Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa and America — Volume 1
by Sir Samuel White Baker · English · Gutenberg #3657 · 635,227 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa and America — Volume 1
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa and America — Volume 1
Author: Sir Samuel White Baker
Release date: January 1, 2003 [eBook #3657]
Most recently updated: January 8, 2021
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3657
Credits: Etext prepared by Garry Gill and the Distributed Proofreading team of Charles Franks
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD BEASTS AND THEIR WAYS, REMINISCENCES OF EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA AND AMERICA — VOLUME 1 ***
Ver.06/12/01*END*[Portions of this header are copyright (C) 2001 by Michael S. Hart
and may be reprinted only when these Etexts are free of all fees.]
[Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be used in any sales
of Project Gutenberg Etexts or other materials be they hardware or
software or any other related product without express permission.]
Etext prepared by Garry Gill (garrygill@hotmail.com) and the Distributed
Proofreading team of Charles Franks (http://charlz.dynip.com/gutenberg).
Wild Beasts and their Ways
Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa and America
by Sir Samuel W. Baker
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., etc., etc.
Volume 1
CHAPTER I
THE RIFLE OF A PAST HALF CENTURY
Forty years ago our troops were armed with a smooth-bore musket, and a
small force known as the "Rifle Brigade" was the exception to this rule.
The military rifle carried a spherical bullet, and, like all others of
the period, it necessitated the use of a mallet to strike the ball,
which, being a size larger than the bore, required the blow to force it
into the rifling of the barrel in order to catch the grooves.
Sporting rifles were of various sizes, but they were constructed upon a
principle generally accepted, that extreme accuracy could only be
obtained by burning a very small charge of powder.
The outfit required a small mallet made of hardwood faced with thick
buff leather, a powerful loading-rod, a powder-flask, a pouch to contain
greased linen or silk patches; another pouch for percussion caps; a
third pouch for bullets. In addition to this cumbersome arrangement, a
nipple-screw was carried, lest any stoppage might render necessary the
extraction of the nipple.
The charge of powder in ordinary use for a No. 16 bore (which carried an
ounce spherical ball) was 1 1/2 dram, and the sights were adjusted for a
maximum range of 200 yards. Although at this distance considerable
accuracy could be attained at the target upon a quiet day, it was
difficult to shoot with any precision at an unmeasured range owing to
the high trajectory of the bullet. Thus for sporting purposes it was
absolutely essential that the hunter should be a first-rate judge of
distance in order to adjust the sights as required by the occasion. It
was accordingly rare to meet with a good rifle-shot fifty years ago.
Rifle-shooting was not the amusement sought by Englishmen, although in
Switzerland and Germany it was the ordinary pastime. In those countries
the match-rifle was immensely heavy, weighing, in many instances, 16
lbs., although the bullet was exceedingly small.
The idea of non-recoil was paramount as necessary to ensure accuracy.
It will be at once perceived that the rifle was a most inferior weapon,
failing through a low velocity, high trajectory, and weakness of
penetration.
In 1840, I had already devoted much attention to this subject, and I
drew a plan for an experimental rifle to burn a charge of powder so
large that it appeared preposterous to the professional opinions of the
trade. I was convinced that accuracy could be combined with power, and
that no power could be obtained without a corresponding expenditure of
powder. Trajectory and force would depend upon velocity; the latter must
depend upon the volume of gas generated by explosion.
The rifle was made by Gibbs of Bristol. The weight was 21 lbs., length
of barrel 36 inches, weight of spherical belted bullet 3 ounces, of
conical bullet 4 ounces, charge of powder 16 drams. The twist was one
full turn in the length of barrel. The rifling was an exceedingly deep
and broad groove (two grooves), which reduced the difficulty of loading
to a minimum, as the projecting belt enabled the bullet to catch the
channel instantly, and to descend easily when wrapped in a greased silk
patch without the necessity of hammering. The charge of powder was
inserted by inverting the rifle and passing up the loading-rod with an
ounce measure screwed to the end; this method prevented the powder from
adhering to the sides of the barrel, and thus fouling the grooves.
An extraordinary success attended this rifle, which became my colossal
companion for many years in wild sports with dangerous game. It will be
observed that the powder charge was one-third the weight of the
projectile, and not only a tremendous crushing power, but an
extraordinary penetration was obtained, never equalled by any rifle that
I have since possessed.
This weapon was in advance of the age, as it foreshadowed the modern
Express, and the principle was thoroughly established to my own
satisfaction, that a sporting rifle to be effective at a long range must
burn a heavy charge of powder, but the weight of the weapon should be in
due proportion to the strain of the explosion.
When I first visited Ceylon in 1845, there were several renowned
sportsmen who counted their slain elephants by many hundreds, but there
were no rifles. Ordinary smooth-bore shot-guns were the favourite
weapons, loaded invariably with a double charge of powder and a hardened
ball. In those days the usual calibre of a gun was No. 14 or 16. A No.
12 was extremely rare. The charge for No. 16 was 2 3/4 drams of fine
grain powder, and drams for No. 12. Accordingly, the light guns, or
"fowling-pieces," as they were termed, were severely tested by a charge
of 6 drams of the strongest powder with a hardened bullet; nevertheless
I never heard of any failure.
At a short range the velocity and penetration of an ounce spherical
ball, with the heavy powder charge, were immense, but beyond 50 yards
the accuracy was imperfect.
I believe I was the first to introduce rifles into Ceylon, which were
then regarded by the highest authorities in the island as impractical
innovations, too difficult to sight, whereas an ordinary gun could be
used with ball more quickly in taking a snap-shot.
The rifles which I had provided were heavy, the 3 ounce already
mentioned, 21 lbs., and a long 2 ounce by Blisset, 16 lbs. The latter
was a polygroove, the powder charge only 1 1/2 dram when I originally
purchased it. It was wonderfully accurate at short ranges with the small
charge, which I quickly increased to 6 drams, thereby losing accuracy,
but multiplying velocity.
Twelve months' experience with elephants and buffaloes decided me to
order a battery of double-barrelled rifles, No. 10, two-grooved, with 6
drams of fine grain powder, and spherical-belted bullets. These were
most satisfactory, and they became the starting-point for future
experiments.
Shortly before the Crimean War, the musket was abolished, and about 1853
the British army was armed throughout with rifles. The difficulty of a
military rifle lay in the rapid fouling of the barrel, which
necessitated a bullet too small to expand sufficiently to fill the
grooves; this resulted in inaccuracy. Even if the bullet were properly
fitted, it became impossible to load when the barrel began to foul after
a few discharges.
At that time I submitted a plan to the authorities which simplified the
difficulty, and having left the pattern bullet at Woolwich, it quickly
appeared with a slight modification as the "Boxer bullet." My plan
designed a cone hollowed at the base. The bullet was a size smaller than
the bore, which enabled it to slide easily down the barrel when foul.
The hollow base fitted upon a cone of boxwood pointed at the insertion,
but broad at the base, which was larger than the diameter of the hollow
in the bullet. It may be easily understood that although this compound
bullet was smaller than the bore of the rifle, a blow with the ramrod
after loading would drive the conical bullet upon the larger diameter of
the boxwood cone, which, acting like a wedge, would expand the lead,
thus immediately secured within the barrel. The expansion when fired
drove the boxwood into the centre of the bullet, which of necessity took
the rifling.
The Boxer bullet superseded the boxwood plug by the use of a piece of
burnt clay, which was less expensive and equally serviceable.
Before breechloaders were invented, we were obliged to fit out a regular
battery of four double rifles for such dangerous game as elephants,
buffaloes, etc., as the delay in re-loading was most annoying and might
lead to fatal accidents.
In hot damp climates it became necessary to fire off and clean the
entire battery every evening, lest a miss-fire should be the consequence
upon the following morning from the condensation of moisture in the
nipple during night. This was not only great trouble and a wasteful
expenditure of ammunition, but the noise of so many loud reports just at
the hour when wild animals were on the move, alarmed the country.
Trustworthy gun-carriers are always difficult to procure, and it was by
no means uncommon that in moments of danger, when the spare rifles were
required, the gun-bearers had bolted from the scene, and the master was
deserted.
The introduction of breechloaders has made shooting a luxury, and has
obviated the necessity of a large battery of guns. For military purposes
the breechloader has manifold advantages--as the soldier can load while
lying down, and keep up a rapid fire from a secure cover. It was
remarked during the Crimean War that a large proportion of wounded men
were struck in the right arm, which would have been raised above the
head when loading the old-fashioned rifle, and was thus prominently
exposed.
It is not my intention to enter into the minutiae of military rifles,
but I cannot resist the satisfaction with which I regard the triumph of
the small-bore which I advocated through the columns of the Times in
1865, at a time when the idea was opposed by nearly all authorities as
impracticable, owing to the alleged great drawback of rapid fouling.
There can be no doubt that the charge of 70 grains with a small-bore
bullet, '303, will have a lower trajectory (higher velocity
(equivalent to long range)) than a heavier projectile, '450, with the
additional advantage of a minimum recoil.
