Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gichtel, Johann" to "Glory"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gichtel, Johann" to "Glory"
Author: Various
Release date: January 10, 2012 [eBook #38539]
Most recently updated: January 8, 2021
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38539
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "GICHTEL, JOHANN" TO "GLORY" ***
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Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
AUTHOR LIST: "Author of Asien und Europa nach den Aegyptischen
Denkmalern; &c." 'Aegyptischen' amended from 'Aegptischen'.
ARTICLE GILGIT: "These basins include a system of glaciers of such
gigantic proportions that they are probably unrivalled in any part
of the world." 'part' amended from 'pact'.
ARTICLE GILGIT: "... F. Younghusband, 'Journeys in the Pamirs and
Adjacent Countries,' Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiv., 1892; Curzon,
'Pamirs,' Jour. R.G.S. vol. viii., 1896; Leitner, Dardistan
(1877)." 'Younghusband' amended from 'Tounghusband'.
ARTICLE GILLRAY, JAMES: "Gillray lived with Miss (often called Mrs)
Humphrey during all the period of his fame. It is believed that he
several times thought of marrying her ..." 'Gillray' amended from
'Gillary'.
ARTICLE GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS: "... D. J. Garat, Notice sur la vie
et les ouvrages de P. L. Ginguene, prefixed to a catalogue of his
library (Paris, 1817)." 'Ginguene' amended from 'Guingene'.
ARTICLE GINSENG: "Great care is taken in the preparation of the
drug. The account given by Kaempfer of the preparation of nindsin
..." 'Kaempfer' amended from 'Koempfer'.
ARTICLE GIRONDISTS: "... by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, 1860)
led to the publication of a Protestation by J. Guadet ..."
'publication' amended from 'publicaton'.
ARTICLE GIUSTO DA GUANTO: "Yet there are notable divergences
between these pictures and the 'Communion of the Apostles.'"
'between' amended from 'betweeen'.
ARTICLE GLACIAL PERIOD: "... the side of the hill facing the
advancing ice being rounded and gently curved (German Stossseite),
and the opposite side (Leeseite) steep, abrupt and much less
smooth." 'opposite' amended from 'opposte'.
ARTICLE GLASS: "A non-spherical form can only be produced by
blowing the hollow bulb into a mould of the required shape. Moulds
are used both for giving shape to vessels and also for impressing
patterns on their surface." 'surface' amended from 'suface'.
ARTICLE GLASS: "It must be remembered that the Romans possessed no
fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful glaze;
Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery which was then
made." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'.
ARTICLE GLASS: "... a squat tumbler covered with prunts, gave rise
to the "Krautstrunk," which is like the "Igel," but longer and
narrow-waisted." 'Krautstrunk' amended from 'Krautsrunk'.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
_All rights reserved_
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII
GICHTEL to HARMONIUM
New York
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
VOLUME XII, SLICE I
Gichtel, Johann to Glory
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG GIRART DE ROUSSILLON
GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED GIRAUD, GIOVANNI
GIDEON GIRDLE
GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH ANDREAS GIRGA
GIEN GIRGENTI
GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE GIRISHK
GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON GIRNAR
GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS
GIESSEN GIRONDE
GIFFARD, GODFREY GIRONDISTS
GIFFARD, WALTER GIRTIN, THOMAS
GIFFARD, WILLIAM GIRVAN
GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT GIRY, ARTHUR
GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN GISBORNE
GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON GISLEBERT OF MONS
GIFFORD, WILLIAM GISORS
GIFT GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT
GIFU GITSCHIN
GIG GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO
GIGLIO GIULIO ROMANO
GIJON GIUNTA PISANO
GILAN GIURGEVO
GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE
GILBERT, ALFRED GIUSTINIANI
GILBERT, ANN GIUSTO DA GUANTO
GILBERT, GROVE KARL GIVET
GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY GIVORS
GILBERT, JOHN GJALLAR
GILBERT, SIR JOHN GLABRIO
GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY GLACE BAY
GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ROSANNA GLACIAL PERIOD
GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT GLACIER
GILBERT, WILLIAM GLACIS
GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK GLADBACH
GILBERT DE LA PORREE GLADDEN, WASHINGTON
GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST GLADIATORS
GILBERT FOLIOT GLADIOLUS
GILBERT ISLANDS GLADSHEIM
GILBEY, SIR WALTER GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL
GILDAS GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART
GILDER, RICHARD WATSON GLADSTONE
GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU GLAGOLITIC
GILDING GLAIR
GILDS GLAISHER, JAMES
GILEAD GLAMIS
GILES, ST GLAMORGANSHIRE
GILFILLAN, GEORGE GLANDERS
GILGAL GLANVILL, JOSEPH
GILGAMESH, EPIC OF GLANVILL, RANULF DE
GILGIT GLAPTHORNE, HENRY
GILL, JOHN GLARUS (Swiss canton)
GILL GLARUS (Swiss city)
GILLES DE ROYE GLAS, GEORGE
GILLES LI MUISIS GLAS, JOHN
GILLESPIE, GEORGE GLASER, CHRISTOPHER
GILLESPIE, THOMAS GLASGOW
GILLIE GLASITES
GILLIES, JOHN GLASS
GILLINGHAM (town of Dorsetshire) GLASS, STAINED
GILLINGHAM (borough of Kent) GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF
GILLOT, CLAUDE GLASS CLOTH
GILLOTT, JOSEPH GLASSIUS, SALOMO
GILLOW, ROBERT GLASSWORT
GILLRAY, JAMES GLASTONBURY
GILLYFLOWER GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE
GILMAN, DANIEL COIT GLATZ
GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF
GILPIN, BERNARD GLAUBER'S SALT
GILSONITE GLAUCHAU
GILYAKS GLAUCONITE
GIMBAL GLAUCOUS
GIMLET GLAUCUS
GIMLI GLAZING
GIMP GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH
GIN GLEBE
GINDELY, ANTON GLEE
GINGALL GLEICHEN
GINGER GLEIG, GEORGE
GINGHAM GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG
GINGI GLEIWITZ
GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS GLENALMOND
GINKEL, GODART VAN GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF
GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID GLENCOE
GINSENG GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS
GIOBERTI, VINCENZO GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF
GIOIOSA-IONICA GLENDOWER, OWEN
GIOJA, MELCHIORRE GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT
GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI GLENELG
GIORDANO, LUCA GLENGARRIFF
GIORGIONE GLEN GREY
GIOTTINO GLENS FALLS
GIOTTO GLENTILT
GIPSIES GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL
GIRAFFE GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS
GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH
GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH
GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH
GIRANDOLE GLOBE-FISH
GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE GLOBIGERINA
GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE GLOCKENSPIEL
GIRARD, STEPHEN GLOGAU
GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE GLORIOSA
GIRARDIN, EMILE DE GLORY
GIRARDON, FRANCOIS
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. R.*
ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Dublin and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897.
Grant, Robert.
A. C. Se.
ALBERT CHARLES SEWARD, M.A., F.R.S.
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Hon. Fellow of
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. President of the Yorkshire
Naturalists' Union, 1910.
Gymnosperms.
A. F. P.
ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History
in the University of London. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Author of _England under the
Protector Somerset_; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.
Grindal.
A. Go.*
REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.
Grynaeus, Simon;
Haetzer,
A. G. B.*
HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.CE.
Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member
of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E.
Guiana.
A. H.-S.
SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.
General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.
Giilan;
Hamadan.
A. He.
ARTHUR HERVEY.
Formerly Musical Critic to _Morning Post_ and _Vanity Fair_.
Author of _Masters of French Music_; _French Music in the XIX.
Century_.
Gounod.
A. H. S.
REV. A. H. SAYCE, D.D.
See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H.
Grammar;
Gyges.
A. J. G.
REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United
Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras
University and Member of Mysore Educational Service.
Haggai (_in part_).
A. J. H.
ALFRED JAMES HIPKINS.
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of Royal College of
Music. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition,
1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition,
1900. Author of _Musical Instruments_; _A Description and History
of the Pianoforte_; &c.
Harmonium (_in part_).
A. L.
ANDREW LANG.
See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW.
Gurney, Edmund.
A. M. C.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M.
Halley;
Hansen.
A. N.
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.
Goatsucker;
Godwit;
Golden-eye;
Goldfinch;
Goose;
Gos-Hawk;
Grackle;
Grebe;
Greenfinch;
Greenshank;
Grosbeak;
Grouse;
Guacharo;
Guan;
Guillemot;
Guinea-Fowl;
Gull;
Hammer-Kop.
A. Ne.
ALEXANDER NESBITT, F.S.A.
Author of the _Introduction_ to _A Descriptive Catalogue of the
Glass Vessels in South Kensington Museum_.
Glass: _History of Manufacture (in part)_.
A. S. C.
ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author
of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_;
_Ornament in European Silks_; &c.
Gold and Silver Thread.
A. Sy.
ARTHUR SYMONS.
See the biographical article, SYMONS, A.
Goncourt, De;
Hardy, Thomas.
A. W. H.*
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
Gray's Inn, 1900.
Godfrey of Viterbo;
Golden Bull;
Habsburg.
A. W. R.
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
_Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.
Ground Rent;
Handwriting.
A. W. W.
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., LITT.D.
See the biographical article, WARD, A. W.
Greene, Robert.
C. F. A.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
Harbour_.
Grand Alliance, War of the;
Grant, Ulysses S. (_in part_);
Great Rebellion.
C. Gr.
CHARLES GROSS, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. (1857-1909).
Professor of History at Harvard University, 1888-1909. Author of
_The Gild Merchant_; _Sources and Literature of English History_;
&c.
Gilds.
C. H.*
SIR C. HOLROYD.
See the biographical article; HOLROYD, SIR C.
Haden, Sir, F. C.
C. H. C.
CHARLES H. COOTE.
Formerly of Map Department, British Museum.
Hakluyt (_in part_).
C. H. Ha.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
City. Member of the American Historical Association.
Gregory: _Popes_, VIII. to XII.;
Guibert.
C. J. L.
SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D (Edin.)
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of
King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home
Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces,
India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic
Poetry_; &c.
Hamasa.
C. L.*
CHARLES LAPWORTH, M.SC., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of
Birmingham. Editor of _Monograph on British Graptolites_,
Palaeontographical Society, 1900-1908.
Graptolites.
C. L. K.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_, and Stow's _Survey of
London_.
Glendower, Owen;
Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of;
Hallam, Bishop;
Hardyng, John.
C. M.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author
of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte
des Papstthums_; &c.
Gregory VII.
C. Mi.
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH.
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James',
1895-1900 and 1902-1903.
Gundulich.
C. M. W.
SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of
Fortifications, 1896-1902. Served under General Gordon in the
Soudan, 1874-1875.
Gordon, General.
C. Pf.
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of
Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_.
Gregory, St, of Tours;
Gunther of Schwarzburg.
C. R. B.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.
Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham.
Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
_The Dawn of Modem Geography_; &c.
Gomez;
Hakluyt (_in part_).
C. We.
CECIL WEATHERLY.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Graffito.
C. W. E.
CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT.
See the biographical article, ELIOT, C. W.
Gray, Asa.
D. C. To.
REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A.
Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c.
Gray, Thomas.
D. F. T.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising The Classical
Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other
classical works.
Gluck;
Handel.
D. G. H.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900;
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
Halicarnassus.
D. H.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_: _Life of Emilio Castelar_: &c.
Gondomar, Count; Grand Alliance, War of the: _Naval Operations_;
Guichen;
Hamilton, Emma.
D. Ll. T.
DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at
Pontypridd and Rhondda.
Glamorganshire;
Gower.
D. Mn.
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of
_Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c.
Glas, John;
Glasites.
D. M. W.
SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the
Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of Institut
de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction Publique of
France. Joint-editor of new volumes (10th edition) of the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the
Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c.
Giers;
Gorchakov.
E. A. F.
EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D.
See the biographical article, FREEMAN, E. A.
Goths (_in part_).
E. A. J.
E. ALFRED JONES.
Author of _Old English Gold Plate_; _Old Church Plate of the Isle
of Man_; _Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant
Churches in England_; _Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de
Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate_; _A Private Catalogue of The
Royal Plate at Windsor Castle_; &c.
Golden Rose (_in part_).
E. B.*
ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of
Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of
the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier
of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions historiques des
monnaies de la republique romaine_; _Traites des monnaies grecques
et romaines_; _Catalogue des camees de la bibliotheque nationale_.
Hadrumetum.
E. Br.
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History at St John's College,
Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven
Scholar, 1895.
Godfrey of Bouillon.
E. C. B.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "_The Lausaic History of
Palladius_" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.
Gilbert of Sempringham, St;
Grandmontines;
Groot.
E. C. Sp.
REV. EDWARD CLARKE SPICER, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1900.
Glacier.
E. F. G.
EDWIN FRANCIS GAY, PH.D.
Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of Business
Administration, Harvard University.
Hanseatic League.
E. F. S. D.
LADY DILKE.
See the biographical article, DILKE, SIR C. W., Bart.
Greuze.
E. G.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article, GOSSE, E.
Gnome.
E. H. P.
EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A.
See the biographical article, PALMER, E. H.
Hafiz.
E. J. P.
EDWARD JOHN PAYNE, M.A. (1844-1904).
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of the
_Select Works of Burke_. Author of _History of European Colonies_;
_History of the New World called America_; _The Colonies_, in the
"British Citizen" Series; &c.
Grey, 2nd Earl.
Ed. M.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon), LL.D. (Chicago).
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author
of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_;
_Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_.
Gotarzes.
E. M. W.
REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
Greece: _History, Ancient, to 146 B.C._
E. O.*
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of
Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.
Goitre;
Haemorrhoids.
E. Pr.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of
Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London,
Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon
Geographical Society, &c. Editor of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_;
_Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c.
Goes, Damiao De;
Gonzaga.
E. R.
LORD LOCHEE OF GOWRIE (Edmund Robertson), P.C., LL.D., K.C.
Civil Lord of the Admiralty, 1892-1895. Secretary to the
Admiralty, 1905-1908. M.P. for Dundee, 1885-1908. Fellow of Corpus
Christi College, Oxford.
Hallam, Henry.
E. S. G.
EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian
Demonstrator of Comparative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford.
Haplodrili.
F. C. C.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of
Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.
Gregory the Illuminator.
F. G. M. B.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
Goths (_in part_).
F. G. S.
F. G. STEPHENS.
Formerly Art Critic of the _Athenaeum_. Author of _Artists at
Home_; _George Cruikshank_; _Memorials of W. Mulready_; _French
and Flemish Pictures_; _Sir E. Landseer_; _T. C. Hook, R.A._; &c.
Gilbert, Sir John.
F. H. D.
REV. FREDERICK HOMES DUDDEN, D.D.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Theology, Lincoln College, Oxford.
Author of _Gregory the Great, his Place in History and Thought_;
&c.
Gregory I.
F. H. H.
FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER.
Assistant Editor of the _Century Dictionary_.
Hancock, Winfield Scott.
F. J. H.
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author
of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.
Graham's Dyke.
F. N.
FRIDTJOF NANSEN.
See the biographical article, NANSEN, FRIDTJOF.
Greenland.
F. R. C.
FRANK R. CANA.
Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.
Gold Coast.
F. S. P.
FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., PH.D.
Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University. Member
of American Historical Association.
Hamilton, Alexander.
F. W. R.*
FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
Gypsum;
Haematite.
G. A. Gr.
GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (DUBLIN).
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of
Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
Languages of India_; &c.
Gujarati and Rajasthani.
G. C. M.
GEORGE CAMPBELL MACAULAY, M.A.
Lecturer in English in the University of Cambridge. Formerly
Professor of English Language and Literature in the University of
Wales. Editor of the _Works_ of John Gower; &c.
Gower, John.
G. C. W.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Portrait
Miniatures_; _Life of Richard Cosway, R.A._; _George Engleheart_;
_Portrait Drawings_; &c. Editor of new edition of Bryan's
_Dictionary of Painters and Engravers_.
Greco, El.
G. F. Z.
GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INST.CE.
Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_.
Granaries.
G. G.
SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S.
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College,
Woolwich. Examiner in the University of Wales. Member of the
Aeronautical Committee. Author of _Notes on Dynamics_;
_Hydrostatics_; _Differential and Integral Calculus, with
Applications_; &c.
Gyroscope and Gyrostat.
G. Sn.
GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D.
Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the
Archaeological Institute of America. Member of American
Philological Association. Author of _With the Professor_; _The
Great Mother of the Gods_; &c.
Great Mother of the Gods.
G. S. C.
SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S.
Governor of Bombay. Author of _Imperial Defence_; _Russia's Great
Sea Power_; _The Last Great Naval War_; &c.
Greco-Turkish War, 1897.
G. W. E. R.
RT. HON. GEORGE WILLIAM ERSKINE RUSSELL, P.C., M.A., LL.D.
Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1894-1895; for
India, 1892-1894. M.P. for Aylesbury, 1880-1885; for North Beds.,
1892-1895. Author of _Life of W. E. Gladstone_; _Collections and
Recollections_; &c.
Gladstone, W. E.
G. W. T.
REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Hajji Khalifa;
Hamadhani;
Handani;
Hammad ar-Rawiya;
Hariri.
H. A. de C.
HENRY ANSELM DE COLYAR, K.C.
Author of _The Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety_; &c.
Guarantee.
H. B. Wo.
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England
and Wales. President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894.
Wollaston Medallist, 1908.
Haidinger, W. K.
H. Ch.
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; co-editor of the
10th edition.
Goschen, 1st Viscount;
Granville, 2nd Earl;
Hamilton, Alexander (_in part_);
Harcourt, Sir William.
H. De.
HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J.
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
_Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta sanctorum_.
Giles, St;
Hagiology.
H. G. H.
HORATIO GORDON HUTCHINSON.
Amateur Golf Champion, 1886-1887. Author of _Hints on Golf_;
_Golf_ (Badminton Library); _Book of Golf and Golfers_; &c.
Golf.
H. J. P.
HARRY JAMES POWELL, F.C.S.
Of Messrs James Powell & Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, London.
Member of Committee of six appointed by Board of Education to
prepare the scheme for the rearrangement of the Art Collection of
the Victoria and Albert Museum. Author of _Glass Making_; &c.
Glass.
H. Lb.
HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly
Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member
of Council of Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902.
President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of
_Hydrodynamics_; &c.
Harmonic Analysis.
H. L. H.
HARRIET L. HENNESSY, L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I., M.D.(Brux.)
Gynaecology.
H. M. C.
HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A.
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of
_Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.
Goths: _Gothic Language_.
H. M. Wo.
HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.SC.
Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University.
Fellow of University College, London. Author of _Haemoflagellates_
in Sir E. Ray Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, and of various
scientific papers.
