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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Cube" to "Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mandé"

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Cube" to "Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mandé"

Author: Various


        
Release date: January 29, 2012 [eBook #38709]
                Most recently updated: January 8, 2021

Language: English

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE CUCKOO: "The best-known species (C. ani) is found
      throughout the Antilles and on the opposite continent." 'found'
      amended from 'foud'.

    ARTICLE CUCURBITACEAE: "Fig. 1.--Bryonia dioica, Bryony. 1, part of
      corolla of male flower with attached stamens; 2, female flower
      after removal of calyx and corolla; 3, berries; 1, 2, 3 about nat.
      size." 'corolla' amended from 'carolla'.

    ARTICLE CURIA: "It is more probable that the curiae were not purely
      artificial creations, but represent natural associations of
      families, artificially regulated and distributed to serve a
      political purpose." 'families' amended from 'familief'.

    ARTICLE CURTEA DE ARGESH: "Above this comes a row of circular
      shields, adorned with intricate arabesques, while bands and wreaths
      of lilies are everywhere sculptured on the windows, balconies,
      tambours and cornices, adding lightness to the fabric."
      'sculptured' amended from 'scupltured'.

    ARTICLE CURVE: "For an acnodal cubic the six imaginary inflections
      disappear, and there remain three real inflections lying in a
      line." 'imaginary' amended from 'imaginery'.

    ARTICLE CURVE: "... and a curve of any order deficiency = or > 3
      can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D + 3,
      deficiency D." 'deficiency' amended from 'deficience'.

    ARTICLE CURVE: "The extension to curves of any given deficiency D
      was made in the memoir of Cayley, 'On the correspondence of two
      points on a curve,'--Proc. Lond. Math. Soc...." 'Proc' amended from
      'Porc'.

    ARTICLE CUXHAVEN: "The harbour is good and secure, and is much
      frequented by vessels delayed in the Elbe by unfavourable weather."
      'unfavourable' amended from 'unfavourbale'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


           VOLUME VII, SLICE VIII

          Cube to Daguerre, Louis




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  CUBE                              CURWEN, JOHN
  CUBEBS                            CURZOLA
  CUBICLE                           CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL
  CUBITT, THOMAS                    CUSANUS, NICOLAUS
  CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM               CUSH
  CUCHULINN                         CUSHING, CALEB
  CUCKOO                            CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER
  CUCKOO-SPIT                       CUSHION
  CUCUMBER                          CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS
  CUCURBITACEAE                     CUSP
  CUDDALORE                         CUSTARD APPLE
  CUDDAPAH                          CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG
  CUDWORTH, RALPH                   CUSTINE, ADAM PHILIPPE
  CUENCA (city of Ecuador)          CUSTOM
  CUENCA (province of Spain)        CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD
  CUENCA (city of Spain)            CUSTOM-HOUSE
  CUESTA                            CUSTOM DUTIES
  CUEVAS DE VERA                    CUSTOS ROTULORUM
  CUFF                              CUSTOZZA
  CUIRASS                           CUSTRIN
  CUIRASSIERS                       CUTCH
  CUJAS, JACQUES                    CUTCH, GULF OF
  CULDEES                           CUTCH, RUNN OF
  CULEBRA                           CUTHBERT, SAINT
  CULLEN, PAUL                      CUTLASS
  CULLEN, WILLIAM                   CUTLER, MANASSEH
  CULLEN                            CUTLERY
  CULLERA                           CUTTACK
  CULLINAN                          CUTTLE-FISH
  CULLODEN                          CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS
  CULM                              CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD DAGOBERT
  CULMINATION                       CUVILLES, FRANCOIS DE
  CULPRIT                           CUXHAVEN
  CULROSS                           CUYABA
  CULTIVATOR                        CUYAPO
  CUMAE                             CUYP
  CUMANA                            CUZA, ALEXANDER JOHN
  CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF    CUZCO
  CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (English philosopher)  CYANAMIDE
  CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (English dramatist)    CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES
  CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS      CYANIDE
  CUMBERLAND (county of England)    CYANITE
  CUMBERLAND (Maryland, U.S.A.)     CYANOGEN
  CUMBERLAND (Rhode Island, U.S.A.) CYAXARES
  CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS              CYBELE
  CUMBERLAND RIVER                  CYCLADES
  CUMBRAES, THE                     CYCLAMEN
  CUMIN                             CYCLE
  CUMMERBUND                        CYCLING
  CUMMING, JOSEPH GEORGE            CYCLOID
  CUMNOCK AND HOLMHEAD              CYCLOMETER
  CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL                CYCLONE
  CUNAS                             CYCLOPEAN MASONRY
  CUNDINAMARCA                      CYCLOPES
  CUNEIFORM                         CYCLOSTOMATA
  CUNEO                             CYCLOSTYLE
  CUNEUS                            CYGNUS
  CUNITZ, MARIA                     CYLINDER
  CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER             CYLLENE
  CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN                 CYMA
  CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (Scottish theologian)  CYMBALS
  CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (English economist)    CYNEGILS
  CUP                               CYNEWULF (king of Wessex)
  CUPAR                             CYNEWULF (Old-English poet)
  CUPBOARD                          CYNICS
  CUPID                             CYNOSURE
  CUPOLA                            CYPERACEAE
  CUPPING                           CY-PRES
  CUPRA                             CYPRESS
  CUPRITE                           CYPRIAN, SAINT
  CUPULIFERAE                       CYPRINODONTS
  CURACAO                           CYPRUS
  CURACOA                           CYPRUS, CHURCH OF
  CURASSOW                          CYPSELUS
  CURATE                            CYRANO DE BERGERAC, SAVINIEN
  CURATOR                           CYRENAICA
  CURCI, CARLO MARIA                CYRENAICS
  CUREL, FRANCOIS                   CYRENE
  CURELY, JEAN NICOLAS              CYRIL (bishop of Jerusalem)
  CURES                             CYRIL (bishop of Alexandria)
  CURETES                           CYRIL (apostle of the Slavs)
  CURETON, WILLIAM                  CYRILLIC
  CURETUS                           CYRILLUS
  CURFEW                            CYRTO-STYLE
  CURIA                             CYRUS
  CURIA REGIS                       CYSTOFLAGELLATA
  CURIA ROMANA                      CYSTOLITH
  CURICO                            CYTHERA
  CURIE, PIERRE                     CYTISINE
  CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS           CYTOLOGY
  CURITYBA                          CYZICENUS
  CURLEW                            CYZICUS
  CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD           CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN
  CURLING                           CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE
  CURLL, EDMUND                     CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL
  CURRAGH                           CZECH
  CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT              CZENSTOCHOWA
  CURRANT                           CZERNOWITZ
  CURRICLE                          CZERNY, KARL
  CURRIE, SIR DONALD                D
  CURRIE, JAMES                     DACCA
  CURRY                             DACE
  CURSOR, LUCIUS PAPIRIUS           DACH, SIMON
  CURSOR MUNDI                      DACIA
  CURTAIN                           DACIER, ANDRE
  CURTANA                           DACITE
  CURTEA DE ARGESH                  DACOIT
  CURTESY                           DA COSTA, ISAAK
  CURTILAGE                         DACTYL
  CURTIN ANDREW GREGG               DAEDALUS
  CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR            DAFFODIL
  CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM            DAFYDD AB GWILYM
  CURTIUS, ERNST                    DAGGER
  CURTIUS, MARCUS                   DAGHESTAN
  CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS            DAGO
  CURULE                            DAGOBERT I.
  CURVE                             DAGON
  CURVILINEAR                       DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDE
  CURWEN, HUGH




CUBE (Gr. [Greek: kubos], a cube), in geometry, a solid bounded by six
equal squares, so placed that the angle between any pair of adjacent
faces is a right angle. This solid played an all-important part in the
geometry and cosmology of the Greeks. Plato (_Timaeus_) described the
figure in the following terms:--"The isosceles triangle which has its
vertical angle a right angle ... combined in sets of four, with the
right angles meeting at the centre, form a single square. Six of these
squares joined together formed eight solid angles, each produced by
three plane right angles: and the shape of the body thus formed was
cubical, having six square planes for its surfaces." In his cosmology
Plato assigned this solid to "earth," for "'earth' is the least mobile
of the four (elements--'fire,' 'water,' 'air' and 'earth') and most
plastic of bodies: and that substance must possess this nature in the
highest degree which has its bases most stable." The mensuration of the
cube, and its relations to other geometrical solids are treated in the
article POLYHEDRON; in the same article are treated the Archimedean
solids, the truncated and snub-cube; reference should be made to the
article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY for its significance as a crystal form.

A famous problem concerning the cube, namely, to construct a cube of
twice the volume of a given cube, was attacked with great vigour by the
Pythagoreans, Sophists and Platonists. It became known as the "Delian
problem" or the "problem of the duplication of the cube," and ranks in
historical importance with the problems of "trisecting an angle" and
"squaring the circle." The origin of the problem is open to conjecture.
The Pythagorean discovery of "squaring a square," i.e. constructing a
square of twice the area of a given square (which follows as a corollary
to the Pythagorean property of a right-angled triangle, viz. the square
of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares on the sides), may have
suggested the strictly analogous problem of doubling a cube.
Eratosthenes (c. 200 B.C.), however, gives a picturesque origin to the
problem. In a letter to Ptolemy Euergetes he narrates the history of the
problem. The Delians, suffering a dire pestilence, consulted their
oracles, and were ordered to double the volume of the altar to their
tutelary god, Apollo. An altar was built having an edge double the
length of the original; but the plague was unabated, the oracles not
having been obeyed. The error was discovered, and the Delians applied to
Plato for his advice, and Plato referred them to Eudoxus. This story is
mere fable, for the problem is far older than Plato.

Hippocrates of Chios (c. 430 B.C.), the discoverer of the square of a
lune, showed that the problem reduced to the determination of two mean
proportionals between two given lines, one of them being twice the
length of the other. Algebraically expressed, if x and y be the required
mean proportionals and a, 2a, the lines, we have a : x :: x : y :: y :
2a, from which it follows that x^3 = 2a^3. Although Hippocrates could not
determine the proportionals, his statement of the problem in this form
was a great advance, for it was perceived that the problem of trisecting
an angle was reducible to a similar form which, in the language of
algebraic geometry, is to solve geometrically a cubic equation.
According to Proclus, a man named Hippias, probably Hippias of Elis (c.
460 B.C.), trisected an angle with a mechanical curve, named the
quadratrix (q.v.). Archytas of Tarentum (c. 430 B.C.) solved the
problems by means of sections of a half cylinder; according to Eutocius,
Menaechmus solved them by means of the intersections of conic sections;
and Eudoxus also gave a solution.

All these solutions were condemned by Plato on the ground that they were
mechanical and not geometrical, i.e. they were not effected by means of
circles and lines. However, no proper geometrical solution, in Plato's
sense, was obtained; in fact it is now generally agreed that, with such
a restriction, the problem is insoluble. The pursuit of mechanical
methods furnished a stimulus to the study of mechanical loci, for
example, the locus of a point carried on a rod which is caused to move
according to a definite rule. Thus Nicomedes invented the conchoid
(q.v.); Diocles the cissoid (q.v.); Dinostratus studied the quadratrix
invented by Hippias; all these curves furnished solutions, as is also
the case with the trisectrix, a special form of Pascal's limacon (q.v.).
These problems were also attacked by the Arabian mathematicians; Tobit
ben Korra (836-901) is credited with a solution, while Abul Gud solved
it by means of a parabola and an equilateral hyperbola.

In algebra, the "cube" of a quantity is the quantity multiplied by
itself twice, i.e. if a be the quantity a X a X a (= a^3) is its cube.
Similarly the "cube root" of a quantity is another quantity which when
multiplied by itself twice gives the original quantity; thus a^(1/3) is
the cube root of a (see ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA). A "cubic equation" is
one in which the highest power of the unknown is the cube (see
EQUATION); similarly, a "cubic curve" has an equation containing no term
of a power higher than the third, the powers of a compound term being
added together.

In mensuration, "cubature" is sometimes used to denote the volume of a
solid; the word is parallel with "quadrature," to determine the area of
a surface (see MENSURATION; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).




CUBEBS (Arab. _kababah_), the fruit of several species of pepper
(_Piper_), belonging to the natural order Piperaceae. The cubebs of
pharmacy are produced by _Piper Cubeba_, a climbing woody shrub
indigenous to south Borneo, Sumatra, Prince of Wales Island and Java. It
has round, ash-coloured, smooth branches; lanceolate, or ovate-oblong,
somewhat leathery, shining leaves, 4 to 6(1/2) in. long and 1(1/2) to 2
in. broad. Male and female flowers are borne on distinct plants. The
fruits are small, globose, about 1/5 in. in diameter, and not so large
as white pepper; their contracted stalk-like bases are between 1/3 and
1/2 in. in length; and from forty to fifty of them are borne upon a
common stem. The cubeb is cultivated in Java and Sumatra, the fruits are
gathered before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubebs
consist of the dried berries, usually with their stalks attached; the
pericarp is greyish-brown, or blackish and wrinkled; and the seed, when
present, is hard, white and oily. The odour of cubebs is agreeable and
aromatic; the taste, pungent, acrid, slightly bitter and persistent.
About 15% of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water;
after rectification with water, or on keeping, this deposits rhombic
crystals of camphor of cubebs, C15H26O; cubebene, the liquid portion,
has the formula C15H24. Cubebin, CH2[O]2C6H3.CH:CH.CH2OH, is a
crystalline substance existing in cubebs, discovered by Eugene Soubeiran
and Capitaine in 1839; it may be prepared from cubebene, or from the
pulp left after the distillation of the oil. The drug, along with gum,
fatty oils, and malates of magnesium and calcium, contains also about 1%
of cubebic acid, and about 6% of a resin.

The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains, and the British Pharmacopoeia
contains a tincture with a dose of 1/2 to 1 drachm. The volatile
oil--oleum cubebae--is also official, and is the form in which this drug
is most commonly used, the dose being 5 to 20 minims, which may be
suspended in mucilage or given after meals in a cachet. The drug has the
typical actions of a volatile oil, but exerts some of them in an
exceptional degree. Thus it is liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in
the course of its excretion by the skin; it has a marked diuretic
action; and it is a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary
passages. Its administration causes the appearance in the urine of a
salt of cubebic acid which is precipitated by heat or nitric acid, and
is therefore liable to be mistaken for albumin, when these two most
common tests for the occurrence of albuminuria are applied. Cubebs is
frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma, chronic
pharyngitis and hay-fever. A small percentage of cubebs is also commonly
included in lozenges designed for use in bronchitis, in which the
antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug are useful. But the
most important therapeutic application of this drug is in gonorrhoea,
where its antiseptic action is of much value. As compared with copaiba
in this connexion cubebs has the advantages of being less disagreeable
to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in
prolonged administration. The introduction of the drug into medicine is
supposed to have been due to the Arabian physicians in the middle ages.
Cubebs were formerly candied and eaten whole, or used ground as a
seasoning for meat. Their modern employment in England as a drug dates
from 1815. "Cubebae" were purchased in 1284 and 1285 by Lord Clare at
2s. 3d. and 2s. 9d. per lb. respectively; and in 1307 1 lb. for the
king's wardrobe cost 9s., a sum representing about L3, 12s. in present
value (Rogers, _Hist. of Agriculture and Prices_, i. 627-628, ii. 544).

A closely allied species, _Piper Clusii_, produces the African cubebs or
West African black-pepper, the berry of which is smoother than that of
common cubebs and usually has a curved pedicel. In the 14th century it
was imported into Europe from the Grain Coast, under the name of pepper,
by merchants of Rouen and Lippe.




CUBICLE (Lat. _cubiculum_), a small chamber containing a couch or a bed.
The small rooms opening into the atrium of a Pompeian house are known as
cubicula. In modern English schools "cubicle" is the term given to the
separate small bedrooms into which the dormitories are divided, as
opposed to the system of large open dormitories.




CUBITT, THOMAS (1788-1855), English builder, was born at Buxton, near
Norwich, on the 25th of February 1788. Few men have exhibited greater
self-reliance in early life in the pursuit of a successful career. In
his nineteenth year, when he was working as a journeyman carpenter, his
father died, and he tried to better his position by going on a voyage to
India, as captain's joiner. He returned to London, two years after, in
the possession of a small capital, and began business as a carpenter.
The growth of his establishment was steady and rapid. He was one of the
first to combine several trades in a "builder's" business; and this very
much increased his success. One of the earlier works which gave him
reputation was the London Institution in Finsbury Circus; but it is from
1824 that the vast building operations date which identify his name with
many splendid ranges of London houses, such as Tavistock, Gordon,
Belgrave and Lowndes Squares, and the district of South Belgravia. While
these and similar extensive operations were in progress, a financial
panic, which proved ruinous to many, was surmounted in his case by a
determined spirit and his integrity of character. He took great interest
in sanitary measures, and published, for private circulation, a pamphlet
on the general drainage of London, the substance of which was afterwards
embodied in a letter to _The Times_; the plan he advocated was
subsequently adopted by the conveyance of the sewage matter some
distance below London. He advocated the provision of open spaces in the
environs of London as places of public recreation, and was one of the
originators of Battersea Park, the first of the people's parks. At a
late period he received professionally the recognition of royalty, the
palace at Osborne being erected after his designs, and under his
superintendence; and in the _Life of the Prince Consort_ he is described
by Queen Victoria as one "than whom a better and kinder man did not
exist." In 1851, although he was not identified with the management of
the Great Exhibition, he showed the warmest sympathy with its objects,
and aided its projectors in many ways, especially in the profitable
investment of their surplus funds. Cubitt, when he rose to be a
capitalist, never forgot the interests and well-being of his workpeople.
He was elected president of the Builders' Society some time before his
death, which took place at his seat Denbies, near Dorking, on the 20th
of December 1855.

His son, George Cubitt (1828-   ), who had a long and useful
parliamentary career, as Conservative member for West Surrey (1860-1865)
and Mid-Surrey (1885-1892), was in 1892 raised to the peerage as Baron
Ashcombe.




CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM (1785-1861), English engineer, was born in 1785 at
Dilham in Norfolk, where his father was a miller. After serving an
apprenticeship of four years (1800-1804) as a joiner and cabinetmaker at
Stalham, he became associated with an agricultural-machine maker, named
Cook, who resided at Swanton. In 1807 he patented self-regulating sails
for windmills, and in 1812 he entered the works of Messrs Ransome of
Ipswich, where he soon became chief engineer, and ultimately a partner.
Meanwhile, the subject of the employment of criminals had been much in
his thoughts; and the result was his introduction of the treadmill about
1818. In 1826 he removed to London, where he gained a very large
practice as a civil engineer. Among his works were the Oxford canal, the
Birmingham & Liverpool Junction Canal, the improvement of the river
Severn, the Bute docks at Cardiff, the Black Sluice drainage and its
outfall sluice at Boston harbour, the Middlesborough docks and coal
drops in the Tees, and the South-Eastern railway, of which he was chief
engineer. The Hanoverian government consulted him about the harbour and
docks at Harburg; the water-works of the city of Berlin were constructed
under his immediate superintendence; he was asked to report on the
construction of the Paris & Lyons railway; and he was consulting
engineer for the line from Boulogne to Amiens. Among his later works
were two floating landing stages at Liverpool, and the bridge for
carrying the London turnpike across the Medway at Rochester. In 1851,
when he was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers, he was
knighted for his services in connexion with the buildings erected in
Hyde Park for the exhibition of that year. He retired from active work
in 1858, and died on the 13th of October 1861 at his house on Clapham
Common, London. His son, Joseph Cubitt (1811-1872), was trained under
him, and was engineer of various railways, including the Great Northern,
London, Chatham & Dover, and part of the London & South-Western.




CUCHULINN (_Cuchulinn_; pronounced "Coohoollin"), the chief warrior in
the Conchobar-Cuchulinn or older heroic (Ulster) cycle of Ireland. The
story of his origin is very obscure. The god Lug is represented as
having been swallowed in a draught of wine by his mother Dechtire,
sister of Conchobar, who was king of Ulster. But it is not unlikely that
this story was invented to supersede the account of the incestuous union
of Conchobar with his sister, which seems to be hinted at on various
occasions. Usually, however, he is styled son of Sualdam, an Ulster
warrior who plays a very inferior part in the cycle. His earliest name
was Setanta, and he was brought up at Dun Imbrith (Louth). When he was
six years of age he announced his intention of going to Conchobar's
court at Emain Macha (Navan Rath near Armagh) to play with the boys
there. He defeats all the boys in marvellous fashion and is received as
one of their number. Shortly after he kills Culann, the smith's hound, a
huge watch-dog. The smith laments that all his property is of no value
now that his watchman is slain, whereupon the young hero offers to guard
his domains until a whelp of the hound's has grown. From this the boy
received the name of Cu Chulinn or Culann's Hound. The next year
Cuchulinn receives arms, makes his first foray, and slays the three sons
of Necht, redoubtable hereditary foes of the Ulstermen, in the plain of
Meath. The men of Ulster decide that Cuchulinn must marry, as all the
women of Ireland are in love with him. Chosen envoys fail to find a
bride worthy of him after a year's search, but the hero goes straight to
Emer, the daughter of Forgall the Wily, at Lusk (county Dublin). The
lady is promised to him if he will go to learn chivalry of Domnall the
Soldierly and the amazon Scathach in Alba. After enduring great
hardships he goes through the course and leaves a son Connlaech behind
in Scotland by another amazon, Aife. On his return he carries off and
weds Emer. He is represented as living at Dun Delgan (Dundalk). The
greatest of all the hero's achievements was the defence of the frontier
of Ulster against the forces of Medb, queen of Connaught, who had come
to carry off the famous Brown Bull of Cualnge (Cooley). The men of
Ulster were all suffering from a strange debility, and Cuchulinn had to
undertake the defence single-handed from November to February. This was
when he was seventeen years of age. The cycle contains a large number of
episodes, such as the gaining of the champion's portion and the tragical
death by the warrior's hand of his own son Connlaech. When he was
twenty-seven he met with his end at the hands of Lugaid, son of Curoi
MacDaire, the famous Munster warrior, and the children of Calatin Dana,
in revenge for their father's death (see CELT: _Irish Literature_).

