES DARBOY, GEORGES
DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN DARCY, THOMAS DARCY
DALLAS DARDANELLES (strait)
DALLE DARDANELLES (town)
DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN DARDANUS
DALLING AND BULWER, EARLE BULWER DARDISTAN
DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY DARES PHRYGIUS
DALL' ONGARO, FRANCESCO DAR-ES-SALAAM
DALMATIA DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, ANTOINE
DALMATIC DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, RODOLPHE
DALMELLINGTON DARFUR
DALOU, JULES DARGAI
DALRADIAN DARGOMIJSKY, ALEXANDER SERGEIVICH
DALRIADA DARIAL
DALRY DARIEN
DALTON, JOHN DARIUS
DALTON DARJEELING
DALTON-IN-FURNESS DARLEY, GEORGE
DALY, AUGUSTIN DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY
DALYELL, THOMAS DARLING
DAM DARLINGTON
DAMAGES DARLINGTONIA
DAMANHUR DARLY, MATTHIAS
DAMARALAND DARMESTETER, JAMES
DAMASCENING DARMSTADT
DAMASCIUS DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART
DAMASCUS DARRANG
DAMASK DARTFORD
DAMASK STEEL DARTMOOR
DAMASUS DARTMOUTH (town of Canada)
DAMAUN DARTMOUTH (town of England)
DAME DARTMOUTH COLLEGE
DAME'S VIOLET DARTMOUTH, EARL OF
DAMGHAN DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO
DAMIANI, PIETRO DARWEN
DAMIEN, FATHER DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT
DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANCOIS DARWIN, ERASMUS
DAMIETTA DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE
DAMIRI DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV
DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT DASS, PETTER
DAMJANICH, JANOS DASYURE
DAMMAR DATE PALM
DAMMARTIN DATIA
DAMME DATIVE
DAMOCLES DATOLITE
DAMOH DAUB, KARL
DAMON DAUBENTON, LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE
DAMOPHON DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE
DAMP DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS
DAMPIER, WILLIAM DAUBREE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE
DAN (tribe of Israel) DAUDET, ALPHONSE
DAN (town of ancient Israel) DAULATABAD
DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON DAUMIER, HONORE
DANA, FRANCIS DAUN (DHAUN), LEOPOLD JOSEF
DANA, JAMES DWIGHT DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANCOIS
DANAE DAUPHIN
DANAO DAUPHINE
DANAUS DAURAT, JEAN
DANBURITE DAVENANT, CHARLES
DANBURY DAVENANT, SIR WILLIAM
DANBY, FRANCIS DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS
DANCE (English family) DAVENPORT, ROBERT
DANCE (dancing) DAVENPORT
DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON DAVENTRY
DANDELION DAVEY OF FERNHURST, HORACE DAVEY
DANDOLO DAVID
DANDOLO, VINCENZO
DAGUPAN, a town and the most important commercial centre of the province
of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Agno river
near its entrance into the Gulf of Lingayen, 120 m. by rail N.N.W. of
Manila. Pop. (1903), 20,357. It is served by the Manila & Dagupan
railway. Dagupan has a healthy climate. It is the chief point of
exportation for a very rich province, which produces sugar, indigo,
Indian corn, copra, and especially rice. There are several rice mills
here. Salt is an important export, being manufactured in salt water
swamps and marshes throughout the province of Pangasinan (whose name,
from _asin_, "salt," means "the place where salt is produced"). In
these, marshes grows the nipa palm, from which a liquor is
distilled--there are a number of small distilleries here. Dagupan has a
small shipyard in which sailing vessels and steam launches are
constructed. The principal language is Pangasinan.
DAHABEAH (also spelt dahabiya, dahabiyeh, dahabeeyah, &c.), an Arabic
word (variously derived from _dahab_, gold, and _dahab_, one of the
forms of the verb to go) for a native passenger boat used on the Nile.
The typical form is that of a barge-like house-boat provided with sails,
resembling the painted galleys represented on the tombs of the Pharaohs.
Similar state barges were used by the Mahommedan rulers of Egypt, and
from the circumstance that these vessels were ornamented with gilding is
attributed the usual derivation of the name from gold. Before the
introduction of steamers dahabeahs were generally used by travellers
ascending the Nile, and they are still the favourite means of travelling
for the leisured and wealthy classes. The modern dahabeah is often made
of iron, draws about 2 ft. of water, and is provided with one very large
and one small sail. According to size it provides accommodation for from
two to a dozen passengers. Steam dahabeahs are also built to meet the
requirements of tourists.
DAHL, HANS (1840- ), Norwegian painter, was born at Hardanger. After
being in the Swedish army he studied art at Karlsruhe and at Dusseldorf,
being a notable painter of landscape and _genre_. His work has
considerable humour, but his colouring is hard and rather crude. In 1889
he settled in Berlin. His pictures are very popular in Norway.
DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1778-1857), Norwegian landscape painter, was
born in Bergen. He formed his style without much tuition, remaining at
Bergen till he was twenty-four, when he left for the better field of
Copenhagen, and ultimately settled in Dresden in 1818. He is usually
included in the German school, although he was thus close on forty years
of age when he finally took up his abode in Dresden, where he was
quickly received into the Academy and became professor. German
landscape-painting was not greatly advanced at that time, and Dahl
contributed to improve it. He continued to reside in Dresden, though he
travelled into Tirol and in Italy, painting many pictures, one of his
best being that of the "Outbreak of Vesuvius, 1820." He was fond of
extraordinary effects, as seen in his "Winter at Munich," and his
"Dresden by Moonlight;" also the "Haven of Copenhagen," and the "Schloss
of Friedrichsburg," under the same condition. At Dresden may be seen
many of his works, notably a large picture called "Norway," and a "Storm
at Sea." He was received into several academic bodies, and had the
orders of Wasa and St Olaf sent him by the king of Norway and Sweden.
DAHL, MICHAEL (1656-1743), Swedish portrait painter, was born at
Stockholm. He received his first professional education from Ernst
Klocke, who had a respectable position in that northern town, which,
however, Dahl left in his twenty-second year. His first destination was
England, where he did not long remain, but crossed over to Paris, and
made his way at last to Rome, there taking up his abode for a
considerable time, painting the portraits of Queen Christina and other
celebrities. In 1688 he returned to England, and became for some years a
dangerous rival to Kneller. He died in London. His portraits still exist
in many houses, but his name is not always preserved with them. Nagler
(_Kunstler-Lexicon_) says those at Hampton Court and at Petworth contest
the palm with those of the better known and vastly more employed
painter.
DAHL (or DALE), VLADIMIR IVANOVICH (1802-1872), Russian author and
philologist, was born of Scandinavian parentage in 1802, and received
his education at the naval cadets' institution at St Petersburg. He
joined the Black Sea fleet in 1819; but at a later date he entered the
military service, and was thus engaged in the Polish campaign of 1831,
and in the expedition against Khiva. He was afterwards appointed to a
medical post in one of the government hospitals at St Petersburg, and
was ultimately transferred to a situation in the civil service. The
latter years of his life were spent at Moscow, and he died there on
November 3 (October 22), 1872. Under the name of Kossack Lugansky he
obtained considerable fame by his stories of Russian life:--_The Dream
and the Waking_, _A Story of Misery_, _Happiness, and Truth_, _The
Door-Keeper_ (Dvernik), _The Officer's Valet_ (Denshchik). His greatest
work, however, was a _Dictionary of the Living Russian Tongue_ (Tolkovyi
Slovar Zhivago Velikorusskago Yasika), which appeared in four volumes
between 1861 and 1866, and is of the most essential service to the
student of the popular literature and folk-lore of Russia. It was based
on the results of his own investigations throughout the various
provinces of Russia,--investigations which had furnished him with no
fewer than 4000 popular tales and upwards of 30,000 proverbs. Among his
other publications may be mentioned _Bemerkungen zu Zimmermann's Entwurf
des Kriegstheaters Russlands gegen Khiwa_, published in German at
Orenburg, and a _Handbook of Botany_ (Moscow, 1849).
A collected edition of his works appeared at St Petersburg in 8
volumes, 1860-1861.
DAHLBERG (DAHLBERGH), ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT (1625-1703), Swedish soldier
and engineer, was born at Stockholm. His early studies took the
direction of the science of fortification, and as an engineer officer he
saw service in the latter years of the Thirty Years' War, and in Poland.
As adjutant-general and engineer adviser to Charles X. (Gustavus), he
had a great share in the famous crossing of the frozen Belts, and at the
sieges of Copenhagen and Kronborg he directed the engineers. In spite of
these distinguished services, Dahlberg remained an obscure
lieutenant-colonel for many years. His patriotism, however, proved
superior to the tempting offers Charles II. of England made to induce
him to enter the British service, though, in that age of professional
soldiering, there was nothing in the offer that a man of honour could
not accept. At last his talents were recognized, and in 1676 he became
director-general of fortifications. In the wars of the next twenty-five
years Dahlberg again rendered distinguished service, alike in attack (as
at Helsingborg in 1677, and Dunamunde in 1700) and defence (as in the
two sieges of Riga in 1700): and his work in repairing the fortresses of
his own country, not less important, earned for him the title of the
"Vauban of Sweden." He was also the founder of the Swedish engineer
corps. He retired as field-marshal in 1702, and died the following year.
Erik Dahlberg was responsible for the fine collection of drawings called
_Suecia antiqua et hodierna_ (Stockholm, 1660-1716; 2nd edition, 1856;
3rd edition, 1864-1865), and assisted Pufendorf in his _Histoire de
Charles X Gustave_. He wrote a memoir of his life (to be found in
Svenska Bibliotek, 1757) and an account of the campaigns of Charles X.
(ed. Lundblad, Stockholm, 1823).
DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF (1809-1870), admiral in the U.S. navy, was the son
of the Swedish consul at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was born in
that city on the 13th of November 1809. He entered the United States
navy in 1826, and saw some service in the Civil War in command of the
South Atlantic blockading squadron. But he was chiefly notable as a
scientific officer. His knowledge of mathematics caused him to be
employed on the coast survey in 1834. In 1837 his eyesight threatened to
fail, he retired in 1838-1842, and in 1847 he was transferred to the
ordnance department. In this post he applied himself to the improvement
of the guns of the U.S. navy. He was the inventor of the smooth bore gun
which bore his name, but was from its shape familiarly known as "the
soda water bottle." It was used in the Civil War, and for several years
afterwards in the United States navy. Dahlgren's guns were first mounted
in a vessel named the "Experiment," which cruised under his command from
1857 till 1859. They were "the first practical application of results
obtained by experimental determinations of pressure at different points
along the bore, by Colonel Bomford's tests--that is by boring holes in
the walls of the gun, through which the pressure acts upon other bodies,
such as pistol balls, pistons, &c." (Cf. article by J. M. Brooke in
Hamersley's _Naval Encyclopaedia_.) When the Civil War broke out, he was
on ordnance duty in the Washington navy yard, and he was one of the
three officers who did not resign from confederate sympathies. His rank
at the time was commander, and the command could only by held by a
captain. President Lincoln insisted on retaining Commander Dahlgren, and
he was qualified to keep the post by special act of Congress. He became
post-captain in 1862 and rear-admiral in 1863. He commanded the
Washington navy yard when he died on the 12th of July 1870.
A memoir of Admiral Dahlgren by his widow was published at Boston in
1882. (D. H.)
DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK (1791-1844), Swedish poet, was born at Stensbruk
in Ostergotland on the 20th of June 1791. At a time when literary
partisanship ran high in Sweden, and the writers divided themselves into
"Goths" and "Phosphorists," Dahlgren made himself indispensable to the
Phosphorists by his polemical activity. In the mock-heroic poem of
_Markalls somnlosa natter_ (Markall's Sleepless Nights), in which the
Phosphorists ridiculed the academician Per Adam Wallmark and others,
Dahlgren, who was a genuine humorist, took a prominent part. In 1825 he
published _Babels Torn_ (The Tower of Babel), a satire, and a comedy,
_Argus in Olympen_; and in 1828 two volumes of poems. In 1829 he was
appointed to an ecclesiastical post in Stockholm, which he held until
his death. In a series of odes and dithyrambic pieces, entitled
_Mollbergs Epistlar_ (1819, 1820), he strove to emulate the wonderful
lyric genius of K. M. Bellman, of whom he was a student and follower.
From 1825 to 1827 he edited a critical journal entitled _Kometen_ (The
Comet), and in company with Almqvist he founded the _Manhemsforbund_, a
short-lived society of agricultural socialists. In 1834 he collected his
poems in one volume; and in 1837 appeared his last book,
_Angbats-Sanger_ (Steamboat Songs). On the 1st of May 1844 he died at
Stockholm. Dahlgren is one of the best humorous writers that Sweden has
produced; but he was perhaps at his best in realistic and idyllic
description. His little poem of _Zephyr and the Girl_, which is to be
found in every selection from Swedish poetry, is a good example of his
sensuous and ornamented style.
His works were collected and published after his death by A. J.
Arwidsson (5 vols., Stockholm, 1847-1852).
DAHLIA, a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order Compositae, so
called after Dr Dahl, a pupil of Linnaeus. The genus contains about nine
species indigenous in the high sandy plains of Mexico. The dahlia was
first introduced into Britain from Spain in 1789 by the marchioness of
Bute. The species was probably _D. variabilis_, whence by far the
majority of the forms now common have originated. The flowers, at the
time of the first introduction of the plant, were single, with a yellow
disk and dull scarlet rays; under cultivation since the beginning of the
19th century in France and England, flowers of numerous brilliant hues
have been produced. The flower has been modified also from a flat to a
globular shape, and the arrangement of the florets has been rendered
quite distinct in the ranunculus and anemone-like kinds. The ordinary
natural height of the dahlia is about 7 or 8 ft., but one of the dwarf
races grows to only 18 in. With changes in the flower, changes in the
shape of the seed have been brought about by cultivation; varieties of
the plant have been produced which require more moisture than others;
and the period of flowering has been made considerably earlier. In 1808
dahlias were described as flowering from September to November, but some
of the dwarf varieties at present grown are in full blossom in the
middle of June.
The large number of varieties may be classed as under the following
heads: (1) _Single dahlias_. These have been derived from _D. coccinea_;
they have a disk of tubular florets surrounded by the large showy ray
florets. (2) _Show dahlias_, large and double with flowers self-coloured
or pale-coloured and edged or tipped with a darker colour. (3) _Fancy
dahlias_, resembling the show but having the florets striped or tipped
with a second tint. (4) _Bouquet_ or _Pompon dahlias_, with much smaller
double flowers of various colours. (5) _Cactus dahlias_, derived from D.
Juarezi, a form which has given rise to a beautiful race with pointed
starry flowers. (6) _Paeony-flowered dahlias_, a new but not pretty
race, with large floppy heads, broad florets and several disk florets in
centre.
New varieties are procured from seed, which should be sown in pots or
pans towards the end of March, and placed in a hotbed or propagating
pit, the young plants being pricked off into pots or boxes, and
gradually hardened off for planting out in June; they will flower the
same season if the summer is a genial one. The older varieties are
propagated by dividing the large tuberous roots, in doing which care
must be taken to leave an eye to each portion of tuber, otherwise it
will not grow. Rare varieties are sometimes grafted on the roots of
others. The best and most general mode of propagation is by cuttings, to
obtain which, the old tubers are placed in heat in February, and as the
young shoots, which rise freely from them, attain the height of 3 in.,
they are taken off with a heel, and planted singly in small pots filled
with fine sandy soil, and plunged in a moderate heat. They root
speedily, and are then transferred to larger pots in light rich soil,
and their growth encouraged until the planting-out season arrives, about
the middle of June north of the Thames.
Dahlias succeed best in an open situation, and in rich deep loam, but
there is scarcely any garden soil in which they will not thrive, if it
is manured. For the production of fine show flowers the ground must be
deeply trenched, and well manured annually. The branches as well as the
blossoms require a considerable but judicious amount of thinning; they
also need shading in some cases. The plants should be protected from
cold winds, and when watered the whole of the foliage should be wetted.
They may stand singly like common border flowers, but have the most
imposing appearance when seen in masses arranged according to their
height. Florists usually devote a plot of ground to them, and plant them
in lines 5 to 10 ft. apart. This is done about the beginning of June,
sheltering them if necessary from late frosts by inverted pots or in
some other convenient way. Old roots often throw up a multitude of
stems, which render thinning necessary. As the plants increase in
height, they are furnished with strong stakes, to secure them from high
winds. Dahlias flower on till they are interrupted by frost in autumn.
The roots are then taken up, dried, and stored in a cellar, or some
other place where they may be secure from frost and moisture. Earwigs
are very destructive, eating out the young buds and florets. Small
flower-pots half filled with dry moss and inverted on stakes placed
among the branches, form a useful trap.
DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1785-1860), German historian and
politician, was born on the 13th of May 1785; he came of an old
Hanseatic family of Wismar, which then belonged to Sweden. His father,
who was the burgomaster of the town, intended him to study theology, but
his bent was towards classical philology, and this he studied from 1802
to 1806 at the universities of Copenhagen and Halle, and again at
Copenhagen. After finishing his studies, he translated some of the Greek
tragic poets, and the _Clouds_ of Aristophanes. But he was also
interested in modern literature and philosophy; and the troubles of the
times, of which he had personal experience, aroused in him, as in so
many of his contemporaries, a strong feeling of German patriotism,
though throughout his life he was always proud of his connexion with
Scandinavia, and Gustavus Adolphus was his particular hero. In 1809, on
the news of the outbreak of war in Austria, Dahlmann, together with the
poet Heinrich von Kleist, whom he had met in Dresden, went to Bohemia,
and was afterwards with the Imperial army, up till the battle of Aspern,
with the somewhat vague object of trying to convert the Austrian war
into a German one. This hope was shattered by the defeat of Wagram. He
now decided to try his fortunes in Denmark, where he had influential
relations. After taking his doctor's degree at Wittenberg (1810) he
qualified at Copenhagen in 1811, with an essay on the origins of the
ancient theatre, as a lecturer on ancient literature and history, on
which he delivered lectures in Latin. His influential friends soon
brought him further advancement. As early as 1812 he was summoned to
Kiel, as successor to the historian Dietrich Hermann Hegewisch
(1746-1812). This appointment was in two respects a decisive moment in
his career; on the one hand it made him give his whole attention to a
subject for which he was admirably suited, but to which he had so far
given only a secondary interest; and on the other hand, it threw him
into politics.
In 1815 he obtained, in addition to his professorate, the position of
secretary to the perpetual deputation of the estates of
Schleswig-Holstein. In this capacity he began, by means of memoirs or of
articles in the _Kieler Blatter_, which he founded himself, to appear as
an able and zealous champion of the half-forgotten rights of the Elbe
duchies, as against Denmark, and of their close connexion with Germany.
It was he upon whom the Danes afterwards threw the blame of having
invented the Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his activities form
an important link in the chain of events which eventually led to the
solution of 1864. So far as this interest affected himself, the chief
profit lay in the fact that it deepened his conception of the state, and
directed it to more practical ends. Whereas at that time mere
speculation dominated both the French Liberalism of the school of
Rotteck, and Karl Ludwig von Haller's Romanticist doctrine of the
Christian state, Dahlmann took as his premisses the circumstances as he
found them, and evolved the new out of the old by a quiet process of
development. Moreover, in the inevitable conflict with the Danish crown
his upright point of view and his German patriotism were further
confirmed. After his transference to Gottingen in 1829 he had the
opportunity of working in the same spirit. As confidant of the duke of
Cambridge, he was allowed to take a share in framing the Hanoverian
constitution of 1833, which remodelled the old aristocratic government
in a direction which had become inevitable since the July revolution in
Paris; and when in 1837 the new king Ernest Augustus declared the
constitution invalid, it was Dahlmann who inspired the famous protest of
the seven professors of Gottingen. He was deprived of his position and
banished, but he had the satisfaction of knowing that German national
feeling received a mighty impulse from his courageous action, while
public subscriptions prevented him from material cares.
After he had lived for several years in Leipzig and Jena, King Frederick
William IV. appointed him in October 1842 to a professorship at Bonn.
The years that followed were those of his highest celebrity. His
_Politik_ (1835) had already made him a great name as a writer; he now
published his _Danische Geschichte_ (1840-1843), a historical work of
the first rank; and this was soon followed by histories of the English
and French revolutions, which, though of less scientific value,
exercised a decisive influence upon public opinion by their open
advocacy of the system of constitutional monarchy. As a teacher too he
was much beloved. Though no orator, and in spite of a personality not
particularly amiable or winning, he produced a profound impression upon
young men by the pregnancy of his expression, a consistent logical
method of thought based on Kant and by the manliness of his character.