The earliest in the field of progress was the old-established firm of
Purdey and Co. Mr. Purdey, before the general introduction of
breechloaders, brought out an Express rifle, No. 70 bore, with a
mechanically fitting two-groove solid bullet. This small projectile was
a well-pointed cone weighing exactly 200 grains, with a powder charge of
110 grains, more than half the weight of the bullet. The extremely high
velocity of this rifle expanded the pure soft lead upon impact with the
skin and muscles of a red deer. At the same time there was no loss of
substance in the metal, as the bullet, although much disfigured,
remained intact, and continued its course of penetration, causing great
havoc by its increased surface. Nothing has surpassed this rifle in
velocity, although so many improvements have taken place since the
introduction of breechloaders, but in the days of muzzle-loaders it was
a satisfaction to myself that I was the first to commence the heavy
charge of powder with the 3 ounce bullet and 16 drams, to be followed
after many years by so high an authority as Mr. Purdey with a 200 grain
bullet and 110 grains of powder, thus verifying the principle of my
earliest experience.
This principle is now universally accepted, and charges of powder are
used, as a rule, which forty years ago would have been regarded as
impossible.
The modern breechloader in the hands of a well-trained soldier should be
a most deadly weapon, nevertheless we do not find a greater percentage
of destruction among the numbers engaged than resulted from the old
Brown Bess. The reason is obvious: battles are now fought at long
ranges, whereas in the early portion of the century fire was seldom
opened at a greater distance than 200 yards, and the actual struggle
terminated at close quarters.
A long-range rifle in the excitement of a hot action has several
disadvantages. The sights may have been set for 600 or 800 yards when
the enemy was at a distance, but should that interval be decreased by an
approach at speed, the sights would require an immediate readjustment,
otherwise the bullets would fly overhead, and the nearer the enemy
advanced, the safer he would be. Troops require most careful training
with the new weapons entrusted to their care. Although a rapidity of
fire if well directed must have a terrible result, there can be no
question that it engenders a wild excitement, and that a vast amount of
ammunition is uselessly expended, which, if reserved by slower but
steady shooting, would be far more deadly.
Although the difficulty is great in preventing troops from independent
firing when their blood is up in the heat of combat, the paramount duty
of an officer should be to control all wildness, and to insist upon
volleys in sections of companies by word of command, the sights of the
rifles being carefully adjusted, and a steady aim being taken at the
knees of the enemy.
There cannot be a better example than the advice upon this subject given
by the renowned General Wolfe (who was subsequently killed at the siege of
Quebec) to the 20th Regiment, of which he was Colonel, when England was
hourly expecting an invasion by the French:--... "There is no necessity
for firing very fast; ... a cool well-levelled fire with the pieces
carefully loaded is much more destructive than the quickest fire in
confusion."--At Canterbury, 17th December 1755.
This instruction should be sternly impressed upon the minds of all
soldiers, as it is the text upon which all admonitory addresses should
be founded. It must not be forgotten that General Wolfe's advice was
given to men armed with the old muzzle-loading Brown Bess (musket),
which at that time was provided with a lock of flint and steel.
Notwithstanding the slowness of fire necessitated by this antiquated
weapon, the General cautioned his men by the assurance, "There is no
necessity for firing very fast," etc., etc.
The breechloader is valuable through the power which exists, especially
with repeating rifles, for pouring in an unremitting fire whenever the
opportunity may offer, but under ordinary circumstances the fire should
be reserved with the care suggested by the advice of General Wolfe.
Small-bores have become the fashion of the day, and for military
purposes they are decidedly the best, as a greater amount of ammunition
can be carried by the soldier, while at the same time the range and
trajectory of his weapon are improved. The new magazine rifle adopted by
the Government is only '303, but this exceedingly small diameter will
contain 70 grains of powder with a bullet of hard alloy weighing 216
grains.
For sporting purposes the small-bore has been universally adopted, but I
cannot help thinking that like many other fashions, it has been carried
beyond the rules of common sense.
When upon entering a gunmaker's shop the inexperienced purchaser is
perplexed by the array of rifles and guns, varying in their characters
almost as much as human beings, he should never listen to the advice of
the manufacturer until he has asked himself what he really requires.
There are many things to be considered before an order should be
positively given. What is the rifle wanted for? What is the personal
strength of the purchaser? In what portion of the world is he going to
shoot? Will he be on foot, or will he shoot from horseback or from an
elephant? Will the game be dangerous, or will it be confined to deer,
etc.?
Not only the weapon but the ammunition will depend upon a reply to these
questions, and the purchaser should strongly resist the delusion that
any one particular description will be perfect as a so-called general
rifle. You may as well expect one kind of horse or one pattern of ship
to combine all the requirements of locomotion as to suppose that a
particular rifle will suit every variety of game or condition of
locality.
In South Africa accuracy is necessary at extremely long ranges for the
open plains, where antelopes in vast herds are difficult of approach. In
Indian jungles the game is seldom seen beyond fifty or sixty yards. In
America the stalking among the mountains is similar to that of the
Scottish Highlands, but upon a larger scale. In Central Africa the
distances are as uncertain as the quality of the animals that may be
encountered.
Upon the level plains of India, where the blackbuck forms the main
object of pursuit, extreme accuracy and long range combined are
necessary, with a hollow Express bullet that will not pass through the
body. How is it possible that any one peculiar form of rifle can combine
all these requirements? Rifles must be specially adapted for the animals
against which they are to be directed. I have nothing to do with the
purse, but I confine my remarks to the weapons and the game, and I shall
avoid technical expressions.
The generally recognised small-bores, all of which are termed "Express"
from the large charge of powder, are as follow:--
Small-bore Charge of Large- Charge of For all Game
Express. Powder. bores. Powder. such as*
'577 6 1/2 drams 4 bore 14 drams Elephants.
'500 5 1/2 " 8 " 14 " Rhinoceros.
'450 5 " 10 " 12 " Buffaloes.
'400 4 " 12 " 10 "
'360 Toys.
'295 Toys.
The two latter rifles, '360 and '295, are charming additions, and
although capable of killing deer are only to be recommended as
companions for a stroll but not to be classed as sporting rifles for
ordinary game. They are marvellously accurate, and afford great
satisfaction for shooting small animals and birds. The '360 may be used
for shooting black-buck, but I should not recommend it if the hunter
possesses a '400.
It would be impossible to offer advice that would suit all persons. I
can therefore only give a person opinion according to my own experience.
For all animals above the size of a fallow deer and below that of a
buffalo I prefer the '577 solid Express--648 grains solid bullet,--6
drams powder not 6 1/2, as the charge of only 6 drams produces greater
accuracy at long ranges.
The weight of this rifle should be 11 1/2 lbs., or not exceeding 12 lbs.
For smaller game, from fallow deer downwards, I prefer the '400 Express
with a charge of from 85 grains to 4 drams of powder--solid bullet,
excepting the case of black-buck, where, on account of numerous villages
on the plains, it is necessary that the bullet should not pass through
the body. The important question of weight is much in favour of the
'400, as great power and velocity are obtained by a weapon of only 8 1/2
lbs.
I should therefore limit my battery to one '577, one '400, and one
Paradox No. 12, for ordinary game in India, as elephants and other of
the larger animals require special outfit. The Paradox*, invented by
Colonel Fosberry and manufactured by Messrs. Holland and Holland of Bond
Street, is a most useful weapon, as it combines the shot-gun with a
rifle that is wonderfully accurate within a range of 100 yards. (* Since
this was written Messrs. Holland have succeeded after lengthened
experiments in producing a Paradox No. 8, which burns 10 drams of
powder, and carries a very heavy bullet with extreme accuracy. This will
be a new departure in weapons for heavy game.)
It is a smooth-bore slightly choked, but severely rifled for only 1 1/2
inch in length from the muzzle. This gives the spin to the projectile
sufficient to ensure accuracy at the distance mentioned.
The No. 12 Paradox weighs 84 lbs. and carries a bullet of 1 3/4 ounce
with 4 1/2 drams of powder. Although the powder charge is not sufficient
to produce a high express velocity, the penetration and shock are most
formidable, as the bullet is of hardened metal, and it retains its
figure even after striking a tough hide and bones. The advantage of such
a gun is obvious, as it enables a charge of buck-shot to be carried in
the left barrel, while the right is loaded with a heavy bullet that is
an admirable bone-smasher; it also supersedes the necessity of an extra
gun for small game, as it shoots No. 6 shot with equal pattern to the
best cylinder-bored gun.
There are many persons who prefer a '500 or a '450 Express to the '577
or the '400. I have nothing to say against them, but I prefer those I
have named, as the '577 is the most fatal weapon that I have ever used,
and with 6 or 6 1/2 drams of powder it is quite equal to any animal in
creation, provided the shot is behind the shoulder. This provision
explains my reason for insisting that all animals from a buffalo upwards
should be placed in a separate category, as it is frequently impossible
to obtain a shoulder shot, therefore the rifles for exceedingly heavy
game must be specially adapted for the work required, so as to command
them in every conceivable position.
I have shot with every size of rifle from a half pounder explosive
shell, and I do not think any larger bore is actually necessary than a
No. 8, with a charge of 12 or 14 drams of powder. Such a rifle should
weigh 15 lbs., and the projectile would weigh 3 ounces of hardened
metal.