Medieval Christian synchronists make Cuchulinn's death take place about
the beginning of the Christian era. It is not necessary to regard
Cuchulinn as a form of the solar hero, as some writers have done. Most,
if not all, of his wonderful attributes may be ascribed to the Irish
predilection for the grotesque. It is true that Cuchulinn seems to stand
in a special relation to the Tuatha De Danann leader, the god Lug, but
in primitive societies there is always a tendency to ascribe a divine
parentage to men who stand out pre-eminently in prowess beyond their
fellows.

  See A. Nutt, _Cuchulainn, the Irish Achilles_ (London, 1900); E. Hull,
  _The Cuchullin Saga_ (London, 1898).     (E. C. Q.)




CUCKOO, or CUCKOW, as the word was formerly spelt, the common name of a
well-known and often-heard bird, the _Cuculus canorus_ of Linnaeus. In
some parts of the United Kingdom it is more frequently called gowk, and
it is the Gr. _[Greek: kokkux]_, the Ital. _cuculo_ or _cucco_, the Fr.
_coucou_, the Ger. _Kuckuk_, the Dutch _koekkoek_, the Dan. _kukker_ or
_gjog_, and the Swed. _gok._ The oldest English spelling of the name
seems to have been _cuccu_.

No single bird has perhaps so much occupied the attention both of
naturalists and of those who are not naturalists, or has had so much
written about it, as the common cuckoo, and of no bird perhaps have more
idle tales been told. Its strange and, according to the experience of
most people, its singular habit of entrusting its offspring to
foster-parents is enough to account for much of the interest which has
been so long felt in its history; but this habit is shared probably by
many of its Old World relatives, as well as in the New World by birds
which are not in any degree related to it. The cuckoo is a summer
visitant to the whole of Europe, reaching even far within the Arctic
circle, and crossing the Mediterranean from its winter quarters in
Africa at the end of March or beginning of April. Its arrival is at once
proclaimed by the peculiar and in nearly all languages onomatopoeic cry
of the cock--a true song in the technical sense of the word, since it is
confined to the male sex and to the season of love. In a few days the
cock is followed by the hen, and amorous contests between keen and
loud-voiced suitors are to be commonly noticed, until the respective
pretensions of the rivals are decided. Even by night they are not
silent; but as the season advances the song is less frequently heard,
and the cuckoo seems rather to avoid observation as much as possible,
the more so since whenever it shows itself it is a signal for all the
small birds of the neighbourhood to be up in its pursuit, just as though
it were a hawk, to which indeed its mode of flight and general
appearance give it an undoubted resemblance--a resemblance that misleads
some into confounding it with the birds of prey, instead of recognizing
it as a harmless if not a beneficial destroyer of hairy caterpillars.
Thus pass away some weeks. Towards the middle or end of June its
"plain-song" cry alters; it becomes rather hoarser in tone, and its
first syllable or note is doubled. Soon after it is no longer heard at
all, and by the middle of July an old cuckoo is seldom to be found in
the British Islands, though a stray example, or even, but very rarely,
two or three in company, may occasionally be seen for a month longer. Of
its breeding comparatively few have any personal experience. Yet a
diligent search for and peering into the nests of several of the
commonest little birds--more especially the pied wagtail (_Motacilla
lugubris_), the titlark (_Anthus pratensis_), the reed-wren
(_Acrocephalus streperus_), and the hedge-sparrow (_Accentor
modularis_)--will be rewarded by the discovery of the egg of the
mysterious stranger which has been surreptitiously introduced, and those
who wait till this egg is hatched may be witnesses (as was Edward Jenner
in the 18th century) of the murderous eviction of the rightful tenants
of the nest by the intruder, who, hoisting them one after another on his
broad back, heaves them over to die neglected by their own parents, of
whose solicitous care he thus becomes the only object. In this manner he
thrives, and, so long as he remains in the country of his birth his
wants are anxiously supplied by the victims of his mother's dupery. The
actions of his foster-parents become, when he is full grown, almost
ludicrous, for they often have to perch between his shoulders to place
in his gaping mouth the delicate morsels he is too indolent or too
stupid to take from their bills. Early in September he begins to shift
for himself, and then follows the seniors of his kin to more southern
climes.

So much caution is used by the hen cuckoo in choosing a nest in which to
deposit her egg that the act of insertion has been but seldom witnessed.
The nest selected is moreover often so situated, or so built, that it
would be an absolute impossibility for a bird of her size to lay her egg
therein by sitting upon the fabric as birds commonly do; and there have
been a few fortunate observers who have actually seen the deposition of
the egg upon the ground by the cuckoo, who, then taking it in her bill,
introduces it into the nest. Of these, the earliest in Great Britain
seem to have been two Scottish lads, sons of Mr Tripeny, a farmer in
Coxmuir, who, as recorded by Macgillivray (_Brit. Birds_, iii. 130, 131)
from information communicated to him by Mr Durham Weir, saw most part of
the operation performed, June 24, 1838. But perhaps the most
satisfactory evidence on the point is that of Adolf Muller, a forester
at Gladenbach in Darmstadt, who says (_Zoolog. Garten_, 1866, pp. 374,
375) that through a telescope he watched a cuckoo as she laid her egg on
a bank, and then conveyed the egg in her bill to a wagtail's nest.
Cuckoos, too, have been not unfrequently shot as they were carrying a
cuckoo's egg, presumably their own, in their bill, and this has probably
given rise to the vulgar, but seemingly groundless, belief that they
suck the eggs of other kinds of birds. More than this, Mr G. D. Rowley,
who had much experience of cuckoos, declares (_Ibis_, 1865, p. 186) his
opinion to be that traces of violence and of a scuffle between the
intruder and the owners of the nest at the time of introducing the egg
often appear, whence we are led to suppose that the cuckoo ordinarily,
when inserting her egg, excites the fury (already stimulated by her
hawk-like appearance) of the owners of the nest by turning out one or
more of the eggs that may be already laid therein, and thus induces the
dupe to brood all the more readily and more strongly what is left to
her. Of the assertion that the cuckoo herself takes any interest in the
future welfare of the egg she has foisted on her victim, or of its
product, there is no good evidence.

But a much more curious assertion has also been made, and one that at
first sight appears so incomprehensible as to cause little surprise at
the neglect it long encountered. To this currency was first given by
Salerne (_L'Hist. nat._ &c., Paris, 1767, p. 42), who was, however,
hardly a believer in it, and it is to the effect, as he was told by an
inhabitant of Sologne, that the egg of a cuckoo resembles in colour that
of the eggs normally laid by the kind of bird in whose nest it is
placed. In 1853 the same notion was prominently and independently
brought forward by Dr A. C. E. Baldamus (_Naumannia_, 1853, pp.
307-325), and in time became known to English ornithologists, most of
whom were naturally sceptical as to its truth, since no likeness
whatever is ordinarily apparent in the very familiar case of the
blue-green egg of the hedge-sparrow and that of the cuckoo, which is so
often found beside it.[1] Dr Baldamus based his notion on a series of
eggs in his cabinet,[2] a selection from which he figured in
illustration of his paper, and, however the thing may be accounted for,
it seems impossible to resist, save on one supposition, the force of the
testimony these specimens afford. This one supposition is that the eggs
have been wrongly ascribed to the cuckoo, and that they are only
exceptionally large examples of the eggs of the birds in the nests of
which they were found, for it cannot be gainsaid that some such abnormal
examples are occasionally to be met with. But it is well known that
abnormally large eggs are not only often deficient in depth of colour,
but still more often in stoutness of shell. Applying these rough
criteria to Dr Baldamus's series, most of the specimens stood the test
very well.

There are some other considerations to be urged. For instance, Herr
Braune, a forester at Greiz in the principality of Reuss (_Naumannia,
tom. cit._ pp. 307, 313), shot a hen cuckoo as she was leaving the nest
of an icterine warbler (_Hypolais icterina_). In the oviduct of this
cuckoo he found an egg coloured very like that of the warbler, and on
looking into the nest he found there an exactly similar egg, which there
can be no reasonable doubt had just been laid by that very cuckoo.
Moreover, Herr Grunack (_Journ. fur Orn._, 1873, p. 454) afterwards
found one of the most abnormally coloured specimens, quite unlike the
ordinary egg of the cuckoo, to contain an embryo so fully formed as to
show the characteristic zygodactyl feet of the bird, thus proving
unquestionably its parentage.

On the other hand, we must bear in mind the numerous instances in which
not the least similarity can be traced--as in the not uncommon case of
the hedge-sparrow already mentioned, and if we attempt any explanatory
hypothesis it must be one that will fit all round. Such an explanation
seems to be this. We know that certain kinds of birds resent
interference with their nests much less than others, and among them it
may be asserted that the hedge-sparrow will patiently submit to various
experiments. She will brood with complacency the egg of a redbreast
(_Erithacus rubecula_), so unlike her own, and for aught we know to the
contrary may even be colour-blind. In the case of such a species there
would be no need of anything further to ensure success--the terror of
the nest-owner at seeing her home invaded by a hawk-like giant, and some
of her treasures tossed out, would be enough to stir her motherly
feelings so deeply that she would without misgiving, if not with joy
that something had been spared to her, resume the duty of incubation so
soon as the danger was past. But with other species it may be, and
doubtless is, different. Here assimilation of the introduced egg to
those of the rightful owner may be necessary, for there can hardly be a
doubt as to the truth of Dr Baldamus's theory as to the object of the
assimilation being to render the cuckoo's egg "less easily recognized by
the foster-parents as a substituted one." It is especially desirable to
point out that there is not the slightest ground for imagining that the
cuckoo, or any other bird, can voluntarily influence the colour of the
egg she is about to lay. Over that she can have no control, but its
destination she can determine. It would seem also impossible that a
cuckoo, having laid an egg, should look at it, and then decide from its
appearance in what bird's nest she should put it. That the colour of an
egg-shell can be in some mysterious way affected by the action of
external objects on the perceptive faculties of the mother is a notion
too wild to be seriously entertained. Consequently, only one explanation
of the facts can here be suggested. Every one who has sufficiently
studied the habits of animals will admit the influence of heredity. That
there is a reasonable probability of each cuckoo most commonly putting
her eggs in the nest of the same species of bird, and of this habit
being transmitted to her posterity, does not seem to be a very violent
supposition. Without attributing any wonderful sagacity to her, it does
not seem unlikely that the cuckoo which had once successfully foisted
her egg on a reed-wren or a titlark should again seek for another
reed-wren's or another titlark's nest (as the case may be), when she had
another egg to dispose of, and that she should continue her practice
from one season to another. It stands on record (_Zoologist_, 1873, p.
3648) that a pair of wagtails built their nest for eight or nine years
running in almost exactly the same spot, and that in each of those years
they fostered a young cuckoo, while many other cases of like kind,
though not perhaps established on so good authority, are believed to
have happened. Such a habit could hardly fail to become hereditary, so
that the daughter of a cuckoo which always put her egg into a
reed-wren's, titlark's or wagtail's nest would do as did her mother.
Furthermore it is unquestionable that, whatever variation there may be
among the eggs laid by different individuals of the same species, there
is a strong family likeness between the eggs laid by the same
individual, even at the interval of many years, and it can hardly be
questioned that the eggs of the daughter would more or less resemble
those of her mother. Hence the supposition may be fairly credited that
the habit of laying a particular style of egg is also likely to become
hereditary. Combining this supposition with that as to the cuckoo's
habit of using the nest of the same species becoming hereditary, it will
be seen that it requires only an application of the principle of natural
selection to show the probability of this principle operating in the
course of time to produce the facts asserted by the anonymous Solognot
of the 18th century, and by Dr Baldamus and others since. The particular
_gens_ of cuckoo which inherited and transmitted the habit of depositing
in the nest of any particular species of bird eggs having more or less
resemblance to the eggs of that species would prosper most in those
members of the _gens_ where the likeness was strongest, and the other
members would (_ceteris paribus_) in time be eliminated. As already
shown, it is not to be supposed that all species, or even all
individuals of a species, are duped with equal ease. The operation of
this kind of natural selection would be most needed in those cases where
the species are not easily duped--that is, in those cases which occur
the least frequently. Here it is we find it, for observation shows that
eggs of the cuckoo deposited in nests of the red-backed shrike (_Lanius
collurio_), of the bunting (_Emberiza miliaria_), and of the icterine
warbler approximate in their colouring to eggs of those species--species
in whose nests the cuckoo rarely (in comparison with others) deposits
eggs. Of species which are more easily duped, such as the hedge-sparrow,
mention has already been made.

More or less nearly allied to the British cuckoo are many other forms of
the genus from various parts of Africa, Asia and their islands, while
one even reaches Australia. In some cases the chief difference is said
to lie in the diversity of voice--a character only to be appreciated by
those acquainted with the living birds, and though of course some regard
should be paid to this distinction, the possibility of birds using
different "dialects" according to the locality they inhabit must make it
a slender specific diagnostic. All these forms are believed to have
essentially the same habits as the British cuckoo, and, as regards
parasitism the same is to be said of the large cuckoo of southern Europe
and North Africa (_Coccystes glandarius_), which victimizes pies (_Pica
mauritanica_ and _Cyanopica cooki_) and crows (_Corvus cornix_). True it
is that an instance of this species, commonly known as the great spotted
cuckoo, having built a nest and hatched its young, is on record, but the
later observations of others tend to cast doubt on the credibility of
the ancient report. It is worthy of remark that the eggs of this bird so
closely resemble those of one of the pies in whose nest they have been
found, that even expert zoologists have been deceived by them, only to
discover the truth when the cuckoo's embryo had been extracted from the
supposed pie's egg. This species of cuckoo, easily distinguishable by
its large size and long crest, has more than once made its appearance as
a straggler in the British Isles. Equally parasitic are many other
cuckoos, belonging chiefly to genera which have been more or less
clearly defined as _Cacomantis_, _Chrysococcyx_, _Eudynamis_,
_Oxylophus_, _Polyphasia_ and _Surniculus_, and inhabiting parts of the
Ethiopian, Indian and Australian regions;[3] but there are certain
aberrant forms of Old World cuckoos which unquestionably do not shirk
parental responsibilities. Among these especially are the birds placed
in or allied to the genera _Centropus_ and _Coua_--the former having a
wide distribution from Egypt to New South Wales, living much on the
ground and commonly called lark-heeled cuckoos; the latter bearing no
English name, and limited to the island of Madagascar. These build a
nest, not perhaps in a highly finished style of architecture, but one
that serves its end.

Respecting the cuckoos of America, the evidence, though it has been
impugned, is certainly enough to clear them from the charge which
attaches to so many of their brethren of the Old World. There are two
species very well known in parts of the United States and some of the
West Indian Islands (_Coccyzus Americanus_ and _C. erythrophthalmus_),
and each of them has occasionally visited Europe. They both build
nests--remarkably small structures when compared with those of other
birds of their size--and faithfully incubate their delicate sea-green
eggs. In the south-western states of the Union and thence into Central
America is found another curious form of cuckoo (_Geococcyx_)--the
chaparral-cock of northern and paisano of southern settlers. The first
of these names it takes from the low brushwood (_chaparral_) in which it
chiefly dwells, and the second is said to be due to its pheasant-like
(_faisan_ corrupted into _paisano_, properly a countryman) appearance as
it runs on the ground. Indeed, one of the two species of the genus was
formerly described as a _Phasianus_. They both have short wings, and
seem never to fly, but run with great rapidity. Returning to arboreal
forms, the genera _Neomorphus_, _Diplopterus_, _Saurothera_ and _Piaya_
(the last two commonly called rain-birds, from the belief that their cry
portends rain) may be noticed--all of them belonging to the Neotropical
region; but perhaps the most curious form of American cuckoos is the ani
(_Crotophaga_), of which three species inhabit the same region. The
best-known species (_C. ani_) is found throughout the Antilles and on
the opposite continent. In most of the British colonies it is known as
the black witch, and is accused of various malpractices--it being, in
truth, a perfectly harmless if not a beneficial bird. As regards its
propagation this aberrant form of cuckoo departs in one direction from
the normal habit of birds, for several females, unite to lay their eggs
in one nest. It is evident that incubation is carried on socially, since
an intruder on approaching the rude nest will disturb perhaps half a
dozen of its sable proprietors, who, loudly complaining, seek safety
either in the leafy branches of the tree that holds it, or in the
nearest available covert, with all the speed that their feeble powers of
flight permit.     (A. N.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] An instance to the contrary has been recorded by Mr A. C. Smith
    (_Zoologist_, 1873, p. 3516) on Mr Brine's authority.

  [2] This series was seen in 1861 by the writer.

  [3] Evidence tends to show that the same is to be said of the curious
    channel-bill (_Scythrops novae-hollandiae_), though absolute proof
    seems to be wanting.




CUCKOO-SPIT, a frothy secretion found upon plants, and produced by the
immature nymphal stage of various plant-lice of the familiar
_Cercopidae_ and _Jassidae_, belonging to the homopterous division of
the Hemiptera, which in the adult condition are sometimes called
frog-hoppers.




CUCUMBER (_Cucumis sativus_, Fr. _concombre_, O. Fr. _coucombre_, whence
the older English spelling and pronunciation "cowcumber," the standard
in England up to the beginning of the 18th century), a creeping plant of
the natural order Cucurbitaceae. It is widely cultivated, and originated
probably in northern India, where Alphonse de Candolle affirms (_Origin
of Cultivated Plants_) that it has been cultivated for at least three
thousand years. It spread westward to Europe and was cultivated by the
ancient Greeks under the name [Greek: sikuos]; it did not reach China
until two hundred years before the Christian era. It is an annual with a
rough succulent trailing stem and stalked hairy leaves with three to
five pointed lobes; the stem bears branched tendrils by means of which
the plant can be trained to supports. The short-stalked, bell-shaped
flowers are unisexual, but staminate and pistillate are borne on the
same plant; the latter are recognized by the swollen warty green ovary
below the rest of the flower. The ovary develops into the "cucumber"
without fertilization, and unless seeds are wanted, it is advisable to
pinch off the male flowers.

There are a great many varieties of cucumber in cultivation, which may
be grouped under the two headings (1) forcing, (2) field varieties.

1. The former are large-leaved strong-growing plants, not suited to
outdoor culture, with long smooth-rinded fruit; there are many excellent
varieties such as Telegraph, Sion House, duke of Edinburgh, &c. The
plants are grown in a hot-bed which is prepared towards the end of
February from rich stable manure, leaves, &c. A rich turfy loam with a
little well-decomposed stable manure forms a good soil. The seeds are
sown singly in rich, sandy soil in small pots early in February and
plunged in a bottom heat. After they have made one or two foliage-leaves
the seedlings are transferred to larger pots, and ultimately about the
middle of March to the hot-bed. Each plant is placed in the centre of a
mound of soil about a foot deep and well watered with tepid water. The
plants should be well watered during their growing period, and the
foliage sprinkled or syringed two or three times a day. In bright
sunshine the plants are lightly shaded. When grown in frames the tops of
the main stems are pinched off when the stems are about 2 ft. long; this
causes the development of side shoots on which fruits are borne. When
these have produced one or two fruits, they are also stopped at the
joint beyond the fruit. When grown in greenhouses the vines may be
allowed to reach the full length of the house before they are stopped.
To keep the fruits straight they may be grown in cylindrical glass tubes
about a foot long, or along narrow wooden troughs. If seeds are required
one or more female flowers should be selected and pollen from male
flower placed on their stigmas.

2. The outdoor varieties are known as hill or ridge cucumbers. They may
be grown in any good soil. A warm, sheltered spot with a south aspect
and a mound of rich, sandy loam with a little leaf-mould placed over a
hot-bed of dung and leaves is recommended. The mounds or ridges should
be 4 to 5 ft. apart, and one plant is placed in the centre of each. The
seeds are sown in March in light, rich soil in small pots with gentle
heat. The seedlings are repotted and well hardened for planting out in
June. The plants must be well watered in and, until established, shaded
by a hand-light from bright sunshine. When the leading shoots are from
1(1/2) to 2 ft. long the tips are pinched off to induce the formation of
fruit-bearing side-shoots. If seed is required a pistillate flower is
selected and pollinated. There are numerous varieties distinguished by
size and the smooth or prickly rind. King of the Ridge has smooth fruits
a foot or more long; gherkin, a short, prickly form, is much used for
pickling.