When the revolution of 1848 broke out, the "father of German
nationality," as the provisional government at Milan called him, found
himself the centre of universal interest. Both Mecklenburg and Prussia
offered him in vain the post of envoy to the diet of the confederation.
Naturally, too, he was elected to the national assembly at Frankfort,
and took a leading part in the constitutional committees appointed first
by the diet, then by the parliament. His object was to make Germany as
far as possible a united constitutional monarchy, with the exclusion of
the whole of Austria, or at least, of its non-German parts. Prussia was
to provide the emperor, but at the same time--and in this lay the
doctrinaire weakness of the system--was to give up its separate
existence, consecrated by history, in the same way as the other states.
When, therefore, Frederick William IV., without showing any anxiety to
bind himself by the conditions laid down at Frankfort, concluded with
Denmark the seven months' truce of Malmo (26th August 1848), Dahlmann
proposed that the national parliament should refuse to recognize the
truce, with the express intention of clearing up once for all the
relations of the parliament with the court of Berlin. The motion was
passed by a small majority (September 5th); but the members of
Dahlmann's party were just those who voted against it, and it was they
who on the 17th of September reversed the previous vote and passed a
resolution accepting the truce, after Dahlmann had failed to form a
ministry on the basis of the resolution of the 5th, owing to his
objection to the Radicals. Dahlmann afterwards described this as the
decisive turning-point in the fate of the parliament. He did not,
however, at once give up all hope. Though he took but little active part
in parliamentary debates, he was very active on commissions and in party
conferences, and it was largely owing to him that a German constitution
was at last evolved, and that Frederick William IV. was elected
hereditary emperor (28th of March 1849). He was accordingly one of the
deputation which offered the crown to the king in Berlin. The king's
refusal was less of a surprise to him than to most of his colleagues. He
counted on being able to compel recognition of the constitution by the
moral pressure of the consent of the people. It was only when the
attitude of the Radicals made it clear to him that this course would
lead to a revolution, that he decided, after a long struggle, to retire
from the national parliament (21st May). He was still, however, one of
the chief promoters of the well-known conference of the imperial party
at Gotha, the proceedings of which were not, however, satisfactory to
him; and he took part in the sessions of the first Prussian chamber
(1849-1850) and of the parliament of Erfurt (1850). But finally,
convinced that for the moment all efforts towards the unity of Germany
were unavailing, he retired from political life, though often pressed to
stand for election, and again took up his work of teaching at Bonn. His
last years were, however, saddened by illness, bereavement and continual
friction with his colleagues. His death took place on the 5th of
December 1860, following on an apoplectic fit. He was a man whose
personality had contributed to the progress of the world, and whose
teaching was to continue to exercise a far-reaching influence on the
development of German affairs.
His chief works were:--_Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte nach der
Folge der Begebenheiten geordnet_ (1830, 7th edition of Dahlmann-Waitz,
_Quellenkunde_, Leipzig, 1906); _Politik, auf den Grund und das Mass der
gegebenen Zustande zuruckgefuhrt_ (1 vol., 1835); _Geschichte Danemarks_
(3 vols., 1840-1843); _Geschichte der englischen Revolution_ (1844);
_Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution_ (1845).
See A. Springer, _Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann_ (2 vols., 1870-1872);
and H. v. Treitschke, _Histor. und polit. Aufsatze_, i. 365 et seq.
(F. Lu.)
DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO (1661-1709), Swedish poet, whose original surname was
Eurelius, was born on the 7th of September 1661 in the parish of Ohr in
Dalsland, where his father was rector. He entered the university of
Upsala in 1677, and after gaining his degree entered the government
office of land-surveying. He was sent in 1681 on professional business
to Livonia, then under Swedish rule. A dissertation read at Leipzig in
1687 brought him the offer of a professorial chair in the university,
which he refused. Returning to Sweden he executed commissions in
land-surveying directed by King Charles XI., and in 1699 he became head
of the whole department. In 1702 he was ennobled under the name of
Dahlstjerna. He wandered over the whole of the coast of the Baltic,
Livonia, Rugen and Pomerania, preparing maps which still exist in the
office of public land-surveying in Stockholm. His death, which took
place in Pomerania on his forty-eighth birthday, 7th of September 1709,
is said to have been hastened by the disastrous news of the battle of
Poltava. Dahlstjerna's patriotism was touching in its pathos and
intensity, and during his long periods of professional exile he
comforted himself by the composition of songs to his beloved Sweden. His
genius was most irregular, but at his best he easily surpasses all the
Swedish poets of his time. His best-known original work is _Kungaskald_
(Stettin, 1697), an elegy on the death of Charles XI. It is written in
alexandrines, arranged in _ottava rima_. The poem is pompous and
allegorical, but there are passages full of melody and high thoughts.
Dahlstjerna was a reformer in language, and it has been well said by
Atterbom that in this poem "he treats the Swedish speech just as
dictatorially as Charles XI. and Charles XII. treated the Swedish
nation." In 1690 was printed at Stettin his paraphrase of the _Pastor
Fido_ of Guarini. His most popular work is his _Gotha kampavisa om
Konungen och Herr Peder_ (The Goth's Battle Song, concerning the King
and Master Peter; Stockholm, 1701). The King is Charles XII. and Master
Peter is the tsar of Russia. This spirited ballad lived almost until our
own days on the lips of the people as a folk-song.
The works of Dahlstjerna have been collected by P. Hanselli, in the
_Samlade Vitterhetsarbeten af svenska Forfattare fran Stjernhjelm till
Dalin_ (Upsala, 1856, &c.).
DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX (1834- ), German historian, jurist and poet,
was born on the 9th of February 1834 in Hamburg, where his father,
Friedrich Dahn (1811-1889), was a leading actor at the city theatre. His
mother, Constance Dahn, nee Le Gay, was a noted actress. In 1834 the
family moved to Munich, where the parents took leading roles in the
classical German drama, until they retired from the stage: the mother in
1865 and the father in 1878. Felix Dahn studied law and philosophy in
Munich and Berlin from 1849 to 1853. His first works were in
jurisprudence, _Uber die Wirkung der Klagverjahrung bei Obligationen_
(Munich, 1855), and _Studien zur Geschichte der germanischen
Gottesurteile_ (Munich, 1857). In 1857 he became docent in German law at
Munich university, and in 1862 professor-extraordinary, but in 1863 was
called to Wurzburg to a full professorship. In 1872 he removed to the
university of Konigsberg, and in 1888 settled at Breslau, becoming
rector of the university in 1895. Meanwhile in addition to many legal
works of high standing, he had begun the publication of that long series
of histories and historical romances which has made his name a household
word in Germany. The great history of the German migrations, _Die Konige
der Germanen_, Bande i.-vi. (Munich and Wurzburg, 1861-1870), Bande
vii.-xi. (Leipzig, 1894-1908), was a masterly study in constitutional
history as well as a literary work of high merit, which carries the
narrative down to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. In his
_Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Volker_ (Berlin,
1881-1890), Dahn went a step farther back still, but here as in his
_Geschichte der deutschen Urzeit_ (Gotha, 1883-1888), a wealth of
picturesque detail has been worked over and resolved into history with
such imaginative insight and critical skill as to make real and present
the indistinct beginnings of German society. Together with these larger
works Dahn wrote many monographs and studies upon primitive German
society. Many of his essays were collected in a series of six volumes
entitled _Bausteine_ (Berlin, 1879-1884). Not less important than his
histories are the historical romances, the best-known of which, _Ein
Kampf um Rom_, in four volumes (Leipzig, 1876), which has gone through
many later editions, was also the first of the series. Others are
_Odhins Trost_ (Leipzig, 1880); _Die Kreuzfahrer_ (Leipzig, 1884);
_Odhins Rache_ (Leipzig, 1891); _Julian der Abtrunnige_ (Leipzig, 1894),
and one of the most popular, _Bis zum Tode getreu_ (Leipzig, 1887). The
list is too long to be given in full, yet almost all are well-known.
Parallel with this great production of learned and imaginative works,
Dahn published some twenty small volumes of poetry. The most notable of
these are the epics of the early German period. His wife Therese, _nee_
Freiin von Droste-Hulshoff, was joint-author with him of _Walhall,
Germanische Gotter und Heldensagen_ (Leipzig, 1898).
A collected edition of his works of fiction, both in prose and verse,
has reached twenty-one volumes (Leipzig, 1898), and a new edition was
published in 1901. Dahn also published four volumes of memoirs,
_Erinnerungen_ (Leipzig, 1890-1895).
DAHOMEY (Fr. _Dahome_), a country of West Africa, formerly an
independent kingdom, now a French colony. Dahomey is bounded S. by the
Gulf of Guinea, E. by Nigeria (British), N. and N.W. by the French
possessions on the middle Niger, and W. by the German colony of
Togoland. The French colony extends far north of the limits of the
ancient kingdom of the same name. With a coast-line of only 75 m. (1
deg. 38' E. to 2 deg. 46' 55" E.), the area of the colony is about
40,000 sq. m., and the population over 1,000,000. As far as 9 deg. N.
the width of the colony is no greater than the coast-line. From this
point, the colony broadens out both eastward and westward, attaining a
maximum width of 200 m. It includes the western part of Borgu (q.v.),
and reaches the Niger at a spot a little above Illo. Its greatest length
N. to S. is 430 m.
_Physical Features._--The littoral, part of the old Slave Coast (see
GUINEA,), is very low, sandy and obstructed by a bar. Behind the
seashore is a line of lagoons, where small steamers can ply; east to
west they are those of Porto Novo (or Lake Nokue), Whydah and Grand
Popo. The Weme (300 m. long), known in its upper course as the Ofe, the
most important river running south, drains the colony from the Bariba
country to Porto Novo, entering the lagoon so named. The Zu is a western
affluent of the Weme. Farther west is the Kuffu (150 m. long), which,
before entering the Whydah lagoon, broadens out into a lake or lagoon
called Aheme, 20 m. long by 5 m. broad. The Makru and Kergigoto, each of
which has various affluents, flow north-east to the Niger, which in the
part of its course forming the north-east frontier of the colony is only
navigable for small vessels and that with great difficulty (see NIGER).
For some 50 m. inland the country is flat, and, after the first mile or
two of sandy waste is passed, covered with dense vegetation. At this
distance (50 m.) from the coast is a great swamp known as the Lama
Marsh. It extends east to west some 25 m. and north to south 6 to 9 m.
North of the swamp the land rises by regular stages to about 1650 ft.,
the high plateau falling again to the basin of the Niger. In the
north-west a range of hills known as the Atacora forms a watershed
between the basins of the Weme, the Niger and the Volta. A large part of
the interior consists of undulating country, rather barren, with
occasional patches of forest. The forests contain the baobab, the
coco-nut palm and the oil palm. The fauna resembles that of other parts
of the West Coast, but the larger wild animals, such as the elephant and
hippopotamus, are rare. The lion is found in the regions bordering the
Niger. Some kinds of antelopes are common; the buffalo has disappeared.
_Climate._--The climate of the coast regions is very hot and moist. Four
seasons are well marked: the harmattan or long dry season, from the 1st
December to the 15th March; the season of the great rains, from the 15th
March to the 15th July; the short dry season, from the 15th July to the
15th September; and the "little rains," from the 15th September to the
1st December. Near the sea the average temperature is about 80 deg. F.
The harmattan prevails for several days in succession, and alternates
with winds from the south and south-west. During its continuance the
thermometer falls about 10 deg., there is not the slightest moisture in
the atmosphere, vegetation dries up or droops, the skin parches and
peels, and all woodwork is liable to warp and crack with a loud report.
Tornadoes occur occasionally. During nine months of the year the climate
is tempered by a sea-breeze, which is felt as far inland as Abomey (60
m.). It generally begins in the morning, and in the summer it often
increases to a stiff gale at sundown. In the interior there are but two
seasons: the dry season (November to May) and the rainy season (June to
October). The rains are more scanty and diminish considerably in the
northern regions.
_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants of the coast region are of pure negro
stock. The Dahomeyans (Dahomi), who inhabit the central part of the
colony, form one of eighteen closely-allied clans occupying the country
between the Volta and Porto Novo, and from their common tongue known as
the Ewe-speaking tribes. In their own tongue Dahomeyans are called Fon
or Fawin. They are tall and well-formed, proud, reserved in demeanour,
polite in their intercourse with strangers, war-like and keen traders.
The Mina, who occupy the district of the Popos, are noted for their
skill as surf-men, which has gained for them the title of the Krumen of
Dahomey. Porto Novo is inhabited by a tribe called Nago, which has an
admixture of Yoruba blood and speaks a Yoruba dialect. The Nago are a
peaceful tribe and even keener traders than the Dahomi. In Whydah and
other coast towns are many mulattos, speaking Portuguese and bearing
high-sounding Portuguese names. In the north the inhabitants--Mahi,
Bariba, Gurmai,--are also of Negro stock, but scarcely so civilized as
the coast tribes. Settled among them are communities of Fula and Hausas.
There are many converts to Islam in the northern districts, but the Mahi
and Dahomeyans proper are nearly all fetish worshippers.
_Chief Towns._--The chief port and the seat of government is Kotonu, the
starting-point of a railway to the Niger. An iron pier, which extends
well beyond the surf, affords facilities for shipping. Kotonu was
originally a small village which served as the seaport of Porto Novo and
was burnt to the ground in 1890. It has consequently the advantage of
being a town laid out by Europeans on a definite plan. Situated on the
beach between the sea and the lagoon of Porto Novo, the soil consists of
heavy sand. Good hard roads have been made. Owing to an almost
continuous, cool, westerly sea-breeze, Kotonu is, in comparison with the
other coast towns, decidedly healthy for white men. Porto Novo (pop.
about 50,000), the former French headquarters and chief business centre,
is on the northern side of the lagoon of the same name and 20 m.
north-east of Kotonu by water. The town has had many names, and that by
which it is known to Europeans was given by the Portuguese in the 17th
century. It contains numerous churches and mosques, public buildings and
merchants' residences. Whydah, 23 m. west of Kotonu, is an old and
formerly thickly-populated town. Its population is now about 15,000. It
is built on the north bank of the coast lagoon about 2 m. from the sea.
There is no harbour at the beach, and landing is effected in boats made
expressly to pass through the surf, here particularly heavy. Whydah,
during the period of the slave-trade, was divided into five quarters:
the English, French, Portuguese, Brazilian and native. The three first
quarters once had formidable forts, of which the French fort alone
survives. In consequence of the thousands of orange and citron trees
which adorn it, Whydah is called "the garden of Dahomey." West of
Whydah, on the coast and near the frontier of Togoland, is the trading
town of Grand Popo. Inland in Dahomey proper are Abomey (q.v.), the
ancient capital, Allada, Kana (formerly the country residence and
burial-place of the kings of Dahomey) and Dogba. In the hinterland are
Carnotville (a town of French creation), Nikki and Paraku, Borgu towns,
and Garu, on the right bank of the Niger near the British frontier, the
terminus of the railway from the coast.
_Agriculture and Trade._--The agriculture, trade and commerce of Dahomey
proper are essentially different from that of the hinterland (_Haut
Dahome_). The soil of Dahomey proper is naturally fertile and is capable
of being highly cultivated. It consists of a rich clay of a deep red
colour. Finely-powdered quartz and yellow mica are met with, denoting
the deposit of disintegrated granite from the interior. The principal
product is palm-oil, which is made in large quantities throughout the
country. The district of Toffo is particularly noted for its oil-palm
orchards. Palm-wine is also made, but the manufacture is discouraged as
the process destroys the tree. Next to palm-oil the principal vegetable
products are maize, guinea-corn, cassava, yams, sweet potatoes,
plantains, coco-nuts, oranges, limes and the African apple, which grows
almost wild. The country also produces ground-nuts, kola-nuts,
pine-apples, guavas, spices of all kinds, ginger, okros (_Hibiscus_),
sugar-cane, onions, tomatoes and papaws. Plantations of rubber trees and
vines have been made. Cattle, sheep, goats and fowls are scarce. There
is a large fishing industry in the lagoons. Round the villages, and here
and there in the forest, clearings are met with, cultivated in places,
but agriculture is in a backward condition. In the grassy uplands of the
interior cattle and horses thrive, and cotton of a fairly good quality
is grown by the inhabitants for their own use. The prosperity of the
country depends chiefly on the export of palm-oil and palm-kernels.
Copra, kola-nuts, rubber and dried fish are also exported, the fish
going to Lagos. The adulteration of the palm-kernels by the natives,
which became a serious menace to trade, was partially checked
(1900-1903) by measures taken to ensure the inspection of the kernels
before shipment. Trade is mainly with Germany and Great Britain, a large
proportion of the cargo passing through the British port of Lagos. Only
some 25% of the commerce is with France. Cotton goods (chiefly from
Great Britain), machinery and metals, alcohol (from Germany) and tobacco
are the chief imports. The volume of trade, which had increased from
L701,000 in 1898 to L1,230,000 in 1902, declined in 1903 to L826,000 in
consequence of the failure of rain, this causing a decrease in the
production of palm-oil and kernels. In 1904 the total rose to L873,399.
In 1905 the figure was L734,667, and in 1907 L853,051. By the
Anglo-French Convention of 1898 the imposition of differential duties on
goods of British origin was forbidden for a period of thirty years from
that date.
_Communications._--The Dahomey railway from Kotonu to the Niger is of
metre gauge (3.28 ft.). Work was begun in 1900, and in 1902 the main
line was completed to Toffo, a distance of 55 m. Some difficulty was
then encountered in crossing the Lama Marsh, but by the end of 1905 the
railway had been carried through Abomey to Pauignan, 120 m. from Kotonu.
In 1907 the rails had reached Paraku, 150 m. farther north. A branch
railway from the main line serves the western part of the colony. It
goes via Whydah to Segborue on Lake Aheme. Besides the railways, tramway
lines exist in various parts of Dahomey. One, 28 m. long, runs from
Porto Novo through the market-town of Adjara to Sakete, close to the
British frontier in the direction of Lagos. This line serves a belt of
country rich in oil-palms. Kotonu is a regular port of call for steamers
from Europe to the West Coast, and there is also regular steamship
communication along the lagoons between Porto Novo and Lagos. There is a
steamboat service between Porto Novo and Kotonu. A telegraph line
connects Kotonu with Abomey, the Niger and Senegal.
_Administration._--The colony is administered by a lieutenant-governor,
assisted by a council composed of official and unofficial members. The
colony is divided into territories annexed, territories protected, and
"territories of political action," but for administrative purposes the
division is into "circles" or provinces. Over each circle is an
administrator with extensive powers. Except in the annexed territories
the native states are maintained under French supervision, and native
laws and customs, as far as possible, retained. Natives, however, may
place themselves under the jurisdiction of the French law. Such natives
are known as "Assimiles." In general the administrative system is the
same as that for all the colonies of French West Africa (q.v.). The
chief source of revenue is the customs, while the capitation tax
contributes most to the local budget.
_History._--The kingdom of Dahomey, like those of Benin and Ashanti, is
an instance of a purely negro and pagan state, endowed with a highly
organized government, and possessing a certain amount of indigenous
civilization and culture. Its history begins about the commencement of
the 17th century. At that period the country now known as Dahomey was
included in the extensive kingdom of Allada or Ardrah, of which the
capital was the present town of Allada, on the road from Whydah to
Abomey. Allada became dismembered on the death of a reigning sovereign,
and three separate kingdoms were constituted under his three sons. One
state was formed by one brother round the old capital of Allada, and
retained the name of Allada or Ardrah; another brother migrated to the
east and formed a state known under the name of Porto Novo; while the
third brother, Takudonu, travelled northwards, and after some
vicissitudes established the kingdom of Dahomey. The word Dahomey means
"in Danh's belly," and is explained by the following legend which, says
Sir Richard Burton, "is known (1864) to everybody in the kingdom."
Takudonu having settled in a town called Uhwawe encroached on the land
of a neighbouring chief named Danh (the snake). Takudonu wearied Danh by
perpetual demands for land, and the chief one day exclaimed in anger
"soon thou wilt build in my belly." So it came to pass. Takudonu slew
Danh and over his grave built himself a palace which was called Dahomey,
a name thenceforth adopted by the new king's followers. About 1724-1728
Dahomey, having become a powerful state, invaded and conquered
successively Allada and Whydah. The Whydahs made several attempts to
recover their freedom, but without success; while on the other hand the
Dahomeyans failed in all their expeditions against Grand Popo, a town
founded by refugee Whydahs on a lagoon to the west. It is related that
the repulses they met with in that quarter led to the order that no
Dahomeyan warrior was to enter a canoe. Porto Novo at the beginning of
the 19th century became tributary to Dahomey.
