Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gloss" to "Gordon, Charles George"
Author: Various
Release date: October 29, 2011 [eBook #37880]
Most recently updated: January 8, 2021
Language: English
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Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.
(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE GLUTARIC ACID: "By distillation of the ammonium salt
glutarimide, CH2(CH2.CO)2NH ..." 'CH2(CH2.CO)2NH' amended from
'CH2(CH2.CP)2NH'.
ARTICLE GNOSTICISM: "In this respect the opposition to Gnosticism
led to a reactionary movement." 'respect' amended from 'repect'.
ARTICLE GODEFROY: "Other members of the family who attained
distinction in the same branch of learning were the two sons of
Denis Godefroy--Denis (1653-1719) ..." 'Godefroy' amended from
'Godefroi'.
ARTICLE GODWIT: "In Turner's days (1544) it was worth three times
as much as a snipe, and at the same period Belon said of it ..."
'period' amended from 'peroid'.
ARTICLE GOITRE: "In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocele is but one
of three phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz.
palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the thyroid gland, and
protrusion of the eyeballs." 'enlargement' amended from
'elargement'.
ARTICLE GOLD COAST: "In 1907 the export was 292,125 oz.,
L1,164,676." 'worth' amended from 'wotht'.
ARTICLE GOLDSMITH, OLIVER: "Green Arbour Court and the ascent have
long disappeared. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat down
to toil like a galley slave." 'disappeared' amended from
'diasppeared'.
ARTICLE GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK: "After studying painting on glass for
some years under his father, he was taught the use of the burin by
Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment
..." 'Coornhert' amended from 'Coornlert'.
ARTICLE GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS: "... for she has neither
the monk's mastery of poetic form nor the nun's sublime simplicity
of soul." 'nor' amended from 'not'.
ARTICLE GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY: "A third volume of poetry, Bush
Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870." 'third' amended
from 'second'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII, SLICE II
Gloss to Gordon, Charles
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
GLOSS, GLOSSARY GOLDBEATING
GLOSSOP GOLDBERG
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF GOLD COAST
GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE GOLDEN
GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY GOLDEN BULL
GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE GOLDEN-EYE
GLOUCESTER, ROBERT GOLDEN FLEECE
GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK GOLDEN HORDE
GLOUCESTER (city of England) GOLDEN ROD
GLOUCESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) GOLDEN ROSE
GLOUCESTER CITY GOLDEN RULE
GLOUCESTERSHIRE GOLDFIELD
GLOVE GOLDFINCH
GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY GOLDFISH
GLOVER, RICHARD GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST
GLOVERSVILLE GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN
GLOW-WORM GOLDING, ARTHUR
GLOXINIA GOLDINGEN
GLUCINUM GOLDMARK, KARL
GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD GOLDONI, CARLO
GLUCKSBURG GOLDS
GLUCKSTADT GOLDSBORO
GLUCOSE GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN
GLUCOSIDE GOLDSMID
GLUE GOLDSMITH, LEWIS
GLUTARIC ACID GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
GLUTEN GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR
GLUTTON GOLDWELL, THOMAS
GLYCAS, MICHAEL GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ
GLYCERIN GOLETTA
GLYCOLS GOLF
GLYCONIC GOLIAD
GLYPH GOLIARD
GLYPTODON GOLIATH
GLYPTOTHEK GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH
GMELIN GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH
GMUND GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH
GMUNDEN GOLIUS, JACOBUS
GNAT GOLLNOW
GNATHOPODA GOLOSH
GNATIA GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH
GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH
GNEISS GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH
GNEIST, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH VON GOLTZ, BOGUMIL
GNESEN GOLTZ, COLMAR
GNOME, and GNOMIC POETRY GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK
GNOMES GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR
GNOMON GOMAL
GNOSTICISM GOMARUS, FRANZ
GNU GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY
GO GOMER
GOA GOMERA
GOAL GOMEZ, DIOGO
GOALPARA GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS
GOAT GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD
GOATSUCKER GOMPERS, SAMUEL
GOBAT, SAMUEL GOMPERZ, THEODOR
GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH GONAGUAS
GOBELIN GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO
GOBI GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH
GOBLET, RENE GONCOURT, DE
GOBLET GONDA
GOBY GONDAL
GOCH GONDAR
GOD GONDOKORO
GODALMING GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA
GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL GONDOPHARES
GODAVARI (river of India) GONDWANA
GODAVARI (district of India) GONFALON
GODEFROY GONG
GODESBERG GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE
GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS GONIOMETER
GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE
GODFREY OF BOUILLON GONVILE, EDMUND
GODFREY OF VITERBO GONZAGA
GODHRA GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO
GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOSE
GODIVA GONZALO DE BERCEO
GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE GOOCH, SIR DANIEL
GODMANCHESTER GOOD, JOHN MASON
GODOLLO GOOD FRIDAY
GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN GOODMAN, GODFREY
GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, MANUEL DE GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD
GODROON GOODRICH, THOMAS
GODWIN, FRANCIS GOODSIR, JOHN
GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT GOODWILL
GODWIN, WILLIAM GOODWIN, JOHN
GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT CLOYNE GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL
GODWINE GOODWIN, THOMAS
GODWIT GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON
GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON GOODWIN SANDS
GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE GOODWOOD
GOES, DAMIAO DE GOODYEAR, CHARLES
GOES, HUGO VAN DER GOOGE, BARNABE
GOES GOOLE
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOOSE (bird)
GOETZ, HERMANN GOOSE (game)
GOFFE, WILLIAM GOOSEBERRY
GOFFER GOOTY
GOG GOPHER
GOGO GOPPINGEN
GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH GORAKHPUR
GOGRA GORAL
GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME GORAMY
GOHRDE GORBERSDORF
GOITO GORBODUC
GOITRE GORCHAKOV
GOKAK GORDIAN
GOKCHA GORDIUM
GOLCONDA GORDON
GOLD GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY
GOLD AND SILVER THREAD GORDON, ALEXANDER
GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE
GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word [Greek: glossa] (whence our
"gloss"), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect,
gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or
otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. _Rhet._ iii. 3. 2).
The making of collections and explanations[1] of such [Greek: glossai]
was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary
activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of
Abdera was included a treatise entitled [Greek: Peri Homerou e
orthoepeies kai glosseon]. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian
period that the [Greek: glossographoi], glossographers (writers of
glosses), or glossators, became numerous. Of many of these perhaps even
the names have perished; but Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. A.D.
250) alludes to no fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was
Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus
dedicated the treatise [Greek: Pros Philptan]; he was the compiler of a
lexicographical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
entitled [Greek: Hatakta] or [Greek: Glossai] (sometimes [Greek: Ataktoi
glossai]). Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.),
one of the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of [Greek:
Glossai Homerikai]; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation [Greek:
Peri lexeon] (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to
have included [Greek: Attikai lexeis, Lakonikai glossai], and the like.
From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of
name,--Diodorus, Artemidorus ([Greek: Glossai], and a collection of
[Greek: lexeis opsartutikai]), Nicander of Colophon ([Greek: Glossai],
of which some twenty-six fragments still survive), and Aristarchus (c.
210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an
arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary ([Greek: lexeis]) in the order of
the books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus, who,
besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicography and
dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar
investigations in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school
proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of [Greek: Ethnikai lexeis]
or [Greek: glossai], a work said to have been designed chiefly to
support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical
interpretation of Homer.[2] Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c.
50 B.C.), who made collections of [Greek: lexeis tragodoumenai komikai],
&c.; Apollonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as [Greek: ho
glossographos]. In the beginning of the 1st century of the Christian era
Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of
Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other
predecessors with [Greek: Glossai Homerikai], and a treatise [Greek:
Peri tes Hromaikes dialekton]; Heliodorus or Herodorus was another
almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of
Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates, still
preserved. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the [Greek:
Leimon], from which Diogenian and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so
largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the
most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius
Herodianus, whose treatise [Greek: Peri monerous lexeos] has been edited
in modern times, and whose [Greek: Epimerismoi] we still possess in an
abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenian ([Greek: Lexis pantodape]), Julius
Vestinus ([Greek: 'Epitome ton Pamphilou glosson]) and especially
Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and
whose _Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum_ has frequently been
edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who
wrote [Greek: Peri Homoion kai diaphoron lexeon], a dictionary of words
used in senses different from those in which they had been employed by
older and approved writers. Of somewhat later date is the well-known
Hesychius, whose often-edited [Greek: Lexikon] superseded all previous
works of the kind; Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also
contributed somewhat to the advancement of glossography by his [Greek:
Sunagoge ton pros diaphoron semasian diaphoros tonoumenon lexeon]; while
Orus, Orion, Philoxenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
_Etymologicum magnum_, to which might be added the _Lexica Sangermania_
and the _Lexica Segueriana_, are referred to in the article DICTIONARY.
To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and
important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian.
Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries
([Greek: hupomnemata]) on his legislation (_Const. Deo Auctore_, sec.
12; _Const. Tanta_, sec. 21), yet indices ([Greek: indikes]) and
references ([Greek: paratitla]), as well as translations ([Greek:
ermeneiai kata poda]) and paraphrases ([Greek: hermeneiai eis platos]),
were expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the numerous
compilers of alphabetically arranged [Greek: lexeis Rhomaikai] or
[Greek: Lateinikai], and [Greek: glossai nomikai] (glossae nomicae),
Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors of [Greek:
paragraphai], or [Greek: semeioseis], whether [Greek: exothen] or
[Greek: esothen keimenai], are too numerous to mention. A collection of
these [Greek: paragraphai ton palaion], combined with [Greek: neai
paragraphai] on the revised code called [Greek: ta basilika], was made
about the middle of the 12th century by a disciple of Michael
Hagiotheodorita. This work is known as the _Glossa ordinaria_ [Greek:
ton basilikon].[3]
In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, various
glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were produced[4];
particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny), to which, apart
from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is usually assigned. After
the total extinction of the Byzantine authority in the West the study of
law became one of the free arts, and numerous schools for its
cultivation were instituted. Among the earliest of these was that of
Bologna, where Pepo (1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their
expositions. They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering
exegetical lectures ("ordinariae" on the _Digest_ and _Code_,
"extraordinariae" on the rest of the _Corpus juris civilis_), also wrote
Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal.[5] The series of these
glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the compilation known as
the _Glossa ordinaria_ or _magistralis_, the authority of which soon
became very great, so that ultimately it came to be a recognized maxim,
"Quod non agnoscit glossa, non agnoscit curia."[6] For some account of
the glossators on the canon law, see CANON LAW.
In late classical and medieval Latin, _glosa_ was the vulgar and romanic
(e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the late 8th century
Leiden Glossary), _glossa_ the learned form (Varro, _De ling. Lat._ vii.
10; Auson. _Epigr_. 127. 2 (86. 2), written in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34).
The diminutive _glossula_ occurs in Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The
same meaning has _glossarium_ (Gell. xviii. 7. 3 _glosaria_ = [Greek:
glossarion]), which also occurs in the modern sense of "glossary"
(Papias, "unde _glossarium_ dictum quod omnium fere partium glossas
contineat"), as do the words _glossa_, _glossae_, _glossulae_,
_glossemata_ (Steinmeyer, _Alth. Gloss._ iv. 408, 410), expressed in
later times by _dictionarium_, _dictionarius_, _vocabularium_,
_vocabularius_ (see DICTIONARY). _Glossa_ and _glossema_ (Varro vii. 34.
107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. _De gramm._ 22; Fest. 166^b. 8, 181^a.
18; Quint. i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms, signifying (a) the word which
requires explanation; or (b) such a word (called _lemma_) together with
the interpretation (_interpretamentum_); or (c) the interpretation alone
(so first in the _Anecd. Helv._).
Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical
wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No
doubt even in classical times collections of glosses ("glossaries") were
compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (_De ling. Lat._
vii. 10, "tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt") and
Verrius-Festus (166^b .6, "naucum ... glossematorum ... scriptures fabae
grani quod haereat in fabulo"), but it is not known to what extent
Varro, for instance, used them, or retained their original forms. The
_scriptores glossematorum_ were distinguished from the learned
glossographers like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his _Musae_, ap. Suet. _De
gramm._ 6; Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius
Clodius (Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol., whose
_liber glossematorum_ Festus mentions (181^{a}.18).
Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved
many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to us. He
copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, "Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i. of
_Breslauer philol. Abhandl._, p. 88; Kriegshammer, _Comm. phil. Ien._
vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philol., the treatise _De
obscuris Catonis_ (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of
Varro (Willers, _De Verrio Flacco_, Halle, 1898), though not of his
_ling. lat._ (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the _glossae asbestos_
(Goetz, _Corpus_, iv.; _id., Rhein. Mus._ xl. 328). Festus was used by
Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, "De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore," _Comm.
Ien._ v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the _glossae ab absens_ (Goetz, "De
Astrabae Pl. fragmentis," _Ind. Ien._, 1893, iii. sqq.). The distinct
connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing, as Plinius
and Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, _De Non. Marc. auctt.
gramm._ 145; Nettleship, _Lect. and Ess._ 229; Frohde, _De Non. Marc.
et Verrio Flacco_, 2; W. M. Lindsay, "Non. Marc.," _Dict. of Repub.
Latin_, 100, &c.).
The _bilingual_ (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the
peculiarities (_idiomata_) of the Latin language by comparison with
the Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq.; Marschall, _De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm.
22_; Goetz, _Corp. gloss. lat._ ii. 6).
For the purposes of grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a
translation of Dositheus and the so-called _Hermeneutica_, parts of
which may be dated as early as the 3rd century A.D., and lexica (cf.
Schoenemann, _De lexicis ant._ 122; Knaack, in _Phil. Rundsch._, 1884,
372; Traube, in _Byzant. Ztschr._ iii. 605; David, _Comment. Ien._ v.
197 sqq.).
The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known
lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly, see
Rudorff, in _Abh.. Akad. Berl._, 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 183,
190; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ v. 8120; A. Dammann, _De Festo Pseudo-philoxeni
auctore_, 12 sqq.; Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 1-212) to Philoxenus (consul
A.D. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
(containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence
(his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.); the other (Greek-Latin) is
ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of
his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than
the 6th century (Macrobius is used, and the _Cod. Harl._, which is the
source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th century); cf. Goetz,
_Corp._ ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. _ibid._ p. xx. sqq. Furthermore,
the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had their origin in old lists
of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise _De herbarum virtutibus_,
and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann, _Hermes_, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who
thinks that the latter work is based on Pamphilus, q.v.; Goetz,
_Corp._ iii.); the glossary, entitled _Hermeneuma_, printed from the
_Cod. Vatic._ reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases.
Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the glosses
extend. If _massucum edacem_ in Placidus indicates the original form,
the allied gloss of Festus (_masucium edacem a mandendo scilicet_)
shows an etymological addition. Another extension consists in adding
special references to the original source, as e.g. at the gloss
_Ocrem_ (Fest. 181^a. 17), which is taken from Ateius Philol. In this
way collections arose like the _priscorum verborum cum exemplis_, a
title given by Fest. (218^b. 10) to a particular work. Further the
_glossae veterum_ (Charis. 242. 10); the _glossae antiquitatum_ (id.
229. 30); the _idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores_ (Gell. xviii. 6.
8); the _libri rerum verborumque veterum_ (_id._ xiii. 24. 25). L.
Cincius, according to Festus (330^b. 2), wrote _De verbis priscis_;
Santra, _De antiquitate verborum_ (Festus 277^a. 2).
Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 229. 30,
speaks of _glossae antiquitatum_ and 242. 10 of _glossae veterum_, but
it is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
they stand to the _glossemata per litteras Latinas ordine composita_,
which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according to
the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus, and
Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a _glossarium
Plautinum_ (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual glossaries
have been used by the later grammarian Martyrius; but of this early
period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus, who is sometimes
called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with the Statius scholiast,
with whom the _glossae Placidi_ have no connexion. All that we know of
him tends to show that he lived in North Africa (like Fulgentius and
Nonius and perhaps Charisius) in the 6th century, from whence his
glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of
the _Liber glossarum_ (see below). These glosses we know from (1)
Codices Romani (15th and 16th century); (2) the _Liber glossarum_; (3)
the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of
glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the
others, and still retain traces of their original order (cf. the
editions published by A. Mai, _Class. auct._ iii. 427-503, and
Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, _Corp._ v.; P. Karl, "De Placidi glossis,"
_Comm. Ien._ vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 86; F.
Bucheler, in _Thesaur. gloss. emend._). His collection includes
glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.
(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. A.D. 468-533) wrote _Expositio
sermonum antiquorum_ (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898; cf. Wessner,
_Comment. Ien._ vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each
containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving
quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the _glossae
Nonianae_, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in
Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words
of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
copied for other collections (see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 637 sqq., id. v.
Praef. xxxv.; Onions and Lindsay, _Harvard Stud._ ix. 67 sqq.;
Lindsay, _Nonii praef._ xxi.). In a similar way arose the _glossae
Eucherii_ or _glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum_ found
in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, _Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wien_, cxv. 425 sqq.; =
the _Corpus Glossary_, first part), which are an alphabetical extract
from the _formulae spiritalis intelligentiae_ of St Eucherius, bishop
of Lyons, c. 434-450.[7]
Other sources were the _Differentiae_, already known to Placidus and
much used in the medieval glossaries; and the _Synonyma Ciceronis_;
cf. Goetz, "Der Liber glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Cl.
der sachs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss._, 1893, p. 215; id. in _Berl. philol.
Wochenschr._, 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in _Wochenschr._, p. 297 sqq.,
and Sittls, _ibid._ p. 267; _Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 594; W. L.
Mahne, (Leid. 1850, 1851); also various collections of _scholia_. By
the side of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an
ars similar to that ascribed to him; further, treatises _de dubiis
generibus_, the _scriptores orthographici_ (especially Caper and
Beda), and Priscianus, the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf.
Goetz in _Melanges Boissier_, 224).
During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in
various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were
used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and development
of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved to us can be
traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical
authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students
and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words
which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation,
wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations
in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above
the line are called "interlinear," those written in the margins of the
MSS. "marginal glosses." Again, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the
Bible were often provided with literal translations in the vernacular
written above the lines of the Latin version (interlinear versions).
Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be seen in
the various palaeographical works published in recent years; cf. _The
Palaeogr. Society_, 1st ser. vol. ii. pls. 9 (Terentius MS. of 4th or
5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles, 6th or
7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12, 33, 40,
50-54, 57, 58, 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39, 44,
54, 80.
From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected
in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one after the
other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement, but with the
names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were
taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or chapter. In
this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss; when
reference is made only to the word explained it is called the _lemma_,
while the explanation is termed the _interpretamentum_. In most cases
the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and
explained by a single word (_tesca: sancta_, Varro vii. 10;
_clucidatus: suavis, id._ vii. 107; cf. Isid. _Etym._ i. 30. 1, "quid
enim illud sit in uno verbo positum declarat [_scil._ glossa] ut
conticescere est tacere"), so that we meet with lemmata in the
accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words in the
same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this
first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved,
for instance, in the late 8th century Leiden Glossary (Voss. 69, ed.
J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted
from the _Life of St Martin_ by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and
xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from Gildas; chs. vii. to
xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon; Proverbs, &c., &c.); chs.
xxvi. to xlviii, from Isidore, the _Vita S. Anthonii_, Cassiodorus, St
Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine, St Clement, Eucherius, St
Gregory, the grammarians Donatus, Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, _Corp._
v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40 from Ovid's _Metam._; v. 657 from
Apuleius, _De deo Socratis_; cf. Landgraf, in _Arch._ ix. 174).
By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in
_alphabetical_ order according to the first letter of the lemma, but
still retained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the
titles of books. Of this _second_ stage the Leiden Glossary contains
traces also: ch. i. (_Verba de Canonibus_) and ii. (_Sermones de
Regulis_); see Goetz, _Corp._ v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427
sqq. (Virgil).
The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in
alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first
letters of the lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors
or the titles of the books could no longer be preserved, and
consequently the sources whence the glosses were excerpted became
uncertain, especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
normalized.
A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first two
letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
earlier _Cod. Vat._ 3321 (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
_Glossae affatim_ (Goetz, _Corp._ iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word (a, b,
c, &c.), and then further according to the first _vowel_ in the word
(a, e, i, o, u).
No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the
Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century, whereas
the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same century,
represents already the fourth stage.
For the purpose of identification titles have of late years been given
to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from
their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
_abstrusae_; glossae _abavus major_ and _minor_; g. _affatim_; g. _ab
absens_; g. _abactor_; g. _Abba Pater_; g. a, a; g. _Vergilianae_; g.
_nominum_ (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563, iv.); g. _Sangallenses_ (Warren,
_Transact. Amer. Philol. Assoc._ xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).
A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the _Origines_
(_Etymologiae_) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many places
we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work became
a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he deals with
the etymology of many substantives and adjectives arranged
alphabetically according to the first letter of the words, perhaps by
himself from various sources. His principal source is Servius, then
the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome, Lactantius) and Donatus
the grammarian. This tenth book was also copied and used separately,
and mixed up with other works (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 167. 21). Isidore's
_Differentiae_ have also had a great reputation.
Next comes the _Liber glossarum_, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but
all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c.
A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of the
MSS., some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name is
suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book (cf.
Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," in _Abhandl. der philol.-hist. Class,
der kon. sachs. Ges._ xiii., 1893; _id._, _Corp._ v., praef. xx. 161).
Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: (1)
the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning of
the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
Q^o. 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
century[8] and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society
from a MS. in the town library at Epinal; (4) the _Glossae
Amplonianae_, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library
at Erfurt, known as Erfurt^1, Erfurt^2 and Erfurt^3. The first,
published by Goetz (_Corp._ v. 337-401; cf. also Loewe, _Prodr._ 114
sqq.) with the various readings of the kindred Epinal, consists, like
the latter, of different collections of glosses (also some from
Aldhelm), some arranged alphabetically according to the first letter
of the lemma, others according to the first two letters. The title of
Erfurt^2 (_incipit II. conscriptio glosarum in unam_) shows that it is
also a combination of various glossaries; it is arranged
alphabetically according to the first two letters of the lemmata, and
contains the _affatim_ and _abavus maior_ glosses, also a collection
from Aldhelm; Erfurt^3 are the _Glossae nominum_, mixed also with
Anglo-Saxon interpretations (Goetz, _Corp._ ii. 563). The form in
which the three Erfurt glossaries have come down to us points back to
the 8th century.
The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and
glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of
St Gall, who died A.D. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed
c. 1475 at Augsburg, with the headline _Salemonis ecclesie
Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus_.
The oldest MSS. of this work date from the 11th century. Its sources
are the _Liber glossarum_ (Loewe, _Prodr._ 234 sqq.), the glossary
preserved in the 9th-century MS. _Lat. Monac._ 14429 (Goetz, "Lib.
Gloss." 35 sqq.), and the great Abavus Gloss (_id., ibid._ p. 37;
_id._, _Corp._ iv. praef. xxxvii.).
The _Lib. glossarum_ has also been the chief source for the important
(but not original) glossary of Papias, of A.D. 1053 (cf. Goetz in
_Sitz. Ber. Akad. Munch._, 1903, p. 267 sqq., who enumerates
eighty-seven MSS. of the 12th to the 15th centuries), of whom we only
know that he lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two
sons. An edition of it was published at Milan "per Dominicum de
Vespolate" on the 12th of December 1476; other editions followed in
1485, 1491, 1496 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly
compiled from Priscianus (Hagen, _Anecd. Helv._ clxxix. sqq.).
The same _Lib. gloss._ is the source (1) for the _Abba Pater_ Glossary
(cf. Goetz, _ibid._ p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (_Sitz. Ber.
Akad. Munch._, 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary _Absida
lucida_ (Goetz, ib. p. 41); and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the
_Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient._ No. 231 (published by Seybold in _Semit.
Studien_, Heft xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).
The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, "Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is
compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (_abacti magistratus_), the
_Abavus major_ and the _Liber glossarum_, with a mixture of Hebraica.
Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations, as in the Cod.
Vatic. 1469 (cf. Goetz, _Corp._ v. 520 sqq.), mixed up with glosses
from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by Ellis in _Amer.
Journ. of Philol._ vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides Paulus glosses,
also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge _Journ. of Philol._ viii. 71
sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).
Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
_Panormia_ (published by Angelo Mai as _Thesaurus novus Latinitatis_,
from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392; cf. W. Meyer, _Rhein. Mus._ xxix.,
1874; Goetz in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 133 sqq.;
_Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs. Gesellsch. der Wiss._,
Leipzig, 1902); giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella,
Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, &c., &c.
Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still
more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c., p. 121 sqq., who enumerates
one hundred and three MSS. of his treatise), and contains many
biblical glosses, especially Hebraica, some treatises on Latin
numerals, &c. (cf. Hamann, _Weitere Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas, "Glosses provencales ined."
in _Romania_, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P. Toynbee, _ibid._ xxv. p. 537
sqq.).
The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled _Summa quae vocatur
catholicon_, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent, (2)
etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon,
which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias;
its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes
the Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio; it
excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church,
especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows many Hebrew
glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections then in use; it
mentions the _Graecismus_ of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of
Hrabanus Maurus, the _Doctrinale_ of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the
_Aurora_ of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the _Catholicon_ in
Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced to Osbern. There
exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz edition of 1460 is well
known (cf. Goetz in _Berichte ub. die Verhandl. der kon. sachs.
Gesellsch. der Wiss._, Leipzig, 1902).
The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centuries are numerous, but a
diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. We then find grammatical
treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief
material was (1) the _Liber glossarum_; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3)
the _Abavus major_; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to
Priscian; (5) Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly
from Jerome). After these comes medieval material, as the
_derivationes_ which are found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in
_Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges. d. Wiss._, 1903, p. 136 sqq.; Traube in
_Archiv f. lat. Lex._ vi. 264), containing quotations from Plautus,
Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasionally from Priscian, Eutyches,
and other grammarians, with etymological explanations. These
_derivationes_ were the basis for the grammatical works of Osbern,
Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.
A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, _Corp._ iii.). The
additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1) the
_Glossae alphita_ (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the
_Collect. Salernitana_, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
MSS.); (2) _Sinonoma Bartholomei_, collected by John Mirfeld, towards
the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (_Anecd. Oxon._ i. 1,
1882, cf. Loewe, _Gloss. Nom._ 116 sqq.); it seems to have used the
same or some similar source as No. 1; (3) the compilations of Simon de
Janua (_Clavis sanationis_, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus
Silvaticus (_Pandectae medicinae_, 14th century; cf. H. Stadler,
"Dioscor. Longob." in _Roman. Forsch._ x. 3. 371; Steinmeyer,
_Althochd. Gloss._ iii.).
Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical
proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in general,
and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the _Glossae veteris ac
novi testamenti_ (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive
praefatio") in numerous MSS. of the 9th to 14th centuries, mostly
retaining the various books under separate headings (cf. Arevalo,
_Isid._ vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 141; Steinmeyer iv. 459; S.
Berger, _De compendiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi_, Paris, 1879).
Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who lived about 1250,
and compiled a _Summa_ (beginning "difficiles studeo partes quas
Biblia gestat Pandere"), contained in many MSS. especially in French
libraries. This _Summa_ gave rise to the _Mammotrectus_ of Joh.
Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed in 1470,
1476, 1479, &c.
Finally we may mention such compilations as the _Summa Heinrici_; the
work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls _dictionarius_
(cf. Scheler in _Jahrb. f. rom. u. engl. Philol._ vi., 1865, p. 142
sqq.); and that of Alexander Neckam (ib. vii. p. 60 sqq., cf. R.
Ellis, in _Amer. Journ. of Phil._ x. 2); which are, strictly speaking,
not glossographic. The _Breviloquus_ drew its chief material from
Papias, Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, _Mitteil. aus dem Breviloquus
Benthemianus_, Hamburg, 1879; id., _Weitere Mitteil._, &c., Hamburg,
1882); so also the _Vocabularium Ex quo_; the various _Gemmae_;
_Vocabularia rerum_ (cf. Diefenbach, _Glossar. Latino-Germanicum_).
After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1540-1609) was the first
to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf. Goetz,
in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ger. d. Wiss._, 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in his
edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O.
Muller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps.
Scaliger also planned the publication of a _Corpus glossarum_, and
left behind a collection of glosses known as _glossae Isidori_ (Goetz,
_Corp._ v. p. 589 sqq.; id. in _Sitzungsber. sachs. Ges._, 1888, p.
224 sqq.; Loewe, _Prodr._ 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old
glossaries, clearly in reference to the tenth book of the
_Etymologiae_.
The study of glosses spread through the publication, in 1573, of the
bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing, besides
the two great glossaries, also the _Hermeneumata Stephani_, which is a
recension of the _Ps.-Dositheana_ (republished Goetz, _Corp._ iii.
438-474), and the _glossae Stephani_, excerpted from a collection of
the _Hermeneumata_ (ib. iii. 438-474).
In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (1)
the glossae _Isidori_, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the
_Onomasticon_; (3) _notae_ and _castigationes_, derived from Scaliger
(Loewe, _Prodr._ 183).