The rifles that I have enumerated would be always double, but should the
elephant-hunter desire anything more formidable, I should recommend a
single barrel of 36 inches in length of bore, weighing 22 lbs., and
sighted most accurately to 400 yards. Such a weapon could be used by a
powerful man from the shoulder at the close range of fifty yards, or it
could be fired at long ranges upon a pivot rest, which would enable the
elephant-hunter to kill at a great distance by the shoulder shot when
the animals were in deep marshes or on the opposite side of a river. I
have frequently seen elephants in such positions when it was impossible
to approach within reasonable range. A rifle of this description would
carry a half-pound shell with an exploding charge of half an ounce of
fine grain powder and the propelling charge would be 16 drams. I had a
rifle that carried a similar charge, but unfortunately it was too short,
and was only sighted for 100 yards. Such a weapon can hardly be classed
among sporting rifles, but it would be a useful adjunct to the battery
of a professional hunter in Africa.
There can be little doubt that a man should not be overweighted, but
that every person should be armed in proportion to his physical
strength. If he is too light for a very heavy rifle he must select a
smaller bore; if he is afraid of a No. 8 with 14 drams, he must be
content with a No. 12 and 10 drams, but although he may be successful
with the lighter weapon, he must not expect the performance will equal
that of the superior power.
It may therefore be concluded that for a man of ordinary strength, the
battery for the heaviest game should be a pair of double No. 8 rifles
weighing 14 or 15 lbs. to burn from 12 to 14 drams of powder, with a
hardened bullet of 3 ounces. Such a rifle will break the bones of any
animal from an elephant downwards, and would rake a buffalo from end to
end, which is a matter of great importance when the beast is charging.
Although the rifle is now thoroughly appreciated, and sportsmen of
experience have accepted the Express as embodying the correct principle
of high velocity, I differ with many persons of great authority in the
quality of projectiles, which require as much consideration as the
pattern of the gun.
The Express rifle is a term signifying velocity, and this is generally
accompanied by a hollow bullet which is intended to serve two purposes--
to lighten the bullet, and therefore to reduce the work of the powder,
and to secure an expansion and smash-up of the lead upon impact with the
animal. I contend that the smashing up of the bullet is a mistake,
excepting in certain cases such as I have already mentioned, where the
animal is small and harmless like the black-buck, which inhabits level
plains in the vicinity of population, and where the bullet would be
exceedingly dangerous should it pass through the antelope and ricochet
into some unlucky village.
As I have already advised the purchaser of a rifle to consider the
purpose for which he requires the weapon, in like manner I would suggest
that he should reflect upon the special purpose for which he requires
the bullet. He should ask himself the questions--"What is a bullet?"
and "What is the duty of a bullet?"
A bullet is generally supposed to be a projectile capable of retaining
its component parts in their integrity. The duty of the bullet is to
preserve its direct course; it should possess a power of great
penetration, should not be easily deflected, and together with
penetrating power it should produce a stunning effect by an overpowering
striking energy.
How are we to combine these qualities? If the projectile has great
penetrating force it will pass completely through an animal, and the
striking energy will be diminished, as the force that should have been
expended upon the body is expending itself in propelling the bullet
after it has passed through the body. This must be wrong, as it is
self-evident that the striking energy or knock-down blow must depend
upon the resistance which the body offers to the projectile. If the
bullet remains within it, the striking energy; complete and entire,
without any waste whatever, remains within the body struck. If,
therefore, a bullet '577 of 648 grains propelled by 6 drams of powder
has at fifty yards a striking energy of 3500 foot pounds, that force is
expended upon the object struck,--provided it is stopped by the
opposing body.
We should therefore endeavour to prevent the bullet from passing through
an animal, if it is necessary to concentrate the full power of the
projectile upon the resisting body.
This is one reason adduced in favour of the hollow Express bullet, which
smashes up into minute films of lead when it strikes the hard muscles of
an animal, owing to its extreme velocity, and the weakness of its parts
through the hollowness of its centre.
I contend, on the contrary, that the bullet has committed suicide by
destroying itself, although its fragments may have fatally torn and
injured the vital organs of the wounded animal. The bullet has ceased to
exist, as it is broken into fifty shreds; therefore it is dead, as it is
no longer a compact body,--in fact, it has disappeared, although the
actual striking energy of a very inferior bullet may have been expended
upon the animal.
If the animal is small and harmless, this should be the desired result.
If, on the other hand, the animal should be large and dangerous, there
cannot be a greater mistake than the hollow Express projectile.
I have frequently heard persons of great experience dilate with
satisfaction upon the good shots made with their little '450 hollow
Express exactly behind the shoulder of a tiger or some other animal. I
have also heard of their failures, which were to themselves sometimes
incomprehensible. A solid Express '577 NEVER fails if the direction is
accurate towards a vital part. The position of the animal does not
signify; if the hunter has a knowledge of comparative anatomy (which he
must have, to be a thoroughly successful shot) he can make positively
certain of his game at a short distance, as the solid bullet will crash
through muscle, bone, and every opposing obstacle to reach the fatal
organ. If the animal be a tiger, lion, bear, or leopard, the bullet
should have the power to penetrate, but it should not pass completely
through. If it should be a wapiti, or sambur stag, the bullet should
also remain within, retained in all cases under the skin upon the side
opposite to that of entrance. How is this to be managed by the same
rifle burning the same charge of powder with a solid bullet?
The penetration must be arranged by varying the material of the bullet.
A certain number of cartridges should be loaded with bullets of extreme
hardness, intended specially for large thick-skinned animals; other
bullets should be composed of softer metal, which would expand upon the
resisting muscles but would not pass completely through the skin upon
the opposite side. The cartridges would be coloured for distinction.
If the metal is pure lead, the bullet '577, with an initial velocity of
1650 feet per second, will assuredly assume the form of a button
mushroom immediately upon impact, and it will increase in diameter as it
meets with resistance upon its course until, when expended beneath the
elastic hide upon the opposite side, it will have become fully spread
like a mature mushroom, instead of the button shape that it had assumed
on entrance. I prefer pure lead for tigers, lions, sambur deer, wapiti,
and such large animals which are not thick-skinned, as the bullet alters
its form and nevertheless remains intact, the striking energy being
concentrated within the body.
The difference in the striking energy of a hollow bullet from that of a
solid projectile is enormous, owing to the inequality in weight. The
hollow bullet wounds mortally, but it does not always kill neatly. I
have seen very many instances where the '500 hollow Express with 5 drams
of powder has struck an animal well behind the shoulder, or sometimes
through the shoulder, and notwithstanding the fatal wound, the beast has
galloped off as though untouched, for at least a hundred yards, before
it fell suddenly, and died.
This is clumsy shooting. The solid bullet of pure lead would have killed
upon the spot, as the bullet would have retained its substance although
it altered its form, and the shock would have been more severe, The
hollow bullet exhibits a peculiar result in a post-mortem examination:
the lungs may be hopelessly torn and ragged, the liver and the heart may
be also damaged, all by the same projectile, because it has been
converted into small shot immediately upon impact. Frequently a minute
hole will be observed upon the entrance, and within an inch beneath the
skin a large aperture will be seen where an explosion appears to have
taken place by the breaking-up of the lead, all of which has splashed
into fragments scattering in every direction.
Common sense will suggest that although such a bullet will kill, it is
not the sort of weapon to stop a dangerous animal when in full charge.
Weak men generally prefer the hollow Express because the rifle is
lighter and handier than the more formidable weapon, and the recoil is
not so severe, owing to the lightness of the bullet.
My opinion may be expressed in a few words. If you wish the bullet to
expand, use soft lead, but keep the metal solid. If you wish for great
penetration, use hard solid metal, either 1/10 tin or 1/13 quicksilver.
Even this will alter its form against the bones of a buffalo, but either
of the above will go clean through a wapiti stag, and would kill another
beyond it should the rifle be '577 fired with 6 drams of powder.
The same rifle will not drive a soft leaden solid bullet through a male
tiger if struck directly through the shoulder; it will be found
flattened to a mushroom form beneath the skin upon the other side,
having performed its duty effectively, by killing the tiger upon the
spot, and retaining intact the metal of which it was composed.
A post-mortem inquiry in the latter case would be most satisfactory. If
the bullet shall have struck fair upon the shoulder-joint, it will be
observed that although it has retained its substance, the momentum has
been conveyed to every fragment of crushed bone, which will have been
driven forward through the lungs like a charge of buckshot, in addition
to the havoc created by the large diameter of an expanded '577 bullet.
Both shoulders will have been completely crushed, and the animal must of
course be rendered absolutely helpless. This is a sine qua non in all
shooting. Do not wound, but kill outright; and this you will generally
do with a '577 solid bullet of pure lead, or with a Paradox bullet 1 3/4
ounces hard metal and 4 1/2 drams of powder. This very large bullet is
sufficiently formidable to require no expansion.
Gunmakers will not advise the use of pure lead for bullets, as it is apt
to foul the barrel by its extreme softness, which leaves a coating of
the metal upon the surface of the rifling. For military purposes this
objection would hold good, but so few shots are fired at game during the
day, that no disadvantage could accrue, and the rifle would of course be
cleaned every evening.