Such was the state of affairs at the accession of King Gezo about the
year 1818. This monarch, who reigned forty years, raised the power of
Dahomey to its highest pitch, extending greatly the border of his
kingdom to the north. He boasted of having first organized the Amazons,
a force of women to whom he attributed his successes. The Amazons,
however, were state soldiery long before Gezo's reign, and what that
monarch really did was to reorganize and strengthen the force.
In 1851 Gezo attacked Abeokuta in the Yoruba country and the centre of
the Egba power, but was beaten back. In the same year the king signed a
commercial treaty with France, in which Gezo also undertook to preserve
"the integrity of the territory belonging to the French fort" at Whydah.
The fort referred to was one built in the 17th century, and in 1842 made
over to a French mercantile house. England, Portugal and Brazil also had
"forts" at Whydah--all in a ruinous condition and ungarrisoned. But when
in 1852 England, to prevent the slave-trade, blockaded the Dahomeyan
coast, energetic protests were made by Portugal and France, based on the
existence of these "forts." In 1858 Gezo died. He had greatly reduced
the custom of human sacrifice, and left instructions that after his
death there was to be no general sacrifice of the palace women.
Gezo was succeeded by his son Glegle (or Gelele), whose attacks on
neighbouring states, persecution of native Christians, and encouragement
of the slave-trade involved him in difficulties with Great Britain and
with France. It was, said Earl Russell, foreign secretary, to check "the
aggressive spirit of the king of Dahomey" that England in 1861 annexed
the island of Lagos. Nevertheless in the following year Glegle captured
Ishagga and in 1864 unsuccessfully attacked Abeokuta, both towns in the
Lagos hinterland. In 1863 Commander Wilmot, R.N., and in 1864 Sir
Richard Burton (the explorer and orientalist) were sent on missions to
the king, but their efforts to induce the Dahomeyans to give up human
sacrifices, slave-trading, &c. met with no success. In 1863, however, a
step was taken by France which was the counterpart of the British
annexation of Lagos. In that year the kingdom of Porto Novo accepted a
French protectorate, and an Anglo-French agreement of 1864 fixed its
boundaries. This protectorate was soon afterwards abandoned by Napoleon
III., but was re-established in 1882. At this period the rivalry of
European powers for possessions in Africa was becoming acute, and German
agents appeared on the Dahomeyan coast. However, by an arrangement
concluded in 1885, the German protectorate in Guinea was confined to
Togo, save for the town of Little Popo at the western end of the lagoon
of Grand Popo. In January 1886 Portugal--in virtue of her ancient rights
at Whydah--announced that she had assumed a protectorate over the
Dahomeyan coast, but she was induced by France to withdraw her
protectorate in December 1887. Finally, the last international
difficulty in the way of France was removed by the Anglo-French
agreement of 1889, whereby Kotonu was surrendered by Great Britain.
France claimed rights at Kotonu in virtue of treaties concluded with
Glegle in 1868 and 1878, but the chiefs of the town had placed
themselves under the protection of the British at Lagos.
With the arrangements between the European powers the Dahomeyans had
little to do, and in 1889, the year in which the Anglo-French agreement
was signed, trouble arose between Glegle and the French. The Dahomeyans
were the more confident, as through German and other merchants at Whydah
they were well supplied with modern arms and ammunition. Glegle claimed
the right to collect the customs at Kotonu, and to depose the king of
Porto Novo, and proceeded to raid the territory of that potentate (his
brother). A French mission sent to Abomey failed to come to an agreement
with the Dahomeyans, who attributed the misunderstandings to the fact
that there was no longer a king in France! Glegle died on the 28th of
December 1889, two days after the French mission had left his capital.
He was succeeded by his son Behanzin. A French force was landed at
Kotonu, and severe fighting followed in which the Amazons played a
conspicuous part. In October 1890 a treaty was signed which secured to
France Porto Novo and Kotonu, and to the king of Dahomey an annual
pension of L800. It was unlikely that peace on such terms would prove
lasting, and Behanzin's slave-raiding expeditions led in 1892 to a new
war with France. General A. A. Dodds was placed in command of a strong
force of Europeans and Senegalese, and after a sharp campaign during
September and October completely defeated the Dahomeyan troops. Behanzin
set fire to Abomey (entered by the French troops on the 17th of
November) and fled north. Pursued by the enemy, abandoned by his people,
he surrendered unconditionally on the 25th of January 1894, and was
deported to Martinique, being transferred in 1906 to Algeria, where he
died on the 10th of December of the same year.
Thus ended the independent existence of Dahomey. The French divided the
kingdom in two--Abomey and Allada--placing on the throne of Abomey a
brother of the exiled monarch. Chief among the causes which led to the
collapse of the Dahomeyan kingdom was the system which devoted the
flower of its womanhood to the profession of arms.
Whydah and the adjacent territory was annexed to France by General Dodds
on the 3rd of December 1892, and the rest of Dahomey placed under a
French protectorate at the same time. The prince who had been made king
of Abomey was found intriguing against the French, and in 1900 was
exiled by them to the Congo, and with him disappeared the last vestige
of Dahomeyan sovereignty.
Dahomey conquered, the French at once set to work to secure as much of
the hinterland as possible. On the north they penetrated to the Niger,
on the east they entered Borgu (a country claimed by the Royal Niger
Company for Great Britain), on the west they overlapped the territory
claimed by Germany as the hinterland of Togo. The struggle with Great
Britain and Germany for supremacy in this region forms one of the most
interesting chapters in the story of the partition of Africa. In the
result France succeeded in securing a junction between Dahomey and her
other possessions in West Africa, but failed to secure any part of the
Niger navigable from the sea (see AFRICA: _History_, and NIGERIA). A
Franco-German convention of 1897 settled the boundary on the west, and
the Anglo-French convention of the 14th of June 1898 defined the
frontier on the east. In 1899, on the disintegration of the French
Sudan, the districts of Fada N'Gurma and Say, lying north of Borgu, were
added to Dahomey, but in 1907 they were transferred to Upper
Senegal-Niger, with which colony they are closely connected both
geographically and ethnographically. From 1894 onward the French devoted
great attention to the development of the material resources of the
country.
_The "Customs."_--Reference has already been made to the Dahomey
"Customs," which gave the country an infamous notoriety. The "Customs"
appear to date from the middle of the 17th century, and were of two
kinds: the grand Customs performed on the death of a king; and the minor
Customs, held twice a year. The horrors of these saturnalia of bloodshed
were attributable not to a love of cruelty but to filial piety. Upon the
death of a king human victims were sacrificed at his grave to supply him
with wives, attendants, &c. in the spirit world. The grand Customs
surpassed the annual rites in splendour and bloodshed. At those held in
1791 during January, February and March, it is stated that no fewer than
500 men, women and children were put to death. The minor Customs were
first heard of in Europe in the early years of the 18th century. They
formed continuations of the grand Customs, and "periodically supplied
the departed monarch with fresh attendants in the shadowy world." The
actual slaughter was preluded by dancing, feasting, speechmaking and
elaborate ceremonial. The victims, chiefly prisoners of war, were
dressed in calico shirts decorated round the neck and down the sleeves
with red bindings, and with a crimson patch on the left breast, and wore
long white night-caps with spirals of blue ribbon sewn on. Some of them,
tied in baskets, were at one stage of the proceedings taken to the top
of a high platform, together with an alligator, a cat and a hawk in
similar baskets, and paraded on the heads of the Amazons. The king then
made a speech explaining that the victims were sent to testify to his
greatness in spirit-land, the men and the animals each to their kind.
They were then hurled down into the middle of a surging crowd of
natives, and butchered. At another stage of the festival human
sacrifices were offered at the shrine of the king's ancestors, and the
blood was sprinkled on their graves. This was known as _Zan Nyanyana_ or
"evil night," the king going in procession with his wives and officials
and himself executing the doomed. These semi-public massacres formed
only a part of the slaughter, for many women, eunuchs and others within
the palace were done to death privately. The skulls were used to adorn
the palace walls, and the king's sleeping-chamber was paved with the
heads of his enemies. The skulls of the conquered kings were turned into
royal drinking cups, their conversion to this use being esteemed an
honour. Sir Richard Burton insists (_A Mission to Gelele, King of
Dahome_) that the horrors of these rites were greatly exaggerated. For
instance, the story that the king floated a canoe in a tank of human
blood was, he writes, quite untrue. He denies, too, that the victims
were tortured, and affirms that on the contrary they were treated
humanely, and, in many cases, even acquiesced in their fate. It seems
that cannibalism was a sequel of the Customs, the bodies of the
slaughtered being roasted and devoured smoking hot. On the death of the
king the wives, after the most extravagant demonstrations of grief,
broke and destroyed everything within their reach, and attacked and
murdered each other, the uproar continuing until order was restored by
the new sovereign.
_Amazonian Army._--The training of women as soldiers was the most
singular Dahomeyan institution. About one-fourth of the whole female
population were said to be "married to the fetich," many even before
their birth, and the remainder were entirely at the disposal of the
king. The most favoured were selected as his own wives or enlisted into
the regiments of Amazons, and then the chief men were liberally
supplied. Of the female captives the most promising were drafted into
the ranks as soldiers, and the rest became Amazonian camp followers and
slaves in the royal households. These female levies formed the flower of
the Dahomeyan army. They were marshalled in regiments, each with its
distinctive uniform and badges, and they took the post of honour in all
battles. Their number has been variously stated. Sir R. F. Burton, in
1862, who saw the army marching out of Kana on an expedition, computed
the whole force of female troops at 2500, of whom one-third were unarmed
or only half-armed. Their weapons were blunderbusses, flint muskets, and
bows and arrows. A later writer estimated the number of Amazons at 1000,
and the male soldiers at 10,000. The system of warfare was one of
surprise. The army marched out, and, when within a few days' journey of
the town to be attacked, silence was enjoined and no fires permitted.
The regular highways were avoided, and the advance was by a road
specially cut through the bush. The town was surrounded at night, and
just before daybreak a rush was made and every soul captured if
possible; none were killed except in self-defence, as the first object
was to capture, not to kill. The season usually selected for expeditions
was from January to March, or immediately after the annual "Customs."
The Amazons were carefully trained, and the king was in the habit of
holding "autumn manoeuvres" for the benefit of foreigners. Many
Europeans have witnessed a mimic assault, and agree in ascribing a
marvellous power of endurance to the women. Lines of thorny acacia were
piled up one behind the other to represent defences, and at a given
signal the Amazons, barefooted and without any special protection,
charged and disappeared from sight. Presently they emerged within the
lines torn and bleeding, but apparently insensible to pain, and the
parade closed with a march past, each warrior leading a pretended
captive bound with a rope.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Notre Colonie de Dahomey_, by G. Francois (Paris,
1906), and _Le Dahomey_ (1909), an official publication, deal with
topography, ethnography and economics; L. Brunet and L. Giethlen,
_Dahomey et dependances_ (Paris, 1900); Edouard Foa, _Le Dahomey_
(Paris, 1895). Religion, laws and language are specially dealt with in
_Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, by A. B. Ellis (London,
1890), and in _La Cote des Esclaves et le Dahomey_, by P. Bouche
(Paris, 1885). Much historical matter, with particular notices of the
Amazons and the "Customs," is contained in _A Mission to Gelele_, by
Sir R. Burton (London, 1864). The story of the French conquest is told
in _Campagne du Dahomey_, by Jules Poirier (Paris, 1895). The standard
authority on the early history is _The History of Dahomey_, by
Archibald Dalzel (sometime governor of the English fort at Whydah)
(London, 1793). The annual _Reports_ issued by the British, Foreign,
and French Colonial Offices may be consulted, and the _Bibliographie
raisonnee des ouvrages concernant le Dahomey_, by A. Pawlowski (Paris,
1895), is a useful guide to the literature of the country to that
date. A _Carte du Dahomey_, by A. Meunier, (3 sheets, scale
1:500,000), was published in Paris, 1907.
DAILLE (DALLAEUS), JEAN (1594-1670), French Protestant divine, was born
at Chatellerault and educated at Poitiers and Saumur. From 1612 to 1621
he was tutor to two of the grandsons of Philippe de Mornay, seigneur du
Plessis Marly. Ordained to the ministry in 1623, he was for some time
private chaplain to Du Plessis Mornay, whose memoirs he subsequently
wrote. In 1625 Daille was appointed minister of the church of Saumur,
and in 1626 was chosen by the Paris consistory to be minister of the
church of Charenton. Of his works, which are principally controversial,
the best known is the treatise _Du vrai emploi des Peres_ (1631),
translated into English by Thomas Smith under the title _A Treatise
concerning the right use of the Fathers_ (1651). The work attacks those
who made the authority of the Fathers conclusive on matters of faith and
practice. Daille contends that the text of the Fathers is often corrupt,
and that even when it is correct their reasoning is often illogical. In
his _Sermons_ on the Philippians and Colossians, Daille vindicated his
claim to rank as a great preacher as well as an able controversialist.
He was president of the last national synod held in France, which met at
Loudun in 1659 (H. M. Baird, _The Huguenots and the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes_, 1895, i. pp. 412 ff.), when, as in the _Apologie des
Synodes d'Alencon et de Charenton_ (1655), he defended the universalism
of Moses Amyraut. He wrote also _Apologie pour les Eglises Reformees_
and _La Foy fondee sur les Saintes Ecritures_. His life was written by
his son Adrien, who retired to Zurich at the revocation of the edict of
Nantes.
DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING (from the Mid. Eng. _deieris_, from _dey_, a
maid-servant, particularly one about a farm; cf. Norw. _deia_, as in
_bu-deia_, a maid in charge of live-stock, and in other compounds; thus
"dairy" means that part of the farm buildings where the "dey" works).
Milk, either in its natural state, or in the form of butter and cheese,
is an article of diet so useful, wholesome and palatable, that dairy
management, which includes all that concerns its production and
treatment, constitutes a most important branch of husbandry. The
physical conditions of the different countries of the world have
determined in each case the most suitable animal for dairy purposes. The
Laplander obtains his supplies of milk from his rein-deer, the roving
Tatar from his mares, and the Bedouin of the desert from his camels. In
the temperate regions of the earth many pastoral tribes subsist mainly
upon the milk of the sheep. In some rocky regions the goat is invaluable
as a milk-yielder; and the buffalo is equally so amid the swamps and
jungles of tropical climates. The milking of ewes was once a common
practice in Great Britain; but it has fallen into disuse because of its
hurtful effects upon the flock. A few milch asses and goats are here and
there kept for the benefit of infants or invalids; but with these
exceptions the cow is the only animal now used for dairy purposes.
No branch of agriculture underwent greater changes during the closing
quarter of the 19th century than dairy-farming; within the period named,
indeed, the dairying industry may be said to have been revolutionized.
The two great factors in this modification were the introduction about
the year 1880 of the centrifugal cream-separator, whereby the old slow
system of raising cream in pans was dispensed with, and the invention
some ten years later of a quick and easy method of ascertaining the fat
content of samples of milk without having to resort to the tedious
processes of chemical analysis. About the year 1875 the agriculturists
of the United Kingdom, influenced by various economic causes, began to
turn their thoughts more intently in the direction of dairy-farming, and
to the increased production of milk and cream, butter and cheese. On the
24th of October 1876 was held the first London dairy show, under the
auspices of a committee of agriculturists, and it has been followed by a
similar show in every subsequent year. The official report of the
pioneer show stated that "there was a much larger attendance and a
greater amount of enthusiasm in the movement than even the most sanguine
of its promoters anticipated." On the day named Professor J. Prince
Sheldon read at the show a paper on the dairying industry, and proposed
the formation of a society to be called the British Dairy Farmers'
Association. This was unanimously agreed to, and thus was founded an
organization which has since been closely identified with the
development of the dairying industry of the United Kingdom. In its
earlier publications the Association was wont to reproduce from
_Household Words_ the following tribute to the cow:--
"If civilized people were ever to lapse into the worship of animals,
the Cow would certainly be their chief goddess. What a fountain of
blessings is the Cow! She is the mother of beef, the source of butter,
the original cause of cheese, to say nothing of shoe-horns, hair-combs
and upper leather. A gentle, amiable, ever-yielding creature, who has
no joy in her family affairs which she does not share with man. We rob
her of her children that we may rob her of her milk, and we only care
for her when the robbing may be perpetrated."
The association has, directly or indirectly, brought about many valuable
reforms and improvements in dairying. Its London shows have provided,
year after year, a variety of object-lessons in cheese, in butter and in
dairy equipment. In order to demonstrate to producers what is the ideal
to aim at, there is nothing more effective than a competitive exhibition
of products, and the approach to uniform excellence of character in
cheese and butter of whatever kinds is most obvious to those who
remember what these products were like at the first two or three dairy
shows. Simultaneously there has been a no less marked advance in the
mechanical aids to dairying, including, in particular, the centrifugal
cream-separator, the crude germ of which was first brought before the
public at the international dairy show held at Hamburg in the spring of
1877. The association in good time set the example, now beneficially
followed in many parts of Great Britain, of providing means for
technical instruction in the making of cheese and butter, by the
establishment of a dairy school in the Vale of Aylesbury, subsequently
removing it to new and excellent premises at Reading, where it is known
as the British Dairy Institute. The initiation of butter-making contests
at the annual dairy shows stimulated the competitive instinct of dairy
workers, and afforded the public useful object-lessons; in more recent
years milking competitions have been added. Milking trials and butter
tests of cows conducted at the dairy shows have afforded results of much
practical value. Many of the larger agricultural societies have found it
expedient to include in their annual shows a working dairy, wherein
butter-making contests are held and public demonstrations are given.
What are regarded as the dairy breeds of cattle is illustrated by the
prize schedule of the annual London dairy show, in which sections are
provided for cows and heifers of the Shorthorn, Jersey, Guernsey, Red
Polled, Ayrshire, Kerry and Dexter breeds (see CATTLE). A miscellaneous
class is also provided, the entries in which are mostly cross-breds.
There are likewise classes for Shorthorn bulls, Jersey bulls, and bulls
of any other pure breed, but it is stipulated that all bulls must be of
proved descent from dams that have won prizes in the milking trials or
butter tests of the British Dairy Farmers' Association or other
high-class agricultural society. The importance of securing dairy
characters in the sire is thus recognized, and it is notified that, as
the object of the bull classes is to encourage the breeding of bulls for
dairy purposes, the prizes are to be given solely to animals exhibited
in good stock-getting condition.
MILK AND BUTTER TESTS
The award of prizes in connexion with milking trials cannot be
determined simply by the quantity of milk yielded in a given period, say
twenty-four hours. Other matters must obviously be taken into
consideration, such as the quality of the milk and the time that has
elapsed since the birth cf the last calf. With regard to the former
point, for example, it is quite possible for one cow to give more milk
than another, but for the milk of the second cow to include the larger
quantity of butter-fat. The awards are therefore determined by the total
number of points obtained according to the following scheme:--
One point for every ten days since calving (deducting the first forty
days), with a maximum of fourteen points.
One point for every pound of milk, taking the average of two days'
yield.
Twenty points for every pound of butter-fat produced.
Four points for every pound of "solids other than fat."
_Deductions._--Ten points each time the fat is below 3%. Ten points
each time the solids other than fat fall below 8.5%.
TABLE I.--_Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Milking Trials,
London Dairy Show, 1900._
+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+
| | | In | Milk | | Other | Total |
| Cow. | Age. | Milk.| per | Fat. |Solids.|Points.|
| | | | Day. | | | |
+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+
| |Years.| Days.| lb. | % | % | No. |
|_Shorthorns eligible | | | | | | |
| for Herd-Book_-- | | | | | | |
| Heroine III. | 6 | 61 | 52.4 | 3.7 | 8.3 | 91.5 |
| Musical | 7 | 16 | 45.2 | 3.2 | 9.3 | 90.8 |
| Lady Rosedale | 8 | 48 | 47.8 | 3.5 | 9.0 | 88.7 |
|_Shorthorns not eligible| | | | | | |
| for Herd-Book_-- | | | | | | |
| Granny | 9 | 33 | 70.2 | 3.5 | 8.9 | 144.1 |
| Cherry | 9 | 103 | 55.5 | 4.0 | 8.9 | 127.1 |
| Chance | 6 | 23 | 60.0 | 3.6 | 8.9 | 124.6 |
|_Jerseys_-- | | | | | | |
| Sultane 14th | 12 | 256 | 41.7 | 4.9 | 9.4 | 112 |
| Queen Bess |7(1/2)| 136 | 39.4 | 4.8 | 9.0 | 101 |
| Gloaming IV. | 7 | 156 | 30.5 | 6.7 | 9.5 | 94.9 |
+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+
This method of award is at present the best that can be devised, but it
is possible that, as experience accumulates, some rearrangement of the
points may be found to be desirable. Omitting many of the details, Table
I. shows some of the results in the case of Shorthorn and Jersey prize
cows. The days "in milk" denote in each case the number of days that
have elapsed since calving; and if the one day's yield of milk is
desired in gallons, it can be obtained approximately[1] by dividing the
weight in pounds by 10: thus, the Shorthorn cow Heroine III. gave 52.4
lb., or 5.24 gallons, of milk per day. The table is incidentally of
interest as showing how superior as milch kine are the unregistered or
non-pedigree Shorthorns--which are typical of the great majority of
dairy cows in the United Kingdom--as compared with the pedigree animals
entered, or eligible for entry, in Coates's Herd-Book. The evening's
milk, it should be added, is nearly always richer in fat than the
morning's, but the percentages in the table relate to the entire day's
milk.
