Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses"
Author: Various
Release date: November 11, 2011 [eBook #37984]
Language: English
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Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE: "... musical composer of the 16th
century, was born about 1510." 'musical' amended from 'muscial'.
ARTICLE GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO: "Finding it convenient to
retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own
cost ..." 'it' amended from 'in'.
ARTICLE GRAMMAR: "...Fritz Mauthner, Beitrage zu einer Kritik der
Sprache vol. iii. (1902) ..." 'zu' amended from 'zur'.
ARTICLE GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED: "So far, then, as this
declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility
must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues ..."
'responsibility' amended from 'responsiblity'.
ARTICLE GRAND ISLAND: "The most important industry of the county is
the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle." 'meat' amended
from 'neat'.
ARTICLE GRANTH: "There are thirty-one such measures in the Adi
Granth, and the hymns are arranged according to the measures to
which they are composed." 'measures' amended from 'neasures'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII, SLICE III
Gordon, Lord George to Grasses
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
GORDON, LORD GEORGE GOZZOLI, BENOZZO
GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON GRAAFF REINET
GORDON, LEON GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH
GORDON, PATRICK GRABE, JOHN ERNEST
GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE GRACCHUS
GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT
GORE, CHARLES GRACE
GORE GRACES, THE
GOREE GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR
GORGE GRACKLE
GORGEI, ARTHUR GRADISCA
GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO GRADO
GORGET GRADUAL
GORGIAS GRADUATE
GORGON, GORGONS GRADUATION
GORGONZOLA GRADUS
GORI GRAETZ, HEINRICH
GORILLA GRAEVIUS, JOHANN GEORG
GORINCHEM GRAF, ARTURO
GORING, GEORGE GORING GRAF, KARL HEINRICH
GORKI, MAXIM GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON
GORLITZ GRAFE, HEINRICH
GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON
GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH GRAFFITO
GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON GRAFLY, CHARLES
GORTON, SAMUEL GRAFRATH
GORTON GRAFT
GORTYNA GRAFTON, DUKES OF
GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON GRAFTON, RICHARD
GORZ GRAFTON (New South Wales)
GORZ AND GRADISCA GRAFTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)
GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN GRAFTON (West Virginia, U.S.A.)
GOS-HAWK GRAHAM, SIR GERALD
GOSHEN (Egypt) GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE
GOSHEN (Indiana, U.S.A.) GRAHAM, SYLVESTER
GOSLAR GRAHAM, THOMAS
GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC GRAHAME, JAMES
GOSLIN GRAHAM'S DYKE
GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW GRAHAM'S TOWN
GOSPATRIC GRAIL, THE HOLY
GOSPEL GRAIN
GOSPORT GRAINS OF PARADISE
GOSS, SIR JOHN GRAIN TRADE
GOSSAMER GRAM
GOSSE, EDMUND GRAMMAR
GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY GRAMMICHELE
GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH GRAMMONT
GOSSIP GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED
GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA GRAMONT, PHILIBERT
GOSSON, STEPHEN GRAMOPHONE
GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND GRAMPIANS, THE
GOTA GRAMPOUND
GOTARZES GRAMPUS
GOTHA GRANADA, LUIS DE
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF GRANADA (Nicaragua)
GOTHENBURG GRANADA (province of Spain)
GOTHIC GRANADA (town of Spain)
GOTHITE GRANADILLA
GOTHS GRANARIES
GOTLAND GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS
GOTO ISLANDS GRAN CHACO
GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE
GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG GRAND CANARY
GOTTINGEN GRAND CANYON
GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM GRAND-DUKE
GOTTSCHALK GRANDEE
GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON GRAND FORKS (Canada)
GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH GRAND FORKS (North Dakota, U.S.A.)
GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS GRAND HAVEN
GOUACHE GRANDIER, URBAN
GOUDA GRAND ISLAND
GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE GRANDMONTINES
GOUFFIER GRAND RAPIDS
GOUGE, MARTIN GRAND RAPIDS
GOUGE GRANDSON
GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS
GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW GRANGE
GOUGH, RICHARD GRANGEMOUTH
GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE GRANGER, JAMES
GOUJON, JEAN GRANITE
GOUJON, JEAN MARIE ALEXANDRE GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA
GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
GOULBURN, HENRY GRANT, ANNE
GOULBURN GRANT, CHARLES
GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON GRANT, SIR FRANCIS
GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP GRANT, GEORGE MONRO
GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS GRANT, JAMES
GOULD, JAY GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS
GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE
GOURD GRANT, SIR PATRICK
GOURGAUD, GASPAR GRANT, ROBERT
GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON
GOURMET GRANT
GOUROCK GRANTH
GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON
GOUT GRANTHAM
GOUTHIERE, PIERRE GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON
GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT GRANTOWN
GOVAN GRANULITE
GOVERNMENT GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT
GOVERNOR GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE LEVESON-GOWER
GOW, NIEL GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET
GOWER, JOHN GRANVILLE (Australia)
GOWER GRANVILLE (France)
GOWN GRANVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.)
GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN GRAPE
GOWRIE GRAPHICAL METHODS
GOYA GRAPHITE
GOYANNA GRAPTOLITES
GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO GRASLITZ
GOYAZ GRASMERE
GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN GRASS AND GRASSLAND
GOZLAN, LEON GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL
GOZO GRASSE
GOZZI, CARLO GRASSES
GOZZI, GASPARO
GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), third and youngest son of Cosmo George,
duke of Gordon, was born in London on the 26th of December 1751. After
completing his education at Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to
the rank of lieutenant in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of
the admiralty, would not promise him the command of a ship, and he
resigned his commission shortly before the beginning of the American
War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought for him by
General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire, in order to
bribe him not to contest the county. He was considered flighty, and was
not looked upon as being of any importance. In 1779 he organized, and
made himself head of the Protestant associations, formed to secure the
repeal of the Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he
headed the mob which marched in procession from St George's Fields to
the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster petition
against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a terrific riot
ensued, which continued several days, during which the city was
virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they dispersed after
threatening to make a forcible entry into the House of Commons, but
reassembled soon afterwards and destroyed several Roman Catholic
chapels, pillaged the private dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set
fire to Newgate and broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank
of England and several other public buildings, and continued the work of
violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, by
whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded before the riots
were quelled. For his share in instigating the riots Lord Gordon was
apprehended on a charge of high treason; but, mainly through the skilful
and eloquent defence of Erskine, he was acquitted on the ground that he
had no treasonable intentions. His life was henceforth full of
crack-brained schemes, political and financial. In 1786 he was
excommunicated by the archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear
witness in an ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of
libelling the queen of France, the French ambassador and the
administration of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to
withdraw from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland;
but on account of representations from the court of Versailles he was
commanded to quit that country, and, returning to England, was
apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced to five years'
imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his ease, giving dinners and
dances. As he could not obtain securities for his good behaviour on the
termination of his term of imprisonment, he was not allowed to leave
Newgate, and there he died of delirious fever on the 1st of November
1793. Some time before his apprehension he had become a convert to
Judaism, and had undergone the initiatory rite.
A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in _The
Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his
Political Conduct_, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The best
accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the _Annual
Registers_ from 1780 to the year of his death.
GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788-1864), Scottish painter, was the eldest
son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the family of Watson of
Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He was born in Edinburgh in 1788,
and was educated specially with a view to his joining the Royal
Engineers. He entered as a student in the government school of design,
under the management of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for
art quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow him
to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself a skilful
draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, afterwards president of the
Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait painter, second only to Sir
Henry Raeburn, who also was a friend of the family. In the year 1808
John sent to the exhibition of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject
from the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_, and continued for some years to
exhibit fancy subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they
were altogether without the force and character which stamped his
portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of Sir Henry
Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice. He assumed in
1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest of his famous sitters was
Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first portrait in 1820. Then came J. G.
Lockhart in 1821; Professor Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir
Archibald Alison, 1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey,
and Sir David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may be
mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers' Hall, Edinburgh;
Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings, Linlithgow; Lord
President Hope, in the Parliament House; and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike
his later works, are generally rich in colour. The full length of Dr
Brunton (1844), and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both
on the staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his
style, which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both of
colour and treatment.
During the last twenty years of his life he painted many distinguished
Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him. And it is significant
that David Cox, the landscape painter, on being presented with his
portrait, subscribed for by many friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to
have it executed by Watson Gordon, although he neither knew the painter
personally nor had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits
painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style, are
De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London; General Sir Thomas
Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society; the prince of Wales, Lord
Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford
and Sir John Shaw Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These
latter pictures are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or
no positive colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling
extremely masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very
successful in rendering acute observant character. A good example of his
last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely handled, yet highly
finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw Lefevre.
John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the Royal Scottish
Academy, and was elected its president in 1850; he was at the same time
appointed limner for Scotland to the queen, and received the honour of
knighthood. Since 1841 he had been an associate of the Royal Academy,
and in 1851 he was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of
June 1864.
GORDON, LEON, originally JUDAH LOEB BEN ASHER (1831-1892),
Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at Wilna in 1831 and
died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took a leading part in the modern
revival of the Hebrew language and culture. His satires did much to
rouse the Russian Jews to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon
was the apostle of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is
classical and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, _Kol Shire
Yehudah_ (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in _Kol Kithbe Yehuda_
(Odessa, 1889).
For his works see _Jewish Quarterly Review_, xviii. 437 seq.
GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1699), Russian general, was descended from a
Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who possessed the small estate of
Auchleuchries, and were connected with the house of Haddo. He was born
in 1635, and after completing his education at the parish schools of
Cruden and Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at
Braunsberg, Prussia; but, as "his humour could not endure such a still
and strict way of living," he soon resolved to return home. He changed
his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after journeying on foot in
several parts of Germany, ultimately, in 1655, enlisted at Hamburg in
the Swedish service. In the course of the next five years he served
alternately with the Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by
either. In 1661, after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he
took service in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was
sent on a special mission to England. After his return he distinguished
himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in southern Russia,
and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was made major-general, in
1679 was appointed to the chief command at Kiev, and in 1683 was made
lieutenant-general. He visited England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689
took part as quartermaster-general in expeditions against the Crim
Tatars in the Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite
of the denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he was
exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow in 1689, Gordon
with the troops he commanded virtually decided events in favour of the
tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa Sophia. He was therefore during
the remainder of his life in high favour with the tsar, who confided to
him the command of his capital during his absence from Russia, employed
him in organizing his army according to the European system, and
latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died on the 29th
of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him frequently during his
illness, was with him when he died, and with his own hands closed his
eyes.
General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in
English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian
foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr Maurice
Possalt (_Tagebuch des Generals Patrick Gordon_) was published, the
first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in 1851,
and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and _Passages from the Diary
of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries_ (1635-1699), was printed,
under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the Spalding Club,
Aberdeen, 1859.
GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866), Scottish traveller and
sportsman, known as the "lion hunter," was born on the 15th of March
1820. He was the second son of Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd
baronet of Altyre and Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he
was distinguished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and
at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a cornet in the
Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him, after two
years' experience he retired from the service and returned to Scotland.
During his stay in the East he had laid the foundation of his collection
of hunting trophies and specimens of natural history. In 1843 he joined
the Cape Mounted Rifles, but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out
at the end of the year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers
set out for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the
Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In 1848 he returned
to England. The story of his remarkable exploits is vividly told in his
book, _Five Years of a Hunter's Life in the Far Interior of South
Africa_ (London, 1850, 3rd ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first
with incredulity by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who
furnished Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: "I have
no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming's book conveys a truthful idea
of South African hunting" (_Missionary Travels_, chap. vii.). His
collection of hunting trophies was exhibited in London in 1851 at the
Great Exhibition, and was illustrated by a lecture delivered by
Gordon-Cumming. The collection, known as "The South Africa Museum," was
afterwards exhibited in various parts of the country. In 1858
Gordon-Cumming went to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal,
where the exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died
there on the 24th of March 1866.
An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title of
_The Lion Hunter of South Africa_, and in this form was frequently
reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.
GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1799-1861), English novelist and
dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-merchant, was born in
1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire. In 1823 she was married to
Captain Charles Gore; and, in the next year, she published her first
work, _Theresa Marchmont, or the Maid of Honour_. Then followed, among
others, the _Lettre de Cachet_ (1827), _The Reign of Terror_ (1827),
_Hungarian Tales_ (1829), _Manners of the Day_ (1830), _Mothers and
Daughters_ (1831), and _The Fair of May Fair_ (1832), _Mrs Armytage_
(1836). Every succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The
_Cabinet Minister_ and _The Courtier of the Days of Charles II._, in
1839; _Preferment_ in 1840. In 1841 _Cecil, or the Adventures of a
Coxcomb_, attracted considerable attention. _Greville, or a Season in
Paris_ appeared in the same year; then _Ormington, or Cecil a Peer,
Fascination, The Ambassador's Wife_; and in 1843 _The Banker's Wife_.
Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing fertility of invention, till
her death on the 29th of January 1861. She also wrote some dramas of
which the most successful was the _School for Coquettes_, produced at
the Haymarket (1831). She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to
music Burns's "And ye shall walk in silk attire," one of the most
popular songs of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved
by the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best novels
are _Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb_, and _The Banker's Wife_.
_Cecil_ gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable life, and
is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the knowledge of London clubs
displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to William Beckford, the author of
_Vathek_. _The Banker's Wife_ is distinguished by some clever studies of
character, especially in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating
money-maker, and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.
Mrs Gore's novels had an immense temporary popularity; they were
parodied by Thackeray in _Punch_, in his "Lords and Liveries by the
author of _Dukes and Dejeuners_"; but, tedious as they are to
present-day readers, they presented on the whole faithful pictures of
the contemporary life and pursuits of the English upper classes.
GORE, CHARLES (1853- ), English divine, was born in 1853, the 3rd son
of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother of the 4th earl of Arran.