Gregarines;
Haemosporidia.
H. R.
HENRY REEVE, D.C.L.
See the biographical article, REEVE, HENRY.
Guizot (_in part_).
H. Sw.
HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.
University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of
Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of _A History
of English Sounds since the Earliest Period_; _A Handbook of
Phonetics_; &c.
Grimm, J. L. C.;
Grimm, Wilhelm Carl.
H. S.-K.
SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A.
M.P. for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of _My Sporting Holidays_;
&c.
Gun.
H. W. C. D.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls
College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.
Gilbert, Foliot;
Gloucester, Robert, Earl of;
Grosseteste.
H. W. R.*
REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A.
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior
Kennicott Scholar, Oxford University, 1901. Author of _Hebrew
Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology_ (in _Mansfield
College Essays_); &c.
Habakkuk.
I. A.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of
Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author
of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the
Middle Ages_.
Graetz;
Habdala;
Halakha;
Halevi;
Haptara;
Harizi.
J. A. F. M.
JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.
Musical Critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The
Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music
in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor
of new edition of Grove's _Dictionary of Music_; &c.
Grove, Sir George.
J. A. H.
JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.
Glacial Period;
Greensand.
J. A. S.
JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SYMONDS, J. A.
Guarini.
J. Bl.
JAMES BLYTH, M.A., LL.D.
Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College. Editor of Ferguson's _Electricity_.
Graduation.
J. Bt.
JAMES BARTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
&c., King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects,
Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity Surveyors' Association.
Author of _Quantities_.
Glazing.
J. D. B.
JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in
South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of
Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order
of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
Greece: _Geography and History: Modern_;
Greek Literature: III. _Modern_.
J. E. S.*
JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of
_History of Classical Scholarship_; &c.
Greek Law.
J. Fi.
JOHN FISKE.
See the biographical article, FISKE, J.
Grant, Ulysses S.
J. G. C. A.
JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A.
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of
Lincoln College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman,
1893.
Gordium.
J. G. R.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London.
Author of _History of German Literature_; _Schiller after a
Century_; &c. Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_.
Goethe;
Grillparzer.
J. H. F.
JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
Gracchus;
Gratian;
Hadrian (_in part_).
J. H. H.
JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A.
Author of _Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation_.
Gloss;
Gutenberg.
J. H. P.
JOHN HENRY POYNTING, D.SC., F.R.S.
Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the
University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. Joint-author of _Text-Book of Physics_.
Gravitation (_in part_).
J. Hl. R.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
Pitt_; &c.
Gourgaud, Baron.
J. L. W.
MISS JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_.
Grail, The Holy;
Guenevere.
J. M. M.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics,
East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of
Grote's _History of Greece_.
Grote;
Hamilton, Sir William, Bart, (_in part_);
Harem.
J. S. F.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
of London.
Glauconite;
Gneiss;
Granite;
Granulite;
Gravel;
Greisen;
Greywacke.
J. T. Be.
JOHN T. BEALBY.
Joint author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
_Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
_Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.
Gobi.
J. T. S.*
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
Golden Rose (_in part_);
Goliad;
Guizot (_in part_).
K. G. J.
KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE.
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold
Prizeman, 1903. Author of _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_.
Goa.
K. Kr.
KARL KRUMBACHER.
See the biographical article, KRUMBACHER, CARL.
Greek Literature: II. _Byzantine_.
K. S.
MISS KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of the _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c.
Glockenspiel;
Gong;
Guitar;
Guitar Fiddle;
Gusla;
Harmonica;
Harmonichord;
Harmonium (_in part_).
L. D.*
LOUIS DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
Gregory: _Popes_, II.-VI.
L. F. D.
LEWIS FOREMAN DAY, F.S.A. (1845-1909).
Formerly Vice-President of the Society of Arts. Past Master of the
Art Workers' Gild. Author of _Windows, a book about Stained
Glass_; &c.
Glass, Stained.
L. F. V.-H.
LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.INST.C.E. (1839-1907).
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College,
London. Author of _Rivers and Canals_; _Harbours and Docks_;
_Civil Engineering as applied in Construction_; &c.
Harbour.
L. J. S.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.
Goniometer;
Gothite;
Graphite (_in part_);
Greenockite.
L. R. F.
LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D.
Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford; University
Lecturer in Classical Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative
Religion. Author of _Cults of the Greek States_; _Evolution of
Religion_.
Greek Religion.
M.
LORD MACAULAY.
See the biographical article, MACAULAY, T. B. M., BARON.
Goldsmith, Oliver.
M. G.
MOSES GASTER, PH.D.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England.
Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester
Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and
1891. President, Folklore Society of England. Vice-President,
Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular
Literature_; &c.
Gipsies.
M. H. S.
MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art
Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos
Aires, Rome and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of
_History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the opening of
the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British
Sculpture and Sculptors of Today_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c.
Gilbert, Alfred;
Greenaway, Kate.
M. Ja.
MORRIS JASTROW, JUN., PH.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Author of _Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians_; &c.
Gilgamesh, Epic of;
Gula.
M. M.
MAX ARTHUR MACAULIFFE.
Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of _The Sikh
Religion, its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors_; &c. Editor of
_Life of Guru Nanak_, in the Punjabi language.
Granth.
M. N. T.
MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_.
Gythium
M. O. B. C.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.
Greece: _History: 146 B.C. 1800 A.D._;
Hamilcar Barca;
Hannibal.
M. P.
MARK PATTISON.
See the biographical article, PATTISON, MARK.
Grotius.
M. P.*
LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
Gouffier;
Harcourt.
O. Ba.
OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.
Editor of _The Ancestor_, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing
Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
Girdle.
P. A.
PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes
Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les
heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_.
Gonzalo de Berceo.
P. A. A.
PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC. JURIS.
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von
Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_.
Gneist.
P. C. Y.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Gunpowder Plot;
Halifax, 1st Marquess of;
Hamilton, 1st Duke of.
P. G.
PERCY GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article, GARDNER, PERCY.
Greek Art.
P. Gi.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of
the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of
Comparative Philology_.
Greek Language;
H.
P. G. K.
PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
Art Critic of the _Observer_ and the _Daily Mail_. Formerly Editor
of _The Artist_. Author of _The Art of Walter Crane_; _Velasquez,
Life and Work_; &c.
Hals, Frans.
P. G. T.
PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D.
See the biographical article, TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.
Hamilton, Sir William Rowan.
P. La.
PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge
University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of
_Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and Editor
of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_.
Greece: _Geology_.
P. McC.
PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S.
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of _Diary of a
Working Farmer_; &c.
Grass and Grassland.
R. A. W.
COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.
Formerly H. M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served
with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the
Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895.
Hadramut.
R. A. S. M.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
Palestine Exploration Fund.
Gilead;
Gilgal;
Goshen.
R. C. J.
SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, L.L.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article, JEBB, SIR R. C.
Greek Literature: I. _Ancient_.
R. J. M.
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
_St James's Gazette_, London.
Gowrie, 3rd Earl of;
Gratton, Henry;
Green Ribbon Club;
Gymnastics;
Harcourt, 1st Viscount;
Hardwicke, 1st Earl of.
R. L.*
RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
Author of _Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in
British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
Africa_; &c.
Giraffe;
Glutton;
Glyptodon;
Goat;
Gorilla;
Hamster;
Hare.
R. N. B.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (D. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
_Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe, the
Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1469_; &c.
Golitsuin, Boris, Dmitry, and Vasily;
Golovin, Count;
Golovkin, Count;
Gortz, Baron von;
Griffenfeldt, Count;
Gustavus I., and IV.;
Gyllenstjerna;
Hall, C. C.
R. S. T.
RALPH STOCKMAN TARR.
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University.
Grand Canyon.
R. We.
RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (Princeton).
Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The
Elegies of Maximianus_; &c.
Great Awakening.
S. A. C.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and
Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University,
1904-1908. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws
of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old
Testament History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.
Gideon.
S. Bl.
SIGFUS BLONDAL.
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.
Hallgrimsson.
S. C.
SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
See the biographical article, COLVIN, SIDNEY.
Giorgione; Giotto.
St. C.
VISCOUNT ST. CYRES.
See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.
Guyon, Madame.
S. N.
SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC.
See the biographical article, NEWCOMB, SIMON.
Gravitation (_in part_).
T. As.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome.
Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven
Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the
Roman Campagna_; &c.
Girgenti;
Gnatia;
Grottaferrata;
Grumentum;
Gubbio;
Hadria;
Halaesa.
T. A. J.
THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec.,
Royal Anthropological Institute.
Hamitic Races (I.).
T. Ba.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the
Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of
Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and
Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
Guerrilla.
T. E. H.
THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D.
Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College,
Oxford. Professor of International Law in the University of
Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of _Studies in
International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; _Alberici
Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; _Neutral
Duties in a Maritime War_; &c.
Hall, William E.
T. F. C.
THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
Mass., U.S.A.
Gregory: _Popes_, XIII--XV.
T. H. H.*
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys,
India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
Commissioner for the Persa-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.
Gilgit;
Hari-Rud.
T. K.
THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.
Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.
Hadrian (_in part_).
T. Se.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant
Editor of _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of
_The Age of Johnson_; &c.; Joint-author of _The Bookman History of
English Literature_.
Gilbert, Sir W. S.
V. H. S.
REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D.
Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of
Ely and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _The
Gospels as Historical Documents_; _The Jewish and the Christian
Messiahs_; &c.
Gospel.
W. A. B. C.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
(Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide du Haut
Dauphine_; _The Range of the Todi_; _Guide to Grindelwald_; _Guide
to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor
of _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889; &c.
Glarus;
Goldast Ab Haiminsfeld;
Grasse;
Grenoble;
Grindelwald;
Grisons;
Gruner. G. S.;
Gruyere.
W. A. P.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.
Girondists;
Goethe: _Descendants of_;
Greek Independence, War of.
W. Bo.
WILHELM BOUSSET, D.TH.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of
Gottingen. Author of _Das Wesen der Religion_; _The Antichrist
Legend_; &c.
Gnosticism.
W. Bu.
WILLIAM BURNSIDE, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Hon.
Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Author of _The Theory of
Groups of Finite Order_.
Groups, Theory of.
W. F. C.
WILLIAM FELLDEN CRAIES, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's
College, London. Author of _Craies on Statute Law_. Editor of
Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd edition).
Habeas Corpus;
Hanging.
W. G. M.
WALTER GEORGE MCMILLAN, F.C.S., M.I.M.E. (d. 1904).
Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and
Lecturer on Metallurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author of _A
Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy_.
Graphite (_in part_).
W. Hu.
REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D.
President of Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of
_History of English Church, 597-1906_; _The Church of England in
the Middle Ages_; _Political History of England 1760-1801_.
Green, J. R.
W. H. Be.
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.
Gomer;
Ham.
W. H. F.*
WILLIAM HENRY FAIRBROTHER, M.A.
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of
_Philosophy of Thomas Hill Green_.
Green, Thomas Hill.
W. J. F.
WILLIAM JUSTICE FORD (d. 1904).
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. Headmaster of
Leamington College.
Grace, W. G.
W. McD.
WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A.
Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Author of
_A Primer of Physiological Psychology_; _An Introduction to Social
Psychology_; &c.
Hallucination.
W. M. M.
W. MAX MULLER, PH.D.
Professor of Exegesis in the R.E. Seminary, Philadelphia. Author
of _Asien und Europa nach den Aegyptischen Denkmalern_; &c.
Hamitic Races: II. _Languages_.
W. M. R.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
Giulio Romano;
Gozzoli;
Guido Reni.
W. P. A
LIEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.INST.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada.
Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.
Great Lakes.
W. P. R.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High
Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education,
Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long
White Cloud: a History of New Zealand_; &c.
Grey, Sir George.
W. R.
WHITELAW REID, LL.D.
See the biographical article, REID, WHITELAW.
Greeley, Horace.
W. Ri.
WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.SC.
Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton
Reader in Classics. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. President of Royal
Anthropological Institute, 1908. President of Anthropological
Section, British Association, 1908. Author of _The Early Age of
Greece_; &c.
Hallstatt.
W. Rn.
W. ROSENHAIN, D.SC.
Superintendent of the Metallurgical Department, National Physical
Laboratory.
Glass (_in part_).
W. R. D.
WYNDHAM ROWLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Director of the Imperial Institute. President of the International
Association of Tropical Agriculture. Member of the Advisory
Committee for Tropical Agriculture, Colonial Office.
Gutta-Percha.
W. R. E. H.
WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (EDIN.), F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich.
Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich.
Part-author of Valentin-Hodgkinson's _Practical Chemistry_; &c.
Gun Cotton;
Gunpowder.
W. R. S.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
Haggai (_in part_).
W. R. S. R.
WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum.
Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c.
Gogol.
W. W. R.*
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
Gregory XVI.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Gilding. Gotland. Guillotine.
Ginger. Gourd. Guise, House of.
Gironde. Government. Gum.
Gladiators. Grain Trade. Gwalior.
Glasgow. Granada. Haddingtonshire.
Glastonbury. Grasses. Hair.
Gloucestershire. Great Salt Lake. Haiti.
Glove. Griqualand East and West. Halo.
Glucose. Guanches. Hamburg.
Glue. Guards. Hamlet.
Glycerin. Guatemala. Hampshire.
Goat. Guelphs and Ghibellines. Hampton Roads.
Gold. Guiacum. Hanover.
Goldbeating.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
the final volume.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII
GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG (1638-1710), German mystic, was born at
Regensburg, where his father was a member of senate, on the 14th of
March 1638. Having acquired at school an acquaintance with Greek,
Hebrew, Syriac and even Arabic, he proceeded to Strassburg to study
theology; but finding the theological prelections of J. S. Schmidt and
P. J. Spener distasteful, he entered the faculty of law. He was admitted
an advocate, first at Spires, and then at Regensburg; but having become
acquainted with the baron Justinianus von Weltz (1621-1668), a Hungarian
nobleman who cherished schemes for the reunion of Christendom and the
conversion of the world, and having himself become acquainted with
another world in dreams and visions, he abandoned all interest in his
profession, and became an energetic promoter of the "_Christerbauliche
Jesusgesellschaft_," or Christian Edification Society of Jesus. The
movement in its beginnings provoked at least no active hostility; but
when Gichtel began to attack the teaching of the Lutheran clergy and
church, especially upon the fundamental doctrine of justification by
faith, he exposed himself to a prosecution which resulted in sentence of
banishment and confiscation (1665). After many months of wandering and
occasionally romantic adventure, he reached Holland in January 1667, and
settled at Zwolle, where he co-operated with Friedrich Breckling
(1629-1711), who shared his views and aspirations. Having become
involved in the troubles of this friend, Gichtel, after a period of
imprisonment, was banished for a term of years from Zwolle, but finally
in 1668 found a home in Amsterdam, where he made the acquaintance of
Antoinette Bourignon (1616-1680), and in a state of poverty (which,
however, never became destitution) lived out his strange life of visions
and day-dreams, of prophecy and prayer. He became an ardent disciple of
Jakob Boehme, whose works he published in 1682 (Amsterdam, 2 vols.); but
before the time of his death, on the 21st of January 1710, he had
attracted to himself a small band of followers known as Gichtelians or
Brethren of the Angels, who propagated certain views at which he had
arrived independently of Boehme. Seeking ever to hear the authoritative
voice of God within them, and endeavouring to attain to a life
altogether free from carnal desires, like that of "the angels in heaven,
who neither marry nor are given in marriage," they claimed to exercise a
priesthood "after the order of Melchizedek," appeasing the wrath of God,
and ransoming the souls of the lost by sufferings endured vicariously
after the example of Christ. While, however, Boehme "desired to remain a
faithful son of the Church," the Gichtelians became Separatists (cf. J.
A. Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, ii. p. 185).
Gichtel's correspondence was published without his knowledge by
Gottfried Arnold, a disciple, in 1701 (2 vols.), and again in 1708 (3
vols.). It has been frequently reprinted under the title _Theosophia
practica_. The seventh volume of the Berlin edition (1768) contains a
notice of Gichtel's life. See also G. C. A. von Harless, _Jakob Bohme
und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882); article in _Allgemeine
deutsche Biographie_.
GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED (1795-1864), American statesman, prominent in the
anti-slavery conflict, was born at Tioga Point, now Athens, Bradford
county, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of October 1795. In 1806 his parents
removed to Ashtabula county, Ohio, then sparsely settled and almost a
wilderness. The son worked on his father's farm, and, though he received
no systematic education, devoted much time to study and reading. For
several years after 1814 he was a school teacher, but in February 1821
he was admitted to the Ohio bar and soon obtained a large practice,
particularly in criminal cases. From 1831 to 1837 he was in partnership
with Benjamin F. Wade. He served in the lower house of the state
legislature in 1826-1828, and from December 1838 until March 1859 was a
member of the national House of Representatives, first as a Whig, then
as a Free-soiler, and finally as a Republican. Recognizing that slavery
was a state institution, with which the Federal government had no
authority to interfere, he contended that slavery could only exist by a
specific state enactment, that therefore slavery in the District of
Columbia and in the Territories was unlawful and should be abolished,
that the coastwise slave-trade in vessels flying the national flag, like
the international slave-trade, should be rigidly suppressed, and that
Congress had no power to pass any act which in any way could be
construed as a recognition of slavery as a national institution. His
attitude in the so-called "Creole Case" attracted particular attention.
In 1841 some slaves who were being carried in the brig "Creole" from
Hampton Roads, Virginia, to New Orleans, revolted, killed the captain,
gained possession of the vessel, and soon afterwards entered the British
port of Nassau. Thereupon, according to British law, they became free.
The minority who had taken an active part in the revolt were arrested on
a charge of murder, and the others were liberated. Efforts were made by
the United States government to recover the slaves, Daniel Webster, then
secretary of state, asserting that on an American ship they were under
the jurisdiction of the United States and that they were legally
property. On the 21st of March 1842, before the case was settled,
Giddings introduced in the House of Representatives a series of
resolutions, in which he asserted that "in resuming their natural rights
of personal liberty" the slaves "violated no law of the United States."
For offering these resolutions Giddings was attacked with rancour, and
was formally censured by the House. Thereupon he resigned, appealed to
his constituents, and was immediately re-elected by a large majority. In
1859 he was not renominated, and retired from Congress after a
continuous service of more than twenty years. From 1861 until his death,
at Montreal, on the 27th of May 1864, he was U.S. consul-general in
Canada. Giddings published a series of political essays signed
"Pacificus" (1843); _Speeches in Congress_ (1853); _The Exiles of
Florida_ (1858); and a _History of the Rebellion: Its Authors and
Causes_ (1864).