In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective help
of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the Leiden
Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, _Symbolae ad Literat. Teut._), though
glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius, Meursius,
Heraldus, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where a rich
collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the
Vossius library (cf. Loewe, _Prodr._ 168). In the 19th century came
Osann's _Glossarii Latini specimen_ (1826); the glossographic
publications of Angelo Mai (_Classici auctores_, vols. iii., vi.,
vii., viii., Rome, 1831-1836, containing Osbern's _Panormia_, Placidus
and various glosses from Vatican MSS.); Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847)
on the _Cod. Amplonianus_ of Osbern, and his edition of the three
Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G.
F. Hildebrand's _Glossarium Latinum_ (an extract from _Abavus minor_),
preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of
Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R.
Paul Wulcker under the title _Anglo-Saxon and Old English
Vocabularies_ (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement to
Du Cange, entitled _Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae
aetatis_, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
vocabularies, &c., enumerated in the preface; Ritschl's treatise
(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
by Deuerling; G. Loewe's _Prodromus_ (1876), and other treatises by
him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 1888, the
second volume of Goetz's own great _Corpus glossariorum Latinorum_, of
which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the
last two being separately entitled _Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum_,
containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by
the author and other scholars; 1900, Arthur S. Napier, _Old English
Glosses_ (Oxford), collected chiefly from Aldhelm MSS., but also from
Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius, Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus,
Phocas, Prudentius, &c.
There are a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte
Cassino, Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford,
Cambridge, &c. Much has already been done to make the material
contained in these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done
with what is still unpublished, though we may find that the
differences between the glossaries which often present themselves at
first sight are mere differences in form introduced by successive more
or less qualified copyists.
Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
publications of Whitley Stokes, Sir John Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's
_Grammatica Celtica_, A. Kuhn's _Beitrage zur vergleich.
Sprachforschung, Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie, Archiv fur
Celtische Lexicographie, the Revue celtique, Transactions of the
London Philological Society_, &c.
The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R. Gershom of
Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But he and other Hebrew
writers after him mostly used the Old French language (though
sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which an example has been
published by Lambert and Brandin, in their _Glossaire hebreu-francais
du XIII^e siecle: recueil de mots hebreux bibliques avec traduction
francaise_ (Paris, 1905). See further _The Jewish Encyclopedia_ (New
York and London, 1903), article "Gloss."
AUTHORITIES.--For a great part of what has been said above, the writer
is indebted to G. Goetz's article on "Latein. Glossographie" in
Pauly's _Realencyklopadie_. By the side of Goetz's _Corpus_ stands the
great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, _Die althochdeutschen
Glossen_ (in 4 vols., 1879-1898), containing a vast number of (also
Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible MSS. and MSS. of classical
Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides
the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already
mentioned, we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be
consulted: Hugo Blumner; _Catholicon Anglicum_ (ed. Hertage); De-Vit
(at end of Forcellini's _Lexicon_); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck; J. H.
Gallee (_Altsachs. Sprachdenkm._, 1894); Grober; K. Gruber
(_Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss._, Erlangen, 1904);
Hattemer; W. Heraeus (_Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen_,
Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Landgraf; Marx;
W. Meyer-Lubke ("Zu den latein. Glossen" in _Wiener Stud._ xxv. 90
sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann, _Notes d'etymol. lat._ (Macon,
1902), _Contribut. a la critique des glosses latines_ (Neuchatel,
1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B. Schlutter (many important
articles in _Anglia, Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein.
Lexicographie_, &c.); Scholl; Schuchardt; Leo Sommer; Stadler;
Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener (_Rhein. Mus._ xxiii. 496, xxiv.
382); A. Way, _Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum_ (3 vols.,
London, 1843-1865); Weyman; Wilmanns (in _Rhein. Mus._ xxiv. 363);
Wolfflin in _Arch. fur lat. Lexicogr._; Zupitza. Cf. further, the
various volumes of the following periodicals: _Romania_; _Zeitschr.
fur deutsches Alterthum_; _Anglia_; _Englische Studien_; _Journal of
English and German Philology_ (ed. Cook and Karsten); _Archiv fur
latein. Lexicogr._, and others treating of philology, lexicography,
grammar, &c. (J. H. H.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given
rise to the common English use of the word to mean an interpretation,
especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form
"gloze," more particularly associated with explaining away,
palliating or talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling.
The word has thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by,
the meaning of the etymologically different "gloss" = lustrous
surface (from the same root as "glass"; cf. "glow"), in its extended
sense of "outward fair seeming."
[2] See Matthaei, _Glossaria Graeca_ (Moscow, 1774/5).
[3] See Labbe, _Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in
Basilicis reperiuntur_ (1606); Otto, _Thesaurus juris Romani_, iii.
(1697); Stephens, _Thesaurus linguae Graecae_, viii. (1825).
[4] See Biener, _Geschichte der Novellen_, p. 229 sqq.
[5] Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been
the author of the Brachylogus (q.v.).
[6] Thus Fil. Villani (_De origine civitatis Florentiae_, ed. 1847,
p. 23), speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that
"tantae auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice
approbarentur, et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis,
solae juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine
controversia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus
quam textui, Glossis Accursii contraire." For similar testimonies see
Bayle's _Dictionnaire_, s.v. "Accursius," and Rudorff, _Rom.
Rechtsgeschichte_, i. 338 (1857).
[7] The so-called _Malberg_ glosses, found in various texts of the
Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but
precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely,
the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul
from the Romans at the end of the 5th century. It is supposed that
the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written
down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for
the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the
translators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain
things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish
technical names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into
Latin. E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of "_porcellus lactans_" (a
sucking-pig), we find the Frankish "_chramnechaltio_," lit. a
stye-porker. The person who stole such a pig (still kept in an
enclosed place, in a stye) was fined three times as much as one who
stole a "_porcellus de campo qui sine matre vivere possit_," as the
Latin text has it, for which the Malberg technical expression appears
to have been _ingymus_, that is, a one year (winter) old animal, i.e.
a yearling. Nearly all these glosses are preceded by "_mal_" or
"_malb_," which is thought to be a contraction for "_malberg_," the
Frankish for "forum." The antiquity and importance of these glosses
for philology may be realized from the fact that the Latin
translation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the latter end of
the 5th century. For further information cf. Jac. Grimm's preface to
Joh. Merkel's ed. (1850), and H. Kern's notes to J. H. Hessels's ed.
(London, 1880) of the Lex Salica.
[8] Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the
MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.
GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the High Peak
parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on the extreme northern
border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of Manchester by the Great Central
railway. Pop. (1901) 21,526. It is the chief seat of the cotton
manufacture in Derbyshire, and it has also woollen and paper mills, dye
and print works, and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main
divisions, the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by that of All
Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman Catholic church. In the
immediate neighbourhood is Glossop Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord
of the manor, a picturesque old building with extensive terraced
gardens. On a hill near the town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman
fort guarding Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak
District. In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longdendale, there
are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system of Manchester,
formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which descends from the high
moors north-east of Glossop. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 3052 acres.
Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the attainder of
whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it was gifted by Henry II.
to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry VIII. bestowed it on the earl of
Shrewsbury. It was made a municipal borough in 1866.
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English earldom of Gloucester was
held by several members of the royal family, including Robert, a natural
son of Henry I., and John, afterwards king, and others, until 1218, when
Gilbert de Clare was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in
the family of Clare (q.v.) until 1314, when another Earl Gilbert was
killed at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le Despenser (d.
1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom had married sisters of
Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser (1373-1400), a descendant of
the Clares, was created earl of Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded
from his earldom and in January 1400 was beheaded.
The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock, a younger son of
Edward III., was created duke of Gloucester, but his honours were
forfeited when he was found guilty of treason in 1397. The next holder
of the title was Humphrey, a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of
Gloucester in 1414. He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title
was revived in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
as Richard III. in 1483.
In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was formally
created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne since infancy.
This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had incensed his mother,
Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm adherence to the Protestant religion,
and had fought among the Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned
to England with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
September 1660. The next duke was William (1689-1700), son of the
princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to the English
throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by his uncle, William
III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation was ever passed. William
died on the 30th of July 1700, and again the title became extinct.
Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known for some time
as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to the peerage in 1726 it
was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764 Frederick's third son, William
Henry (1743-1805), was created duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his
brother, George III. This duke's secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807),
an illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives and led
to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on the 25th of August
1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick (1776-1834), who now became
duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh. The duke, who served with the British
army in Flanders, married his cousin Mary (1776-1857), a daughter of
George III. He died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children,
and his widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on
the 30th of April 1857.
GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295), was a son of Richard
de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th earl of Clare, and was born at
Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 2nd of September 1243. Having married
Alice of Angouleme, half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of
Gloucester and Clare on his father's death in July 1262, and almost at
once joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of
Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes in May 1264,
when the king himself surrendered to him, and after this victory he was
one of the three persons selected to nominate a council. Soon, however,
he quarrelled with Leicester. Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh
border he met Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just
after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed largely to
the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265. But this alliance was as
transitory as the one with Leicester. Gloucester took up the cudgels on
behalf of the barons who had surrendered at Kenilworth in November and
December 1266, and after putting his demands before the king, secured
possession of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly
made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and, having
evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped to secure the
peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne in 1272. Gloucester then
passed several years in fighting in Wales, or on the Welsh border; in
1289 when the barons were asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf
that they would grant nothing until they saw the king in person (_nisi
prius personaliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis_), and in 1291 he was
fined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with Humphrey de
Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his wife Alice, he married in
1290 Edward's daughter Joan, or Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is
sometimes called the "Red," died at Monmouth on the 7th of December
1295, leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of
Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.
See C. Bemont, _Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester_ (1884), and G.
W. Prothero, _Simon de Montfort_ (1877).
GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (1391-1447), fourth son of Henry IV. by
Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was knighted at his father's
coronation on the 11th of October 1399, and created duke of Gloucester
by Henry V. at Leicester on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war
next year, and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his
brother's valour. In April 1416 Humphrey received the emperor Sigismund
at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story, did not let him land
till he had disclaimed all title to imperial authority in England. In
the second invasion of France Humphrey commanded the force which during
1418 reduced the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined
the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent campaigns till
January 1420. He then went home to replace Bedford as regent in England,
and held office till Henry's own return in February 1421. He was again
regent for his brother from May to September 1422.
Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will named him merely
deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey at once claimed the full
position of regent, but the parliament and council allowed him only the
title of protector during Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His
lack of discretion soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he
married Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands Philip
of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so important an
ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. Finally in October
1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's behalf, but after a short
campaign in Hainault went home, and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by
Burgundy. Returning to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself
in a quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and stirred
up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by Beaufort's prudence,
and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey had charged his uncle with
disloyalty to the late and present kings. With some difficulty Bedford
effected a formal reconciliation at Leicester in March 1426, and forced
Humphrey to accept Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next
year Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was removed by
the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. His open adultery
with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made him unpopular. To check his
indiscretion the council, in November 1429, had the king crowned, and so
put an end to Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon
afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made lieutenant
and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England for nearly two years.
His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort still continued, and when the
former died in 1435 there was no one to whom he would defer. The
defection of Burgundy roused English feeling, and Humphrey won
popularity as leader of the war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short
invasion of Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political
importance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the
councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against his
uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by his connexion
with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. In 1441 Eleanor was
charged with practising sorcery against the king, and Humphrey had to
submit to see her condemned, and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless,
he continued his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart
Suffolk, who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing
the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's influence
Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The crisis came in the
parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February 1447. Immediately on his
arrival there Humphrey was arrested, and four days later, on the 23rd of
February, he died. Rumour attributed his death to foul play. But his
health had been long undermined by excesses, and his end was probably
only hastened by the shock of his arrest.
Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, which still
exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but unstable and
unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his brothers, excelled
neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a cultured and courtly prince,
who could win popularity. He was long remembered as the good Duke
Humphrey, and in his lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had
been a great collector of books, many of which he presented to the
university of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the
Divinity School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library.
His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three volumes of
his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. Titus Livius, an
Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life of Henry V. at his patron's
bidding. Other Italian scholars, as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his
patronage. Amongst English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock,
Whethamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and Gilbert
Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford university. A
popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb in St Paul's Cathedral.
The adjoining aisle, called Duke Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by
beggars and needy adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb "to dine
with Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinnerless.
The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's _Wars of the
English in France_, Whethamstead's _Register_, and Beckington's
_Letters_ (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various _London Chronicles_,
and the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with
Jacqueline see F. von Loher's _Jacobaa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2
vols., Nordlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult W.
Stubbs's _Constitutional History_; J. H. Ramsay's _Lancaster and
York_; _Political History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, _Pictures
of Old England_, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, _Humphrey,
Duke of Gloucester_ (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with Piero
Candido Decembrio see the _English Historical Review_, vols. x., xix.,
xx. (C. L. K.)
GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262), was a son of Gilbert
de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th earl of Clare, and was born on
the 4th of August 1222, succeeding to his father's earldoms on the
death of the latter in October 1230. His first wife was Margaret,
daughter of Hubert de Burgh, and after her death in 1237 he married
Maud, daughter of John de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early
years in tournaments and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and
undecided part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French
expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris; then he
went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent to Germany to work
among the princes for the election of his stepfather, Richard, earl of
Cornwall, as king of the Romans. About 1258 Gloucester took up his
position as a leader of the barons in their resistance to the king, and
he was prominent during the proceedings which followed the Mad
Parliament at Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon
de Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, was
renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and company of the
king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, and in 1261 Gloucester and
Leicester were again working in concord. The earl died at his residence
near Canterbury on the 15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his
son and successor, Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English
baron of his time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and
able. He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.
GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147), was a natural son of Henry I. of
England. He was born, before his father's accession, at Caen in
Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, and his mother's name are
unknown. He received from his father the hand of a wealthy heiress,
Mabel of Gloucester, daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the
lordships of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of
Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial
influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. Hence, at
his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the rival parties of
his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. After some
hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered his homage upon
strict conditions, the breach of which should be held to invalidate the
contract. Robert afterwards alleged that he had merely feigned
submission to Stephen with the object of secretly furthering his
half-sister's cause among the English barons. The truth appears to be
that he was mortified at finding himself excluded from the inner
councils of the king, and so resolved to sell his services elsewhere.
Robert left England for Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the
Angevin party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning
to England in the following year, he raised the standard of rebellion in
his own earldom with such success that the greater part of western
England and the south Welsh marches were soon in the possession of the
empress. By the battle of Lincoln (Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was
taken prisoner, the earl made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom.
He accompanied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but was
unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently she was
soon expelled from London and deserted by the bishop Henry of Winchester
who, as legate, controlled the policy of the English church. With
Matilda the earl besieged the legate at Winchester, but was forced by
the royalists to beat a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight
fell into the hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that
his party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl
renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his death
(Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, and the
estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his efforts unavailing.