His mother was a daughter of the 4th earl of Bessborough. He was
educated at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected
fellow of Trinity College in 1875. From 1880 to 1883 he was
vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon, and, when in
1884 Pusey House was founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey's library
and a centre for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed
principal, a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey
House Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the
younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this influence
that the "Oxford Movement" underwent a change which to the survivors of
the old school of Tractarians seemed to involve a break with its basic
principles. "Puseyism" had been in the highest degree conservative,
basing itself on authority and tradition, and repudiating any compromise
with the modern critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from
the same basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical
experience in dealing with the "doubts and difficulties" of the younger
generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable, and set
himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority in religion
with that of scientific authority by attempting to define the boundaries
of their respective spheres of influence. To him the divine authority of
the Catholic Church was an axiom, and in 1889 he published two works,
the larger of which, _The Church and the Ministry_, is a learned
vindication of the principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate
against the Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second,
_Roman Catholic Claims_, is a defence, couched in a more popular form,
of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the attacks of the
Romanists.
So far his published views had been in complete consonance with those of
the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir was created by the
publication, under his editorship, of _Lux Mundi_, a series of essays by
different writers, being an attempt "to succour a distressed faith by
endeavouring to bring the Christian Creed into its right relation to the
modern growth of knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to
modern problems of politics and ethics." Mr Gore himself contributed an
essay on "The Holy Spirit and Inspiration." The book, which ran through
twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a somewhat mixed
reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and Tractarian alike, were
alarmed by views on the incarnate nature of Christ that seemed to them
to impugn his Divinity, and by concessions to the Higher Criticism in
the matter of the inspiration of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them
to convert the "impregnable rock," as Gladstone had called it, into a
foundation of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly
impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an artificial line
beyond which criticism was not to advance. None the less the book
produced a profound effect, and that far beyond the borders of the
English Church, and it is largely due to its influence, and to that of
the school it represents, that the High Church movement developed
thenceforth on "Modernist" rather than Tractarian lines.
In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures before the
university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation. In these lectures
he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of which in _Lux Mundi_ had
caused so much heart-searching. This is an attempt to explain how it
came that Christ, though incarnate God, could be in error, e.g. in his
citations from the Old Testament. The orthodox explanation was based on
the principle of accommodation (q.v.). This, however, ignored the
difficulty that if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to
human limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other
men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations. This
difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the [Greek:
kenosis]. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into the
canon theologians had, from various points of view, attempted to explain
what St Paul meant when he wrote of Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that "he
emptied himself and took upon him the form of a servant" ([Greek:
heauton ekenosen morphen doulou labon]). According to Mr Gore this means
that Christ, on his incarnation, became subject to all human
limitations, and had, so far as his life on earth was concerned,
stripped himself of all the attributes of the Godhead, including the
Divine omniscience, the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under
the human.[1]
_Lux Mundi_ and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of some tension
which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned his principalship and
became vicar of Radley, a small parish near Oxford. In 1894 he became
canon of Westminster. Here he gained commanding influence as a preacher
and in 1898 was appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he
succeeded J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was
installed bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been
mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views on the
divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the Christian Church,
Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly relations with the ministers
of other denominations, and advocated co-operation with them in all
matters when agreement was possible. In social questions he became one
of the leaders of the considerable group of High Churchmen known,
somewhat loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against
the sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Macedonia, and
was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908. In 1892 he founded
the clerical fraternity known as the Community of the Resurrection. Its
members are priests, who are bound by the obligation of celibacy, live
under a common rule and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral,
evangelistic, literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the
Resurrection at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the
community; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was
established there, and in the same year a branch house, for missionary
work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa.
Dr Gore's works include _The Incarnation_ (Bampton Lectures, 1891),
_The Creed of the Christian_ (1895), _The Body of Christ_ (1901), _The
New Theology and the Old Religion_ (1908), and expositions of _The
Sermon on the Mount_ (1896), _Ephesians_ (1898), and _Romans_ (1899),
while in 1910 he published _Orders and Unity_.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his _Lehre von der
heiligen Liebe_ (1844), _Lehre_ ii. pp. 21 et seq.: "the Son of God
veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as
child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the
world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows it
to shine forth in all its glory." See Loofs, Art. "Kenosis" in
Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1901), x. 247.
GORE. (1) (O. Eng. _gor_, dung or filth), a word formerly used in the
sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has thickened after being
shed. (2) (O. Eng. _gara_, probably connected with _gare_, an old word
for "spear"), something of triangular shape, resembling therefore a
spear-head. The word is used for a tapering strip of land, in the
"common or open field" system of agriculture, where from the shape of
the land the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in
straight divisions. Similarly "gore" is used in the United States,
especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out in
surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. The triangular
sections of material used in forming the covering of a balloon or an
umbrella are also called "gores," and in dressmaking the term is used
for a triangular piece of material inserted in a dress to adjust the
difference in widths. To gore, i.e. to stab or pierce with any sharp
instrument, but more particularly used of piercing with the horns of a
bull, is probably directly connected with _gare_, a spear.
GOREE, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part of the
French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the large natural
harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde. The island, some 900 yds.
long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant from the nearest point of the
mainland, is mostly barren rock. The greater part of its surface is
occupied by a town, formerly a thriving commercial entrepot and a strong
military post. Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar
(q.v.), c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its
inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500. Its
healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium. The streets
are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-red stone, are
flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the governor's residence, the
hospital and barracks, testify to the former importance of the town.
Within the castle is an artesian well, the only water-supply, save that
collected in rain tanks, on the island. Goree was first occupied by the
Dutch, who took possession of it early in the 17th century and called it
Goeree or Goedereede, in memory of the island on their own coast now
united with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, i.e. a belly, in
allusion to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore
(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken in the
following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally expelled in 1677 by
the French under Admiral d'Estrees. Goree subsequently fell again into
the hands of the English, but was definitely occupied by France in 1817
(see SENEGAL: _History_).
GORGE, strictly the French word for the throat considered externally.
Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk's crop, and thus, with the
sense of something greedy or ravenous, to food given to a hawk and to
the contents of a hawk's crop or stomach. It is from this sense that the
expression of a person's "gorge rising at" anything in the sense of
loathing or disgust is derived. "Gorge," from analogy with "throat," is
used with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley
between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or bastion;
and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman Doric column, between
the echinus and the astragal. From "gorge" also comes a diminutive
"gorget," a portion of a woman's costume in the middle ages, being a
close form of wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and
also that part of the body armour covering the neck and collarbone (see
GORGET). The word "gorgeous," of splendid or magnificent appearance,
comes from the O. Fr. _gorgias_, with the same meaning, and has very
doubtfully been connected with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a
supposed elaborate kind.
GORGEI, ARTHUR (1818- ), Hungarian soldier, was born at Toporcz, in
Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January 1818. He came of a Saxon noble
family who were converts to Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the
Bodyguard of Hungarian Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military
service with a course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death
of his father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the study
of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the family estates in
Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary War of 1848, Gorgei
offered his sword to the Hungarian government. Entering the Honved army
with the rank of captain, he was employed in the purchase of arms, and
soon became major and commandant of the national guards north of the
Theiss. Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from
crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the wealthy
Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his hands, and Gorgei
caused him to be arraigned before a court-martial on a charge of treason
and immediately hanged. After various successes over the Croatian
forces, of which the most remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000
prisoners fell into his hands, Gorgei was appointed commander of the
army of the Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgratz
across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the
remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated upon
Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue interference with
his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a proclamation throwing the
blame for the recent want of success upon the government, thus virtually
revolting against their authority. Gorgei retired to the Hungarian
Erzgebirge and conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the
supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski, but the
latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna, at which action
Gorgei's corps arrived too late to take an effective part, and some time
after this the command was again conferred upon Gorgei. The campaign in
the spring of 1849 was brilliantly conducted by him, and in a series of
engagements, he defeated Windischgratz. In April he won the victories of
Godollo Izaszeg and Nagy Sarlo, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle
at Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking the
offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps have dictated
terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was, he contented himself
with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital, in which he desired to
re-establish the diet, and after effecting this capture he remained
inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile, at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth
had formally proposed the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and
Hungary had been proclaimed a republic. Gorgei had refused the
field-marshal's baton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in
sympathy with the new regime. However, he accepted the portfolio of
minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in the field.
The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and made common cause
with the Austrians; the allies were advancing into Hungary on all sides,
and Gorgei was defeated by Haynau at Pered (20th-21st of June). Kossuth,
perceiving the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being
unwilling himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and
was succeeded by Gorgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard against
the various columns of the enemy. Gorgei, convinced that he could not
break through the enemy's lines, surrendered, with his army of 20,000
infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the Russian general Rudiger at Vilagos.
Gorgei was not court-marshaled, as were his generals, but kept in
confinement at Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical
work, until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary. The
surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared while his
generals and many of his officers and men were hanged or shot, led,
perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason by public opinion of
his countrymen. After his release he played no further part in public
life. Even in 1885 an attempt which was made by a large number of his
old comrades to rehabilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary.
After some years' work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrad,
where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also HUNGARY: _History_.)
General Gorgei wrote a justification of his operations (_Mein Leben und
Wirken in Ungarn_ 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an anonymous paper under
the title _Was verdanken wir der Revolution?_ (1875), and a reply to
Kossuth's charges (signed "Joh. Demar") in _Budapesti Szemle_, 1881,
25-26. Amongst those who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Gorgei
(_1848 es 1849 bol_, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (_Ein
offenes Wort in der Sache des Honved-Generals Arthur Gorgei_,
Klausenburg, 1867).
See also A. G. Horn, _Gorgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee_ (Leipzig,
1850); Kinety, _Gorgei's Life and Work in Hungary_ (London, 1853);
Szinyei, in _Magyar Irok_ (iii. 1378), Hentaller, _Gorgei as a
Statesman_ (Hungarian); Elemar, _Gorgei in 1848-1849_ (Hungarian,
Budapest, 1886).
GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647), English colonial pioneer in
America and the founder of Maine, was born in Somersetshire, England,
probably in 1566. From youth both a soldier and a sailor, he was a
prisoner in Spain at the age of twenty-one, having been captured by a
ship of the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of
troops fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing
himself at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596 he was
commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort at Plymouth and
captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accompanied Essex on the
expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted him in the attempt to
suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland, and in 1600 was implicated in
Essex's own attempt at rebellion in London. In 1603, on the accession of
James I., he was suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored
in the same year and continued to serve as "governor of the forts and
island of Plymouth" until 1629, when, his garrison having been without
pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin, and all his
applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned. About 1605 he
began to be greatly interested in the New World; in 1606 he became a
member of the Plymouth Company, and he laboured zealously for the
founding of the Popham colony at the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the
Kennebec) river in 1607. For several years following the failure of that
enterprise in 1608 he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading
and exploring, with colonization as the chief end in view. He was
largely instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the
Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps the most
influential member of that body. He was the recipient, either solely or
jointly, of several grants of territory from it, for one of which he
received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine (see MAINE). In 1635 he
sought to be appointed governor-general of all New England, but the
English Civil War--in which he espoused the royal cause--prevented him
from ever actually holding that office. A short time before his death at
Long Ashton in 1647 he wrote his _Briefe Narration of the Originall
Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of
America_. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the feudal
type of colony.
See J. P. Baxter (ed.), _Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of
Maine_ (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications),
the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other volumes
contain a reprint of the _Briefe Narration_, Gorges's letters, and
other documentary material.
GORGET (O. Fr. _gorgete_, dim. of _gorge_, throat), the name applied
after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour. It was
generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and attached
either to the body armour or to the armet. It was worn in the 16th and
17th centuries with the half-armour, with the plain cuirass, and even
occasionally without any body armour at all. During these times it
gradually became a distinctive badge for officers, and as such it
survived in several armies--in the form of a small metal plate affixed
to the front of the collar of the uniform coat--until after the
Napoleonic wars. In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort
is the distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer's
gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or tabs
worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches of the
midshipmen in the Royal Navy.
GORGIAS (c. 483-375 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was a native
of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his fellow-citizens at the
head of an embassy to ask Athenian protection against the aggression of
the Syracusans. He subsequently settled in Athens, and supported himself
by the practice of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa
in Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that he
transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the diffusion of the
Attic dialect as the language of literary prose. He was the author of a
lost work _On Nature or the Non-existent_ ([Greek: Peri tou me ontos e
peri physeos], fragments edited by M. C. Valeton, 1876), the substance
of which may be gathered from the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also
from the treatise (ascribed to Theophrastus) _De Melisso, Xenophane,
Gorgia_. Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue
_Gorgias_. The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (_The Encomium of
Helen_ and _The Defence of Palamedes_, edited with Antiphon by F. Blass
in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down under his name, is
disputed.
For his philosophical opinions see SOPHISTS and SCEPTICISM. See also
Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, Eng. trans. vol. i. bk. iii. chap. vii.;
Jebb's _Attic Orators_, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, _Die
attische Beredsamkeit_, i. (1887); and article RHETORIC.
GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. [Greek: Gorgo], [Greek: Gorgones], the "terrible,"
or, according to some, the "loud-roaring"), a figure or figures in Greek
mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose head is represented in
the _Iliad_ (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of the aegis of Zeus. In the
_Odyssey_ (xi. 633) she is a monster of the under-world. Hesiod
increases the number of Gorgons to three--Stheno (the mighty), Euryale
(the far-springer) and Medusa (the queen), and makes them the daughters
of the sea-god Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side
of the western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod,
_Theog._ 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic tradition,
reproduced in Euripides (_Ion_ 1002), regarded the Gorgon as a monster,
produced by Gaea to aid her sons the giants against the gods and slain
by Athena (the passage is a _locus classicus_ on the aegis of Athena).
The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having the form of
young women; their hair consists of snakes; they are round-faced,
flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large projecting teeth.
Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen claws and the tusks of boars.
Medusa was the only one of the three who was mortal; hence Perseus was
able to kill her by cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted
from her neck sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The
head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked upon it,
was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield; according to another
account, Perseus buried it in the market-place of Argos. The hideously
grotesque original type of the Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was
called, was placed on the walls of cities, and on shields and
breastplates to terrify an enemy (cf. the hideous faces on Chinese
soldiers' shields), and used generally as an amulet, a protection
against the evil eye. Heracles is said to have obtained a lock of
Medusa's hair (which possessed the same powers as the head) from Athena
and given it to Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for
the town of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to
Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a storm,
which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, i. 378) gives
examples of the superstition that cut hair caused storms. According to
the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful maiden, whose hair had been
changed into snakes by Athena, the head was represented in works of art
with a wonderfully handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death.
The Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this conception.
Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by later ancient writers.
According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55) they were female warriors living
near Lake Tritonis in Libya, whose queen was Medusa; according to
Alexander of Myndus, quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible
wild animals whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
vi. 36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were covered
with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky hair and girdle.
Modern authorities have explained them as the personification of the
waves of the sea or of the barren, unproductive coast of Libya; or as
the awful darkness of the storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is
scattered by the sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of
anthropologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is
derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults.
See Jane E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_
(1903); W. H. Roscher, _Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes_ (1879); J. Six,
_De Gorgone_ (1885), on the types of the Gorgon's head; articles by
Roscher and Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, by G.
Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, and by
R. Gadechens in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; N. G.
Polites ([Greek: Ho peri ton Gorgonon mythos para to Helleniko lao],
1878) gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various
superstitions connected with them, from the modern Greek point of
view, which regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.
GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from
which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the
centre of the district in which is produced the well-known Gorgonzola
cheese.
GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Tiflis and
49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river Kura; altitude,
2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding country is very
picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and a school for Russian
and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated for its silk and cotton
stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed the best in Georgia, and the
wine is also esteemed. The climate is excellent, delightfully cool in
summer, owing to the refreshing breezes from the mountains, though these
are, however, at times disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123)
by the Georgian king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who
fled their country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the
fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-1658, but
destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century. There is a church
constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin missionaries from Rome. Five
miles east of Gori is the remarkable rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe,
which was a fortress in the time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and
an inhabited city in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III.
(980-1014).
GORILLA (or PONGO), the largest of the man-like apes, and a native of
West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence it extends eastwards
across the continent to German East Africa. Many naturalists regard the
gorilla as best included in the same genus as the chimpanzee, in which
case it should be known as _Anthropopithecus gorilla_, but by others it
is regarded as the representative of a genus by itself, when its title
will be _Gorilla savagei_, or _G. gorilla_. That there are local forms
of gorilla is quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to
rank as distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long
supposed that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of
Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the opinion of
some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable that the creatures
in question were really baboons. The first real account of the gorilla
appears to be the one given by an English sailor, Andrew Battel, who
spent some time in the wilds of West Africa during and about the year
1590; his account being presented in Purchas's _Pilgrimage_, published
in the year 1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with
both the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms engeco
and the latter pongo--names which ought apparently to be adopted for
these two species in place of those now in use. Between Battel's time
and 1846 nothing appears to have been heard of the gorilla or pongo, but
in that year a missionary at the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull
of the huge ape; and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with
two others, came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name
_Gorilla savagei_ was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas
Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information with regard
to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed the name
_Troglodytes gorilla_ in 1847. The first complete skeleton of a gorilla
sent to Europe was received at the museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin appears to have reached
the British Museum in 1858. Paul B. du Chaillu's account (1861) of his
journeys in the Gabun region popularized the knowledge of the existence
of the gorilla. Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and
attain a height of from 5-1/2 ft. to 6-1/2 ft., or perhaps even more.
Some of the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere
gorilla-like chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article
PRIMATES. Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of
a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb, and
the great length of the arm, which reaches half-way down the shin-bone
(tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes are overhung by a
beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half of the middle line of the
skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for the attachment of the powerful
jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or canines, are of monstrous size, recalling
those of a carnivorous animal. The general colour is blackish, with a
more or less marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders,
and sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in _Proc. Zool.
Soc._, 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths of the
forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood of human
settlements when they are attracted by some special fruit or succulent
plant; the favourite being the fruit of the "mejom," a tall cane-like
plant (perhaps a kind of _Amomum_) which grows abundantly on deserted
clearings. At one isolated village the natives, who were unarmed,
reported that they not unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which
broke down the stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to
tear out and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another
village Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the
fresh tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded fruit
rinds of the "mejoms," as well as the broken stalks of the latter, which
had been used for beds. On another occasion he came across the bed of an
old gorilla which had been used only the night before, as was proved by
a negro woman, who on the previous evening had heard the animal breaking
and treading down the stalks to form its couch. According to native
report, the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient
thickness to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting
posture, with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first
case Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence of
three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account does not
by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels, in which it is
stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a sitting posture at
the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being made of a bed), the female
and young ones pass the night in a nest in the tree several yards above
the ground, made by bending the boughs together and covering them with
twigs and moss. Mr Bates's account, as being based on actual inspection
of the beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and
snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at the
slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard making his
bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas killed by natives
are believed by Mr Bates to have been encountered suddenly in the
daytime on the ground or in low trees in the outlying clearings. Many
natives, even if armed, refuse, however, to molest an adult male
gorilla, on account of its ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr
Winwood Reade, refused to credit du Chaillu's account of his having
killed gorillas, and stated that the only instance he knew of one of
these animals being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr
Walter Rothschild's museum at Tring) shot by the German trader Paschen
in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account was published in
1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that two European traders,
apparently in the "'eighties" of the 19th century, were in the habit of
surrounding and capturing these animals as occasion offered.[1] Fully
adult gorillas have never been seen alive in captivity--and perhaps
never will be, as the creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So
long ago as the year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only
by its skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal,
a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some months in
Wombwell's travelling menagerie, where it was treated as a pet. On its
death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton, of Walton Hall, by whom
the skin was mounted in a grotesque manner, and the skeleton given to
the Leeds museum. Apparently, however, it was not till several years
later that the skin was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a
gorilla; the animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a
chimpanzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society in
October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals. At the
time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old, and stood
2-1/2 ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather older, was
acquired in March 1896, having been brought to Liverpool from the French
Congo. It is described as having been thoroughly healthy at the date of
its arrival, and of an amiable and tractable disposition. Neither
survived long. Two others were received in the Zoological Society's
menagerie in 1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the
following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein's
gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name of pongo,
and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for eighteen months.
"Pussi," the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological Gardens, holds a record
for longevity, with over seven years of menagerie life. Writing in 1903
Mr W. T. Hornaday stated that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny
infant, had ever landed in the United States; and it lived only five
days after arrival. (R. L.*)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of
the Congo.
GORINCHEM, or GORCUM, a fortified town of Holland in the province of
south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede at the confluence of the
Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. It is connected by the Zederik and
Merwede canals with Amsterdam, and steamers ply hence in every
direction. Pop. (1900) 11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting
old houses, and overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the
17th century. The principal buildings are the old church of St Vincent,
containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the town hall, a prison,
custom-house, barracks and a military hospital. The charitable and
benevolent institutions are numerous, and there are also a library and
several learned associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and
besides working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery being
noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town on the left bank
of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old buildings, which are
decorated with mosaics.
GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657), English Royalist soldier, son
of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born on the 14th of July 1608. He
soon became famous at court for his prodigality and dissolute manners.
His father-in-law, Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post
in the Dutch army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by
a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in
1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He served in the Scottish
war, and already had a considerable reputation when he was concerned in
the "Army Plot." Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to
petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal
authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to
march the army on London and overawe the parliament during Strafford's
trial. This proposition being rejected by his fellow officers, he
betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, earl of Newport, who passed
on the information indirectly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was
thereupon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended
him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades
induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent
him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the
king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September
1642 and went to Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to
England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March
1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of
the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange. At Marston
Moor he commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success,
but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed
by Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his
father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the creation of
the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as Lord Goring and the
son as General Goring. In August he had been dispatched by Prince
Rupert, who recognized his ability, to join Charles in the south, and in
spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to
supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse
(see GREAT REBELLION). He secured some successes in the west, and in
January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want
of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The
excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause,
and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west. He had
himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next month
he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send
reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he
obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in the month he was
summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford. Lord
Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now
secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the
west. It was alleged by the earl of Newport that he was willing to
transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely
that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in
desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645
opened. For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the
Naseby campaign see GREAT REBELLION. After the decisive defeat of the
king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a
disastrous fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further
serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in
frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained leave to quit his
disorganized forces and retire to France on the ground of health. His
father's services secured him the command of some English regiments in
the Spanish service. He died at Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon
gives him a very unpleasing character, declaring that "Goring ... would,
without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery
to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted
nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and
ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as
eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man
in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications
dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that
men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
deceived but twice by him."
See the life by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of National Biography_;
Dugdale's _Baronage_, where there are some doubtful stories of his
life in Spain; the _Clarendon State Papers_; Clarendon's _History of
the Great Rebellion_; and S. R. Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil
War_.
GORKI, MAXIM (1868- ), the pen-name of the Russian novelist Alexei
Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod on the 26th of
March 1868. His father was a dyer, but he lost both his parents in
childhood, and in his ninth year was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We
find him afterwards in a variety of callings, but devouring books of all
sorts greedily, whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the
boot-shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook on board
a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth year he tried to
enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake himself again to his
drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked about _kvas_, and helped the
barefooted tramps and labourers at the docks. From these he drew some of
his most striking pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life
generally with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a barrister
at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of his fortunes, as he
found a sympathetic master who helped him. He also became acquainted
with the novelist Korolenko, who assisted him in his literary efforts.
His first story was _Makar Chudra_, which was published in the journal
_Kavkaz_. He contributed to many periodicals and finally attracted
attention by his tale called _Chelkash_, which appeared in _Russkoe
Bogatsvo_ ("Russian wealth"). This was followed by a series of tales in
which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the _bosniaki_, or
tramps. He has sometimes described other classes of society, tradesmen
and the educated classes, but not with equal success. There are some
vigorous pictures, however, of the trading class in his _Foma Gordeyev_.
But his favourite type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society,
and him he describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
with him. We get such a type completely in _Konovalov_. Gorki is always
preaching that we must have ideals--something better than everyday life,
and this view is brought out in his play _At the Lowest Depths_, which
had great success at Moscow, but was coldly received at St Petersburg.
For a good criticism of Gorki see _Ideas and Realities in Russian
Literature_, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been
translated into English.
GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the
left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden on the railway to
Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, Zittau and Halle. Pop.
(1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The Neisse at this point is crossed by a
railway bridge 1650 ft. long and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gorlitz
is one of the handsomest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000
acres, which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and fine gardens,
and although its old walls and towers have now been demolished, many of
its ancient buildings remain to form a picturesque contrast with the
signs of modern industry. From the hill called Landskrone, about 1500
ft. high, an extensive prospect is obtained of the surrounding country.
The principal buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St
Paul, dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about the end of
the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and choir in pierced
work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, with handsome choir stalls
and a carved altar dating from 1383; and the Roman Catholic church,
founded in 1853, in the Roman style of architecture, with beautiful
glass windows and oil-paintings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a
very valuable library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps.
There is also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used as a
guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in the Gothic style
erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the Kaiser Friedrich museum, the
house of the estates of the province (Standehaus), two theatres and the
barracks. Near the town is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is
a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century.
In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to Alexander
von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob Bohme (1575-1624); a
monument has been erected in the town in commemoration of the war of
1870-71, and also one to the emperor William I. and a statue of Prince
Frederick Charles. In connexion with the natural history society there
is a valuable museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large
library and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of
_virtu_. Gorlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground for
the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides cloth, which forms
its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories of various linen
and woollen wares, machines, railway wagons, glass, sago, tobacco,
leather, chemicals and tiles.
Gorlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at the
beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was then known
as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction by fire in 1131
it received the name of Zgorzelice. About the end of the 12th century it
was strongly fortified, and for a short time it was the capital of a
duchy of Gorlitz. It was several times besieged and taken during the
Thirty Years' War, and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years'
War. In the battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, the
general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the town, with the
greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the possession of Prussia.
See Neumann, _Geschichte von Gorlitz_ (1850).
GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German writer, was born on the
25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His father was a man of moderate
means, who sent his son to a Latin college under the direction of the
Roman Catholic clergy. The sympathies of the young Gorres were from the
first strongly with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and
irreligion of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his
hatred of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted on
the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to one
another. He then commenced a republican journal called _Das rote Blatt_,
and afterwards _Rubezahl_, in which he strongly condemned the
administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.
After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope that the
Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent republic. In
1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of which Gorres was a member, to
Paris to put their case before the directory. The embassy reached Paris
on the 20th of November 1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed
the supreme direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was
received by him; but the only answer they obtained was "that they might
rely on perfect justice, and that the French government would never lose
sight of their wants." Gorres on his return published a tract called
_Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris_, in which he reviewed the history
of the French Revolution. During the thirteen years of Napoleon's
dominion Gorres lived a retired life, devoting himself chiefly to art or
science. In 1801 he married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years
teacher at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to
Heidelberg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member of
the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with K. Brentano and
L. von Arnim the famous _Zeitung fur Einsiedler_ (subsequently re-named
_Trost-Einsamkeit_), and in 1807 he published _Die teutschen
Volksbucher_. He returned to Coblenz in 1808, and again found occupation
as a teacher in a secondary school, supported by civic funds. He now
studied Persian, and in two years published a _Mythengeschichte der
asiatischen Welt_, which was followed ten years later by _Das
Heldenbuch von Iran_, a translation of part of the _Shahnama_, the epic
of Firdousi. In 1813 he actively took up the cause of national
independence, and in the following year founded _Der rheinische Merkur_.
The intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it almost
instantly a position and influence unique in the history of German
newspapers. Napoleon himself called it _la cinquieme puissance_. The
ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with a representative
government, but under an emperor after the fashion of other days,--for
Gorres now abandoned his early advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon
was at Elba, Gorres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many
Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. He
inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), declaring
that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded back from France.
Stein was glad enough to use the _Merkur_ at the time of the meeting of
the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression to his hopes.
But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Gorres to remember that he was not
to arouse hostility against France, but only against Bonaparte. There
was also in the _Merkur_ an antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression
of the desire that an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title,
and also a tendency to pronounced liberalism--all of which made it most
distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick William III.
Gorres disregarded warnings sent to him by the censorship and continued
the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly it was suppressed early in
1816, at the instance of the Prussian government; and soon after Gorres
was dismissed from his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his
writings were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed Kotzebue's
assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad were framed, and
these were the subject of Gorres's celebrated pamphlet _Teutschland und
die Revolution_ (1820). In this work he reviewed the circumstances which
had led to the murder of Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible
horror at the deed itself, he urged that it was impossible and
undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by
reactionary measures. The success of the work was very marked, despite
its ponderous style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
orders were issued for the arrest of Gorres and the seizure of his
papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland. Two
more political tracts, _Europa und die Revolution_ (1821) and _In Sachen
der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit_ (1822), also deserve
mention.