See _The Life of Joshua R. Giddings_ (Chicago, 1892), by his
son-in-law, George Washington Julian (1817-1899), a Free-soil leader
and a representative in Congress in 1849-1851, a Republican
representative in Congress in 1861-1871, a Liberal Republican in the
campaign of 1872, and afterwards a Democrat.
GIDEON (in Hebrew, perhaps "hewer" or "warrior"), liberator, reformer
and "judge" of Israel, was the son of Joash, of the Manassite clan of
Abiezer, and had his home at Ophrah near Shechem. His name occurs in
Heb. xi. 32, in a list of those who became heroes by faith; but, except
in Judges vi.-viii., is not to be met with elsewhere in the Old
Testament. He lived at a time when the nomad tribes of the south and
east made inroads upon Israel, destroying all that they could not carry
away. Two accounts of his deeds are preserved (see JUDGES). According to
one (Judges vi. 11-24) Yahweh appeared under the holy tree which was in
the possession of Joash and summoned Gideon to undertake, in dependence
on supernatural direction and help, the work of liberating his country
from its long oppression, and, in token that he accepted the mission, he
erected in Ophrah an altar which he called "Yahweh-Shalom" (Yahweh is
peace). According to another account (vi. 25-32) Gideon was a great
reformer who was commanded by Yahweh to destroy the altar of Baal
belonging to his father and the _asherah_ or sacred post by its side.
The townsmen discovered the sacrilege and demanded his death. His
father, who, as guardian of the sacred place, was priest of Baal,
enjoined the men not to take up Baal's quarrel, for "if Baal be a god,
let him contend (_rib_) for himself." Hence Gideon received the name
Jerubbaal.[1] From this latter name appearing regularly in the older
narrative (cf. ix.), and from the varying usage in vi.-viii., it has
been held that stories of two distinct heroes (Gideon and Jerubbaal)
have been fused in the complicated account which follows.[2]
The great gathering of the Midianites and their allies on the north side
of the plain of Jezreel; the general muster first of Abiezer, then of
all Manasseh, and lastly of the neighbouring tribes of Asher, Zebulun
and Naphtali; the signs by which the wavering faith of Gideon was
steadied; the methods by which an unwieldy mob was reduced to a small
but trusty band of energetic and determined men; and the stratagem by
which the vast army of Midian was surprised and routed by the handful of
Israelites descending from "above Endor," are indicated fully in the
narratives, and need not be detailed here. The difficulties in the
account of the subsequent flight of the Midianites appear to have arisen
from the composite character of the narratives, and there are signs that
in one of them Gideon was accompanied only by his own clansmen (vi. 34).
So, when the Midianites are put to flight, according to one
representation, the Ephraimites are called out to intercept them, and
the two chiefs, Oreb ("raven") and Zeeb ("wolf"), in making for the
fords of the Jordan, are slain at "the raven's rock" and "the wolf's
press" respectively. As the sequel of this we are told that the
Ephraimites quarrelled with Gideon because their assistance had not been
invoked earlier, and their anger was only appeased by his tactful reply
(viii. 1-3; contrast xii. 1-6). The other narrative speaks of the
pursuit of the Midianite chiefs Zebah and Zalmunna[3] across the
northern end of Jordan, past Succoth and Penuel to the unidentified
place Karkor. Having taken relentless vengeance on the men of Penuel and
Succoth, who had shown a timid neutrality when the patriotic struggle
was at its crisis, Gideon puts the two chiefs to death to avenge his
brothers whom they had killed at Tabor.[4] The overthrow of Midian (cf.
Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Ps. lxxxiii. 9-12) induced "Israel" to offer Gideon
the kingdom. It was refused--out of religious scruples (viii. 22 seq.;
cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, 17, 19), and the ephod idol which he
set up at Ophrah in commemoration of the victory was regarded by a later
editor (v. 27) as a cause of apostasy to the people and a snare to
Gideon and his house; see, however, Ephod. Gideon's achievements would
naturally give him a more than merely local authority, and after his
death the attempt was made by one of his sons to set himself up as chief
(see ABIMELECH).
See further JEWS, section 1; and the literature to the book of Judges.
(S. A. C.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] "Baal contends" (or Jeru-baal, "Baal founds," cf. Jeru-el), but
artificially explained in the narrative to mean "let Baal contend
against him," or "let Baal contend for himself," v. 31. In 2 Sam. xi.
21 he is called Jerubbesheth, in accordance with the custom explained
in the article BAAL.
[2] See, on this, Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1719 seq.; Ed. Meyer,
_Die Israeliten_, pp. 482 seq.
[3] The names are vocalized to suggest the fanciful interpretations
"victim" and "protection withheld."
[4] As the account of this has been lost and the narrative is
concerned not with the plain of Jezreel but rather with Shechem, it
has been inferred that the episode implies the existence of a
distinct story wherein Gideon's pursuit is such an act of vengeance.
GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED ANDREAS (1820-1881), German zoologist and
palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of September 1820 at Quedlinburg
in Saxony, and educated at the university of Halle, where he graduated
Ph.D. in 1845. In 1858 he became professor of zoology and director of
the museum in the university of Halle. He died at Halle on the 14th of
November 1881. His chief publications were _Palaozoologie_ (1846);
_Fauna der Vorwelt_ (1847-1856); _Deutschlands Petrefacten_ (1852);
_Odontographie_ (1855); _Lehrbuch der Zoologie_ (1857); _Thesaurus
ornithologiae_ (1872-1877);
GIEN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Loiret, situated on the right bank of the Loire, 39 m.
E.S.E. of Orleans by rail. Pop. (1906) 6325. Gien is a picturesque and
interesting town and has many curious old houses. The Loire is here
crossed by a stone bridge of twelve arches, built by Anne de Beaujeu,
daughter of Louis XI., about the end of the 15th century. Near it stands
a statue of Vercingetorix. The principal building is the old castle used
as a law-court, constructed of brick and stone arranged in geometrical
patterns, and built in 1494 by Anne de Beaujeu. The church of St Pierre
possesses a square tower dating from the end of the 15th century.
Porcelain is manufactured.
GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE (1820-1895), Russian statesman, was born on
the 21st of May 1820. Like his predecessor, Prince Gorchakov, he was
educated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, near St Petersburg, but his
career was much less rapid, because he had no influential protectors,
and was handicapped by being a Protestant of Teutonic origin. At the age
of eighteen he entered the service of the Eastern department of the
ministry of foreign affairs, and spent more than twenty years in
subordinate posts, chiefly in south-eastern Europe, until he was
promoted in 1863 to the post of minister plenipotentiary in Persia. Here
he remained for six years, and, after serving as a minister in
Switzerland and Sweden, he was appointed in 1875 director of the Eastern
department and assistant minister for foreign affairs under Prince
Gorchakov, whose niece he had married. No sooner had he entered on his
new duties than his great capacity for arduous work was put to a severe
test. Besides events in central Asia, to which he had to devote much
attention, the Herzegovinian insurrection had broken out, and he could
perceive from secret official papers that the incident had far-reaching
ramifications unknown to the general public. Soon this became apparent
to all the world. While the Austrian officials in Dalmatia, with hardly
a pretence of concealment, were assisting the insurgents, Russian
volunteers were flocking to Servia with the connivance of the Russian
and Austrian governments, and General Ignatiev, as ambassador in
Constantinople, was urging his government to take advantage of the
palpable weakness of Turkey for bringing about a radical solution of the
Eastern question. Prince Gorchakov did not want a radical solution
involving a great European war, but he was too fond of ephemeral
popularity to stem the current of popular excitement. Alexander II.,
personally averse from war, was not insensible to the patriotic
enthusiasm, and halted between two opinions. M. de Giers was one of the
few who gauged the situation accurately. As an official and a man of
non-Russian extraction he had to be extremely reticent, but to his
intimate friends he condemned severely the ignorance and light-hearted
recklessness of those around him. The event justified his sombre
previsions, but did not cure the recklessness of the so-called patriots.
They wished to defy Europe in order to maintain intact the treaty of San
Stefano, and again M. de Giers found himself in an unpopular minority.
He had to remain in the background, but all the influence he possessed
was thrown into the scale of peace. His views, energetically supported
by Count Shuvalov, finally prevailed, and the European congress
assembled at Berlin. He was not present at the congress, and
consequently escaped the popular odium for the concessions which Russia
had to make to Great Britain and Austria. From that time he was
practically minister of foreign affairs, for Prince Gorchakov was no
longer capable of continued intellectual exertion, and lived mostly
abroad. On the death of Alexander II. in 1881 it was generally expected
that M. de Giers would be dismissed as deficient in Russian nationalist
feeling, for Alexander III. was credited with strong anti-German
Slavophil tendencies. In reality the young tsar had no intention of
embarking on wild political adventures, and was fully determined not to
let his hand be forced by men less cautious than himself. What he wanted
was a minister of foreign affairs who would be at once vigilant and
prudent, active and obedient, and who would relieve him from the trouble
and worry of routine work while allowing him to control the main lines,
and occasionally the details, of the national policy. M. de Giers was
exactly what he wanted, and accordingly the tsar not only appointed him
minister of foreign affairs on the retirement of Prince Gorchakov in
1882, but retained him to the end of his reign in 1894. In accordance
with the desire of his august master, M. de Giers followed
systematically a pacific policy. Accepting as a _fait accompli_ the
existence of the triple alliance, created by Bismarck for the purpose of
resisting any aggressive action on the part of Russia and France, he
sought to establish more friendly relations with the cabinets of Berlin,
Vienna and Rome. To the advances of the French government he at first
turned a deaf ear, but when the _rapprochement_ between the two
countries was effected with little or no co-operation on his part, he
utilized it for restraining France and promoting Russian interests. He
died on the 26th of January 1895, soon after the accession of Nicholas
II. (D. M. W.)
GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON (1814-1889), German historian, was a son of
Karl Giesebrecht (d. 1832), and a nephew of the poet Ludwig Giesebrecht
(1792-1873). Born in Berlin on the 5th of March 1814, he studied under
Leopold von Ranke, and his first important work, _Geschichte Ottos II._,
was contributed to Ranke's _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter dem
sachsischen Hause_ (Berlin, 1837-1840); In 1841 he published his
_Jahrbucher des Klosters Altaich_, a reconstruction of the lost _Annales
Altahenses_, a medieval source of which fragments only were known to be
extant, and these were obscured in other chronicles. The brilliance of
this performance was shown in 1867, when a copy of the original
chronicle was found, and it was seen that Giesebrecht's text was
substantially correct. In the meantime he had been appointed
_Oberlehrer_ in the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium in Berlin; had paid a visit
to Italy, and as a result of his researches there had published _De
litterarum studiis apud Italos primis medii aevi seculis_ (Berlin,
1845), a study upon the survival of culture in Italian cities during the
middle ages, and also several critical essays upon the sources for the
early history of the popes. In 1851 appeared his translation of the
_Historiae_ of Gregory of Tours, which is the standard German
translation. Four years later appeared the first volume of his great
work, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, the fifth volume of which
was published in 1888. This work was the first in which the results of
the scientific methods of research were thrown open to the world at
large. Largeness of style and brilliance of portrayal were joined to an
absolute mastery of the sources in a way hitherto unachieved by any
German historian. Yet later German historians have severely criticized
his glorification of the imperial era with its Italian entanglements, in
which the interests of Germany were sacrificed for idle glory.
Giesebrecht's history, however, appeared when the new German empire was
in the making, and became popular owing both to its patriotic tone and
its intrinsic merits. In 1857 he went to Konigsberg as professor
ordinarius, and in 1862 succeeded H. von Sybel as professor of history
in the university of Munich. The Bavarian government honoured him in
various ways, and he died at Munich on the 17th of December 1889. In
addition to the works already mentioned, Giesebrecht published a good
monograph on Arnold of Brescia (Munich, 1873), a collection of essays
under the title _Deutsche Reden_ (Munich, 1871), and was an active
member of the group of scholars who took over the direction of the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica_ in 1875. In 1895 B. von Simson added a
sixth volume to the _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, thus bringing
the work down to the death of the emperor Frederick I. in 1190.
See S. Riezler, _Gedachtnisrede auf Wilhelm von Giesebrecht_ (Munich,
1891); and Lord Acton in the _English Historical Review_, vol. v.
(London, 1890).
GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792-1854), German writer on church
history, was born on the 3rd of March 1792 at Petershagen, near Minden,
where his father, Georg Christof Friedrich, was preacher. In his tenth
year he entered the orphanage at Halle, whence he duly passed to the
university, his studies being interrupted, however, from October 1813
till the peace of 1815 by a period of military service, during which he
was enrolled as a volunteer in a regiment of chasseurs. On the
conclusion of peace (1815) he returned to Halle, and, having in 1817
taken his degree in philosophy, he in the same year became assistant
head master (_Conrector_) in the Minden gymnasium, and in 1818 was
appointed director of the gymnasium at Cleves. Here he published his
earliest work (_Historisch-kritischer Versuch uber die Entstehung u. die
fruhesten Schicksale der schriftlichen Evangelien_), a treatise which
had considerable influence on subsequent investigations as to the origin
of the gospels. In 1819 Gieseler was appointed a professor ordinarius in
theology in the newly founded university of Bonn, where, besides
lecturing on church history, he made important contributions to the
literature of that subject in Ernst Rosenmuller's _Repertorium_, K. F.
Staudlin and H. G. Tschirner's _Archiv_, and in various university
"programs." The first part of the first volume of his well-known _Church
History_ appeared in 1824. In 1831 he accepted a call to Gottingen as
successor to J. G. Planck. He lectured on church history, the history of
dogma, and dogmatic theology. In 1837 he was appointed a
_Consistorialrath_, and shortly afterwards was created a knight of the
Guelphic order. He died on the 8th of July 1854. The fourth and fifth
volumes of the _Kirchengeschichte_, embracing the period subsequent to
1814, were published posthumously in 1855 by E. R. Redepenning
(1810-1883); and they were followed in 1856 by a _Dogmengeschichte_,
which is sometimes reckoned as the sixth volume of the _Church History_.
Among church historians Gieseler continues to hold a high place. Less
vivid and picturesque in style than Karl Hase, conspicuously deficient
in Neander's deep and sympathetic insight into the more spiritual forces
by which church life is pervaded, he excels these and all other
contemporaries in the fulness and accuracy of his information. His
_Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte_, with its copious references to
original authorities, is of great value to the student: "Gieseler wished
that each age should speak for itself, since only by this means can the
peculiarity of its ideas be fully appreciated" (Otto Pfleiderer,
_Development of Theology_, p. 284). The work, which has passed through
several editions in Germany, has partially appeared also in two English
translations. That published in New York (_Text Book of Ecclesiastical
History_, 5 vols.) brings the work down to the peace of Westphalia,
while that published in "Clark's Theological Library" (_Compendium of
Ecclesiastical History_, Edinburgh, 5 vols.) closes with the beginning
of the Reformation. Gieseler was not only a devoted student but also an
energetic man of business. He frequently held the office of pro-rector
of the university, and did much useful work as a member of several of
its committees.
GIESSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the province of Upper Hesse, in
the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated in a beautiful and
fruitful valley at the confluence of the Wieseck with the Lahn, 41 m.
N.N.W. of Frankfort-on-Main on the railway to Cassel; and at the
junction of important lines to Cologne and Coblenz. Pop. (1885) 18,836;
(1905) 29,149. In the old part of the town the streets are narrow and
irregular. Besides the university, the principal buildings are the
Stadtkirche, the provincial government offices, comprising a portion of
the old castle dating from the 12th century, the arsenal (now barracks)
and the town-hall (containing an historical collection). The university,
founded in 1607 by Louis V, landgrave of Hesse, has a large and valuable
library, a botanic garden, an observatory, medical schools, a museum of
natural history, a chemical laboratory which was directed by Justus von
Liebig, professor here from 1824 to 1852, and an agricultural college.
The industries include the manufacture of woollen and cotton cloth of
various kinds, machines, leather, candles, tobacco and beer.
Giessen, the name of which is probably derived from the streams which
pour (_giessen_) their waters here into the Lahn, was formed in the 12th
century out of the villages Selters, Aster and Kroppach, for whose
protection Count William of Gleiberg built the castle of Giessen.
Through marriage the town came, in 1203, into the possession of the
count palatine, Rudolph of Tubingen, who sold it in 1265 to the
landgrave Henry of Hesse. It was surrounded with fortifications in 1530,
which were demolished in 1547, but rebuilt in 1560. In 1805 they were
finally pulled down, and their site converted into promenades.
See O. Buchner, _Fuhrer fur Giessen und das Lahntal_ (1891); and _Aus
Glessens Vergangenheit_ (1885).
GIFFARD, GODFREY (c. 1235-1302); chancellor of England and bishop of
Worcester, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, Wiltshire. Having
entered the church he speedily obtained valuable preferments owing to
the influence of his brother Walter, who became chancellor of England in
1265. In 1266 Godfrey became chancellor of the exchequer, succeeding
Walter as chancellor of England when, in the same year, the latter was
made archbishop of York. In 1268 he was chosen bishop of Worcester,
resigning the chancellorship shortly afterwards; and both before and
after 1279, when he inherited the valuable property of his brother the
archbishop, he was employed on public business by Edward I. His main
energies, however, were devoted to the affairs of his see. He had one
long dispute with the monks of Worcester, another with the abbot of
Westminster, and was vigilant in guarding his material interests. The
bishop died on the 26th of January 1302, and was buried in his
cathedral. Giffard, although inclined to nepotism, was a benefactor to
his cathedral, and completed and fortified the episcopal castle at
Hartlebury.
See W. Thomas, _Survey of Worcester Cathedral_; _Episcopal Registers_;
_Register of Bishop Godfrey Giffard_, edited by J. W. Willis-Bund
(Oxford, 1898-1899); and the Annals of Worcester in the _Annales
monastici_, vol. iv., edited by H. R. Luard (London, 1869).
GIFFARD, WALTER (d. 1279), chancellor of England and archbishop of York,
was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, Wiltshire, and after serving as
canon and archdeacon of Wells, was chosen bishop of Bath and Wells in
May 1264. In August 1265 Henry III. appointed him chancellor of England,
and he was one of the arbitrators who drew up the _dictum de Kenilworth_
in 1266. Later in this year Pope Clement IV. named him archbishop of
York, and having resigned the chancellorship he was an able and diligent
ruler of his see, although in spite of his great wealth he was
frequently in pecuniary difficulties. When Henry III. died in November
1272 the archbishopric of Canterbury was vacant, and consequently the
great seal was delivered to the archbishop of York, who was the chief of
the three regents who successfully governed the kingdom until the return
of Edward I. in August 1274. Having again acted in this capacity during
the king's absence in 1275, Giffard died in April 1279, and was buried
in his cathedral.