The milking trials are based upon a chemical test, as it is necessary to
determine the percentage of fat and of solids other than fat in each
sample of milk. The butter test, on the other hand, is a churn test, as
the cream has to be separated from the milk and churned. The following
is the scale of points used at the London dairy show in making awards in
butter tests:--
One point for every ounce of butter; one point for every completed ten
days since calving, deducting the first forty days. Maximum allowance
for period of lactation, 12 points.
Fractions of ounces of butter, and incomplete periods of less than ten
days, to be worked out in decimals and added to the total points.
In the case of cows obtaining the same number of points, the prize to
be awarded to the cow that has been the longest time in milk.
No prize or certificate to be given in the case of:--
(a) Cows under five years old failing to obtain 28 points.
(b) Cows five years old and over failing to obtain 32 points.
TABLE II.--_Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Butter Tests,
London Dairy Show, 1900._
+------------+------+-----+--------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+-------+
| | | In | Milk | |Milk to|Points | Points | Total |
| Cows. | Age. |Milk.| per | Butter. | 1 lb. | for | for |Points.|
| | | | Day. | |Butter.|Butter.|Lactation.| |
+------------+------+-----+--------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+-------+
| |Years.|Days.|lb. oz. | lb. oz. | lb. | No. | No. | No. |
|Shorthorns--| | | | | | | | |
| 1st | 9 | 104 | 55 2 | 2 5(1/4) | 23.67 | 37.25 | 6.40 | 43.65 |
| 2nd | 9 | 34 | 72 7 | 2 10(3/4) | 27.11 | 42.75 | .. | 42.75 |
| 3rd | 7 | 33 | 58 5 | 2 7(3/4) | 23.47 | 39.75 | .. | 39.75 |
|Jerseys-- | | | | | | | | |
| 1st | 7 | 157 | 29 10 | 2 2(1/4) | 13.83 | 34.25 | 11.70 | 45.95 |
| 2nd | 4 | 103 | 33 10 | 2 3 | 15.37 | 35.00 | 6.30 | 41.30 |
| 3rd | 12 | 257 | 40 13 | 1 12 | 23.32 | 28.00 | 12.00 | 40.00 |
+------------+------+-----+--------+-----------+-------+-------+----------+-------+
The manner in which butter tests are decided will be rendered clear by a
study of Table II. It is seen that whilst the much larger Shorthorn
cows--having a bigger frame to maintain and consuming more food--gave
both more milk and more butter in the day of twenty-four hours, the
Jersey milk was much the richer in fat. In the case of the first-prize
Jersey the "butter ratio," as it is termed, was excellent, as only 13.83
lb. of milk were required to yield 1 lb. of butter; in the case of the
second-prize Shorthorn, practically twice this quantity (or 27.11 lb)
was needed. Moreover, if the days in milk are taken into account, the
difference in favour of the Jersey is seen to be 123 days.
TABLE III.--_Summary of the English Jersey Cattle Society's Butter
Tests, Fourteen Years, 1886-1899._
+---------+-------+-------+------------+------------+---------+
| | |Average| Average | Average |Quantity |
| Cows' | Cows |Time in| Milk | Butter | Milk to |
| Ages. |Tested.| Milk. | Yield. | Yield. | 1 lb. |
| | | | | | Butter |
+---------+-------+-------+------------+------------+---------+
| Years. | No. | Days | lb. oz. | lb. oz. | lb. |
| 1 to 2 | 2 | 34 | 15 2 | 0 13 | 18.43 |
| 2 " 3 | 57 | 73 | 24 15(1/4) | 1 5(1/4) | 18.74 |
| 3 " 4 | 108 | 77 | 29 14(3/4) | 1 10 | 18.42 |
| 4 " 5 | 165 | 72 | 32 5(1/2) | 1 11(1/4) | 19.01 |
| 5 " 6 | 188 | 80 | 32 15(1/4) | 1 12 | 18.76 |
| 6 " 7 | 189 | 89 | 34 7(3/4) | 1 13 | 18.92 |
| 7 " 8 | 139 | 84 | 33 11(1/4) | 1 13(1/4) | 18.40 |
| 8 " 9 | 71 | 82 | 33 6(1/2) | 1 12 | 19.03 |
| 9 " 10 | 42 | 92 | 32 6(1/2) | 1 11(1/4) | 18.95 |
|10 " 11 | 31 | 88 | 35 4 | 1 14(1/4) | 18.60 |
|11 " 12 | 15 | 89 | 37 1 | 1 13(3/4) | 19.96 |
|12 " 13 | 13 | 95 | 34 1(1/4) | 1 10(1/2) | 20.56 |
|13 " 14 | 3 | 54 | 42 1(1/4) | 2 1(3/4) | 19.85 |
+---------+-------+-------+------------+------------+---------+
The butter-yielding capacity of the choicest class of butter cows, the
Jerseys, is amply illustrated in the results of the butter tests
conducted by the English Jersey Cattle Society over the period of
fourteen years 1886 to 1899 inclusive. These tests were carried out year
after year at half a dozen different shows, and the results are
classified in Table III. according to the age of the animals. The
average time in milk is measured by the number of days since calving,
and the milk and butter yields are those for the day of twenty-four
hours. The last column shows the "butter ratio." This number is lower in
the case of the Jerseys than in that of the general run of dairy cows.
The average results from the total of 1023 cows of the various ages
are:--One day's milk, 32 lb. 2(1/4) oz., equal to about 3 gallons or 12
quarts; one day's butter, 1 lb. 10(3/4) oz.; butter ratio, 19.13 or
about 16 pints of milk to 1 lb. of butter. Individual yields are
sometimes extraordinarily high. Thus at the Tring show in 1899 the three
leading Jersey cows gave the following results:--
+--------------+-------+-------+--------+------------+--------+
| Cow. | Age. | Live- |In Milk.| Butter. | Butter |
| | |Weight.| | | Ratio. |
+--------------+-------+-------+--------+------------+--------+
| | Years.| lb. | Days. | lb. oz. | lb. |
| Sundew 4th | 8 | 929 | 77 | 3 6(3/4) | 15.10 |
| Madeira 5th | 7 | 1060 | 107 | 2 15(1/2) | 16.14 |
| Em | 7 | 864 | 44 | 3 4(3/4) | 13.32 |
+--------------+-------+-------+--------+------------+--------+
The eight prize-winning Jerseys on this occasion, with an average weight
of 916 lb. and an average of 117 days in milk, yielded an average of 2
lb. 9 oz. of butter per cow in the twenty-four hours, the butter ratio
working out at 16.69. At the Tring show of 1900 a Shorthorn cow Cherry
gave as much as 4 lb. 4(1/2) oz. of butter in twenty-four hours; she had
been in milk 41 days, and her butter ratio worked out at 15.79, which is
unusually good for a big cow.
In the six years 1895 to 1900 inclusive 285 cows of the Shorthorn,
Jersey, Guernsey and Red Polled breeds were subjected to butter tests at
the London dairy show, and the general results are summarized in Table
IV.
Although cows in the showyard may perhaps be somewhat upset by their
unusual surroundings, and thus not yield so well as at home, yet the
average results of these butter-test trials over a number of years are
borne out by the private trials that have taken place in various herds.
The trials have, moreover, brought into prominence the peculiarities of
different breeds, such as: (a) that the Shorthorns, Red Polls and
Kerries, being cattle whose milk contains small fat globules, are better
for milk than the Jerseys and Guernseys, whose milk is richer,
containing larger-sized fat globules, and is therefore more profitable
for converting into butter; (b) that the weights of the animals, and
consequently the proportionate food, must be taken into account in
estimating the cost of the dairy produce; (c) that the influence of the
stage reached in the period of lactation is much more marked in some
breeds than in others.
TABLE IV.--_Average Butter Yields and Butter Ratios at the London
Dairy Show, Six Years, 1895-1900._
+--------------+-------+-------+------------+--------------+
| Breed. |No. of | In | Butter. | Milk to 1 lb.|
| | Cows. | Milk. | | Butter. |
+--------------+-------+-------+------------+--------------+
| | | Days. | lb. oz. | lb. |
| Shorthorn | 106 | 50 | 1 11 | 28.81 |
| Jersey | 126 | 99 | 1 10(1/4) | 19.15 |
| Guernsey | 23 | 72 | 1 9(1/2) | 21.86 |
| Red Polled | 30 | 60 | 1 4(3/4) | 30.29 |
+--------------+-------+-------+------------+--------------+
An instructive example of the milk-yielding capacity of Jersey cows is
afforded in the carefully kept records of Lord Rothschild's herd at
Tring Park, Herts. Overleaf are given the figures for four years, the
gallons being calculated at the rate of 10 lb of milk to the gallon.
In 1897, 30 cows averaged 6396 lb., or 640 gallons per cow.
In 1898, 29 " " 6209 " 621 " "
In 1899, 37 " " 6430 " 643 " "
In 1900, 39 " " 6136 " 614 " "
The average over the four years works out at about 630 gallons per cow
per annum.
Cows of larger type will give more milk than the Jerseys, but it is less
rich in fat. The milk record for the year 1900 of the herd of Red Polled
cattle belonging to Mr Garrett Taylor, Whitlingham, Norfolk, affords a
good example. The cows in the herd, which had before 1900 produced one
or more calves, and in 1900 added another to the list, being in full
profit the greater part of the year, numbered 82. Their total yield was
521,950 lb. of milk, or an average of 6365 lb.--equivalent to about 636
gallons--per cow. In 1899 the average yield of 96 cows was 6283 lb. or
628 gallons; in 1898 the average yield of 75 cows was 6473 lb. or 647
gallons. Of cows which dropped a first calf in the autumn of 1899, one
of them--Lemon--milked continuously for 462 days, yielding a total of
7166 lb. of milk, being still in milk when the herd year closed on the
27th of December. Similar cases were those of Nora, which gave 9066 lb.
of milk in 455 days; Doris, 8138 lb. in 462 days; Brisk, 9248 lb. in 469
days; Della, 8806 lb. in 434 days, drying 28 days before the year ended;
and Lottie, 6327 lb. in 394 days, also drying 28 days before the year
ended; these were all cows with their first calf. Eight cows in the herd
gave milk on every day of the 52 weeks, and 30 others had their milk
recorded on 300 days or more. Three heifers which produced a first calf
before the 11th of April 1900, averaged in the year 4569 lb. of milk, or
about 456 gallons. In 1900 three cows, Eyke Jessie, Kathleen and Doss,
each gave over 10,000 lb., or 1000 gallons of milk; four cows gave from
9000 lb. to 10,000 lb., two from 8000 lb. to 9000 lb., 17 from 7000 lb.
to 8000 lb., 19 from 6000 lb. to 7000 lb., 30 from 5000 lb. to 6000 lb.,
and 16 from 4000 lb. to 5000 lb. The practice, long followed at
Whitlingham, of developing the milk-yielding habit by milking a young
cow so long as she gives even a small quantity of milk daily, is well
supported by the figures denoting the results.
Though milking trials and butter tests are not usually available to the
ordinary dairy farmer in the management of his herd, it is, on the other
hand, a simple matter for him to keep what is known as a milk register.
By a milk register is meant a record of the quantity of milk yielded by
a cow. In other words, it is a quantitative estimation of the milk the
cow gives. It affords no information as to the quality of the milk or as
to its butter-yielding or cheese-yielding capacity. Nevertheless, by its
aid the milk-producing capacity of a cow can be ascertained exactly, and
her character in this respect can be expressed by means of figures about
which there need be no equivocation. A greater or less degree of
exactness can be secured, according to the greater or less frequency
with which the register is taken. Even a weekly register would give a
fair idea as to the milk yields of a cow, and would be extremely
valuable as compared with no register at all.
The practice of taking the milk register, as followed in a well-known
dairy, may be briefly described. The cows are always milked in the
stalls, and during summer they are brought in twice a day for this
purpose. After each cow is milked, the pail containing the whole of her
milk is hung on a spring balance suspended in a convenient position, and
from the gross weight indicated there is deducted the already known
weight of the pail.[2] The difference, which represents the weight of
milk, is recorded in a book suitably ruled. This book when open presents
a view of one week's records. In the left-hand column are the names of
the cows; on the right of this are fourteen columns, two of which
receive the morning and evening record of each cow. In a final column on
the right appears the week's total yield for each cow; and space is also
allowed for any remarks. Fractions of a pound are not entered, but 18
lb. 12 oz. would be recorded as 19 lb., whereas 21 lb. 5 oz. would
appear as 21 lb., so that a fraction of over half a pound is considered
as a whole pound, and a fraction of under half a pound is ignored. By
dividing the pounds by 10 the yield in gallons is readily ascertained.
Every dairy farmer has some idea, as to each of his cows, whether she is
a good, a bad or an indifferent milker, but such knowledge is at best
only vague. By the simple means indicated the character of each cow as a
milk-producer is slowly but surely recorded in a manner which is at once
exact and definite. Such a record is particularly valuable to the
farmer, in that it shows to him the relative milk-yielding capacities of
his cows, and thus enables him gradually to weed out the naturally poor
milkers and replace them by better ones. It also guides him in
regulating the supply of food according to the yield of milk. The
register will, in fact, indicate unerringly which are the best
milk-yielding cows in the dairy, and which therefore are, with the
milking capacity in view, the best to breed from.
The simplicity and inexpensiveness of the milk register must not be
overlooked. These are features which should commend it especially to the
notice of small dairy farmers, for with a moderate number of cows it is
particularly easy to introduce the register. But even with a large dairy
it will be found that, as soon as the system has got fairly established,
the additional time and trouble involved will sink into insignificance
when compared with the benefits which accrue.
The importance of ascertaining not only the quantity, but also the
quality of milk is aptly illustrated in the case of two cows at the
Tring show, 1900. The one cow gave in 24 hours 4(1/2) gallons of milk,
which at 7d. per gallon would work out at about 2s. 7d.; she made 2 lb.
12 oz. of butter, which at 1s. 4d. per lb. would bring in 3s. 8d.;
consequently by selling the milk the owner lost about 1s. 1d. per day.
The second cow gave 5(1/3) gallons of milk, which would work out at 3s.
1d.; she made 1 lb. 12 oz. of butter, which would only be worth 2s. 4d.,
so that by converting the milk into butter the owner lost 9d. per day.
The colour of milk is to some extent an indication of its quality--the
deeper the colour the better the quality. The colour depends upon the
size of the fat globules, a deep yellowish colour indicating large
globules of fat. When the globules are of large size the milk will churn
more readily, and the butter is better both in quality and in colour.
The following fifty dairy rules relating to the milking and general
management of cows, and to the care of milk and dairy utensils, were
drawn up on behalf of, and published by, the United States department of
agriculture at Washington. They are given here with a few merely verbal
alterations:--
THE OWNER AND HIS HELPERS
1. Read current dairy literature and keep posted on new ideas.
2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the cattle, their
attendants, the cow-house, the dairy and all utensils.
3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been exposed to a
contagious disease, must remain away from the cows and the milk.
THE COW-HOUSE
4. Keep dairy cattle in a shed or building by themselves. It is
preferable to have no cellar below and no storage loft above.
5. Cow-houses should be well ventilated, lighted and drained; should
have tight floors and walls, and be plainly constructed.
6. Never use musty or dirty litter.
7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the cow-house for any length
of time. Store the manure under cover outside the cow-house, and
remove it to a distance as often as practicable.
8. Whitewash the cow-house once or twice a year; use gypsum in the
manure gutters daily.
9. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking; if fodder is
dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed.
10. Clean and thoroughly air the cow-house before milking; in hot
weather sprinkle the floor.
11. Keep the cow-house and dairy room in good condition, and then
insist that the dairy, factory or place where the milk goes be kept
equally well.
THE COWS
12. Have the herd examined at least twice a year by a skilled
veterinarian.
13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected of being in bad
health, and reject her milk. Never add an animal to the herd until it
is ascertained to be free from disease, especially tuberculosis.
14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk while on the way
to the place of milking or feeding.
15. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud
talking or unnecessary disturbance; do not expose them to cold or
storms.
16. Do not change the feed suddenly.
17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed-stuffs; in no
case should decomposed or mouldy material be used.
18. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and always pure;
fresh, but not too cold.
19. Salt should always be accessible to the cows.
20. Do not allow any strong-flavoured food, like garlic, cabbages and
turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after milking.
21. Clean the entire skin of the cow daily. If hair in the region of
the udder is not easily kept clean, it should be clipped.
22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calving, nor for
three to five days afterwards.
MILKING
23. The milker should be clean in all respects; he should not use
tobacco while milking; he should wash and dry his hands just before
milking.
24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used only when
milking and kept in a clean place at other times.
25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before milking and wipe
them with a clean damp cloth or sponge.
26. Milk quietly, quickly, cleanly and thoroughly. Cows do not like
unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking at exactly the same hour
every morning and evening, and milk the cows in the same order.
27. Throw away (but not on the floor--better in the gutter) the first
two or three streams from each teat; this milk is very watery and of
little value, but it may injure the rest.
28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody or stringy or
unnatural in appearance, the whole should be rejected.
29. Milk with dry hands; never let the hands come in contact with the
milk.
30. Do not allow dogs, cats or loafers to be around at milking time.
31. If any accident occurs by which a pail, full or partly full, of
milk becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by straining, but reject
all this milk and rinse the pail.
32. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and take a sample
morning and night, at least once a week, for testing by the fat test.
CARE OF MILK
33. Remove the milk of every cow at once from the cow-house to a clean
dry room, where the air is pure and sweet. Do not allow cans to remain
in the cow-house while they are being filled with milk.
34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel cloth or layer
of cotton as soon as it is drawn.
35. Cool the milk as soon as strained--to 45 deg. F. if the milk is for
shipment, or to 60 deg. if for home use or delivery to a factory.
36. Never close a can containing warm milk.
37. If the cover is left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito
netting should be used to keep out insects.
38. If milk is stored, it should be kept in tanks of fresh cold water
(renewed as often as the temperature increases to any material
extent), in a clean, dry, cold room. Unless it is desired to remove
cream, it should be stirred with a tin stirrer often enough to prevent
the forming of a thick cream layer.
39. Keep the night milk under shelter so that rain cannot get into the
cans. In warm weather keep it in a tank of fresh cold water.
40. Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been cooled.
41. Do not allow the milk to freeze.
42. In no circumstances should anything be added to milk to prevent
its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the only preventives needed.
43. All milk should be in good condition when delivered at a creamery
or a cheesery. This may make it necessary to deliver twice a day
during the hottest weather.
44. When cans are hauled far they should be full, and carried in a
spring waggon.
45. In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in a waggon, with a
clean wet blanket or canvas.
THE UTENSILS
46. Milk utensils for farm use should be made of metal and have all
joints smoothly soldered. Never allow them to become rusty or rough
inside.
47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the cans used for
delivering milk. When this is unavoidable, insist that the skim milk
or whey tank be kept clean.
48. Cans used for the return of skim milk or whey should be emptied,
scalded and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm.
49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing them in warm
water; next clean inside and out with a brush and hot water in which a
cleaning material is dissolved; then rinse and, lastly, sterilize by
boiling water or steam. Use pure water only.
50. After cleaning, keep utensils inverted in pure air, and sun if
possible, until wanted for use.
FOOD AND MILK PRODUCTION
In their comprehensive paper relating to the feeding of animals
published in 1895, Lawes and Gilbert discussed amongst other questions
that of milk production, and directed attention to the great difference
in the demands made on the food--on the one hand for the production of
meat (that is, of animal increase), and on the other for the production
of milk. Not only, however, do cows of different breeds yield different
quantities of milk, and milk of characteristically different
composition, but individual animals of the same breed have very
different milk-yielding capacity; and whatever the capacity of a cow may
be, she has a maximum yield at one period of her lactation, which is
followed by a gradual decline. Hence, in comparing the amounts of
constituents stored up in the fattening increase of an ox with the
amounts of the same constituents removed in the milk of a cow, it is
necessary to assume a wide range of difference in the yield of milk.