In Gorres's pamphlet _Die heilige Allianz und die Volker auf dem
Kongress zu Verona_ he asserted that the princes had met together to
crush the liberties of the people, and that the people must look
elsewhere for help. The "elsewhere" was to Rome; and from this time
Gorres became a vehement Ultramontane writer. He was summoned to Munich
by King Ludwig of Bavaria as Professor of History in the university, and
there his writing enjoyed very great popularity. His _Christliche
Mystik_ (1836-1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together
with an exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated
ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion was the deposition
and imprisonment by the Prussian government of the archbishop Clement
Wenceslaus, in consequence of the refusal of that prelate to sanction in
certain instances the marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics.
Gorres in his _Athanasius_ (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the
church, although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gorres as
one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
supremacy of Rome. _Athanasius_ went through several editions, and
originated a long and bitter controversy. In the _Historisch-politische
Blatter_, a Munich journal, Gorres and his son Guido (1805-1852)
continually upheld the claims of the church. Gorres received from the
king the order of merit for his services. He died on the 29th of January
1848.
Gorres's _Gesammelte Schriften_ (only his political writings) appeared
in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of _Gesammelte
Briefe_ were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, _Joseph
von Gorres_ (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, _Gorres und seine
Zeitgenossen_ (1877), and by the same author, _Gorres_, in the series
_Geisteshelden_ (1896). A _Gorres-Gesellschaft_ was founded in 1876.
GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist and politician, was
born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th of March 1752, the son of a
shoemaker. He established himself as a private tutor in Paris, and
presently set up a school for the army at Versailles, which was attended
by commoners as well as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short
time in the Bicetre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his
pupils, his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical sentiment. At
the opening of the states-general he began to publish the _Courrier de
Versailles a Paris et de Paris a Versailles_, in which appeared on the
4th of October 1789 the account of the banquet of the royal bodyguard.
Gorsas is said to have himself read it in public at the Palais Royal,
and to have headed one of the columns that marched on Versailles. He
then changed the name of his paper to the _Courrier des
quatre-vingt-trois departements_, continuing his incendiary propaganda,
which had no small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June
and August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in his paper
that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national conspiracy and that
the people exercised a just vengeance on the guilty. On the 10th of
September 1792 he was elected to the Convention for the department of
Seine-et-Oise, and on the 10th of January 1793 was elected one of its
secretaries. He sat at first with the Mountain, but having been long
associated with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI. he
dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the Mountain,
and he voted for the king's detention during the war and subsequent
banishment. A violent attack on Marat in the _Courrier_ led to an armed
raid on his printing establishment on the 9th of March 1793. The place
was sacked, but Gorsas escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts
being reported to the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas,
and a resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding
representatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd of June
he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under arrest with other
members of his party. He escaped to Normandy to join Buzot, and after
the defeat of the Girondists at Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in
Brittany. He was imprudent enough to return to Paris in the autumn,
where he was arrested on the 6th of October and guillotined the next
day.
See the _Moniteur_, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793);
M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de l'hist. de Paris_, 10,291 seq. (1894).
GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835- ). English statesman, was born at Preston
in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes
on succeeding to the family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler
from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his father's
illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where he married in
1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at that time set up a king of
their own in the Waikato district and Gorst, who had made friends with
the chief Tamihana (William Thomson), acted as an intermediary between
the Maoris and the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner in
Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his safety in the Maori
outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a volume of recollections, under
the title of _New Zealand Revisited: Recollections of the Days of my
Youth_. He then returned to England and was called to the bar at the
Inner Temple in 1865, becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for
Hastings in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed to secure
re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the Conservative defeat of
that year he was entrusted by Disraeli with the reorganization of the
party machinery, and in five years of hard work he paved the way for the
Conservative success at the general election of 1874. At a bye-election
in 1875 he re-entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he
continued to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff,
Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the "Fourth Party," and
he became solicitor-general in the administration of 1885-1886 and was
knighted. On the formation of the second Salisbury administration (1886)
he became under-secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to
the Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member for
Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees in the House
of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the formation of the third
Salisbury administration in 1895 he became vice-president of the
committee of the council on education (until 1902). Sir John Gorst
adhered to the principles of Tory democracy which he had advocated in
the days of the fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active
interest in the housing of the poor, the education and care of their
children, and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in
the press. But he was always exceedingly "independent" in his political
action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals for tariff reform, and
lost his seat at Cambridge at the general election of 1906 to a tariff
reformer. He then withdrew from the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose
League, of which he had been one of the founders, on the ground that it
no longer represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he
contested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.
His elder son, SIR J. ELDON GORST (b. 1861), was financial adviser to
the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when he became assistant
under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1907 he succeeded Lord
Cromer as British agent and consul-general in Egypt.
An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph Churchill
will be found in the _Fourth Party_ (1906), by his younger son, Harold
E. Gorst.
GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and founder of the
American sect of Gortonites, was born about 1600 at Gorton, Lancashire.
He was first apprenticed to a clothier in London, but, fearing
persecution for his religious convictions, he sailed for Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly involved in religious disputes, he
fled in turn to Plymouth, and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport),
where he was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at Shawomet--now
Warwick--where he was joined by a number of his followers; but he
quarrelled with the Indians and the authorities at Boston sent soldiers
to arrest Gorton and six of his companions. He served a term of
imprisonment for heresy at Charlestown, after which he was ejected from
the colony. In England in 1646 he published the curious tract
"Simplicities Defence against Seven Headed Policy" (reprinted in 1835),
giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts
government. In 1648 he returned to New England with a letter of
protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining his former companions
at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, in honour of the earl, he remained
there till his death at the end of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the
founder of a small sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the
end of the 18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular
clergy and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
believers partook of the perfection of God.
Among his quaint writings are: _An Incorruptible Key composed of the
CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures_ (1647),
and _Saltmarsh returned from the Dead_, with its sequel, _An Antidote
against the Common Plague of the World_ (1657). See L. G. Jones,
_Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties_ (Providence,
1896).
GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of
Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb of Manchester. Pop.
(1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing district, having cotton
mills and iron, engineering and chemical works.
GORTYNA, or GORTYN, an important ancient city on the southern side of
the island of Crete. It stood on the banks of the small river Lethaeus
(Mitropolipotamo), about three hours distant from the sea, with which it
communicated by means of its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had
temples of Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; and not
far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen plane tree
which in popular belief marked the scene of the amours of Zeus and
Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, the largest and most powerful city
of Crete. The two cities combined to subdue the rest of the island; but
when they had gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and
the history of both towns is from this time little more than a record of
their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history of Greece.
Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis of the island. Extensive
ruins may still be seen at the modern village of Hagii Deka, and here
was discovered the great inscription containing chapters of its ancient
laws. Though partly ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very
interesting monument of early Christian architecture, dating from about
the 4th century.
See also CRETE, and for a full account of the laws see GREEK LAW.
GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHLITZ (1668-1719), Holstein
statesman, was educated at Jena. He entered the Holstein-Gottorp
service, and after the death of the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles
XII.'s sister, became very influential during the minority of her son
Duke Charles Frederick. His earlier policy aimed at strengthening
Holstein-Gottorp at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during
Charles XII.'s stay at Altranstadt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the
king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, when the
Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the Elbe, Gortz rendered him
as much assistance as was compatible with not openly breaking with
Denmark, even going so far as to surrender the fortress of Tonning to
the Swedes. Gortz next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against
Sweden by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose of
isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies against
her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained relations
between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, however, on the
refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his German domains by ceding
Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous plan of procuring the Swedish
crown for Duke Charles Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first
suggested the marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna
Anne of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with that
object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at Stralsund, Gortz
was the first to visit him, and emerged from his presence chief minister
or "grand-vizier" as the Swedes preferred to call the bold and crafty
satrap, whose absolute devotion to the Swedish king took no account of
the intense wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gortz, himself a man of
uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the heroic element
in Charles's nature and was determined, if possible, to save him from
his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary influence to the fact that
he was the only one of Charles's advisers who believed, or pretended to
believe, that Sweden was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a
sufficient reserve of power to give support to an energetic
diplomacy--Charles's own opinion, in fact. Gortz's position, however,
was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein minister at
Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden except a Swedish
subject--finance minister, plenipotentiary to foreign powers, factotum,
and responsible to the king alone, though he had not a line of
instructions. But he was just the man for a hero in extremities, and his
whole course of procedure was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief
financial expedient was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by
issuing copper tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of
his that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market too
enormous an amount of this copper money for Gortz to deal with. By the
end of 1718 it seemed as if Gortz's system could not go on much longer,
and the hatred of the Swedes towards him was so intense and universal
that they blamed him for Charles XII.'s tyranny as well as for his own.
Gortz hoped, however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's
numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means of fresh
combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great power. It must be
admitted that, in pursuance of his "system," Gortz displayed a genius
for diplomacy which would have done honour to a Metternich or a
Talleyrand. He desired peace with Russia first of all, and at the
congress of Aland even obtained relatively favourable terms, only to
have them rejected by his obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously,
Gortz was negotiating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in
England; but all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of
cards on the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish
nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special
commission which was a parody of justice--the accused was not permitted
to have any legal assistance or the use of writing materials--he was
condemned to decapitation and promptly executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved
his fate for "unnecessarily making himself the tool of an unheard-of
despotism," but his death was certainly a judicial murder, and some
historians even regard him as a political martyr.
See R. N. Bain, _Charles XII._ (London, 1895), and _Scandinavia_,
chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, _Freherre Georg Heinrich
von Gortz_ (Stockholm, 1868). (R. N. B.)
GORZ (Ital. _Gorizia_; Slovene, _Gorica_), the capital of the Austrian
crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop
(1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, the remainder mostly Slovenes and
Germans. It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in
a fertile valley, 35 m. N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an
archbishop and possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th
century and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates the town,
is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the counts of Gorz, now
partly used as barracks. Owing to the mildness of its climate Gorz has
become a favourite winter-resort, and has received the name of the Nice
of Austria. Its mean annual temperature is 55 deg. F.; while the mean
winter temperature is 38.7 deg. F. It is adorned with several pretty
gardens with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. of
the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, in whose
chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836), the last
Bourbon king, of the duke of Angouleme (d. 1844), his son, and of the
duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles to the north of Gorz is the
Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-frequented place on which stands a
pilgrimage church. The industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar
refining, brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of
rosoglio. There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables,
early fruit and wine. Gorz is mentioned for the first time at the
beginning of the 11th century, and received its charter as a town in
1307. During the middle ages the greater part of its population was
German.
GORZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by
Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory and the Adriatic, W. by
Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line,
though extending for 25 m., does not present any harbour of importance.
It is fringed by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most
part of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only one
accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, except
towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian lowland, it is
surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths of its area is occupied
by mountains and hills. From the Julian Alps, which traverse the
province in the north, the country descends in successive terraces
towards the sea, and may roughly be divided into the upper highlands,
the lower highlands, the hilly district and the lowlands. The principal
peaks in the Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart
(8784 ft.), the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386
ft.), and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or Terglou
(9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil Pass (3811 ft.),
through which passes the principal road from Carinthia to the Coastland.
The southern part of the province belongs to the Karst region, and here
are situated the famous cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where
the river Reka begins its subterranean course. The principal river of
the province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues a
strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches the
Adriatic. At Gorz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, and it is
navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the name of the
Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, the Wippach and the Torre
with its tributary the Judrio, which forms for a short distance the
boundary between Austria and Italy. Of special interest not only in
itself but for the frequent allusions to it in classical literature is
the Timavus or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
according to the well-known description of Virgil (_Aen._ i. 244) to
have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths and with much
noise and commotion, but at present it usually issues from only three
mouths and flows quiet and still. It is strange enough, however, to see
the river coming out full formed from the rock, and capable at its very
source of bearing vessels on its bosom. According to a probable
hypothesis it is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which
is lost near Sankt Kanzian.
Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation of
the population, and the vine is here planted not only in regular
vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through the ordinary fields
and carried up the hills in terraces locally called _ronchi_. The
rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the lowlands, constitutes
another great source of revenue, and furnishes the material for the only
extensive industry of the country. The manufacture of silk is carried on
at Gorz, and in and around the village of Haidenschaft. Gorz and
Gradisca had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to 203
inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about two-thirds
were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only about 2200 Germans.
Almost the whole of the population (99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic
Church. The local diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member
_ex-officio_, is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5
deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality,
Gorz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places are Cormons
(5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), Gradisca (3843) and
Aquileia (2319).
Gorz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the 10th
century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor Otto III. on
John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century it became the seat of
the Eppenstein family, who frequently bore the title of counts of
Gorizia; and in the beginning of the 12th century the countship passed
from them to the Lurngau family which continued to exist till the year
1500, and acquired possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria.
On the death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united with it in
1754. The province was occupied by the French in 1809, but reverted
again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district of the administrative
province of Trieste until 1861, when it became a separate crownland
under its actual name.
GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, 1st VISCOUNT (1831-1907), British
statesman, son of William Henry Goschen, a London merchant of German
extraction, was born in London on the 10th of August 1831. He was
educated at Rugby under Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he
took a first-class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Fruhling
& Goschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became a
director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life took place
in 1863, when he was returned without opposition as member for the city
of London in the Liberal interest, and this was followed by his
re-election, at the head of the poll, in the general election of 1865.
In November of the same year he was appointed vice-president of the
Board of Trade and paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr Goschen joined
the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, and continued to hold
that office until March 1871, when he succeeded Mr Childers as first
lord of the admiralty. In 1874 he was elected lord rector of the
university of Aberdeen. Being sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the
British holders of Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the
conversion of the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
Khedive.
In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented him from
voting uniformly with his party, and he informed his constituents in the
city that he would not stand again at the forthcoming general election.