The accidents which unfortunately so often happen to the hunters of
dangerous game may generally be traced to the defect in the rifles
employed. If a shooter wishes to amuse himself in Scotland among the
harmless red deer, let him try any experiments that may please him; but
if he is a man like so many who leave the shores of Great Britain for
the wild jungles of the East, or of Africa, let him at once abjure
hollow bullets if he seeks dangerous game. Upon this subject I press my
opinion, as I feel the immense responsibility of advice should any
calamity occur. It is only a few months since the lamented Mr. Ingram
was killed by an elephant in the Somali country, through using a '450
Express hollow bullet against an animal that should at least have been
attacked with a No. 10. I submit the question to any admirer of the
hollow Express. "If he is on foot, trusting only to his rifle for
protection, would he select a hollow Express, no matter whether '577,
'500, or '450; or would he prefer a solid bullet to withstand a
dangerous charge?"
India is a vast empire, and various portions, according to the
conditions of localities, have peculiar customs for the conduct of wild
sports. In dense jungles, where it would be impossible to see the game
if on foot, there is no other way of obtaining a shot except by driving.
The gunners are in such case placed at suitable intervals upon platforms
called mucharns, securely fitted between convenient forks among the
branches of a tree, about 10 or 12 feet above the ground. From this
point of vantage the gunner can see without being seen and, thoroughly
protected from all danger, he may amuse himself by comparing the success
of his shooting with the hollow Express or with the solid bullet at the
animals that pass within his range, which means a limit of about 50
yards. I contend that at the short distance named; a tiger should NEVER
escape from a solid bullet; he often escapes from the hollow bullet for
several reasons.
It must be remembered that animals are rarely seen distinctly in a thick
jungle, countless twigs and foliage intercept the bullet, and the view,
although patent to both open eyes, becomes misty and obscure when you
shut one eye and squint along the barrel. You then discover that
although you can see the dim shadow of your game, your bullet will have
to cut its way through at least twenty twigs before it can reach its
goal. A solid bullet may deflect slightly, but it will generally deliver
its message direct, unless the opposing objects are more formidable than
ordinary small branches. A hollow bullet from an Express rifle will fly
into fragments should it strike a twig the size of the little finger.
This is quite sufficient to condemn the hollow projectile without any
further argument.
While writing the above, I have received the Pioneer, 24th June 1888,
which gives the following account of an escape from a tiger a few weeks
ago by Mr. Cuthbert Fraser, and no better example could be offered to
prove the danger of a hollow bullet. It will be seen that a solid bullet
would have killed the tiger on the spot, as it would have penetrated to
the brain, instead of which it broke into the usual fragments when
striking the hard substance of the teeth, and merely destroyed one eye.
The bullet evidently splashed up without breaking the jaw, as the
wounded animal was not only capable of killing the orderly, but Mr.
Fraser "heard, in fact, the crunching of the man's bones." He says "that
he felt that he had the tiger dead when he fired, but the Express bullet
unfortunately broke up." He had fired the left-hand barrel into the
tiger's chest without the slightest result in checking the onset; had
that been a solid bullet it would have penetrated to the heart or lungs.
ADVENTURE WITH A TIGER.
The following experience of a sportsman in the Deccan is from the
Secunderabad paper of 14th June 1888:--
"Mr. Cuthbert Fraser had a most miraculous escape from a
tiger the other day at Amraoti. The lucky hero of this
adventure is a District Superintendent of Police in Berar.
He is well remembered in Secunderabad as Superintendent of
the Cantonment Police before Mr. Crawford. A son of Colonel
Hastings Fraser, one of the Frasers of Lovat, he has proved
his possession of that nerve and courage which rises to the
emergency of danger--on which qualities more than all else
the British Empire in India has been built, and on which,
after all is said, in the last resort, it must be still held
to rest. To quote the graphic account of a correspondent,
the escape was about as narrow as was ever had. Mr. Fraser
was told by his orderly that the tiger was lying dead with
his head on the root of a tree. The orderly having called
him up, he went to the spot. Mr. Fraser then sent the
orderly and another man with the second gun back, and knelt
down to look. Just then the tiger roared and came at him
from about eighteen feet off: he waited till the tiger was
within five feet of him and fired. As the tiger did not
drop, he fired his second shot hurriedly. The first shot had
hit exactly in the centre of the face but just an inch too
low. It knocked the tiger's right eye out and smashed all
the teeth of that side of the jaw. The second shot struck
the tiger in the chest, but too low. What happened then Mr.
Fraser does not exactly know, but he next found himself
lying in front of the tiger, one claw of the beast's right
foot being hooked into his left leg, in this way trying to
draw Mr. Fraser towards him; the other paw was on his right
leg. Mr. Fraser's chin and coat were covered with foam from
the beast's mouth. He tried hard to draw himself out of the
tiger's clutches. Fortunately the beast was not able to see
him, as Mr. Fraser was a little to one side on the animal's
blind side and the tiger's head was up. Suddenly seeing Mr.
Fraser's orderly bolting, he jumped up and went for the man,
and catching him he killed him on the spot. Mr. Fraser had
lost his hat, rifle, and all his cartridges, which had
tumbled out of his pocket. He jumped up, however, and ran to
the man who had his second gun, and to do so had to go
within eight paces of the spot where the tiger was crouching
over his orderly. He heard, in fact, the crunching of the
man's bones and saw the tiger biting the back of the head.
He now took the gun from his man. The latter said that he
had fired both barrels into the tiger--one when he was
crouching over Mr. Fraser, and the other when he was over
the prostrate body of the orderly. The man had fired well
and true, but just too far back, in his anxiety not to hit
the man he would save, instead of the tiger. When afterwards
asked if he was not afraid to hit the Sahib, 'I was very
much afraid indeed,' he replied, 'but dil mazbut karke
lagaya: I nerved myself for the occasion.' 'A good man and
true!' a high officer writes, 'who after firing never moved
an inch till Mr. Fraser came to him, although close to the
tiger all the while. He is one of the Gawilghur Rajputs--a
brave race, Ranjit Singh, a good name.' The man said he had
no more cartridges left and so they both got a little
farther from the tiger, as the orderly was evidently done
for. Afterwards they found one more cartridge for the gun
and tried to recover the body, but it was no use. The tiger
was lying close, most of the buffaloes had bolted and the
Kurkoos would not help. Mr. Fraser then sent six miles off
for an elephant. But the animal did not arrive till dark, so
Mr. Fraser went home in great grief about the poor orderly
and at having to leave the body. His own wound was bleeding
a great deal, it being a deep claw gash. Next day they got
the body and the tiger dead, lying close to each other.
Perhaps no narrower escape than Mr. Fraser's has ever been
heard of. To the excellent shot which knocked the beast's
eye out he undoubtedly owes his life. He says that he felt
that he had the tiger dead when he fired, but the Express
bullet unfortunately broke up. Probably, he thinks a 12-bore
would have reached the brain."
I could produce numerous instances where failures have occurred, and I
know sportsmen of long experience who have given up the use of hollow
bullets except against such small game as black-buck and other antelopes
or deer.
So much for the Express hollow bullet, after which it is at the option
of all persons to please themselves; but personally I should decline the
company of any friend who wished to join me in the pursuit of dangerous
game if armed with such an inferior weapon. In another portion of this
volume I shall produce a striking instance of the result.
The magazine rifle, which is destined to become the military arm of the
future, can hardly merit a place among sporting rifles, as it must
always possess the disadvantage of altering its balance as the
ammunition is expended. The Winchester Company have, I believe, produced
a great improvement in a rifle of this kind, '400, which carries a
charge of 110 grains of powder; but even so small a bore must be unhandy
if the rifle is arranged to contain a supply of cartridges. For my own
use I am quite contented with one '577, a '400, and a No. 12 Paradox -
all solid bullets, but varying in hardness of metal according to the
quality of game; for the largest animals a pair of No. 8 rifles with
hard bullets and 14 drams of powder.
I can say nothing more concerning rifles for the practical use of
sportsmen, although a volume might be devoted to their history and
development. Shot guns are too well understood to merit a special
notice.
CHAPTER II
THE ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS)
This animal has interested mankind more than any other, owing to the
peculiar combination of immense proportions with extraordinary sagacity.
The question has frequently been raised "Whether the elephant or the dog
should be accepted as superior in intelligence?" My own experience would
decide without hesitation--The Dog is man's companion; the Elephant is
his slave.
We all know the attachment and fidelity of the dog, who appears to have
been created specially to become the friend of the human race. He
attaches himself equally to the poor man and the rich, and shares our
fortunes "for better, for worse," clinging with heroic loyalty to his
master when all other friends may have abandoned him. The power of
memory is wonderfully exhibited, considering the shortness of life which
Nature, by some mischance has accorded to man's best friend.
"While thus Florinda spake, the dog who lay Before Rusilla's feet,
eyeing him long And wistfully, had recognised at length, Changed as he
was and in those sordid weeds, His royal master. And he rose and lick'd
His withered hand, and earnestly looked up With eyes whose human meaning
did not need The aid of speech; and moan'd, as if at once To court and
chide the long-withheld caress... . . . . . . . Disputing, he withdrew.
The watchful dog Followed his footsteps close. But he retired Into the
thickest grove; there yielding way To his o'erburthen'd nature, from all
eyes Apart, he cast himself upon the ground, And threw his arms around
the dog, and cried While tears stream'd down. Thou Theron, thou hast
known Thy poor lost master... Theron, only thou!"--
Southey's "Roderick, last of the Goths."