See _Fasti Eboracenses_, edited by J. Raine (London, 1863). Giffard's
_Register_ from 1266 to 1279 has been edited for the Surtees Society
by W. Brown.
GIFFARD, WILLIAM (d. 1129), bishop of Winchester, was chancellor of
William II. and received his see, in succession to Bishop Walkelin, from
Henry I. (1100). He was one of the bishops elect whom Anselm refused to
consecrate (1101) as having been nominated and invested by the lay
power. During the investitures dispute Giffard was on friendly terms
with Anselm, and drew upon himself a sentence of banishment through
declining to accept consecration from the archbishop of York (1103). He
was, however, one of the bishops who pressed Anselm, in 1106, to give
way to the king. He was consecrated after the settlement of 1107. He
became a close friend of Anselm, aided the first Cistercians to settle
in England, and restored Winchester cathedral with great magnificence.
See Eadmer, _Historia novorum_, edited by M. Rule (London, 1884); and
S. H. Cass, _Bishops of Winchester_ (London, 1827).
GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT (1837-1910), British statistician and economist, was
born at Strathaven, Lanarkshire. He entered a solicitor's office in
Glasgow, and while in that city attended courses at the university. He
drifted into journalism, and after working for the _Stirling Journal_ he
went to London in 1862 and joined the staff of the _Globe_. He also
assisted Mr John (afterwards Lord) Morley, when the latter edited the
_Fortnightly Review_. In 1868 he became Walter Bagehot's
assistant-editor on the _Economist_; and his services were also secured
in 1873 as city-editor of the _Daily News_, and later of _The Times_.
His high reputation as a financial journalist and statistician, gained
in these years, led to his appointment in 1876 as head of the
statistical department in the Board of Trade, and subsequently he became
assistant secretary (1882) and finally controller-general (1892),
retiring in 1897. In connexion with his position as chief statistical
adviser to the government, he was constantly employed in drawing up
reports, giving evidence before commissions of inquiry, and acting as a
government auditor, besides publishing a number of important essays on
financial subjects. His principal publications were _Essays on Finance_
(1879 and 1884), _The Progress of the Working Classes_ (1884), _The
Growth of Capital_ (1890), _The Case against Bimetallism_ (1892), and
_Economic Inquiries and Studies_ (1904). He was president of the
Statistical Society (1882-1884); and after being made a C.B. in 1891 was
created K.C.B. in 1895. In 1892 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society. Sir Robert Giffen continued in later years to take a leading
part in all public controversies connected with finance and taxation,
and his high authority and practical experience were universally
recognized. He died somewhat suddenly in Scotland on the 12th of April
1910.
GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (1840-1905), American marine and landscape
painter, was born on Naushon Island, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of
December 1840. He studied art with the Dutch marine painter Albert van
Beest, who had a studio in New Bedford, and in 1864 he opened a studio
for himself in Boston, subsequently settling in New York, where he was
elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1867 and an
academician in 1878. He was also a charter member of the American Water
Color Society and the Society of American Artists. From 1878 until 1896
he was teacher of painting and chief master of the Woman's Art School of
Cooper Union, New York, and from 1896 until his death he was director.
Gifford painted longshore views, sand dunes and landscapes generally,
with charm and poetry. He was an etcher of considerable reputation, a
member of the Society of American Etchers, and an honorary member of the
Society of Painter-Etchers of London. He died in New York on the 13th of
January 1905.
GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823-1880), American landscape painter, was
born at Greenfield, New York, on the 10th of July 1823. He studied
(1842-1845) at Brown University, then went to New York, and entered the
art schools of the National Academy of Design, of which organization he
was elected an associate in 1851, and an academician in 1854.
Subsequently he studied in Paris and Rome. He was one of the best known
of the Hudson River school group, though it was at Lake George that he
found most of his themes. In his day he enjoyed an enormous popularity,
and his canvases are in many well-known American collections. He died in
New York City on the 29th of August 1880.
GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826), English publicist and man of letters, was
born at Ashburton, Devon, in April 1756. His father was a glazier of
indifferent character, and before he was thirteen William had lost both
parents. The business was seized by his godfather, on whom William and
his brother, a child of two, became entirely dependent. For about three
months William was allowed to remain at the free school of the town. He
was then put to follow the plough, but after a day's trial he proved
unequal to the task, and was sent to sea with the Brixham fishermen.
After a year at sea his godfather, driven by the opinion of the
townsfolk, put the boy to school once more. He made rapid progress,
especially in mathematics, and began to assist the master. In 1772 he
was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and when he wished to pursue his
mathematical studies, he was obliged to work his problems with an awl on
beaten leather. By the kindness of an Ashburton surgeon, William
Cooksley, a subscription was raised to enable him to return to school.
Ultimately he proceeded in his twenty-third year to Oxford, where he was
appointed a Bible clerk in Exeter College. Leaving the university
shortly after graduation in 1782, he found a generous patron in the
first Earl Grosvenor, who undertook to provide for him, and sent him on
two prolonged continental tours in the capacity of tutor to his son,
Lord Belgrave. Settling in London, Gifford published in 1794 his first
work, a clever satirical piece, after Persius, entitled the _Baviad_,
aimed at a coterie of second-rate writers at Florence, then popularly
known as the Della Cruscans, of which Mrs Piozzi was the leader. A
second satire of a similar description, the _Maeviad_, directed against
the corruptions of the drama, appeared in 1795. About this time Gifford
became acquainted with Canning, with whose help he in August 1797
originated a weekly newspaper of Conservative politics entitled the
_Anti-Jacobin_, which, however, in the following year ceased to be
published. An English version of Juvenal, on which he had been for many
years engaged, appeared in 1802; to this an autobiographical notice of
the translator, reproduced in Nichol's _Illustrations of Literature_,
was prefixed. Two years afterwards Gifford published an annotated
edition of the plays of Massinger; and in 1809, when the _Quarterly
Review_ was projected, he was made editor. The success which attended
the _Quarterly_ from the outset was due in no small degree to the
ability and tact with which Gifford discharged his editorial duties. He
took, however, considerable liberties with the articles he inserted, and
Southey, who was one of his regular contributors, said that Gifford
looked on authors as Izaak Walton did on worms. His bitter opposition to
Radicals and his onslaughts on new writers, conspicuous among which was
the article on Keats's _Endymion_, called forth Hazlitt's _Letter to W.
Gifford_ in 1819. His connexion with the _Review_ continued until within
about two years of his death, which took place in London on the 31st of
December 1826. Besides numerous contributions to the _Quarterly_ during
the last fifteen years of his life, he wrote a metrical translation of
Persius, which appeared in 1821. Gifford also edited the dramas of Ben
Jonson in 1816, and his edition of Ford appeared posthumously in 1827.
His notes on Shirley were incorporated in Dyce's edition in 1833. His
political services were acknowledged by the appointments of commissioner
of the lottery and paymaster of the gentleman pensioners. He left a
considerable fortune, the bulk of which went to the son of his first
benefactor, William Cooksley.
GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _die Gift_, gift, _das Gift_,
poison, formed from the Teut. stem _gab-_, to give, cf. Dutch _geven_,
Ger. _geben_; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural
of later English is due to Scandinavian influence), a general English
term for a present or thing bestowed, i.e. an alienation of property
otherwise than for a legal consideration, although in law it is often
used to signify alienation with or without consideration. By analogy the
terms "gift" and "gifted" are also used to signify the natural endowment
of some special ability, or a miraculous power, in a person, as being
not acquired in the ordinary way. The legal effect of a gratuitous gift
only need be considered here. Formerly in English law property in land
could be conveyed by one person to another by a verbal gift of the
estate accompanied by delivery of possession. The Statute of Frauds
required all such conveyances to be in writing, and a later statute (8 &
9 Vict. c. 106) requires them to be by deed. Personal property may be
effectually transferred from one person to another by a simple verbal
gift accompanied by delivery. If A delivers a chattel to B, saying or
signifying that he does so by way of gift, the property passes, and the
chattel belongs to B. But unless the actual thing is bodily handed over
to the donee, the mere verbal expression of the donor's desire or
intention has no legal effect whatever. The persons are in the position
of parties to an agreement which is void as being without consideration.
When the nature of the thing is such that it cannot be bodily handed
over, it will be sufficient to put the donee in such a position as to
enable him to deal with it as the owner. For example, when goods are in
a warehouse, the delivery of the key will make a verbal gift of them
effectual; but it seems that part delivery of goods which are capable of
actual delivery will not validate a verbal gift of the part undelivered.
So when goods are in the possession of a warehouseman, the handing over
of a delivery order might, by special custom (but not otherwise, it
appears), be sufficient to pass the property in the goods, although
delivery of a bill of lading for goods at sea is equivalent to an actual
delivery of the goods themselves.
GIFU (IMAIZUMI), a city of Japan, capital of the _ken_ (government) of
Central Nippon, which comprises the two provinces of Mino and Hida. Pop.
about 41,000. It lies E. by N. of Lake Biwa, on the Central railway, on
a tributary of the river Kiso, which flows to the Bay of Miya Uro.
Manufactures of silk and paper goods are carried on. The _ken_ has an
area of about 4000 sq. m. and is thickly peopled, the population
exceeding 1,000,000. The whole district is subject to frequent
earthquakes.
GIG, apparently an onomatopoeic word for any light whirling object, and
so used of a top, as in Shakespeare's _Love's Labour's Lost_, v. i. 70
("Goe whip thy gigge"), or of a revolving lure made of feathers for
snaring birds. The word is now chiefly used of a light two-wheeled cart
or carriage for one horse, and of a narrow, light, ship's boat for oars
or sails, and also of a clinker-built rowing-boat used for rowing on the
Thames. "Gig" is further applied, in mining, to a wooden chamber or box
divided in the centre and used to draw miners up and down a pit or
shaft, and to a textile machine, the "gig-mill" or "gigging machine,"
which raises the nap on cloth by means of teazels. A "gig" or "fish-gig"
(properly "fiz-gig," possibly an adaptation of Span. _fisga_, harpoon)
is an instrument used for spearing fish.
GIGLIO (anc. _Igilium_), an island of Italy, off the S.W. coast of
Italy, in the province of Grosseto, 11 m. to the W. of Monte Argentario,
the nearest point on the coast. It measures about 5 m. by 3 and its
highest point is 1634 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2062. It is
partly composed of granite, which was quarried here by the Romans, and
is still used; the island is fertile, and produces wine and fruit, the
cultivation of which has taken the place of the forests of which
Rutilius spoke (_Itin._ i. 325, "eminus Igilii silvosa cacumina miror").
Julius Caesar mentions its sailors in the fleet of Domitius Ahenobarbus.
In Rutilius's time it served as a place of refuge from the barbarian
invaders. Charlemagne gave it to the abbey of Tre Fontane at Rome. In
the 14th century it belonged to Pisa, then to Florence, ~~6 Antonio
Piccolomini, nephew of Pius II. In 1558 it was sold to the wife of
Cosimo I. of Florence.
See Archduke Ludwig Salvator, _Die Insel Giglio_ (Prague, 1900).
GIJON, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the
Bay of Biscay, and at the terminus of railways from Aviles, Oviedo and
Langreo. Pop. (1900) 47,544. The older parts of Gijon, which are partly
enclosed by ancient walls, occupy the upper slopes of a peninsular
headland, Santa Catalina Point; while its more modern suburbs extend
along the shore to Cape Torres, on the west, and Cape San Lorenzo, on
the east. These suburbs contain the town-hall, theatre, markets, and a
bull-ring with seats for 12,000 spectators. Few of the buildings of
Gijon are noteworthy for any architectural merit, except perhaps the
15th-century parish church of San Pedro, which has a triple raw of
aisles on each side, the palace of the marquesses of Revillajigedo (or
Revilla Gigedo), and the Asturian Institute or Jovellanos Institute. The
last named has a very fine collection of drawings by Spanish and other
artists, a good library and classes for instruction in seamanship,
mathematics and languages. It was founded in 1797 by the poet and
statesman Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811). Jovellanos, a native
of Gijon, is buried in San Pedro.
The Bay of Gijon is the most important roadstead on the Spanish coast
between Ferrol and Santander. Its first quay was constructed by means of
a grant from Charles V. in 1552-1554; and its arsenal, added in the
reign of Philip II. (1556-1598), was used in 1588 as a repairing station
for the surviving ships of the Invincible Armada. A new quay was built
in 1766-1768, and extended in 1859; the harbour was further improved in
1864, and after 1892, when the Musel harbour of refuge was created at
the extremity of the bay. It was, however, the establishment of railway
communication in 1884 which brought the town its modern prosperity, by
rendering it the chief port of shipment for the products of Langreo and
other mining centres in Oviedo. A rapid commercial development followed.
Besides large tobacco, glass and porcelain factories, Gijon possesses
iron foundries and petroleum refineries; while its minor industries
include fisheries, and the manufacture of preserved foods, soap,
chocolate, candles and liqueurs. In 1903 the harbour accommodated 2189
vessels of 358,375 tons. In the same year the imports, consisting
chiefly of machinery, iron, wood and food-stuffs, were valued at
L660,889; while the exports, comprising zinc, copper, iron and other
minerals, with fish, nuts and farm produce, were valued at L100,941.
Gijon is usually identified with the _Gigia_ of the Romans, which,
however, occupied the site of the adjoining suburb of Cima de Villa.
Early in the 8th century Gijon was captured and strengthened by the
Moors, who used the stones of the Roman city for their fortifications,
but were expelled by King Pelayo (720-737). In 844 Gijon successfully
resisted a Norman raid; in 1395 it was burned down; but thenceforward it
gradually rose to commercial importance.
GILAN (GHILAN, GUILAN), one of the three small but important Caspian
provinces of Persia, lying along the south-western shore of the Caspian
Sea between 48 deg. 50' and 50 deg. 30' E. with a breadth varying from
15 to 50 m. It has an area of about 5000 sq. m. and a population of
about 250,000. It is separated from Russia by the little river Astara,
which flows into the Caspian, and bounded W. by Azerbaijan, S. by Kazvin
and E. by Mazandaran. The greater portion of the province is a lowland
region extending inland from the sea to the base of the mountains of the
Elburz range and, though the Sefid Rud (White river), which is called
Kizil Uzain in its upper course and has its principal sources in the
hills of Persian Kurdistan, is the only river of any size, the province
is abundantly watered by many streams and an exceptionally great
rainfall (in some years 50 in.).
The vegetation is very much like that of southern Europe, but in
consequence of the great humidity and the mild climate almost tropically
luxuriant, and the forests from the shore of the sea up to an altitude
of nearly 5000 ft. on the mountain slopes facing the sea are as dense as
an Indian jungle. The prevailing types of trees are the oak, maple,
hornbeam, beech, ash and elm. The box tree comes to rare perfection, but
in consequence of indiscriminate cutting for export during many years,
is now becoming scarce. Of fruit trees the apple, pear, plum, cherry,
medlar, pomegranate, fig, quince, as well as two kinds of vine, grow
wild; oranges, sweet and bitter, and other Aurantiaceae thrive well in
gardens and plantations. The fauna also is well represented, but tigers
which once were frequently seen are now very scarce; panther, hyena,
jackal, wild boar, deer (_Cervus maral_) are common; pheasant, woodcock,
ducks, teal, geese and various waterfowl abound; the fisheries are very
productive and are leased to a Russian firm. The ordinary cattle of the
province is the small humped kind, _Bos indicus_, and forms an article
of export to Russia, the humps, smoked, being much in demand as a
delicacy. Rice of a kind not much appreciated in Persia, but much
esteemed in Gilan and Russia, is largely cultivated and a quantity
valued at about L120,000 was exported to Russia during 1904-1905. Tea
plantations, with seeds and plants from Assam, Ceylon and the Himalayas,
were started in the early part of 1900 on the slopes of the hills south
of Resht at an altitude of about 1000 ft. The results were excellent and
very good tea was produced in 1904 and 1905, but the Persian government
gave no support and the enterprise was neglected. The olive thrives well
at Rudbar and Manjil in the Sefid Rud valley and the oil extracted from
it by a Provencal for some years until 1896, when he was murdered, was
of very good quality and found a ready market at Baku. Since then the
oil has been, as before, only used for the manufacture of soap. Tobacco
from Turkish seed, cultivated since 1875, grows well, and a considerable
quantity of it is exported. The most valuable produce of the province is
silk. In 1866 it was valued at L743,000 and about two-thirds of it was
exported. The silkworm disease appeared in 1864 and the crops decreased
in consequence until 1893 when the value of the silk exported was no
more than L6500. Since then there has been a steady improvement, and in
1905-1906 the value of the produce was estimated at L300,000 and that of
the quantity exported at L200,000. The eggs of the silk-worms, formerly
obtained from Japan, are now imported principally from Brusa by Greeks
under French protection and from France.
There is only one good road in the province, that from Enzeli to Kazvin
by way of Resht; in other parts communication is by narrow and
frequently impassable lanes through the thick forest, or by intricate
pathways through the dense undergrowth.
The province is divided into the following administrative districts:
Resht (with the capital and its immediate neighbourhood), Fumen (with
Tulam and Mesula, where are iron mines), Gesker, Talish (with
Shandarman, Kerganrud, Asalim, Gil-Dulab, Talish-Dulab), Enzeli (the
port of Resht), Sheft, Manjil (with Rahmetabad and Amarlu), Lahijan
(with Langarud, Rudsar and Ranehkuh), Dilman and Lashtnisha. The revenue
derived from taxes and customs is about L80,000. The crown lands have
been much neglected and the revenue from them amounts to hardly L3000
per annum. The value of the exports and imports from and into Gilan,
much of them in transit, is close upon L2,000,000.
Gilan was an independent khanate until 1567 when Khan Ahmed, the last of
the Kargia dynasty, which had reigned 205 years, was deposed by Tahmasp
I., the second Safawid shah of Persia (1524-1576). It was occupied by a
Russian force in the early part of 1723; and Tahmasp III., the tenth
Safawid shah (1722-1731); then without a throne and his country occupied
by the Afghans, ceded it, together with Mazandaran and Astarabad, to
Peter the Great by a treaty of the 12th of September of the same year.
Russian troops remained in Gilan until 1734, when they were compelled to
evacuate it.
The derivation of the name Gilan from the modern Persian word _gil_
meaning mud (hence "land of mud") is incorrect. It probably means "land
of the Gil," an ancient tribe which classical writers mention as the
Gelae. (A. H.-S.)
GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM (1794-1863), English writer on banking, was born
in London on the 21st of March 1794. From 1813 to 1825 he was clerk in
a London bank. After a two years' residence in Birmingham, he was
appointed manager of the Kilkenny branch of the Provincial Bank of
Ireland, and in 1829 he was promoted to the Waterford branch. In 1834 he
became manager of the London and Westminster Bank; and he did much to
develop the system of joint-stock banking. On more than one occasion he
rendered valuable services to the joint-stock banks by his evidence
before committees of the House of Commons; and, on the renewal of the
bank charter in 1844, he procured the insertion of a clause granting to
joint-stock banks the power of suing by their public officer, and also
the right of accepting bills at less than six months' date. In 1846 he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in London on the 8th
of August 1863. The Gilbart lectures on banking at King's College are
called after him.
The following are his principal works on banking, most of which have
passed through more than one edition: _Practical Treatise on Banking_
(1827); _The History and Principles of Banking_ (1834); _The History
of Banking in America_ (1837); _Lectures on the History and Principles
of Ancient Commerce_ (1847); _Logic for the Million_ (1851); and
_Logic of Banking_ (1857).
GILBERT, ALFRED (1854- ), British sculptor and goldsmith, born in
London, was the son of Alfred Gilbert, musician. He received his
education mainly in Paris (Ecole des Beaux-Arts, under Cavelier), and
studied in Rome and Florence where the significance of the Renaissance
made a lasting impression upon him and his art. He also worked in the
studio of Sir J. Edgar Boehm, R.A. His first work of importance was the
charming group of the "Mother and Child," then "The Kiss of Victory,"
followed by "Perseus Arming" (1883), produced directly under the
influence of the Florentine masterpieces he had studied. Its success was
great, and Lord Leighton forthwith commissioned "Icarus," which was
exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with a remarkable "Study
of a Head," and was received with general applause. Then followed "The
Enchanted Chair," which, along with many other works deemed by the
artist incomplete or unworthy of his powers, was ultimately broken by
the sculptor's own hand. The next year Mr Gilbert was occupied with the
Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain, in Piccadilly, London, a work of great
originality and beauty, yet shorn of some of the intended effect through
restrictions put upon the artist. In 1888 was produced the statue of
H.M. Queen Victoria, set up at Winchester, in its main design and in the
details of its ornamentation the most remarkable work of its kind
produced in Great Britain, and perhaps, it may be added, in any other
country in modern times. Other statues of great beauty, at once novel in
treatment and fine in design, are those set up to Lord Reay in Bombay,
and John Howard at Bedford (1898); the highly original pedestal of which
did much to direct into a better channel what are apt to be the
eccentricities of what is called the "New Art" School. The sculptor rose
to the full height of his powers in his "Memorial to the Duke of
Clarence," and his fast developing fancy and imagination, which are the
main characteristics of all his work, are seen in his "Memorial
Candelabrum to Lord Arthur Russell" and "Memorial Font to the son of the
4th Marquess of Bath." Gilbert's sense of decoration is paramount in all
he does, and although in addition to the work already cited he produced
busts of extraordinary excellence of Cyril Flower, John R. Clayton
(since broken up by the artist--the fate of much of his admirable work),
G. F. Watts, Sir Henry Tate, Sir George Birdwood, Sir Richard Owen, Sir
George Grove and various others, it is on his goldsmithery that the
artist would rest his reputation; on his mayoral chain for Preston, the
epergne for Queen Victoria, the figurines of "Victory" (a statuette
designed for the orb in the hand of the Winchester statue), "St Michael"
and "St George," as well as smaller objects such as seals, keys and the
like. Mr Gilbert was chosen associate of the Royal Academy in 1887, full
member in 1892 (resigned 1909), and professor of sculpture (afterwards
resigned) in 1900. In 1889 he won the _Grand Prix_ at the Paris
International Exhibition. He was created a member of the Victorian Order
in 1897. (See SCULPTURE.)
See _The Life and Work of Alfred Gilbert, R.A., M.V.O., D.C.L._, by
Joseph Hatton (_Art Journal_ Office, 1903). (M. H. S.)
GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904), American actress, was born at Rochdale,
Lancashire, on the 21st of October 1821, her maiden name being Hartley.
At fifteen she was a pupil at the ballet school connected with the
Haymarket theatre, conducted by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer on
the stage. In 1846 she married George H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer
in the company of which she was a member. Together they filled many
engagements in English theatres, moving to America in 1849. Mrs
Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857 as Wichavenda in
Brougham's _Pocahontas_. In 1869 she joined Daly's company, playing for
many years wives to James Lewis's husbands, and old women's parts, in
which she had no equal. Mrs. Gilbert held a unique position on the
American stage, on account of the admiration, esteem and affection which
she enjoyed both in front and behind the footlights. She died at Chicago
on the 2nd of December 1904.
See _Mrs Gilbert's Stage Reminiscences_ (1901).
GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843- ), American geologist, was born at
Rochester, N.Y., on the 6th of May 1843. In 1869 he was attached to the
Geological Survey of Ohio and in 1879 he became a member of the United
States Geological Survey, being engaged on parts of the Rocky Mountains,
in Nevada, Utah, California and Arizona. He is distinguished for his
researches on mountain-structure and on the Great Lakes, as well as on
glacial phenomena, recent earth movements, and on topographic features
generally. His report on the _Geology of the Henry Mountains_ (1877), in
which the volcanic structure known as a laccolite was first described;
his _History of the Niagara River_ (1890) and _Lake Bonneville_
(1891--the first of the Monographs issued by the United States
Geological Survey) are specially important. He was awarded the Wollaston
medal by the Geological Society of London in 1900.
GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583), English soldier, navigator and
pioneer colonist in America, was the second son of Otho Gilbert, of
Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and step-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh.
He was educated at Eton and Oxford; intended for the law; introduced at
court by Raleigh's aunt, Catherine Ashley, and appointed (July 1566)
captain in the army of Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. In April 1566 he
had already joined with Antony Jenkinson in a petition to Elizabeth for
the discovery of the North-East Passage; in November following he
presented an independent petition for the "discovering of a passage by
the north to go to Cataia." In October 1569 he became governor of
Munster; on the 1st of January 1570 he was knighted; in 1571 he was
returned M.P. for Plymouth; in 1572 he campaigned in the Netherlands
against Spain without much success; from 1573 to 1578 he lived in
retirement at Limehouse, devoting himself especially to the advocacy of a
North-West Passage (his famous _Discourse_ on this subject was published
in 1576). Gilbert's arguments, widely circulated even before 1575, were
apparently of weight in promoting the Frobisher enterprises of 1576-1578.
On the 11th of June 1578, Sir Humphrey obtained his long-coveted charter
for North-Western discovery and colonization, authorizing him, his heirs
and assigns, to discover, occupy and possess such remote "heathen lands
not actually possessed of any Christian prince or people, as should seem
good to him or them." Disposing not only of his patrimony but also of the
estates in Kent which he had through his wife, daughter of John Aucher of
Ollerden, he fitted out an expedition which left Dartmouth on the 23rd of
September 1578, and returned in May 1579, having accomplished nothing. In
1579 Gilbert aided the government in Ireland; and in 1583, after many
struggles--illustrated by his appeal to Walsingham on the 11th of July
1582, for the payment of moneys due to him from government, and by his
agreement with the Southampton venturers--he succeeded in equipping
another fleet for "Western Planting." On the 11th of June 1583, he sailed
from Plymouth with five ships and the queen's blessing; on the 13th of
July the "Ark Raleigh," built and manned at his brother's expense,
deserted the fleet; on the 30th of July he was off the north coast of
Newfoundland; on the 3rd of August he arrived off the present St John's,
and selected this site as the centre of his operations; on the 5th of
August he began the plantation of the first English colony in North
America. Proceeding southwards with three vessels, exploring and
prospecting, he lost the largest near Cape Breton (29th of August);
immediately after (31st of August) he started to return to England with
the "Golden Hind" and the "Squirrel," of forty and ten tons respectively.
Obstinately refusing to leave the "frigate" and sail in his "great ship,"
he shared the former's fate in a tempest off the Azores. "Monday the 9th
of September," reports Hayes, the captain of the "Hind," "the frigate was
near cast away, ... yet at that time recovered; and, giving forth signs
of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried out
unto us in the 'Hind,' 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.'....
The same Monday night, about twelve, the frigate being ahead of us in the
'Golden Hind,' suddenly her lights were out, ... in that moment the
frigate was devoured and swallowed up of the sea."
See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_ (1599); vol. iii. pp. 135-181;
Gilbert's _Discourse of a Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia_,
published by George Gascoigne in 1576, with additions, probably
without Gilbert's authority; Hooker's _Supplement_ to Holinshed's
_Irish Chronicle_; Roger Williams, _The Actions of the Low Countries_
(1618); _State Papers, Domestic_ (1577-1583); Wood's _Athenae
Oxonienses_; _North British Review_, No. 45; Fox Bourne's _English
Seamen under the Tudors_; Carlos Slafter, _Sir H. Gylberte and his
Enterprise_ (Boston, 1903), with all important documents. Gilbert's
interesting writings on the need of a university for London,
anticipating in many ways not only the modern London University but
also the British Museum library and its compulsory sustenance through
the provisions of the Copyright Act, have been printed by Furnivall
(_Queen Elizabeth's Achademy_) in the Early English Text Society
Publications, extra series, No. viii.
GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889); American actor, whose real name was Gibbs,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of February 1810, and
made his first appearance there as Jaffier in _Venice Preserved_. He
soon found that his true vein was in comedy, particularly in old-men
parts. When in London in 1847 he was well received both by press and
public, and played with Macready. He was the leading actor at Wallack's
from 1861-1888. He died on the 17th of June 1889.
See William Winter's _Life of John Gilbert_ (New York, 1890).
GILBERT, SIR JOHN (1817-1897), English painter and illustrator, one of
the eight children of George Felix Gilbert, a member of a Derbyshire
family, was born at Blackheath on the 21st of July 1817. He went to
school there, and even in childhood displayed an extraordinary fondness
for drawing and painting. Nevertheless, his father's lack of means
compelled him to accept employment for the boy in the office of Messrs
Dickson & Bell, estate agents, in Charlotte Row, London. Yielding,
however, to his natural bent, his parents agreed that he should take up
art in his own way, which included but little advice from others, his
only teacher being Haydon's pupil, George Lance, the fruit painter. This
artist gave him brief instructions in the use of colour. In 1836 Gilbert
appeared in public for the first time. This was at the gallery of the
Society of British Artists, where he sent drawings, the subjects of
which were characteristic, being "The Arrest of Lord Hastings," from
Shakespeare, and "Abbot Boniface," from _The Monastery_ of Scott. "Inez
de Castro" was in the same gallery in the next year; it was the first of
a long series of works in the same medium, representing similar themes,
and was accompanied, from 1837, by a still greater number of works in
oil which were exhibited at the British Institution. These included "Don
Quixote giving advice to Sancho Panza," 1841; "Brunette and Phillis,"
from _The Spectator_, 1844; "The King's Artillery at Marston Moor,"
1860; and "Don Quixote comes back for the last time to his Home and
Family," 1867. In that year the Institution was finally closed. Gilbert
exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1838, beginning with the "Portrait
of a Gentleman," and continuing, except between 1851 and 1867, till his
death to exhibit there many of his best and more ambitious works. These
included such capital instances as "Holbein painting the Portrait of
Anne Boleyn," "Don Quixote's first Interview with the Duke and Duchess,"
1842, "Charlemagne visiting the Schools," 1846. "Touchstone and the
Shepherd," and "Rembrandt," a very fine piece, were both there in 1867;
and in 1873 "Naseby," one of his finest and most picturesque designs,
was also at the Royal Academy. Gilbert was elected A.R.A. 29th January
1872, and R.A. 29th June 1876. Besides these mostly large and powerful
works, the artist's true arena of display was undoubtedly the gallery of
the Old Water Colour Society, to which from 1852, when he was elected an
Associate exhibitor, till he died forty-five years later, he contributed
not fewer than 270 drawings, most of them admirable because of the
largeness of their style, massive coloration, broad chiaroscuro, and the
surpassing vigour of their designs. These qualities induced the leading
critics to claim for him opportunities for painting mural pictures of
great historic themes as decorations of national buildings. "The
Trumpeter," "The Standard-Bearer," "Richard II. resigning his Crown"
(now at Liverpool), "The Drug Bazaar at Constantinople," "The Merchant
of Venice" and "The Turkish Water-Carrier" are but examples of that
wealth of art which added to the attractions of the gallery in Pall
Mall. There Gilbert was elected a full Member in 1855, and president of
the Society in 1871, shortly after which he was knighted. As an
illustrator of books, magazines and periodicals of every kind he was
most prolific. To the success of the _Illustrated London News_ his
designs lent powerful aid, and he was eminently serviceable in
illustrating the _Shakespeare_ of Mr Howard Staunton. He died on the 6th
of October 1897. (F. G. S.)
GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901); English chemist, was born at Hull
on the 1st of August 1817. He studied chemistry first at Glasgow under
Thomas Thomson; then at University College, London, in the laboratory of
A. T. Thomson (1778-1849), the professor of medical jurisprudence, also
attending Thomas Graham's lectures; and finally at Giessen under Liebig.
On his return to England from Germany he acted for a year or so as
assistant to his old master A. T. Thomson at University College, and in
1843, after spending a short time in the study of calico dyeing and
printing near Manchester, accepted the directorship of the chemical
laboratory at the famous experimental station established by Sir J. B.
Lawes at Rothamsted, near St Albans, for the systematic and scientific
study of agriculture. This position he held for fifty-eight years, until
his death on the 23rd of December 1901. The work which he carried out
during that long period in collaboration with Lawes was of a most
comprehensive character, involving the application of many branches of
science, such as chemistry, meteorology, botany, animal and vegetable
physiology, and geology; and its influence in improving the methods of
practical agriculture extended all over the civilized world. Gilbert was
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1860, and in 1867 was awarded a
royal medal jointly with Lawes. In 1880 he presided over the Chemical
Section of the British Association at its meeting at Swansea, and in
1882 he was president of the London Chemical Society, of which he had
been a member almost from its foundation in 1841. For six years from
1884 he filled the Sibthorpian chair of rural economy at Oxford, and he
was also an honorary professor at the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester. He was knighted in 1893, the year in which the jubilee of
the Rothamsted experiments was celebrated.
GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA ["LOLA MONTEZ"] (1818-1861), dancer
and adventuress, the daughter of a British army officer, was born at
Limerick, Ireland, in 1818. Her father dying in India when she was seven
years old, and her mother marrying again, the child was sent to Europe
to be educated, subsequently joining her mother at Bath. In 1837 she
made a runaway match with a Captain James of the Indian army, and
accompanied him to India. In 1842 she returned to England, and shortly
afterwards her husband obtained a decree _nisi_ for divorce. She then
studied dancing, making an unsuccessful first appearance at Her
Majesty's theatre, London, in 1843, billed as "Lola Montez, Spanish
dancer." Subsequently she appeared with considerable success in
Germany, Poland and Russia. Thence she went to Paris, and in 1847
appeared at Munich, where she became the mistress of the old king of
Bavaria, Ludwig I.; she was naturalized, created comtesse de Landsfeld,
and given an income of L2000 a year. She soon proved herself the real
ruler of Bavaria, adopting a liberal and anti-Jesuit policy. Her
political opponents proved, however, too strong for her, and in 1848 she
was banished. In 1849 she came to England, and in the same year was
married to George Heald, a young officer in the Guards. Her husband's
guardian instituted a prosecution for bigamy against her on the ground
that her divorce from Captain James had not been made absolute, and she
fled with Heald to Spain. In 1851 she appeared at the Broadway theatre,
New York, and in the following year at the Walnut Street theatre,
Philadelphia. In 1853 Heald was drowned at Lisbon, and in the same year
she married the proprietor of a San Francisco newspaper, but did not
live long with him. Subsequently she appeared in Australia, but
returned, in 1857, to act in America, and to lecture on gallantry. Her
health having broken down, she devoted the rest of her life to visiting
the outcasts of her own sex in New York, where, stricken with paralysis,
she died on the 17th of January 1861.
See E. B. D'Auvergne, _Lola Montez_ (New York, 1909).
GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751-1780), French poet, was born at
Fontenay-le-Chateau in Lorraine in 1751. Having completed his education
at the college of Dole, he devoted himself for a time to a
half-scholastic, half-literary life at Nancy, but in 1774 he found his
way to the capital. As an opponent of the Encyclopaedists and a
panegyrist of Louis XV., he received considerable pensions. He died in
Paris on the 12th of November 1780 from the results of a fall from his
horse. The satiric force of one or two of his pieces, as _Mon Apologie_
(1778) and _Le Dix-huitieme Siecle_ (1775), would alone be sufficient to
preserve his reputation, which has been further increased by modern
writers, who, like Alfred de Vigny in his _Stello_ (chaps. 7-13),
considered him a victim to the spite of his philosophic opponents. His
best-known verses are the _Ode imitee de plusieurs psaumes_, usually
entitled Adieux a la vie.
Among his other works may be mentioned _Les Familles de Darius et
d'Eridame, histoire persane_ (1770), _Le Carnaval des auteurs_ (1773),
_Odes nouvelles et patriotiques_ (1775). Gilbert's _Oeuvres completes_
were first published in 1788, and they have since been edited by
Mastrella (Paris, 1823), by Charles Nodier (1817 or 1825), and by M.
de Lescure (1882).
GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603), the most distinguished man
of science in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and the
father of electric and magnetic science, was a member of an ancient
Suffolk family, long resident in Clare, and was born on the 24th of May
1544 at Colchester, where his father, Hierome Gilbert, became recorder.
Educated at Colchester school, he entered St John's College, Cambridge,
in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in due course,
graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected a senior fellow of
his college. Soon afterwards he left Cambridge, and after spending three
years in Italy and other parts of Europe, settled in 1573 in London,
where he practised as a physician with "great success and applause." He
was admitted to the College of Physicians probably about 1576, and from
1581 to 1590 was one of the censors. In 1587 he became treasurer,
holding the office till 1592, and in 1589 he was one of the committee
appointed to superintend the preparation of the _Pharmacopoeia
Londinensis_ which the college in that year decided to issue, but which
did not actually appear till 1618. In 1597 he was again chosen
treasurer, becoming at the same time consiliarius, and in 1599 he
succeeded to the presidency. Two years later he was appointed physician
to Queen Elizabeth, with the usual emolument of L100 a year. After this
time he seems to have removed to the court, vacating his residence,
Wingfield House, which was on Peter's Hill, between Upper Thames Street
and Little Knightrider Street, and close to the house of the College of
Physicians. On the death of the queen in 1603 he was reappointed by her
successor; but he did not long enjoy the honour, for he died, probably
of the plague, on the 30th of November (10th of December, N.S.) 1603,
either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the latter town, in
the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a monument was erected to his
memory. To the College of Physicians he left his books, globes,
instruments and minerals, but they were destroyed in the great fire of
London.