In 1880 he was elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that
constituency until the general election of 1885, when he was returned
for the Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension of
the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's government in 1880;
declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted that of special
ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in settling the Montenegrin
and Greek frontier questions in 1880 and 1881. He was made an
ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, and when Sir Henry Brand was raised
to the peerage in 1884, the speakership of the House of Commons was
offered to him, but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he
frequently found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign policy;
and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home Rule for Ireland, Mr
Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and
became one of the most active of the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and
eloquent opposition to Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him
into greater public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his
seat for Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the
resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation to join
his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. Being defeated at
Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven votes, he was elected for St
George's, Hanover Square, on the 9th of February. His chancellorship of
the exchequer during the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable
by his successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National
Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new 2-3/4% Consols
became known as "Goschens," his name will long be connected. Aberdeen
University again conferred upon him the honour of the lord rectorship in
1888, and he received a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh
in 1890. In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House of
Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating power. From
1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the admiralty, and in that
office he earned the highest reputation for his business-like grasp of
detail and his statesmanlike outlook on the naval policy of the country.
He retired in 1900, and was raised to the peerage by the title of
Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics
he continued to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr
Chamberlain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen was
one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist side. He
died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in the title by his
son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative M.P. for East
Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and married a daughter of the 1st earl of
Cranbrook.
In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest interest,
his best known, but by no means his only, contribution to popular
culture being his participation in the University Extension Movement;
and his first efforts in parliament were devoted to advocating the
abolition of religious tests and the admission of Dissenters to the
universities. His published works indicate how ably he combined the wise
study of economics with a practical instinct for business-like progress,
without neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
his well-known work on _The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges_, he
published several financial and political pamphlets and addresses on
educational and social subjects, among them being that on _Cultivation
of the Imagination_, Liverpool, 1877, and that on _Intellectual
Interest_, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote _The Life and Times of Georg
Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of Leipzig_ (1903). (H. Ch.)
GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the _Astur palumbarius_ of ornithologists,
and the largest of the short-winged hawks used in falconry. Its English
name, however, has possibly been transferred to this species from one of
the long-winged hawks or true falcons, since there is no tradition of
the gos-hawk, now so called, having ever been used in Europe to take
geese or other large and powerful birds. The genus _Astur_ may be
readily distinguished from _Falco_ by the smooth edges of its beak, its
short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail), and its
long legs and toes--though these last are stout and comparatively
shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (_Accipiter_). In plumage the gos-hawk
has a general resemblance to the peregrine falcon, and it undergoes a
corresponding change as it advances from youth to maturity--the young
being longitudinally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely
barred. The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange,
while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ greatly in
size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, nowadays very rare in
Britain, was once common in England, and even towards the end of the
18th century Thornton obtained a nestling in Scotland, while Irish
gos-hawks were of old highly celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird,
its disappearance may be safely connected with the disappearance of the
ancient forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. In many
parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It ranges eastward to
China and is much valued in India. In North America it is represented by
a very nearly allied species, _A. atricapillus_, chiefly distinguished
by the closer barring of the breast. Three or four examples
corresponding with this form have been obtained in Britain. A good many
other species of _Astur_ (some of them passing into _Accipiter_) are
found in various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
mentioned is the _A. novae-hollandiae_ of Australia, which is remarkable
for its dimorphism--one form possessing the normal dark-coloured plumage
of the genus and the other being perfectly white, with crimson irides.
Some writers hold these two forms to be distinct species and call the
dark-coloured one _A. cinereus_ or _A. raii_. (A. N.)
GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between Jacob's
immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation is a difficult
problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, or at least non-Egyptian
origin, as in Palestine we meet with a district (Josh. x. 41) and a city
(_ib._ xv. 51) of the same name. The Septuagint reads [Greek: Gesem
Arabias] in Gen. xlv. 10, and xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply [Greek: Gesem].
In xlvi. 28 "Goshen ... the land of Goshen" are translated respectively
"Heroopolis ... the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish
identification. Ptolemy defines "Arabia" as an Egyptian nome on the
eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, corresponding to the
Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. It is doubtful whether Phacussa be
situated at the mounds of Fakus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh,
which suits Strabo's description of its locality rather better. The
extent of Goshen, according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10),
included Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It is
indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of good pasture,
on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible vegetables and in
fish (Numbers xi. 5). (R. A. S. M.)
GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. of Chicago, at an altitude of
about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) 6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910)
8514. Goshen is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected by
electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city has a Carnegie
library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under Mennonite control),
chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, Ind., in 1895, and removed
to Goshen and opened under its present name in 1903. The college
includes a collegiate department, an academy, a Bible school, a normal
school, a summer school and correspondence courses, and schools of
business, of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, 73
of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in a good farming region
and is an important lumber market. There is a good water-power. Among
the city's manufactures are wagons and carriages, furniture,
wooden-ware, veneering, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber
goods, flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting system.
Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered as a city in
1868.
GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the Oker, at the north
foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim and 31 m. S.W. from
Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. It is surrounded by walls and is
of antique appearance. Among the noteworthy buildings are the "Zwinger,"
a tower with walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
containing the town archives and a library in which are some of Luther's
manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing many interesting
antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the hall of the tailors' gild and
now an inn) with the statues of eight of the German emperors; and the
Kaiserhaus, the oldest secular building in Germany, built by the emperor
Henry III. before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This
was restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, and
was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German history. Other
buildings of interest are:--the small chapel which is all that remains
since 1820 of the old and famous cathedral of St Simon and St Jude
founded by Henry III. about 1040, containing among other relics of the
cathedral an old altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which
formerly stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church of the
former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, of the 12th
century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings of considerable
merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now an hotel, the birthplace of
Marshal Saxe. There are four Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
church, a synagogue, several schools, a natural science museum,
containing a collection of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of
antiquities and a number of small foundations. The town has equestrian
statues of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William I.
The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the sulphur,
copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. The town has also
been long noted for its beer, and possesses some small manufactures and
a considerable trade in fruit.
Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler about 920,
and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral treasures in the
neighbourhood were discovered it increased rapidly in prosperity. It was
often the meeting-place of German diets, twenty-three of which are said
to have been held here, and was frequently the residence of the
emperors. About 1350 it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of
the 14th century the famous _Goslar statutes_, a code of laws, which was
adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was unsuccessfully
besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War, but was taken by the
Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by fire. Further conflagrations in
1728 and 1780 gave a severe blow to its prosperity. It was a free town
till 1802, when it came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was
joined to Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
Hanover, re-united to Prussia.
See T. Erdmann, _Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung in
Geschichte, Sage und Bild_ (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, _Geschichte der
vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar_ (1842-1843); A.
Wolfstieg, _Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar_ (Berlin, 1885); T.
Asche, _Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar_ (1892); Neuburg, _Goslars Bergbau
bis 1552_ (Hanover, 1892); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar_,
edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the _Goslarische Statuten_
see the edition published by Goschen (Berlin, 1840).
GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, better known under
his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius Goslicius, was born about
1533. After having studied at Cracow and Padua, he entered the church,
and was successively appointed bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen.
Goslicki was an active man of business, was held in high estimation by
his contemporaries and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It
was chiefly through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to
the pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing
their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate of religious
toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October 1607.
His principal work is _De Optimo senatore_, &c. (Venice, 1568). There
are two English translations published respectively under the titles
_A commonwealth of good counsaile_, &c. (1607), and _The Accomplished
Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth_ (1733).
GOSLIN, or GAUZLINUS (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender of the
city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some authorities, the
son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according to others the natural son
of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he became a monk, and entered a monastery
at Reims, later he became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates
of his time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken prisoners (858),
and he was released only after paying a heavy ransom (_Prudentii
Trecensis episcopi Annales_, ann. 858). From 855 to 867 he held
intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, the office of chancellor
to Charles the Bald and his successors. In 883 or 884 he was elected
bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the dangers to which the city was to be
exposed from the attacks of the Northmen, he planned and directed the
strengthening of the defences, though he also relied for security on the
merits of the relics of St Germain and St Genevieve. When the attack
finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him and to
Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain l'Auxerrois. The city
was attacked on the 26th of November, and the struggle for the
possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change) lasted for two days;
but Goslin repaired the destruction of the wooden tower overnight, and
the Normans were obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by
storm. The siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor
Charles the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or killed by
a pestilence which raged in the city.
See Amaury Duval, _L'Eveque Gozlin ou le siege de Paris par les
Normands, chronique du IX^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed.
_ib._ 1835).
GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator. Nothing is known of
his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, in command of the
"Concord," chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh and others, he crossed the
Atlantic; coasted from what is now Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing
at and naming Cape Cod and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving
the name Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land; and
returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's Bay. In
London he actively promoted the colonization of the regions he had
visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and other
influential persons, contributed toward securing the grants of the
charters to the London and Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he
was associated with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. As a
member of the council he took an active share in the affairs of the
colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce order,
industry and system among the motley array of adventurers and idle
"gentlemen" of which the little band was composed. He died from swamp
fever on the 22nd of August 1607.
See _The Works of John Smith_ (Arber's Edition, London, 1884); and J.
M. Brereton, _Brief and True Relation of the North Part of Virginia_
(reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of Gosnold's
voyage of 1602.
GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to a family which
had connexions with the royal houses both of Wessex and Scotland. Before
the Conquest he accompanied Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and
at that time was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, repenting of
his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the court of Scotland
(1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion in the next year; but was
afterwards able, from his possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms
with the conqueror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace
concluded in that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He
lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm seems to
have provided for him.
See E. A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), and the
_English Hist. Review_, vol. xix. (London, 1904).
GOSPEL (O. Eng. _godspel_, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. _bona
annuntiatio_, or _evangelium_, Gr. [Greek: euangelion]; cf. Goth. _iu
spillon_, "to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek,
from _iu_, that which is good, and _spellon_ to announce), primarily the
"glad tidings" announced to the world by Jesus Christ. The word thus
came to be applied to the whole body of doctrine taught by Christ and
his disciples, and so to the Christian revelation generally (see
CHRISTIANITY); by analogy the term "gospel" is also used in other
connexions as equivalent to "authoritative teaching." In a narrower
sense each of the records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved
in the writings of the four "evangelists" is described as a Gospel. The
many more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted by
the Christian Church as canonical are known as "apocryphal gospels" (see
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). The present article is concerned solely with
general considerations affecting the four canonical Gospels; see for
details of each, the articles under MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE and JOHN.
_The Four Gospels._--The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the Gospel that
He was the Christ. Those to whom this message was first delivered in
Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and heard Jesus, or had heard much
about Him. They did not require to be told who He was. But more and more
as the work of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered some
account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those who had followed
Him during His life on earth, and all who joined themselves to them,
must have felt the need of dwelling on His precepts, so that these must
have been often repeated, and also in all probability from an early time
grouped together according to their subjects, and so taught. For some
time, probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life
of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would be in
accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers of the Gospel.
Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation of the speedy return
of Christ that they did not feel called to make provision for the
instruction of subsequent generations. The Epistles of the New Testament
contain no indications of the existence of any written record of the
life and teaching of Christ. Tradition indicates A.D. 60-70 as the
period when written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to
be made (see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). This may be
accepted as highly probable. We cannot but suppose that at a time when
the number of the original band of disciples of Jesus who survived must
have been becoming noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in
life, the importance of writing down that which had been orally
delivered concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing was
undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence of this
feeling, and that various records had already in consequence been made.
But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which we actually
have them, belong to the number of those earliest records? Or, if not,
what are the relations in which they severally stand to them? These are
questions which in modern criticism have been greatly debated. With a
view to obtaining answers to them, it is necessary to consider the
reception of the Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and
compare the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied in
these two ways must be given in the present article, so far as it is
common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, and in the
articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial to each.
1. _The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church._--The question of
the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which they were regarded
during the period extending from the latter years of the 1st century to
the beginning of the last quarter of the 2nd is a difficult one. There
is a lack of explicit references to the Gospels;[1] and many of the
quotations which may be taken from them are not exact. At the same time
these facts can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that the habits
of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered orally should
have continued to exert influence even after the tradition had been
committed to writing. Although documents might be known and used, they
would not be regarded as the authorities for that which was
independently remembered, and would not, therefore, necessarily be
mentioned. Consequently, it is not strange that citations of sayings of
Christ--and these are the only express citations in writings of the
Subapostolic Age--should be made without the source whence they were
derived being named, and (with a single exception) without any clear
indication that the source was a document. The exception is in the
little treatise commonly called the Epistle of Barnabas, probably
composed about A.D. 130, where (c. iv. 14) the words "many are called
but few chosen" are introduced by the formula "as it is written."
For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources used we have
to rely upon the amount of correspondence with our Gospels in the
quotations made, and in respect to other parallelisms of statement and
of expression, in these early Christian writers. The correspondence is
in the main full and true as regards spirit and substance, but it is
rarely complete in form. The existence of some differences of language
may, however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various forms
of the same saying occurring in different documents, or remembered from
oral tradition and through catechetical instruction, would sometimes be
purposely combined. Or, again, the memory might be confused by this
variety, and the verification of quotations, especially of brief ones,
was difficult, not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of
books, but also because ancient books were not provided with ready means
of reference to particular passages. On the whole there is clearly a
presumption that where we have striking expressions which are known to
us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, that particular record has
been the source of it. And where there are several such coincidences the
ground for the supposition that the writing in question has been used
may become very strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less
clear in the several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the
first two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our
first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.
After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, documents
were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; but there is
still some uncertainty as to the documents upon which reliance was
placed, and the precise estimation in which they were severally held.
This is in part at least due to the circumstance that nearly all the
writings which have remained of the Christian literature belonging to
the period _circa_ A.D. 130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and
that for the most part they give only summaries of the teaching of
Christ and of the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be
understood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others than
Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important of the
writings now in question are two by Justin Martyr (_circa_ A.D.
145-160), viz. his _Apology_ and his _Dialogue with Trypho_. In the
former of these works he shows plainly his intention of adapting his
language and reasoning to Gentile, and in the latter to Jewish, readers.
In both his name for the Gospel-records is "Memoirs of the Apostles."
After a great deal of controversy there has come to be very wide
agreement that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
In the case of the second and third there are indications, though slight
ones, that he held the view of their composition and authorship which
was common from the last quarter of the century onwards (see MARK,
GOSPEL OF, and LUKE, GOSPEL OF), but he has made the largest use of our
first Gospel. It is also generally allowed that he was acquainted with
the fourth Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain
reserve. Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show that
he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a good deal of
difference of opinion still as to whether Justin reckoned other sources
for the Gospel-history besides our Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs.