In case of danger the dog will defend his master, guided by his own
unaided intelligence; he at once detects and attacks the enemy. In wild
sports he *shares the delight of hunting equally with his master, and
the two are inseparable allies. The day is over, and he lies down and
sleeps before the fire at his master's feet, and dreams of the dangers
and exploits; he is a member of his master's household.
The elephant is, in my opinion, overrated. He can be educated to
perform certain acts, but he would never volunteer his services. There
is no elephant that I ever saw who would spontaneously interfere to save
his master from drowning or from attack. An enemy might assassinate you
at the feet of your favourite elephant, but he would never attempt to
interfere in your defence; he would probably run away, or remain
impassive, unless guided and instructed by his mahout. This is
incontestable; the elephant will do nothing useful unless he is
specially ordered to perform a certain work or movement.
While condemning this apathetic character, we must admit that in the
elephant the power of learning is extraordinary, and that it can be
educated to perform wonders; but such performances are only wonderful as
proving the necessary force of direction and guidance by a superior
power, to which the animal is amenable.
I have had very many years' experience with elephants, both Asiatic and
African, and in my opinion they are naturally timid. Although in a wild
state the males are more or less dangerous, especially in Africa, the
herd of elephants will generally retreat should they even wind an unseen
enemy. This timidity is increased by domestication, and it is difficult
to obtain an elephant sufficiently staunch to withstand the attack of
any wild animal. They will generally turn tail, and not only retreat
gracefully, but will run in a disgraceful panic, to the great danger of
their riders should the locality be forest.
The difference in species is distinct between the Asiatic and the
African. It is at all times difficult to give the measurement of a dead
animal, especially when so enormous, as the pressure of weight when
alive would reduce the height afforded by measurement when the body is
horizontal.
The well-known African elephant Jumbo that was sold to America by the
Zoological Society of London, was brought up in confinement since its
early existence, when it was about 4 feet 6 inches high. That elephant
was carefully weighed and measured before it left England, with the
result, of height at shoulder, 11 feet; weight, six tons and a half. The
girth of the fore-foot when the pressure of the animal's weight was
exerted, was exactly half the perpendicular height of the elephant. I
have seen very much larger animals in Africa, but there is nothing in
India to approach the size of Jumbo.
There is no reason why the African elephants should not be tamed and
made useful, but the difficulty lies in obtaining them in any great
numbers. The natives of Africa are peculiarly savage, and their
instincts of destruction prevent them from capturing and domesticating
any wild animals. During nine years' experience of Central Africa I
never saw a tamed creature of any kind, not even a bird, or a young
antelope in possession of a child. The tame elephant would be especially
valuable to an explorer, as it could march through streams too deep for
the passage of oxen, and in swimming rivers it would be proof against
the attacks of crocodiles. So few African elephants have been tamed in
proportion to those of Asia that it would be difficult to pronounce an
opinion upon their character when domesticated, but it is generally
believed by their trainers that the Indian species is more gentle and
amenable to discipline. The power of the African is far in excess of the
Asiatic. Nine feet at the highest portion of the back is a good height
for an Indian male, and eight feet for the female, although occasionally
they are considerably larger. There are hardly any elephants that
measure ten feet in a direct perpendicular, although the mahouts pretend
to fictitious heights by measuring with a tape or cord from the spine,
including the curve of the body.
As Jumbo was proved to have attained the height of eleven feet although
in captivity from infancy, it may be easily imagined that in a wild
state the African elephant will attain twelve feet, or even more. I have
myself seen many animals that would have exceeded this, although it
would be impossible to estimate their height with accuracy.
The shape of the African variety is very peculiar, and differs in a
remarkable manner from the Asiatic. The highest point is the shoulder,
and the back is hollow; in the Indian the back is convex, and the
shoulder is considerably lower. The head of the African is quite unlike
that of the Indian; and the ears, which in the former are enormous,
completely cover the shoulder when thrown back. The best direction for a
vital shot at an African elephant is at the extremity of the ear when
flapped against the side. A bullet thus placed will pass through the
centre of the lungs. The Indian elephant has many more laminae in the
teeth than the African, constituting a larger grinding surface, as the
food is different. The African feeds upon foliage and the succulent
roots of the mimosa and other trees, which it digs up with its powerful
tusks; the forests are generally evergreen, and being full of sap, the
bark is easier to masticate than the skeleton trees of India during the
hottest season. Both the Indian and African varieties have only four
teeth, composed of laminae of intensely hard enamel, divided by a softer
substance which prevents the surface from becoming smooth with age; the
two unequal materials retain their inequality in wear, therefore the
rough grinding surface is maintained notwithstanding the work of many
years. A gland at the posterior of the jaw supplies a tooth-forming
matter, and the growth of fresh laminae is continuous throughout life;
the younger laminae form into line, and march forward until incorporated
and solidified in the tooth.
It is impossible to define exactly the limit of old age, as there can be
little doubt that captivity shortens the duration of life to a great
degree. We can only form an opinion from the basis of growth when young.
As an elephant cannot be fully developed in the perfection of ivory
until the age of forty, I should accept that age in a wild animal as the
period of a starting-point in life, and I should imagine that the term
of existence would be about a hundred and fifty years.
The life of an elephant in captivity is exactly opposed to its natural
habits. A wild Indian elephant dreads the sun, and is seldom to be found
exposed in the open after dawn of day. It roams over the country in all
directions during night, and seeks the shelter of a forest about an hour
before the sun rises. It feeds heartily, but wastefully, tearing down
branches, half of which it leaves untouched; it strips the bark off
those trees which it selects as tasteful, but throws wilfully away a
considerable portion. Throughout the entire night the elephant is
feeding, and it is curious to observe how particular this animal is in
the choice of food. Most wild animals possess a certain amount of
botanical knowledge which guides them in their grazing; the only
exception is the camel, who would poison himself through sheer ignorance
and depraved appetite, but the elephant is most careful in its selection
of all that is suitable to its requirements. It is astonishing how few
of the forest trees are attractive to this animal. Some are tempting
from their foliage, others from their bark (vide the powerfully
astringent Catechu), some from the succulent roots, and several
varieties from the wood, which is eaten like the sugar-cane. There is
one kind of tree the wood of which alone is eaten after the rind has
been carefully stripped off.
The elephant, being in its wild state a nocturnal animal, must be able
to distinguish the various qualities of trees by the senses of smell and
touch, as in the darkness of a forest during night it would be
impossible to distinguish the leaves. There are few creatures who
possess so delicate a sense of smell; wild elephants will wind an enemy
at a distance of a thousand yards, or even more, should the breeze be
favourable. The nerves of the trunk are peculiarly sensitive, and
although the skin is thick, the smallest substance can be discovered,
and picked up by the tiny proboscis at the extremity.
A wound upon any portion of the trunk must occasion intense pain, and
the animal instinctively coils the lower portion beneath its chest when
attacked by a tiger. This delicacy of nerve renders the elephant
exceedingly timid after being wounded, and it is a common and
regrettable occurrence that an elephant which has been an excellent
shikar animal before it has been injured, becomes useless to face a
tiger after it has been badly clawed. I cannot understand the
carelessness of an owner who thus permits a good elephant to work
unprotected. In ancient days the elephants were armoured for warlike
purposes to protect them from spears and javelins, and nothing can be
easier than to arrange an elastic protective hood, which would
effectually safeguard the trunk and head from the attack of any animal.
I had an excellent hood arranged for a large tusker which was lent to me
by the Commissariat. The first layer of material was the soft but thick
buff leather of sambur deer. This entirely covered the head, and was
laced beneath the throat; at the same time it was secured by a broad
leather strap and buckle around the neck. A covering for about three
feet from the base of the trunk descended from the face and was also
secured by lacing. The lower portion of the trunk was left unprotected,
as the animal would immediately guard against danger by curling it up
when attacked. Upon this groundwork of buff leather I had plates of
thick and hard buffalo hide, tanned, overlapping like slates upon a
roof. This armour was proof against either teeth or claws, as neither
could hold upon the slippery and yielding hard surface of the leather
tiles; at the same time the elephant could move its trunk with ease. Two
circular apertures were cut out for the eyes, about six inches in
diameter.
An elephant, if well trained, would be sufficiently sagacious to
appreciate this protection should it find itself unharmed after a home
charge by a tiger or other dangerous beast; and such a quality of armour
would add immensely to its confidence and steadiness.
Although the elephant is of enormous strength it is more or less a
delicate animal, and is subject to a variety of ailments. A common
disease is a swelling in the throat, which in bad cases prevents it from
feeding. Another complaint resembles gout in the legs, which swell to a
distressing size, and give exquisite pain, especially when touched. This
attack is frequently occasioned by allowing elephants, after a long
march under a hot sun, to wade belly-deep in cool water in order to
graze upon the aquatic vegetation.
Few animals suffer more from the sun's rays than the elephant, whose
nature prompts it to seek the deepest shade. Its dark colour and immense
surface attract an amount of heat which becomes almost insupportable to
the unfortunate creature when forced to carry a heavy load during the
hot season in India. Even without a greater weight than its rider, the
elephant exhibits signs of distress when marching after 9 a.m. At such
times it is disagreeable, as the animal has a peculiar habit of sucking
water through the trunk from a supply contained within the stomach, and
this it syringes with great force between its fore legs, and against its
flanks to cool its sides with the ejected spray. The rider receives a
portion of the fluid in his face, and as the action is repeated every
five minutes, or less, the operation is annoying.