Gilbert's principal work is his treatise on magnetism, entitled _De
magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure_ (London,
1600; later editions--Stettin, 1628, 1633; Frankfort, 1629, 1638). This
work, which embodied the results of many years' research, was
distinguished by its strict adherence to the scientific method of
investigation by experiment, and by the originality of its matter,
containing, as it does, an account of the author's experiments on
magnets and magnetical bodies and on electrical attractions, and also
his great conception that the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and
that it is this which explains, not only the direction of the magnetic
needle north and south, but also the variation and dipping or
inclination of the needle. Gilbert's is therefore not merely the first,
but the most important, systematic contribution to the sciences of
electricity and magnetism. A posthumous work of Gilbert's was edited by
his brother, also called William, from two MSS. in the possession of Sir
William Boswell; its title is _De mundo nostro sublunari philosophia
nova_ (Amsterdam, 1651). He is the reputed inventor besides of two
instruments to enable sailors "to find out the latitude without seeing
of sun, moon or stars," an account of which is given in Thomas
Blondeville's _Theoriques of the Planets_ (London, 1602). He was also
the first advocate of Copernican views in England, and he concluded that
the fixed stars are not all at the same distance from the earth.
It is a matter of great regret for the historian of chemistry that
Gilbert left nothing on that branch of science, to which he was deeply
devoted, "attaining to great exactness therein." So at least says Thomas
Fuller, who in his _Worthies of England_ prophesied truly how he would
be afterwards known: "Mahomet's tomb at Mecca," he says, "is said
strangely to hang up, attracted by some invisible loadstone; but the
memory of this doctor will never fall to the ground, which his
incomparable book _De magnete_ will support to eternity."
An English translation of the _De magnete_ was published by P. F.
Mottelay in 1893, and another, with notes by S. P. Thompson, was
issued by the Gilbert Club of London in 1900.
GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836- ), English playwright and
humorist, son of William Gilbert (a descendant of Sir Humphrey Gilbert),
was born in London on the 18th of November 1836. His father was the
author of a number of novels, the best-known of which were _Shirley Hall
Asylum_ (1863) and _Dr Austin's Guests_ (1866). Several of these
novels--which were characterized by a singular acuteness and lucidity of
style, by a dry, subacid humour, by a fund of humanitarian feeling and
by a considerable medical knowledge, especially in regard to the
psychology of lunatics and monomaniacs--were illustrated by his son, who
developed a talent for whimsical draughtsmanship. W. S. Gilbert was
educated at Boulogne, at Ealing and at King's College, graduating B.A.
from the university of London in 1856. The termination of the Crimean
War was fatal to his project of competing for a commission in the Royal
Artillery, but he obtained a post in the education department of the
privy council office (1857-1861). Disliking the routine work, he left
the Civil Service, entered the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in
November 1864, and joined the northern circuit. His practice was
inconsiderable, and his military and legal ambitions were eventually
satisfied by a captaincy in the volunteers and appointment as a
magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 1861 the comic journal _Fun_
was started by H. J. Byron, and Gilbert became from the first a valued
contributor. Failing to obtain an _entree to Punch_, he continued
sending excellent comic verse to _Fun_, with humorous illustrations, the
work of his own pen, over the signature of "Bab." A collection of these
lyrics, in which deft craftsmanship unites a titillating satire on the
deceptiveness of appearances with the irrepressible nonsense of a Lewis
Carroll, was issued separately in 1869 under the title of _Bab Ballads_,
and was followed by _More Bab Ballads_. The two collections and _Songs
of a Savoyard_ were united in a volume issued in 1898, with many new
illustrations. The best of the old cuts, such as those depicting the
"Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo" and the "Discontented Sugar Broker," were
preserved intact.
While remaining a staunch supporter of _Fun_, Gilbert was soon immersed
in other journalistic work, and his position as dramatic critic to the
_Illustrated Times_ turned his attention to the stage. He had not to
wait long for an opportunity. Early in December 1866 T. W. Robertson was
asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St James's theatre, to find some
one who could turn out a bright Christmas piece in a fortnight, and
suggested Gilbert; the latter promptly produced _Dulcamara_, a burlesque
of _L'Elisire d'amore_, written in ten days, rehearsed in a week, and
duly performed at Christmas. He sold the piece outright for L30, a piece
of rashness which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial
success. In 1870 he was commissioned by Buckstone to write a blank verse
fairy comedy, based upon _Le Palais de la verite_, the novel by Madame
de Genlis. The result was _The Palace of Truth_, a fairy drama, poor in
structure but clever in workmanship, which served the purpose of Mr and
Mrs Kendal in 1870 at the Haymarket. This was followed in 1871 by
_Pygmalion and Galatea_, another three-act "mythological comedy," a
clever and effective but artificial piece. Another fairy comedy, _The
Wicked World_, written for Buckstone and the Kendals, was followed in
March 1873 by a burlesque version, in collaboration with Gilbert a
Beckett, entitled _The Happy Land_. Gilbert's next dramatic ventures
inclined more to the conventional pattern, combining sentiment and a
cynical humour in a manner strongly reminiscent of his father's style.
Of these pieces, _Sweethearts_ was given at the Prince of Wales's
theatre, 7th November 1874; _Tom Cobb_ at the St James's, 24th April
1875; _Broken Hearts_ at the Court, 9th December 1875; _Dan'l Druce_ (a
drama in darker vein, suggested to some extent by _Silas Marner_) at the
Haymarket, 11th September 1876; and _Engaged_ at the Haymarket, 3rd
October 1877. The first and last of these proved decidedly popular.
_Gretchen_, a verse drama in four acts, appeared in 1879. A one-act
piece, called _Comedy and Tragedy_, was produced at the Lyceum, 26th
January, 1884. Two dramatic trifles of later date were _Foggerty's
Fairy_ and _Rozenkrantz and Guildenstern_, a travesty of _Hamlet_,
performed at the Vaudeville in June 1891. Several of these dramas were
based upon short stories by Gilbert, a number of which had appeared from
time to time in the Christmas numbers of various periodicals. The best
of them have been collected in the volume entitled _Foggerty's Fairy,
and other Stories_. In the autumn of 1871 Gilbert commenced his
memorable collaboration (which lasted over twenty years) with Sir Arthur
Sullivan. The first two comic operas, _Thespis; or The Gods grown Old_
(26th September 1871) and _Trial by Jury_ (Royalty, 25th March 1875)
were merely essays. Like one or two of their successors, they were, as
regards plot, little more than extended "Bab Ballads." Later (especially
in the _Yeomen of the Guard_), much more elaboration was attempted. The
next piece was produced at the Opera Comique (17th November 1877) as
_The Sorcerer_. At the same theatre were successfully given _H.M.S.
Pinafore_ (25th May 1878), _The Pirates of Penzance; or The Slave of
Duty_ (3rd April 1880), and _Patience; or Bunthorne's Bride_ (23rd April
1881). In October 1881 the successful _Patience_ was removed to a new
theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the Gilbert and Sullivan operas
by Richard D'Oyly Carte. _Patience_ was followed, on 25th November 1882,
by _Iolanthe; or The Peer and the Peri_; and then came, on 5th January
1884, _Princess Ida; or Castle Adamant_, a re-cast of a charming and
witty fantasia which Gilbert had written some years previously, and had
then described as a "respectful perversion of Mr. Tennyson's exquisite
poem." The impulse reached its fullest development in the operas that
followed next in order--_The Mikado; or The Town of Titipu_ (14th March
1885); _Ruddigore_ (22nd January 1887); _The Yeomen of the Guard_ (3rd
October 1888); and _The Gondoliers_ (7th December 1889). After the
appearance of _The Gondoliers_ a coolness occurred between the composer
and librettist, owing to Gilbert's considering that Sullivan had not
supported him in a business disagreement with D'Oyly Carte. But the
estrangement was only temporary. Gilbert wrote several more librettos,
and of these _Utopia Limited_ (1893) and the exceptionally witty _Grand
Duke_ (1896) were written in conjunction with Sullivan. As a master of
metre Gilbert had shown himself consummate, as a dealer in quips and
paradoxes and ludicrous dilemmas, unrivalled. Even for the music of the
operas he deserves some credit, for the rhythms were frequently his own
(as in "I have a Song to Sing, O"), and the metres were in many cases
invented by himself. One or two of his librettos, such as that of
_Patience_, are virtually flawless. Enthusiasts are divided only as to
the comparative merit of the operas. _Princess Ida_ and _Patience_ are
in some respects the daintiest. There is a genuine vein of poetry in
_The Yeomen of the Guard_. Some of the drollest songs are in _Pinafore_
and _Ruddigore_. _The Gondoliers_ shows the most charming lightness of
touch, while with the general public _The Mikado_ proved the favourite.
The enduring popularity of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas was
abundantly proved by later revivals. Among the birthday honours in June
1907 Gilbert was given a knighthood. In 1909 his _Fallen Fairies_ (music
by Edward German) was produced at the Savoy. (T. Se.)
GILBERT DE LA PORREE, frequently known as Gilbertus Porretanus or
Pictaviensis (1070-1154); scholastic logician and theologian, was born
at Poitiers. He was educated under Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of
Laon. After teaching for about twenty years in Chartres, he lectured on
dialectics and theology in Paris (from 1137), and in 1141 returned to
Poitiers, being elected bishop in the following year. His heterodox
opinions regarding the doctrine of the Trinity drew upon his works the
condemnation of the church. The synod of Reims in 1148 procured papal
sanction for four propositions opposed to certain of Gilbert's tenets,
and his works were condemned until they should be corrected in
accordance with the principles of the church. Gilbert seems to have
submitted quietly to this judgment; he yielded assent to the four
propositions, and remained on friendly terms with his antagonists till
his death on the 4th of September 1154. Gilbert is almost the only
logician of the 12th century who is quoted by the greater scholastics of
the succeeding age. His chief logical work, the treatise _De sex
principiis_, was regarded with a reverence almost equal to that paid to
Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous commentators, amongst them
Albertus Magnus. Owing to the fame of this work, he is mentioned by
Dante as the _Magister sex principiorum_. The treatise itself is a
discussion of the Aristotelian categories, specially of the six
subordinate modes. Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two
classes, one essential, the other derivative. Essential or inhering
(_formae inhaerentes_) in the objects themselves are only _substance_,
_quantity_, _quality_ and _relation_ in the stricter sense of that term.
The remaining six, _when_, _where_, _action_, _passion_, _position_ and
_habit_, are relative and subordinate (_formae assistentes_). This
suggestion has some interest, but is of no great value, either in logic
or in the theory of knowledge. More important in the history of
scholasticism are the theological consequences to which Gilbert's
realism led him. In the commentary on the treatise _De Trinitate_
(erroneously attributed to Boetius) he proceeds from the metaphysical
notion that pure or abstract being is prior in nature to that which is.
This pure being is God, and must be distinguished from the triune God as
known to us. God is incomprehensible, and the categories cannot be
applied to determine his existence. In God there is no distinction or
difference, whereas in all substances or things there is duality,
arising from the element of matter. Between pure being and substances
stand the ideas or forms, which subsist, though they are not substances.
These forms, when materialized, are called _formae substantiales_ or
_formae nativae_; they are the essences of things, and in themselves
have no relation to the accidents of things. Things are temporal, the
ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form of existence, that by which
God is God, must be distinguished from the three persons who are God by
participation in this form. The form or essence is one, the persons or
substances three. It was this distinction between Deitas or Divinitas
and Deus that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's doctrine.
_De sex principiis_ and commentary on the _De Trinitate_ in Migne,
_Patrologia Latina_, lxiv. 1255 and clxxxviii. 1257; see also Abbe
Berthaud, _Gilbert de la Porree_ (Poitiers, 1892); B. Haureau, _De la
philosophie scolastique_, pp. 294-318; R. Schmid's article "Gilbert
Porretanus" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. f. protest. Theol._ (vol. 6,
1899); Prantl, _Geschichte d. Logik_, ii. 215; Bach,
_Dogmengeschichte_, ii. 133; article SCHOLASTICISM.
GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST, founder of the Gilbertines, the only
religious order of English origin, was born at Sempringham in
Lincolnshire, c. 1083-1089. He was educated in France, and ordained in
1123, being presented by his father to the living of Sempringham. About
1135 he established there a convent for nuns; and to perform the heavy
work and cultivate the fields he formed a number of labourers into a
society of lay brothers attached to the convent. Similar establishments
were founded elsewhere, and in 1147 Gilbert tried to get them
incorporated in the Cistercian order. Failing in this, he proceeded to
form communities of priests and clerics to perform the spiritual
ministrations needed by the nuns. The women lived according to the
Benedictine rule as interpreted by the Cistercians; the men according to
the rule of St Augustine, and were canons regular. The special
constitutions of the order were largely taken from those of the
Premonstratensian canons and of the Cistercians. Like Fontevrault (q.v.)
it was a double order, the communities of men and women living side by
side; but, though the property all belonged to the nuns, the superior of
the canons was the head of the whole establishment, and the general
superior was a canon, called "Master of Sempringham." The general
chapter was a mixed assembly composed of two canons and two nuns from
each house; the nuns had to travel to the chapter in closed carts. The
office was celebrated together in the church, a high stone screen
separating the two choirs of canons and nuns. The order received papal
approbation in 1148. By Gilbert's death (1189) there were nine double
monasteries and four of canons only, containing about 700 canons and
1000 nuns in all. At the dissolution there were some 25 monasteries,
whereof 4 ranked among the greater monasteries (see list in F. A.
Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The order never spread beyond
England. The habit of the Gilbertines was black, with a white cloak.
See Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_ (4th of Feb.); William Dugdale,
_Monasticon_ (1846); Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714); ii.
c. 29. The best modern account is _St Gilbert of Sempringham, and the
Gilbertines_, by Rose Graham (1901). The art. in _Dictionary of
National Biography_ gives abundant information on St Gilbert, but is
unsatisfactory on the order, as it might easily convey the impression
that the canons and nuns lived together, whereas they were most
carefully separated; and altogether undue prominence is given to a
single scandal. Miss Graham declares that the reputation of the order
was good until the end. (E. C. B.)
GILBERT FOLIOT (d. 1187), bishop of Hereford, and of London, is first
mentioned as a monk of Cluny, whence he was called in 1136 to plead the
cause of the empress Matilda against Stephen at the Roman court. Shortly
afterwards he became prior of Cluny; then prior of Abbeville, a house
dependent upon Cluny. In 1139 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The
appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesiastical point
of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot proved himself a valuable
ally of the empress, and her ablest controversialist. Gilbert's
reputation grew rapidly. He was respected at Rome; and he acted as the
representative of the primate, Theobald, in the supervision of the Welsh
church. In 1148, on being nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford,
Gilbert with characteristic wariness sought confirmation both from Henry
of Anjou and from Stephen. But he was an Angevin at heart, and after
1154 was treated by Henry II. with every mark of consideration. He was
Becket's rival for the primacy, and the only bishop who protested
against the king's choice. Becket, with rare forbearance, endeavoured to
win his friendship by procuring for him the see of London (1163). But
Gilbert evaded the customary profession of obedience to the primate, and
apparently aspired to make his see independent of Canterbury. On the
questions raised by the Constitutions of Clarendon he sided with the
king, whose confessor he had now become. He urged Becket to yield, and,
when this advice was rejected, encouraged his fellow-bishops to
repudiate the authority of the archbishop. In the years of controversy
which followed Becket's flight the king depended much upon the bishop's
skill as a disputant and diplomatist. Gilbert was twice excommunicated
by Becket, but both on these and on other occasions he showed great
dexterity in detaching the pope from the cause of the exile. To him it
was chiefly due that Henry avoided an open conflict with Rome of the
kind which John afterwards provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishops
whose excommunication in 1170 provoked the king's knights to murder
Becket; but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His
later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence with the
king and among his fellow bishops. Scholarly, dignified, ascetic in his
private life, devoted to the service of the Church, he was nevertheless
more respected than loved. His nature was cold; he made few friends; and
the taint of a calculating ambition runs through his whole career. He
died in the spring of 1187.
See Gilbert's _Letters_, ed. J. A. Giles (Oxford, 1845); _Materials
for the History of Thomas Becket_, ed. J. C. Robertson (Rolls series,
1875-1885); and Miss K. Norgate's _England under the Angevin Kings_
(1887). (H. W. C. D.)
GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS, an extensive archipelago belonging to Great
Britain in the mid-western Pacific Ocean, lying N. and S. of the
equator, and between 170 deg. and 180 deg. E. There are sixteen islands,
all coral reefs or atolls, extending in crescent form over about five
degrees of latitude. The principal is Taputenea or Drummond Island. The
soil, mostly of coral sand, is productive of little else than the
coco-nut palm, and the chief source of food supply is the sea. The
population of these islands presents a remarkable phenomenon; in spite
of adverse conditions of environment and complete barbarism it is
exceedingly dense, in strong contradistinction to that of many other
more favoured islands. The land area of the group is only 166 m., yet
the population is about 30,000. The Gilbert islanders are a dark and
coarse type of the Polynesian race, and show signs of much crossing.
They are tall and stout, with an average height of 5 ft. 8 in., and are
of a vigorous, energetic temperament. They are nearly always naked, but
wear a conical hat of pandanus leaf. In war they have an armour of
plaited coco-nut fibres. They are fierce fighters, their chief weapon
being a sword armed with sharks' teeth. Their canoes are well made of
coco-nut wood boards sewn neatly together and fastened on frames.
British and American missionary work has been prosecuted with some
success. The large population led to the introduction of natives from
these islands into Hawaii as labourers in 1878-1884, but they were not
found satisfactory. The islands were discovered by John Byron in 1765
(one of them bearing his name); Captains Gilbert and Marshall visited
them in 1788; and they were annexed by Great Britain in 1892.
GILBEY, SIR WALTER, 1ST BART. (1831- ), English wine-merchant, was
born at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire, in 1831. His father, the owner
and frequently the driver of the daily coach between Bishop Stortford
and London, died when he was eleven years old, and young Gilbey was
shortly afterwards placed in the office of an estate agent at Tring,
subsequently obtaining a clerkship in a firm of parliamentary agents in
London. On the outbreak of the Crimean War, Walter Gilbey and his
younger brother, Alfred, volunteered for civilian service at the front,
and were employed at a convalescent hospital on the Dardanelles.