In this connexion, however, as well as on other grounds, it is a
significant fact that within twenty years or so after the death of
Justin, which probably occurred _circa_ A.D. 160, Tatian, who had been a
hearer of Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
which received the name _Diatessaron_ ("through four"), in the main a
compilation from our four Gospels.[2]
Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had attained a
position of unique authority throughout the greater part of the Church,
not different from that which they have held since, as is evident from
the treatise of Irenaeus _Against Heresies_ (c. A.D. 180; see esp. iii.
i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other evidence only a few years later. The
struggle against Gnosticism, which had been going on during the middle
part of the century, had compelled the Church both to define her creed
and to draw a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. The
effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally entertained
of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time in the formal
statements now made it is plainly implied that the belief expressed is
no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to suppose that agreement on
this subject between different portions of the Church could have
manifested itself at this time in the spontaneous manner that it does,
except as the consequence of traditional feelings and convictions, which
went back to the early part of the century, and which could hardly have
arisen without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although all that
came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship cannot be
considered proved.
2. _The Internal Criticism of the Gospels._--In the middle of the 19th
century an able school of critics, known as the Tubingen school, sought
to show from indications in the several Gospels that they were composed
well on in the 2nd century in the interests of various strongly marked
parties into which the Church was supposed to have been divided by
differences in regard to the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity.
These theories are now discredited. It may on the contrary be
confidently asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the
local colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the circumstances
of the 2nd century; and that the character even of the Fourth Gospel is
not such as to justify its being placed, at furthest, much after the
beginning of that century.
We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid results
have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in consequence of the
large amount of similarity between them in contents, arrangement, and
even in words and the forms of sentences and paragraphs, been called
Synoptic Gospels. It has long been seen that, to account for this
similarity, relations of interdependence between them, or of common
derivation, must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
these relations is known as the _Synoptic Problem_. Reference has
already been made to the fact that during the greater part of the
Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now some have held
that the form of this oral teaching was to a great extent a fixed one,
and that it was the common source of our first three Gospels. This oral
theory was for a long time the favourite one in England; it was never
widely held in Germany, and in recent years the majority of English
students of the Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not
satisfactorily explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too
close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus accounted
for, but even many of the differences between parallel contexts are
rather such as would arise through the revision of a document than
through the freedom of oral delivery.
It is now and has for many years been widely held that a document which
is most nearly represented by the Gospel of Mark, or which (as some
would say) was virtually identical with it, has been used in the
composition of our first and third Gospels. This source has supplied the
Synoptic Outline, and in the main also the narratives common to all
three. Questions connected with the history of this document are treated
in the article on MARK, GOSPEL OF.
There is also a considerable amount of matter common to Matthew and
Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced into the Synoptic Outline
very differently in those two Gospels, which clearly suggests that it
existed in a separate form, and was independently combined by the first
and third evangelists with their other document. This common matter has
also a character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several passages
so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces at least to have
been derived immediately or ultimately from the same Greek document. In
other cases there is more divergence, but in some of them this is
accounted for by the consideration that in Matthew passages from the
source now in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, instances in
which no such explanation will serve, and it is possible that our first
and third evangelists may have used two documents which were not in all
respects identical, but which corresponded very closely on the whole.
The ultimate source of the subject matter in question, or of the most
distinctive and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic
one, and in some parts different translations may have been used.
This second source used in the composition of Matthew and Luke has
frequently been called "The Logia" in order to signify that it was a
collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. This name has been
suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation of Papias' fragment on
Matthew (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). But some have maintained that the
source in question also contained a good many narratives, and in order
to avoid any premature assumption as to its contents and character
several recent critics have named it "Q." It may, however, fairly be
called "the Logian document," as a convenient way of indicating the
character of the greater part of the matter which our first and third
evangelists have taken from it, and this designation is used in the
articles on the Gospels of Luke and Matthew. The reconstruction of this
document has been attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its
contents can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.
3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing of the results
of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. Their effect is to
lead us, especially when engaged in historical inquiries, to look beyond
our Gospels to their sources, instead of treating the testimony of the
Gospels severally as independent and ultimate. Nevertheless it will
still appear that each Gospel has its distinct value, both historically
and in regard to the moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the
fruits of much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, will still
prove serviceable.
AUTHORITIES.--1. German Books: _Introductions to the New
Testament_--H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans.,
1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Julicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng.
trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, _Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte_, vol.
i. (1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels,
especially the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, _Die synoptischen
Evangelien_ (1863); Weizsacker, _Untersuchungen uber die evangelische
Geschichte_ (1864); B. Weiss, _Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine
synoptischen Parallelen_ (1872); _Das Matthaus-Evangelium und seine
Lucas-Parallelen_ (1876); H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886); A.
Resch, _Agrapha_ (1889); &c.; P. Wernle, _Die synoptische Frage_
(1899); W. Soltau, _Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr
Quellenwert_ (1901); H. J. Holtzmann, _Hand-Commentar zum N.T._, vol.
i. (1889); J. Wellhausen, _Das Evangelium Marci_, _Das Evangelium
Matthai_, _Das Evangelium Lucas_ (1904), _Einleitung in die drei
ersten Evangelien_ (1905); A. Harnack, _Spruche und Reden Jesu, die
zweite Quelle des Matthaus und Lukas_ (1907).
2. French Books: A. Loisy, _Les Evangiles synoptiques_ (1907-1908).
3. English Books: G. Salmon, _Introduction to the New Testament_ (1st
ed., 1885; 9th ed., 1904); W. Sanday, _Inspiration_ (Lect. vi., 3rd
ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, _An Introduction to the Study of the
Gospels_ (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, _The Composition
of the Four Gospels_ (1890); J. E. Carpenter, _The First Three
Gospels, their Origin and Relations_ (1890); A. J. Jolley, _The
Synoptic Problem_ (1893); J. C. Hawkins, _Horae synopticae_ (1899); W.
Alexander, _Leading Ideas of the Gospels_ (new ed., 1892); E. A.
Abbott, _Clue_ (1900); J. A. Robinson, _The Study of the Gospels_
(1902); F. C. Burkitt, _The Gospel History and its Transmission_
(1906); G. Salmon, _The Human Element in the Gospels_ (1907); V. H.
Stanton, _The Gospels as Historical Documents_: Pt. I., _The Early Use
of the Gospels_ (1903); Pt. II., _The Synoptic Gospels_ (1908).
4. Synopses.--W. G. Rushbrooke, _Synopticon, An Exposition of the
Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1880); A. Wright, _The
Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek_ (2nd ed., 1903).
See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article BIBLE, section
_New Testament_. (V. H. S.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half of
the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present
Gospels, see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF.
[2] The character of Tatian's _Diatessaron_ has been much disputed in
the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the
subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account of
these may be seen most conveniently in _The Diatessaron of Tatian_,
by S. Hemphill; see under TATIAN.)
GOSPORT, a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division of Hampshire,
England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth harbour, 81 m. S.W. from
London by the London & Southwestern railway. Pop. of urban district of
Gosport and Alverstoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge
connect it with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of
fortifications, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000
yds. to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with
occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Portsmouth
harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and market hall, and
the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of William III. To the
south at Haslar there is a magnificent naval hospital, capable of
containing 2000 patients, and adjoining it a gunboat slipway and large
barracks. To the north is the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with
brewery, cooperage, powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and
storehouses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.
Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was originally included
in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the bishop and monks of Winchester
under whom villeins farmed the land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up
Alverstoke with Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to
hold them until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical
commissioners. After the confiscation of the bishop's lands in 1641,
however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to George
Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration. In the 16th
century Gosport was "a little village of fishermen." It was called a
borough in 1461, when there are also traces of burgage tenure. From 1462
one bailiff was elected annually in the borough court, and government by
a bailiff continued until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth
borough under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was
annulled in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election
of bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is known,
although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common property in the
shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of Gosport increased during
the 16th and 17th centuries owing to its position at the mouth of
Portsmouth harbour, and its convenience as a victualling station. For
this reason also the town was particularly prosperous during the
American and Peninsular Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there
for the defence of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a
garrison town under a lord-lieutenant.
GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was born at Fareham,
Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He was elected a chorister of
the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816, on the breaking of his voice,
became a pupil of Attwood. A few early compositions, some for the
theatre, exist, and some glees were published before 1825. He was
appointed organist of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became
organist of St Paul's in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until
1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the London
musical world of the time was an influential one, and he did much by his
teaching and criticism to encourage the study and appreciation of good
music. In 1876 he was given the degree of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though
his few orchestral works have very small importance, his church music
includes some fine compositions, such as the anthems "O taste and see,"
"O Saviour of the world" and others. He was the last of the great
English school of church composers who devoted themselves almost
exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee his is an
honoured name, if only on account of his finest work in that form, the
five-part glee, Ossian's "Hymn to the sun." He died at Brixton, London,
on the 10th of May 1880.
GOSSAMER, a fine, thread like and filmy substance spun by small spiders,
which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse bushes, and floating in
the air in clear weather; especially in the autumn. By transference
anything light, unsubstantial or flimsy is known as "gossamer." A thin
gauzy material used for trimming and millinery, resembling the "chiffon"
of to-day, was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian
period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very light
weight.
The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms in English,
and is apparently taken from _gose_, goose and _somere_, summer. The
Germans have _Madchensommer_, maidens' summer, and _Altweibersommer_,
old women's summer, as well as _Sommerfaden_, summer-threads, as
equivalent to the English gossamer, the connexion apparently being that
gossamer is seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St
Martin's summer) when geese are also in season. Another suggestion is
that the word is a corruption of _gaze a Marie_ (gauze of Mary) through
the legend that gossamer was originally the threads which fell away from
the Virgin's shroud on her assumption.
GOSSE, EDMUND (1849- ), English poet and critic, was born in London on
the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoologist P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he
became an assistant in the department of printed books in the British
Museum, where he remained until he became in 1875 translator to the
Board of Trade. In 1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of
Lords. In 1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at
Trinity College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much
grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide and
appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable work in
bringing foreign literature home to English readers. _Northern Studies_
(1879), a collection of essays on the literature of Holland and
Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged visit to those countries,
and was followed by later work in the same direction. He translated
Ibsen's _Hedda Gabler_ (1891), and, with W. Archer, _The Master-Builder_
(1893), and in 1907 he wrote a life of Ibsen for the "Literary Lives"
series. He also edited the English translation of the works of Bjornson.
His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901, when he
was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf of the first class.
Mr Gosse's published volumes of verse include _On Viol and Flute_
(1873), _King Erik_ (1876), _New Poems_ (1879), _Firdausi in Exile_
(1885), _In Russet and Silver_ (1894), _Collected Poems_ (1896).
_Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island_ (1901), an "ironic phantasy,"
the scene of which is laid in the 20th century, though the personages
are Greek gods, is written in prose, with some blank verse. His
_Seventeenth Century Studies_ (1883), _Life of William Congreve_ (1888),
_The Jacobean Poets_ (1894), _Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of
St Paul's_ (1899), _Jeremy Taylor_ (1904, "English Men of Letters"), and
_Life of Sir Thomas Browne_ (1905) form a very considerable body of
critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He also wrote a life
of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols., 1884); _A History of
Eighteenth Century Literature_ (1889); a _History of Modern English
Literature_ (1897), and vols. iii. and iv. of an _Illustrated Record of
English Literature_ (1903-1904) undertaken in connexion with Dr Richard
Garnett. Mr Gosse was always a sympathetic student of the younger school
of French and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being
collected as _French Profiles_ (1905). _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896)
contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences of
Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann's series of "Literature
of the World" and the same publisher's "International Library." To the
9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ he contributed numerous
articles, and his services as chief literary adviser in the preparation
of the 10th and 11th editions incidentally testify to the high position
held by him in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was
entertained in Paris by the leading _litterateurs_ as a representative
of English literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously
_Father and Son_, an intimate study of his own early family life. He
married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and two
daughters.
GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist, was born at
Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father, Thomas Gosse (1765-1844)
being a miniature painter. In his youth the family settled at Poole,
where Gosse's turn for natural history was noticed and encouraged by his
aunt, Mrs Bell, the mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He
had, however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827, he
found himself clerk in a whaler's office at Carbonear, in Newfoundland,
where he beguiled the tedium of his life by observations, chiefly with
the microscope. After a brief and unsuccessful interlude of farming in
Canada, during which he wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of
Newfoundland, he travelled in the United States, was received and
noticed by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time in
Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His _Canadian Naturalist_
(1840), written on the voyage home, was followed in 1843 by his
_Introduction to Zoology_. His first widely popular book was _The Ocean_
(1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile been teaching in London, was
sent by the British Museum to collect specimens of natural history in
Jamaica. He spent nearly two years on that island, and after his return
published his _Birds of Jamaica_ (1847) and his _Naturalist's Sojourn in
Jamaica_ (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological works
for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to impair his
health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was attracted by the forms of
marine life so abundant on that shore, and in 1853 published _A
Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire Coast_, accompanied by a
description of the marine aquarium invented by him, by means of which he
succeeded in preserving zoophytes and other marine animals of the
humbler grades alive and in good condition away from the sea. This
arrangement was more fully set forth and illustrated in his _Aquarium_
(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by _A Manual of Marine Zoology_, in two
volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings after the author's
drawings. A volume on the marine fauna of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In
June of the same year he was elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most
careful observer, but who lacked the philosophical spirit, was now
tempted to essay work of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two
books, _Life_ and _Omphalos_, embodying his speculations on the
appearance of life on the earth, which he considered to have been
instantaneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met with
no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the field of
observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate. Taking up his
residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he produced from 1858 to
1860 his standard work on sea-anemones, the _Actinologia Britannica_.
_The Romance of Natural History_ and other popular works followed. In
1865 he abandoned authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the
cultivation of orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his
attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by Dr C. T.
Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the 23rd of August 1888.
_His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse._
GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1734-1829), French musical composer, son of a
small farmer, was born at the village of Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut,
and showing early a taste for music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He
went to Paris in 1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor of
a private band kept by La Popeliniere, a wealthy amateur, and gradually
determined to do something to revive the study of instrumental music in
France. He had his own first symphony performed in 1754, and as
conductor to the Prince de Conde's orchestra he produced several operas
and other compositions of his own. He imposed his influence upon French
music with remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770,
organized the Ecole de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band of the
Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed (with Mehul and
Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de Musique when this
institution was created in 1795. He was an original member of the
Institute and a chevalier of the legion of honour. Outside France he was
but little known, and his own numerous compositions, sacred and secular,
were thrown into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has
a place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully
stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at Passy on the
16th of February 1829.