His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed to weigh in the scale
against his earlier double-dealing. But he hardly deserves the
extravagant praise which is lavished upon him by William of Malmesbury.
The sympathies of the chronicler are too obviously influenced by the
earl's munificence towards literary men.
See the _Historia novella_ by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition);
the _Historia Anglorum_ by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); J. H.
Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); and O. Rossler's _Kaiserin
Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897). (H. W. C. D.)
GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF (1355-1397), seventh and
youngest son of the English king Edward III., was born at Woodstock on
the 7th of January 1355. Having married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and
co-heiress of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton
(d. 1373), Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a
position previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham
by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. He took part
in defending the English coasts against the attacks of the French and
Castilians, after which he led an army through northern and central
France, and besieged Nantes, which town, however, he failed to take.
Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that his brother,
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married his wife's sister, Mary
Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards King Henry IV. The relations
between the brothers, hitherto somewhat strained, were not improved by
this proceeding, as Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession
of Mary's estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the
peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with Lancaster; and
while marching with the king into Scotland in 1385 was created duke of
Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, which did not prevent him from
taking up an attitude of hostility to Richard. Lancaster having left the
country, Gloucester placed himself at the head of the party which
disliked the royal advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of
duke of Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was
propitious for interference, and supported by those who were indignant
at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, of the king,
Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He forced on the
dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a member of the commission
appointed in 1386 to reform the kingdom and the royal household; and
took up arms when Richard began proceedings against the commissioners.
Having defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his
associates entered London to find the king powerless in their hands.
Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle with deposition, was
only restrained from taking this extreme step by the influence of his
colleagues; but, as the leader of the "lords appellant" in the
"Merciless Parliament," which met in February 1388 and was packed with
his supporters, he took a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not
neglecting to add to his own possessions.
He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his power in May
1389, but he remained in the background, although employed occasionally
on public business, and accompanying the king to Ireland in 1394. In
1396, however, uncle and nephew were again at variance. Gloucester
disliked the peace with France and Richard's second marriage with
Isabella, daughter of King Charles VI.; other causes of difference were
not wanting, and it has been asserted that the duke was plotting to
seize the king. At all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing
an invitation to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on
the 11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his
residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to Calais, and
it is probable that he was murdered by order of the king on the 9th of
September following. The facts seem to be as follows. At the beginning
of September it was reported that he was dead. The rumour, probably a
deliberate one, was false, and about the same time a justice, Sir
William Rickhill (d. 1407), was sent to Calais with instructions dated
the 17th of August to obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of
September the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his
death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his parliament
so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was doubtless to
antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression that the duke had
died from natural causes in August. When parliament met in September he
was declared guilty of treason and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had
one son, Humphrey (c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four
daughters, the most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was
successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th earl
of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester is supposed
to have written _L'Ordonnance d'Angleterre pour le camp a l'outrance, ou
gaige de bataille_.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.
T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, _Historia vitae et
regni Ricardi II._, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); _Chronique de
la traison et mort de Richard II_, edited by B. Williams (London,
1846); J. Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
(Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii.
(Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in _Owens College Historical Essays_ and S.
Armitage-Smith, _John of Gaunt_ (London, 1904).
GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced _Glo'ster_), a city, county of a
city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, and the county town
of Gloucestershire, England, on the left (east) bank of the river
Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 47,955. It is served by the
Great Western railway and the west-and-north branch of the Midland
railway; while the Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in
the Severn estuary (16-1/2 m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle
eminence overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the
east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise
prominently to the west and north-west.
The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates in
the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations of the
present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104); and Walter
Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its first mitred abbot in
1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see of Worcester, but the
separate see was then constituted, with John Wakeman, last abbot of
Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. The diocese covers the greater part of
Gloucestershire, with small parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The
cathedral may be succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus,
with additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft.
long, and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th
century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful
pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English roof; the crypt
also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is Norman, as is the
chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four apsidal cathedral crypts in
England, the others being at Worcester, Winchester and Canterbury. The
south porch is Perpendicular, with fan-tracery roof, as also is the
north transept, the south being transitional Decorated. The choir has
Perpendicular tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each
side. The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme of
colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east window is
partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross
Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, with very early
example of fan-tracery, the carols or stalls for the monks' study and
writing lying to the south. The finest monument is the canopied shrine
of Edward II. who was brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of
pilgrims to this the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a
side-chapel, too, is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose,
a great benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who
was interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward Jenner
are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival (the Festival of
the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral and those of
Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 and 1890 and in 1897 the
cathedral was extensively restored, principally by Sir Gilbert Scott.
Attached to the deanery is the Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's
Square outside the Abbey gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under
Queen Mary in 1555.
Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect of the
city. At the point of intersection of the four principal streets stood
the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern building in 1894. None of
the old public buildings, in fact, is left, but the New Inn in Northgate
Street is a beautiful timbered house, strong and massive, with external
galleries and courtyards, built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.'s
shrine, by Abbot Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading
thence to the cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a
large number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have been
the old proverb, "as sure as God's in Gloucester," which provoked Oliver
Cromwell to declare that the city had "more churches than godliness." Of
the churches four are of special interest: St Mary de Lode, with a
Norman tower and chancel, and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site
of a Roman temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St
Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with later
additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of St Michael,
said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St Peter; and St
Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, and possessing a tower
and other portions of later date. In the neighbourhood of St Mary de
Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars and Blackfriars monasteries, and
also of the city wall. Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and
Saracen's Head inns.
There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded by Henry
VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the school of St Mary de
Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the same reign; and Sir Thomas
Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34 boys (1666). At the Crypt school the
famous preacher George Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he
preached his first sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was
held in Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.
The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and school of art and
science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon and Norman castle), the
Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial church. A park in the south of
the city contains a spa, a chalybeate spring having been discovered in
1814. West of this, across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and
some walls) of Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale
of Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became the
secondary establishment.
Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and slate works,
saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, manufactories of
railway wagons, engines and agricultural implements, and boat and
ship-building yards. Gloucester was declared a port in 1882. The
Berkeley canal was opened in 1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that
at Sharpness on the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are
timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. The salmon
and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. The tidal bore in the
river attains its extreme height just below the city, and sometimes
surmounts the weir in the western branch of the river, affecting the
stream up to Tewkesbury lock. The parliamentary borough returns one
member. The city is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area, 2315 acres.
_History._--The traditional existence of a British settlement at
Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not confirmed by any
direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman municipality or _colonia_
of _Glevum_, founded by Nerva (A.D. 96-98). Parts of the walls can be
traced, and many remains and coins have been found, though inscriptions
(as is frequently the case in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its
situation on a navigable river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey
of St Peter by Aethelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the
Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, with a castle
which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. The first overlord,
Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century later by Robert, earl of
Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first charter in 1155 which gave the
burgesses the same liberties as the citizens of London and Winchester,
and a second charter of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the
Severn. The first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The
privileges of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John
(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and from
pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters were numerous.
Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. in 1483, the town being made
a county in itself. This charter was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and
other charters of incorporation were received by Gloucester from
Elizabeth in 1560, James I. in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II.
in 1672. The chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester
returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since when it has
been represented by one member. A seven days' fair from the 24th of June
was granted by Edward I. in 1302, and James I. licensed fairs on the
25th of March and the 17th of November, and fairs under these grants are
still held on the first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday
in November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was granted to
the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday existed in the
reign of John, was confirmed by charter in 1227 and is still held. The
iron trade of Gloucester dates from before the Conquest, tanning was
carried on before the reign of Richard III., pin-making and
bell-founding were introduced in the 16th, and the long-existing coal
trade became important in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished
from the 12th to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine
existed before the reign of Richard I.
See W. H. Stevenson, _Records of the Corporation of Gloucester_
(Gloucester, 1893); _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_.
GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900)
26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born, including 4388 English
Canadians, 800 French Canadians, 665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594
Portuguese; (1910 census) 24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the
Boston & Maine railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is
sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most
picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite summer
resort, much frequented by artists. Included within the city borders are
several villages, of which the principal one, also known as Gloucester,
has a deep and commodious harbour. Among the other villages, all summer
resorts, are Annisquam, Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the
_Magnolia glauca_, which grows wild there, this being probably its most
northerly habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10
ft. wide) and Norman's Woe, the scene of the wreck of the "Hesperus"
(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's poem.
There is some slight general commerce--in 1909 the imports were valued
at $130,098; the exports at $7853--but the principal business is
fishing, and has been since early colonial days. The pursuit of cod,
mackerel, herring and halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade,
the round of the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important
place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest fishing
ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged in it. The
"catch" was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in 1905 at $3,377,330. The
organization of the industry has undergone many transformations, but a
notable feature is the general practice--especially since modern methods
have necessitated larger vessels and more costly gear, and
correspondingly greater capital--of profit-sharing; all the crew
entering on that basis and not independently. There are some
manufactures, chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory
product in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and
preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented
$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the quarrying of the
beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies the city and all the
environs.
Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as La Beauport), and
a temporary settlement was made by English fishermen sent out by the
Dorchester Company of "merchant adventurers" in 1623-1625; some of these
settlers returned to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the
governor, removed to what is now Salem.[1] Permanent settlement
ante-dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. From
Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance of cod about Cape
Ann was well known, and though the first settlers characteristically
enough tried to live by farming, they speedily became perforce a
sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of fishing as an industry may be
dated as beginning about 1700, for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable.
Voyages to the Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively
unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been an important
but unstable return; halibut fishing has been vigorously pursued since
about 1836 and herring since about 1856. At the opening of the War of
Independence Gloucester, whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was
second to Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries,
which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to 1840.
Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. The cod take had
supported in the 18th century an extensive trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and
the West Indies, and though changed in nature with the decline of the
Bank fisheries after the War of Independence, it continued large through
the first quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of the
same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and valuable trade with
Surinam, hake being the chief article of export and molasses and sugar
the principal imports. "India Square" remains, a memento of a bygone day.
About 1850 the fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the
influence of better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new
grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since that time
the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque hamlet to a
fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat foreign, settlement.
Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. Ship-building is another industry
of the past. The first "schooner" was launched at Gloucester in 1713.
From 1830 to 1907, 776 vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries;
but the loss of life has been greatly reduced by the use of better
vessels and by improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in
1874.
Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others in
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward's _Singular Life_ and _Old Maid's
Paradise_, in Rudyard Kipling's _Captains Courageous_, and in James B.
Connolly's _Out of Gloucester_ (1902), _The Deep Sea's Toll_ (1905),
and _The Crested Seas_ (1907).
See J. J. Babson, _History of the Town of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
1860; with _Notes and Additions_, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and J. R.
Pringle, _History of the Town and City of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
1892).
FOOTNOTE:
[1] According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers
remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus
dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and
the contrary opinion is the one generally held.
GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of
whom 1094 were foreign-born; (1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is
served by the West Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and
by ferry to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among its
manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton yarns, boats and
drills. The municipality owns and operates the water works. It was near
the site of Gloucester City that the Dutch in 1623 planted the
short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, the first European settlement on the
Delaware river, but it was not until after the arrival of English
Quakers on the Delaware, in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first
called Axwamus, was established on the site of the present city. This
was surveyed and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of
Independence the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number
of skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these was a
successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the 25th of November
1777 by American troops under the command of General Lafayette. In 1868
Gloucester City was chartered as a city. In Camden county there is a
township named GLOUCESTER (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798,
and originally including the present township of Clementon and parts of
the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of England, bounded N. by
Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by
Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and
Herefordshire. Its area is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular,
but three physical divisions are well marked--the hills, the vale and
the forest. (1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among
the uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (q.v.), whose westward face is a
line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 1000
ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from S.W. to N.E. The
watershed between the Thames and Severn valleys lies close to it, so
that Gloucestershire includes Thames Head itself, in the south-east near
Cirencester, and most of the upper feeders of the Thames which join the
main stream, from narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The
western Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower
Severn, usually spoken of as "The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the
vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river receives
three famous tributaries during its course through Gloucestershire. Near
Tewkesbury, on the northern border, the Avon joins it on the left and
forms the county boundary for 4 m. This is the river known variously as
the Upper, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's
Avon, which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties
named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which rises as
an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the south-east of
Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward through Wiltshire,
pierces the hills through a narrow valley which becomes a wooded gorge
where the Clifton suspension bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters
the Severn estuary at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the
boundary between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is
one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom,
connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great tributary
of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the estuary, 8 m. N. of that
of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county boundary for 16 m. northward,
and above this, over two short reaches of its beautiful winding course,
it is again the boundary. (3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a
beautiful and historic tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the
majority of English forests, maintains its ancient character.
Gloucestershire has thus a share in the courses of five of the most
famous of English rivers, and covers two of the most interesting
physical districts in the country. The minor rivers of the county are
never long. The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m.,
and so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary to
the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the Cotteswolds on the
other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, forms part of the
north-western boundary, and joins the Severn near Gloucester, watering
the vale of Gloucester, the northern part of the vale. In the southern
part, the vale of Berkeley, the Stroudwater traverses a narrow,
picturesque and populous valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town
of Berkeley, joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs
southward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern feeders
of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as properly the headwater
of the main river) rising in the Seven Springs, in the hills above
Cheltenham, and forming the southern county boundary near its junction
with the Thames at Cricklade; the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream,
joining above Lechlade, and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county
boundary) joining below the same town; while from the east of the county
there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, much larger
streams, rising among the bare uplands of the northern Cotteswolds.
_Geology._--No county in England has a greater variety of geological
formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks at
the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. At Damory,
Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the cause of the
upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in which are the
oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper Llandovery
is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, Micklewood chase
and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of May and Huntley hills,
and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. The Wenlock limestone is
exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, and quarried for burning at
May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or mudstones are seen at Berkeley
and Purton, where the upper part is probably Aymestry limestone. The
series of sandy shales and sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and
Ledbury shales, form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are
quarried at Dymock. The "Old Red" itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth
Green, Thornbury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in
anticlinal folds forming hills. It forms also the great basin
extending from Ross to Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean,
Abenhall, Blakeney, &c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of
the forest. It is cut through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston.
This formation is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The
Bristol and Forest Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds
of the Old Red Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet
been correlated, they must have been once continuous, as further
appears from the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced,
under the Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the
Bristol area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and
famous for their bone bed. The great marine series known as the
Mountain Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye
and Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480
in the former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so
largely worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for
lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen at
Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 in the
forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the Bristol
field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 seams, the
upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in thickness.