Accordingly, Table V. shows the amounts of nitrogenous substance, of
fat, of non-nitrogenous substance not fat, of mineral matter, and of
total solid matter, carried off in the weekly yield of milk of a cow, on
the alternative assumptions of a production of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16,
18 or 20 quarts per head per day. For comparison, there are given at the
foot of the table the amounts of nitrogenous substance, of fat, of
mineral matter, and of total solid matter, in the weekly increase in
live-weight of a fattening ox of an average weight of 1000 lb.--on the
assumption of a weekly increase, first, of 10 lb., and, secondly, of 15
lb. The estimates of the amounts of constituents in the milk are based
on the assumption that it will contain 12.5% of total solids--consisting
of 3.65 albuminoids, 3.50 butter-fat, 4.60 sugar and 0.75 of mineral
matter. The estimates of the constituents in the fattening increase of
oxen are founded on determinations made at Rothamsted.
TABLE V.--_Comparison of the Constituents of Food carried off in Milk,
and in the Fattening Increase of Oxen._
+---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
| | | | Non- | | |
| | Nitro- | | Nitro- | | |
| | genous | | genous | Mineral| Total |
| [1 Gallon = 10.33 lb.] | Sub- | Fat. | Sub- | Matter.| Solid |
| | stance. | | stance | | Matter.|
| | | | not Fat | | |
| | | | (Sugar).| | |
+---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
| _In Milk per Week._ |
+---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+ | | | | |
| If:-- | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. |
| 4 quarts per head per day | 2.64 | 2.53 | 3.33 | 0.54 | 9.04 |
| 6 " " " | 3.96 | 3.80 | 4.99 | 0.81 | 13.56 |
| 8 " " " | 5.28 | 5.06 | 6.66 | 1.08 | 18.08 |
|10 " " " | 6.60 | 6.33 | 8.32 | 1.35 | 22.60 |
|12 " " " | 7.92 | 7.59 | 9.99 | 1.62 | 27.12 |
|14 " " " | 9.24 | 8.86 | 11.65 | 1.89 | 31.64 |
|16 " " " | 10.56 | 10.12 | 13.32 | 2.16 | 36.16 |
|18 " " " | 11.88 | 11.39 | 14.98 | 2.43 | 40.68 |
|20 " " " | 13.20 | 12.65 | 16.65 | 2.70 | 45.20 |
+---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
| _In Increase in Live-Weight per Week.--Oxen._ |
+---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
|If 10 lb. increase | 0.75 | 6.35 | .. | 0.15 | 7.25 |
|If 15 lb. increase | 1.13 | 9.53 | .. | 0.22 | 10.88 |
+---------------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+--------+
With regard to the very wide range of yield of milk per head per day
which the figures in the following table assume, it may be remarked that
it is by no means impossible that the same animal might yield the
largest amount, namely, 20 quarts, or 5 gallons, per day near the
beginning, and only 4 quarts, or 1 gallon, or even less, towards the end
of her period of lactation. At the same time, an entire herd of, for
example, Shorthorns or Ayrshires, of fairly average quality, well fed,
and including animals at various periods of lactation, should not yield
an average of less than 8 quarts, or 2 gallons, and would seldom exceed
10 quarts, or 2(1/2) gallons, per head per day the year round.
For the sake of illustration, an average yield of milk of 10 quarts,
equal 2(1/2) gallons, or between 25 and 26 lb. per head per day, may be
assumed, and the amount of constituents in the weekly yield at this rate
may be compared with that in the weekly increase of the fattening ox at
the higher rate assumed in the table, namely, 15 lb. per 1000 lb.
live-weight, or 1.5% per week. It is seen that whilst of the nitrogenous
substance of the food the amount stored up in the fattening increase of
an ox would be only 1.13 lb., the amount carried off as such in the milk
would be 6.6 lb., or nearly six times as much. Of mineral matter, again,
whilst the fattening increase would only require about 0.22 lb., the
milk would Carry off 1.35 lb., or again about six times as much. Of fat,
however, whilst the fattening increase would contain 9.53 lb., the milk
would contain only 6.33 lb., or only about two-thirds as much. On the
other hand, whilst the fattening increase contains no other
non-nitrogenous substance than fat, the milk would carry off 8.32 lb. in
the form of milk-sugar. This amount of milk-sugar, reckoned as fat,
would correspond approximately to the difference between the fat in the
milk and that in the fattening increase.
It is evident, then, that the drain upon the food is very much greater
for the production of milk than for that of meat. This is especially the
case in the important item of nitrogenous substance; and if, as is
frequently assumed, the butter-fat of the milk is at any rate largely
derived from the nitrogenous substance of the food, so far as it is so
at least about two parts of such substance would be required to produce
one of fat. On such an assumption, therefore, the drain upon the
nitrogenous substance of the food would be very much greater than that
indicated in the table as existing as nitrogenous substance in the milk.
To this point further reference will be made presently.
TABLE VI.--_Constituents consumed per 1000lb. Live-Weight per Day, for
Sustenance and for Milk-Production. The Rothamsted Herd of 30 Cows,
Spring 1884._
+---------------------+---------+----------------------------------+
| | | Digestible. |
| | +----------+------------+----------+
| | Total | | | Total |
| | Dry | Nitro- | Non-Nitro- | Nitro- |
| | Sub- | genous | genous | genous |
| | stance. | Sub- | Substance | and Non- |
| | | stance. |(as Starch).| Nitro- |
| | | | | genous |
| | | | |Substance.|
+---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+
| | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. |
| 3.1 lb. Cotton cake | 2.76 | 1.07 | 1.50 | 2.57 |
| 2.7 lb. Bran | 2.33 | 0.33 | 1.09 | 1.42 |
| 2.8 lb. Hay-chaff | 2.34 | 0.15 | 1.18 | 1.33 |
| 5.6 lb. Oat-straw- | | | | |
| chaff | 4.64 | 0.08 | 2.21 | 2.29 |
|62.8 lb. Mangel | 7.85 | 1.01 | 5.73 | 6.74 |
| +---------+----------+------------+----------+
| Total | 19.92 | 2.64* | 11.71* | 14.35 |
| Required for sus- | | | | |
| tenance | | 0.57 | 7.40 | 7.97 |
| +---------+----------+------------+----------+
| Available for milk | | 2.07 | 4.31 | 6.38 |
| In 23.3 lb. milk | | 0.85 | 3.02 | 3.87 |
| +---------+----------+------------+----------+
| Excess in food | | 1.22 | 1.29 | 2.51 |
+---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+
| _Per 1000 lb. Live-Weight._ |
+---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+
| Wolff | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. |
| | 24 | 2.5 | 12.5** | 15.4 |
+---------------------+---------+----------+------------+----------+
* Albuminoid ratio, 1-4.4.
** Exclusive of 0.4 fat; albuminoid ratio, 1-5.4.
Attention may next be directed to the amounts of food, and of certain of
its constituents, consumed for the production of a given amount of milk.
This point is illustrated in Table VI., which shows the constituents
consumed per 1000 lb. live-weight per day in the case of the Rothamsted
herd of 30 cows in the spring of 1884. On the left hand are shown the
actual amounts of the different foods consumed per 1000 lb. live-weight
per day; and in the respective columns are recorded--first the amounts
of total dry substance which the foods contained, and then the amounts
of digestible nitrogenous, digestible non-nitrogenous (reckoned as
starch), and digestible total organic substance which the different
foods would supply; these being calculated according to Lawes and
Gilbert's own estimates of the percentage composition of the foods, and
to Wolff's estimates of the proportion of the several constituents which
would be digestible.
The first column shows that the amount of total dry substance of food
actually consumed by the herd, per 1000 lb. live-weight per day, was
scarcely 20 lb. whilst Wolff's[3] estimated requirement, as stated at
the foot of the table, is 24 lb. But his ration would doubtless consist
to a greater extent of hay and straw-chaff, containing a larger
proportion of indigestible and effete woody fibre. The figures show,
indeed that the Rothamsted ration supplied, though nearly the same, even
a somewhat less amount of total digestible constituents than Wolff's.
Of digestible nitrogen substance the food supplied 2.64 lb. per day,
whilst the amount estimated to be required for sustenance merely is 0.57
lb.; leaving, therefore, 2.07 lb. available for milk production. The
23.3 lb. of milk yielded per 1000 lb. live-weight per day would,
however, contain only 0.85 lb.; and there would thus remain an apparent
excess of 1.22 lb. of digestible nitrogenous substance in the food
supplied. But against the amount of 2.64 lb. actually consumed, Wolff's
estimate of the amount required for sustenance and for milk-production
is 2.5 lb., or but little less than the amount actually consumed at
Rothamsted. On the assumption that the expenditure of nitrogenous
substance in the production of milk is only in the formation of the
nitrogenous substances of the milk, there would appear to have been a
considerable excess given in the food. But Wolff's estimate assumes no
excess of supply, and that the whole is utilized; the fact being that he
supposes the butter-fat of the milk to have been derived largely, if not
wholly, from the albuminoids of the food.
It has been shown that although it is possible that some of the fat of a
fattening animal may be produced from the albuminoids of the food,
certainly the greater part of it, if not the whole, is derived from the
carbohydrates. But the physiological conditions of the production of
milk are so different from those for the production of fattening
increase, that it is not admissible to judge of the sources of the fat
of the one from what may be established in regard to the other. It has
been assumed, however, by those who maintain that the fat of the
fattening animal is formed from albuminoids, that the fat of milk must
be formed in the same way. Disallowing the legitimacy of such a
deduction, there do, nevertheless, seem to be reasons for supposing that
the fat of milk may, at any rate in large proportion, be derived from
albuminoids.
Thus, as compared with fattening increase, which may in a sense be said
to be little more than an accumulation of reserve material from excess
of food, milk is a special product, of a special gland, for a special
normal exigency of the animal. Further, whilst common experience shows
that the herbivorous animal becomes the more fat the more, within
certain limits, its food is rich in carbohydrates, it points to the
conclusion that both the yield of milk and its richness in butter are
more connected with a liberal supply of the nitrogenous constituents in
the food. Obviously, so far as this is the case, it may be only that
thereby more active change in the system, and therefore greater activity
of the special function, is maintained. The evidence at command is, at
any rate, not inconsistent with the supposition that a good deal of the
fat of milk may have its source in the breaking up of albuminoids, but
direct evidence on the point is still wanting; and supposing such
breaking up to take place in the gland, the question arises--What
becomes of the by-products? Assuming, however, that such change does
take place, the amount of nitrogenous substance supplied to the
Rothamsted cows would be less in excess of the direct requirement for
milk-production than the figures in the table would indicate, if,
indeed, in excess at all.
The figures in the column of Table VI. relating to the estimated amount
of digestible non-nitrogenous substance reckoned as starch show that the
quantity actually consumed was 11.71 lb., whilst the amount estimated by
Wolff to be required was 12.5 lb., besides 0.4 lb. of fat. The figures
further show that, deducting 7.4 lb. for sustenance from the quantity
actually consumed, there would remain 4.31 lb. available for
milk-production, whilst only about 3.02 lb. would be required supposing
that both the fat of the milk and the sugar had been derived from the
carbohydrates of the food; and, according to this calculation, there
would still be an excess in the daily food of 1.29 lb. It is to be borne
in mind, however, that estimates of the requirement for mere sustenance
are mainly founded on the results of experiments in which the animals
are allowed only such a limited amount of food as will maintain them
without either loss or gain when at rest. But physiological
considerations point to the conclusion that the expenditure,
independently of loss or gain, will be the greater the more liberal the
ration, and hence it is probable that the real excess, if any, over that
required for sustenance and milk-production would be less than that
indicated in the table, which is calculated on the assumption of a fixed
requirement for sustenance for a given live-weight of the animal.
Supposing that there really was any material excess of either the
nitrogenous or the non-nitrogenous constituents supplied over the
requirement for sustenance and milk-production, the question
arises--Whether, or to what extent, it conduced to increase in
live-weight of the animals, or whether it was in part, or wholly,
voided, and so wasted.
Table VII.--Percentage Composition of Milk each Month of the Year;
also Average Yield of Milk, and of Constituents, per Head per Day each
Month, according to Rothamsted Dairy Records.
+-----------+--------------------------------+---------------------------------+
| |Average Composition of Milk each| Rothamsted Diary. |
| | Month, 1884. +----------+----------------------+
| | (Dr Vieth--14,235 analyses.) | | Estimated Quantity |
| | | Average | of Constituents in |
| +--------+-------+------+--------+ Yield | Milk per Head per |
| | | | | | of Milk | Day each Month. |
| |Specific|Butter-|Solids| Total | per Head +-------+------+-------+
| |Gravity.| Fat. | not | Solids.| per Day, |Butter-|Solids| Total |
| | | | Fat. | | 6 Years. | Fat. | not |Solids.|
| | | | | | | | Fat. | |
+-----------+--------+-------+------+--------+----------+-------+------+-------+
| | | % | % | % | lb | lb | lb | lb |
| January | 1.0325 | 3.55 | 9.34 | 12.89 | 20.31* | 0.72 | 1.90 | 2.62 |
| February | 1.0325 | 3.53 | 9.24 | 12.77 | 22.81 | 0.80 | 2.11 | 2.91 |
| March | 1.0323 | 3.50 | 9.22 | 12.72 | 24.19 | 0.85 | 2.23 | 3.08 |
| April | 1.0323 | 3.43 | 9.22 | 12.65 | 26.50 | 0.91 | 2.44 | 3.35 |
| May | 1.0324 | 3.34 | 9.30 | 12.64 | 31.31 | 1.05 | 2.91 | 3.96 |
| June | 1.0323 | 3.31 | 9.19 | 12.50 | 30.81 | 1.02 | 2.83 | 3.85 |
| July. | 1.0319 | 3.47 | 9.13 | 12.60 | 28.00 | 0.97 | 2.56 | 3.53 |
| August | 1.0318 | 3.87 | 9.08 | 12.95 | 25.00 | 0.97 | 2.27 | 3.24 |
| September | 1.0321 | 4.11 | 9.17 | 13.28 | 22.94 | 0.94 | 2.11 | 3.05 |
| October | 1.0324 | 4.26 | 9.27 | 13.53 | 21.00 | 0.89 | 1.95 | 2.84 |
| November | 1.0324 | 4.36 | 9.29 | 13.65 | 19.19 | 0.84 | 1.78 | 2.62 |
| December | 1.0326 | 4.10 | 9.29 | 13.39 | 19.31 | 0.79 | 1.79 | 2.58 |
| +--------+-------+------+--------+----------+-------+------+-------+
| Mean | 1.0323 | 3.74 | 9.22 | 12.96 | 24.28 | 0.90 | 2.24 | 3.14 |
+-----------+--------+-------+------+--------+----------+-------+------+-------+
* Average over five years only, as the records did not commence until
February 1884.
As regards the influence of the period of the year, with its
characteristic changes of food, on the quantity and composition of the
milk, the first column of the second division of Table VII. shows the
average yield of milk per head per day of the Rothamsted herd, averaging
about 42 cows, almost exclusively Shorthorns, in each month of the year,
over six years, 1884 to 1889 inclusive; and the succeeding columns show
that amounts of butter-fat, of solids not fat, and of total solids in
the average yield per head per day in each month of the year,
calculated, not according to direct analytical determinations made at
Rothamsted, but according to the results of more than 14,000 analyses
made, under the superintendence of Dr Vieth, in the laboratory of the
Aylesbury Dairy Company in 1884;[4] the samples analysed representing
the milk from a great many different farms in each month.
It should be stated that the Rothamsted cows had cake throughout the
year; at first 4 lb. per head per day, but afterwards graduated
according to the yield of milk, on the basis of 4 lb. for a yield of 28
lb. of milk, the result being that then the amount given averaged more
per head per day during the grazing period, but less earlier and later
in the year. Bran, hay and straw-chaff, and roots (generally mangel),
were also given when the animals were not turned out to grass. The
general plan was, therefore, to give cake alone in addition when the
cows were turned out to grass, but some other dry food, and roots, when
entirely in the shed during the winter and early spring months.
Referring to the column showing the average yield of milk per head per
day each month over the six years, it will be seen that during the six
months January, February, September, October, November and December the
average yield was sometimes below 20 lb. and on the average only about
21 lb. of milk per head per day; whilst over the other six months it
averaged 27.63 lb., and over May and June more than 31 lb. per head per
day. That is to say, the quantity of milk yielded was considerably
greater during the grazing period than when the animals had more dry
food, and roots instead of grass.
Next, referring to the particulars of composition, according to Dr
Vieth's results, which may well be considered as typical for the
different periods of the year, it is seen that the specific gravity of
the milk was only average, or lower than average, during the grazing
period, but rather higher in the earlier and later months of the year.
The percentage of total solids was rather lower than the average at the
beginning of the year, lowest during the chief grazing months, but
considerably higher in the later months of the year, when the animals
were kept in the shed and received more dry food. The percentage of
butter-fat follows very closely that of the total solids, being the
lowest during the best grazing months, but considerably higher than the
average during the last four or five months of the year, when more dry
food was given. The percentage of solids not fat was considerably the
lowest during the later months of the grazing period, but average, or
higher than average, during the earlier and later months of the year. It
may be observed that, according to the average percentages given in the
table, a gallon of milk will contain more of both total solids and of
butter-fat in the later months of the year; that is, when there is less
grass and more dry food given.
Turning to the last three columns of the table, it is seen that
although, as has been shown, the percentage of the several constituents
in the milk is lower during the grazing months, the actual amounts
contained in the quantity of milk yielded per head are distinctly
greater during those months. Thus, the amount of butter-fat yielded _per
head per day_ is above the average of the year from April to September
inclusive; the amounts of solids not fat are over average from April to
August inclusive; and the amounts of total solids yielded are average,
or over average, from April to August inclusive.
From the foregoing results it is evident that the quantity of milk
yielded per head is very much the greater during the grazing months of
the year, but that the percentage composition of the milk is lower
during that period of higher yield, and considerably higher during the
months of more exclusively dry-food feeding. Nevertheless, owing to the
much greater quantity of milk yielded during the grazing months, the
actual quantity of constituents yielded per Cow is greater during those
months than during the months of higher percentage composition but lower
yield of milk per head. It may be added that a careful consideration of
the number of newly-calved cows brought into the herd each month shows
that the results as above stated were perfectly distinct, independently
of any influence of the period of lactation of the different individuals
of the herd.
The few results which have been brought forward in relation to
_milk-production_ are admittedly quite insufficient adequately to
illustrate the influence of variation in the quantity and composition of
the food on the quantity and composition of the milk yielded. Indeed,
owing to the intrinsic difficulties of experimenting on such a subject,
involving so many elements of variation, any results obtained have to be
interpreted with much care and reservation. Nevertheless, it may be
taken as clearly indicated that, within certain limits, high feeding,
and especially high nitrogenous feeding, does increase both the yield
and the richness of the milk.[5] But it is evident that when high
feeding is pushed beyond a comparatively limited range, the tendency is
to increase the weight of the animal--that is, to favour the development
of the individual, rather than to enhance the activity of the functions
connected with the reproductive system. This is, of course, a
disadvantage when the object is to maintain the milk-yielding condition
of the animal; but when a cow is to be fattened off it will be
otherwise.
It has been stated that, early in the period of six years in which the
Rothamsted results that have been quoted were obtained, the amount of
oil-cake given was graduated according to the yield of milk of each
individual cow; as it seemed unreasonable that an animal yielding, say,
only 4 quarts per day, should receive, beside the home foods, as much
cake as one yielding several times the quantity. The obvious inference
is, that any excess of food beyond that required for sustenance and
milk-production would tend to increase the weight of the animal, which,
according to the circumstances, may or may not be desirable.
It may be observed that direct experiments at Rothamsted confirm the
view, arrived at by common experience, that roots, and especially
mangel, have a favourable effect on the flow of milk. Further, the
Rothamsted experiments have shown that a higher percentage of
butter-fat, of other solids, and of total solids, was obtained with
mangel than with silage as the succulent food. The yield of milk was,
however, in a much greater degree increased by grazing than by any other
change in the food; and at Rothamsted the influence of roots comes next
in order to that of grass, though far behind it, in this respect. But
with grazing, as has been shown, the percentage composition of the milk
is considerably reduced; though, owing to the greatly increased quantity
yielded, the amount of soil-constituents removed in the milk when cows
are grazing may nevertheless be greater per head per day than under any
other conditions. Lastly, it has been clearly illustrated how very much
greater is the demand upon the food, especially for nitrogenous and for
mineral constituents, in the production of milk than in that of
fattening increase.