It is a curious peculiarity in the elephant that it is enabled to suck
up water at discretion simply by doubling the trunk far down the throat,
and the fluid thus procured has no disagreeable smell, although taken
direct from the creature's stomach. In every way the elephant is
superior to most animals in the freedom from any unpleasant odour. Its
skin is sweet, and the hand retains no smell whatever, although you may
have caressed the trunk or any other portion of the body. It is well
known that a horse is exceedingly strong in odour, and that nothing is
more objectionable than the close proximity of a stable, or even of a
large number of horses picqueted in the open,--I have frequently been
camped where fifty or sixty elephants were for several days in the same
position within a hundred yards of the tents, and still there was no
offensive scent.
The food of an elephant is always fresh and clean, and the digestive
functions are extremely rapid. The mastication is a rough system of
grinding, and the single stomach and exceedingly short intestines
simplify the process of assimilation. The rapidity of the food passage
necessitates a consumption of a large amount, and no less than six
hundred pounds of fodder is the proper daily allowance for an elephant.
There have been frequent discussions upon the important subject of
elephant-feeding. Mr. G. P. Sanderson, the superintendent of the keddah
department in Assam, has declared against the necessity of allowing a
ration of grain in addition to the usual fodder. This must naturally
depend upon the quality of the green food. If the locality abounds in
plantains, the stems of those plants are eagerly devoured, and every
portion except the outside rind is nourishing. Even then the waste is
excessive should the stems be heedlessly thrown down before the animal.
It will immediately proceed to strip long fibrous ribbons from the stem
by placing one foot upon the extremity, and then tearing off the
alternate layers like the skin of an onion. These it converts into
playthings, throwing them over its back and neck until it is dressed in
dangling necklaces, which by degrees, after serving as toys, are
ultimately devoured. The proper method of feeding an elephant with
plantains where an allowance of rice is added, is by splitting the
entire stem through the centre, and then cutting it into transverse
sections about two feet in length. As each layer is detached, it
resembles a delicately coloured trough, nearly white; this is doubled up
in the centre and it at once forms a hollow tube, similar to a very
thick drain tile. A handful of rice is placed within, and it is secured
by tying with a fibrous strip from the plantain stem. A large pile of
these neat packages is prepared for every elephant, and, when ready, the
mahout sits by the heap and hands the parcels one by one to the
ever-expectant trunk.
The delicacy of an elephant's palate is extraordinary, and the whims of
the creature are absurd in the selection or rejection of morsels which
it prefers or dislikes. I once saw a peculiar instance of this in an
elephant that belonged to the police at Dhubri on the Brahmaputra. This
animal had a large allowance of rice, therefore about three-quarters of
a pound were placed within each tube of plantain stem. A lady offered
the elephant, when being fed, a very small sweet biscuit, about an inch
and a half in diameter. This was accepted in the trunk, but almost
immediately rejected and thrown upon the ground. The mahout, fearing
that his elephant had behaved rudely in thus refusing a present from a
lady's hand, picked up the biscuit and inserted it in the next parcel of
rice and plantain stem. This was placed within the elephant's mouth. At
the first crunch the animal showed evident signs of disgust, and at once
spat out the whole of the contents. There lay a complete ruin of the
neat package, which had been burst by the power of the great jaws; but
among the scattered rice that had been ejected we perceived the biscuit
which had caused the second instance of bad behaviour. So utterly
disgusted was the elephant with this tiny foreign substance that it
endeavoured to cleanse its mouth from every grain of rice, as though
polluted by the contact, and for several minutes it continued to insert
its trunk and rake out each atom from its tongue and throat.
The adaptation of the trunk to many purposes is very interesting. I had
an elephant who would eat every particle of rice in a round bamboo
basket by sucking it up the trunk and then blowing it into its mouth.
The basket was close-grained and smooth inside, but although brimful at
the commencement of operations, it was emptied by the elephant as though
it had been cleansed with a dry sponge.
A distinct rule for feeding elephants cannot be laid down without
exceptions rendered necessary by peculiarities of localities and the
amount of hard work required from the animal. If the elephant is simply
turned out to grass for a season, it will thrive upon such natural
herbage as bamboos, the foliage of the banyan, peepul, and other
varieties of the Ficus family; but if it is expected to travel and
perform good work, it is usual in the Commissariat department to allow
each elephant seven and a half seers of flour, equal to 15 lbs.
avoirdupois. In addition to this, 600 lbs. of green fodder are given,
and about 1 lb. of ghee (buffalo butter), with salt and jaggery (native
sugar). During a jungle expedition I have always doubled the allowance
of flour to 30 lbs. daily for each animal. This is made into large flat
cakes like Scotch "scones," weighing 2 lbs. each. The elephants are fed
at about an hour before sunset, and then taken to drink water before
actual night. Cleanliness is indispensable to the good health and
condition of the elephant. It should bathe daily, and the entire body
should be well scoured with a piece of brick or a soft quality of
sandstone. This operation is much enjoyed, and the huge animal, obeying
the command, lies down upon its side and accommodates its carcase to the
scrubbing process by adapting its position to the requirements of the
operator. It will frequently bury its head completely beneath the water,
and merely protrude the extremity of its trunk to breathe above the
surface. The coolie is most particular in scrubbing every portion of the
animal, after which it will usually stand within the tank or river and
shower volumes of water from its trunk over its back and flanks. When
well washed, it appears a thoroughly clean black mass, but in a few
minutes it proceeds to destroy its personal beauty by throwing clouds of
dust upon its back, which, adhering to the moisture occasioned by its
recent bath, converts the late clean animal into a brown mound of earth.
There is no quadruped not absolutely amphibious that is so thoroughly at
home in the water as the elephant. In a wild state it will swim the
largest rivers, and it delights in morasses, where it rolls in the deep
mud like a pig or buffalo, and thus coats its hide with a covering of
slime, which protects it from the attacks of flies and the worry of
mosquitoes. When in a domestic state, the elephant is shy of trusting
itself upon unsound earth or quicksands, as it appears to have lost the
confidence resulting from an independent freedom among the jungles, and
marshy valleys teeming with aquatic vegetation. It will also refuse to
cross a bridge unless of solid masonry, and it is curious to observe the
extreme care with which it sounds the structure, either by striking with
the coiled extremity of the trunk or by experimenting with the pressure
of one foot, before it ventures to trust its whole weight upon the
suspected floor.
It is difficult to describe the limit of an elephant's swimming powers;
this must depend upon many circumstances, whether it is following the
stream or otherwise, but the animal can remain afloat for several hours
without undue fatigue. The displacement of an elephant's carcase is less
than the weight of water, although it swims so deeply immersed that it
would appear to float with difficulty. An elephant shot dead within the
water will float immediately, with a considerable portion of one flank
raised so high above the surface that several men could be supported, as
though upon a raft. The body of a hippopotamus will sink like a stone,
and will not reappear upon the surface for about two hours, until the
gas has to a certain degree distended the carcase: thus the hippopotamus
is of a denser and heavier material than the elephant, although it is an
aquatic animal.
When tame elephants cross a river they are conducted by their drivers,
who stand upon their backs, either balancing themselves without
assistance, or supported by holding a cord attached to the animal's
neck. It is very interesting to watch the passage of a large river by a
herd of these creatures, who to a stranger's eye would appear to be in
danger of drowning, although in reality they are merely gamboling in the
element which is their delight. I have seen them cross the Brahmaputra
when the channel was about a mile in width. Forty elephants scrambled
down the precipitous bank of alluvial deposit and river sand: this,
although about thirty-five feet high, crumbled at once beneath the
fore-foot of the leading elephant, and many tons detached from the
surface quickly formed a steep incline. Squatting upon its
hind-quarters, and tucking its hinder knees beneath its belly, while it
supported its head upon its trunk and outstretched fore legs, it slid
and scrambled to the bottom, accompanied by an avalanche of earth and
dust, thus forming a good track for the following herd.
It is surprising to see in how few minutes a large herd of elephants
descending a steep place will form a road. I have frequently seen them
break down an alluvial cliff in the manner described, where at first
sight I should have thought it impossible for an elephant to descend.
Once within the river the fun began in earnest. After a march in the hot
sun, it was delightful to bathe in the deep stream of the Brahmaputra,
and the mighty forms splashed and disported themselves, sometimes
totally submerged, with the drivers standing ankle-deep upon their
hidden backs, which gave them the appearance of walking upon the
surface. A tip of the trunk was always above water, and occasionally the
animal would protrude the entire head, but only to plunge once more
beneath the stream. In this way, swimming at great speed, and at the
same time playing along their voyage, the herd crossed the broad river,
and we saw their dusky forms glittering in the sunlight as they rose
wetted from their bath, and waded majestically along the shallows to
reach an island; from which they again started upon a similar journey to
cross another channel of the river.