These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard sandstone
(Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the Forest coal-field
the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 seams. At Durdham
Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age known as Keuper or Upper
Trias, rests unconformably on the edges of the Palaeozoic rocks, and
is evidently a shore deposit, yielding dinosaurian remains. Above the
Keuper clays come the Penarth beds, of which classical sections occur
at Westbury, Aust, &c. The series consists of grey marls, black paper
shales containing much pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham
landscape marble, and the White Lias limestone, yielding _Ostrea
Liassica_ and _Cardium Rhaeticum_. The district of Over Severn is
mainly of Keuper marls. The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by
the next formation, the Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey
limestones, characterized by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic
saurians. At its base is the insect-bearing limestone bed. The
pastures producing Gloucester cheese are on the clays of the Lower
Lias. The more calcareous Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks
flanking the Oolite escarpment of the Cotteswolds, as at
Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. The Cotteswolds consist of the great
limestone series of the Lower Oolite. At the base is a transition
series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, well developed at Nailsworth and
Frocester. Leckhampton hill is a typical section of the Lower Oolite,
where the sands are capped by 40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above
this are 147 ft. of freestone, 7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper
freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. The Painswick stone belongs to lower
freestone. Resting on the Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to
S.E., is the "fuller's earth," a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick,
throwing out many of the springs which form the head waters of the
Thames. Next comes the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are
the Stonesfield "slate" beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at
Sevenhampton and elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone
is obtained, and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with
bands of clay known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on
the flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted coral.
The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about 40 ft. of
rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from Siddington to
Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a small tract of blue
Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has no higher Secondary
or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series is represented by much
northern drift gravel in the vale and Over Severn, by accumulations of
Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial extinct mammalian remains on
the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by submerged forests extending from
Sharpness to Gloucester.
_Agriculture._--The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop.
In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well adapted for
pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth of grasses and
root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, are
mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant markets, and many
reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich grazing tract of the vale
of Berkeley produces the famous "double Gloucester" cheeses, and the
vale in general has long been celebrated for cheese and butter. The
vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing district. Turnips, &c.,
occupy about three-fourths of the green crop acreage, potatoes
occupying only about a twelfth. A feature of the county is its apple
and pear orchards, chiefly for the manufacture of cider and perry,
which are attached to nearly every farm. The Cotteswold district is
comparatively barren except in the valleys, but it has been famous
since the 15th century for the breed of sheep named after it. Oats and
barley are here the chief crops.
_Other Industries._--The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This
industry is not confined to the hill country or even to
Gloucestershire itself in the west of England. The description of
cloth principally manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to
produce a short close nap on the face, and made of all shades of
colour, but chiefly black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of
the industry lies in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds.
Stroud is the centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and
south-west of this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others.
Machinery and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also
produced. Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
Somersetshire.
_Communications._--Railway communications are provided principally by
the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great Western lines,
the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides at Bristol, one
section serving the south-western counties, another South Wales,
crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, 4-1/3 m. in length,
a remarkable engineering work. A more direct route, by this tunnel,
between London and South Wales, is provided by a line from Wootton
Bassett on the main line, running north of Bristol by Badminton and
Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western lines are that from Swindon on
the main line, by the Stroud valley to Gloucester, crossing the Severn
there, and continuing by the right bank of the river into Wales, with
branches north-west into Herefordshire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk
line, crossing the north-east of the county, connected with Cheltenham
and Gloucester by a branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping
Norton junction; and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to
Honeybourne. The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows
the vale from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into
the forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to Malvern.
The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs east and south
from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication with the south
of England. The East Gloucester line of the Great Western from Oxford
terminates at Fairford. The Thames and Severn canal, rising to a
summit level in the tunnel through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is
continued from Wallbridge (Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives
communication between the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal
(16-1/2 m.) connects the port of Gloucester with its outport of
Sharpness on Severn.
_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are--Bristol, a
city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439);
Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury (5419). The
other urban districts are--Awre (1096), Charlton Kings (3806),
Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989),
Westbury-on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, besides
Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud there are
Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern boundary
Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), Dursley (2372),
Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury along the western line
of the hills; and between them and the Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury
(2594). Among the uplands of the Cotteswolds there are no towns, and
villages are few, but in the east of the county, in the upper Thames
basin, there are, besides Cirencester, Fairford on the Coln and
Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation on the Thames itself.
Far up in the Lech valley, remote from railway communication, is
Northleach, once a great posting station on the Oxford and Cheltenham
road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold, standing high, and
Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters of the Evenlode. In a
northern prolongation of the county, almost detached, is Chipping
Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies 6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the
north-west, Newent (2485) is the only considerable town.
Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at
Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bristol, Gloucester and
Tewkesbury have separate commissions of the peace and courts of
quarter sessions. There are 359 civil parishes. Gloucestershire is
principally in the diocese of Gloucester, but part is in that of
Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester and Oxford. There are
408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
county. There are five parliamentary divisions, namely, Tewkesbury or
northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or mid, Thornbury or
southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning one member. The county
also includes the boroughs of Gloucester and Cheltenham, each
returning one member; and the greater part of the borough of Bristol,
which returns four members.
_History._--The English conquest of the Severn valley began in 577 with
the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the capture of
Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who occupied the district
were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory had become a dependency of
Mercia in the 7th century, and was not brought under West Saxon dominion
until the 9th century. No important settlements were made by the Danes
in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire in the
10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in
1016. Towards the close of the 11th century the boundaries were
readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto a county by itself, and at the
same time the forest district between the Wye and the Severn was added
to Gloucestershire. The divisions of the county for a long time remained
very unsettled, and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday
Survey and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ
very widely in name and extent both from each other and from the
twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.
Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time of the
Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the Conqueror. In
the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the empress Maud was supported
by Robert of Gloucester who had rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the
castles at Gloucester and Cirencester were also garrisoned on her
behalf. In the barons' war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was
garrisoned for Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in
1265, in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and
Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars of the
Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century Gloucester showed
strong Protestant sympathy, and in the reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was
sent to Gloucester to be burnt as a warning to the county, while the
same Puritan leanings induced the county to support the Parliamentary
cause in the civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and
Cirencester were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered
in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned for the
parliament throughout the struggle.
On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater part of
modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of Worcester, and
shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry of Gloucester,
which in 1290 comprised the deaneries of Campden, Stow, Cirencester,
Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley
and Gloucester. The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a
few parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the
deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of Hereford.
In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed in that of Hawkesbury.
In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was created, its boundaries being
identical with those of the county. On the erection of Bristol to a see
in 1542 the deanery of Bristol was transferred from Gloucester to that
diocese. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the
archdeaconry of Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol,
Cirencester, Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was
transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the archdeaconry
of Cirencester was constituted to include the deaneries of Campden,
Stow, Northleach north and south, Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the
diocese of Bristol was recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol,
Stapleton and Bitton.
After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the county
were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester alone holding
seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the principal lay-tenants
were for the most part outlying parcels of baronies having their "caput"
in other counties. The large estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl
of Hereford, escheated to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl
Roger in 1074-1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire
from the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, Tracy,
Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently in the annals of the
county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and Richard of Cornwall
claimed extensive lands and privileges in the shire in the 13th century,
and Simon de Montfort owned Minsterworth and Rodley.
Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. created
Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the hundreds of Dudston
and King's Barton. The latter were reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673,
but the cities of Bristol and Gloucester continued to rank as
independent counties, with separate jurisdiction, county rate and
assizes. The chief officer of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was
generally also constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat
for the forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635.
The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction of the
duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.
The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of
Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, as
already indicated. The forest district, until the development of the
Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing area of
the kingdom, the mines having been worked in Roman times, while the
abundance of timber gave rise to numerous tanneries and to an important
ship-building trade. The hill district, besides fostering agricultural
pursuits, gradually absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which
now devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving
was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially prosperous in the
Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and building-stone in the county
gave rise to considerable manufactures of brick, tiles and pottery.
Numerous minor industries sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such
as flax-growing and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings,
rope and sailcloth.
Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, when it
returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired representation in
1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury in 1620. Under the Reform Act
of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Bristol,
Gloucester, Cirencester, Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members
each, and Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the
representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.
_Antiquities._--The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the
magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of Cirencester
with its great Perpendicular porch, are described under their separate
headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near Winchcomb, founded by Richard,
earl of Cornwall, in 1246, little more than the foundations are left,
but these have been excavated with great care, and interesting fragments
have been brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine
parish churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near
Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of the
pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church at Lechlade is
unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was built (c. 1500), according
to tradition, to contain the remarkable series of stained-glass windows
which are said to have been brought from the Netherlands. These are,
however, adjudged to be of English workmanship, and are one of the
finest series in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an
interesting relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle
at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thornbury
Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pretensions of
which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against its builder, Edward
Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham
is the fine 15th-century mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and
stone. Memorials of the de la Bere family appear in the church at
Cleeve. The mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near
Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century, but the
inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is the burial place
of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton is the mansion and vast
domain of the Beauforts (formerly of the Botelers and others), on the
south-eastern boundary of the county.
See _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_; Sir R. Atkyns, _The
Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire_ (London, 1712; 2nd ed.,
London, 1768); Samuel Rudder, _A New History of Gloucestershire_
(Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, _Historical, Monumental and
Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester_ (2
vols., London, 1791); Thomas Rudge, _The History of the County of
Gloucester_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke _Abstract of
Records and Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire
formed into a History_ (2 vols., Gloucester, 1807); _Legends, Tales
and Songs in the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire_ (London,
1876); J. D. Robertson, _Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of
Gloucester_ (London, 1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett,
_Bibliographers' Manual of Gloucestershire_ (3 vols., London,
1895-1897); W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903). See
also _Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
Society_.
GLOVE (O. Eng. _glof_, perhaps connected with Gothic _lofa_, the palm of
the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a separate sheath for
each finger.
The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was known even to
the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer Laertes is described as wearing
gloves ([Greek: cheiridas epi chersi]) while walking in his garden
(_Od._ xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi. 72) tells how Leotychides filled a
glove ([Greek: cheiris]) with the money he received as a bribe, and
Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 8. 17) records that the Persians wore fur
gloves having separate sheaths for the fingers ([Greek: cheiridas
daseias kai daktylethras]). Among the Romans also there are occasional
references to the use of gloves. According to the younger Pliny (Ep.
iii. 5. 15) the secretary whom his uncle had with him when ascending
Vesuvius wore gloves (_manicae_) so that he might not be impeded in his
work by the cold, and Varro (_R.R._ i. 55. 1) remarks that olives
gathered with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with
gloves (_digitabula_ or _digitalia_). In the northern countries the
general use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it is
not without significance that the most common medieval Latin word for
glove (_guantus_ or _wantus_, Mod. Fr. _gant_) is of Teutonic origin (O.
H. Ger. _want_). Thus in the life of Columbanus by Jonas, abbot of
Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the hands in doing manual
labour are spoken of as _tegumenta manuum quae Galli wantos vocant_.
Among the Germans and Scandinavians, in the 8th and 9th centuries, the
use of gloves, fingerless at first, would seem to have been all but
universal; and in the case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often
elaborately embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the
case with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments (see
below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the backs
armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet in the
Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved. The fact
that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists does not prove
their non-existence, since this might easily be an omission due to lack
of observation or of skill; but, so far as the records go, there is no
evidence to prove that gloves were in general use in England until the
13th century. It was in this century that ladies began to wear gloves as
ornaments; they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It
was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their greatest
elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for wearing them
richly embroidered and jewelled.
The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use of gloves a
special significance. Their liturgical use by the Church is dealt with
below (_Pontifical gloves_); this was imitated from the usage of civil
life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves formed part of the _insignia_ of
the emperors, and also, and that quite early, of the kings of England.
Thus Matthew of Paris, in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189,
mentions that he was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown
on his head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the hands
of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on those of King
Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.
See W. B. Redfern, _Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes_, with
numerous examples.
_Gages._--Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most widespread
and important during the middle ages was the practice of tendering a
folded glove as a gage for waging one's law. The origin of this custom
is probably not far to seek. The promise to fulfil a judgment of a court
of law, a promise secured by the delivery of a _wed_ or gage, is one of
the oldest, if not the very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This
gage was originally a chattel of value, which had to be deposited at
once by the defendant as security into his adversary's hand; and that
the glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless due to
its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose. The custom
survived after the contract with the _vadium_, _wed_ or gage had been
superseded by the contract with pledges (personal sureties). In the
rules of procedure of a baronial court of the 14th century we find: "He
shall wage his law with his folded glove (_de son gaunt plyee_) and
shall deliver it into the hand of the other, and then take his glove
back and find pledges for his law." The delivery of the glove had, in
fact, become a mere ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties
close at hand.[1]
Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the wager of
battle (_vadium in duello_). The glove here was thrown down by the
defendant in open court as security that he would defend his cause in
arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted the challenge (see WAGER).
This form is still prescribed for the challenge of the king's champion
at the coronation of English sovereigns, and was actually followed at
that of George IV. (see CHAMPION). The phrase "to throw down the
gauntlet" is still in common use of any challenge.
_Pledges of Service._--The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment is
exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing vassals by
investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors symbolized by the
bestowal of a glove the concession of the right to found a town or to
establish markets, mints and the like; the "hands" in the armorial
bearings of certain German towns are really gloves, reminiscent of this
investiture. Conversely, fiefs were held by the render of presenting
gloves to the sovereign. Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was
held in Queen Elizabeth's time by the service of one knight's fee and
the rent of a pair of gloves turned up with hare's skin (Blount's
_Tenures_, ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England,
however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove for his
right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right arm as long as he
holds the sceptre. The right to perform this "honourable service" was
originally granted by William the Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun,
together with the manor of Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire.
The male descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the
coronations until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the
right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord Furnival by his
marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William Lord Furnival performed
the ceremony at the coronation of Richard II. He died in 1383, and his
daughter and heiress Jean de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill,
Lord Furnival in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the
coronation of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st
earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove
embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of Henry V. When
in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged the manor of Farnham with
King Henry VIII. for the site and precincts of the priory of Worksop in
Nottinghamshire he stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty
should be reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the
obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April 1838 the manor
of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle and with it the right to
perform the service, which had hitherto always been carried out by a
descendant of Bertram de Verdun. At the coronation of King Edward VII.
the earl of Shrewsbury disputed the duke of Newcastle's right, on the
ground that the serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the
priory lands at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale
so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony and the
right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant to himself as
lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was disallowed by the court
of claims, and the serjeanty was declared to be attached to the manor of
Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston, _Coronation Claims_, London, 1903, p. 133).