Cucumber is subject to the attacks of green fly, red spider and thrips;
for the two latter, infected leaves should be sponged with soapy water;
for green fly careful fumigating is necessary.

The Sikkim cucumber, _C. sativus var. sikkimensis_, is a large fruited
form, reaching 15 in. long by 6 in. thick, grown in the Himalayas of
Sikkim and Nepal. It was discovered by Sir Joseph Hooker in the eastern
Himalayas in 1848. He says "so abundant were the fruits, that for days
together I saw gnawed fruits lying by the natives' paths by thousands,
and every man, woman and child seemed engaged throughout the day in
devouring them." The fruit is reddish-brown, marked with yellow, and is
eaten both raw and cooked.

The West India gherkin is _Cucumis Anguria_, a plant with small, slender
vines, and very abundant small ellipsoid green fruit covered with warts
and spines. It is used for pickling.

Cucumbers were much esteemed by the ancients. According to Pliny, the
emperor Tiberius was supplied with them daily, both in summer and
winter. The kishuim or cucumbers of the scriptures (Num. xi. 5; Isa. i.
8) were probably a wild form of _C. Melo_, the melon, a plant common in
Egypt, where a drink is prepared from the ripe fruit. Peter Forskal, one
of the early botanical writers on the country, describes its
preparation. The pulp is broken and stirred by means of a stick thrust
through a hole cut at the umbilicus of the fruit; the hole is then
closed with wax, and the fruit, without removing it from its stem, is
buried in a little pit; after some days the pulp is found to be
converted into an agreeable liquor (see _Flora aegyptiaco-arabica_, p.
168, 1775). The squirting cucumber, _Ecballium Elaterium_, the [Greek:
Sikuos agrios] of Theophrastus, furnishes the drug elaterium (q.v.).

  See Naudin in _Annal. des sci. nat._ ser. 4 (Botany), t. xi. (1859);
  G. Nicholson, _Dictionary of Gardening_ (1885); L. H. Bailey,
  _Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture_ (1900).




CUCURBITACEAE, a botanical order of dicotyledons, containing 87 genera
and about 650 species, found in the temperate and warmer parts of the
earth but especially developed in the tropics. The plants are generally
annual herbs, climbing by means of tendrils and having a rapid growth.
The long-stalked leaves are arranged alternately, and are generally
palmately lobed and veined. The flowers or inflorescences are borne in
the leaf-axils, in which a vegetative bud is also found, and at the side
of the leaf-stalk is a simple or branched tendril. There has been much
difference of opinion as to what member or members the tendril
represents; the one which seems most in accordance with facts regards
the tendril as a shoot, the lower portion representing the stem, the
upper twining portion a leaf. The flowers are unisexual, and strikingly
epigynous, the perianth and stamens being attached to a bell-shaped
prolongation of the receptacle above the ovary. The five narrow pointed
sepals are followed by five petals which are generally united to form a
more or less bell-shaped corolla. There are five stamens in the male
flowers; the anthers open towards the outside, are one-celled, with the
pollen-sacs generally curved and variously united. The carpels, normally
three in number, form an ovary with three thick, fleshy, bifid placentas
bearing a large number of ovules on each side, and generally filling the
interior of the ovary with a juicy mass. The short thick style has
generally three branches each bearing a fleshy, usually forked stigma.
The fruit is a fleshy many-seeded berry with a tough rind (known as a
_pepo_), and often attains considerable size. The embryo completely
fills the seed.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Bryonia dioica_, Bryony. 1, part of corolla of
male flower with attached stamens; 2, female flower after removal of
calyx and corolla; 3, berries; 1, 2, 3 about nat. size.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.

  1, Male flower of cucumber (_Cucumis_).
  2, Same, in vertical section, slightly enlarged.
  3, Stamens, after removal of calyx and corolla.
  4, Female flower.
  5, Horizontal plan of male flower.
  6, Transverse section of fruit.

  1 and 4 nat. size.]

The order is represented in Britain by bryony (_Bryonia dioica_), (fig.
1) a hedge-climber, perennial by means of large fleshy tubers which send
up each year a number of slender angular stems. The leaves are
heart-shaped with wavy margined lobes. The flowers are greenish, 1/2 to
3/4 in. in diameter; the fruit, a red several-seeded berry, is about 1/4
in. in diameter.

Many genera are of economic importance; _Cucumis_ (fig. 2) affords
cucumber (q.v.) and melon (q.v.) _Cucurbita_, pumpkin and marrow;
_Citrullus vulgaris_ is water-melon, and _C. Colocynthis_, colocynth;
_Ecballium Elaterium_ (squirting cucumber) is medicinal; _Sechium edule_
(chocho), a tropical American species, is largely cultivated for its
edible fruit; it contains one large seed which germinates in situ.
_Lagenaria_ is the gourd (q.v.). The fruits of _Luffa aegyptiaca_ have a
number of closely netted vascular bundles in the pericarp, forming a
kind of loose felt which supplies the well-known loofah or bath-sponge.




CUDDALORE, a town of British India, in the South Arcot district of
Madras, on the coast 125 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 52,216,
showing an increase of 10% in the decade. It lies low, but is regarded
as exceptionally healthy, and serves as a kind of sanatorium for the
surrounding district. The principal exports are sugar, oil-seeds and
indigo. There are two colleges and two high schools. In the
neighbourhood are the ruins of Fort St David situated on the river
Gadilam, which has as stirring a history as any spot in the Presidency.
As a small fort built by a Hindu merchant it fell into the hands of the
Mahrattas after the capture of Gingi by Sivaji in 1677. From them it was
purchased by the English in 1690, the purchase including not only the
fort but the adjacent towns and villages "within ye randome shott of a
piece of ordnance." A great gun was fired to different points of the
compass and all the country within its range, including the town of
Cuddalore, passed into the possession of the English. The villages thus
obtained are still spoken of as "cannon ball villages." From 1725
onwards the fortifications were greatly strengthened. In 1746 Fort St
David became the British headquarters for the south of India, and
Dupleix' attack was successfully repulsed. Clive was appointed its
governor in 1756; in 1758 the French captured it, but abandoned it two
years later to Sir Eyre Coote. In 1782 they again took it and restored
it sufficiently to withstand a British attack in 1783. In 1785 it
finally passed into British possession.




CUDDAPAH, a town and district of British India, in the Madras
Presidency. The town is 6 m. from the right bank of the river Pennar,
and 161 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901) 16,432. It is now a poor
place, but has some trade in cotton and indigo, and manufactures of
cotton cloth. Hills surround it on three sides, and it has a bad
reputation for unhealthiness.

The DISTRICT OF CUDDAPAH has an area of 8723 sq. m. It is in shape an
irregular parallelogram, divided into two nearly equal parts by the
range of the Eastern Ghats, which intersects it throughout its entire
length. The two tracts thus formed possess totally different features.
The first, which constitutes the north, east and south-east of the
district, is a low-lying plain; while the other, which comprises the
southern and south-western portion, forms a high table-land from 1500 to
2500 ft. above sea-level. The chief river is the Pennar, which enters
the district from Bellary on the west, and flows eastwards into Nellore.
Though a large and broad river, and in the rains containing a great
volume of water, in the hot weather months it dwindles down to an
inconsiderable stream. Its principal tributaries are the Kundaur,
Saglair, Cheyair, and Papagni rivers. One of the most interesting
antiquities in the district is the ancient fort of Gurramkonda. The fort
is supposed to have been built by the Golconda sultans; it stands on a
hill 500 ft. high, three sides of which consist of almost perpendicular
precipices. According to a local legend the name Gurramkonda, meaning
"horse hill," was derived from the fact that a horse was supposed to be
guardian of the fort and that the place was impregnable so long as the
horse remained there. The story goes that a Mahratta chief at length
succeeded in scaling the precipice and in carrying off the horse, and
although the thief was captured before reaching the base of the hill,
the spell was broken and the fort, when next attacked, fell. The
population of the district in 1901 was 1,291,267. The principal crops
are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and
indigo. The two last are largely exported. There are several steam
factories for pressing cotton, and indigo vats. The district is served
by lines of the Madras and the South Indian railways.




CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688), English philosopher, was born at Aller,
Somersetshire, the son of Dr Ralph Cudworth (d. 1624), rector of Aller,
formerly fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. His father died in 1624,
and his mother then married the Rev. Dr Stoughton, who gave the boy a
good home education. Cudworth was sent to his father's college, was
elected fellow in 1639, and became a successful tutor. In 1642 he
published _A Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lord's Supper_,
and a tract entitled _The Union of Christ and the Church_. In 1645 he
was appointed master of Clare Hall and the same year was elected Regius
professor of Hebrew. He was now recognized as a leader among the
remarkable group known as the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.). The whole
party were more or less in sympathy with the Commonwealth, and Cudworth
was consulted by John Thurloe, Cromwell's secretary of state, in regard
to university and government appointments. His sermons, such as that
preached before the House of Commons, on the 31st of March 1647,
advocate principles of religious toleration and charity. In 1650 he was
presented to the college living of North Cadbury, Somerset. From the
diary of his friend John Worthington we learn that Cudworth was nearly
compelled, through poverty, to leave the university, but in 1654 he was
elected master of Christ's College, whereupon he married. On the
Restoration he contributed some Hebrew verses to the _Academiae
Cantabrigiensis_ [Greek: Sostra], a congratulatory volume addressed to
the king. In 1662 he was presented to the rectory of Ashwell, Herts. In
1665 he almost quarrelled with his fellow-Platonist, Henry More, because
the latter had written an ethical work which Cudworth feared would
interfere with his own long-contemplated treatise on the same subject.
To avoid clashing, More brought out his book, the _Enchiridion ethicum_,
in Latin; Cudworth's never appeared. In 1678 he published _The True
Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the
reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility
demonstrated_ (imprimatur dated 1671). No more was published, perhaps
because of the theological clamour raised against this first part.
Cudworth was installed prebendary of Gloucester in 1678. He died on the
26th of June 1688, and was buried in the chapel of Christ's. His only
surviving child, Damaris, a devout and talented woman, became the second
wife of Sir Francis Masham, and was distinguished as the friend of John
Locke. Much of Cudworth's work still remains in manuscript; _A Treatise
concerning eternal and immutable Morality_ was published in 1731; and _A
Treatise of Freewill_, edited by John Allen, in 1838; both are connected
with the design of his _magnum opus_, the _Intellectual System_.

The _Intellectual System_ arose, so its author tells us, out of a
discourse refuting "fatal necessity," or determinism. Enlarging his
plan, he proposed to prove three matters: (a) the existence of God; (b)
the naturalness of moral distinctions; and (c) the reality of human
freedom. These three together make up the intellectual (as opposed to
the physical) system of the universe; and they are opposed respectively
by three false principles, atheism, religious fatalism which refers all
moral distinctions to the will of God, and thirdly the fatalism of the
ancient Stoics, who recognized God and yet identified Him with nature.
The immense fragment dealing with atheism is all that was published by
its author. Cudworth criticizes two main forms of materialistic atheism,
the atomic, adopted by Democritus, Epicurus and Hobbes; and the
hylozoic, attributed to Strato, which explains everything by the
supposition of an inward self-organizing life in matter. Atomic atheism
is by far the more important, if only because Hobbes, the great
antagonist whom Cudworth always has in view, is supposed to have held
it. It arises out of the combination of two principles, neither of which
is atheistic taken separately, i.e. atomism and corporealism, or the
doctrine that nothing exists but body. The example of Stoicism, as
Cudworth points out, shows that corporealism may be theistic. Into the
history of atomism Cudworth plunges with vast erudition. It is, in its
purely physical application, a theory that he fully accepts; he holds
that it was taught by Pythagoras, Empedocles, and in fact, nearly all
the ancient philosophers, and was only perverted to atheism by
Democritus. It was first invented, he believes, before the Trojan war,
by a Sidonian thinker named Moschus or Mochus, who is identical with the
Moses of the Old Testament. In dealing with atheism Cudworth's method is
to marshal the atheistic arguments elaborately, so elaborately that
Dryden remarked "he has raised such objections against the being of a
God and Providence that many think he has not answered them"; then in
his last chapter, which by itself is as long as an ordinary treatise, he
confutes them with all the reasons that his reading could supply. A
subordinate matter in the book that attracted much attention at the time
is the conception of the "Plastic Medium," which is a mere revival of
Plato's "World-Soul," and is meant to explain the existence and laws of
nature without referring all to the direct operation of God. It
occasioned a long-drawn controversy between Pierre Bayle and Le Clerc,
the former maintaining, the latter denying, that the Plastic Medium is
really favourable to atheism.

No modern reader can endure to toil through the _Intellectual System_;
its only interest is the light it throws upon the state of religious
thought after the Restoration, when, as Birch puts it, "irreligion began
to lift up its head." It is immensely diffuse and pretentious, loaded
with digressions, its argument buried under masses of fantastic,
uncritical learning, the work of a vigorous but quite unoriginal mind.
As Bolingbroke said, Cudworth "read too much to think enough, and
admired too much to think freely." It is no calamity that natural
procrastination, or the clamour caused by his candid treatment of
atheism and by certain heretical tendencies detected by orthodox
criticism in his view of the Trinity, made Cudworth leave the work
unfinished.

A much more favourable judgment must be given upon the short _Treatise
on eternal and immutable Morality_, which deserves to be read by those
who are interested in the historical development of British moral
philosophy. It is an answer to Hobbes's famous doctrine that moral
distinctions are created by the state, an answer from the standpoint of
Platonism. Just as knowledge contains a permanent intelligible element
over and above the flux of sense-impressions, so there exist eternal and
immutable ideas of morality. Cudworth's ideas, like Plato's, have "a
constant and never-failing entity of their own," such as we see in
geometrical figures; but, unlike Plato's, they exist in the mind of God,
whence they are communicated to finite understandings. Hence "it is
evident that wisdom, knowledge and understanding are eternal and
self-subsistent things, superior to matter and all sensible beings, and
independent upon them"; and so also are moral good and evil. At this
point Cudworth stops; he does not attempt to give any list of Moral
Ideas. It is, indeed, the cardinal weakness of this form of intuitionism
that no satisfactory list can be given and that no moral principles have
the "constant and never-failing entity," or the definiteness, of the
concepts of geometry. Henry More, in his _Enchiridion ethicum_, attempts
to enumerate the "_noemata moralia_"; but, so far from being
self-evident, most of his moral axioms are open to serious controversy.

  The _Intellectual System_ was translated into Latin by J. L. Mosheim
  and furnished with notes and dissertations which were translated into
  English in J. Harrison's edition (1845). Our chief biographical
  authority is T. Birch's "Account," which appears in editions of the
  _Works_. There is a good chapter on Cudworth in J. Tulloch's _Rational
  Theology_, vol. ii. Consult also P. Janet's _Essai sur le mediateur
  plastique_ (1860), W. R. Scott's _Introduction to Cudworth's
  "Treatise,"_ and J. Martineau's _Types of Ethical Theory_, vol. ii.
       (H. St.)




CUENCA, a city and the capital of the province of Azuay, Ecuador, about
190 m. S. of Quito and 70 m. S.E. of Guayaquil. Pop. (1908 estimate)
30,000 (largely Indians), including the suburb of Ejido. Cuenca stands
at the northern end of a broad valley, or basin, of the Andes, lying
between the transverse ridges of Azuay and Loja, and is about 8640 ft.
above sea-level. Near by is the hill of Tarqui which the French
astronomers chose for their meridian in 1742. Communication with the
coast is difficult. Cuenca is the third most important city of Ecuador,
being the seat of a bishopric, and having a college, a university
faculty, a cathedral, and several churches, and a considerable
industrial and commercial development. It manufactures sugar, woollen
goods and pottery, and exports Peruvian bark (cinchona), hats, cereals,
cheese, hides, &c. It was founded in 1557 on the site of a native town
called Tumibamba, and was made an episcopal see in 1786.




CUENCA, a province of central Spain bounded on the N. by Guadalajara,
N.E. by Teruel, E. by Valencia, S. by Albacete, S.W. by Ciudad Real, W.
by Toledo and N.W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 249,696; area, 6636 sq. m.
Cuenca occupies the eastern part of the ancient kingdom of New Castile,
and slopes from the Serrania de Cuenca (highest point the Cerro de San
Felipe, on the north-eastern border of the province, 5905 ft.), down
into the great southern Castilian plain watered by the upper streams of
the Guadiana. The lowlands bordering on Ciudad Real belong to the wide
plain of La Mancha (q.v.). The rocky and bare highland of Cuenca on the
north and east includes the upper valley of the Jucar and its tributary
streams, but in the north-west the province is watered by tributaries of
the Tagus. The forests are proverbial for their pine timber, and rival
those of Soria; considerable quantities of timber are floated down the
Tagus to Aranjuez and thence taken to Madrid for building purposes.
Excessive droughts prevail; the climate of the hills and of the high
plateaus is harsh and cold, but the valleys are excessively hot in
summer. The soil, where well watered, is fertile, but little attention
is paid to agriculture, and three-fourths of the area is left under
pasture. The rearing of cattle, asses, mules and sheep is the principal
employment of the people; olive oil, nuts, wine, wheat, silk, wax and
honey are the chief products. Iron, copper, alum, saltpetre, jasper and
agates are found, but in 1903 all the workings had been abandoned except
three salt mines; and there are few manufactures except the weaving of
coarse cloth. The roads are in such a backward condition that they
cripple not only the mining interests but also the exports of timber,
and at the beginning of the 20th century there was no railway except a
branch line which passed westwards from Aranjuez through Tarancon to
Cuenca, the capital (pop. 1900, 10,756). No other town has as many as
6000 inhabitants, and no other Spanish province is so thinly populated
as Cuenca. In 1900 there were only 37.6 inhabitants per sq. m. Education
is backward, and extreme poverty almost universal among the peasantry.
See also CASTILE.




CUENCA, the capital of the Spanish province of Cuenca; 125 m. by rail E.
by S. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 10,756. Cuenca occupies a height of the
well-wooded Serrania de Cuenca, at an elevation of 2960 ft., overlooking
the confluence of the rivers Jucar and Huecar. A fine bridge, built in
1523, crosses the Jucar to the convent of San Pablo. Among several
interesting churches in the city, the most noteworthy is the
13th-century Gothic cathedral, celebrated for the beautiful carved
woodwork of its 16th-century doorway, and containing some admirable
examples of Spanish sculpture. The city has a considerable trade in
timber, and was long the headquarters of the provincial wool industry;
the loss of which, in modern times, has partly been compensated by the
development of soap, paper, chocolate, match and leather manufactures.
Cuenca was captured from the Moors by Alphonso VIII. of Castile in 1177,
and shortly afterwards became an episcopal see. In 1874 it offered a
prolonged and gallant resistance to the Carlist rebels.




CUESTA, a name of Spanish origin used in New Mexico for low ridges of
steep descent on one side and gentle slope on the other. It has been
proposed as a term for the land form which consists of the two elements
of a steep scarp or "strike" face, and an inclined plain or gentle "dip"
slope.




CUEVAS DE VERA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Almeria; on the right bank of the river Almanzora, 8 m. W. of the
Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 20,562. Cuevas de Vera is built at the
eastern extremity of the Sierra de los Filabres (6823 ft.), which
isolate it from the railway system of Almeria. It is, however, the chief
market for the rich agricultural districts towards the south and for the
argentiferous lead and other mines among the mountains. In appearance it
is modern, with wide streets, two fine squares, and a parish church in
Doric style, dating from 1758. But in reality the town is of
considerable antiquity. One of the towers in the Moorish palace owned by
the marquesses of Villafranca is probably of Roman origin.




CUFF. (1) (Of uncertain origin), the lower edge of a sleeve turned back
to show an ornamental border, or with an addition of lace or trimming;
now used chiefly of the stiff bands of linen worn under the coat-sleeve
either loose or attached to the shirt. (2) Also uncertain in origin, but
with no connexion, probably, with (1), a blow with the hand either open
or closed, as opposed to the use of weapons.