See the _Lives_ by P. Hedouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).
GOSSIP (from the O.E. _godsibb_, i.e. God, and _sib_, akin, standing in
relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a
sponsor's vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship to the
child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light personal or social
conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of idle tale-bearing.
"Gossip" was early used with the sense of a friend or acquaintance,
either of the parent of the child baptized or of the other god-parents,
and thus came to be used, with little reference to the position of
sponsor, for women friends of the mother present at a birth; the
transition of meaning to an idle chatterer or talker for talking's sake
is easy. The application to the idle talk of such persons does not
appear to be an early one.
GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858), German divine and
philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg on the 14th of December
1773, and educated at the university of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos
and others he came under the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted
by Johann Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After
taking priest's orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811)
and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought about his
dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman Catholic for the
Protestant communion. As minister of the Bethlehem church in Berlin
(1829-1846) he was conspicuous not only for practical and effective
preaching, but for the founding of schools, asylums and missionary
agencies. He died on the 20th of March 1858.
_Lives_ by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton (Berlin,
1878).
GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624), English satirist, was baptized at St
George's, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554. He entered Corpus
Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving the university in 1576 he
went to London. In 1598 Francis Meres in his _Palladis Tamia_ mentions
him with Sidney, Spenser, Abraham Fraunce and others among the "best for
pastorall," but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been
an actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks of
_Catilines Conspiracies_ as a "Pig of mine own Sowe." To this play and
some others, on account of their moral intention, he extends indulgence
in the general condemnation of stage plays contained in his _Schoole of
Abuse, containing a pleasant invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers,
Jesters and such like Caterpillars of the Commonwealth_ (1579). The
euphuistic style of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of
learning were in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply
insincerity. Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the
disorder which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was
introducing into the social life of London. It was not only by
extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized. Spenser, in
his _Teares of the Muses_ (1591), laments the same evils, although only
in general terms. The tract was dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney, who
seems not unnaturally to have resented being connected with a pamphlet
which opened with a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser,
writing to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the
author "was for hys labor scorned." He dedicated, however, a second
tract, _The Ephemerides of Phialo ... and A Short Apologie of the
Schoole of Abuse_, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579. Gosson's abuse of poets
seems to have had a large share in inducing Sidney to write his
_Apologie for Poetrie_, which probably dates from 1581. After the
publication of the _Schoole of Abuse_ Gosson retired into the country,
where he acted as tutor to the sons of a gentleman (_Plays Confuted_.
"To the Reader," 1582). Anthony a Wood places this earlier and assigns
the termination of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the
stage, which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The
publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most formidable of
which was Thomas Lodge's _Defence of Playes_ (1580). The players
themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson's own plays. Gosson replied to
his various opponents in 1582 by his _Playes Confuted in Five Actions_,
dedicated to Sir Francis Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was
made lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was presented
by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex, which he
exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. He died on the 13th of
February 1624. _Pleasant Quippes for Upstart New-fangled Gentlewomen_
(1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also ascribed to Gosson.
The _Schoole of Abuse and Apologie_ were edited (1868) by Prof. E.
Arber in his _English Reprints_. Two poems of Gosson's are included.
GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor, was born at
Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered the Conservatoire in
1841, winning the second prize for comedy that year and the first in
1842. After a year of military service he made his debut at the Comedie
Francaise on the 17th of July 1844, as Alexis in _Les Heritiers_ and
Mascarelles in _Les Precieuses ridicules_. He was immediately admitted
_pensionnaire_, and became _societaire_ in 1850. By special permission
of the emperor in 1866 he played at the Odeon in Emile Augier's
_Contagion_. His golden jubilee at the Theatre Francais was celebrated
in 1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got was a fine
representative of the grand style of French acting, and was much admired
in England as well as in Paris. He wrote the libretto of the opera
_Francois Villon_ (1857) and also of _L'Esclave_ (1874). In 1881 he was
decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honour.
GOTA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener. The name,
however, is more familiar in its application to the canal which affords
communication between Gothenburg and Stockholm. The river flows out of
the southern extremity of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat,
which it enters by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the
eastern forming the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the
port of Gothenburg. The Gota river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable
for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls of
Trollhattan (q.v.). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg and Hunneberg
(royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached at Venersborg. Several
important ports lie on the north, east and south shores (see VENER).
From Sjotorp, midway on the eastern shore, the western Gota canal leads
S.E. to Karlsborg. Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it
from the Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and
lower it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and
Botten to Lake Vetter (q.v.; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to
Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point, and a
descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren, after which the
canal, carried still at a considerable elevation, overlooks a rich and
beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake Roxen with its ruined castle of
Stjernarp is next traversed. At Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake
Glan to the north, giving access to the important manufacturing centre
of Norrkoping. Passing Lake Asplangen, the canal follows a cut through
steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town of
Soderkoping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem. Vessels plying to
Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-fringe (_skargard_), and
then follow the Sodertelge canal into Lake Malar. The whole distance
from Gothenburg to Stockholm is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about
2-1/2 days. The length of artificial work on the Gota canal proper is 54
m., and there are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse
weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any interest
save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea of a canal dates from
1516, but the construction was organized by Baron von Platten and
engineered by Thomas Telford in 1810-1832. The falls of Trollhattan had
already been locked successfully in 1800.
GOTARZES, or GOTERZES, king of Parthia (c. A.D. 42-51). In an
inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun[1] he is called [Greek:
Gotarzes Geopothros], i.e. "son of Gew," and seems to be designated as
"satrap of satrap." This inscription therefore probably dates from the
reign of Artabanus II. (A.D. 10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have
belonged. From a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription
[Greek: Basileos basileon Arsanoz uos kekaloumenos Artabavou Gotepzes]
(Wroth, _Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia_, p. 165; _Numism_. _Chron._,
1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are wrong), which
must be translated "king of kings Arsakes, named son of Artabanos,
Gotarzes," it appears that he was adopted by Artabanus. When the
troublesome reign of Artabanus II. ended in A.D. 39 or 40, he was
succeeded by Vardanes, probably his son; but against him in 41 rose
Gotarzes (the dates are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself
detested by his cruelty--among many other murders he even slew his
brother Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. _Ann._ xi. 8)--and Vardanes
regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and gathered an
army from the Dahan nomads. The war between the two kings was at last
ended by a treaty, as both were afraid of the conspiracies of their
nobles. Gotarzes returned to Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was
assassinated in 45, Gotarzes was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac.
_Ann._ xi. 9 ff.; Joseph. _Antiq._ xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called
Kotardes). He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, "king of
kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (_Epiphanes_),
the friend of the Greeks (_Philhellen_)," without mentioning his proper
name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury induced the
hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius and fetch from Rome an
Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithradates), who lived there as
hostage. He crossed the Euphrates in 49, but was beaten and taken
prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut off his ears (Tac. _Ann._ xii. 10 ff.).
Soon after Gotarzes died, according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus
says that he was murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.
An earlier "Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on some
astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in _Zeitschr. fur
Assyriologie_, vi. 216; Mahler in _Wiener Zeitschr. fur Kunde des
Morgenlands_, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in
Babylonia about 87 B.C. (Ed. M.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Rawlinson, _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114; Flandin and Coste,
_La Perse ancienne_, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci
inscr._ 431.
GOTHA, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the residence of the
dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant situation on the Leine canal,
6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on
the railway to Bebra-Cassel. Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old
inner town and encircling suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of
Friedenstein, lying on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With
the exception of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are
handsome and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades between
the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's attractiveness. To
the south of the castle there is an extensive and finely adorned park.
To the north-west of the town the Galberg--on which there is a public
pleasure garden--and to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of
over 1300 ft. and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein,
begun by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and
completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of
Grimmenstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings,
having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains the
ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000 volumes,
among which are several rare editions and about 6900 manuscripts. The
picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, the natural history museum,
the Chinese museum, and the cabinet of art, which includes a collection
of Egyptian, Etruscan, Roman and German antiquities, are now included in
the new museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the
south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are the church
of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty tower, founded in the
12th century, twice burnt down, and rebuilt in its present form in 1652;
the church of the Augustinian convent, with an altar-piece by the
painter Simon Jacobs; the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life
insurance bank; the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a
winter garden and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal
legislature; the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the 11th
century; the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a
girls' school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace, now used
as public offices. The educational establishments include a gymnasium
(founded in 1524, one of the most famous in Germany), two training
schools for teachers, conservatoires of music and several scientific
institutions. Gotha is remarkable for its insurance societies and for
the support it has given to cremation. The crematorium was long regarded
as a model for such establishments.
Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia, its
manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great reputation,
porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical and surgical
instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps and toys. There are also
a number of nurseries and market gardens. The book trade is represented
by about a dozen firms, including that of the great geographical house
of Justus Perthes, founded in 1785.
Gotha (in old chronicles called _Gotegewe_ and later _Gotaha_) existed
as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord Gothard abbot
of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was known as a town as early as
1200, about which time it came into the possession of the landgraves of
Thuringia. On the extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession
of the electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of
dukes. After the battle of Muhlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein
was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In 1567 the
town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the elector Augustus of
Saxony. After the death of John Frederick's sons, it came into the
possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the founder of the line of the
dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction of this family it was united in
1825 along with the dukedom to Coburg.
See _Gotha und seine Umgebung_ (Gotha, 1851); Kuhne, _Beitrage zur
Geschichte der Entwicklung der socialen Zustande der Stadt und des
Herzogtums Gotha_ (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, _Les Villes de la Thuringe_
(Paris, 1869), and Beck, _Geschichte der Stadt Gotha_ (Gotha, 1870).
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people of the village
of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed simplicity. But if
tradition is to be believed the Gothamites were not so very simple. The
story is that King John intended to live in the neighbourhood, but that
the villagers, foreseeing ruin as the cost of supporting the court,
feigned imbecility when the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the
latter went they saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on
this report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the
"wise men" boasted, "we ween there are more fools pass through Gotham
than remain in it." The "foles of Gotham" are mentioned as early as the
15th century in the _Towneley Mysteries_; and a collection of their
"jests" was published in the 16th century under the title _Merrie Tales
of the Mad Men of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke
Doctour_. The "A.B." was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde
(1490?-1549), famous among other things for his wit, but he probably had
nothing to do with the compilation. As typical of the Gothamite folly is
usually quoted the story of the villagers joining hands round a
thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it would sing all the year. The
localizing of fools is common to most countries, and there are many
other reputed "imbecile" centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there
are the people of Coggeshall, Essex, the "carles of Austwick,"
Yorkshire, "the gowks of Gordon," Berwickshire, and for many centuries
the charge of folly has been made against "silly" Suffolk and Norfolk
(_Descriptio Norfolciensium_ about 12th century, printed in Wright's
_Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems_). In Germany there are the
_Schildburgers_, in Holland the people of Kampen. Among the ancient
Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools; among the Thracians, Abdera; among
the ancient Jews, Nazareth.
See W. A. Clouston, _Book of Noodles_ (London, 1888); R. H.
Cunningham, _Amusing Prose Chap-books_ (1889).
GOTHENBURG (Swed. _Goteborg_), a city and seaport of Sweden, on the
river Gota, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat, 285 m. S.W. of
Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Gota canal-route. Pop. (1900) 130,619.
It is the chief town of the district (_lan_) of Goteborg och Bohus, and
the seat of a bishop. It lies on the east or left bank of the river,
which is here lined with quays on both sides, those on the west
belonging to the large island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the
Gota. On this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen
and Lundby.
The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with extensive
and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain enclosed by low
hills. The inner city, including the business quarter, is contained
almost entirely between the river and the Rosenlunds canal, continued in
the Vallgraf, the moat of the old fortifications; and is crossed by the
Storahamn, Ostrahamn and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by
the handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Sodra Hamngatan. The first of
these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn, where the sea-going
passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg.
The museum, in the old East India Company's house, has fine collections
in natural history, entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and
ethnography, a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and
industrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and contains
the town-hail (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are statues by B. E.
Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin, and of Oscar I. by J. P.
Molin. Among several churches in this quarter of the city is the
cathedral (_Gustavii Domkyrka_), a cruciform church founded in 1633 and
rebuilt after fires in 1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house
and residence of the governor of the _lan_. On the north side, closely
adjacent, are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Gota canal steamers lie,
and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs Bangard.
Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky eminence, Lilla
Otterhalleberg. The inner city is girdled on the south and east by the
Kungspark, which contains Molin's famous group of statuary, the
Belt-bucklers (_Baltespannare_), and by the beautiful gardens of the
Horticultural Society (_Tradgardsforeningen_). These grounds are
traversed by the broad Nya Alle, a favourite promenade, and beyond them
lies the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street,
Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the last are the
university and the New theatre. At the west end of Vasa Street is the
city library, the most important in the country except the royal library
at Stockholm and the university libraries at Upsala and Lund. The
suburbs are extensive. To the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget,
with numerous factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park,
planted with oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding
views of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the
workmen's quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen. All are
connected with the city by electric tramways. Six railways leave the
city from four stations. The principal lines, from the Statens and
Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhattan, and into Norway
(Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun
and the north; E. to Boras and beyond, and S. by the coast to
Helsingborg, &c. From the Vestgota station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E.
to Skara and the southern shores of Vener, and from Saro station near
Slottskog Park a line serves Saro, a seaside watering-place on an island
20 m. S. of Gothenburg.
The city has numerous important educational establishments. The
university (_Hogskola_) was a private foundation (1891), but is governed
by a board, the members of which are nominated by the state, the town
council, Royal Society of Science and Literature, directors of the
museum, and the staffs of the various local colleges. There are several
boys' schools, a college for girls, a scientific college, a commercial
college (1826), a school of navigation, and Chalmers' Polytechnical
College, founded by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg
of English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this
institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital. A people's
library was founded by members of the family of Dickson, several of whom
have taken a prominent part in philanthropical works in the city. The
connexion of the family with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert
Dickson, a native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which
he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.