_Presentations._--From the ceremonial and symbolic use of gloves the
transition was easy to the custom which grew up of presenting them to
persons of distinction on special occasions. When Queen Elizabeth
visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-chancellor offered her a "paire of
gloves, perfumed and garnished with embroiderie and goldsmithe's wourke,
price 60s.," and at the visit of James I. there in 1615 the mayor and
corporation of the town "delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed
gloves with gold laces." It was formerly the custom in England for
bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to those who
came to their consecration dinners and others, but this gift became such
a burden to them that by an order in council in 1678 It was commuted for
the payment of a sum of L50 towards the rebuilding of St Paul's.
Serjeants at law, on their appointment, were given a pair of gloves
containing a sum of money which was termed "regards"; this custom is
recorded as early as 1495, when according to the _Black Book_ of
Lincoln's Inn each of the new Serjeants received L6, 13s. 4d. and a pair
of gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time it
was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king's pardon on his
discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a fee.
Glove-silver, according to Jacob's _Law Dictionary_, was a name used of
extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of courts, &c., or of
money given by the sheriff of a county in which no offenders were left
for execution to the clerk of assize and judge's officers; the
explanation of the term is that the glove given as a perquisite or fee
was in some cases lined with money to increase its value, and thus came
to stand for money ostensibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the
custom in the United Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a
judge or magistrate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at
the appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom judges
are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on the bench, and
a witness taking the oath must remove the glove from the hand that holds
the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe, _The Law and Customs relating to
Gloves_, London, 1901.)
_Pontifical gloves_ (Lat. _chirothecae_) are liturgical ornaments
peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the
cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often granted by
the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and other prelates, as in
the case of the other episcopal insignia. According to the present use
the gloves are of silk and of the liturgical colour of the day, the edge
of the opening ornamented with a narrow band of embroidery or the like,
and the middle of the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the
celebration of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the gloves
are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the right hand one
by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They are worn only until the
ablution before the canon of the mass, after which they may not again be
put on.
At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts the gloves
on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with a prayer that his
hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he offers may be as
acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob, his hands wrapped in the
skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This symbolism (as in the case of the
other vestments) is, however, of late growth. The liturgical use of
gloves itself cannot, according to Father Braun, be traced beyond the
beginning of the 10th century, and their introduction was due, perhaps
to the simple desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but
more probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the
Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the Frankish
kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical gloves are first
heard of in the earlier half of the 11th century. The earliest authentic
instance of the right to wear them being granted to a non-bishop is a
bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, conceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro
in Cielo d' Oro.
During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves (often
_wanti_, _guanti_, and sometimes _manicae_ in the inventories) were
worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in different
churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. The most
characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove was the ornament
(_tasellus_, _fibula_, _monile_, _paratura_) set in the middle of the
back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque of metal, enamelled
or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes square or irregular in
shape. Sometimes embroidery was substituted; still more rarely the whole
glove was covered, even to the fingers, with elaborate needlework
designs.
Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since the
Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as wearing them on
their effigies.
See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
1907), pp. 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.
_Manufacture of Gloves._--Three countries, according to an old proverb,
contribute to the making of a good glove--Spain dressing the leather,
France cutting it and England sewing it. But the manufacture of gloves
was not introduced into Great Britain till the 10th or 11th century. The
incorporation of glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in 1190 a
glove-makers' gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating
the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of London in 1349
framed their ordinances and had them approved by the corporation, the
city regulations at that time fixing the price of a pair of common
sheepskin gloves at 1d. In 1464, when the gild received armorial
bearings, they do not seem to have been very strong, but apparently
their position improved subsequently and in 1638 they were incorporated
as a new company. In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish
gloves were on sale in London shops, and in 1661 a company of glovers
was incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat of
the English glove Industry. In America the manufacture of gloves dates
from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought over several families
of glove makers from Perth; these settled in Fulton county, New York,
which is now the largest seat of the glove trade in the United States.
Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as these
are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as silk,
wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch of the
hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals are
employed--deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c.--but kids
have had nothing to do with the production of many of the "kid gloves"
of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed by special processes
(see LEATHER) before going to the glove-maker to be cut. Owing to the
elastic character of the material the cutting is a delicate operation,
and long practice is required before a man becomes expert at it.
Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen following an outline
marked on the leather, but now steel dies are universally employed not
only for the bodies of the gloves but also for the thumb-pieces and
fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When hand sewing is employed the
pieces to be sewn together are placed between a pair of jaws, the
holding edges of which are serrated with fine saw-teeth, and the sewer
by passing the needle forwards and backwards between each of these
teeth secures neat uniform stitching. But sewing machines are now
widely employed on the work. The labour of making a glove is much
subdivided, different operators sewing different pieces, and others
again embroidering the back, forming the button-holes, attaching the
buttons, &c. After the gloves are completed, they undergo the process
of "laying off," in which they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like
a hand and heated internally by steam; in this way they are finally
smoothed and shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.
Gloves made of thin india-rubber or of white cotton are worn by some
surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease with
which they can be thoroughly sterilized.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] F. W. Maitland and W. P. Baildon, _The Court Baron_ (Selden
Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitland wrongly translates _gaunt
plyee_ as "twisted" glove, adding "why it should be twisted I cannot
say." An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage
is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as _The Song
of Dermott and the Earl_ (ed. G. H. Orpen, Oxford, 1892) in J. H.
Round's _Commune of London_, p. 153.
GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY (1829-1885), captain in the British navy,
entered the service in 1841 and passed his examination as lieutenant in
1849, but did not receive a commission till May 1851. He served on
various stations, and was wounded severely in an action with the Burmese
at Donabew (4th February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea
and as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official
in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the navy
he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa, and had taken
part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-1864) up the Niger. On
the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed administrator of the government
of Lagos, and in that capacity, or as colonial secretary, he remained
there till 1872. During this period he had been much employed in
repelling the marauding incursions of the Ashantis. When the Ashanti war
broke out in 1873, Captain Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful
task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred of the Ashantis might
be expected to make favourable to the British authorities--to the extent
at least to which their fears would allow them to act. His services were
accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at Cape Coast, and, after
forming a small trustworthy force of Hausa, marched to Accra. His
influence sufficed to gather a numerous native force, but neither he nor
anybody else could overcome their abject terror of the ferocious
Ashantis to the extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain
Glover was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi, but
it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were acknowledged by
the thanks of parliament and by his creation as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was
appointed governor of Newfoundland and held the post till 1881, when he
was transferred to the Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in
1883, and died in London on the 30th September 1885.
Lady Glover's _Life_ of her husband appeared in 1897.
GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard Glover, a
Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He was educated at Cheam
in Surrey. While there he wrote in his sixteenth year a poem to the
memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his
_View of Newton's Philosophy_, published in 1728. In 1737 he published
an epic poem in praise of liberty, _Leonidas_, which was thought to have
a special reference to the politics of the time; and being warmly
commended by the prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through
several editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled _London, or
the Progress of Commerce_; and in the same year, with a view to exciting
the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited ballad, _Hosier's
Ghost_, very popular in its day. He was also the author of two
tragedies, _Boadicea_ (1753) and _Medea_ (1761), written in close
imitation of Greek models. The success of Glover's _Leonidas_ led him to
take considerable interest in politics, and in 1761 he entered
parliament as member for Weymouth. He died on the 25th of November 1785.
The _Athenaid_, an epic in thirty books, was published in 1787, and his
diary, entitled _Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political
Character from 1742 to 1757_, appeared in 1813. Glover was one of the
reputed authors of _Junius_; but his claims--which were advocated in an
_Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of Junius_ (1815), by R.
Duppa--rest on very slight grounds.
GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York, U.S.A., at the
foot-hills of the Adirondacks, about 55 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890)
13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
20,642. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway
(connecting at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central),
and by electric lines connecting with Johnstown, Amsterdam and
Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000 volumes in 1908), the
Nathan Littauer memorial hospital, a state armoury and a fine government
building. Gloversville is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in
the United States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%, and
Gloversville 38.8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens made in the
United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29.9% of the leather gloves
and mittens made in the United States, its products being valued at
$5,302,196. Gloversville has more than a score of tanneries and
leather-finishing factories, and manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the
city's total factory product was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary
localization of the glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and
other parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the
economic history of the United States. The industry seems to have had
its origin among a colony of Perthshire families, including many
glove-makers, who were settled in this region by Sir William Johnson
about 1760. For many years the entire product seems to have been
disposed of in the neighbourhood, but about 1809 the goods began to find
more distant markets, and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on
a prosperous basis, the trade being handed down from father to son. An
interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the factory
work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of "home workers"
both in the town and country districts. Gloversville, settled originally
about 1770, was known for some time as Stump City, its present name
being adopted in 1832. It was incorporated as a village in 1851 and was
chartered as a city in 1890.
GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of the beetle
_Lampyris noctiluca_, whose power of emitting light has been familiar
for many centuries. The luminous organs of the glow-worm consist of
cells similar to those of the fat-body, grouped into paired masses in
the ventral region of the hinder abdominal segments. The light given out
by the wingless female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to
the flying male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary
condition. The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian
insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland
northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species of
_Lampyris_ are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are present
in many genera of the family _Lampyridae_ from various parts of the
world. Frequently--as in the south European _Luciola italica_--both
sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both male and female
emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids are generally known as
"fire-flies." In correspondence with their power of emitting light, the
insects are nocturnal in habit.
Elongate centipedes of the family _Geophilidae_, certain species of
which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true glow-worm.
GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species of
_Sinningia_ (_S. speciosa_), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae
and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under cultivation to
numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of colour, and hybrid forms
have also been obtained between these and other species of _Sinningia_.
A good strain of seed will produce many superb and charmingly coloured
varieties, and if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65 deg. at
night, they may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be
flowered during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the
winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50 deg., and to yield a
succession should be started at intervals, say at the end of February
and the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use weak
manure water when the flower-buds show themselves.
GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When L. N. Vauquelin
in 1798 published in the _Annales de chimie_ an account of a new earth
obtained by him from beryl he refrained from giving the substance a
name, but in a note to his paper the editors suggested glucine, from
[Greek: glykys], sweet, in reference to the taste of its salts, whence
the name Glucinum or Glucinium (symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name
beryllium was given to the metal by German chemists and was generally
used until recently, when the earlier name was adopted.
GLUCK,[1] CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic composer, German by
his nationality, French by his place in art, was born at Weidenwang,
near Neumarkt, in the upper Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He
belonged to the lower middle class, his father being gamekeeper to
Prince Lobkowitz; but the boy's education was not neglected on that
account. From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the
Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince Lobkowitz's
estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a good general education,
but also had lessons in music. At the age of eighteen Gluck went to
Prague, where he continued his musical studies under Czernohorsky, and
maintained himself by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very
humble capacity of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the
introductions of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the
best families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded to
Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector's palace. Here he met
Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he accompanied to Milan,
continuing his education under Giovanni Battista San Martini, a great
musical historian and contrapuntist, who was also famous in his own day
as a composer of church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing
operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste of the
Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were produced at
various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745. Although their artistic
value was small, they were so favourably received that in 1745 Gluck was
invited to London to compose for the Haymarket. The first opera produced
there was called _La Caduta dei giganti_; it was followed by a revised
version of one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a
performer on the musical glasses (see HARMONICA).
The success of his two operas, as well as that of a _pasticcio_ (i.e. a
collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled _Piramo e
Tisbe_, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly left London. But
his stay in England was not without important consequences for his
subsequent career. Gluck at this time was rather less than an ordinary
producer of Italian opera. Handel's well-known saying that Gluck "knew
no more counterpoint than his cook" must be taken in connexion with the
less well-known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who
performed in many of Handel's own operas. But it indicates the musical
reason of Gluck's failure, while Gluck himself learnt the dramatic
reason through his surprise at finding that arias which in their
original setting had been much applauded lost all effect when adapted to
new words in the _pasticcio_. Irrelevant as Handel's criticism appears,
it was not without bearing on Gluck's difficulties. The use of
counterpoint has very little necessary connexion with contrapuntal
display; its real and final cause is a certain depth of harmonic
expression which Gluck attained only in his most dramatic moments, and
for want of which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very
lamely. And in later years his own mature view of the importance of
harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Gretry, who believed
only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic expression of music
must strike below the surface. At this early period he was simply
producing Handelian opera in an amateurish style, suggesting an
unsuccessful imitation of Hasse; but the failure of his _pasticcio_ is
as significant to us as it was to him, since it shows that already the
effect of his music depended upon its characteristic treatment of
dramatic situations. This characterizing power was as yet not directly
evident, and it needed all the influence of the new instrumental
resources of the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what
we may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into
dramatic regions at all.
It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master, San Martini,
had already indicated to Gluck a new direction which was more or less
incompatible with the older art; and there is nothing discreditable
either to Gluck or to his contemporaries in the failure of his earlier
works. Had the young composer been successful in the ordinary _opera
seria_, there is reason to fear that the great dramatic reform,
initiated by him, might not have taken place. The critical temper of the
London public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed
that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially the
great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence upon the
young composer. But of still greater importance in this respect was a
short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for the first time acquainted
with the classic traditions and the declamatory style of the French
opera--a sphere of music in which his own greatest triumphs were to be
achieved. Of these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in
the works produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return
from England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by no
means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical experience
and important patronage, though his success was not uniform. His first
opera written for Vienna, _La Semiramide riconosciuta_, is again an
ordinary _opera seria_, and little more can be said of _Telemacco_,
although thirty years later Gluck was able to use most of its overture
and an energetic duet in one of his greatest works, _Armide_.
Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two years previously
been appointed court chapel-master, with a salary of 2000 florins, by
the empress Maria Theresa. He had already received the order of
knighthood from the pope in consequence of the successful production of
two of his works in Rome. During the long interval from 1756 to 1762
Gluck seems to have matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and,
barring a ballet named _Don Giovanni_, and some _airs nouveaux_ to
French words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any
importance have to be recorded. Several later _pieces d'occasion_, such
as _Il Trionfo di Clelia_ (1763), are still written in the old manner,
though already in 1762 _Orfeo ed Euridice_ shows that the composer had
entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the first time deserted
Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as Vernon Lee suggests, was in
all probability the immediate cause of the formation of Gluck's new
ideas, as he was a hot-headed dramatic theorist with a violent dislike
for Metastasio, who had hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic
libretto.
Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic music,
_Orpheus_ is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands the highest
admiration. Orpheus's air, _Che faro_, is known to every one; but still
finer is the great scena in which the poet's song softens even the
_ombre sdegnose_ of Tartarus. The ascending passion of the entries of
the solo (_Deh! placatevi_; _Mille pene_; _Men tiranne_), interrupted by
the harsh but gradually softening exclamations of the Furies, is of the
highest dramatic effect. These melodies, moreover, as well as every
declamatory passage assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the
purposes of dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly
be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than Hamlet's
monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this power of musically
realizing a character--a power all but unknown in the serious opera of
his day--that Gluck's genius as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown.