CUIRASS (Fr. _cuirasse_, Lat. _coriaceus_, made of leather, from
_corium_, the original breastplate being of leather), the plate armour,
whether formed of a single piece of metal or other rigid material or
composed of two or more pieces, which covers the front of the wearer's
person. In a suit of armour, however, since this important piece was
generally worn in connexion with a corresponding defence for the back,
the term cuirass commonly is understood to imply the complete
body-armour, including both the breast and the back plates. Thus this
complete body-armour appears in the middle ages frequently to have been
described as a "pair of plates." The _corslet_ (Fr. _corselet_,
diminutive of the O. Fr. _cors_, body), a comparatively light cuirass,
is more strictly a breast-plate only. As parts of the military equipment
of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corslets of bronze, and at later
periods also of iron or some other rigid substance, were habitually in
use; but while some special kind of secondary protection for the breast
had been worn in earlier times by the men-at-arms in addition to their
mail hauberks and their "cotes" armed with splints and studs, it was not
till the 14th century that a regular body-defence of plate can be said
to have become an established component of medieval armour. As this
century continued to advance, the cuirass is found gradually to have
come into general use, in connexion with plate defences for the limbs,
until, at the close of the century, the long familiar interlinked
chain-mail is no longer visible in knightly figures, except in the
camail of the bassinet and at the edge of the hauberk. The prevailing,
and indeed almost the universal, usage throughout this century was that
the cuirass was worn covered. Thus, the globose form of the
breast-armour of the Black Prince, in his effigy in Canterbury
cathedral, 1376, intimates that a cuirass as well as a hauberk is to be
considered to have been covered by the royalty-emblazoned jupon of the
prince. The cuirass, thus worn in the 14th century, was always made of
sufficient length to rest on the hips; otherwise, if not thus supported,
it must have been suspended from the shoulders, in which case it would
have effectually interfered with the free and vigorous action of the
wearer. Early in the 15th century, the entire panoply of plate,
including the cuirass, began to be worn without any surcoat; but in the
concluding quarter of the century the short surcoat, with full short
sleeves, known as the tabard, was in general use over the armour. At the
same time that the disuse of the surcoat became general, small plates of
various forms and sizes (and not always made in pairs, the plate for the
right or sword-arm often being smaller and lighter than its companion),
were attached to the armour in front of the shoulders, to defend the
otherwise vulnerable points where the plate defences of the upper-arms
and the cuirass left a gap on each side. About the middle of the
century, instead of being formed of a single plate, the breast-plate of
the cuirass was made in two parts, the lower adjusted to overlap the
upper, and contrived by means of a strap or sliding rivet to give
flexibility to this defence. In the second half of the 15th century the
cuirass occasionally was superseded by the "brigandine jacket," a
defence formed of some textile fabric, generally of rich material, lined
throughout with overlapping scales (resembling the earlier "imbricated"
form) of metal, which were attached to the jacket by rivets, having
their heads, like studs, visible on the outside. In the 16th century,
when occasionally, and by personages of exalted rank, splendid surcoats
were worn over the armour, the cuirass--its breast-piece during the
first half of the century, globular in form--was constantly reinforced
by strong additional plates attached to it by rivets or screws. About
1550 the breast-piece of the cuirass was characterized by a vertical
central ridge, called the "tapul" having near its centre a projecting
point; this projection, somewhat later, was brought lower down, and
eventually the profile of the plate, the projection having been carried
to its base, assumed the singular form which led to this fashion of the
cuirass being distinguished as the "peascod cuirass."

Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn by
foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their mounted comrades were
equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses; and these defences continued
in use after the other pieces of armour, one by one, had gradually been
laid aside. Their use, however, never altogether ceased, and in modern
armies mounted cuirassiers, armed as in earlier days with breast and
back plates, have in some degree emulated the martial splendour of the
body-armour of the era of medieval chivalry. Some years after Waterloo
certain historical cuirasses were taken from their repose in the Tower
of London, and adapted for service by the Life Guards and the Horse
Guards. For parade purposes, the Prussian _Gardes du Corps_ and other
corps wear cuirasses of richly decorated leather.




CUIRASSIERS, a kind of heavy cavalry, originally developed out of the
men-at-arms or gendarmerie forming the heavy cavalry of feudal armies.
Their special characteristic was the wearing of full armour, which they
retained long after other troops had abandoned it. Hence they became
distinguished as cuirassiers. The first Austrian corps of _kyrissers_
was formed in 1484 by the emperor Maximilian and was 100 strong. In 1705
Austria possessed twenty regiments of cuirassiers. After the war of
1866, however, the existing regiments were converted into dragoons.
Russia has likewise in modern times abolished all but a few guard
regiments of cuirassiers. The Prussian cuirassiers were first so called
under Frederick William I., and in the wars of his successor Frederick
the Great they bore a conspicuous part. After the Seven Years' War they
ceased to wear the cuirass on service, but after 1814 these were
reintroduced, the spoils taken from the French cuirassiers being used to
equip the troops. The cuirass is now worn only on ceremonial parades. In
France the cuirassiers date from 1666, when a regiment, subsequently
numbered 8th of the line, was formed. During the first Empire many
regiments were created, until in 1812 there were fourteen. The number
was reduced after the fall of Napoleon, but in modern times it has been
again increased. The French regiments alone in Europe wear the cuirass
on all parades and at manoeuvres.




CUJAS (or CUJACIUS), JACQUES (or as he called himself, JACQUES DE CUJAS)
(1520-1590), French jurisconsult, was born at Toulouse, where his
father, whose name was Cujaus, was a fuller. Having taught himself Latin
and Greek, he studied law under Arnoul Ferrier, then professor at
Toulouse, and rapidly gained a great reputation as a lecturer on
Justinian. In 1554 he was appointed professor of law at Cahors, and
about a year after L'Hopital called him to Bourges. Duaren, however, who
also held a professorship at Bourges, stirred up the students against
the new professor, and such was the disorder produced in consequence
that Cujas was glad to yield to the storm, and accept an invitation he
had received to the university of Valence. Recalled to Bourges at the
death of Duaren in 1559, he remained there till 1567, when he returned
to Valence. There he gained a European reputation, and collected
students from all parts of the continent, among whom were Joseph
Scaliger and de Thou. In 1573 Charles IX. appointed Cujas counsellor to
the parlement of Grenoble, and in the following year a pension was
bestowed on him by Henry III. Margaret of Savoy induced him to remove to
Turin; but after a few months (1575) he once more took his old place at
Bourges. But the religious wars drove him thence. He was called by the
king to Paris, and permission was granted him by the parlement to
lecture on civil law in the university of the capital. A year after,
however, he finally took up his residence at Bourges, where he remained
till his death in 1590, in spite of a handsome offer made him by Gregory
XIII. in 1584 to attract him to Bologna.

The life of Cujas was altogether that of a scholar and teacher. In the
religious wars which filled all the thoughts of his contemporaries he
steadily refused to take any part. _Nihil hoc ad edictum praetoris_,
"this has nothing to do with the edict of the praetor," was his usual
answer to those who spoke to him on the subject. His surpassing merit as
a jurisconsult consisted in the fact that he turned from the ignorant
commentators on Roman law to the Roman law itself. He consulted a very
large number of manuscripts, of which he had collected more than 500 in
his own library; but, unfortunately, he left orders in his will that his
library should be divided among a number of purchasers, and his
collection was thus scattered, and in great part lost. His emendations,
of which a large number were published under the title of
_Animadversiones et observationes_, were not confined to lawbooks, but
extended to many of the Latin and Greek classical authors. In
jurisprudence his study was far from being devoted solely to Justinian;
he recovered and gave to the world a part of the Theodosian Code, with
explanations; and he procured the manuscript of the _Basilica_, a Greek
abridgment of Justinian, afterwards published by Fabrot (see BASILICA).
He also composed a commentary on the _Consueludines Feudorum_, and on
some books of the Decretals. In the _Paratitla_, or summaries which he
made of the Digest, and particularly of the Code of Justinian, he
condensed into short axioms the elementary principles of law, and gave
definitions remarkable for their admirable clearness and precision. His
lessons, which he never dictated, were continuous discourses, for which
he made no other preparation than that of profound meditation on the
subjects to be discussed. He was impatient of interruption, and upon the
least noise he would instantly quit the chair and retire. He was
strongly attached to his pupils, and Scaliger affirms that he lost more
than 4000 livres by lending money to such of them as were in want.

  In his lifetime Cujas published an edition of his works (Neville,
  1577). It is beautiful and exact, but incomplete; it is now very
  scarce. The edition of Colombet (1634) is also incomplete. Fabrot,
  however, collected the whole in the edition which he published at
  Paris (1658), in 10 vols. folio, and which was reprinted at Naples
  (1722, 1727), in 11 vols. folio, and at Naples and at Venice (1758),
  in 10 vols. folio, with an index forming an eleventh volume. In the
  editions of Naples and Venice there are some additions not to be found
  in that of Fabrot, particularly a general table, which will be found
  very useful, and interpretations of all the Greek words used by Cujas.

  See Papire-Masson, _Vie de Cujas_ (Paris, 1590); Terrasson, _Histoire
  de la jurisprudence romaine_, and _Melanges d'histoire, de
  litterature, et de jurisprudence_; Bernardi, _Eloge de Cujas_ (Lyons,
  1775); Hugo, _Civilistisches Magazin_; Berriat Saint Prix, _Memoires
  de Cujas_, appended to his _Histoire du droit romain; Biographie
  universelle_; Gravina, _De ortu et progressu juris civilis_;
  Spangenberg, _Cujacius und seine Zeitgenossen_ (Leipzig, 1882).




CULDEES, an ancient monastic order with settlements in Ireland and
Scotland. It was long fondly imagined by Protestant and especially by
Presbyterian writers that they had preserved primitive Christianity free
from Roman corruptions in one remote corner of western Europe, a view
enshrined in Thomas Campbell's _Reullura_:

  "Peace to their shades. The pure Culdees
   Were Albyn's earliest priests of God,
   Ere yet an island of her seas
   By foot of Saxon monk was trod."

Another view, promulgated like the above by Hector Boece in his Latin
history of Scotland (1516), makes them the direct successors in the 9th
to the 12th century of the organized Irish and Iona monasticism of the
6th to the 8th century. Both these views were disproved by William
Reeves (1815-1892), bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore.

As found in the Irish MSS. the name is _Cele De_, i.e. God's comrade or
sworn ally. It was latinized as _Coli dei_, whence Boece's _culdei_. The
term seems, like the Latin _vir dei_, to have been applied generally to
monks and hermits. There are very few trustworthy ancient sources of
information, but it seems probable that the Rule of Chrodegang,[1]
archbishop of Metz (d. 766), was brought by Irish monks to their native
land from the monasteries of north-eastern Gaul, and that Irish
anchorites originally unfettered by the rules of the cloister bound
themselves by it. In the course of the 9th century we find mention of
nine places in Ireland (including Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Clones, Devenish
and Sligo) where communities of these Culdees were established as a kind
of annexe to the regular monastic institutions. They seem especially to
have had the care of the poor and the sick, and were interested in the
musical part of worship. Meanwhile in Scotland the Iona monks had been
expelled by the Pictish king Nechtan in 717, and the vacancies thus
caused were by no means filled by the Roman monks who thronged into the
north from Northumbria. Into the gap, towards the end of the 8th
century, came the Culdees from Ireland. The features of their life in
Scotland, which is the most important epoch in the history of the order,
seem to resemble closely those of the secular canons of England and the
continent. From the outset they were more or less isolated, and, having
no fixed forms or common head, tended to decay. In the 12th century the
Celtic Church was completely metamorphosed on the Roman pattern, and in
the process the Culdees also lost any distinctiveness they may formerly
have had, being brought, like the secular clergy, under canonical rule.
The pictures that we have of Culdee life in the 12th century vary
considerably. The chief houses in Scotland were at St Andrews, Dunkeld,
Lochleven, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, Abernethy and Brechin. Each was an
independent establishment controlled entirely by its own abbot and
apparently divided into two sections, one priestly and the other lay and
even married. At St Andrews about the year 1100 there were thirteen
Culdees holding office by hereditary tenure and paying more regard to
their own prosperity and aggrandizement than to the services of the
church or the needs of the populace. A much-needed measure of reform,
inaugurated by Queen Margaret, was carried through by her sons Alexander
I. and David I.; gradually the whole position passed into the hands of
Turgot and his successors in the bishopric. Canons Regular were
instituted and some of the Culdees joined the new order. Those who
declined were allowed a life-rent of their revenues and lingered on as a
separate but ever-dwindling body till the beginning of the 14th century,
when, excluded from voting at the election of the bishop, they disappear
from history. At Dunkeld, Crinan, the grandfather of Malcolm Canmore,
was a lay abbot, and tradition says that even the clerical members were
married, though like the priests of the Eastern Church, they lived apart
from their wives during their term of sacerdotal service. The Culdees of
Lochleven lived on St Serf's Inch, which had been given them by a
Pictish prince, Brude, about 850. In 1093 they surrendered their island
to the bishop of St Andrews in return for perpetual food and clothing,
but Robert, who was bishop in 1144, handed over all their vestments,
books,[2] and other property, with the island, to the newly founded
Canons Regular, in which probably the Culdees were incorporated. There
is no trace of such partial independence as was experienced at St
Andrews itself, possibly because the bishop's grant was backed up by a
royal charter. In the same fashion the Culdees of Monymusk, originally
perhaps a colony from St Andrews, became Canons Regular of the
Augustinian order early in the 13th century, and those of Abernethy in
1273. At Brechin, famous like Abernethy for its round tower, the Culdee
prior and his monks helped to form the chapter of the diocese founded by
David I. in 1145, though the name persisted for a generation or two.
Similar absorptions no doubt account for the disappearance of the
Culdees of York, a name borne by the canons of St Peter's about 925, and
of Snowdon and Bardsey Island in north Wales mentioned by Giraldus
Cambrensis (c. 1190) in his _Speculum Ecclesiae_ and _Itinerarium_
respectively. The former community was, he says, sorely oppressed by the
covetous Cistercians. These seem to be the only cases where the Culdees
are found in England and Wales. In Ireland the Culdees of Armagh endured
until the dissolution in 1541, and enjoyed a fleeting resurrection in
1627, soon after which their ancient property passed to the vicars
choral of the cathedral.

  See W. Reeves, _The Culdees of the British Islands_ (Dublin, 1864); W.
  F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880), especially vol. ii.; W.
  Beveridge, _Makers of the Scottish Church_ (1908). The older view will
  be found in J. Jamieson's _Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees_
  (1811).


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Devised originally for the clergy of Chrodegang's cathedral, it
    was largely an adaptation of St Benedict's rule to secular clergy
    living in common. In 816 it was confirmed, with certain
    modifications, by the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, and became the law
    for collegiate and cathedral churches in the Frankish empire. See
    CANON.

  [2] The list of these in the deed of transfer is the oldest Scottish
    library catalogue.




CULEBRA, the smaller of two islands lying in the Virgin Passage
immediately E. of Porto Rico and known as the Islas de Passaje. It is
about 18 m. distant from Cape San Juan and rises from the same submerged
plateau with the larger islands of the Antilles. Its extreme dimensions
are 3 by 6 m., and its surface is low and comparatively uniform, which
gives the prevailing winds an unbroken sweep across it. For this reason
the rainfall is limited to a short season, and the population is
compelled to store rainwater in cisterns for drinking purposes. Its soil
is fertile, and cattle, poultry, vegetables and small fruits are
produced. The island has been a dependency of Porto Rico since 1879,
when its colonization was formally undertaken, and it is now described
as a ward of the Vieques district of the department of Humacao. In 1902
the American naval authorities selected the Playa Sardinas harbour on
the S. side of Culebra as a rendezvous of the fleet and marine
encampments were located on shore. The strategic position of the island,
its healthiness and its continued use as a naval station have given it
considerable importance. Its population was 704 in 1899, which had
increased to nearly 1200 in 1903.




CULLEN, PAUL (1803-1878), cardinal and archbishop of Dublin, was born
near Ballytore, Co. Kildare, and educated first at the Quaker school at
Carlow and afterwards at Rome, where he joined the Urban College of the
Propaganda and, after passing a brilliant course, was ordained in 1829.
He then became vice-rector, and afterwards rector, of the Irish National
College in Rome; and during the Mazzini revolution of 1848 he was rector
of the Urban College, saving the property under the protection of the
American flag. In 1849, on the strong recommendation of Archbishop John
MacHale of Tuam, Cullen was nominated as successor to the primatial see
of Armagh; and, on his return to Ireland, presided as papal delegate at
the national council of Thurles in the August of 1850. Taking a strong
line on the educational question which was then agitating Ireland, he
took a leading part in the national movement of 1850-1852, and at first
supported the Tenant Rights League. In May 1852 he was translated to
Dublin, and soon a divergence of opinion broke out between him and the
more ardent Nationalists under Archbishop MacHale. When the Irish
university was started, with Newman, appointed by Cullen, at its head,
the scheme was wrecked by the personal opposition to the archbishop of
Dublin. As time went on, his distrust of the national movement grew
deeper; and in 1853 he sternly forbade his clergy to take part publicly
in politics, and for this he was denounced by the _Tablet_ newspaper.
His own political opinion had best be told in his own words. "For thirty
years I have studied the revolution on the continent, and for nearly
thirty years I have watched the Nationalist movement in Ireland. It is
tainted at its sources with the revolutionary spirit. If any attempt is
made to abridge the rights and liberties of the Catholic Church in
Ireland, it will not be by the English government nor by a 'No Popery'
cry in England, but by the revolutionary and irreligious Nationalists of
Ireland" (Purcell's _Life of Manning_, ii. 610). Cullen, therefore,
while an ardent patriot, was consistently an opponent of Fenianism. He
was made cardinal in 1866, being the first Irish cardinal. Energetic as
an administrator, churches and schools rose throughout his diocese; and
the excellent Mater Misericordiae Hospital and the seminary at Clonlife
are lasting memorials of his zeal. He took part in the Vatican Council
as an ardent infallibilist. In 1873 he was defendant in a libel action
brought against him by the Rev. R. O'Keeffe, parish priest of Callan, on
account of two sentences of ecclesiastical censure pronounced by the
cardinal as papal delegate. The damages were laid at L10,000. Three of
the four judges allowed the defence of the cardinal to be valid; but it
was held that the papal rescript upon which he relied for his
extraordinary powers as delegate was illegal under statute; and the lord
chief justice decided that the plaintiff could not renounce his natural
and civil liberty. After several days' trial, during which Cullen was
submitted to a very close examination, the verdict was given for the
plaintiff with 1/4d. damages. The cardinal died in Dublin on the 24th of
October 1878.     (E. Tn.)




CULLEN, WILLIAM (1710-1790), Scottish physician and medical teacher, was
born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on the 15th of April 1710. He received
his early education at the grammar-school of Hamilton, and he appears to
have subsequently attended some classes at the university of Glasgow. He
began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a Glasgow
surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he became surgeon to a
merchant vessel trading between London and the West Indies. On his
return to Scotland in 1732 he settled as a practitioner in the parish of
Shotts, Lanarkshire, and in 1734-1736 studied medicine at Edinburgh,
where he was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society. In 1736
he began to practise in Hamilton, where he rapidly acquired a high
reputation. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter was his resident pupil, and
at one time they proposed to enter into partnership. In 1740 Cullen took
the degree of M.D. at Glasgow, whither he removed in 1744. During his
residence at Hamilton, besides the arduous duties of medical practice,
he found time to devote to the study of the natural sciences, and
especially of chemistry. On coming to Glasgow he appears to have begun
to lecture in connexion with the university, the medical school of which
was as yet imperfectly organized. Besides the subjects of theory and
practice of medicine, he lectured systematically on botany, materia
medica and chemistry. His great abilities, enthusiasm and power of
conveying instruction made him a successful and highly popular teacher,
and his classes increased largely in numbers. At the same time he
diligently pursued the practice of his profession. Chemistry was the
subject which at this time seems to have engaged the greatest share of
his attention. He was himself a diligent investigator and experimenter,
and he did much to encourage original research among his pupils, one of
whom was Dr Joseph Black. In 1751 he was appointed professor of
medicine, but continued to lecture on chemistry, and in 1756 he was
elected joint professor of chemistry at Edinburgh along with Andrew
Plummer, on whose death in the following year the sole appointment was
conferred on Cullen. This chair he held for ten years--his classes
always increasing in numbers. He also practised his profession as a
physician with eminent success. From 1757 he delivered lectures on
clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary. This was a work for which his
experience, habits of observation, and scientific training peculiarly
fitted him, and in which his popularity as a teacher, no less than his
power as a practical physician, became more than ever conspicuous. On
the death of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the
students undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica;
he delivered an entirely new course, which were published in an
unauthorized edition in 1771, but which he re-wrote and issued as _A
Treatise on Materia Medica_ in 1789.

On the death of Robert Whytt (1714-1766), the professor of the
institutes of medicine, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same time
resigning that of chemistry. In the same year he had been an
unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice of physic,
but subsequently an arrangement was made between him and John Gregory,
who had gained the appointment, by which they agreed to deliver
alternate courses on the theory and practice of physic. This arrangement
proved eminently satisfactory, but it was brought to a close by the
sudden death of Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole
professor of the practice of physic, and he continued in this office
till a few months before his death, which took place on the 5th of
February 1790.

As a lecturer Cullen appears to have stood unrivalled in his day. His
clearness of statement and power of imparting interest to the most
abstruse topics were the conspicuous features of his teaching, and in
his various capacities as a scientific lecturer, a physiologist, and a
practical physician, he was ever surrounded with large and increasing
classes of intelligent pupils, to whom his eminently suggestive mode of
instruction was specially attractive. Living at the time he did, when
the doctrines of the humoral pathologists were carried to an extreme
extent, and witnessing the ravages which disease made on the solid
structures of the body, it was not surprising that he should oppose a
doctrine which appeared to him to lead to a false practice and to fatal
results, and adopt one which attributed more to the agency of the solids
and very little to that of the fluids of the body. His chief works were
_First Lines of the Practice of Physic_ (1774); _Institutions of
Medicine_ (1770); and _Synopsis Nosologicae Medicae_ (1785), which
contained his classification of diseases into four great classes--(1)
Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases, as typhus fever; (2) Neuroses, or nervous
diseases, as epilepsy; (3) Cachexiae, or diseases resulting from bad
habit of body, as scurvy; and (4) Locales, or local diseases, as cancer.

Cullen's eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796 under the
title of Lord Cullen, and was known for his powers of mimicry.

  The first volume of an account of _Cullen's Life, Lectures and
  Writings_ was published by Dr John Thomson in 1832, and was reissued
  with the second volume (completing the work) by Drs W. Thomson and D.
  Craigie in 1859.