In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg ranks as
second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually the principal
centre of export trade and port of register; and as a manufacturing town
it is slightly inferior to Malmo. Its principal industrial
establishments are mechanical works (both in the city and at Lundby),
saw-mills, dealing with the timber which is brought down the Gota,
flour-mills, margarine factories, breweries and distilleries, tobacco
works, cotton mills, dyeing and bleaching works (at Levanten in the
vicinity), furniture factories, paper and leather works, and
shipbuilding yards. The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247
of 120,488 tons. There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels
drawing 20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels.
Gothenburg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants for
America.
The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and returns nine
members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).
Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was from the first
designed to be fortified, a town of the same name founded on Hisingen in
1603 having been destroyed by the Danes during the Calmar war. From
1621, when it was first chartered, it steadily increased, though it
suffered greatly in the Danish wars of the last half of the 17th and the
beginning of the 18th centuries, and from several extensive
conflagrations (the last in 1813), which have destroyed important
records of its history. The great development of its herring fishery in
the latter part of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city's
trade, which was kept up by the influence of the "Continental System,"
under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial merchandise of
England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to decline, but after its
closer connexion with the interior of the country by the Gota canal
(opened 1832) and Western railway it rapidly advanced both in population
and trade. Since the demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has
been defended only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of
the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden's greatest
sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann Peter Molin
(1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothenburg was for a time the
residence of the Bourbon family. The name of this city is associated
with the municipal licensing system known as the Gothenburg System (see
LIQUOR LAWS).
See W. Berg, _Samlingar till Goteborgs historia_ (Gothenburg, 1893);
Lagerberg, _Goteborg i aldre och nyare tid_ (Gothenburg, 1902);
Froding, _Det forna Goteborg_ (Stockholm, 1903).
GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture, and more
especially to that in which the pointed arch appears. The style was at
one time supposed to have originated with the warlike people known as
the Goths, some of whom (the East Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the
eastern portion of Europe, and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in
the Asturias of Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description
have ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent
construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading; since,
however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult to change
it. The term when first employed was one of reproach, as Evelyn (1702)
when speaking of the faultless building (i.e. classic) says, "they were
demolished by the Goths or Vandals, who introduced their own licentious
style now called modern or Gothic." The employment of the pointed arch
in Syria, Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the
Mahommedans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries before
it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable to adhere to
the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed Architecture. (See
ARCHITECTURE)
GOTHITE, or GOETHITE, a mineral composed of an iron hydrate, Fe2O3.H2O,
crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with diaspore
and manganite (q.v.). It was first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was
named after the poet Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly
in habit; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid (M
in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic masses with a radiated fibrous
structure also occur. The colour varies from yellowish or reddish to
blackish-brown, and by transmitted light it is often blood-red; the
streak is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific gravity, 4.3. The best
crystals are the brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal
pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel iron mines at Lostwithiel,
and the Botallack mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety occurring as
thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known as Rubinglimmer or
pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. [Greek: pyrros], flame-coloured, and [Greek:
sideros], iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the same locality is
called lepidocrocite (from [Greek: lepis], scale, and [Greek: krokis],
fibre). Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram in
Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals arranged
in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow colour.
[Illustration]
Gothite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite and hematite,
and when found in sufficient quantity is mined with these as an ore of
iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure in other minerals. Acicular
crystals, resembling rutile in appearance, sometimes penetrate crystals
of pale-coloured amethyst, for instance, at Wolf's Island in Lake Onega
in Russia: this form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and
the crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the name
of "Cupid's darts" (_fleches d'amour_). The metallic glitter of
avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scales of gothite
and certain other minerals. (L. J. S.)
GOTHS
Early history.
(_Gotones_, later _Gothis_), a Teutonic people who in the 1st century of
the Christian era appear to have inhabited the middle part of the basin
of the Vistula. They were probably the easternmost of the Teutonic
peoples. According to their own traditions as recorded by Jordanes, they
had come originally from the island Scandza, i.e. Skane or Sweden, under
the leadership of a king named Berig, and landed first in a region
called Gothiscandza. Thence they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi
(the Holmryge of Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood
of Rugenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them and the
neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer they migrated into
Scythia and settled in a district which they called Oium. The rest of
their early history, as it is given by Jordanes following Cassiodorus,
is due to an erroneous identification of the Goths with the Getae, and
ancient Thracian people.
The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden has been much
discussed by modern authors. The legend was not peculiar to the Goths,
similar traditions being current among the Langobardi, the Burgundians,
and apparently several other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with
truth that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from the
Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of these
traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly, however, many
of the royal families may have contained an element of Scandinavian
blood, a hypothesis which would well accord with the social conditions
of the migration period, as illustrated, e.g., in _Volsunga Saga_ and in
_Hervarar Saga ok Heiethreks Konungs_. In the case of the Goths a
connexion with Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from
archaeological evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the
coasts about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however, there
was any migration at all, one would rather have expected it to have
taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin of the Goths can
hardly be separated from that of the Vandals, whom according to
Procopius they resembled in language and in all other respects. Moreover
the Gepidae, another Teutonic people, who are said to have formerly
inhabited the delta of the Vistula, also appear to have been closely
connected with the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the
migration from Scandza.
Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement of the early
traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the Goths go back to the
first years of the Christian era, at which time they seem to have been
subject to the Marcomannic king Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman
history, however, until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which
time they appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla.
During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced
considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the lower
Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor Gordianus is called
"victor Gothorum" by Capitolinus, though we have no record of the ground
for the claim, and further conflicts are recorded with his successors,
one of whom, Decius, was slain by the Goths in Moesia. According to
Jordanes the kings of the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha
and afterwards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the
Anglo-Saxon poem _Widsith_. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay tribute
to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of the Black Sea,
and during the next twenty years they frequently ravaged the maritime
regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian is said to have won a victory
over them, but the province of Dacia had to be given up. In the time of
Constantine the Great Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the
Goths, A.D. 321. Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with
their king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear of
subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi, Austrogothi
(Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not clear whether these
were all distinct.
Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories far to the
south and east, it must not be assumed that they had evacuated their old
lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records several traditions of their
conflicts with other Teutonic tribes, in particular a victory won by
Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of the Gepidae, and another by Geberic
over Visimar, king of the Vandals, about the end of Constantine's reign,
in consequence of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to
settle in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of the
Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iormunrekr), whose deeds are
recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations. According to
Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii, the Venedi, and a number
of other tribes who seem to have been settled in the southern part of
Russia. From Anglo-Saxon sources it seems probable that his supremacy
reached westwards as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and
is said to have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla)
in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed. Still more
famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who according to Northern
tradition was his wife and was cruelly put to death on a false charge of
unfaithfulness. An attempt to avenge her death was made by her brothers
Ammius (Hamethir) and Sarus (Sorli) by whom Hermanaric was severely
wounded. To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits are
recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom we may mention
Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others, who in _Widsith_ are
represented as defending their country against the Huns in the forest of
the Vistula. Hermanaric committed suicide in his distress at an invasion
of the Huns about A.D. 370, and the portion of the nation called
Ostrogoths then came under Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained
permission to cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the
nation became Christian about this time (see BELOW). The exactions of
the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which ended in the
total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople in the year 378.
(F. G. M. B.)
Later history.
From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths parts asunder, to
be joined together again only incidentally and for a season. The great
mass of the East Goths stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the
overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present play any important
part in the affairs of the Empire. The great mass of the West Goths
crossed the Danube into the Roman provinces, and there played a most
important part in various characters of alliance and enmity. The great
migration was in 376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful
settlers under their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have
tried to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance
of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the great
mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern were meanwhile
thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths suffered from the Roman
officials, which led first to disputes and then to open war. In 378 the
Goths won the great battle of Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the
Great, the successor of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the
mass of the Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as _foederati_.
Many of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox
Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen party among
the Goths than to the larger part of them who had embraced Arian
Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Constantinople in 381; he was
received with high honours, and had a solemn funeral when he died. His
saying is worth recording, as an example of the effect which Roman
civilization had on the Teutonic mind. "The emperor," he said, "was a
god upon earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his own
head."
The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between the West Goths
and the Empire. Dissensions arose between them and the ministers of
Arcadius; the Goths threw off their allegiance, and chose Alaric as
their king. This was a restoration alike of national unity and of
national independence. The royal title had not been borne by their
leaders in the Roman service. Alaric's position is quite different from
that of several Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple
rebels. He was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or
Bold-men, a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His
whole career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands,
first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths are under
him an independent people under a national king; their independence is
in no way interfered with if the Gothic king, in a moment of peace,
accepts the office and titles of a Roman general. But under Alaric the
Goths make no lasting settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and
warfare between the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up
this whole time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths,
provinces are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root
anywhere; no Western land as yet becomes _Gothia_. Alaric's designs of
settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the
Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of his
career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.
Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the second Gothic
invasion of that country. In this campaign the religious position of the
Goths is strongly marked. The Arian appeared as an enemy alike to the
pagan majority and the Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by
monks, and his chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples
(_vide_ G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, iii. 391). His
Italian campaigns fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he
was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho's death.
In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409, 410). The second
time it suited a momentary policy to set up a puppet emperor of his own,
and even to accept a military commission from him. The third time he
sacked the city, the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken
by an army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military
details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history of the
Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks in the history
of that nation. It stands between two periods of settlement within the
Empire and of service under the Empire. Under Alaric there is no
settlement, and service is quite secondary and precarious; after his
death in 410 the two begin again in new shapes.
Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian invasion of
Italy, which, according to one view, again brings the East and West
Goths together. The great mass of the East Goths, as has been already
said, became one of the many nations which were under vassalage to the
Huns; but their relation was one merely of vassalage. They remained a
distinct people under kings of their own, kings of the house of the
Amali and of the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow
the lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars of
their own; and it has been held that among these separate East Gothic
enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in 405 by Radagaisus
(whom R. Pallmann[1] writes Ratiger, and takes him for the chief of the
heathen part of the East Goths). One chronicler, Prosper, makes this
invasion preceded by another in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus
appear as partners. The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence
of Goths in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that
his invasion was a national Gothic enterprise.
Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, another era
opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the end lead to the
establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy in the West. The position of
Ataulphus is well marked by the speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He
had at one time dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning
_Romania_ into _Gothia_, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus;
but he had learned that the world could be governed only by the laws of
Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms for the support of the
Roman power. And in the confused and contradictory accounts of his
actions (for the story in Jordanes cannot be reconciled with the
accounts in Olympiodorus and the chroniclers), we can see something of
this principle at work throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by
barbarian invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was to
win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shiftings of
allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up the position
of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia, the daughter of
the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of the union between Goth
and Roman, and, had their son Theodosius lived, a dynasty might have
arisen uniting both claims. But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at
Barcelona in 415, by his murder at the hands of another faction of the
Goths. The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a more
settled state of things was established. The Empire received again, as
the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis in Spain, and
Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul. The "second Aquitaine," with
the sea-coast from the mouth of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire,
became the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths
was now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not yet
begin.
The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows a shifting
state of relations between the Roman and Gothic powers; but, after
defeats and successes both ways, the older relation of alliance against
common enemies was again established. At last Goth and Roman had to join
together against the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the
Hun. But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of their
subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for Attila against
Christendom at Chalons, just as the Servians came to fight for Bajazet
against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric fell in the battle (451).
After this momentary meeting, the history of the East and West Goths
again separates for a while. The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at
the expense of the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi.
Under Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely a
Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all Gaul south of
the Loire and west of the Rhone, with all Spain, except the north-west
corner, which was still held by the Suevi. Provence alone remained to
the Empire. The West Gothic kings largely adopted Roman manners and
culture; but, as they still kept to their original Arian creed, their
rule never became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They
stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggressive
Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion of the Frank
Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long after, the seat of an
heretical power, against which the forces of northern Gaul marched as on
a crusade. In 507 the West Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the
Frankish arms at Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as
a great power north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a
fragment of Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing
to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest man
in Gothic history.
When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of Attila, the East
Goths recovered their full independence. They now entered into relations
with the Empire, and were settled on lands in Pannonia. During the
greater part of the latter half of the 5th century, the East Goths play
in south-eastern Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played
in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every
conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern Roman
power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them, they pass from
the East to the West. They are still ruled by kings of the house of the
Amali, and from that house there now steps forward a great figure,
famous alike in history and in romance, in the person of Theodoric, son
of Theodemir. Born about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople
as a hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of his
life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars within the
Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another Theodoric, son of
Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older but lesser Theodoric seems to
have been the chief, not the king, of that branch of the East Goths
which had settled within the Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the
Great, as he is sometimes distinguished, is sometimes the friend,
sometimes the enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed
with various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but in
all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It was in both
characters together that he set out in 488, by commission from the
emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. By 493 Ravenna was taken;
Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's own hand; and the East Gothic power
was fully established over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the
north of Italy. In this war the history of the East and West Goths
begins again to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that
Theodoric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches of the
nation were soon brought much more closely together, when, through the
overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse, the power of Theodoric
was practically extended over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the
whole of Spain. A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II.,
and, as that prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic
king stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved
for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish dominion. Toulouse
passed away to the Frank; but the Goth kept Narbonne and its district,
the land of Septimania--the land which, as the last part of Gaul held by
the Goths, kept the name of _Gothia_ for many ages. While Theodoric
lived, the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own
dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate over the
Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have practically exercised it,
except in the case of the Franks.
The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent and far more
splendid than it could have been in the time of Ermanaric. But it was
now of a wholly different character. The dominion of Theodoric was not a
barbarian but a civilized power. His twofold position ran through
everything. He was at once national king of the Goths, and successor,
though without any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West.
The two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived side
by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its own law,
by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, the common
sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric's rule is drawn for us in
the state papers drawn up in his name and in the names of his successors
by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on
the ground in northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than
garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed protector of the
peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of government, while the
Roman consul had the honour. All the forms of the Roman administration
went on, and the Roman polity and Roman culture had great influence on
the Goths themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations
in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic freedom was
necessarily lost. Such a system as that which Theodoric established
needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It broke in pieces after his death.
On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths were again
separated. The few instances in which they are found acting together
after this time are as scattered and incidental as they were before.
Amalaric succeeded to the West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania.
Provence was added to the domi
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