After a short relapse into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his
_Orpheus_ by a second classical music-drama (1767) named _Alceste_. In
his dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully
expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with the
old traditions. "I shall try," he wrote, "to reduce music to its real
function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying the expression of
sentiments and the interest of situations without interrupting the
action by needless ornament. I have accordingly taken care not to
interrupt the singer in the heat of the dialogue, to wait for a tedious
_ritornel_, nor do I allow him to stop on a sonorous vowel, in the
middle of a phrase, in order to show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice
in a long _cadenza_." Such theories, and the stern consistency with
which they were carried out, were little to the taste of the
pleasure-loving Viennese; and the success of _Alceste_, as well as that
of _Paris and Helena_, which followed two years later, was not such as
Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted the chance
of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual and more
especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was opened to him through
the _bailli_ Le Blanc du Roullet, attache of the French embassy at
Vienna, and a musical amateur who entered into Gluck's ideas with
enthusiasm. A classic opera for the Paris stage was accordingly
projected, and the friends fixed upon Racine's _Iphigenie en Aulide_.
After some difficulties, overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluck's
former pupil the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last
accepted and performed at the Academie de Musique, on the 19th of April
1774.
The great importance of the new work was at once perceived by the
musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot controversy on the
merits of _Iphigenie_ ensued, in which some of the leading literary men
of France took part. Amongst the opponents of Gluck were not only the
admirers of Italian vocalization and sweetness, but also the adherents
of the earlier French school, who refused to see in the new composer the
legitimate successor of Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and
D'Alembert were his opponents, the Abbe Arnaud and others his
enthusiastic friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle.
In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music, but
when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion Rousseau acknowledged
the great composer's genius; although he did not always understand it,
as for example when he suggested that in _Alceste_, "Divinites du Styx,"
perhaps the most majestic of all Gluck's arias, ought to have been set
as a rondo. Nevertheless in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly
before his death, Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of
_Alceste_, the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him
for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the piece not
being received favourably by the Parisian audience, the composer
exclaimed, "_Alceste est tombee_," Rousseau is said to have comforted
him with the flattering _bonmot_, "_Oui, mais elle est tombee du ciel_."
The contest received a still more personal character when Piccinni, a
celebrated and by no means incapable composer, came to Paris as the
champion of the Italian party at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who
held a rival court to that of the young princess (see OPERA). As a
dramatic controversy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and
anti-Wagnerian warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical
difference between Gluck's and Piccinni's musical methods as the
comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better musician, but his
deficiencies in musical technique were of a kind which contemporaries
could perceive as easily as they could perceive Piccinni's. Both
composers were remarkable inventors of melody, and both had the gift of
making incorrect music sound agreeable. Gluck's indisputable dramatic
power might be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music
for music's sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he did, to
assimilate every feature in Gluck's style that he could understand. The
rivalry between the two composers was soon developed into a quarrel by
the skilful engineering of Gluck's enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a
libretto by Marmontel on the subject of _Roland_, to Gluck's intense
disgust, as he had already begun an opera on that subject himself. This,
and the failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by
furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie Antoinette,
inspired Gluck to produce his _Armide_, which appeared four months
before Piccinni's _Roland_ was ready, and raised a storm of controversy,
admiration and abuse. Gluck did not anticipate Wagner more clearly in
his dramatic reforms than in his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck's own
estimation the difference between _Armide_ and _Alceste_ is that "_l'un
(Alceste) doit faire pleurer et l'autre faire eprouver une voluptueuse
sensation_," it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe
that he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and that
her part was "_une criaillerie monotone et fatiguante_." He replied to
Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in its venomous sarcasm
and its tremendous value as an advertisement for its recipient.
Gluck's next work was _Iphigenie en Tauride_, the success of which
finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work on the same subject at
the same time and who is said to have acknowledged Gluck's superiority.
Gluck's next work was _Echo et Narcisse_, the comparative failure of
which greatly disappointed him; and during the composition of another
opera, _Les Danaides_, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up
work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several years in
dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health. He died on
the 15th of November 1787. (F. H.; D. F. T.)
The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck's reforms is apt to
overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some ways to idealize it.
One is tempted to regard him as condoning for technical musical
deficiencies by sheer dramatic power, whereas unprejudiced study of his
work shows that where his dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack
of musical technique. Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera
as to give it scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from
the greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature for
his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his last
complete work, _Echo et Narcisse_), he could hardly write tolerably good
music; and, even in the finest works of his French period, the less
emotional situations are sometimes set to music which has little
interest except as a document in the history of the art. This must not
be taken to mean merely that Gluck could not, like Mozart and nearly all
the great song-writers, set good music to a bad text. Such inability
would prove Gluck's superior literary taste without casting a slur on
his musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician that
Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling portions of his
libretti. When he was inspired there was no question that he was the
first and greatest writer of dramatic music before Mozart. To begin
with, he could invent sublime melodies; and his power of producing great
musical effects by the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian.
Moreover, in his peculiar sphere he deserves the title generally
accorded to Haydn of "father of modern orchestration." It is misleading
to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments with a
sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew how to give a
whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means of a definite scheme
of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat instruments as part of a
decorative design, any more than he so treated musical forms. Just as
his sense of musical form is that of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of
Mozart, so is his treatment of instrumental tone-colour a thing that
changes with every shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not
in accordance with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria
with strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly ordinary
procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making the wind instruments
play in unison with the strings for the first part of the aria, and
writing a passage for one or more of them in the middle section. But it
was an unheard-of thing to make this passage consist of long
_appoggiaturas_ once every two bars in rising sequence on the first
oboe, answered by deep _pizzicato_ bass notes, while Agamemnon in
despair cries: "_J'entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la
nature_." Some of Gluck's most forcible effects are of great subtlety,
as, for instance, in _Iphigenie en Tauride_, where Orestes tries to
reassure himself by saying: "_Le calme rentre dans mon coeur_," while
the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings belies him. Again,
the sense of orchestral climax shown in the oracle scene in _Alceste_
was a thing inconceivable in older music, and unsurpassed in artistic
and dramatic spirit by any modern composer. Its influence in Mozart's
_Idomeneo_ is obvious at a first glance.
The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense of form,
whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus Gluck, in rejecting
the convenient formalities of older styles of opera, was not, like some
reformers, without something better to substitute for them. Moreover he,
in consultation with his librettist, achieved great skill in holding
together entire scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite
repetitions of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of
his finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to
move _pari passu_ with the drama in a manner which for naturalness and
continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart and the entire
operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable in the second act of
_Orfeo_. In its original Italian version both scenes, that in Hades and
that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes, and the division into single
movements, though technically obvious, is aesthetically only a natural
means of articulating the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades
extends, in the original version, even to the key-system. This was
damaged when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto to
a tenor in the French version. And here, we have one of many instances
in which the improvements his French experience enabled him to make in
his great Italian works were not altogether unmixed. Little harm,
however, was done to _Orfeo_ which has not been easily remedied by
transposing Orpheus's part back again; and in a suitable compromise
between the two versions _Orfeo_ remains Gluck's most perfect and
inspired work. The emotional power of the music is such that the
inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the aspect of
mere conventionality which it had in cases where the music produced no
more than the normal effect upon 18th-century audiences. Moreover
Gluck's genius was of too high an order for him to be less successful in
portraying a sufficiently intense happiness than in portraying grief. He
failed only in what may be called the business capacities of artistic
technique; and there is less "business" in _Orfeo_ than in almost any
other music-drama. It was Gluck's first great inspiration, and his
theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare. _Alceste_
contains his grandest music and is also very free from weak pages; but
in its original Italian version the third act did not give Gluck scope
for an adequate climax. This difficulty so accentuated itself in the
French version that after continual retouchings a part for Hercules was,
in Gluck's absence, added by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck's music,
dealing with the supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades
(either by Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance
and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the French
that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which Gluck's music
now stops short just at the point where we realize the full height of
his power. The comparison between the Italian and French _Alceste_ is
one of the most interesting that can be made in the study of a
musician's development. It would have been far easier for Gluck to write
a new opera if he had not been so justly attached to his second Italian
masterpiece. So radical are the differences that in retranslating the
French libretto into Italian for performance with the French music not
one line of Calzabigi's original text can be retained.
In _Iphigenie en Aulide_ and _Iphigenie en Tauride_, Gluck shows signs
that the controversies aroused by his methods began to interfere with
his musical spontaneity. He had not, in _Orfeo_, gone out of his way to
avoid rondos, or we should have had no "_Che faro senza Euridice_." We
read with a respectful smile Gluck's assurance to the bailli Le Blanc du
Roullet that "you would not believe _Armide_ to be by the same composer"
as _Alceste_. But there is no question that _Armide_ is a very great
work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck has
availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded for
orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type from any
that he had attempted before. And it is hardly relevant to blame him for
his inability to write erotic music. In the first place, the libretto is
not erotic, though the subject would no doubt become so if treated by a
modern poet. In the second place a conflict of passions (as, for
instance, where Armide summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from
her heart, and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never,
even in _Alceste_, been treated with more dramatic musical force. The
work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little too much
action in it to suit Gluck's methods; but it shows, as does no other
opera until Mozart's _Don Giovanni_, a sense of the _development_ of
characters, as distinguished from the mere presentation of them as
already fixed.
In _Iphigenie en Aulide_ and _Iphigenie en Tauride_, the very subtlety
of the finest features indicates a certain self-consciousness which,
when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. Moreover, in both cases
the libretti, though skilfully managed, tell a rather more complicated
story than those which Gluck had hitherto so successfully treated; and,
where inspiration fails, the musical technique becomes curiously
amateurish without any corresponding naivete. Still these works are
immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in _Alceste_
and _Orfeo_. _Echo et Narcisse_ we must, like Gluck's contemporaries,
regard as a failure. As in _Orfeo_, the pathetic story is ruined by a
violent happy ending, but here this artistic disaster takes place before
the pathos has had time to assert itself. Gluck had no opportunities in
this work for any higher qualities, musical or dramatic, than
prettiness; and with him beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed
skin-deep. It is a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke
critical _edition de luxe_ of Gluck's French operas forbids the
inclusion of his Italian _Paride e Elena_, his third opera to
Calzabigi's libretto, which was never given in a French version; for
there can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the period
of his greatness began with his collaboration with Calzabigi.
(D. F. T.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Not, as frequently spelt, Gluck.
GLUCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods on the
Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg by rail. Pop.
(1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some small manufactures and
is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The castle, which occupies the site
of a former Cistercian monastery, was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence
of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, passing then to the king
of Denmark and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died
here on the 15th of November 1863.
GLUCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the confluence of
the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona, on the railway from
Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586. It has a Protestant and a Roman
Catholic church, a handsome town-hall (restored in 1873-1874), a
gymnasium, a provincial prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are
chiefly engaged in commerce and fishing; but the frequent losses from
inundations have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Gluckstadt
was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, and fortified in 1620.
It soon became an important trading centre. In 1627-28 it was besieged
for fifteen weeks by the imperialists under Tilly, without success. In
1814 it was blockaded by the allies and capitulated, whereupon its
fortifications were demolished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came
into the possession of Prussia together with the rest of
Schleswig-Holstein in 1866.
See Lucht, _Gluckstadt. Beitrage zur Geschichte dieser Stadt_ (Kiel,
1854).
GLUCOSE (from Gr. [Greek: glykys], sweet), a carbohydrate of the formula
C6H12O6; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite. The name is
applied in commerce to a complex mixture of carbohydrates obtained by
boiling starch with dilute mineral acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with
the prefixes d, l and d + l (or i), the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory
and inactive forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The
d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other forms being
only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is usually termed
glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose, grape sugar and
diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed optical rotation, its
occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and in the urine of diabetic
patients respectively. In the vegetable kingdom glucose occurs, always
in admixture with fructose, in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries,
bananas, &c.; and in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes
belonging to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of
compounds termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant
tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an
intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a glucoside
or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch, cellulose, &c. In
the plant it is freely converted into more complex sugars,
poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the animal kingdom, also, it is
very widely distributed, being sometimes a normal and sometimes a
pathological constituent of the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is
present in large amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes,
and may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in
honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to its
separation.
Pure d-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see SUGAR) or by
adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of 80% alcohol and 1/15
volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so long as it dissolves on shaking,
crystallizes from water or alcohol at ordinary temperatures in nodular
masses, composed of minute six-sided plates, and containing one molecule
of water of crystallization. This product melts at 86 deg. C., and
becomes anhydrous when heated to 110 deg. C. The anhydrous compound can
also be prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146 deg., by crystallizing
concentrated aqueous solutions at 30 deg. to 35 deg. It is very soluble
in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste is
somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at from 1/2 to 3/5
that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200 deg. it turns brown and
produces caramel, a substance possessing a bitter taste, and used, in
its aqueous solution or otherwise, under various trade names, for
colouring confectionery, spirits, &c. The specific rotation of the plane
of polarized light by glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific
rotation of a freshly prepared solution is 105 deg., but this value
gradually diminishes to 52.5 deg., 24 hours sufficing for the transition
in the cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This
phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry. The specific
rotation also varies with the concentration; this is due to the
dissociation of complex molecules into simpler ones, a view confirmed by
cryoscopic measurements.
Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e. by
determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a solution, or,
chemically, by taking advantage of its property of reducing alkaline
copper solutions. If a glucose solution be added to copper sulphate and
much alkali added, a yellowish-red precipitate of cuprous hydrate
separates, slowly in the cold, but immediately when the liquid is
heated; this precipitate rapidly turns red owing to the formation of
cuprous oxide. In 1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline
solution of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle
salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate
precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was added.
He suggested that the method was applicable for quantitatively
estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed after H. von
Fehling's investigation. "Fehling's solution" is prepared by dissolving
separately 34.639 grammes of copper sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle
salt, and 71 grammes of caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to
1000 ccs.; 10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0.05
grammes of hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of
the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special indicators,
or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide gravimetrically.
_Chemistry._--In its chemical properties glucose is a typical
oxyaldehyde or aldose. The aldehyde group reacts with hydrocyanic acid
to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due to
the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into an
asymmetric one. The cyanhydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, the lactone
of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a glucoheptose, a
non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon atoms. By repeating the
process a non-fermentable gluco-octose and a fermentable glucononose
may be prepared. The aldehyde group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine
to form two phenylhydrazones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl
group adjacent to the aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is
produced; this glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into
phenyl hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These
transformations are fully discussed in the article SUGAR. On reduction
glucose appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol _d_-sorbite, and on
oxidation _d_-gluconic and _d_-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially
convert it into _d_-mannose and _d_-fructose. Baryta and lime yield
saccharates, e.g. C6H12O6.BaO, precipitable by alcohol.