CULLEN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 1936. It is situated on Cullen Bay, 11(1/2) m. W. by N. of
Banff and 66(1/2) m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland
railway. Deskford Burn, after a course of 7(1/2) m., enters the sea at
Cullen, which it divides into two parts, Seatown, the older, and
Newtown, dating only from 1822. St Mary's, the parish church, a
cruciform structure, was founded by Robert Bruce, whose second wife died
at Cullen. The industries include rope and sail making, boat-building,
brewing and fishing. The harbour, constructed between 1817 and 1834,
though artificial, is one of the best on this coast. About 1 m. to the
S. is Cullen House, a seat of the earl of Seafield, which contains some
fine works of art. A mile and a half to the W. is the picturesque
fishing village of Port Knockie with a deep-sea harbour, built in 1891.
On the cliffs, 2 m. to the E., stand the ruins of Findlater Castle,
fortified in 1455. From 1638 to 1811, when the title expired, it gave
the title of earl to the Ogilvies, whose name was adopted in addition to
his own by Sir Lewis Alexander Grant, when he succeeded, as 5th earl of
Seafield, to the surviving dignities. Five miles to the E. of Cullen is
the thriving fishing town of Portsoy, with a small, safe harbour and a
station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Besides the fisheries
there is fish-curing and a distillery; and the quarrying of a
pink-coloured variety of granite and of Portsoy marble is carried on.
Good limestone is also found in the district. Pop. (1901) 2061.




CULLERA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the
Mediterranean Sea, at the mouth of the river Jucar, and at the southern
terminus of the Valencia-Silla-Cullera railway. Pop. (1900) 11,947.
Cullera is a walled town, containing a ruined Moorish citadel, large
barracks, several churches and convents and a hospital. It occupies the
Jucar valley, south of the Sierra de Zorras, a low range of hills which
terminates eastward in Cape Cullera, a conspicuous headland surmounted
by a lighthouse. To the south and west extends a rich agricultural
district, noted for its rice. Besides farming and fishing, the
inhabitants carry on a coasting trade with various Mediterranean ports.
In 1903 the harbour was entered by 66 vessels of about 25,000 tons,
engaged in the exportation of grain, rice and fruit, and the importation
of guano. The town of Sueca (q.v.) is 4 m. W.N.W. by rail.




CULLINAN, a town of the Transvaal, 36 m. by rail E. by N. of Pretoria.
It grew up round the Premier diamond mine and dates from 1903, being
named after T. Cullinan, the purchaser of the ground on which the mine
is situated. Here was discovered in January 1905 a diamond--the largest
on record--weighing 3025(3/4) carats. This diamond was in 1907 presented
by the Transvaal government to Edward VII. and was subsequently cut into
two stones, one of 516(1/2) carats, the other of 309 carats, intended to
ornament the sceptre and crown of England. The "chippings" yielded
several smaller diamonds (see DIAMOND).




CULLODEN, a desolate tract of moorland, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It
forms part of the north-east of Drummossie Muir, and is situated about 6
m. by road E. of Inverness, and 1/2 m. from Culloden Muir station on the
Highland railway from Aviemore to Inverness via Daviot. It is celebrated
as the scene of the battle of the 16th of April 1746 (see CUMBERLAND,
WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF, and MURRAY, LORD GEORGE), by which the fate
of the house of Stuart was decided. By Highlanders the battle is more
generally described as the battle of Drummossie. Memorial stones bearing
the names of the clans engaged in the conflict were erected in 1881 at
the head of each trench where the clansmen--about 1000 in number--were
buried. A monumental cairn, 20 ft. high, marks the chief scene of the
fight, and the Cumberland Stone, a huge boulder, indicates the spot
where the English commander took up his position. A mile to the north is
Culloden House, which belonged to Duncan Forbes, the president of the
Court of Session. The _Culloden Papers_, a number of historical
documents ranging from 1625 to 1748, were discovered in this mansion in
1812 and published in 1815 by Duncan George Forbes. On the death of the
10th laird, the collection of Jacobite relics and works of art was sold
by auction in 1897. About 1 m. to the south of the field, on the right
bank of the Nairn, is the plain of Clava, containing several stone
circles, monoliths, cairns and other prehistoric remains. The circles,
some apparently never completed, vary in circumference from 12 yds. to
140 yds.




CULM, in geology, the name applied to a peculiar local phase of the
Carboniferous system. In 1837 A. Sedgwick and R. I. Murchison classified
into two divisions the dark shales, grits and impure limestones which
occupy a large area in Devonshire and extend into the neighbouring
counties of Somerset and Cornwall. These two divisions were the Upper
and Lower Culm Measures, so named from certain impure coals, locally
called "culm,"[1] contained within the shales near Bideford.
Subsequently, these two geologists, when prosecuting their researches in
Germany and Austria, applied the same name to similar rocks which
contained, amongst others, _Posidonomya Becheri_, common to the phase of
sedimentation in both areas.

The Culm measures of the Devonshire district are folded into a broad
syncline with its axis running east and west; but within this major fold
the rocks have been subjected to much compression accompanied by minor
folding. This circumstance, together with the apparent barrenness of the
strata, has always made a correct interpretation of their position and
relationships a matter of difficulty; and for long they were regarded as
an abnormal expression of the Lower Carboniferous, with the uppermost
beds as doubtful equivalents of the Millstone Grit of other parts of
Britain. The labours of W. A. E. Ussher and of G. J. Hinde and H. Fox
have resulted in the differentiation of the following subdivisions in
the Devonshire Culm:--(1) _Upper Culm Measures_ or Eggesford grits; (2)
_Middle Culm Measures_, comprising the Morchard, Tiverton and Ugbrooke
lithological types overlying the Exeter type; (3) _Lower Culm_, the
_Posidonomya_ limestone and shale overlying the Coddon Hill beds with
radiolaria. Ussher's subdivisions were introduced to satisfy the
exigencies of geological mapping, but, as he pointed out, while they are
necessary in some parts of the district and convenient in others, the
lithological characters upon which they are founded are variable and
inconstant. More recently E. A. N. Arber (1904-1907) clearly
demonstrated that no palaeontological subdivision of the Upper Culm
(Middle and Upper) is possible, and that these strata, on the evidence
of the fossil plants, represent the Middle Coal Measures of other parts
of the country. Wheelton Hind has called attention to the probability
that the _Posidonomya_ limestone and shale may represent the Pendleside
group of Lancashire, Derbyshire, &c. The Coddon Hill beds may belong to
this or to a lower horizon. Thus the English Culm measures comprise an
Upper Carboniferous and a Lower Carboniferous group, while in Germany,
Austria and elsewhere, as it is important to bear in mind, the Culm, or
"Kulm," stage is shown by its contained fossils to belong to the lower
division alone.

The typical Carboniferous limestone of the Franco-Belgian area changes
as it is traced towards the east and south into the sandy, shaly Culm
phase, with the characteristic "Posidonia" (_Posidonomya_) schists. This
aspect of the Culm is found in Saxony, where there are workable coals,
in Bohemia, Thuringia, the Fichtelgebirge, the Harz, where the beds are
traversed by mineral veins, and in Moravia and Silesia. In the
last-mentioned region the thickness of the Culm formation has been
estimated by D. Stur at over 45,000 ft. In the east and south of the
Schiefergebirge (a general term for the slaty mountains of the Hundsruck
and Taunus range, the Westerwald and part of the Eifel district), the
Culm shales pass upwards into a coarser deposit, the "Culm-grauwacke,"
which attains a considerable thickness and superficial extent. Culm
fossils appear in the Carnic Alps, in the Balkans and parts of Spain,
also in Spitzbergen and part of New Guinea.

The most characteristic fossil is of course _Posidonomya Becheri_;
others are _Glyphioceras sphaericum_, _Rhodea patentissima_,
_Asterocalamites scrobiculatus_ (Schloth), _Lepidodendron
veltheimianum_, _Gastrioceras carbonarium_.

  See E. A. N. Arber, "On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of West Devon
  and North Cornwall," _Q.J.G.S._ lxiii. (1907), which contains a
  bibliography of the English Culm; E. Holzapfel, _Palaont. Abhandl._
  Bd. v. Heft i. (1889); H. Potonie, _Abhandl. preuss. geol.
  Landesanst._, Neue Folge, 36 (1901); D. Stur, "Die Culm Flora,"
  _Abhandl. k.k. geol. Reichsanst._ viii. (Vienna, 1875).
       (J. A. H.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] This word is possibly connected with _col_, coal; distinguish
    "culm," the stem of a plant, Lat. _culmus_.




CULMINATION (from Lat. _culmen_, summit), the attainment of the highest
point. In astronomy the term is given to the passage of a heavenly body
over the meridian of a place. Two culminations take place in the course
of the day, one above and the other below the pole. The first is called
the upper, the second the lower. Either or both may occur below the
horizon and therefore be invisible.




CULPRIT, properly the prisoner at the bar, one accused of a crime; so
used, generally, of one guilty of an offence. In origin the word is a
combination of two Anglo-French legal words, _culpable_, guilty, and
_prit_ or _prist_, i.e. prest, Old French for pret, ready. On the
prisoner at the bar pleading "not guilty," the clerk of the crown
answered "culpable," and stated that he was ready (_prest_) to join
issue. The words _cul. prist_ (or _prit_) were then entered on the roll
as showing that issue had been joined. When French law terms were
discontinued the words were taken as forming one word addressed to the
prisoner. The formula "Culprit, how will you be tried?" in answer to a
plea of "not guilty," is first found in the trial for murder of the 7th
earl of Pembroke in 1678.




CULROSS (locally pronounced _Coo-rus_), a royal and police burgh,
Fifeshire, Scotland, 6(1/2) m. W. by S. of Dunfermline and 2(1/2) m.
from East Grange station on the North British railway company's line
from Dunfermline to Stirling. Pop. 348. Until 1890 it belonged to the
detached portion of Perthshire. Attractively situated on a hillside
sloping gently to the Forth, its placid old-world aspect is in keeping
with its great antiquity. Here St Serf carried on his missionary
labours, and founded a church and cemetery, and here he died and was
buried. For centuries the townsfolk used to celebrate his day (July 1st)
by walking in procession bearing green boughs. Kentigern, the apostle to
Cumbria and first bishop of Glasgow, was born at Culross, his mother
having been driven ashore during a tempest, and was adopted by St Serf
as his son. These religious associations, coupled with the fertility of
the soil, led to the founding of a Cistercian abbey in 1217. Of this
structure the only remains are the western tower and the choir, which,
greatly altered as well as repaired early in the 19th century, now forms
the parish church. It is supposed that a chapel of which some traces
exist in the east end of the town was dedicated to Kentigern. James VI.
made Culross a royal burgh in 1588. In 1808 there was discovered in the
abbey church, embalmed in a silver casket, still preserved there,
bearing his name and arms, the heart of Edward, Lord Bruce of Kinloss,
who was killed in August 1613 near Bergen-op-Zoom in a duel with Sir
Edward Sackville, afterwards earl of Dorset. Robert Pont (1524-1606),
the Reformer, was born at Shirresmiln, or Shiresmill, a hamlet in
Culross parish. Nearly all its old industries--the coal mines, salt
works, linen manufacture, and even the making of iron girdles for the
baking of scones--have dwindled, but its pleasant climate and
picturesqueness make it a holiday resort. Dunimarle Castle, a handsome
structure on the sea-shore, adjoins the site of the castle where,
according to tradition, Macbeth slew the wife and children of Macduff.
Culross belongs to the Stirling district group of parliamentary burghs.




CULTIVATOR,[1] also called SCUFFLER, SCARIFIER or GRUBBER, an
agricultural implement employed in breaking up land or in stirring it
after ploughing. The first all-iron cultivator, known as Finlayson's
grubber, was a large harrow with curved teeth carried on wheels, and was
brought out about 1820. It was designed to meet the need for some
implement of intermediate character between the plough and harrow, which
should stir the soil deeply and expeditiously without reversing it, and
bring the weeds unbroken to the surface. The chief modern improvement
has been the imparting of vibratory movement and hence greater stirring
capacity to the tines, either by making them of spring steel or by
fitting springs to the point of attachment of the tine to the framework
of the machine. In its modern form the implement consists of a framework
fitted with rows of curved stems or tines, which may be raised clear of
the ground or lowered into work by means of a lever, and differs from
the harrow in that it is provided with two wheels, which prevent the
tines from embedding themselves too deeply in the soil. The stems may be
fitted either with chisel-points or with broad shares, according as it
is required to merely stir the soil or to bring up weeds and clean the
surface. In the disk cultivator revolving disks take the place of tines.
The implement is usually provided with a seat for the driver and is
drawn by horses, but steam power is also commonly applied to it, the
speed of the operation in that case increasing its effectiveness. The
method is the same as that of steam-ploughing (see PLOUGH).

[Illustration: Ransome's Spring Tine Cultivator.]


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] From Late Lat. _cultivare_, through _cultivus_, from _colere_, to
    till, cultivate; whence _cultus_, worship, form of religion, cult.




CUMAE (Gr. [Greek: Kyme]), an ancient city of Campania, Italy, about 12
m. W. of Neapolis, on the W. coast of Campania, on a volcanic eminence,
overlooking the plain traversed by the Volturno.

There are many legends as to its foundation, but even the actual period
of its colonization by the Greeks is so early (ancient authorities give
it as 1050 B.C.) that there is some doubt as to who established it,
whether Chalcidians from Euboea or Aeolians from [Greek: Kyme] (Cyme),
and it should probably be regarded as a joint settlement. It was
certainly, as Strabo says, the oldest of the Greek colonies on the
mainland of Italy or in Sicily. Livy tells us (viii. 22) that the
settlers first landed on Pithecusae (Ischia) and thence transferred
their position to the mainland, which seems a probable story. We find it
in 721 B.C. founding Zancle (Messina) in Sicily jointly with Chalcis,
and it extended its power gradually over the coast of the Gulf of
Puteoli and the harbours of the promontory of Misenum. Puteoli itself
under the name Dicaearchia was probably founded by Cumae. In the 7th
century, according to the legends, Parthenope, whither the demos of
Cumae had taken refuge after an unsuccessful rising against the
aristocracy, was attacked by the latter and destroyed, but soon rebuilt
under the name of Neapolis (New City, the present Naples).[1] The most
fertile portion of the Campanian plain was also under its dominion; the
name "fossa Graeca" still lingered on in 205 B.C. to testify to its
ancient limits. Cumae was now at the height of its power, and many fine
coins testify to its prosperity. In 524 B.C. it was the object of a
joint attack by the Etruscans of Capua, the Daunians of the district of
Nola, and the Aurunci of the Mons Massicus. A brilliant victory was,
however, won in the hilly district outside the town, largely owing to
the bravery of Aristodemus, who then led a force to the relief of
Aricia, which was being attacked by the Etruscans, and, returning at the
head of his victorious army, overturned the aristocracy and made himself
tyrant, but was ultimately murdered by the aristocrats. These were
unable to repel a renewed Etruscan attack without the help of Hiero of
Syracuse, who in the battle of Cumae of 474 B.C. drove the Etruscan
fleet from the sea, and broke their power in Campania.

The Samnites finally destroyed the Etruscan supremacy by the capture of
Capua in the latter half of the 5th century (see CAPUA; CAMPANIA), and
the Greeks of Cumae were overwhelmed by the same invasion, either in 420
B.C. (Livy iv. 44) or in 421 (Diodor. Sic. xii. 76), if his statement is
drawn from Greek sources, 428 if it is to be dated by the Roman consuls
to whose year he ascribes it. This catastrophe brought to an end the
beautiful series of Greek coins from the town (B. V. Head, _Historia
Numorum_, p. 31), and Oscan became its language, though in many respects
the Greek character of the town survived (Strabo v. 4. 3, and the other
references given by R. S. Conway, Italic _Dialects_, p. 84). One or two
inscriptions in Oscan survive (id. ib. 88-92), one of which is a Iovila
or heraldic dedication. The date of the general disuse of Oscan in the
town appears to be fixed about 180 B.C. by the request (Livy xl. 44)
which the Cumaeans addressed to Rome that they might be allowed to use
Latin for public purposes. Cumae now ceased to have any independent
history. It came under the supremacy of Rome in 343 (or 340) as Capua
did, obtained the _civitas sine suffragio_ and was governed after 318 by
the _praefecti Capuam Cumas_.     (R. S. C.)

In the Hannibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome. It probably
acquired civic rights in the Social War and remained a _municipium_
until Augustus established a colony here. Under the empire it is spoken
of as a quiet country town, in contrast to the gay and fashionable
Baiae, which, however, with the _lacus Avernus_ and _lacus Lucrinus_,
formed a part of its territory. Cicero's villa on the east bank of the
latter, for example, which he called the Academia, was also known as
Cumanum. In the Gothic wars the acropolis of Cumae was, except Naples,
the only fortified town in Campania, and it retained its military
importance until it was destroyed by the Neapolitans in 1205, since,
which time it has been deserted.

The acropolis hill (269 ft. above sea-level), a mass of trachyte which
has broken through the surrounding tufa, lies hardly 100 yds. from the
low sandy shore. It is traversed by caves, which are at three different
levels with many branches. Some of them may belong to a remote date,
while others may be quarries, but they have not been thoroughly
investigated. They are famous in legend as the seat of the oracle of the
Cumaean Sibyl.

The acropolis has only one approach, on the south-east; on all other
sides it falls away steeply. Remains of fortifications of all ages run
round the edge of the hill; some of the original Greek work, in finely
hewn rectangular tufa blocks, exists on the east. The medieval line
follows the ancient, except on the N.E., where it takes in a larger
area.

Within the acropolis stood the temple of Apollo, erected, according to
tradition, by Daedalus himself, the remains of which, restored in Roman
times, were discovered in 1817, on the eastern and lower summit. On the
higher western summit stood another temple, excavated in 1792, but now
covered up again. This may be that of the Olympian Zeus (Liv. xxvii.
23).

There are also various remains of buildings of the imperial period, and
these are far more frequent on the site of the lower town (now occupied
by vineyards) which lies below the acropolis to the south. The line of
the city walls can be traced both on the E. and on the W., though the
remains on the E. are insignificant, and on the W. (the seaward side)
only the scarping of the hill remains. To the S. of the town, just
outside the wall, is the amphitheatre. To the N. of it is the point
where the roads from Liternum (the Via Domitiana running along the sandy
coast), Capua (a branch of the Via Campana), Misenum and Puteoli meet.
The last passes through the Arco Felice, an arch of brick-faced concrete
63 ft. high which spans a cutting through the Monte Grillo, made by
Domitian to shorten the course of the road, which had hitherto run
farther north. The Grotto della Pace leads to the shores of Avernus. On
the E. side of Cumae are considerable remains of the Roman period, among
them those of the temple of Demeter, as restored by the family of the
Lucceii.

The cemeteries of Cumae extended on all sides of the ancient city,
except towards the sea, but the most important lay on the north, between
this temple and the Lago di Licola. Excavations during the 19th century
in Greek, Samnite and Roman graves have produced many important objects,
now in the various museums of Europe, but especially at Naples. Recent
discoveries in this necropolis (including that of a circular archaic
tomb with a conical roof) have led to considerable discussion as to the
true date of the foundation of Cumae, and have made it clear that, in
any case, a pre-Hellenic indigenous settlement existed here--a result of
great importance.

  See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (Breslau, 1890), 145 seq.; G. Pellegrini,
  _Monumenti dei Lincei_, xiii. (1903); G. Patroni, _Atti del Congresso
  di Scienze Storiche_ (1904), vol. v. p. 215 seq.     (T. As.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Mommsen, however (Corpus Inscrip. Latin. x., Berlin, 1883, p.
    170), rightly throws considerable doubt on the existence of
    Parthenope and even of Palaeopolis, of which there is some mention in
    Roman annals; under both he is inclined to trace Cumae itself.




CUMANA, a city and port of Venezuela, capital of the state of Bermudez,
situated on the Manzanares river about 1 m. above its mouth, 52 ft.
above sea-level and 180 m. E. of Caracas. It is the oldest existing
European settlement on the South American continent, having been founded
by Diego Castellon in 1523 under the name of Nueva Toledo. The city was
almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1766, and again in 1797.
Slight shocks are very frequent, some of them severe enough to cause
considerable damage to the buildings. The mean annual temperature is 83
deg. F. and the climate is enervating. In colonial times the city was
rich and prosperous and enjoyed a lucrative trade with the mother
country, its population at that time being estimated at 30,000, but much
of its prosperity has disappeared and its population is now estimated at
10,000. Excellent fruits are produced in its vicinity, and its exports
include cacao, coffee, sugar, hides, tobacco and sundry products in
small quantities. A tramway connects the city with its port at the mouth
of the Manzanares.




CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF. The earldom of Cumberland was held by
the family of Clifford (q.v.) from 1525 to 1643, when it became extinct
by the death of Henry, the 5th earl. The 1st earl of Cumberland was
Henry, 11th Lord Clifford (1493-1542), a son of Henry, 10th Lord
Clifford (c. 1454-1523). Created an earl by Henry VIII. in 1525, Henry
remained loyal during the great rising in the north of England in 1536,
and died on the 22nd of April 1542. His son and successor, Henry, the
2nd earl (c. 1517-1570), married Eleanor (d. 1547), a daughter of
Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, daughter of King Henry VII.;
he had the tastes of a scholar rather than a soldier, and died early in
1570. By his first wife, Eleanor, he left an only daughter Margaret
(1540-1596), who married Henry Stanley, 4th earl of Derby, and who in
1557 was regarded by many as the rightful heiress to the English throne.
By his second wife he left two sons and a daughter; his elder son George
succeeding to the earldom in 1570, and his younger son Francis
succeeding his brother in 1605. George, 3rd earl of Cumberland
(1558-1605), was born on the 8th of August 1558, and married Margaret
(c. 1560-1616), daughter of his guardian, Francis, 2nd earl of Bedford.
Although interested in mathematics and geography he passed his early
years in dissipation and extravagance; then he took to the sea,
commanded the "Bonaventure" against the Spanish Armada, and from this
time until his death on the 30th of October 1605 was mainly engaged in
fitting out and leading plundering expeditions, some of which,
especially the one undertaken in 1589, gained a large amount of booty.
The earl left no sons, and his barony was claimed by his only daughter
Anne (1590-1676), the wife successively of Richard Sackville, 3rd earl
of Dorset, and of Philip Herbert, 4th earl of Pembroke and Montgomery;
while his earldom was inherited by his brother Francis (1559-1641). A
long law-suit between the new earl and the countess Anne over the
possession of the family estates was settled in 1617. The 5th earl was
Francis's only son Henry (1591-1643), who was born on the 28th of
February 1591, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He was a
supporter of Charles I. during his two short wars with the Scots, and
also during the Civil War until his death on the 11th of December 1643.
He left no sons; his earldom became extinct; his new barony of Clifford,
created in 1628, passed to his daughter Elizabeth (1618-1691), wife of
Richard Boyle, earl of Cork and Burlington; and the Cumberland estates
to his cousin Anne, countess of Dorset and Pembroke.

In 1644 the English title of duke of Cumberland was created in favour of
Rupert, son of Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, and nephew
of Charles I. Having lapsed on Rupert's death without legitimate issue
in 1682, it was created again in 1689 to give an English title to
George, prince of Denmark, who had married the lady who afterwards
became Queen Anne. It again became extinct when George died in 1708, but
was revived in 1726 in favour of William Augustus, third son of George
II. As this duke was never married the title lapsed on his death in
1765, but was revived in the following year in favour of Henry Frederick
(1745-1790), son of Frederick, prince of Wales, and brother of George
III. Having again become extinct on Henry Frederick's death, the title
of duke of Cumberland was created for the fifth time in favour of Ernest
Augustus, who was made duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale in 1799. In
1837 Ernest (q.v.) became king of Hanover, and on his death in 1851 the
title descended with the kingdom of Hanover to his son King George V.
(q.v.), and on George's death in 1878 to his grandson Ernest Augustus
(b. 1845). In 1866 Hanover was annexed by Prussia, but King George died
without renouncing his rights. His son Ernest, while maintaining his
claim to the kingdom of Hanover, is generally known by his title of duke
of Cumberland.




CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718), English philosopher and bishop of
Peterborough, the son of a citizen of London, was born in the parish of
St Ann, near Aldersgate. He was educated in St Paul's school, and at
Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship. He took
the degree of B.A. in 1653; and, having proceeded M.A. in 1656, was next
year incorporated to the same degree in the university of Oxford. For
some time he studied medicine; and although he did not adhere to this
profession, he retained his knowledge of anatomy and medicine. He took
the degree of B.D. in 1663 and that of D.D. in 1680. Among his
contemporaries and intimate friends were Dr Hezekiah Burton, Sir Samuel
Morland, who was distinguished as a mathematician, Sir Orlando
Bridgeman, who became keeper of the great seal, and Samuel Pepys. To
this academical connexion he appears to have been in a great measure
indebted for his advancement in the Church. When Bridgeman was appointed
lord keeper, he nominated Cumberland and Burton as his chaplains, nor
did he afterwards neglect the interest of either. Cumberland's first
preferment, bestowed upon him in 1658 by Sir John Norwich, was the
rectory of Brampton in Northamptonshire. In 1661 he was appointed one of
the twelve preachers of the university. The lord keeper, who obtained
his office in 1667, invited him to London, and soon afterwards bestowed
upon him the rectory of Allhallows at Stamford, where he acquired new
credit by the fidelity with which he discharged his duties. In addition
to his ordinary work he undertook the weekly lecture. This labour he
constantly performed, and in the meantime found leisure to prosecute his
scientific and philological studies.

At the age of forty he published his earliest work, entitled _De legibus
naturae disquisitio philosophica, in qua earum forma, summa capita,
ordo, promulgatio, el obligatio e rerum natura investigantur; quin etiam
elementa philosophiae Hobbianae, cum moralis tum civilis, considerantur
et refutantur_ (London, 1672). It is dedicated to Sir Orlando Bridgeman,
and is prefaced by an "Alloquium ad Lectorem," contributed by Dr Burton.
It appeared during the same year as Pufendorf's _De jure naturae et
gentium_, and was highly commended in a subsequent publication by
Pufendorf, whose approbation must have had the effect of making it known
on the continent. Having thus established a solid reputation, Cumberland
next prepared a work on a very different subject--_An Essay towards the
Recovery of the Jewish Measures and Weights, comprehending their Monies;
by help of ancient standards, compared with ours of England: useful also
to state many of those of the Greeks and Romans, and the Eastern
Nations_ (London, 1686). This work, dedicated to Pepys, obtained a
copious notice from Leclerc, and was translated into French.

About this period he was depressed by apprehensions respecting the
growth of Popery; but his fears were dispelled by the Revolution, which
brought along with it another material change in his circumstances. One
day in 1691 he went, according to his custom on a post-day, to read the
newspaper at a coffee-house in Stamford, and there, to his surprise, he
read that the king had nominated him to the bishopric of Peterborough.
The bishop elect was scarcely known at court, and he had resorted to
none of the usual methods of advancing his temporal interest.

  "Being then sixty years old," says his great-grandson, "he was with
  difficulty persuaded to accept the offer, when it came to him from
  authority. The persuasion of his friends, particularly Sir Orlando
  Bridgeman, at length overcame his repugnance; and to that see, though
  very moderately endowed, he for ever after devoted himself, and
  resisted every offer of translation, though repeatedly made and
  earnestly recommended. To such of his friends as pressed an exchange
  upon him he was accustomed to reply, that Peterborough was his first
  espoused, and should be his only one."

He discharged his new duties with energy and kept up his episcopal
visitations till his eightieth year. His charges to the clergy are
described as plain and unambitious, the earnest breathings of a pious
mind. When Dr Wilkins (David Wilke) published the New Testament in
Coptic he presented a copy to the bishop, who began to study the
language at the age of eighty-three. "At this age," says his chaplain,
"he mastered the language, and went through great part of this version,
and would often give me excellent hints and remarks, as he proceeded in
reading of it." He died in 1718, in the eighty-seventh year of his age;
he was found sitting in his library, in the attitude of one asleep, and
with a book in his hand.[1] His great-grandson was Richard Cumberland,
the dramatist.

Bishop Cumberland was distinguished by his gentleness and humility. He
could not be roused to anger, and spent his days in unbroken serenity.
The basis of his ethical theory is Benevolence, and is the natural
outcome of his temperament. He was a man of a sound understanding,
improved by extensive learning, and left behind him several monuments of
his talents and industry. His favourite motto was that a man had better
"wear out than rust out."

The philosophy of Cumberland is expounded in the treatise _De legibus
naturae_. The merits of the work are almost confined to its speculative
theories; its style is destitute of strength and grace, and its
reasoning is diffuse and unmethodical. Its main design is to combat the
principles which Hobbes had promulgated as to the constitution of man,
the nature of morality, and the origin of society, and to prove that
self-advantage is not the chief end of man, that force is not the source
of personal obligation to moral conduct nor the foundation of social
rights, and that the state of nature is not a state of war. The views of
Hobbes seem to Cumberland utterly subversive of religion, morality and
civil society, and he endeavours, as a rule, to establish directly
antagonistic propositions. He refrains, however, from denunciation, and
is a fair opponent up to the measure of his insight.

Laws of nature are defined by him as "immutably true propositions
regulative of voluntary actions as to the choice of good and the
avoidance of evil, and which carry with them an obligation to outward
acts of obedience, even apart from civil laws and from any
considerations of compacts constituting government." This definition, he
says, will be admitted by all parties. Some deny that such laws exist,
but they will grant that this is what ought to be understood by them.
There is thus common ground for the two opposing schools of moralists to
join issue. The question between them is, Do such laws exist or do they
not? In reasoning thus Cumberland obviously forgot what the position
maintained by his principal antagonist really was. Hobbes must have
refused to accept the definition proposed. He did not deny that there
were laws of nature, laws antecedent to government, laws even in a sense
eternal and immutable. The virtues as means to happiness seemed to him
to be such laws. They precede civil constitution, which merely perfects
the obligation to practise them. He expressly denied, however, that
"they carry with them an obligation to outward acts of obedience, even
apart from civil laws and from any consideration of compacts
constituting governments." And many besides Hobbes must have felt
dissatisfied with the definition. It is ambiguous and obscure. In what
sense is a law of nature a "proposition"? Is it as the expression of a
constant relation among facts, or is it as the expression of a divine
commandment? A proposition is never in itself an ultimate fact although
it may be the statement of such a fact. And in what sense is a law of
nature an "immutably true" proposition? Is it so because men always and
everywhere accept and act on it, or merely because they always and
everywhere ought to accept and act on it? The definition, in fact,
explains nothing.

The existence of such laws may, according to Cumberland, be established
in two ways. The inquirer may start either from effects or from causes.
The former method had been taken by Grotius, Robert Sharrock (1630-1684)
and John Selden. They had sought to prove that there were universal
truths, entitled to be called laws of nature, from the concurrence of
the testimonies of many men, peoples and ages, and through generalizing
the operations of certain active principles. Cumberland admits this
method to be valid, but he prefers the other, that from causes to
effects, as showing more convincingly that the laws of nature carry with
them a divine obligation. It shows not only that these laws are
universal, but that they were intended as such; that man has been
constituted as he is in order that they might be. In the prosecution of
this method he expressly declines to have recourse to what he calls "the
short and easy expedient of the Platonists," the assumption of innate
ideas of the laws of nature. He thinks it ill-advised to build the
doctrines of natural religion and morality on a hypothesis which many
philosophers, both Gentile and Christian, had rejected, and which could
not be proved against Epicureans, the principal impugners of the
existence of laws of nature. He cannot assume, he says, that such ideas
existed from eternity in the divine mind, but must start from the data
of sense and experience, and thence by search into the nature of things
discover their laws. It is only through nature that we can rise to
nature's God. His attributes are not to be known by direct intuition.
He, therefore, held that the ground taken up by the Cambridge Platonists
could not be maintained against Hobbes. His sympathies, however, were
all on their side, and he would do nothing to diminish their chances of
success. He would not even oppose the doctrine of innate ideas, because
it looked with a friendly eye upon piety and morality. He granted that
it might, perhaps, be the case that ideas were _both_ born with us and
afterwards impressed upon us from without.

Cumberland's ethical theory (see ETHICS) is summed up in his principle
of universal Benevolence, the one source of moral good. "No action can
be morally good which does not in its own nature contribute somewhat to
the happiness of men." The theory is important in comparison (1) with
that of Hobbes, and (2) with modern utilitarianism.

1. Cumberland's Benevolence is, deliberately, the precise antithesis to
the Egoism of Hobbes. To this fact it owes its existence and also its
extravagance. Feeling that the most forcible method of attacking Hobbes
was to assert the opposite in the same form, he maintained that the
whole-hearted pursuit of the good of all contributes to the good of each
and brings personal happiness; that the opposite process involves misery
to individuals including the self. If, then, Hobbes went to the one
extreme of postulating selfishness as the sole motive of human action,
Cumberland was equally extravagant as regards Benevolence. The testimony
of history shows, _prima facie_ at least, that both motives have
operated throughout, and just as self-interest has been increasingly
modified by conscious benevolence, so benevolence alone does not explain
all personal virtue nor love to God. But it is essential to notice that
Cumberland never appealed to the evidence of history, although he
believed that the law of universal benevolence had been accepted by all
nations and generations; and he carefully abstains from arguments
founded on revelation, feeling that it was indispensable to establish
the principles of moral right on nature as a basis. His method was the
deduction of the propriety of certain actions from the consideration of
the character and position of rational agents in the universe. He argues
that all that we see in nature is framed so as to avoid and reject what
is dangerous to the integrity of its constitution; that the human race
would be an anomaly in the world had it not for end its conservation in
its best estate; that benevolence of all to all is what in a rational
view of the creation is alone accordant with its general plan; that
various peculiarities of man's body indicate that he has been made to
co-operate with his fellow men and to maintain society; and that certain
faculties of his mind show the common good to be more essentially
connected with his perfection than any pursuit of private advantage. The
whole course of his reasoning proceeds on, and is pervaded by, the
principle of final causes.

2. To the question, What is the foundation of rectitude?, he replies,
the greatest good of the universe of rational beings. He may be regarded
as the founder of English utilitarianism, but his utilitarianism is
distinct from what is known as the selfish system; it goes to the
contrary extreme, by almost absorbing individual in universal good. Nor
does it look merely to the lower pleasures, the pleasures of sense, for
the constituents of good, but rises above them to include especially
what tends to perfect, strengthen and expand our true nature. Existence
and the extension of our powers of body and mind are held to be good for
their own sakes without respect to enjoyment. Cumberland's views on this
point were long abandoned by utilitarians as destroying the homogeneity
and self-consistency of their theory; but J. S. Mill and some recent
writers have reproduced them as necessary to its defence against charges
not less serious than even inconsistency.

The answer which Cumberland gives to the question, Whence comes our
obligation to observe the laws of nature?, is that happiness flows from
obedience, and misery from disobedience to them, not as the mere results
of a blind necessity, but as the expressions of the divine will. Reward
and punishment, supplemented by future retribution, are, in his view,
the sanctions of the laws of nature, the sources of our obligation to
obey them. To the other great ethical question, How are moral
distinctions apprehended?, he replies that it is by means of right
reason. But by right reason he means merely the power of rising to
general laws of nature from particular facts of experience. It is no
peculiar faculty or distinctive function of mind; it involves no
original element of cognition; it begins with sense and experience; it
is gradually generated and wholly derivative. This doctrine lies only in
germ in Cumberland, but will be found in full flower in Hartley,
Mackintosh and later associationists.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editions of the _De legibus naturae_ (Lubeck, 1683 and
  1694); English versions by John Maxwell, prebendary of Connor, _A
  Treatise of the Laws of Nature_ (London, 1727), and John Towers
  (Dublin, 1750); French translation by Jean Barbeyrac (Amsterdam,
  1744); James Tyrrell (1642-1718), grandson of Archbishop Ussher,
  published an abridgment of Cumberland's views in _A Brief Disquisition
  of the Laws of Nature according to the Principles laid down in the
  Rev. Dr Cumberland's Latin Treatise_ (London, 1692; ed. 1701). For
  biographical details see Squier Payne, _Account of the Life and
  Writings of R. Cumberland_ (London, 1720); Cumberland's _Memoirs_
  (1807), i. 3-6; Pepys's _Diary_. For his philosophy, see E. Albee,
  _Philosophical Review_, iv. 3 (1895), pp. 264 and 371; F. E.
  Spaulding, _R. Cumberland als Begrunder der englischen Ethik_
  (Leipzig, 1894); and text-books on ethics.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The care of his posthumous publications devolved upon his
    domestic chaplain and son-in-law, Squier Payne, who soon after the
    bishop's death edited "_Sanchoniato's Phoenician History_, translated
    from the first book of Eusebius, _De praeparatione evangelica_: with
    a continuation of Sanchoniato's history of Eratosthenes Cyrenaeus's
    Canon, which Dicaearchus connects with the first Olympiad. These
    authors are illustrated with many historical and chronological
    remarks, proving them to contain a series of Phoenician and Egyptian
    chronology, from the first man to the first Olympiad, agreeable to
    the Scripture accounts" (London, 1720). The preface contains an
    account of the life, character and writings of the author, which was
    likewise published in a separate form, and exhibits a pleasing
    picture of his happy old age. A German translation appeared under the
    title of _Cumberlands phonizische Historie des Sanchoniathons,
    ubersetzt von Joh. Phil. Cassel_ (Magdeburg, 1755). The sequel to the
    work was likewise published by Payne--_Origines gentium
    antiquissimae; or Attempts for discovering the Times of the First
    Planting of Nations: in several Tracts_ (London, 1724).




CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811), English dramatist, was born in the
master's lodge of Trinity College, Cambridge, on the 19th of February
1732. He was the great-grandson of the bishop of Peterborough; and his
father, Dr Denison Cumberland, became successively bishop of Clonfert
and of Kilmore. His mother was Joanna, the youngest daughter of the
great scholar Richard Bentley, and the heroine of John Byrom's once
popular little eclogue, _Colin and Phoebe_. Of the great master of
Trinity his grandson has left a kindly account; he afterwards collected
all the pamphlets bearing on the _Letters of Phalaris_ controversy, and
piously defended the reputation of his ancestor in his _Letter_ to
Bishop Lowth, who had called Bentley "aut caprimulgus aut fossor."
Cumberland was in his seventh year sent to the grammar-school at Bury St
Edmunds, and he relates how, on the head-master Arthur Kinsman
undertaking, in conversation with Bentley, to make the grandson as good
a scholar as the grandfather himself, the latter retorted: "Pshaw,
Arthur, how can that be, when I have forgot more than thou ever
knewest?" Bentley died during his grandson's Bury schooldays; and in
1744 the boy, who, while rising to the head of his school, had already
begun to "try his strength in several slight attempts towards the
drama," was removed to Westminster, then at the height of its reputation
under Dr Nicholls. Among his schoolfellows here were Warren Hastings,
George Colman (the elder), Lloyd, and (though he does not mention them
as such) Churchill and Cowper. From Westminster Cumberland passed, in
his fourteenth year, to Trinity College, Cambridge, where in 1750 he
took his degree as tenth wrangler. His account of his degree
examination, as well as that for a fellowship at his college, part of
which he underwent in the "judges' chamber," where he was born, is
curious; he was by virtue of an alteration in the statutes elected to
his fellowship in the second year of his degree.

Meanwhile his projects of work as a classical scholar had been
interspersed with attempts at imitating Spenser--whom, by his mother's
advice, he "laid upon the shelf"--and a dramatic effort (unprinted) on
the model of Mason's _Elfrida_, called _Caractacus_. He had just begun
to read for his fellowship, when he was offered the post of private
secretary by the earl of Halifax, first lord of trade and plantations in
the duke of Newcastle's ministry. His family persuaded him to accept the
office, to which he returned after his election as fellow. It left him
abundant leisure for literary pursuits, which included the design of a
poem in blank verse on India. He resigned his Trinity fellowship on his
marriage--in 1759--to his cousin Elizabeth Ridge, to whom he had paid
his addresses on receiving through Lord Halifax "a small establishment
as crown-agent for Nova Scotia." In 1761 he accompanied his patron (who
had been appointed lord-lieutenant) to Ireland as Ulster secretary; and
in acknowledgment of his services was afterwards offered a baronetcy. By
declining this he thinks he gave offence; at all events, when in 1762
Halifax became secretary of state, Cumberland in vain applied for the
post of under-secretary, and could only obtain the clerkship of reports
at the Board of Trade under Lord Hillsborough. While he takes some
credit to himself for his incorruptibility when in Ireland, he showed
zeal for his friend and secured a bishopric for his father. On the
accession to office of Lord George Germaine (Sackville) in 1775,
Cumberland was appointed secretary to the Board of Trade and
Plantations, which post he held till the abolition of that board in 1782
by Burke's economical reform. Before this event he had, in 1780, been
sent on a confidential mission to Spain, to negotiate a separate treaty
of peace with that power; but though he was well received by King
Charles III. and his minister Floridablanca, the question of Gibraltar
proved a stumbling-block, and the Gordon riots at home a most untoward
occurrence. He was recalled in 1781, and was refused repayment of the
expenses he had incurred, towards which only L1000 had been advanced to
him. He thus found himself L4500 out of pocket: in vain, he says, "I
wearied the door of Lord North till his very servants drove me from it";
his memorial remained unread or unnoticed either by the prime minister
or by secretary Robinson, through whom the original promise had been
made. Soon after this experience he lost his office, and had to retire
on a compensation allowance of less than half-pay. He now took up his
residence at Tunbridge Wells; but during his last years he mostly lived
in London, where he died on the 7th of May 1811. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey, a short oration being pronounced on this occasion by
his friend Dean Vincent.