MANURIAL VALUE OF FOOD CONSUMED IN THE PRODUCTION OF MILK
In any attempt to estimate the average value of the manure derived from
the consumption of food for the production of milk, the difficulty
arising from the very wide variation in the amount of milk yielded by
different cows, or by the same cow at different periods of her
lactation, is increased by the inadequate character of information
concerning the difference in the amount of the food actually consumed by
the animal coincidently with the production of such different amounts of
milk. But although information is lacking for correlating, with
numerical accuracy, the great difference in milk-yield of individual
cows with the coincident differences in consumption to produce it, it
may be considered as satisfactorily established that more food is
consumed by a herd of cows to produce a fair yield of milk, of say 10 or
12 quarts per head per day, than by an equal live-weight of oxen fed to
produce fattening increase. In the cases supposed it may, for practical
purposes, be assumed that the cows would consume about one-fourth more
food than the oxen. Accordingly, in the Rothamsted estimates of the
value of the manure obtained on the consumption of food for the
production of milk, it is assumed that one-fourth more will be consumed
by 1000 lb. live-weight of cows than by the same weight of oxen; but the
estimates of the amounts of the constituents of the food removed in the
milk, or remaining for manure, are nevertheless reckoned per ton of each
kind of food consumed, as in the case of those relating to feeding for
the production of fattening increase. It may be added that the
calculations of the amounts of the constituents in the milk are based on
the same average composition of milk as is adopted in the construction
of Table V. Thus the nitrogen is taken at 0.579 (= 3.65 nitrogenous
substance)%, the phosphoric acid at 0.2175%, and the potash at 0.1875%
in the milk.
Table VIII. shows in detail the estimate of the amount of nitrogen in
one ton of each food, and in the milk produced from its consumption, on
the assumption of an average yield of 10 quarts per head per day; also
the amount remaining for manure, the amount of ammonia corresponding to
the nitrogen, and the value of the ammonia at 4d. per lb. Similar
particulars are also given in relation to the phosphoric acid and the
potash consumed in the food, removed in the milk, and remaining for
manure, &c. This table will serve as a sufficient illustration of the
mode of estimating the _total or original_ value of the manure, derived
from the consumption of the different foods for the production of milk
in the case supposed; that is, assuming an average yield of a herd of 10
quarts per head per day.
In Table IX. are given the results of similar detailed calculations of
the _total or original_ manure-value (as in Table VIII. for 10 quarts),
on the alternative assumptions of a yield of 6, 8, 12 or 14 quarts per
head per day. For comparison there is also given, in the first column,
the estimate of the _total or original_ manure-value when the foods are
consumed for the production of fattening increase.
So much for the plan and results of the estimations of _total or
original_ manure-value of the different foods, that is, deducting only
the constituents removed in the milk, and reckoning the remainder at the
prices at which they can be purchased in artificial manures. With a view
to direct application to practice, however, it is necessary to estimate
the _unexhausted manure-value_ of the different foods, or what may be
called their _compensation-value_, after they have been used for a
series of years by the outgoing tenant and he has realized a certain
portion of the manure-value in his increased crops. In the calculations
for this purpose the rule is to deduct one-half of the _original
manure-value_ of the food used the last year, and one-third of the
remainder each year to the eighth, in the case of all the more
concentrated foods and of the roots--in fact, of all the foods in the
list excepting the hays and the straws. For these, which contain larger
amounts of indigestible matter, and the constituents of which will be
more slowly available to crops, two-thirds of the _original
manure-value_ is deducted for the last year, and only one-fifth from
year to year to the eighth year back. The results of the estimates of
_compensation-value_ so made are given for the five yields of 6, 8, 10,
12 and 14 quarts of milk per head per day respectively in Lawes and
Gilbert's paper[6] on the valuation of the manures obtained by the
consumption of foods for the production of milk, which may be consulted
for fuller details. It must, however, be borne in mind that when cows
are fed in sheds or yards the manure is generally liable to greater
losses than is the case with fattening oxen. The manure of the cow
contains much more water in proportion to solid matter than that of the
ox. Water will, besides, frequently be used for washing, and it may be
that a good deal of the manure is washed into drains and lost. In the
event, therefore, of a claim for compensation, the management and
disposal of the manure requires the attention of the valuer. Indeed, the
varying circumstances that will arise in practice must be carefully
considered. Bearing these in mind, the estimates may be accepted as at
any rate the best approximation to the truth that existing knowledge
provides; and they should be found sufficient for the requirements of
practical use. Obviously they will be more directly applicable in the
case of cows feeding entirely on the foods enumerated in the list, and
not depending largely on grass; but, even when the animals are partially
grass-fed, the value of the manure derived from the additional dry food
or roots may be estimated according to the scale given.
TABLE VIII.--_Estimates of the Total or Original Manure-Value of
Cattle Foods after Consumption by Cows for the Production of Milk.
Valuation on the assumption of an average production by a herd of 10
quarts of milk per head per day._
+----+---------+---------------------------------------+-----------------------------+--------------------------+---------+
| | | Nitrogen. | Phosphoric Acid. | Potash. | |
| | +-------+------+------------------------+-------+------+--------------+------+-----+-------------+Total or |
| | | | | In Manure. | | | In Manure. | | | In Manure. |Original |
| | Descrip-| | In +------------------------+ | In +-------+------+ | In +-------+-----+ Manure- |
|Nos.| tion of | In | Milk | | Nitro-| Value | In | Milk | | Value| In | Milk| |Value| Value |
| | Food. | 1 Ton | from | Total | gen | of Am- | 1 Ton | from | Total | at | 1 Ton| from| Total | at | per Ton |
| | | of |1 Ton |remain-| equal | monia | of |1 Ton |remain-| 2 d. | of |1 Ton|remain-|1-1/2| of Food |
| | | Food.| of |ing for| Am- | at 4 d.| Food. | of |ing for| per | Food.| of |ing for| d. |consumed.|
| | | | Food.|Manure.| monia.| per | | Food.|Manure.| lb. | |Food.|Manure.| per | |
| | | | | | | lb. | | | | | | | | lb. | |
+----+---------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
| | | lb. | lb. | lb. | lb. |L s. d.| lb. | lb. | lb. | s. d.| lb. | lb. | lb. |s. d.| L s. d.|
| 1 |Linseed | 80.64 |25.04 | 55.60 | 67.52 |1 2 6 | 34.50 | 9.34 | 25.16 | 4 2 |30.69 | 8.02| 22.67 | 2 10| 1 9 6 |
| 2 |Linseed | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cake |106.40 |20.86 | 85.54 |103.87 |1 14 7 | 44.80 | 7.79 | 37.01 | 6 2 |31.36 | 6.71| 24.65 | 3 1| 2 3 10 |
| 3 |Decort- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | icated | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cotton | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cake |147.84 |19.27 |128.57 |156.13 |2 12 1 | 69.44 | 7.18 | 62.26 |10 5 |44.80 | 6.22| 38.58 | 4 10| 3 7 4 |
| 4 |Palm-nut | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cake | 56.00 |17.86 | 38.14 | 46.31 |0 15 5 | 26.88 | 6.68 | 20.20 | 3 4 |11.20 | 5.73| 5.47 | 0 8| 0 19 5 |
| 5 |Undecor- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | ticated | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cotton | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cake | 84.00 |15.66 | 68.34 | 82.99 |1 7 8 | 44.80 | 5.85 | 38.95 | 6 6 |44.80 | 5.07| 39.73 | 5 0| 1 19 2 |
| 6 |Cocoa- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | nut cake| 76.16 |15.66 | 60.50 | 73.47 |1 4 6 | 31.36 | 5.85 | 25.51 | 4 3 |44.80 | 5.07| 39.73 | 5 0| 1 13 9 |
| 7 |Rape | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | cake |109.76 |12.50 | 97.26 |118.11 |1 19 4 | 56.00 | 4.69 | 51.31 | 8 7 |33.60 | 4.09| 29.51 | 3 8| 2 11 7 |
| | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
| 8 |Peas | 80.64 |17.86 | 62.78 | 76.24 |1 5 5 | 19.04 | 6.68 | 12.36 | 2 1 |21.50 | 5.73| 15.77 | 2 0| 1 9 6 |
| 9 |Beans | 89.60 |17.86 | 71.74 | 87.12 |1 9 0 | 24.64 | 6.68 | 17.96 | 3 0 |29.12 | 5.73| 23.39 | 2 11| 1 14 11 |
| 10 |Lentils | 94.08 |17.86 | 76.22 | 92.56 |1 10 10 | 16.80 | 6.68 | 10.12 | 1 8 |15.68 | 5.73| 9.95 | 1 3| 1 13 9 |
| 11 |Tares | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | (seed) | 94.08 |17.86 | 76.22 | 92.56 |1 10 10 | 17.92 | 6.68 | 11.24 | 1 10 |17.92 | 5.73| 12.19 | 1 6| 1 14 2 |
| 12 |Maize | 38.08 |17.38 | 20.70 | 25.14 |0 8 5 | 13.44 | 6.50 | 6.94 | 1 2 | 8.29 | 5.56| 2.73 | 0 4| 0 9 11 |
| 13 |Wheat | 40.32 |17.38 | 22.94 | 27.86 |0 9 3 | 19.04 | 6.50 | 12.54 | 2 1 |11.87 | 5.56| 6.31 | 0 9| 0 12 1 |
| 14 |Malt | 38.08 |17.86 | 20.22 | 24.55 |0 8 2 | 17.92 | 6.68 | 11.24 | 1 10 |11.20 | 5.73| 5.47 | 0 8| 0 10 8 |
| 15 |Barley | 36.96 |17.38 | 19.58 | 23.78 |0 7 11 | 16.80 | 6.50 | 10.30 | 1 9 |12.32 | 5.56| 6.76 | 0 10| 0 10 6 |
| 16 |Oats | 44.80 |16.68 | 28.12 | 34.15 |0 11 5 | 13.44 | 6.24 | 7.20 | 1 2 |11.20 | 5.40| 5.80 | 0 9| 0 13 4 |
| 17 |Rice meal| 42.56 |16.68 | 25.88 | 31.43 |0 10 6 |(13.44)| 6.24 | 7.20 | 1 2 |(8.29)| 5.40| 2.89 | 0 4| 0 12 0 |
| 18 |Locust | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | beans | 26.88 |13.90 | 12.98 | 15.76 |0 5 3 | .. | 5.19 | .. | .. | .. | 4.42| .. | .. | .. |
| | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
| 19 |Malt | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | coombs | 87.36 |15.66 | 71.70 | 87.07 |1 9 0 | 44.80 | 5.85 | 38.95 | 6 6 |44.80 | 5.07| 39.73 | 5 0| 2 0 6 |
| 20 |Fine | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | pollard | 54.88 |16.68 | 38.20 | 46.39 |0 15 6 | 64.96 | 6.24 | 58.72 | 9 9 |32.70 | 5.40| 27.30 | 3 5| 1 8 8 |
| 21 |Coarse | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | pollard | 56.00 |15.66 | 40.34 | 48.99 |0 16 4 | 78.40 | 5.85 | 72.55 |12 1 |33.60 | 5.07| 28.53 | 3 7| 1 12 0 |
| 22 |Bran | 56.00 |13.90 | 42.10 | 51.12 |0 17 0 | 80.64 | 5.19 | 75.45 |12 7 |32.48 | 4.42| 28.06 | 3 6| 1 13 1 |
| | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
| 23 |Clover | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | hay | 53.76 | 8.94 | 44.82 | 54.43 |0 18 2 | 12.77 | 3.35 | 9.42 | 1 7 |33.60 | 2.94| 30.66 | 3 10| 1 3 7 |
| 24 |Meadow | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | hay | 33.60 | 8.36 | 25.24 | 30.65 |0 10 3 | 8.96 | 3.10 | 5.86 | 1 0 |35.84 | 2.62| 33.22 | 4 2| 0 15 5 |
| | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
| 25 |Pea straw| 22.40 | 7.83 | 14.57 | 17.69 |0 5 11 | 7.84 | 2.91 | 4.93 | 0 10 |22.40 | 2.46| 19.94 | 2 6| 0 9 3 |
| 26 |Oat straw| 11.20 | 6.95 | 4.25 | 5.16 |0 1 9 | 5.38 | 2.60 | 2.78 | 0 6 |22.40 | 2.29| 20.11 | 2 6| 0 4 9 |
| 27 |Wheat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | straw | 10.08 | 5.98 | 4.10 | 4.98 |0 1 8 | 5.38 | 2.23 | 3.15 | 0 6 |17.92 | 1.96| 15.96 | 2 0| 0 4 2 |
| 28 |Barley | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | straw | 8.96 | 5.46 | 3.50 | 4.25 |0 1 5 | 4.03 | 2.04 | 1.99 | 0 4 |22.40 | 1.80| 20.60 | 2 7| 0 4 4 |
| 29 |Bean | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | straw | 20.16 | 5.68 | 14.48 | 17.58 |0 5 10 | 6.72 | 2.14 | 4.58 | 0 9 |22.40 | 1.80| 20.60 | 2 7| 0 9 2 |
| | +-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
| 30 |Potatoes | 5.60 | 2.07 | 3.53 | 4.29 |0 1 5 | 3.36 | 0.78 | 2.58 | 0 5 |12.32 | 0.66| 11.66 | 1 5| 0 3 3 |
| 31 |Carrots | 4.48 | 1.46 | 3.02 | 3.67 |0 1 3 | 2.02 | 0.54 | 1.48 | 0 3 | 6.27 | 0.49| 5.78 | 0 9| 0 2 3 |
| 32 |Parsnips | 4.93 | 1.67 | 3.26 | 3.96 |0 1 4 | 4.26 | 0.63 | 3.63 | 0 7 | 8.06 | 0.49| 7.57 | 0 11| 0 2 10 |
| 33 |Mangel | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | wurzels | 4.93 | 1.32 | 3.61 | 4.38 |0 1 6 | 1.57 | 0.49 | 1.08 | 0 2 | 8.96 | 0.49| 8.47 | 1 1| 0 2 9 |
| 34 |Swedish | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | turnips | 5.60 | 1.14 | 4.46 | 5.42 |0 1 10 | 1.34 | 0.44 | 0.90 | 0 2 | 4.93 | 0.33| 4.60 | 0 7| 0 2 7 |
| 35 |Yellow | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | turnips | 4.48 | 0.93 | 3.55 | 4.31 |0 1 5 | (1.34)| 0.34 | 1.00 | 0 2 |(4.93)| 0.33| (4.60)| 0 7| 0 2 2 |
| 36 |White | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | turnips | 4.03 | 0.84 | 3.19 | 3.87 |0 1 3 | 1.12 | 0.31 | 0.81 | 0 2 | 6.72 | 0.33| 6.39 | 0 10| 0 2 3 |
+----+---------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-----+---------+
CHEESE AND CHEESE-MAKING
For generations, perhaps for centuries, the question has been discussed
as to why there should be so large a proportion of bad and inferior
cheese and so small a proportion of really good cheese made in
farmhouses throughout the land. That the result is not wholly due to
skill and care or to the absence of these qualities on the part of the
dairymaid may now be taken for granted. Instances might be quoted in
which the most painstaking of dairymaids, in the cleanest of dairies,
have failed to produce cheese of even second-rate quality and character,
and yet others in which excellent cheese has been made under commonplace
conditions as to skill and equipment, and with not much regard to
cleanliness in the dairy. The explanation of what was so long a mystery
has been found in the domain of ferments. It is now known that whilst
various micro-organisms, which in many dairies have free access to the
milk, have ruined an incalculable quantity of cheese--and of butter
also--neither cheese nor butter of first-rate quality can be made
without the aid of lactic acid bacilli. As an illustrative case, mention
may be made of that of two most painstaking dairymaids who had tried in
vain to make good cheese from the freshest of milk in the cleanest of
dairies in North Lancashire. Advice to resort to the use of the ferment
was acted upon, and the result was a revelation and a transformation,
excellent prize-winning cheese being made from that time forward. By the
addition of a "starter," in the form of a small quantity of sour milk,
whey or buttermilk, in an advanced stage of fermentation, the
development of acidity in the main body of milk is accelerated. It has
been ascertained that the starter is practically a culture of bacteria,
which, if desired, may be obtained as a pure culture. Professor J. R.
Campbell, as the result of experiments on pure cultures for Cheddar
cheese-making, states[7] that (1) first-class Cheddar cheese can be made
by using pure cultures of a lactic organism; (2) this organism abounds
in all samples of sour milk and sour whey; (3) the use of a whey starter
is attended with results equal in every respect to those obtained from a
milk-starter. It is well within the power of any dairyman to prepare
what is practically a pure culture of the same bacterium as is supplied
from the laboratory. Moreover, the sour-whey starter used by some of the
successful cheese-makers before the introduction of the American system
is in effect a pure culture, from which it follows that these men had,
by empirical methods, attained the same end as that to which
bacteriological research subsequently led. Wherever a starter is
necessary, the use of a culture practically pure is imperative, whether
such culture be obtained from the laboratory or prepared by what may be
called the "home-made starter." Pure cultures may be bought for a few
shillings in the open market.
TABLE IX.--_Comparison of the Estimates of Total or Original
Manure-Value when Foods are consumed for the Production of Fattening
Increase, with those when the Food is consumed by Cows giving
different Yields of Milk._
+----+---------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Total or Original Manure-Value per Ton of Food |
| | | consumed--that is, only deducting the Constituents |
| | | in Fattening Increase or in Milk. |
| | Description +---------+-------------------------------------------------+
|Nos.| of Food. | For the | For the Production of Milk, supposing |
| | | Produc- | the Yield per Head per Day to be as under-- |
| | | tion of | |
| | |Fattening+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| | |Increase | 6 qts. | 8 qts. | 10 qts. | 12 qts. | 14 qts. |
+----+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| | | L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.| L s. d.|
| 1 | Linseed | 1 19 2 | 1 14 7 | 1 12 0 | 1 9 6 | 1 7 1 | 1 4 5 |
| 2 | Linseed cake | 2 11 11 | 2 8 1 | 2 6 0 | 2 3 10 | 2 1 9 | 1 19 8 |
| 3 | Decorticated | | | | | | |
| | cotton cake | 3 14 9 | 3 11 2 | 3 9 2 | 3 7 4 | 3 5 4 | 3 3 4 |
| 4 | Palm-nut cake | 1 6 4 | 1 3 2 | 1 1 4 | 0 19 5 | 0 17 9 | 0 15 11 |
| 5 | Undecorticated| | | | | | |
| | cotton cake | 2 5 3 | 2 2 4 | 2 0 8 | 1 19 2 | 1 17 6 | 1 15 11 |
| 6 | Cocoa-nut cake| 1 19 10 | 1 16 11 | 1 15 3 | 1 13 9 | 1 12 3 | 1 10 6 |
| 7 | Rape cake | 2 16 5 | 1 14 2 | 2 12 11 | 2 11 7 | 2 10 4 | 2 9 1 |
| 8 | Peas | 1 16 5 | 1 13 1 | 1 11 2 | 1 9 6 | 1 7 8 | 1 5 9 |
| 9 | Beans | 2 1 11 | 1 18 7 | 1 16 10 | 1 14 11 | 1 13 1 | 1 11 4 |
| 10 | Lentils | 2 0 8 | 1 17 5 | 1 15 7 | 1 13 9 | 1 12 2 | 1 10 1 |
| 11 | Tares (seed) | 2 1 1 | 1 17 11 | 1 16 0 | 1 14 2 | 1 12 6 | 1 10 7 |
| 12 | Maize | 0 16 7 | 0 13 4 | 0 11 7 | 0 9 11 | 0 8 1 | 0 6 5 |
| 13 | Wheat | 0 18 11 | 0 15 8 | 0 13 11 | 0 12 1 | 0 10 5 | 0 8 8 |
| 14 | Malt | 0 17 7 | 0 14 5 | 0 12 7 | 0 10 8 | 0 9 0 | 0 7 1 |
| 15 | Barley | 0 17 2 | 0 14 0 | 0 12 3 | 0 10 6 | 0 8 8 | 0 6 11 |
| 16 | Oats | 0 19 9 | 0 16 8 | 0 15 0 | 0 13 4 | 0 11 7 | 0 9 10 |
| 17 | Rice meal |(0 18 6)| 0 15 5 | 0 13 9 | 0 12 0 | 0 10 5 | 0 8 7 |
| 18 | Locust beans | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. |
| 19 | Malt coombs | 2 6 7 | 2 3 9 | 2 2 0 | 2 0 6 | 1 18 11 | 1 17 4 |
| 20 | Fine pollard | 1 15 2 | 1 12 0 | 1 10 5 | 1 8 8 | 1 6 11 | 1 5 3 |
| 21 | Coarse pollard| 1 18 1 | 1 15 2 | 1 13 6 | 1 12 0 | 1 10 5 | 1 8 9 |
| 22 | Bran | 1 18 6 | 1 15 11 | 1 14 6 | 1 13 1 | 1 11 8 | 1 10 3 |
| 23 | Clover hay | 1 7 0 | 1 5 5 | 1 4 5 | 1 3 7 | 1 2 8 | 1 1 8 |
| 24 | Meadow hay | 0 18 7 | 0 17 0 | 0 16 3 | 0 15 5 | 0 14 5 | 0 13 7 |
| 25 | Pea straw | 0 12 2 | 0 10 9 | 0 10 0 | 0 9 3 | 0 8 5 | 0 7 8 |
| 26 | Oat straw | 0 7 5 | 0 6 2 | 0 5 5 | 0 4 9 | 0 4 0 | 0 3 3 |
| 27 | Wheat straw | 0 6 6 | 0 5 5 | 0 4 10 | 0 4 2 | 0 3 6 | 0 3 0 |
| 28 | Barley straw | 0 6 5 | 0 5 6 | 0 4 10 | 0 4 4 | 0 3 9 | 0 3 2 |
| 29 | Bean straw | 0 11 5 | 0 10 4 | 0 9 9 | 0 9 2 | 0 8 7 | 0 8 0 |
| 30 | Potatoes | 0 4 1 | 0 3 9 | 0 3 6 | 0 3 3 | 0 3 1 | 0 2 11 |
| 31 | Carrots | 0 2 9 | 0 2 6 | 0 2 4 | 0 2 3 | 0 2 1 | 0 1 11 |
| 32 | Parsnips | 0 3 6 | 0 3 3 | 0 3 1 | 0 2 10 | 0 2 8 | 0 2 7 |
| 33 | Mangel wurzels| 0 3 2 | 0 3 0 | 0 2 10 | 0 2 9 | 0 2 7 | 0 2 5 |
| 34 | Swedish | | | | | | |
| | turnips | 0 2 11 | 0 2 9 | 0 2 8 | 0 2 7 | 0 2 5 | 0 2 3 |
| 35 | Yellow turnips|(0 2 6)| 0 2 4 | 0 2 3 | 0 2 2 | 0 2 1 | 0 2 0 |
| 36 | White turnips | 0 2 7 | 0 2 5 | 0 2 4 | 0 2 3 | 0 2 2 | 0 2 0 |
+----+---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
The factory-made cheese of Canada, the United States and Australasia,
which is so largely imported into the United Kingdom, is all of the
Cheddar type. The factory system has made no headway in the original
home of the Cheddar cheese in the west of England. The system was thus
described in the _Journal_ of the British Dairy Farmers' Association in
1889 by Mr R. J. Drummond:--
"In the year 1885 I was engaged as cheese instructor by the Ayrshire
Dairy Association, to teach the Canadian system of Cheddar
cheese-making. I commenced operations under many difficulties, being a
total stranger to both the people and the country, and with this, the
quantities of milk were very much less than I had been in the habit of
handling. Instead of having the milk from 500 to 1000 cows, we had to
operate with the milk from 25 to not over 60 cows.