Returning to London on the declaration of peace, Walter and Alfred
Gilbey, on the advice of their eldest brother, Henry Gilbey, a wholesale
wine-merchant, started in the retail wine and spirit trade. The heavy
duty then levied by the British government on French, Portuguese and
Spanish wines was prohibitive of a sale among the English middle
classes, and especially lower middle classes, whose usual alcoholic
beverage was accordingly beer. Henry Gilbey was of opinion that these
classes would gladly drink wine if they could get it at a moderate
price, and by his advice Walter and Alfred determined to push the sales
of colonial, and particularly of Cape, wines, on which the duty was
comparatively light. Backed by capital obtained through Henry Gilbey,
they accordingly opened in 1857 a small retail business in a basement in
Oxford Street, London. The Cape wines proved popular, and within three
years the brothers had 20,000 customers on their books. The creation of
the off-licence system by Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the
exchequer, in 1860, followed by the large reduction in the duty on
French wines effected by the commercial treaty between England and
France in 1861, revolutionized their trade and laid the foundation of
their fortunes. Three provincial grocers, who had been granted the new
off-licence, applied to be appointed the Gilbeys' agents in their
respective districts, and many similar applications followed. These were
granted, and before very long a leading local grocer was acting as the
firm's agents in every district in England. The grocer who dealt in the
Gilbeys' wines and spirits was not allowed to sell those of any other
firm, and the Gilbeys in return handed over to him all their existing
customers in his district. This arrangement was of mutual advantage, and
the Gilbeys' business increased so rapidly that in 1864 Henry Gilbey
abandoned his own undertaking to join his brothers. In 1867 the three
brothers secured the old Pantheon theatre and concert hall in Oxford
Street for their headquarters. In 1875 the firm purchased a large
claret-producing estate in Medoc, on the banks of the Gironde, and
became also the proprietors of two large whisky-distilleries in
Scotland. In 1893 the business was converted, for family reasons, into a
private limited liability company, of which Walter Gilbey, who in the
same year was created a baronet, was chairman. Sir Walter Gilbey also
became well known as a breeder of shire horses, and he did much to
improve the breed of English horses (other than race-horses) generally,
and wrote extensively on the subject. He became president of the Shire
Horse Society, of the Hackney Horse Society, and of the Hunters'
Improvement Society, and he was the founder and chairman of the London
Cart Horse Parade Society. He was also a practical agriculturist, and
president of the Royal Agricultural Society.
GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516-570), the earliest of British historians (see
CELT: _Literature_, "Welsh"), surnamed by some Sapiens, and by others
Badonicus, seems to have been born in the year 516. Regarding him little
certain is known, beyond some isolated particulars that may be gathered
from hints dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist,
purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the 11th
and 12th centuries; but the writers of both are believed to have
confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the name. It is from
an incidental remark of his own, namely, that the year of the siege of
Mount Badon--one of the battles fought between the Saxons and the
Britons--was also the year of his own nativity, that the date of his
birth has been derived; the place, however, is not mentioned. His
assertion that he was moved to undertake his task mainly by "zeal for
God's house and for His holy law," and the very free use he has made of
quotations from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an
ecclesiastic of some order or other. In addition, we learn that he went
abroad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where, after 10
years of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about 560, the work
bearing his name. His materials, he tells us, were collected from
foreign rather than native sources, the latter of which had been put
beyond his reach by circumstances. The _Cambrian Annals_ give 570 as the
year of his death.
The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title of _Gildae
Sapientis de excidio Britanniae liber querulus_. Though at first written
consecutively, the work is now usually divided into three portions,--a
preface, the history proper, and an epistle,--the last, which is largely
made up of passages and texts of Scripture brought together for the
purpose of condemning the vices of his countrymen and their rulers,
being the least important, though by far the longest of the three. In
the second he passes in brief review the history of Britain from its
invasion by the Romans till his own times. Among other matters reference
is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of Tiberius;
the persecution under Diocletian; the spread of the Arian heresy; the
election of Maximus as emperor by the legions in Britain, and his
subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions of the Picts and Scots into
the southern part of the island; the temporary assistance rendered to
the harassed Britons by the Romans; the final abandonment of the island
by the latter; the coming of the Saxons and their reception by
Guortigern (Vortigern); and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons,
led by a noble Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the new invaders.
Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the statements
of Gildas are vague and obscure. With one exception already alluded to,
no dates are given, and events are not always taken up in the order of
their occurrence. These faults are of less importance during the period
when Greek and Roman writers notice the affairs of Britain; but they
become more serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of
the 5th century to the date of his death, Gildas's brief narrative is
our only authority for most of what passes current as the history of our
island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in this
instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous letter rests,
said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despairing Britons,
commencing:--"To Agitius (Aetius), consul for the third time, the groans
of the Britons."
Gildas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil, but
with many avowed alterations and omissions. In 1568 John Josseline,
secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it more in
conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a still more
carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas Gale. It was
frequently reprinted on the Continent during the 16th century, and
once or twice since. The next English edition, described by Potthast
as _editio pessima_, was that published by the English Historical
Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Stevenson. The text of
Gildas founded on Gale's edition collated with two other MSS., with
elaborate introductions, is included in the _Monumenta historica
Britannica_, edited by Petrie and Sharpe (London, 1848). Another
edition is in A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, _Councils and Eccles.
Documents_ relating to Great Britain (Oxford, 1869); the latest
edition is that by Theodor Mommsen in _Monum. Germ. hist. auct.
antiq._ xiii. (Chronica min. iii.), 1894.
GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1909), American editor and poet, was born
in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 8th of February 1844, a brother of
William Henry Gilder (1838-1900), the Arctic explorer. He was educated
at Bellevue Seminary, an institution conducted by his father, the Rev.
William Henry Gilder (1812-1864), in Flushing, Long Island. After three
years (1865-1868) on the Newark, New Jersey, _Daily Advertiser_, he
founded, with Newton Crane, the Newark _Morning Register_. In 1869 he
became editor of _Hours at Home_, and in 1870 assistant editor of
_Scribner's Monthly_ (eleven years later re-named _The Century
Magazine_), of which he became editor in 1881. He was one of the
founders of the Free Art League, of the International Copyright League,
and of the Authors' Club; was chairman of the New York Tenement House
Commission in 1894; and was a prominent member of the National Institute
of Arts and Letters, of the Council of the National Civil Service Reform
League, and of the executive committee of the Citizens' Union of New
York City. His poems, which are essentially lyrical, have been collected
in various volumes, including _Five Books of Song_ (1894), _In Palestine
and other Poems_ (1898), _Poems and Inscriptions_ (1901), and _In the
Heights_ (1905). A complete edition of his poems was published in 1908.
He also edited _"Sonnets from the Portuguese" and other Poems by
Elizabeth Barrett Browning_; _"One Word More" and other Poems by Robert
Browning_ (1905). He died in New York on the 18th of November 1909. His
wife, Helena de Kay, a grand-daughter of Joseph Rodman Drake, assisted,
with Saint Gaudens and others, in founding the Society of American
Artists, now merged in the National Academy, and the Art Students'
League of New York. She translated Sensier's biography of Millet, and
painted, before her marriage in 1874, studies in flowers and ideal
heads, much admired for their feeling and delicate colouring.
GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU (1831- ), American classical scholar, was
born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd of October 1831, son of
Benjamin Gildersleeve (1791-1875), a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor
of the Charleston _Christian Observer_ in 1826-1845, of the Richmond
(Va.) _Watchman and Observer_ in 1845-1856, and of _The Central
Presbyterian_ in 1856-1860. The son graduated at Princeton in 1849,
studied under Franz in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under
Schneidewin at Gottingen, where he received his doctor's degree in 1853.
From 1856 to 1876 he was professor of Greek in the University of
Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also in 1861-1866; and in 1876 he
became professor of Greek in the newly founded Johns Hopkins University.
In 1880 _The American Journal of Philology_, a quarterly published by
the Johns Hopkins University, was established under his editorial
charge, and his strong personality was expressed in the department of
the _Journal_ headed "Brief Report" or "Lanx Satura," and in the
earliest years of its publication every petty detail was in his hands.
His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the
typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the true
aim of scholarship is "that which is." He published a _Latin Grammar_
(1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez B. Lodge, 1894 and
1899) and a Latin Series for use in secondary schools (1875), both
marked by lucidity of order and mastery of grammatical theory and
methods. His edition of _Persius_ (1875) is of great value. But his bent
was rather toward Greek than Latin. His special interest in Christian
Greek was partly the cause of his editing in 1877 _The Apologies of
Justin Martyr_, "which" (to use his own words) "I used unblushingly as a
repository for my syntactical formulae." Gildersleeve's studies under
Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek syntax, and his
logic, untrammelled by previous categories, and his marvellous sympathy
with the language were displayed in this most unlikely of places. His
_Syntax of Classic Greek_ (Part I., 1900, with C. W. E. Miller) collects
these formulae. Gildersleeve edited in 1885 _The Olympian and Pythian
Odes of Pindar_, with a brilliant and valuable introduction. His views
on the function of grammar were summarized in a paper on _The Spiritual
Rights of Minute Research_ delivered at Bryn Mawr on the 16th of June
1895. His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared in
1890 under the title _Essays and Studies Educational and Literary_.
GILDING, the art of spreading gold, either by mechanical or by chemical
means, over the surface of a body for the purpose of ornament. The art
of gilding was known to the ancients. According to Herodotus, the
Egyptians were accustomed to gild wood and metals; and gilding by means
of gold plates is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Pliny
informs us that the first gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction
of Carthage, under the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans
began to gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol
being the first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds
that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you might
see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults, and
other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the comparative thickness of
the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it which yet remain
are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding has in all times occupied an
important place in the ornamental arts of Oriental countries; and the
native processes pursued in India at the present day may be taken as
typical of the arts as practised from the earliest periods. For the
gilding of copper, employed in the decoration of temple domes and other
large works, the following is an outline of the processes employed. The
metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned and polished, and next
heated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or other
impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing. It is then
dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe apricots, and
rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the surface is rubbed over
with mercury which forms a superficial amalgam with the copper, after
which it is left some hours in clean water, again washed with the acid
solution, and dried. It is now ready for receiving the gold, which is
laid on in leaf, and, on adhering, assumes a grey appearance from
combining with the mercury, but on the application of heat the latter
metal volatilizes, leaving the gold a dull greyish hue. The colour is
brought up by means of rubbing with agate burnishers. The weight of
mercury used in this process is double that of the gold laid on, and
the thickness of the gilding is regulated by the circumstances or
necessities of the case. For the gilding of iron or steel, the surface
is first scratched over with chequered lines, then washed in a hot
solution of green apricots, dried and heated just short of red-heat. The
gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with agate burnishers, when it
adheres by catching into the prepared scratched surface.
Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces and by
various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted in many ways,
and is part of widely different ornamental and useful arts. It forms an
important and essential part of frame-making (see CARVING AND GILDING);
it is largely employed in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative
painting and house ornamentation; and it also bulks largely in
bookbinding and ornamental leather work. Further, gilding is much
employed for coating baser metals, as in button-making, in the gilt toy
trade, in electro-gilt reproductions and in electro-plating; and it is
also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain
and glass. The various processes fall under one or other of two
heads--mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency.
_Mechanical Gilding_ embraces all the operations by which gold-leaf is
prepared (see GOLDBEATING), and the several processes by which it is
mechanically attached to the surfaces it is intended to cover. It thus
embraces the burnish or water-gilding and the oil-gilding of the
carver and gilder, and the gilding operations of the house decorator,
the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paper-stainer and several
others. Polished iron, steel and other metals are gilt mechanically by
applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface at a temperature just under
red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a burnisher and reheating, when
additional leaf may be laid on. The process is completed by cold
burnishing.
_Chemical Gilding_ embraces those processes in which the gold used is
at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these the
following are the principal:--
_Cold Gilding._--In this process the gold is obtained in a state of
extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means. Cold gilding
on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia, applied by
dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning it, and rubbing the
black and heavy ashes on the silver with the finger or a piece of
leather or cork. _Wet gilding_ is effected by means of a dilute
solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether. The
liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the ether separates and
floats on the surface of the acid. The whole mixture is then poured
into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to rest for some
time, when the acid is run off and the ether separated. The ether will
be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid, and may be used
for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the metal is polished
with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The ether is then applied
with a small brush, and as it evaporates it deposits the gold, which
can now be heated and polished. For small delicate figures a pen or a
fine brush may be used for laying on the ether solution.
_Fire-gilding_ or _Wash-gilding_ is a process by which an amalgam of
gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury being subsequently
volatilized, leaving a film of gold or an amalgam containing from 13
to 16% of mercury. In the preparation of the amalgam the gold must
first be reduced to thin plates or grains, which are heated red hot,
and thrown into mercury previously heated, till it begins to smoke.
Upon stirring the mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally
disappears. The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as six or
eight to one. When the amalgam is cold it is squeezed through chamois
leather for the purpose of separating the superfluous mercury; the
gold, with about twice its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming
a yellowish silvery mass of the consistence of butter. When the metal
to be gilt is wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with mercury
before the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread;
but when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied
to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be
gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of
mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of "quicksilver
water," a solution of nitrate of mercury,--the nitric acid attacking
the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free
metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally spread over the prepared
surface of the metal, the mercury is then sublimed by a heat just
sufficient for that purpose; for, if it is too great, part of the gold
may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some of the
surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated, which is
known by the surface having entirely become of a dull yellow colour,
the metal must undergo other operations, by which the fine gold colour
is given to it. First, the gilded surface is rubbed with a scratch
brush of brass wire, until its surface be smooth; then it is covered
over with a composition called "gilding wax," and again exposed to the
fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax is composed of beeswax mixed
with some of the following substances, viz. red ochre, verdigris,
copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax. By this operation the colour of
the gilding is heightened; and the effect seems to be produced by a
perfect dissipation of some mercury remaining after the former
operation. The dissipation is well effected by this equable
application of heat. The gilt surface is then covered over with nitre,
alum or other salts, ground together, and mixed up into a paste with
water or weak ammonia. The piece of metal thus covered is exposed to a
certain degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this method its
colour is further improved and brought nearer to that of gold,
probably by removing any particles of copper that may have been on the
gilt surface. This process, when skilfully carried out, produces
gilding of great solidity and beauty; but owing to the exposure of the
workmen to mercurial fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is
much loss of mercury. Numerous contrivances have been introduced to
obviate these serious evils. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are
gilt by this process, and there is an act of parliament (1796) yet
unrepealed which prescribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity
that may be used for the gilding of 12 dozen of buttons 1 in. in
diameter.
_Gilding of Pottery and Porcelain._--The quantity of gold consumed for
these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aqua-regia,
and the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold may be precipitated by
means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the gold is mixed
with 1/12th of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together with a small
quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is applied to the articles
with a camel's hair pencil, and after passing through the fire the gold
is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought out by burnishing with
agate and bloodstone, and afterwards cleaning with vinegar or
white-lead.
GILDS, or GUILDS. Medieval gilds were voluntary associations formed for
the mutual aid and protection of their members. Among the gildsmen there
was a strong spirit of fraternal co-operation or Christian brotherhood,
with a mixture of worldly and religious ideals--the support of the body
and the salvation of the soul. Early meanings of the root _gild_ or
_geld_ were expiation, penalty, sacrifice or worship, feast or banquet,
and contribution or payment; it is difficult to determine which is the
earliest meaning, and we are not certain whether the gildsmen were
originally those who contributed to a common fund or those who
worshipped or feasted together. Their fraternities or societies may be
divided into three classes: religious or benevolent, merchant and craft
gilds. The last two categories, which do not become prominent anywhere
in Europe until the 12th century, had, like all gilds, a religious
tinge, but their aims were primarily worldly, and their functions were
mainly of an economic character.
1. _Origin._--Various theories have been advanced concerning the origin
of gilds. Some writers regard them as a continuation of the Roman
_collegia_ and _sodalitates_, but there is little evidence to prove the
unbroken continuity of existence of the Roman and Germanic fraternities.
A more widely accepted theory derives gilds wholly or in part from the
early Germanic or Scandinavian sacrificial banquets. Much influence is
ascribed to this heathen element by Lujo Brentano, Karl Hegel, W. E.
Wilda and other writers. This view does not seem to be tenable, for the
old sacrificial carousals lack two of the essential elements of the
gilds, namely corporative solidarity or permanent association and the
spirit of Christian brotherhood. Dr Max Pappenheim has ascribed the
origin of Germanic gilds to the northern "foster-brotherhood" or
"sworn-brotherhood," which was an artificial bond of union between two
or more persons. After intermingling their blood in the earth and
performing other peculiar ceremonies, the two contracting parties with
grasped hands swore to avenge any injury done to either of them. The
objections to this theory are fully stated by Hegel (_Stadte und
Gilden_, i. 250-253). The foster-brotherhood seems to have been unknown
to the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, the nations in which medieval gilds
first appear; and hence Dr Pappenheim's conclusions, if tenable at all,
apply only to Denmark or Scandinavia.
No theory on this subject can be satisfactory which wholly ignores the
influence of the Christian church. Imbued with the idea of the
brotherhood of man, the church naturally fostered the early growth of
gilds and tried to make them displace the old heathen banquets. The work
of the church was, however, directive rather than creative. Gilds were a
natural manifestation of the associative spirit which is inherent in
mankind. The same needs produce in different ages associations which
have striking resemblances, but those of each age have peculiarities
which indicate a spontaneous growth. It is not necessary to seek the
germ of gilds in any antecedent age or institution. When the old
kin-bond or _maegth_ was beginning to weaken or dissolve, and the state
did not yet afford adequate protection to its citizens, individuals
naturally united for mutual help.
Gilds are first mentioned in the Carolingian capitularies of 779 and
789, and in the enactments made by the synod of Nantes early in the 9th
century, the text of which has been preserved in the ecclesiastical
ordinances of Hincmar of Rheims (A.D. 852). The capitularies of 805 and
821 also contain vague references to sworn unions of some sort, and a
capitulary of 884 prohibits villeins from forming associations "vulgarly
called gilds" against those who have despoiled them. The Carolingians
evidently regarded such "conjurations" as "conspirations" dangerous to
the state. The gilds of Norway, Denmark and Sweden are first mentioned
in the 11th, 12th and 14th centuries respectively; those of France and
the Netherlands in the 11th.