CH2OH CH2OH
. .
CH.OH CH.OH
. .
CH CH
/ /
O< O<
\ . \ .
(CH.OH)2 (CH.OH2
. .
HC.OH HO.CH
[alpha]-glucose [beta]-glucose
The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in
1885-1887, who showed it to be CH2OH.(CH.OH)4.CHO. The subject was
taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing glucose, and
also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 according to the Le
Bel-van't Hoff theory (see Stereo-Isomerism and Sugar). This open
chain structure is challenged in the views put forward by T. M. Lowry
and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret showed that glucose existed in
more than one form, and he isolated [alpha], [beta] and [gamma]
varieties with specific rotations of 105 deg., 52.5 deg. and 22 deg.
It is now agreed that the [beta] variety is a mixture of the [alpha]
and [gamma]. This discovery explained the mutarotation of glucose. In
a fresh solution [alpha]-glucose only exists, but on standing it is
slowly transformed into [gamma]-glucose, equilibrium being reached
when the [alpha] and [gamma] forms are present in the ratio
0.368:0.632 (Tanret, _Zeit. physikal. Chem._, 1905, 53, p. 692). It is
convenient to refer to these two forms as [alpha] and [beta]. Lowry
and Armstrong represent these compounds by the following spatial
formulae which postulate a [gamma]-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric
carbon atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These
formulae are supported by many considerations, especially by the
selective action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the
[alpha]- and [beta]-glucosides, i.e. the compounds formed by the
interaction of glucose with substances generally containing hydroxyl
groups (see GLUCOSIDE).
_Fermentation of Glucose._--Glucose is readily fermentable. Of the
greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about by
yeast cells (_Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini_); this follows the
equation C6H12O6 = 2C2H6O + 2CO2, Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of the
sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of
adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol
content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some fusel
oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultaneously,
but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation into lactic
acid (q.v.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and into
butyric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued, or
by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous
fermentation, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic
acid.
We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action of
enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the
transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar
by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar);
other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose;
trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into
galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose
and glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the
enzyme touranase.
_Commercial Glucose._--The glucose of commerce, which may be regarded
as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is prepared by
hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid. In Europe,
potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn starch. The acid
employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the best results, or
sulphuric, which is used in Germany; sulphuric acid is more readily
separated from the product than hydrochloric, since the addition of
powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate, which may be
removed by a filter press. The processes of manufacture have much in
common, although varying in detail. The following is an outline of the
process when hydrochloric acid is used: Starch ("green" starch in
America) is made into a "milk" with water, and the milk pumped into
boiling dilute acid contained in a closed "converter," generally made
of copper or cast iron; steam is led in at the same time, and the
pressure is kept up to about 25 lb. to the sq. in. When the converter
is full the pressure is raised somewhat, and the heating continued
until the conversion is complete. The liquid is now run into
neutralizing tanks containing sodium carbonate, and, after settling,
the supernatant liquid, termed "light liquor," is run through bag
filters and then on to bone-char filters, which have been previously
used for the "heavy liquor." The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate
is concentrated to 27 deg. to 28 deg. B., when it forms the "heavy
liquor," just mentioned. This is filtered through fresh bone-char
filters, from which it is discharged as a practically colourless
liquid. This liquid is concentrated in vacuum pans to a specific
gravity of 40 deg. to 44 deg. B., a small quantity of sodium
bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent fermentation,
and to inhibit browning. "Syrup glucose" is the commercial name of the
product; by continuing the concentration further solid glucose or
grape sugar is obtained.
Several brands are recognized: "Mixing glucose" is used by syrup and
molasses manufacturers, "jelly glucose" by makers of jellies,
"confectioners' glucose" in confectionery, "brewers' glucose" in
brewing, &c.
GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive group of
substances characterized by the property of yielding a sugar, more
commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or
decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The name was originally given to
vegetable products of this nature, in which the other part of the
molecule was, in the greater number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or
phenolic compound (exceptions are sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It
has now been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those
obtained by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric
acid, and also the polysaccharoses, e.g. cane sugar, which appear to be
ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar present in
glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose or iso-dulcite; these
may be termed pentosides. Much attention has been given to the non-sugar
parts of the molecules; the constitutions of many have been determined,
and the compounds synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the
synthetic glucoside effected.
The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which E. Fischer (_Ber._,
28, pp. 1151, 3081) obtained by acting with hydrochloric acid on
alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of preparation is due to E.
F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (_Proc. Phys. Soc._, 1905, July 1),
who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose in methyl alcohol containing
hydrochloric acid. A mixture of [alpha]- and [beta]-glucose result,
which are then etherified, and if the solution be neutralized before the
[beta]-form isomerizes and the solvent removed, a mixture of the
[alpha]- and [beta]-methyl ethers is obtained. These may be separated by
the action of suitable ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not
reduce Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl
hydrazine at 100 deg.; they appear to be stereo-isomeric [gamma]-oxidic
compounds of the formulae I., II.: The difference between the [alpha]-
and [beta]-forms is best shown by the selective action of enzymes.
Fischer found that maltase, an enzyme occurring in yeast cells,
hydrolysed [alpha]-glucosides but not the [beta]; while emulsin, an
enzyme occurring in bitter almonds, hydrolyses the [beta] but not the
[alpha]. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are themselves
non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the natural glucosides,
it is found that the majority are of the [beta]-form; e.g. emulsin
hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coniferin, syringin, &c.
CH2OH CH2OH
. .
CHOH CHOH
. .
/ CH / CH
O < . O < .
\(CHOH)2 \(CHOH)2
. .
H.C.OCH3 CH3O.C.H
I. [alpha]-methyl II. [beta]-methyl
_d_-glucoside _d_-glucoside
Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty. One
based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part of the
molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four groups: (1)
ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives, (3) styrolene
derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group may also be made to
include the cyanogenetic glucosides, i.e. those containing prussic acid.
J. J. L. van Rijn (_Die Glykoside_, 1900) follows a botanical
classification, which has several advantages; in particular, plants of
allied genera contain similar compounds. In this article the chemical
classification will be followed. Only the more important compounds will
be noticed, the reader being referred to van Rijn (_loc. cit._) and to
Beilstein's _Handbuch der organischen Chemie_ for further details.
1. _Ethylene Derivatives._--These are generally mustard oils, and are
characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in
mustard and _Tropaeolum seeds_. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of
myronic acid, C10H16NS2KO9.H2O, occurs in black pepper and in
horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by the
ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium
bisulphate. Sinalbin, C30H42N2S2O15, occurs in white pepper; it
decomposes to the mustard oil HO.C6H4.CH2.NCS, glucose and sinapin, a
compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or scammonin,
C34H56O16, occurs in scammony; it hydrolyses to glucose and
jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and
jalapinolic acid are:--
/ N.C3H5 / N.CH2.C6H4.OH
C6H11O5.S.C < C6H11O5.S.C <
\ O.SO2.OK \ O.SO2.OC16H24O5N
Sinigrin Sinalbin
(CH3O)2 \ / (CH3)3
> C6H2.CH:CH.CO.C2H4.O.N <
HO / \ OH
Sinapin
CH3 \
> CH.CH(OH).C10H20.CO2H
C2H6 /
Jalapinolic acid (Kramer)
2. _Benzene Derivatives._--These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic
compounds. Arbutin, C12H16O7, which occurs in bearberry along with
methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose.
Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic; the
benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis.
Salicin, also termed "saligenin" and "glucose," C13H18O7, occurs in
the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose
and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO.C6H4.CH2OH. Oxidation gives
the aldehyde helicin. Populin, C20H22O8, which occurs in the leaves
and bark of _Populus tremula_, is benzoyl salicin.
3. _Styrolene Derivatives._--This group contains a benzene and also an
ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C6H5.CH:CH2. Coniferin,
C16H22O8, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods. Emulsin converts
it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxidation gives
glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and vanillin (see
EUGENOL and VANILLA). Syringin, which occurs in the bark of _Syringa
vulgaris_, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, C21H24O10, occurs in the
root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to glucose and
phloretin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-oxyhydratropic acid.
It is related to the pentosides naringin, C21H26O11, which hydrolyses
to rhamnose and naringenin, the phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic
acid, and hesperidin, C50H60O22(?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and
hesperetin, C16H14O6, the phloroglucin ester of
meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or isoferulic acid, C10H10O4. We may
here include various coumarin and benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives.
Aesculin, C15H16O9, occurring in horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring
in _Daphne alpina_, are isomeric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and
aesculetin (4.5-dioxycoumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin
(3.4-dioxycoumarin). Fraxin, C16H18O10, occurring in _Fraxinus
excelsior_, and with aesculin in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose
and fraxetin, the monomethyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or
benzo-[gamma]-pyrone derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they
(or the non-sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuffs.
_Quercitrin_, C21H22O12, is a yellow dyestuff found in _Quercus
tinctoria_; it hydrolyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a
dioxy-[beta]-phenyl-trioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting
product of the glucosides of _Rhamnus_, is monomethyl quercetin;
fisetin, from _Rhus cotinus_, is monoxyquercetin; chrysin is
phenyl-dioxybenzo-[gamma]-pyrone. Saponarin, a glucoside found in
_Saponaria officinalis_, is a related compound. Strophanthin is the
name given to three different compounds, two obtained from
_Strophanthus Kombe_ and one from _S. hispidus_.
4. _Anthracene Derivatives._--These are generally substituted
anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used as
purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dyestuff
madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chrysophanic acid, a
dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also contains
emodin, a trioxymethylanthraquinone; this substance occurs in
combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.
The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which occurs
in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into glucose and
mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down by emulsin into
glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. Emulsin also decomposes
amygdalin directly into these compounds without the intermediate
formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several other glucosides of
this nature have been isolated. The saponins are a group of substances
characterized by forming a lather with water; they occur in soap-bark
(q.v.). Mention may also be made of indican, the glucoside of the
indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo ferment, indimulsin, to
indoxyl and indiglucin.
GLUE (from the O. Fr. _glu_, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. _glutem_,
_glus_, glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure gelatin and
widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, paper and similar
substances. Glues and gelatins merge into one another by imperceptible
degrees. The difference is conditioned by the degree of purity: the more
impure form is termed glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer
forms, termed gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary
operations and confectionery. Referring to the article GELATIN for a
general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state here
that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, skins and
intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with hot water these
agglutinating materials are removed, and the solution on evaporating and
cooling yields a jelly-like substance--gelatin or glue.
Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their sources:
bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be regarded severally as
impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin and isinglass.
_Bone Glue._--For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied fresh
or after having been used for making soups; Indian and South American
bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their previous treatment with
steam, both their fatty and glue-forming constituents have been already
removed (to a great extent). On the average, fresh bones contain about
50% of mineral matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about
12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other organic matter.
The mineral matter reappears in commerce chiefly as artificial manure;
the fat is employed in the candle, soap and glycerin industries, while
the other organic matter supplies glue.
The separation of the fat, or "de-greasing of the bones" is effected (1)
by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; (2) by treatment with
steam under pressure; or (3) by means of solvents. The last process is
superseding the first two, which give a poor return of fat--a valuable
consideration--and also involve the loss of a certain amount of glue.
Many solvents have been proposed; the greatest commercial success
appears to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or
American) boiling at about 100 deg. C. The vessels in which the
extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers,
provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which the bones
rest, and with two steam coils--one for heating only, the other for
leading in "live" steam. There is a pipe from the top of the vessel
leading to a condensing plant. The vessels are arranged in batteries. In
the actual operation the boiler is charged with bones, solvent is run
in, and the mixture gradually heated by means of the dry coil; the
spirit distils over, carrying with it the water present in the bones;
and after a time the extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in
the bottom of the extractor.[1] A fresh charge of solvent is introduced,
and the cycle repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after
which the bones contain only about 0.2% of fat, and a little of the
solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to 80 lb.
pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from all dirt and flesh
by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum covered with stout wire
gauze. The attrition accompanying this motion suffices to remove the
loosely adherent matter, which falls through the meshes of the gauze;
this meal contains a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is
generally passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in
the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold as a
bone-meal, or used as a manure.
The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming nitrogen and about
60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated for glue. The most economical
process consists in steaming the bones under pressure (15 lb. to start
with, afterwards 5 lb.) in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false
bottoms. The glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of
a strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the
clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the total
glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For clarifying the
solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being used for 200 parts of
dry glue. The alum is added to the hot liquors, and the temperature
raised to 100 deg.; it is then allowed to settle, and the surface scum
removed by filtering through coarse calico or fine wire filters.
The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about 32% dry
glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably effected in vacuum
pans--open boiling yields a dark-coloured and inferior product. Many
types of vacuum plant are in use; the Yaryan form, invented by H. T.
Yaryan, is perhaps the best, and the double effect system is the most
efficient. After concentration the liquors are bleached by blowing in
sulphur dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the
colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are now run
into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in. wide and 5 in.
deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is subsequently removed
by cutting round the edges, or by warming with hot water, and turning
the cake out. The cake is sliced to sheets of convenient thickness,
generally by means of a wire knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a
frame. Mechanical slicers acting on this principle are in use. Instead
of allowing the solution to congeal in troughs, it may be "cast" on
sheets of glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After
congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation of great
nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally effected by
circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes supported on nets set
in frames; it occupies from four to five days, and the cake contains on
the average from 10 to 13% of water.
_Skin Glue._--In the preparation of skin glue the materials used are the
parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the ears of oxen and
sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs and other animals, the
parings of tawed leather, parchment and old gloves, and many other
miscellaneous scraps of animal matter. Much experience is needed in
order to prepare a good glue from such heterogeneous materials; one
blending may be a success and another a failure. The raw material has
been divided into three great divisions: (1) sheep pieces and fleshings
(ears, &c.); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and pieces;
the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide, ear and face
clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material or "stock" is first
steeped for from two to ten weeks, according to its nature, in wooden
vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards carefully dried and stored.
The object of the lime steeping is to remove any blood and flesh which
may be attached to the skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty
matter present. The "scrows" or glue pieces, which may be kept a long
time without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydrochloric
acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with water; they are
now allowed to drain and dry. The skins are then placed in hemp nets and
introduced into an open boiler which has a false bottom, and a tap by
which liquid may be run off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of
liquid are from time to time examined, and when a sample is found on
cooling to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32%
dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a
clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is
maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. The
glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or cool
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