The first impression of a stranger when observing the conduct of a
mahout or driver is sympathy for the animal, which is governed through
the severe authority of the iron spike. This instrument is about twenty
inches long, and resembles somewhat an old-fashioned boat-hook, being a
sharp spike at the extremity beyond the keen-pointed hook; it can thus
be used either to drive the elephant forward by digging the point into
its head, or to pull it back by hooking on to the tender base of the
ears. These driving-hooks weigh from about 4 to 6 lbs., and are
formidable weapons; some are exceedingly ancient, and have been
preserved for a couple of centuries or more, such specimens being highly
artistic, and first-rate examples of the blacksmith's work. Although we
may commence our experience by pitying the animal that is subjected to
such harsh treatment, we quickly discover that without the hook the
elephant is like the donkey without the stick. The fact of his knowing
that you possess the power, or propeller, is sufficient to ensure
comparative obedience, but it would be impossible to direct the
movements of an elephant by simple kindness without the power to inflict
punishment. This fact alone will prove that the elephant does not serve
man through affection, but that it is compelled through fear. It is
curious to witness the absurd subjection of this mighty animal even by a
child. I have frequently seen a small boy threaten a large elephant with
a stick, and the animal has at once winced; and, curling the trunk
between the legs, it has closed its eyes and exhibited every symptom of
extreme terror when struck repeatedly upon the trunk and face. The male
is generally more uncertain than the female. It would at first sight
appear that for shooting purposes the bull elephant would be preferred
for its greater strength and courage. There can be no doubt that a pair
of long tusks is an important protection, and not only forms a defence
against the attack of a tiger or other animal, but is valuable for
offensive purposes; yet, notwithstanding this advantage, the female is
generally preferred to the male, as being more docile and obedient.
The males differ in character, but they are mostly uncertain in temper
during a period varying from two to four months every year. At such
occurrences of disturbance the animal requires careful treatment, and
the chains which shackle the fore legs should be of undoubted quality.
Some elephants remain passive throughout the year, while others appear
to be thoroughly demented, and, although at other seasons harmless,
would, when "must," destroy their own attendant and wreak the direst
mischief. At such a crisis the mahout must always be held responsible
for accidents, as the animal, if properly watched and restrained, would
be incapable of active movements, and would of course be comparatively
harmless. Upon many occasions, through the neglect of the attendant, an
elephant has been left unchained, or perhaps secured with an old chain
that has been nearly worn through a link; the escape of the animal under
such circumstances has led to frightful casualties, usually commencing
with the destruction of the mahout, who may have attempted a recapture.
The approach of the "must" period is immediately perceived by a peculiar
exudation of an oily nature from a small duct upon either temple; this
somewhat resembles coal-tar in consistence, and it occupies an area of
about four inches square upon the surface of the skin. There is a
decided odour in this secretion somewhat similar to the same exudation
from the neck of the male camel.
I have known male elephants which were remarkably docile throughout all
seasons, but even these had to be specially regarded during the period
of "must," as there was no means of foretelling a sudden and unexpected
outbreak of temper. Many males are at all times fretful, and these
expend their ill-nature in various ways; if chained, they kick up the
earth, and scatter the dust in all directions; they are never quiet for
one moment throughout the day, but continue to swing their heads to and
fro, and prick forward their ears, exhibiting a restlessness of spirit
that is a sufficient warning to any stranger. Such elephants should
always be approached with caution, and never directly in front, but at
the side.
An elephant is frequently treacherous, and if the person should stand
unheedingly before it, a sudden slap with the trunk might be the
consequence. For the same reason, it would be dangerous to approach the
heels of such an animal, as a kick from an elephant is rather an
extensive movement, and it is extraordinary that so colossal a limb as
the hind leg can be projected with such velocity, equalling that of a
small pony.
Discussions have frequently arisen concerning the maximum speed of an
elephant; this is difficult to decide exactly, as there can be no
question that the animal in a wild state will exert a greater speed than
can be obtained from it when domesticated. The African variety is
decidedly faster than the Asiatic; the legs being longer, the stride is
in proportion; and as the habits of the African lead it to wander over
large tracts of open country instead of confining its rambles to
secluded forests, this peculiarity would naturally render the animal
more active, and tend to accelerate its movements. I consider that the
African elephant is capable of a speed of fifteen miles an hour, which
it could keep up for two or three hundred yards, after which it would
travel at about ten miles an hour, and actually accomplish the distance
within that period. The Asiatic elephant might likewise attain a speed
of fifteen miles for perhaps a couple
of hundred yards, but it would not travel far at a greater pace than
eight miles an hour, and it would reduce that pace to six after the
first five miles.
The proof of an elephant's power of great speed for a short distance is
seldom seen except in cases where the animal is infuriated, and gives
chase to some unfortunate victim, who seldom escapes his fate by flight.
For a short burst of fifty or one hundred yards an elephant might
occasionally attain a pace exceeding fifteen miles an hour, as I have
frequently, when among rough ground, experienced a difficulty in
escaping when on horseback; and in my young days, when a good runner, I
have been almost caught when racing along a level plain as smooth as a
lawn with a savage elephant in full pursuit. An active man upon good
ground can run for a short distance at the rate of eighteen miles an
hour; this should clear him from the attack of most elephants; but
unfortunately the good ground is scarce, and the elephant is generally
discovered in a position peculiarly favourable to itself, where the
roughness of the surface and the tangled herbage render it impossible
for a man to run at full speed without falling.
We have recently seen a distressing example in the death of the lamented
Mr. Ingram in Somaliland, who, although well mounted, was overtaken by
an infuriated wild elephant and killed. This was a female, and it
appears that Mr. Ingram, having followed her on horseback, had fired
repeatedly with a rifle only .450. The animal charged, and owing to the
impediments of the ground, which was covered with prickly aloes, the
horse could not escape, and Mr. Ingram was swept off the saddle and
impaled upon the elephant's tusks.
The African differs from the Asiatic in the formation of ivory, the
tusks of the former being both thicker and heavier; the females also
possess tusks, whereas those of the Asiatic variety have merely embryo
tusks, which do not project more than two or three inches beyond the
lips. I had a tusk of an African elephant that weighed 149 lbs. I have
seen in Khartoum a pair that weighed 300 lbs., and I saw a single tusk
of 172 lbs. In 1874 a tusk was sold at the ivory sale in London that
weighed 188 lbs. These specimens are exceptions to the general rule, as
the average weight in a full-grown African male would be about 140 lbs.
the pair, or 75 lbs. for one tusk and 65 lbs. for the fellow, which is
specially employed for digging.
The African variety is an industrious digger, as it feeds upon the
succulent roots of many trees, especially those of the mimosa family.
The right tusk is generally used in these operations more than the left;
accordingly it is lighter from continual wear, and it is known by the
Arabs as the "hadam" or servant. As the African elephant is a root-eater
it is far more destructive than the Asiatic. It is astonishing to
observe the waste of trees that are upturned by a large herd of these
animals, sometimes out of sheer wantonness, during their passage through
a forest. The dense tops of mimosas are a great attraction, and there
can be no doubt that elephants work collectively to dig out and to
overthrow the trees that would be too large for the strength of a single
animal. I have seen trees between two and three feet in diameter that
have been felled for the sake of the roots and tender heads; these have
shown unmistakable signs of an attack by several elephants, as the
ground has been ploughed by tusks of different sizes to tear up the long
straggling roots which were near the surface, and the deep marks of feet
around the centre of operations, of various diameters, have proved the
co-operation of members of the herd.
I once saw an elephant strike a large timber tree with its forehead to
shake down the fruit. This was a peculiar example of the immense power
that can be exerted when required. We were waiting near the margin of
the White Nile, about half an hour before sunset, expecting the arrival
of waterbuck, when a rumbling sound and a suppressed roar in the jungle
were accompanied by the breaking of a branch, which denoted the approach
of elephants. Presently they emerged from the forest in several
directions, and one, which appeared to be the largest I had ever seen,
advanced to within 120 yards of our position without perceiving us, as
we were concealed behind a bush upon some rising ground close to the
river's bank. This elephant had enormous tusks, but as we had only
small-bore rifles, I was contented to watch, without disturbing the
magnificent animal before me.
There was a very large and lofty tree quite three feet in diameter; upon
the upper branches grew the much-loved fruit, similar in appearance to
good-sized dates, and equally sweet and aromatic (Balanites Egyptiaca).
Elephants will travel great distances to arrive at a forest where such
fruit is produced in quantity, and they appear to know the season when
the crop will be thoroughly ripe. Upon this occasion, the elephant,
having picked up the single fruits which lay scattered upon the ground,
presently looked up, and being satisfied with the appearance of the
higher boughs, he determined to shake down a plentiful supply. Retiring
for a few feet, he deliberately rammed his forehead against the stem,
with such force as to shake the tree from top to bottom, causing a most
successful shower of the coveted fruit, which he immediately commenced
to eat.
Commander R. N. J. Baker was my companion, and we agreed that any person
who might have taken refuge in the branches of that large tree must have
held on exceedingly tight to have avoided a fall, so severe was the
concussion.
When it is considered that a large bull elephant weighs between six and
seven tons, which weight is set in movement by the muscular exertion of
the animal, there is at once an explanation of the force against a tree,
which, although large, would hardly exceed that weight.