Many writers believe that the earliest references to gilds come from
England. The laws of Ine speak of _gegildan_ who help each other pay the
_wergeld_, but it is not entirely certain that they were members of gild
fraternities in the later sense. These are more clearly referred to in
England in the second half of the 9th century, though we have little
information concerning them before the 11th century. To the first half
of that century belong the statutes of the fraternities of Cambridge,
Abbotsbury and Exeter. They are important because they form the oldest
body of gild ordinances extant in Europe. The thanes' gild at Cambridge
afforded help in blood-feuds, and provided for the payment of the
_wergeld_ in case a member killed any one. The religious element was
more prominent in Orcy's gild at Abbotsbury and in the fraternity at
Exeter; their ordinances exhibit much solicitude for the salvation of
the brethren's souls. The Exeter gild also gave assistance when property
was destroyed by fire. Prayers for the dead, attendance at funerals of
gildsmen, periodical banquets, the solemn entrance oath, fines for
neglect of duty and for improper conduct, contributions to a common
purse, mutual assistance in distress, periodical meetings in the
gildhall,--in short, all the characteristic features of the later gilds
already appear in the statutes of these Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Some
continental writers, in dealing with the origin of municipal government
throughout western Europe, have, however, ascribed too much importance
to the Anglo-Saxon gilds, exaggerating their prevalence and contending
that they form the germ of medieval municipal government. This view
rests almost entirely on conjecture; there is no good evidence to show
that there was any organic connexion between gilds and municipal
government in England before the coming of the Normans. It should also
be noted that there is no trace of the existence of either craft or
merchant gilds in England before the Norman Conquest. Commerce and
industry were not yet sufficiently developed to call for the creation of
such associations.
2. _Religious Gilds after the Norman Conquest._--Though we have not much
information concerning the religious gilds in the 12th century, they
doubtless flourished under the Anglo-Norman kings, and we know that they
were numerous, especially in the boroughs, from the 13th century onward.
In 1388 parliament ordered that every sheriff in England should call
upon the masters and wardens of all gilds and brotherhoods to send to
the king's council in Chancery, before the 2nd of February 1389, full
returns regarding their foundation, ordinances and property. Many of
these returns were edited by J. Toulmin Smith (1816-1869), and they
throw much light on the functions of the gilds. Their ordinances are
similar to those of the above-mentioned Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Each
member took an oath of admission, paid an entrance-fee, and made a small
annual contribution to the common fund. The brethren were aided in old
age, sickness and poverty, often also in cases of loss by robbery,
shipwreck and conflagration; for example, any member of the gild of St
Catherine, Aldersgate, was to be assisted if he "fall into poverty or be
injured through age, or through fire or water, thieves or sickness."
Alms were often given even to non-gildsmen; lights were supported at
certain altars; feasts and processions were held periodically; the
funerals of brethren were attended; and masses for the dead were
provided from the common purse or from special contributions made by the
gildsmen. Some of the religious gilds supported schools, or helped to
maintain roads, bridges and town-walls, or even came, in course of time,
to be closely connected with the government of the borough; but, as a
rule, they were simply private societies with a limited sphere of
activity. They are important because they played a prominent role in the
social life of England, especially as eleemosynary institutions, down to
the time of their suppression in 1547. Religious gilds, closely
resembling those of England, also flourished on the continent during the
middle ages.
3. _The Gild Merchant._--The merchant and craft fraternities are
particularly interesting to students of economic and municipal history.
The gild merchant came into existence in England soon after the Norman
Conquest, as a result of the increasing importance of trade, and it may
have been transplanted from Normandy. Until clearer evidence of foreign
influence is found, it may, however, be safer to regard it simply as a
new application of the old gild principle, though this new application
may have been stimulated by continental example. The evidence seems to
indicate the pre-existence of the gild merchant in Normandy, but it is
not mentioned anywhere on the continent before the 11th century. It
spread rapidly in England, and from the reign of John onward we have
evidence of its existence in many English boroughs. But in some
prominent towns, notably London, Colchester, Norwich and the Cinque
Ports, it seems never to have been adopted. In fact it played a more
conspicuous role in the small boroughs than in the large ones. It was
regarded by the townsmen as one of their most important privileges. Its
chief function was to regulate the trade monopoly conveyed to the
borough by the royal grant of _gilda mercatoria_. A grant of this sort
implied that the gildsmen had the right to trade freely in the town, and
to impose payments and restrictions upon others who desired to exercise
that privilege. The ordinances of a gild merchant thus aim to protect
the brethren from the commercial competition of strangers or
non-gildsmen. More freedom of trade was allowed at all times in the
selling of wares by wholesale, and also in retail dealings during the
time of markets and fairs. The ordinances were enforced by an alderman
with the assistance of two or more deputies, or by one or two masters,
wardens or keepers. The _Morwenspeches_ were periodical meetings at
which the brethren feasted, revised their ordinances, admitted new
members, elected officers and transacted other business.
It has often been asserted that the gild merchant and the borough were
identical, and that the former was the basis of the whole municipal
constitution. But recent research has discredited this theory both in
England and on the continent. Much evidence has been produced to show
that gild and borough, gildsmen and burgesses, were originally distinct
conceptions, and that they continued to be discriminated in most towns
throughout the middle ages. Admission to the gild was not restricted to
burgesses; nor did the brethren form an aristocratic body having control
over the whole municipal polity. No good evidence has, moreover, been
advanced to prove that this or any other kind of gild was the germ of
the municipal constitution. On the other hand, the gild merchant was
certainly an official organ or department of the borough administration,
and it exerted considerable influence upon the economic and corporative
growth of the English municipalities.
Historians have expressed divergent views regarding the early relations
of the craftsmen and their fraternities to the gild merchant. One of the
main questions in dispute is whether artisans were excluded from the
gild merchant. Many of them seem to have been admitted to membership.
They were regarded as merchants, for they bought raw material and sold
the manufactured commodity; no sharp line of demarcation was drawn
between the two classes in the 12th and 13th centuries. Separate
societies of craftsmen were formed in England soon after the gild
merchant came into existence; but at first they were few in number. The
gild merchant did not give birth to craft fraternities or have anything
to do with their origin; nor did it delegate its authority to them. In
fact, there seems to have been little or no organic connexion between
the two classes of gilds. As has already been intimated, however, many
artisans probably belonged both to their own craft fraternity and to the
gild merchant, and the latter, owing to its great power in the town, may
have exercised some sort of supervision over the craftsmen and their
societies. When the king bestowed upon the tanners or weavers or any
other body of artisans the right to have a gild, they secured the
monopoly of working and trading in their branch of industry. Thus with
every creation of a craft fraternity the gild merchant was weakened and
its sphere of activity was diminished, though the new bodies were
subsidiary to the older and larger fraternity. The greater the
commercial and industrial prosperity of a town, the more rapid was the
multiplication of craft gilds, which was a natural result of the
ever-increasing division of labour. The old gild merchant remained
longest intact and powerful in the smaller boroughs, in which, owing to
the predominance of agriculture, few or no craft gilds were formed. In
some of the larger towns the crafts were prominent already in the 13th
century, but they became much more prominent in the first half of the
14th century. Their increase in number and power was particularly rapid
in the time of Edward III., whose reign marks an era of industrial
progress. Many master craftsmen now became wealthy employers of labour,
dealing extensively in the wares which they produced. The class of
dealers or merchants, as distinguished from trading artisans, also
greatly increased and established separate fraternities. When these
various unions of dealers and of craftsmen embraced all the trades and
branches of production in the town, little or no vitality remained in
the old gild merchant; it ceased to have an independent sphere of
activity. The tendency was for the single organization, with a general
monopoly of trade, to be replaced by a number of separate organizations
representing the various trades and handicrafts. In short, the function
of guarding and supervising the trade monopoly split up into various
fragments, the aggregate of the crafts superseding the old general gild
merchant. This transference of the authority of the latter to a number
of distinct bodies and the consequent disintegration of the old
organization was a gradual spontaneous movement,--a process of slow
displacement, or natural growth and decay, due to the play of economic
forces,--which, generally speaking, may be assigned to the 14th and 15th
centuries, the very period in which the craft gilds attained the zenith
of their power. While in most towns the name and the old organization of
the gild merchant thus disappeared and the institution was displaced by
the aggregate of the crafts towards the close of the middle ages, in
some places it survived long after the 15th century either as a
religious fraternity, shorn of its old functions, or as a periodical
feast, or as a vague term applied to the whole municipal corporation.
On the continent of Europe the medieval gild merchant played a less
important role than in England. In Germany, France and the Netherlands
it occupies a less prominent place in the town charters and in the
municipal polity, and often corresponds to the later fraternities of
English dealers established either to carry on foreign commerce or to
regulate a particular part of the local trade monopoly.
4. _Craft Gilds._--A craft gild usually comprised all the artisans in a
single branch of industry in a particular town. Such a fraternity was
commonly called a "mistery" or "company" in the 15th and 16th centuries,
though the old term "gild" was not yet obsolete. "Gild" was also a
common designation in north Germany, while the corresponding term in
south Germany was _Zunft_, and in France _metier_. These societies are
not clearly visible in England or on the continent before the early part
of the 12th century. With the expansion of trade and industry the number
of artisans increased, and they banded together for mutual protection.
Some German writers have maintained that these craft organizations
emanated from manorial groups of workmen, but strong arguments have
been advanced against the validity of this theory (notably by F.
Keutgen). It is unnecessary to elaborate any profound theory regarding
the origin of the craft gilds. The union of men of the same occupation
was a natural tendency of the age. In the 13th century the trade of
England continued to expand and the number of craft gilds increased. In
the 14th century they were fully developed and in a flourishing
condition; by that time each branch of industry in every large town had
its gild. The development of these societies was even more rapid on the
continent than in England.
Their organization and aims were in general the same throughout western
Europe. Officers, commonly called wardens in England, were elected by
the members, and their chief function was to supervise the quality of
the wares produced, so as to secure good and honest workmanship.
Therefore, ordinances were made regulating the hours of labour and the
terms of admission to the gild, including apprenticeship. Other
ordinances required members to make periodical payments to a common
fund, and to participate in certain common religious observances,
festivities and pageants. But the regulation of industry was always
paramount to social and religious aims; the chief object of the craft
gild was to supervise the processes of manufacture and to control the
monopoly of working and dealing in a particular branch of industry.
We have already called attention to the gradual displacement of the gild
merchant by the craft organizations. The relations of the former to the
latter must now be considered more in detail. There was at no time a
general struggle in England between the gild merchant and the craft
gilds, though in a few towns there seems to have been some friction
between merchants and artisans. There is no exact parallel in England to
the conflict between these two classes in Scotland in the 16th century,
or to the great continental revolution of the 13th and 14th centuries,
by which the crafts threw off the yoke of patrician government and
secured more independence in the management of their own affairs and
more participation in the civic administration. The main causes of these
conflicts on the continent were the monopoly of power by the patricians,
acts of violence committed by them, their bad management of the finances
and their partisan administration of justice. In some towns the victory
of the artisans in the 14th century was so complete that the whole civic
constitution was remodelled with the craft fraternities as a basis. A
widespread movement of this sort would scarcely be found in England,
where trade and industry were less developed than on the continent, and
where the motives of a class conflict between merchants and craftsmen
were less potent. Moreover, borough government in England seems to have
been mainly democratic until the 14th or 15th century; there was no
oligarchy to be depressed or suppressed. Even if there had been motives
for uprisings of artisans such as took place in Germany and the
Netherlands, the English kings would probably have intervened. True,
there were popular uprisings in England, but they were usually conflicts
between the poor and the rich; the crafts as such seldom took part in
these tumults. While many continental municipalities were becoming more
democratic in the 14th century, those of England were drifting towards
oligarchy, towards government by a close "select body." As a rule the
craft gilds secured no dominant influence in the boroughs of England,
but remained subordinate to the town government. Whatever power they did
secure, whether as potent subsidiary organs of the municipal polity for
the regulation of trade, or as the chief or sole medium for the
acquisition of citizenship, or as integral parts of the common council,
was, generally speaking, the logical sequence of a gradual economic
development, and not the outgrowth of a revolutionary movement by which
oppressed craftsmen endeavoured to throw off the yoke of an arrogant
patrician gild merchant.
Two new kinds of craft fraternities appear in the 14th century and
become more prominent In the 15th, namely, the merchants' and the
journeymen's companies. The misteries or companies of merchants traded
in one or more kinds of wares. They were pre-eminently dealers, who
sold what others produced. Hence they should not be confused with the
old gild merchant, which originally comprised both merchants and
artisans, and had the whole monopoly of the trade of the town. In most
cases, the company of merchants was merely one of the craft
organizations which superseded the gild merchant.
In the 14th century the journeymen or yeomen began to set up
fraternities in defence of their rights. The formation of these
societies marks a cleft within the ranks of some particular class of
artisans--a conflict between employers, or master artisans, and workmen.
The journeymen combined to protect their special interests, notably as
regards hours of work and rates of wages, and they fought with the
masters over the labour question in all its aspects. The resulting
struggle of organized bodies of masters and journeymen was widespread
throughout western Europe, but it was more prominent in Germany than in
France or England. This conflict was indeed one of the main features of
German industrial life in the 15th century. In England the fraternities
of journeymen, after struggling a while for complete independence, seem
to have fallen under the supervision and control of the masters' gilds;
in other words, they became subsidiary or affiliated organs of the older
craft fraternities.
An interesting phenomenon in connexion with the organization of crafts
is their tendency to amalgamate, which is occasionally visible in
England in the 15th century, and more frequently in the 16th and 17th. A
similar tendency is visible in the Netherlands and in some other parts
of the continent already in the 14th century. Several fraternities--old
gilds or new companies, with their respective cognate or heterogeneous
branches of industry and trade--were fused into one body. In some towns
all the crafts were thus consolidated into a single fraternity; in this
case a body was reproduced which regulated the whole trade monopoly of
the borough, and hence bore some resemblance to the old gild merchant.
In dealing briefly with the modern history of craft gilds, we may
confine our attention to England. In the Tudor period the policy of the
crown was to bring them under public or national control. Laws were
passed, for example in 1503, requiring that new ordinances of
"fellowships of crafts or misteries" should be approved by the royal
justices or by other crown officers; and the authority of the companies
to fix the price of wares was thus restricted. The statute of 5
Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their jurisdiction over journeymen and
apprentices (see APPRENTICESHIP).
The craft fraternities were not suppressed by the statute of 1547 (1
Edward VI.). They were indeed expressly exempted from its general
operation. Such portions of their revenues as were devoted to definite
religious observances were, however, appropriated by the crown. The
revenues confiscated were those used for "the finding, maintaining or
sustentation of any priest or of any anniversary, or obit, lamp, light
or other such things." This has been aptly called "the disendowment of
the religion of the misteries." Edward VI.'s statute marks no break of
continuity in the life of the craft organizations. Even before the
Reformation, however, signs of decay had already begun to appear, and
these multiplied in the 16th and 17th centuries. The old gild system was
breaking down under the action of new economic forces. Its dissolution
was due especially to the introduction of new industries, organized on a
more modern basis, and to the extension of the domestic system of
manufacture. Thus the companies gradually lost control over the
regulation of industry, though they still retained their old monopoly in
the 17th century, and in many cases even in the 18th. In fact, many
craft fraternities still survived in the second half of the 18th
century, but their usefulness had disappeared. The medieval form of
association was incompatible with the new ideas of individual liberty
and free competition, with the greater separation of capital and
industry, employers and workmen, and with the introduction of the
factory system. Intent only on promoting their own interests and
disregarding the welfare of the community, the old companies had become
an unmitigated evil. Attempts have been made to find in them the
progenitors of the trades unions, but there seems to be no immediate
connexion between the latter and the craft gilds. The privileges of the
old fraternities were not formally abolished until 1835; and the
substantial remains or spectral forms of some are still visible in other
towns besides London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W. E. Wilda, _Das Gildenwesen im Mittelalter_ (Halle,
1831); E. Levasseur; _Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France_ (2
vols., Paris, 1859, new ed. 1900); Gustav von Schonberg, "Zur
wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung des deutschen Zunftwesens im Mittelalter,"
in _Jahrbucher fur Nationalokonomie und Statistik_, ed. B. Hildebrand,
vol. ix. pp. 1-72, 97-169 (Jena, 1867); Joshua Toulmin Smith, _English
Gilds_, with Lujo Brentano's introductory essay on the _History and
Development of Gilds_ (London, 1870); Max Pappenheim, _Die
altdanischen Schutzgilden_ (Breslau, 1885); W. J. Ashley,
_Introduction to English Economic History_ (2 vols., London,
1888-1893; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1894); C. Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (2
vols., Oxford, 1890); Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden der germanischen
Volker_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891); J. Malet Lambert, _Two Thousand
Years of Gild Life_ (Hull, 1891); Alfred Doren, _Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte der Kaufmannsgilden_ (Leipzig, 1893); H. Vander Linden,
_Les Gildes marchandes dans les Pays-Bas au moyen age_ (Ghent, 1896);
E. Martin Saint-Leon, _Histoire des corporations de metiers_ (Paris,
1897); C. Nyrop, _Danmarks Gilde- og Lavsskraaer fra middelalderen_ (2
vols., Copenhagen, 1899-1904); F. Keutgen, _Amter und Zunfte_ (Jena,
1903); George Unwin, _Industrial Organization in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries_ (Oxford, 1904). For bibliographies of gilds,
see H. Blanc, _Bibliographie des corporations ouvrieres_ (Paris,
1885); G. Gonetta, _Bibliografia delle corporazioni d' arti e
mestieri_ (Rome, 1891); C. Gross, _Bibliography of British Municipal
History_, including Gilds (New York, 1897); W. Stieda, in
_Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, ed. J. Conrad (2nd ed.,
Jena, 1901, under "Zunftwesen"). (C. Gr.)
GILEAD (i.e. "hard" or "rugged," a name sometimes used, both in earlier
and in later writers, to denote the whole of the territory occupied by
the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending from the Arnon to the
southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. 1; Judg. xx. 1; Jos. _Ant._ xii.
8. 3, 4). More precisely, however, it was the usual name of that
picturesque hill country which is bounded on the N. by the Hieromax
(Yarmuk), on the W. by the Jordan, on the S. by the Arnon, and on the E.
by a line which may be said to follow the meridian of Amman
(Philadelphia or Rabbath-Ammon). It thus lies wholly within 31 deg. 25'
and 32 deg. 42' N. lat. and 35 deg. 34' and 36 deg. E. long., and is cut
in two by the Jabbok. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain
along the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 ft. above the
Mediterranean; but, as seen from the west, the relative height is very
much increased by the depression of the Jordan valley. The range from
the same point of view presents a singularly uniform outline, having the
appearance of an unbroken wall; in reality, however, it is traversed by
a number of deep ravines (wadis), of which the most important are the
Yabis, the Ajlun, the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the
Zerka Ma'in. The great mass of the Gilead range is formed of Jura
limestone, the base slopes being sandstone partly covered by white
marls. The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the
western are well supplied with oak, terebinth and pine. The pastures are
everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and winding glens, in which
the tangled shrubbery is here and there broken up by open glades and
flat meadows of green turf, exhibit a beauty of vegetation such as is
hardly to be seen in any other district of Palestine.
The first biblical mention of "Mount Gilead" occurs in connexion with
the reconcilement of Jacob and Laban (Genesis xxxi.). The comp
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