"The system of cheese-making commonly practised in the county of Ayr
at that time was what is commonly known as the Joseph Harding or
English Cheddar system, which differs from the Canadian system in many
details, and in one particular is essentially different, namely, the
manner in which the necessary acidity in the milk is produced. In the
old method a certain quantity of sour whey was added to the milk each
day before adding the rennet, and I have no doubt in my own mind that
this whey was often added when the milk was already acid enough, and
the consequence was a spoiled cheese.
"Another objection to this system of adding sour whey was, should the
stuff be out of condition one day, the same trouble was inoculated
with the milk from day to day, and the result was sure to be great
unevenness in the quality of the cheese. The utensils commonly in use
were very different to anything I had ever seen before; instead of the
oblong cheese vat with double casings, as is used by the best makers
at the present time, a tub, sometimes of tin and sometimes of wood,
from 4 to 7 ft. in diameter by about 30 in. deep, was universally in
use. Instead of being able to heat the milk with warm water or steam,
as is commonly done now, a large can of a capacity of from 20 to 30
gallons was filled with cold milk and placed in a common hot-water
boiler, and heated sufficiently to bring the whole body of the milk in
the tub to the desired temperature for adding the rennet. I found that
many mistakes were made in the quantity of rennet used, as scarcely
any two makers used the same quantity to a given quantity of milk.
Instead of having a graduated measure for measuring the rennet, a
common tea-cup was used for this purpose, and I have found in some
dairies as low as 3 oz. of rennet was used to 100 gallons of milk,
where in others as high as 6(1/2) oz. was used to the same quantity.
This of itself would cause a difference in the quality of the cheese.
"Coagulation and breaking completed, the second heating was effected
by dipping the whey from the curd into the can already mentioned, and
heated to a temperature of 140 deg. F., and returned to the curd, and
thus the process was carried on till the desired temperature was
reached. This mode of heating I considered very laborious and at the
same time very unsatisfactory, as it is impossible to distribute the
heat as evenly through the curd in this way as by heating either with
hot water or steam. The other general features of the method do not
differ from our own very materially, with the exception that in the
old method the curd was allowed to mature in the bottom of the tub,
where at the same stage we remove the curd from the vat to what we
call a curd-cooler, made with a sparred bottom, so as to allow the
whey to separate from the curd during the maturing or ripening
process. In regard to the quality of cheese on the one method compared
with the other, I think that there was some cheese just as fine made
in the old way as anything we can possibly make in the new, with one
exception, and that is, that the cheese made according to the old
method will not toast--instead of the casein melting down with the
butter-fat, the two become separated, which is very much objected to
by the consumer--and, with this, want of uniformity through the whole
dairy. This is a very short and imperfect description of how the
cheese was made at the time I came into Ayrshire; and I will now give
a short description of the system that has been taught by myself for
the past four years, and has been the means of bringing this county so
prominently to the front as one of the best cheese-making counties in
Britain.
"Our duty in this system of cheese-making begins the night before, in
having the milk properly set and cooled according to the temperature
of the atmosphere, so as to arrive at a given heat the next morning.
Our object in this is to secure, at the time we wish to begin work in
the morning, that degree of acidity or ripeness essential to the
success of the whole operation. We cannot give any definite guide to
makers how, or in what quantities, to set their milk, as the whole
thing depends on the good judgment of the operator. If he finds that
his milk works best at a temperature of 68 deg. F. in the morning, his
study the night before should tend toward such a result, and he will
soon learn by experience how best to manage the milk in his own
individual dairy. I have found in some dairies that the milk worked
quite fast enough at a temperature of 64 deg. in the morning, where in
others the milk set in the same way would be very much out of
condition by being too sweet, causing hours of delay before matured
enough to add the rennet. Great care should be taken at this point,
making sure that the milk is properly matured before the rennet is
added, as impatience at this stage often causes hours of delay in the
making of a cheese. I advise taking about six hours from the time the
rennet is added till the curd is ready for salting, which means a
six-hours' process; if much longer than this, I have found by
experience that it is impossible to obtain the best results. The cream
should always be removed from the night's milk in the morning and
heated to a temperature of about 84 deg. before returning it to the
vat. To do this properly and with safety, the cream should be heated
by adding about two-thirds of warm milk as it comes from the cow to
one-third of cream, and passed through the ordinary milk-strainers. If
colouring matter is used, it should be added fifteen to twenty minutes
before the rennet, so as to become thoroughly mingled with the milk
before coagulation takes place.
"We use from 4 to 4(1/2) oz. of Hansen's rennet extract to each 100
gallons of milk, at a temperature of 86 deg. in spring and 84 deg. in
summer, or sufficient to coagulate milk firm enough to cut in about
forty minutes when in a proper condition. In cutting, great care
should be taken not to bruise the curd. I cut lengthwise, then across
with perpendicular knife, then with horizontal knife the same way of
the perpendicular, leaving the curd in small cubes about the size of
ordinary peas. Stirring with the hands should begin immediately after
cutting, and continue for ten to fifteen minutes prior to the
application of heat. At this stage we use a rake instead of the hands
for stirring the curd during the heating process, which lasts about
one hour from the time of beginning until the desired temperature of
100 deg. or 102 deg. is reached. After heating, the curd should be
stirred another twenty minutes, so as to become properly firm before
allowing it to settle. We like the curd to lie in the whey fully one
hour after allowing it to settle before it is ready for drawing the
whey, which is regulated altogether by the condition of the milk at
the time the rennet is added. At the first indication of acid, the
whey should be removed as quickly as possible. I think at this point
lies the greatest secret of cheese-making--to know when to draw the
whey.
"I depend entirely on the hot-iron test at this stage, as I consider
it the most accurate and reliable guide known to determine when the
proper acidity has been developed. To apply this test, take a piece of
steel bar about 18 in. long by 1 in. wide and 1/4 in. thick, and heat
to a black heat; if the iron is too hot, it will burn the curd; if too
cold, it will not stick; consequently it is a very simple matter to
determine the proper heat. Take a small quantity of the curd from the
vat and compress it tightly in the hand, so as to expel all the whey;
press the curd against the iron, and when acid enough it will draw
fine silky threads 1/4 in. long. At this stage the curd should be
removed to the curd-cooler as quickly as possible, and stirred till
dry enough to allow it to mat, which generally takes from five to
eight minutes. The curd is now allowed to stand in one end of the
cooler for thirty minutes, when it is cut into pieces from 6 to 8 in.
square and turned, and so on every half-hour until it is fit for
milling. After removing the whey, a new acid makes its appearance in
the body of the curd, which seems to depend for its development upon
the action of the air, and the presence of which experience has shown
to be an essential element in the making of a cheese. This acid should
be allowed to develop properly before the addition of salt. To
determine when the curd is ready for salting, the hot-iron test is
again resorted to; and when the curd will draw fine silky threads
1(1/2) in. long, and at the same time have a soft velvety feel when
pressed in the hand, the butter-fat will not separate with the whey
from the curd. I generally advise using 1 lb. of salt to 50 lb. of
curd, more or less, according to the condition of the curd. After
salting, we let the curd lie fifteen minutes, so as to allow the salt
to be thoroughly dissolved before pressing.
"In the pressing, care should be taken not to press the curd too
severely at first, as you are apt to lose some of the butter-fat, and
with this I do not think that the whey will come away so freely by
heavy pressing at first. We advise three days' pressing before cheese
is taken to the curing-room. All cheese should have a bath in water at
a temperature of 120 deg. next morning after being made, so as to form
a good skin to prevent cracking or chipping. The temperature of the
curing-room should be kept as near 60 deg. as possible at all seasons
of the year, and I think it a good plan to ventilate while heating."
With regard to the hot-iron test for acidity, Mr F. J. Lloyd, in
describing his investigations on behalf of the Bath and West of England
Society, states that cheese-makers have long known that in both the
manufacture and the ripening of cheese the acidity produced--known to
the chemist as "lactic acid"--materially influences the results
obtained, and that amongst other drawbacks to the test referred to is
the uncertainty of the temperature of the iron itself. He gives an
account,[8] however, of a chemical method involving the use of a
standard solution of an alkali (soda), and of a substance termed an
"indicator" (phenolphthalein), which changes colour according to whether
a solution is acid or alkaline. The apparatus used with these reagents
is called the acidimeter. The two stages in the manufacture of a Cheddar
cheese most difficult to determine empirically are--(1) when to stop
stirring and to draw the whey, and (2) when to grind the curd. The
introduction of the acidimeter has done away with these difficulties;
and though the use of this apparatus is not actually a condition
essential to the manufacture of a good cheese, it is to many makers a
necessity and to all an advantage. By its use the cheese-maker can
determine the acidity of the whey, and so decide when to draw the latter
off, and will thus secure not only the proper development of acidity in
the subsequent changes of cheese-making, but also materially diminish
the time which the cheese takes to make. Furthermore, it has been proved
that the acidity of the whey which drains from the curd when in the
cooler is a sufficiently accurate guide to the condition of the curd
before grinding; and by securing uniformity in this acidity the maker
will also ensure uniformity in the quality and ripening properties of
the cheese. Speaking generally, the acidity of the liquid from the press
should never fall below 0.80% nor rise above 1.20%, and, the nearer it
can be kept to 1.00% the better. Simultaneously, of course, strict
attention must be paid to temperature, time and every other factor which
can be accurately determined. Analyses of large numbers of Cheddar
cheeses manufactured in every month of the cheese-making season show the
average composition of ripe specimens to be--water, 35.58%; fat, 31.33;
casein, 29.12; mineral matter or ash, 3.97. It has been maintained that
in the ripening of Cheddar cheese fat is formed out of the curd, but a
comparison of analyses of ripe cheeses with analyses of the curd from
which the cheeses were made affords no evidence that this is the case.
The quantity of milk required to make 1 lb. of Cheddar cheese may be
learnt from Table X., which shows the results obtained at the cheese
school of the Bath and West of England Society in the two seasons of
1899 and 1900. The cheese was sold at an average age of ten to twelve
weeks. In 1899 a total of 21,220 gallons of milk yielded 20,537 lb. of
saleable cheese, and in 1900, 31,808 gallons yielded 29,631 lb. In the
two years together 53,028 gallons yielded 50,168 lb., which is
equivalent to 1.05 gallon of milk to 1 lb. of cheese. For practical
purposes it may be taken that one gallon, or slightly over 10 lb. of
milk, yields 1 lb. of pressed cheese. The prices obtained are added as a
matter of interest.
Cheshire cheese is largely made in the county from which it takes its
name, and in adjoining districts. It is extensively consumed in
Manchester and Liverpool, and other parts of the densely populated
county of Lancaster.
TABLE X.--_Quantities of Milk employed and of Cheese produced in the
Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese._
+---------------+-------+-------+--------+---------------------+--------+
| When Made. | Milk. | Green |Saleable| Shrinkage. | Price. |
| | |Cheese.| Cheese.| | |
+---------------+-------+-------+--------+---------------------+--------+
| | galls.| lb. | lb. | |per cwt.|
| April 1899 | 3077 | 3100 | 2924 | 6 per cent. | 60s. |
| May | 4462 | 4502 | 4257 | 6(1/2)lb. per cwt. | 63s. |
| June | 4316 | 4434 | 4141 | 7 lb. 6 oz. per cwt.| 70s. |
| July | 3699 | 3785 | 3545 | 7 lb. 2 oz. per cwt.| 74s. |
| August | 2495 | 2539 | 2353 | 8 lb. 3 oz. per cwt.| 74s. |
| Sept. and Oct.| 3171 | 3583 | 3317 | 8 lb. 5 oz. per cwt.| 74s. |
| April 1900 | 3651 | 3505 | 3292 | 6 per cent. | 63s. |
| May | 6027 | 6048 | 5577 | 7(3/4) per cent. | 64s. |
| June | 5960 | 5889 | 5466 | 7(1/4) per cent. | 68s. |
| July and Aug. | 7227 | 7177 | 6630 | 7(1/2) per cent. | 66s. |
| Sept. and Oct.| 8943 | 9635 | 8666 | 10 per cent. | 66s. |
+---------------+-------+-------+--------+---------------------+--------+
The following is a description of the making of Cheshire cheese:--
The evening's milk is set apart until the following morning, when the
cream is skimmed off. The latter is poured into a pan which has been
heated by being placed in the boiling water of a boiler. The new milk
obtained early in the morning is poured into the vessel containing the
previous evening's milk with the warmed cream, and the temperature of
the mixture is brought to about 75 deg. F. Into the vessel is
introduced a piece of rennet, which has been kept in warm water since
the preceding evening, and in which a little Spanish annatto (1/4 oz.
is enough for a cheese of 60 lb.) is dissolved. (Marigolds, boiled in
milk, are occasionally used for colouring cheese, to which they
likewise impart a pleasant flavour. In winter, carrots scraped and
boiled in milk, and afterwards strained, will produce a richer colour;
but they should be used with moderation, on account of their taste.)
The whole is now stirred together, and covered up warm for about an
hour, or until it becomes curdled; it is then turned over with a bowl
and broken very small. After standing a little time, the whey is drawn
from it, and as soon as the curd becomes somewhat more solid it is cut
into slices and turned over repeatedly, the better to press out the
whey.
The curd is then removed from the tub, broken by hand or cut by a
curd-breaker into small pieces, and put into a cheese vat, where it is
strongly pressed both by hand and with weights, in order to extract
the remaining whey. After this it is transferred to another vat, or
into the same if it has in the meantime been well scalded, where a
similar process of breaking and expressing is repeated, until all the
whey is forced from it. The cheese is now turned into a third vat,
previously warmed, with a cloth beneath it, and a thin loop of binder
put round the upper edge of the cheese and within the sides of the
vat, the cheese itself being previously enclosed in a clean cloth, and
its edges placed within the vat, before transfer to the cheese-oven.
These various processes occupy about six hours, and eight more are
requisite for pressing the cheese, under a weight of 14 or 15 cwt. The
cheese during that time should be twice turned in the vat. Holes are
bored in the vat which contains the cheese, and also in the cover of
it, to facilitate the extraction of every drop of whey. The pressure
being continued, the cheese is at length taken from the vat as a firm
and solid mass.
On the following morning and evening it must be again turned and
pressed; and also on the third day, about the middle of which it
should be removed to the salting-chamber, where the outside is well
rubbed with salt, and a cloth binder passed round it which is not
turned over the upper surface. The cheese is then placed in brine
extending half-way up in a salting-tub, and the upper surface is
thickly covered with salt. Here it remains for nearly a week, being
turned twice in the day. It is then left to dry for two or three days,
during which period it is turned once--being well salted at each
turning--and cleaned every day. When taken from the brine it is put on
the salting benches, with a wooden girth round it of nearly the
thickness of the cheese, where it stands a few days, during which time
it is again salted and turned every day. It is next washed and dried;
and after remaining on the drying benches about seven days, it is once
more washed in warm water with a brush, and wiped dry. In a couple of
hours after this it is rubbed all over with sweet whey butter, which
operation is afterwards frequently repeated; and, lastly, it is
deposited in the cheese- or store-room--which should be moderately
warm and sheltered from the access of air, lest the cheese should
crack--and turned every day, until it has become sufficiently hard and
firm. These cheeses require to be kept a considerable time.
As a matter of fact, there are three different modes of cheese-making
followed in Cheshire, known as the _early_ ripening, the _medium_
ripening and the _late_ ripening processes. There is also a method
which produces a cheese that is permeated with "green mould" when
ripe, called "Stilton Cheshire"; this, however, is confined to limited
districts in the county. The early ripening method is generally
followed in the spring of the year, until the middle or end of April;
the medium process, from that time till late autumn, or until early in
June, when the late ripening process is adopted and followed until the
end of September, changing again to the medium process as the season
advances. The late ripening process is not found to be suitable for
spring or late autumn make. There is a decided difference between
these several methods of making. In the early ripening system a larger
quantity of rennet is used, more acidity is developed, and less
pressure employed than in the other processes. In the medium ripening
process a moderate amount of acidity is developed, to cause the
natural drainage of the whey from the curd when under press. In the
late ripening system, on the other hand, the development of acidity is
prevented as far as possible, and the whey is got out of the curd by
breaking down finer, using more heat, and skewering when under press.
In the Stilton Cheshire process a larger quantity of rennet is used,
and less pressure is employed, than in the medium or late ripening
systems.
It is hardly possible to enunciate any general rules for the making of
Stilton cheese, which differs from Cheddar and Cheshire in that it is
not subjected to pressure. Mr J. Marshall Dugdale, in 1899, made a visit
of inspection to the chief Leicestershire dairies where this cheese is
produced, but in his report[9] he stated that every Stilton cheese-maker
worked on his own lines, and that at no two dairies did he find the
details all carried out in the same manner. There is a fair degree of
uniformity up to the point when the curd is ladled into the
straining-cloths, but at this stage, and in the treatment of the curd
before salting, diversity sets in, several different methods being in
successful use. Most of the cheese is made from two curds, the highly
acid curd from the morning's milk being mixed with the comparatively
sweet curd from the evening's milk. Opinion varies widely as to the
degree of tightening of the straining-cloths. No test for acidity
appears to be used, the amount of acidity being judged by the taste,
feel and smell of the curd. When the desired degree of acidity has
developed, the curd is broken by hand to pieces the size of small
walnuts, and salt is added at the rate of about 1 oz. to 4 lb. of dry
curd, or 1 oz. to 3(1/2) lb. of wet curd, care being taken not to get
the curd pasty. If a maker has learnt how to rennet the milk properly,
and how to secure the right amount of acidity at the time of
hooping--that is, when the broken and salted curd is put into the wooden
hoops which give the cheese its shape--he has acquired probably two of
the most important details necessary to success. It was formerly the
custom to add cream to the milk used for making Stilton cheese, but the
more general practice now is to employ new milk alone, which yields a
product apparently as excellent and mellow as that from enriched milk.