Cumberland's numerous literary productions are spread over the whole of
his long life; but it is only by his contributions to the drama, and
perhaps by his _Memoirs_, that he is likely to be remembered. The
collection of essays and other pieces entitled _The Observer_ (1785),
afterwards republished together with a translation of _The Clouds_,
found a place among _The British Essayists_. For the accounts given in
_The Observer_ of the Greek writers, especially the comic poets,
Cumberland availed himself of Bentley's MSS. and annotated books in his
possession; his translations from the Greek fragments, which are not
inelegant but lack closeness, are republished in James Bailey's
_Comicorum Graecorum_ (part i., 1840) and _Hermesianactis, Archilochi,
et Pratinae fragmenta_. Cumberland further produced _Anecdotes of
Eminent Painters in Spain_ (1782 and 1787); a _Catalogue of the King of
Spain's Paintings_ (1787); two novels--_Arundel_ (1789), a story in
letters, and _Henry_ (1795), a "diluted comedy" on the construction and
polishing of which he seems to have expended great care; a religious
epic, _Calvary, or the Death of Christ_ (1792); his last publication was
a poem entitled _Retrospection_. He is also supposed to have joined Sir
James Bland Burges in an epic, the _Exodiad_ (1807), and in _John de
Lancaster_, a novel. Besides these he wrote the _Letter to the Bishop of
O[xfor]d_ in vindication of Bentley (1767); another _to the Bishop of
Llandaff_ (Richard Watson) on his proposal for equalizing the revenues
of the Established Church (1783); a _Character of the late Lord
Sackville_ (1785), whom in his _Memoirs_ he vindicates from the stigma
of cowardice; and an anonymous pamphlet, _Curtius rescued from the
Gulf_, against the redoubtable Dr Parr. He was also the author of a
version of fifty of the Psalms of David; of a tract on the evidences of
Christianity; and of other religious exercises in prose and verse, the
former including "as many sermons as would make a large volume, some of
which have been delivered from the pulpits." Lastly, he edited, in 1809,
a short-lived critical journal called _The London Review_, intended to
be a rival to the _Quarterly_, with signed articles.

Cumberland's _Memoirs_, which he began at the close of 1804, and
concluded in September 1805, were published in 1806, and a supplement
was added in 1807. This narrative, which includes a long account of his
Spanish mission, contains some interesting reminiscences of several
persons of note--more especially Bubb Dodington, Single-Speech Hamilton,
and Lord George Sackville among politicians, and of Garrick, Foote and
Goldsmith; but the accuracy of some of the anecdotes concerning the
last-named is not beyond suspicion. The book exhibits its author as an
amiable egotist, careful of his own reputation, given to prolixity and
undistinguished by wit, but a good observer of men and manners. The
uneasy self-absorption which Sheridan immortalized in the character of
Sir Fretful Plagiary in _The Critic_ is apparent enough in this
autobiography, but presents itself there in no offensive form. The
incidental criticisms of actors have been justly praised.

Cumberland was hardly warranted in the conjecture that no English author
had yet equalled his list of dramas in point of number; but his plays,
published and unpublished, have been computed to amount to fifty-four.
About 35 of these are regular plays, to which have been added 4 operas
and a farce; and about half of the whole list are comedies. The best
known of them belong to what he was pleased to term "legitimate comedy,"
and to that species of it known as "sentimental." The essential
characteristic of these plays is the combination of plots of domestic
interest with the rhetorical enforcement of moral precepts, and with
such small comic humour as the author possesses. These comedies are
primarily, to borrow Cumberland's own phraseology, designed as "attempts
upon the heart." He takes great credit to himself for weaving his plays
out of "homely stuff, right British drugget," and for eschewing "the
vile refuse of the Gallic stage"; on the other hand, he borrowed from
the sentimental fiction of his own country, including Richardson,
Fielding and Sterne. The favourite theme of his plays is virtue in
distress or danger, but safe of its reward in the fifth act; their most
constant characters are men of feeling and young ladies who are either
prudes or coquettes. Cumberland's comic power--such as it was--lay in
the invention of comic characters taken from the "outskirts of the
empire," and professedly intended to vindicate from English prejudice
the good elements in the Scotch, the Irish and the colonial character.
For the rest, patriotic sentiment liberally asserts itself by the side
of general morality. If Cumberland's dialogue lacks brilliance and his
characters reality, the construction of the plots is as a rule, skilful,
and the situations are contrived with what Cumberland indisputably
possessed--a thorough insight into the secrets of theatrical effect. It
should be added that, though Cumberland's sentimentality is often
wearisome, his morality is generally sound; that if he was without the
genius requisite for elevating the national drama, he did his best to
keep it pure and sweet; and that if he borrowed much, as he undoubtedly
did, it was not the vicious attractions of other dramatists of which he
was the plagiary.

His debut as a dramatic author was made with a tragedy, _The Banishment
of Cicero_, published in 1761 after its rejection by Garrick; this was
followed in 1765 by a musical drama, _The Summer's Tale_, subsequently
compressed into an afterpiece _Amelia_ (1768). Cumberland first essayed
sentimental comedy in _The Brothers_ (1769). The theme of this comedy is
inspired by Fielding's _Tom Jones_; its comic characters are the jolly
old tar Captain Ironsides, and the henpecked husband Sir Benjamin Dove,
whose progress to self-assertion is genuinely comic, though not
altogether original. Horace Walpole said that it acted well, but read
ill, though he could distinguish in it "strokes of Mr Bentley." The
epilogue paid a compliment to Garrick, who helped the production of
Cumberland's second comedy _The West-Indian_ (1771). The hero of this
comedy, which probably owes much to the suggestion of Garrick, is a
young scapegrace fresh from the tropics, "with rum and sugar enough
belonging to him to make all the water in the Thames into punch,"--a
libertine with generous instincts, which in the end prevail. This early
example of the modern _drame_ was received with the utmost favour; it
was afterwards translated into German by Boden, and Goethe acted in it
at the Weimar court. _The Fashionable Lover_ (1772) is a sentimental
comedy of the most pronounced type. _The Choleric Man_ (1774), founded
on the _Adelphi_ of Terence, is of a similar type, the comic element
rather predominating, but philanthropy being duly represented by a
virtuous lawyer called Manlove. Among his later comedies may be
mentioned _The Natural Son_ (1785), in which Major O'Flaherty who had
already figured in _The West-Indian_, makes his reappearance; _The
Impostors_ (1789), a comedy of intrigue; _The Box Lobby Challenge_
(1794), a protracted farce; _The Jew_ (1794), a serious play, highly
effective when the character of Sheva was played by the great German
actor Theodor Doring; _The Wheel of Fortune_ (1795), in which John
Kemble found a celebrated part in the misanthropist Penruddock, who
cannot forget but learns to forgive (a character declared by Kotzebue to
have been stolen from his _Menschenhass und Reue_), while the lawyer
Timothy Weasel was made comic by Richard Suett; _First Love_ (1795);
_The Last of the Family_ (1795); _False Impressions_ (1797); _The
Sailor's Daughter_ (1804); and a _Hint to Husbands_ (1806), which,
unlike the rest, is in blank verse. The other works printed during his
lifetime include _The Note of Hand_ (1774), a farce; the songs of his
musical comedy, _The Widow of Delphi_ (1780); his tragedies of _The
Battle of Hastings_ (1778); and _The Carmelite_ (1784), a romantic
domestic drama in blank verse, in the style of Home's _Douglas_,
furnishing some effective scenes for Mrs Siddons and John Kemble as
mother and son; and the domestic drama (in prose) of _The Mysterious
Husband_ (1783). His posthumously printed plays (published in 2 vols. in
1813) include the comedies of _The Walloons_ (acted in 1782); _The
Passive Husband_ (acted as _A Word for Nature_, 1798); _The Eccentric
Lover_ (acted 1798); and _Lovers' Resolutions_ (once acted in 1802); the
serious quasi-historic drama _Confession_; the drama _Don Pedro_ (acted
1796); and the tragedies of _Alcanor_ (acted as _The Arab_, 1785);
_Torrendal_; _The Sibyl, or The Elder Brutus_ (afterwards amalgamated
with other plays on the subject into a very successful tragedy for
Edmund Kean by Payne); _Tiberius in Capreae_; and _The False Demetrius_
(on a theme which attracted Schiller). Cumberland translated the
_Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1797), and altered for the stage Shakespeare's
_Timon of Athens_ (1771), Massinger's _The Bondman_ and _The Duke of
Milan_ (both 1779).

  In 1806-1807 appeared _Memoirs of R. Cumberland, written by himself_.
  Cumberland's novel, _Henry_, was printed in Ballantyne's Novelists'
  Library (1821), with a prefatory notice of the author by Sir Walter
  Scott. A so-called _Critical Examination_ of Cumberland's works and a
  memoir of the author based oh his autobiography, with the addition of
  some more or less feeble criticisms, by William Madford, appeared in
  1812. An excellent account of Cumberland is included in "George
  Paston's" _Little Memoirs of the Eighteenth Century_ (1901). Hettner
  well characterizes Cumberland's position in the history of the English
  drama in _Litteraturgesch. d. 18. Jahrhunderts_ (2nd ed., 1865), i.
  520. Cumberland's portrait by Romney (whose talent he was one of the
  first to encourage) is in the National Portrait Gallery.     (A. W. W.)




CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1721-1765), son of King George
II. and Queen Caroline, was born on the 15th of April 1721, and when
five years of age was created duke of Cumberland. His education was well
attended to, and his courage and capacity in outdoor exercises were
notable from his early years. He was intended by the king and queen for
the office of lord high admiral, and in 1740 he sailed as a volunteer in
the fleet under the command of Sir John Norris; but he quickly became
dissatisfied with the navy, and early in 1742 he began a military
career. In December 1742 he was made a major-general, and in the
following year he first saw active service in Germany. George II. and
the "martial boy" shared in the glory of Dettingen (June 27), and
Cumberland, who was wounded in the action, displayed an energy and
valour, the report of which in England founded his military popularity.
After the battle he was made lieutenant-general. In 1745, having been
made captain-general of the British land forces at home and in the
field, the duke was again in Flanders as commander-in-chief of the
allied British, Hanoverian, Austrian and Dutch troops. Advancing to the
relief of Tournay, which was besieged by Marshal Saxe, he engaged that
great general in the battle of Fontenoy (q v.) on the 11th of May. It
cannot now be doubted that, had the duke been supported by the allies in
his marvellously courageous attack on the superior positions of the
French army, Fontenoy would not have been recorded as a defeat to the
British arms. He himself was in the midst of the heroic column which
penetrated the French centre, and his conduct of the inevitable retreat
was unusually cool and skilful.

Notwithstanding the severity of his discipline, the young duke had the
power to inspire his men with a strong attachment to his person and a
very lively _esprit de corps_. As a general his courage and resolution
were not sufficiently tempered with sagacity and tact; but he displayed
an energy and power in military affairs which pointed him out to the
British people as the one commander upon whom they could rely to put a
decisive stop to the successful career of Prince Charles Edward in the
rebellion of 1745-1746. John (Earl) Ligonier wrote of him at this time:
"Ou je suis fort trompe ou il se forme la un grand capitaine."

He was recalled from Flanders, and immediately proceeded with his
preparations for quelling the insurrection. He joined the midland army
under Sir John Ligonier, and was at once in pursuit of his swift-footed
foe. But the retreat of Charles Edward from Derby disconcerted his
plans; and it was not till they had reached Penrith, and the advanced
portion of his army had been repulsed on Clifton Moor, that he became
aware how hopeless an attempt to overtake the retreating Highlanders
would then be. Carlisle having been retaken, he retired to London, till
the news of the defeat of Hawley at Falkirk roused again the fears of
the English people, and centred the hopes of Britain on the royal duke.
He was appointed commander of the forces in Scotland.

Having arrived in Edinburgh on the 30th of January 1746, he at once
proceeded in search of the young Pretender. He diverged, however, to
Aberdeen, where he employed his time in training the well-equipped
forces now under his command for the peculiar nature of the warfare in
which they were about to engage. What the old and experienced generals
of his time had failed to accomplish or even to understand, the young
duke of Cumberland, as yet only twenty-four years of age, effected with
simplicity and ease. He prepared to dispose his army so as to withstand
with firmness that onslaught on which all Highland successes depended;
and he reorganized the forces and restored their discipline and
self-confidence in a few weeks.

On the 8th of April 1746 he set out from Aberdeen towards Inverness, and
on the 15th he fought the decisive battle of Culloden, in which, and in
the pursuit which followed, the forces of the Pretender were completely
destroyed. He had become convinced that the sternest measures were
needed to break down the Jacobitism of the Highlanders. He told his
troops to take notice that the enemy's orders were to give no quarter to
the "troops of the elector," and they took the hint. No trace of such
orders remains (see MURRAY, LORD GEORGE), and it is probable that
Cumberland had merely received word of wild talk in the enemy's camp,
which he credited the more easily as he thought that those who were
capable of rebellion were capable of any crime. On account of the
merciless severity with which the fugitives were treated, Cumberland
received the nickname of the "Butcher." That the implied taunt was
unjust need not be laboured. It was used for political purposes in
England, and his own brother, the prince of Wales, encouraged, it
appears, the virulent attacks which were made upon the duke. In any case
there is a marked similarity between Cumberland's conduct in Scotland
and that of Cromwell in Ireland. Both dared to do acts which they knew
would be cast against them for the rest of their lives, and terrorized
an obstinate and unyielding enemy into submission. How real was the
danger of a protracted guerrilla warfare in the Highlands may be judged
from the explicit declarations of Jacobite leaders that they intended to
continue the struggle. As it was, the war came to an end almost at once.
Here, as always, Cumberland preserved the strictest discipline in his
camp. He was inflexible in the execution of what he deemed to be his
duty, without favour to any man. At the same time he exercised his
influence in favour of clemency in special cases that were brought to
his notice. Some years later James Wolfe spoke of the duke as "for ever
doing noble and generous actions."

The relief occasioned to Britain by the duke's victorious efforts was
acknowledged by his being voted an income of L40,000 per annum in
addition to his revenue as a prince of the royal house. The duke took no
part in the Flanders campaign of 1746, but in 1747 he again opposed the
still victorious Marshal Saxe; and received a heavy defeat at the battle
of Lauffeld, or Val, near Maestricht (2nd of July 1747). During the ten
years of peace Cumberland occupied himself chiefly with his duties as
captain-general, and the result of his work was clearly shown in the
conduct of the army in the Seven Years' War. His unpopularity, which had
steadily increased since Culloden, interfered greatly with his success
in politics, and when the death of the prince of Wales brought a minor
next in succession to the throne the duke was not able to secure for
himself the contingent regency, which was vested in the princess-dowager
of Wales. In 1757, the Seven Years' War having broken out, Cumberland
was placed at the head of a motley army of allies to defend Hanover. At
Hastenbeck, near Hameln, on the 26th of July 1757, he was defeated by
the superior forces of D'Estrees (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). In September of
the same year his defeat had almost become disgrace. Driven from point
to point, and at last hemmed in by the French under Richelieu, he
capitulated at Klosterzeven on the 8th of the month, agreeing to disband
his army and to evacuate Hanover. His disgrace was completed on his
return to England by the king's refusal to be bound by the terms of the
duke's agreement. In chagrin and disappointment he retired into private
life, after having formally resigned the public offices he held. In his
retirement he made no attempt to justify his conduct, applying in his
own case the discipline he had enforced in others. For a few years he
lived quietly at Windsor, and subsequently in London, taking but little
part in politics. He did much, however, to displace the Bute ministry
and that of Grenville, and endeavoured to restore Pitt to office. Public
opinion had now set in his favour, and he became almost as popular as he
had been in his youth. Shortly before his death the duke was requested
to open negotiations with Pitt for a return to power. This was, however,
unsuccessful. On the 31st of October 1765 the duke died.

  A Life of the duke of Cumberland by Andrew Henderson was published in
  1766, and anonymous (Richard Rolt) _Historical Memoirs_ appeared in
  1767. See especially A. N. Campbell Maclachlan, _William Augustus,
  Duke of Cumberland_ (1876).




CUMBERLAND, the north-westernmost county of England, bounded N. by the
Scottish counties of Dumfries and Roxburgh, E. by Northumberland, S. by
Westmorland and Lancashire, and W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1520.4
sq m. In the south the county includes about one-half of the celebrated
LAKE DISTRICT (q.v.), with the highest mountain in England, Scafell Pike
(3210 ft.), and the majority of the principal lakes, among which are
Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, Buttermere and Crummock Water,
Ennerdale, Wastwater, and, on the boundary with Westmorland, Ullswater.
From this district valleys radiate north, west and south to a flat
coastal belt, the widest part of which (about 8 m.) is found in the
north in the Solway Plain, bordering Solway Firth, which here intervenes
between England and Scotland. The valley of the Eden, opening upon this
plain from the south-east, separates the mountainous Lake District from
the straight westward face of a portion of the Pennine Chain (q.v.),
which, though little of it lies within this county, reaches its highest
point within it in Cross Fell (2930 ft.). A well-marked pass, called the
Tyne Gap, at the water-parting between the rivers Irthing and South
Tyne, traversed by the Newcastle & Carlisle railway, intervenes between
these hills and their northward continuation in the hills of the
Scottish border. Besides the waters of the Eden, Solway Firth receives
those of the Esk, which enter Cumberland from Scotland. Liddel Water,
joining this river from the north east from Liddisdale, forms a large
part of the boundary with Scotland. The Eden receives the Irthing from
the east, and from the Lake District the Caldew, rising beneath Skiddaw
and joining the main river at Carlisle, and the Eamont, draining
Ullswater and forming part of the boundary with Westmorland. The
principal streams flowing east and south from the Lake District are the
Derwent, from Borrowdale and Derwentwater, the Eden from Ennerdale, the
Esk from Eskdale, and the Duddon, forming the greater part of the
boundary with Lancashire. There are valuable salmon fisheries in the
Eden, and trout are taken in many of the streams and lakes.

  _Geology._--The mountainous portion of Cumberland is built up of two
  different types of rock. The older, a sedimentary slaty series of
  Ordovician age, the Skiddaw slates, surrounds Bassenthwaite,
  Saddleback, Crummock Water, Keswick and Cockermouth and the western
  end of Ennerdale Water. The same formation is found in the northern
  flanks of Ullswater also north and east of Whitbeck. The other type of
  rock is volcanic; it gives a more rugged aspect to the scenery, as may
  be seen in comparing the rough outlines of Scafell and Honister Crags
  or Helvellyn with the smoother form of Saddleback or Skiddaw. These
  volcanic rocks, owing to much alteration, are often slaty; they have
  been called the "green slates and porphyries" or the Borrowdale
  Series. The Skiddaw slates are usually separated from the newer green
  slates above them by a plane of differential movement, for both have
  been thrust by earth-pressures from south to north, but the former
  rocks have travelled farther than the latter which have lagged behind;
  hence Messrs Marr and Harker describe the plane of separation as a
  "lag-fault." Much general faulting and folding have resulted from the
  movement; the thrusting took place in Devonian times. About the same
  period great masses of granitic rock were intruded into the slates in
  the form of laccolites, which often lie along the lag planes. Such
  rocks are the granophyre hills of Buttermere and Ennerdale, the
  microgranite patches on either side of the Vale of St John, and the
  great mass of Eskdale granite which reaches from Wastwater to the
  flanks of Black Combe. At Carrock Fell, N.E. of Skiddaw, is an
  extremely interesting complex of volcanic rocks, and in many other
  places are diabase and other forms, e.g. the well-known rock at Castle
  Head, Keswick.

  From Pooley Bridge, Ullswater, on the east, by Udale round to Egremont
  on the west, the mountainous region just described, is surrounded by
  the Carboniferous Limestone series, with a conglomerate at the base.
  Upon these rocks the coalfield of Whitehaven rests and extends as far
  as Maryport. The coal seams are worked for some distance beneath the
  sea. The vale of Eden between Penrith, Hornsby and Wreay is occupied
  by Permian sandstone, usually bright red in colour. Red Triassic rocks
  form a strip about 4 m. broad east of the Permian outcrop; a similar
  strip forms a coastal fringe from St Bees Head to Duddon Sands. The
  same formations are spread out round Carlisle, Brampton, Longtown,
  Wigton and Aspatria. East of Carlisle they are covered by an outlier
  of Lias. A great dislocation, the Pennine Fault, runs along the
  eastern side of the vale of Eden; it throws up the Lower Carboniferous
  limestones with their associated shales and sandstones to form the
  elevated ground in the north and north-east of the county. Several
  basic intrusions penetrate the limestone series, the best known being
  the Whin Sill, which may be traced for a number of miles northward
  from Crossfell. Evidences of glacial action are abundant; till with
  sands and gravel lie on the lower ground; striated rocks and _roches
  moutonnees_ are common; perched blocks are found on the plateau by
  Sprinkling Tarn and elsewhere. Moraine mounds are quite numerous in
  the valleys, and have frequently been the cause of small lakes.