As a cheese matures or becomes fit for consumption, not only is there
produced the characteristic flavour peculiar to the type of cheese
concerned, but with all varieties, independently of the quality of
flavours developed, a profound physical transformation of the casein
occurs. In the course of this change the firm elastic curd "breaks
down"--that is, becomes plastic, whilst chemically the insoluble casein
is converted into various soluble decomposition products. These ripening
phenomena--the production of flavour and the breaking down of the casein
(that is, the formation of proper texture)--used to be regarded as
different phases of the same process. As subsequently shown, however,
these changes are not necessarily so closely correlated. The theories
formerly advanced as explanatory of the ripening changes in cheese were
suggestive rather than based upon experimental data, and it is only
since 1896 that careful scientific studies of the problem have been
made. Of the two existing theories, the one, which is essentially
European, ascribes the ripening changes wholly to the action of living
organisms--the bacteria present in the cheese. The other, which had its
origin in the United States, asserts that there are digestive
enzymes--that is, unorganized or soluble ferments--inherent in the milk
itself that render the casein soluble. The supporters of the bacterial
theory are ranged in two classes. The one, led by Duclaux, regards the
breaking down of the casein as due to the action of liquefying bacteria
(Tyrothrix forms). On the other hand, von Freudenreich has ascribed
these changes to the lactic-acid type of bacteria, which develop so
luxuriantly in hard cheese like Cheddar.
With regard to the American theory, and in view of the important
practical results obtained by Babcock and Russell at the Wisconsin
experiment station, the following account[10] of their work is of
interest, especially as the subject is of high practical importance. In
1897 they announced the discovery of an inherent enzyme in milk, which
they named _galactase_, and which has the power of digesting the casein
of milk, and producing chemical decomposition products similar to those
that normally occur in ripened cheese. The theory has been advanced by
them that this enzyme is an important factor in the ripening changes;
and as in their experiments bacterial action was excluded by the use of
anaesthetic agents, they conclude that, so far as the breaking down of
the casein is concerned, bacteria are not essential to this process. In
formulating a theory of cheese-ripening, they have further pointed out
the necessity of considering the action of rennet extract as a factor
concerned in the curing changes. They have shown that the addition of
increased quantities of rennet extract materially hastens the rate of
ripening, and that this is due to the pepsin which is present in all
commercial rennet extracts. They find it easily possible to
differentiate between the proteolytic action--that is, the decomposing
of proteids--of pepsin and galactase, in that the first-named enzyme is
incapable of producing decomposition products lower than the peptones
precipitated by tannin. They have shown that the increased
solubility--the ripening changes--of the casein in cheese made with
rennet is attributable solely to the products peculiar to peptic
digestion. The addition of rennet extract or pepsin to fresh milk does
not produce this change, unless the acidity of the milk is allowed to
develop to a point which experience has shown to be the best adapted to
the making of Cheddar cheese. The _rationale_ of the empirical process
of ripening the milk before the addition of the rennet is thus
explained. In studying the properties of galactase it was further found
that this enzyme, as well as those present in rennet extract, is
operative at very low temperatures, even below freezing-point. When
cheese made in the normal manner was kept at temperatures ranging from
25 deg. to 45 deg. F. for periods averaging from eight to eighteen
months, it was found that the texture of the product simulated that of a
perfectly ripened cheese, but that such cheese developed a very mild
flavour in comparison with the normally-cured product. Subsequent
storage at somewhat higher temperatures gives to such cheese a flavour
the intensity of which is determined by the duration of storage. This
indicates that the breaking down of the casein and the production of the
flavour peculiar to cheese are in a way independent of each other, and
may be independently controlled--a point of great economic importance in
commercial practice. Although it is generally believed that cheese
ripened at low temperatures is apt to develop a more or less bitter
flavour, the flavours in the cases described were found to be
practically perfect. Under these conditions of curing, bacterial
activity is inoperative, and these experiments are held to furnish an
independent proof of the enzyme theory.
Not only are these investigations of interest from the scientific
standpoint, as throwing light on the obscure processes of cheese-curing,
but from a practical point of view they open up a new field for
commercial exploitation. The inability to control the temperature in the
ordinary factory curing-room results in serious losses, on account of
the poor and uneven quality of the product, and the consumption of
cheese has been greatly lessened thereby. These conditions may all be
avoided by this low-temperature curing process, and it is not improbable
that the cheese industry may undergo important changes in methods of
treatment. With the introduction of cold-storage curing, and the
necessity of constructing centralized plant for this purpose, the cheese
industry may perhaps come to be differentiated into the manufacture of
the product in factories of relatively cheap construction, and the
curing or ripening of the cheese in central curing stations. In this way
not only would the losses which occur under present practices be
obviated, but the improvement in the quality of the cured product would
be more than sufficient to cover the cost of cold-storage curing.
The characteristics of typical specimens of the different kinds of
English cheese may be briefly described. Cheddar cheese possesses the
aroma and flavour of a nut--the so-called "nutty" flavour. It should
melt in the mouth, and taste neither sweet nor acid. It is of flaky
texture, neither hard nor crumbly, and is firm to the touch. It is
early-ripening and, if not too much acid is developed in the making,
long-keeping. Before all others it is a cosmopolitan cheese. Some
cheeses are "plain," that is, they possess the natural paleness of the
curd, but many are coloured with annatto--a practice that might be
dispensed with. The average weight of a Cheddar cheese is about 70 lb.
Stilton cheese is popularly but erroneously supposed to be commonly made
from morning's whole milk with evening's cream added, and to be a
"double-cream" cheese. The texture is waxy, and a blue-green mould
permeates the mass if well ripened; the flavour is suggestive of decay.
The average weight of a Stilton is 15 lb. Cheshire cheese has a fairly
firm and uniform texture, neither flaky on the one hand nor waxy on the
other; is of somewhat sharp and piquant flavour when fully ripe; and is
often--at eighteen months old, when a well-made Cheshire cheese is at
its best--permeated with a blue-green mould, which, as in the case of
Stilton cheese, contributes a characteristic flavour which is much
appreciated. Cheshire cheese is, like Cheddar, sometimes
highly-coloured, but the practice is quite unnecessary; the weight is
about 55 lb. Gloucester cheese has a firm, somewhat soapy, texture and
sweet flavour. Double Gloucester differs from single Gloucester only in
size, the former usually weighing 26 to 30 lb., and the latter 13 to 15
lb. Leicester cheese is somewhat loose in texture, and mellow and moist
when nicely ripened. Its flavour is "clean," sweet and mild, and its
aroma pleasant. To those who prefer a mild flavour in cheese, a perfect
Leicester is perhaps the most attractive of all the so-called "hard"
cheese; the average weight of such a cheese is about 35 lb. Derby cheese
in its best forms is much like Leicester, being "clean" in flavour and
mellow. It is sometimes rather flaky in texture, and is slow-ripening
and long-keeping if made on the old lines; the average weight is 25 lb.
Lancashire cheese, when well made and ripe, is loose in texture and is
mellow; it has a piquant flavour. As a rule it ripens early and does not
keep long. Dorset cheese--sometimes called "blue vinny" (or veiny)--is
of firm texture, blue-moulded, and rather sharp-flavoured when fully
ripe; it has local popularity and the best makes are rather like
Stilton. Wensleydale cheese, a local product in North Yorkshire, is of
fairly firm texture and mild flavour, and may almost be spread with a
knife when ripe; the finest makes are equal to the best Stilton.
Cotherstone cheese, also a Yorkshire product, is very much like Stilton
and commonly preferable to it. The blue-green mould develops, and the
cheese is fairly mellow and moist, whereas many Stiltons are hard and
dry. Wiltshire cheese, in the form of "Wilts truckles," may be described
as small Cheddars, the weight being usually about 16 lb. Caerphilly
cheese is a thin, flat product, having the appearance of an undersized
single Gloucester and weighing about 8 lb.; it has no very marked
characteristics, but enters largely into local consumption amongst the
mining population of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire. Soft cheese of
various kinds is made in many localities, beyond which its reputation
scarcely extends. One of the oldest and best, somewhat resembling
Camembert when well ripened, is the little "Slipcote," made on a small
scale in the county of Rutland; it is a soft, mellow, moist cheese, its
coat slipping off readily when the cheese is at its best for
eating--hence the name. Cream cheese is likewise made in many districts,
but nowhere to a great extent. A good cream cheese is fairly firm but
mellow, with a slightly acid yet very attractive flavour. It is the
simplest of all cheese to make--cream poured into a perforated box lined
with loose muslin practically makes itself into cheese in a few days'
time, and is usually ripe in a week.
In France the pressed varieties of cheese with hard rinds include
Gruyere, Cantal, Roquefort and Port Salut. The first-named, a
pale-yellow cheese full of holes of varying size, is made in Switzerland
and in the Jura Mountains district in the east of France; whilst Cantal
cheese, which is of lower quality, is a product of the midland districts
and is made barrel-shape. Roquefort cheese is made from the milk of
ewes, which are kept chiefly as dairy animals in the department of
Aveyron, and the cheese is cured in the natural mountain caves at the
village of Roquefort. It is a small, rather soft, white cheese,
abundantly veined with a greenish-blue mould and weighs between 4 and 5
lb. The Port Salut is quite a modern cheese, which originated in the
abbey of that name in Mayenne; it is a thin, flat cheese of
characteristic, and not unattractive odour and flavour. The best known
of the soft unpressed cheeses are Brie, Camembert and Coulommiers,
whilst Pont l'Eveque, Livarot and other varieties are also made. After
being shaped in moulds of various forms, these cheeses are laid on straw
mats to cure, and when fit to eat they possess about the same
consistency as butter. The Neufchatel, Gervais and Bondon cheeses are
soft varieties intended to be eaten quite fresh, like cream cheese.
Of the varieties of cheese made in Switzerland, the best known is the
Emmenthaler, which is about the size of a cart-wheel, and has a weight
varying from 150 to 300 lb. It is full of small holes of almost uniform
size and very regularly distributed. In colour and flavour it is the
same as Gruyere. The Edam and Gouda are the common cheeses of Holland.
The Edam is spherical in shape, weighs from 3 to 4 lb., and is usually
dyed crimson on the outside. The Gouda is a flat cheese with convex
edges and is of any weight up to 20 lb. Of the two, the Edam has the
finer flavour. Limburger is the leading German cheese, whilst other
varieties are the Backstein and Munster; all are strong-smelling.
Parmesan cheese is an Italian product, round and flat, about 5 in.
thick, weighing from 60 to 80 lb. and possessed of fine flavour.
Gorgonzola cheese, so called from the Italian town of that name near
Milan, is made in the Cheddar shape and weighs from 20 to 40 lb. When
ripe it is permeated by a blue mould, and resembles in flavour,
appearance and consistency a rich old Stilton.
For descriptions of all the named varieties of cheese, see _Bulletin
105 of the Bureau of Animal Industry_ (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington), issued 27th of June 1908, compiled by C. F. Doane and H.
W. Lawson.
BUTTER AND BUTTER-MAKING
As with cheese, so with butter, large quantities of the latter have been
inferior not because the cream was poor in quality, but because the
wrong kinds of bacteria had taken possession of the atmosphere in
hundreds of dairies. The greatest if not the latest novelty in dairying
in the last decade of the 19th century was the isolation of lactic acid
bacilli, their cultivation in a suitable medium, and their employment in
cream preparatory to churning. Used thus in butter-making, an excellent
product results, provided cleanliness be scrupulously maintained. The
culture repeats itself in the buttermilk, which in turn may be used
again with marked success. Much fine butter, indeed, was made long
before the bearing of bacteriological science upon the practice of
dairying was recognized--made by using acid buttermilk from a previous
churning.
In Denmark, which is, for its size, the greatest butter-producing
country in the world, most of the butter is made with the aid of
"starters," or artificial cultures which are employed in ripening the
cream. Though the butter made by such cultures shows little if any
superiority over a good sample made from cream ripened in the ordinary
way--that is, by keeping the cream at a fairly high temperature until it
is ready for churning, when it must be cooled--it is claimed that the
use of these cultures enables the butter-makers of Denmark to secure a
much greater uniformity in the quality of their produce than would be
possible if they depended upon the ripening of the cream through the
influence of bacteria taken up in the usual way from the air.
Butter-making is an altogether simpler process than cheese-making, but
success demands strict attention to sound principles, the observance of
thorough cleanliness in every stage of the work, and the intelligent use
of the thermometer. The following rules for butter-making, issued by the
Royal Agricultural Society sufficiently indicate the nature of the
operation:--
Prepare churn, butter-worker, wooden-hands and sieve as follows:--(1)
Rinse with cold water. (2) Scald with boiling water. (3) Rub
thoroughly with salt. (4) Rinse with cold water.
_Always use a correct thermometer._
The cream, when in the churn, to be at a temperature of 56 deg. to 58
deg. F. in summer and 60 deg. to 62 deg. F. in winter. The churn
should never be more than half full. Churn at number of revolutions
suggested by maker of churn. If none are given, _churn at 40 to 45
revolutions per minute_. Always churn slowly at first.
_Ventilate_ the churn _freely_ and frequently during churning, until
no air rushes out when the vent is opened.
_Stop churning immediately_ the butter comes. This can be ascertained
by the sound; if in doubt, _look_.
The butter should now be like grains of mustard seed. Pour in a small
quantity of cold water (1 pint of water to 2 quarts of cream) to
harden the grains, and give a few more turns to the churn gently.
Draw off the buttermilk, giving plenty of time for draining. Use a
straining-cloth placed over the hair-sieve, so as to prevent any loss,
and wash the butter in the churn with plenty of cold water: then draw
off the water, and repeat the process until the water comes off quite
clear.
_To brine butter_, make a strong brine, 2 to 3 lb. of salt to 1 gallon
of water. Place straining-cloth over mouth of churn, pour in brine,
put lid on churn, turn sharply half a dozen times, and leave for 10 to
15 minutes. Then lift the butter out of the churn into sieve, turn
butter out on worker, leave it a few minutes to drain, and work gently
till all superfluous moisture is pressed out.
_To drysalt butter_, place butter on worker, let it drain 10 to 15
minutes, then work gently till all the butter comes together. Place it
on the scales and weigh; then weigh salt, for slight salting, 1/4 oz.;
medium, 1/2 oz.; heavy salting, 3/4 oz. to the lb. of butter. Roll
butter out on worker and carefully sprinkle salt over the surface, a
little at a time; roll up and repeat till all the salt is used.
_Never touch the butter with your hands._
Well-made butter is firm and not greasy. It possesses a characteristic
texture or "grain," in virtue of which it cuts clean with a knife and
breaks with a granular fracture, like that of cast-iron. Theoretically,
butter should consist of little else than fat, but in practice this
degree of perfection is never attained. Usually the fat ranges from 83
to 88%, whilst water is present to the extent of from 10 to 15%.[11]
There will also be from 0.2 to 0.8% of milk-sugar, and from 0.5 to 0.8%
of casein. It is the casein which is the objectionable ingredient, and
the presence of which is usually the cause of rancidity. In badly-washed
or badly-worked butter, from which the buttermilk has not been properly
removed, the proportion of casein or curd left in the product may be
considerable, and such butter has only inferior keeping qualities. At
the same time, the mistake may be made of overworking or of overwashing
the butter, thereby depriving it of the delicacy of flavour which is one
of its chief attractions as an article of consumption if eaten fresh.
The object of washing with brine is that the small quantity of salt thus
introduced shall act as a preservative and develop the flavour. Streaky
butter may be due either to curd left in by imperfect washing, or to an
uneven distribution of the salt.
EQUIPMENT OF THE DAIRY
The improved form of milking-pail shown in fig. 1 has rests or brackets,
which the milker when seated on his stool places on his knees; he thus
bears the weight on his thighs, and is entirely relieved of the strain
involved in gripping the can between the knees. The milk sieve or
strainer (fig. 2) is used to remove cow-hairs and any other mechanical
impurity that may have fallen into the milk. A double straining surface
is provided, the second being of very fine gauze placed vertically, so
that the pressure of the milk does not force the dirt through; the
strainer is easily washed. The cheese tub or vat receives the milk for
cheese-making. The rectangular form shown in fig. 3 is a Cheshire
cheese-vat, for steam. The inner vat is of tinned steel, and the outer
is of iron and is fitted with pipes for steam supply. Round cheese-tubs
(fig. 4) are made of strong sheets of steel, double tinned to render
them lasting. They are fitted with a strong bottom hoop and bands round
the sides, and can be double-jacketed for steam-heating if required.
Curd-knives (fig. 5) are used for cutting the coagulated mass into cubes
in order to liberate the whey. They are made of fine steel, with sharp
edges; there are also wire curd-breakers. The object of the curd-mill
(fig. 6) is to grind consolidated curd into small pieces, preparatory to
salting and vatting; two spiked rollers work up to spiked breasts.
Hoops, into which the curd is placed in order to acquire the shape of
the cheese, are of wood or steel, the former being made of well-seasoned
oak with iron bands (fig. 7), the latter of tinned steel. The cheese is
more easily removed from the steel hoops and they are readily cleaned.
The cheese-press (fig. 8) is used only for hard or "pressed" cheese,
such as Cheddar. The arrangement is such that the pressure is
continuous; in the case of soft cheese the curd is merely placed in
moulds (figs. 9 and 10) of the required shape, and then taken cut to
ripen, no pressure being applied. The cheese-room is fitted with
easily-turned shelves, on which newly-made "pressed" cheeses are laid to
ripen.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Milking-Pail.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Milk Sieve.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Rectangular Cheese-Vat.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cheese-Tub.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Curd-Knives.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Curd-Mill]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hoop for Flat Cheese.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Cheese-Press.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Cheese-Mould (Gervais).]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Cheese-Mould (Pont l'Eveque).]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Milk-Pan.]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Skimmer.]
In the butter dairy, when the centrifugal separator is not used, milk is
"set" for cream-raising in the milk-pan (fig. 11), a shallow vessel of
white porcelain, tinned steel or enamelled iron. The skimming-dish or
skimmer (fig 12), made of tin, is for collecting the cream from the
surface of the milk, whence it is transferred to the cream-crock (fig.
13), in which vessel the cream remains from one to three days, till it
is required for churning. Many different kinds of churns are in use, and
vary much in size, shape and fittings; the one illustrated in fig. 14 is
a very good type of diaphragm churn. The butter-scoop (fig. 15) is of
wood and is sometimes perforated; it is used for taking the butter out
of the churn. The butter-worker (fig. 16) is employed for consolidating
newly-churned butter, pressing out superfluous water and mixing in salt.
More extended use, however, is now being made of the "Delaiteuse" butter
dryer, a centrifugal machine that rapidly extracts the moisture from the
butter, and renders the butter-worker unnecessary, whilst the butter
produced has a better grain. Scotch hands (fig. 17), made of boxwood,
are used for the lifting, moulding and pressing of butter.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Cream-Crock.]
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Churn.]
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Butter-Scoop.]
In the centrifugal cream-separator the new milk is allowed to flow into
a bowl, which is caused to rotate on its own axis several thousand times
per minute. The heavier portion which makes up the watery part of the
milk flies to the outer circumference of the bowl, whilst the lighter
particles of butter-fat are forced to travel in an inner zone. By a
simple mechanical arrangement the separated milk is forced out at one
tube and the cream at another, and they are collected in distinct
vessels. Separators are made of all sizes, from small machines dealing
with 10 or 20 up to 100 gallons an hour, and worked by hand (fig. 18),
to large machines separating 150 to 440 gallons an hour, and worked by
horse, steam or other power (fig. 19). Separation is found to be most
effective at temperatures ranging in different machines from 80 deg. to
98 deg. F., though as high a temperature as 150 deg. is sometimes
employed. The most efficient separators remove nearly the whole of the
butter-fat, the quantity of fat left in the separated milk falling in
some cases to as low as 0.1. When cream is raised by the deep-setting
method, from 0.2 to 0.4% of fat is left in the skim-milk; by the
shallow-setting method from 0.3 to 0.5% of the fat is left behind. As a
rule, therefore, "separated" milk is much poorer in fat than ordinary
"skim" milk left by the cream-raising method in deep or shallow vessels.
The first continuous working separator was the invention of Dr de Laval.
The more recent invention by Baron von Bechtolsheim of what ar
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