_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is generally temperate, but in
the higher parts bleak, snow sometimes lying fully six months of the
year on Cross Fell and the mountains of the Lake District. As regards
rainfall, the physical configuration makes for contrast. At Carlisle, on
the Solway plain, the mean annual fall is 30.6 in. At Penrith, on the
north-eastern flank of the Lake District, it is 31.67; on the western
flank 42.3 in. are recorded at Ravenglass, close to the coast, and 51.78
at Cockermouth, some miles inland. In the heart of the district,
however, the fall is as a rule much heavier, in fact, the heaviest
recorded in the British Isles (see LAKE DISTRICT). Somewhat less than
three-fifths of the total area of the county is under cultivation, the
proportion being higher than that of the neighbouring counties of
Northumberland and Westmorland, but still much below the average of the
English counties. Black peaty earth is the most prevalent soil in the
mountainous districts; but dry loams occur in the lowlands, and are well
adapted to green crops, grain and pasture. Wheat and barley are
practically neglected, but large crops of oats are grown. Turnips and
swedes form the bulk of the green crops. Hill pasture amounts to nearly
270,000 acres, and a good number of cattle are reared, but the principal
resource of the farmer is sheep-breeding. The sheep on the lowland farms
are generally of the Leicester class or cross-bred between the Leicester
and Herdwick, with a few Southdowns. Throughout the mountainous
districts the Herdwicks have taken the place of the smaller black-faced
heath variety of sheep once so commonly met with on the sheep farms.
They are peculiar to this part of England; the ewes and wethers and many
of the rams are polled, the faces and legs are speckled, and the wool is
finer and heavier in fleece than that of the heath breed. They
originally came from the neighbourhood of Muncaster in the Duddon and
Esk district, and tradition ascribes their origin variously to
introduction by Scandinavian settlers, or to parents that escaped from a
wrecked ship of the Spanish Armada. In general they belong to the
proprietors of the sheep-walks, and have been farmed out with them from
time immemorial, from which circumstance it is said they obtained the
name of "Herdwicks." Long after the Norman Conquest Cumberland remained
one of the most densely forested regions of England, and much of the
low-lying land is still well wooded, the Lake District in particular
displaying beautiful contrasts between bare mountain and tree-clad
valley. The oak, ash and birch are the principal natural trees, while
sycamores have been planted for shelter round many farmsteads.
Plantations of larch are also numerous, and the holly, yew, thorn and
juniper flourish locally.

Landed property was formerly much divided in this county, and the
smaller holdings were generally occupied by their owners, who were known
as "statesmen," i.e. "estatesmen," a class of men long noted for their
sturdy independence and attachment to routine husbandry. Most of these
estates were held of the lords of manors under customary tenure, which
subjected them to the payments of fines and heriots on alienation as
well as on the death of the lord or tenant. According to the
_Agricultural Survey_ printed in 1794, about two-thirds of the county
was held by this tenure, in parcels worth from L15 to L30 rental. On
large estates, also, the farms were in general rather small, few then
reaching L200 a year, held on verbal contracts, or very short leases,
and burdened like the small estates with payments or services over and
above a money rent. In modern times these conditions have changed, the
"statesmen" gradually becoming extinct as a class, and many of the small
holdings falling into the hands of the larger landed proprietors.

_Other Industries._--Carlisle is the seat of a variety of manufactures;
there are also in the county cotton and woollen industries, pencil mills
at Keswick, and iron shipbuilding yards at Whitehaven. But the mining
industry is the most important, coal being raised principally in the
district about Whitehaven, Workington and Maryport. Side by side with
this industry much iron ore is raised, and there is a large output of
pig-iron, and ore is also found in the south, in the neighbourhood of
Millom. Gypsum, zinc and some lead are mined. Copper was formerly worked
near Keswick, and there was a rich deposit of black lead at the head of
Borrowdale. Granite and limestone are extensively quarried. Stone is
very largely used even for housebuilding, a fine green slate being often
employed. Shap and other granites are worked for building and
roadstones.

_Communications._--The chief ports of Cumberland are Whitehaven,
Workington, Maryport, Harrington and Silloth. The London & North-Western
railway enters the county near Penrith, and terminates at Carlisle,
which is also served by the Midland. The Caledonian, North British and
Glasgow & South-Western lines further serve this city, which is thus an
important junction in through communications between England and
Scotland. The North-Eastern railway connects Carlisle with Newcastle.
The Maryport & Carlisle, the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, and the
Cleator & Workington Junction lines serve the districts indicated by
their names, while the Furness railway passes along the west coast from
the district of Furness in Lancashire as far north as Whitehaven, also
serving Cleator and Egremont. The Ravenglass & Eskdale light railway
gives access from this system to Boot in Eskdale. Coaches and motor cars
maintain passenger communications in the Lake District where the
railways do not penetrate.

_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient and the
administrative county is 973,086 acres, with a population in 1891 of
266,549 and in 1901 of 266,933. The county contains five wards,
divisions which in this and neighbouring counties correspond to
hundreds, and also appear in Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire in Scotland.
The municipal boroughs are Carlisle (pop. 45,480), a city and the county
town, Whitehaven (19,324), and Workington (26,143). The other urban
districts are Arlecdon and Frizington (5341), Aspatria (2885), Cleator
Moor (8120), Cockermouth (5355), Egremont (5761), Harrington (3679),
Holme Cultram (4275), Keswick (4451), Maryport (11,897), Millom
(10,426), Penrith (9182), Wigton (3692). Of these all except Keswick,
Millom and Penrith are in the industrial district of the west and
north-west. The urban district of Holme Cultram includes the port of
Silloth. Among lesser towns may be mentioned St Bees (1236), on the
coast south of Whitehaven, until 1897 the seat of a Church of England
theological college. The grammar school here, founded in 1533, is
liberally endowed, with scholarships and exhibitions. Cumberland is in
the northern circuit, and assizes are held at Carlisle. It has one court
of quarter sessions and 12 petty sessional divisions. The city of
Carlisle has a separate commission of the peace and court of quarter
sessions. There are 213 civil parishes. Cumberland is in the diocese of
Carlisle, with a small portion in that of Newcastle. There are 167
ecclesiastical parishes or districts within the county. There are four
parliamentary divisions, the Northern or Eskdale, Mid or Penrith,
Cockermouth and Western or Egremont, each returning one member; while
the parliamentary boroughs of Carlisle and Whitehaven each return one
member.

_History._--After the withdrawal of the Romans (of whose occupation
there are various important relics in the county) little is known of the
region which is now Cumberland, until the great battle of Ardderyd in
573 resulted in its consolidation with the kingdom of Strathclyde. About
670-680 the western district between the Solway and the Mersey was
conquered by the Angles of Northumbria and remained an integral portion
of that kingdom until the Danish invasion of the 9th century. In 878 the
kingdom of the Cumbri is referred to, but without any indication of its
extent, and the first mention of Cumberland to denote a geographical
area occurs in 945 when it was ceded by Edmund to Malcolm of Scotland.
At this date it included the territory north and south of the Solway
from the Firth of Forth to the river Duddon. The Scottish supremacy was
not uninterrupted, for the district at the time of its invasion by
Ethelred in 1000 was once more a stronghold of the Danes, whose
influence is clearly traceable in the nomenclature of the Lake District.
At the time of the Norman invasion Cumberland was a dependency of the
earldom of Northumbria, but its history at this period is very obscure,
and no notice of it occurs in the Domesday Survey of 1086; Kirksanton,
Bootle and Whicham, however, are entered under the possessions of the
earl of Northumbria in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The real Norman
conquest of Cumberland took place in 1092, when William Rufus captured
Carlisle, repaired the city, built the castle, and after sending a
number of English husbandmen to till the land, placed the district under
the lordship of Ranulf Meschines. The fief of Ranulf was called the
Power or Honour of Carlisle, and a sheriff of Carlisle is mentioned in
1106. The district was again captured by the Scots in the reign of
Stephen, and on its recovery in 1157 the boundaries were readjusted to
include the great barony of Coupland. At this date the district was
described as the county of Carlisle, and the designation county of
Cumberland is not adopted in the sheriff's accounts until 1177. The five
present wards existed as administrative areas in 1278, when they were
termed bailiwicks, the designation ward not appearing until the 16th
century, though the bailiwicks of the Forest of Cumberland are termed
wards in the 14th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries each of the
five wards was under the administration of a chief constable.

Owing to its position on the Border Cumberland was the scene of constant
warfare from the time of its foundation until the union of England and
Scotland, and families like the Tilliols, the Lucies, the Greystokes,
and the Dacres were famous for their exploits in checking or avenging
the depredations of the Scots. During the War of Independence in the
reign of Edward I. Carlisle was the headquarters of the English army. In
the Wars of the Roses the prevailing sympathy was with the Lancastrian
cause, which was actively supported by the representatives of the
families of Egremont, Dacre and Greystoke. In 1542 the Scottish army
under James V. suffered a disastrous defeat at Solway Moss. After the
union of the crowns of England and Scotland in 1603, the countries
hitherto known as "the Borders" were called "the Middle Shires," and a
period of comparative peace ensued. On the outbreak of the Civil War of
the 17th century the northern counties associated in raising forces for
the king, and the families of Howard, Dalston, Dacre and Musgrave
rendered valuable service to the royalist cause. In 1645 Carlisle was
captured by the parliamentary forces, but in April 1648 it was retaken
by Sir Philip Musgrave and Sir Thomas Glenham, and did not finally
surrender until the autumn of 1648. Cumberland continued, however, to
support the Stuarts; it was one of the first counties to welcome back
Charles II.; in 1715 it was associated with the rising on behalf of the
Pretender, and Carlisle was the chief seat of operations in the 1745
rebellion.

In 685 Carlisle and the surrounding district was annexed by Ecgfrith
king of Northumbria to the diocese of Lindisfarne, to which it continued
subject, at least until the Danish invasion of the 9th century. In 1133
Henry I. created Carlisle (q.v.) a bishopric. The diocese included the
whole of modern Cumberland (except the barony of Coupland and the
parishes of Alston, Over-Denton and Kirkandrews), and also the barony of
Appleby in Westmorland. The archdeaconry of Carlisle, co-extensive with
the diocese, comprised four deaneries. Coupland was a deanery in the
archdeaconry of Richmond and diocese of York until 1541, when it was
annexed to the newly created diocese of Chester. In 1856 the area of the
diocese of Carlisle was extended, so as to include the whole of
Cumberland except the parish of Alston, the whole of Westmorland, and
the Furness district of Lancashire. In 1858 the deaneries were made to
number eighteen, and in 1870 were increased to twenty.

The principal industries of Cumberland have been from earliest times
connected with its valuable fisheries and abundant mineral wealth. The
mines of Alston and the iron mines about Egremont were worked in the
12th century. The Keswick copper mines were worked in the reign of Henry
III., but the black-lead mine was not worked to any purpose until the
18th century. Coal-mining is referred to in the 15th century, and after
the revival of the mining industries in the 16th century, rose to great
importance. The saltpans about the estuaries of the Esk and the Eden
were a source of revenue in the 12th century.

Cumberland returned three members for the county to the parliament of
1290, and in 1295 returned in addition two members for the city of
Carlisle and two members each for the boroughs of Cockermouth and
Egremont. The boroughs did not again return members until in 1640
Cockermouth regained representation. Under the Reform Act of 1832,
Cumberland returned four members for two divisions, and Whitehaven
returned one member. The county now returns six members to parliament;
one each for the four divisions of the county, Egremont, Cockermouth,
Eskdale and Penrith, one for the city of Carlisle and one for the
borough of Whitehaven.

_Antiquities._--Very early crosses, having Celtic or Scandinavian
characteristics, are seen at Gosforth, Bewcastle and elsewhere. In
ecclesiastical architecture Cumberland is not rich as a whole, but it
possesses Carlisle cathedral, with its beautiful choir, and certain
monastic remains of importance. Among these are the fine remnants of
Lanercost priory (see BRAMPTON). Calder Abbey, near Egremont, a
Cistercian abbey founded in 1134, has ruins of the church and cloisters,
of Norman and Early English character, and is very beautifully situated
on the Calder. The parish Church of St Bees, with good Norman and Early
English work, belonged to a Benedictine priory of 1120; but according to
tradition the first religious house here was a nunnery founded c. 650 by
St Bega, who became its abbess. Among the parish churches there are a
few instances of towers strongly fortified for purposes of defence; that
at Burgh-on-the-Sands, near Carlisle, being a good illustration.
Castles, in some cases ruined, in others modernized, are fairly
numerous, both near the Scottish border and elsewhere. Naworth Castle
near Brampton is the finest example; others are at Bewcastle, Carlisle,
Kirkoswald, Egremont, Cockermouth and Millom. Among many notable country
seats, Rose Castle, the palace of the bishops of Carlisle; Greystoke
Castle and Armathwaite Hall may be mentioned.

  See J. Nicolson and R. Burn, _History and Antiquities of the Counties
  of Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London, 1777); W. Hutchinson, _History
  of Cumberland_ (Carlisle, 1794); S. Jefferson, _History and
  Antiquities of Cumberland_ (Carlisle, 1840-1842); S. Gilpin, _Songs
  and Ballads of Cumberland_ (London, 1866); W. Dickinson, _Glossary of
  Words and Phrases of Cumberland_ (London, English Dialect Society,
  1878, with a supplement, 1881); Sir G. F. Duckett, _Early Sheriffs of
  Cumberland_ (Kendal, 1879); J. Denton, "Account of Estates and
  Families in the County of Cumberland, 1066-1603," in _Antiquarian
  Society's Transactions_ (1887); R. S. Ferguson, _History of
  Cumberland_ (London, 1890); "Archaeological Survey of Cumberland," in
  Archaeologia, vol. liii. (London, 1893); W. Jackson, _Papers and
  Pedigrees relating to Cumberland_ (2 vols., London, 1892); T. Ellwood,
  _The Landnama Book of Iceland as it illustrates the Dialect and
  Antiquities of Cumberland_ (Kendal, 1894); _Victoria County History,
  Cumberland_; and _Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland
  Antiquarian and Archaeological Society_.




CUMBERLAND, a city and the county-seat of Allegany county, Maryland,
U.S.A., on the Potomac river, about 178 m. W. by N. of Baltimore and
about 153 m. S. by E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 12,729; (1900) 17,128,
of whom 1113 were foreign-born and 1100 were of negro descent; (1910)
21,839. Cumberland is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western
Maryland, the Pennsylvania, the Cumberland & Pennsylvania (from
Cumberland to Piedmont, Virginia), and the George's Creek & Cumberland
railways, the last a short line extending to Lonaconing (19 m.); by an
electric line extending to Western Port, Maryland; and by the Chesapeake
& Ohio Canal, of which it is a terminus. The city is about 635 ft. above
sea-level, and from a distance appears to be completely shut in by lofty
ranges of hills, which are cut through to the westward by a deep gorge
called "The Narrows," making a natural gateway of great beauty.
Cumberland has a large trade in coal, which is mined in the vicinity. As
a manufacturing centre it ranked in 1905 second in the state, the chief
products being iron, steel, bricks, flour, cement, silk and leather;
there is also a large dyeing and cleaning establishment. The value of
the city's factory products increased from $2,900,267 in 1900 to
$4,595,023 in 1905, or 58.4%. Cumberland is an important jobbing centre
also. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric
lighting plant. The first settlement of the place was made in 1750; in
1754 Fort Cumberland was erected within what are now the city limits,
and in the year following this fort was occupied by General Edward
Braddock. Cumberland was laid out in 1763, but there was little growth
until 1787, and it was not incorporated as a town until 1815; it was
chartered as a city in 1850.




CUMBERLAND, a township of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., in
the N.E. part of the state, about 6 m. N. of Providence and having the
Blackstone river for most of its W. boundary. Pop. (1890) 8090; (1900)
8925, of whom 3473 were foreign-born; (1910) 10,107; area, 27.5 sq. m.
It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. Within its
borders are the villages of Cumberland Hill, Diamond Hill, Arnold Mills,
Abbott Run, Berkeley, Robin Hollow, Happy Hollow, East Cumberland, and
parts of Manville, Ashton, Lonsdale and Valley Falls. The surface of the
township is generally hilly and rocky. In the N. part is a valuable
granite quarry; and limestone, and some coal, iron and gold are also
found. Cumberland has been called the "mineral pocket of New England."
The Blackstone and its tributaries provide considerable water power; and
there are various manufactures, including cotton goods, silk goods, and
horse-shoes and other iron ware. The value of the township's factory
product in 1905 was $3,171,318, an increase of 80.6% since 1900, this
ratio of increase being greater than that shown by any other
"municipality" in the state having a population in 1900 of 8000 or more.
At Lonsdale, William Blackstone (c. 1595-1675), the first permanent
white settler within the present limits of Rhode Island, built his
residence, "Study Hall," about 1635. Cumberland was originally a part of
Rehoboth, and then of Attleborough, Massachusetts, and for many years
was called, like other sparse settlements, the Gore, or Attleborough
Gore. In 1747, by the royal decree establishing the boundary between
Massachusetts and Rhode Island, Attleborough Gore, with other territory
formerly under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was annexed to Rhode
Island, and the township of Cumberland was incorporated, the name being
adopted in honour of William Augustus, duke of Cumberland. In 1867 a
part of Cumberland was set off to form the township of Woonsocket.




CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS (or more correctly the Cumberland Plateau or
Highlands), the westernmost of the three great divisions of the
Appalachian uplift in the United States, composed of many small ranges
of mountains (of which Cumberland Mountain in eastern Kentucky is one).
It extends from Pennsylvania to Alabama, attaining its greatest height
(about 4000 ft.) in Virginia. The plateau is rich in a variety of
mineral products, of which special mention may be made of coal, which
occurs in many places, and of the beautiful marbles quarried in that
portion of the plateau which lies between Virginia and Kentucky and
crosses Tennessee. The plateau has an abrupt descent, almost an
escarpment, into the great Appalachian Valley on its E., while the W.
slope is deeply and roughly broken. The whole mass is eroded in Virginia
into a maze of ridges. Cumberland Mountain parts the waters of the
Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. This range and the other ranges about
it are perhaps the loveliest portion of the whole plateau. The peaks
here and in the Blue Ridge to the E. are the highest of the Appalachian
system. Forest-filled valleys, rounded hills and rugged gorges afford in
every part scenery of surpassing beauty. The Cumberland Valley between
the Cumberland range and the Pine range is one of special fame. In the
former range there are immense caverns and subterranean streams.
Cumberland Gap, crossing the ridge at about 167 ft. above the sea, where
Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee meet, is a gorge about 500 ft. deep,
with steep sides that barely give room in places for a roadway. The
mountains, river and gap were all discovered by a party of Virginians in
1748, and named in honour of the victor of Culloden, William, duke of
Cumberland. Afterwards the gap gained a place in American history as one
of the main pathways by which emigrants crossed the mountains to
Kentucky and Tennessee. During the Civil War it was a position of great
strategic importance, as it afforded an entrance to eastern and central
Tennessee from Kentucky, which was held by the Union arms; and it was
repeatedly occupied in alternation by the opposing forces.

The mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee are a strange stock, who
retain in their customs and habits the primitive conditions of a life
that has elsewhere long since disappeared. They have been pictured in
the novels of Miss Murfree and John Fox, Junr. They are a tall,
straight, angular folk, of fine physical development; the volunteers for
the Union army from Kentucky and Tennessee during the Civil War--most of
whom came from the non-slave-holding mountain region--exceeded in
physical development the volunteers from all other states. For the
education of these mountaineers Major-General Oliver Otis Howard founded
in 1895 at Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, the Lincoln Memorial University
(co-educational; non-sectarian; opened in 1897), which has collegiate,
normal training and industrial courses, and an affiliated school of
medicine, Tennessee Medical College, at Knoxville. The university had in
1907-1908 14 instructors and 570 students. Berea College in Kentucky was
a pioneer institution for the education of mountaineers.




CUMBERLAND RIVER, a large southern branch of the Ohio river, U.S.A.,
rising in the highest part of the Cumberland plateau in south-east
Kentucky, and emptying into the Ohio in Kentucky (near Smithland) after
a devious course of 688 m. through that state and Tennessee. It drains a
basin of somewhat more than 18,000 sq. m., and is navigable for
light-draught steamers through about 500 m. under favourable
conditions--Burnside, Pulaski county, 518 m. from the mouth, is the head
of navigation--and through 193 m.--to Nashville--all the year round; for
boats drawing not more than 3 ft. the river is navigable to Nashville
for 6 to 8 months. At the Great Falls, in Whitley county, Kentucky, it
drops precipitously 63 ft. Above the falls it is a mountain stream, of
little volume in the dry months. It descends rapidly at its head to the
highland bench below the mountains and traverses this to the falls, then
flows in rapids (the Great Shoals) for some 10 m. through a fine gorge
with cliffs 300-400 ft. high, and descends between bluffs of decreasing
height and beauty into its lower level. Save in the mountains its
gradient is slight, and below the falls, except for a number of small
rapids, the flow of the stream is equable. Timbered ravines lend charm
to much of its shores, and in the mountains the scenery is most
beautiful. Below Nashville the stream is some 400 to 500 ft. wide, and
its high banks are for the most part of alluvium, with rocky bluffs at
intervals. At the mouth of the river lies Cumberland Island, in the
Ohio. During low water of the latter stream the Cumberland discharges
around both ends of the island, but in high water of the Ohio the
gradient of the Cumberland is so slight that its waters are held back,
forming a deep quiet pool that extends some 20 m. up the river. A system
of locks and dams below Nashville was planned in 1846 by a private
company, which accomplished practically nothing. Congress appropriated
$155,000 in 1832-1838; in the years immediately after 1888 $305,000 was
expended, notably for deepening the shoals at the junction of the
Cumberland and the Ohio; in 1892 a project was undertaken for 7 locks
and dams 52 ft. wide and 280 ft. long below Nashville. Above Nashville
$346,000 was expended on the open channel project (of 1871-1872) from
Nashville to Cumberland Ford (at Pineville); in 1886 a canalization
project was undertaken and 22 locks and dams below Burnside and 6 above
Burnside were planned, but by the act of 1907 the project was
modified--$2,319,000 had been appropriated up to 1908 for the work of
canalization. During the Civil War Fort Donelson on 

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