The memory of elephants must be peculiarly keen, as they remember the
seasons for visiting certain districts where some particular food is
produced in attractive quantities. In the southern district of Ceylon,
between Yalle river and the sea-coast, there are great numbers of the
Bael tree, the fruit of which resembles a large cricket-ball. The shell
is hard, and when ripe it becomes brown, and can only be broken by a
sharp blow with some hard substance. The contents are highly aromatic,
consisting of a brownish substance exceedingly sweet, and mixed with
small seeds resembling those inside a pear. There is a strong flavour of
medlar in this fruit, and it is much esteemed for medicinal properties,
especially in cases of diarrhoea. Although elephants refuse the Bael
fruit unless quite ripe, they will invariably arrive in great numbers
during the favourable season in the southern districts of Ceylon. The
question arises, "How can an animal remember the month without an
almanack?"
There is no doubt that animals possess in many instances a far greater
degree of reason than is generally admitted, with which the exercise of
memory is so closely allied that it is difficult to separate or define
the attributes. An elephant will remember those who have shown kindness,
perhaps for a longer period than it will others who may have offended.
After seven months' absence in England, an elephant that I had from the
Commissariat on my previous visit to India recognised me at once upon my
return. I had been in the habit of feeding this animal with sugar-canes
and other choice food almost daily during several months' companionship
in the jungle; this was not forgotten, and "cupboard love" was harboured
in its memory with the expectation that the feeding would be repeated.
In the same manner, but perhaps in a lesser degree, the elephant will
remember those whom it dislikes, and during the season of "must" it
would be exceedingly dangerous for such persons to venture within reach
of the animal's trunk. Stories are numerous concerning the animosity of
elephants against their mahouts or other attendants who have cruelly
treated them; but, on the other hand, the animals frequently exhibit a
wild ferocity towards those who have been innocent of harshness. As
characters vary among human beings, and some persons when intoxicated
become suddenly brutal, although when sober they have been mild in
reputation, so also we find conflicting natures among elephants, and the
insane excitement of the "must" period varies in intensity in different
animals.
There was a well-known elephant some years ago in the Balaghat district
of the Central Provinces which became historical through the
extraordinary malignity of its disposition. Having escaped from the
fetters, it killed the mahout, and at once made off towards the forests.
It is a curious example of nature that creatures (ferae naturae) have a
tendency to return to their original state of savagedom when the
opportunity is offered. If an elephant is seized with a panic when upon
open ground, it will rush for the nearest jungle, probably with the
intention of concealment. The animal in question returned to its wild
state directly it had escaped from confinement, but the domestication of
many years appears to have sharpened its intellect, and to have
exaggerated its powers for mischief and cunning. It became the scourge,
not only of the immediate neighbourhood, but of a considerable portion
of a district which included an area of a hundred miles in length by
forty or fifty in width.
No village was safe from the attack of this infuriated beast. It would
travel great distances, and appear at unexpected intervals, suddenly
presenting itself to the horrified villagers, who fled in all
directions, leaving their homes and their supplies of grain to be
demolished by the omnipotent intruder, who tore down their dwellings,
ransacked their stores of corn, and killed any unfortunate person who
came within its reach.
There was a cruel love of homicide in this animal that has rarely been
recorded. Not only would it attack villages in pursuit of forage, but it
was particularly addicted to the destruction of the lofty
watching-places in the fields, occupied nightly by the villagers to
scare wild animals from their crops. These watch-houses are generally
constructed upon strong poles secured by cross-pieces, on the top of
which, about sixteen feet from the ground, is a small hut upon a
platform. This is thatched to protect the occupant from the heavy dew or
rain. From such elevated posts the watchers yell and scream throughout
the night to frighten the wild beasts. To attack and tear down such
posts was the delight of this bloodthirsty elephant. Instead of being
scared by the shouts of the inmates, it was attracted by their cries,
and, unseen in the dark, it was upon them almost before they were aware
of its presence. The strong posts upon which the constructions had been
raised offered no resistance to the attack, and the miserable watchers
found themselves hurled to the ground together with the ruins of their
upturned shelter. In another moment they were either caught and stamped
to death, or chased through the darkness by the pursuing elephant, and
when captured they were torn limb from limb, as the brute exhibited a
cruel satisfaction in placing one foot upon the victim, and then tearing
with its trunk an arm, a leg, or the head from the mangled body.
In this manner the elephant killed upwards of twenty people throughout
the district, and it became absolutely necessary, if possible, to
destroy it.
This was at last effected by Colonel Bloomfield and a friend, who
determined at all hazards to hunt it down by following through the
jungles, guided by the reports of the natives, who were on the lookout
in all directions. The animal showed peculiar cunning, as it never
remained in the same place, but travelled a considerable distance
immediately after the committal of some atrocity, and concealed itself
within the jungles until prompted to another raid in some new direction.
I am indebted to Colonel Bloomfield for an interesting description of
the manner in which, after many days of great fatigue and patience, he
at length succeeded, with the assistance of native trackers, in
discovering this formidable opponent, asleep within a dense mass of
thorns and grass in the heart of an extensive jungle. The elephant awoke
before they could distinctly see its form, owing to the extreme
thickness of the covert, but the fight commenced. There was a
considerable difference between the attack upon defenceless villagers,
who fled before it in hopeless panic, and a stand-up fight with two
experienced European shikaris armed with the best rifles; the terror of
the district quickly showed its appreciation of discretion, and, badly
wounded, it retreated through the forest, well followed by the
determined hunters. Again and again it was overtaken, and a shot was
taken whenever the dense jungle afforded an opportunity. At length,
maddened by pursuit and wounds, it turned to charge, thereby exposing
itself in an open place, and both bullets crashed into its brain, the
shot from Colonel Bloomfield's rifle passing completely through its
head.
It would be impossible to determine whether such an elephant could have
been subdued and re-domesticated had its capture been effected. There
are many cases on record where a "must" elephant has committed grievous
depredations, after killing those who were its ordinary attendants, but
when re-captured, the temporary excitement has passed away, and the
animal has become as harmless as it was before the period of insanity.
Mr. G. P. Sanderson, the superintendent of the Government keddahs in
Assam, gives a vivid description of an elephant that escaped after
killing its mahout and several villagers in the neighbourhood. This
animal, like Colonel Bloomfield's elephant, already described, became
the terror of the district, and destroyed many villagers, until it was
decided by the authorities to attempt its destruction.
Mr. Sanderson was of opinion that it was too valuable to be heedlessly
sacrificed; he therefore determined to capture it alive, if possible,
through the aid of certain clever elephants belonging to the keddah
establishment.
The police of the district were ordered to obtain the necessary
information, and the malefactor was reported after a few days to have
destroyed another village, where it remained, devouring the rice and
grain in the absence of the panic-stricken villagers.
No time was lost in repairing to the spot with three highly-trained
elephants, two of which were females; the third was a well-known
fighting male, a tusker named Moota Gutche, who was usually employed to
dominate the obstreperous wild elephants when refractory in the keddah
enclosures. The necessary ropes and chains were prepared, and the small
but experienced party started, Mr. Sanderson being armed only with a
long spear, and riding on the pad, well girthed upon the back of Moota
Gutche.
A short hour's march brought them in sight of a ruined village on a
level plain, which skirted a dense forest. When within a quarter of a
mile, a large male elephant was discovered restlessly walking to and fro
as though keeping guard over the ruins he had made. This was the culprit
taken in the act.
Leaving the two females in the rear, with instructions to follow upon a
given signal, Mr. Sanderson on Moota Gutche advanced slowly to the
encounter. The rogue elephant did not appear to notice them until within
about 200 yards; it then suddenly halted, and turning round, it faced
them as though in astonishment at being disturbed. This attitude did not
last very long, as Moota Gutche still advanced until within ninety or a
hundred paces. The elephants now faced each other, and Moota Gutche
began to lower his head when he observed his antagonist backing a few
paces, which he well knew was the customary preparation for a charge.
"Reculez pour mieux sauter" was well exemplified when in another moment
the vagrant elephant dashed forward at great speed to the attack,
trumpeting and screaming with mad fury. In the meantime Moota Gutche
coolly advanced at a moderate pace. The shock of the encounter was
tremendous. The spear flew out of the rider's hands with the collision,
but Moota Gutche was a trained fighter, and having lowered his head,
which had for the moment exposed his mahout, he quickly caught his
opponent under the throat with its neck between his tusks, and then
bearing upwards, he forced the head of his adversary high in the air;
now driving forwards with all his strength, he hurled the other
backwards, and with a dexterous twist he threw it upon its side and
pinned it to the ground. In an instant Mr. Sanderson slipped off and
secured the hind legs with a strong rope. The two females quickly
arrived, and within a few minutes the late terror of the neighbourhood
was helplessly fettered, and was led captive between the females towards
the camp from which it had escaped, assisted, when obstreperous, by the
tusks of Moota Gutche applied behind.
This elephant completely recovered from its temporary madness, and
became a useful animal, affording a striking example of the passing
insanity of the male passion, and the power of careful management in
subduing a brute of such stupendous force.
After this incident Moota Gutche, with about forty of the keddah
elephants, was kindly lent to me by Mr. Sanderson during a shooting
excursion of twenty-five days upon the "churs" or islands of the
Brahmaputra river south of Dhubri. In India the tiger is so commonly
associated with the elephant that in describing one it is impossible to
avoid a connection with the other.
Moota Gutche was a peculiar character, not altogether amiable, but it
was as well to have him upon your own side. During the trip my friend
Sanderson was ill with fever, and could not accompany me. I was
therefore at the disadvantage of being the only gun in a long line of
elephants, which would on ordinary occasions have been manned by at
least four guns. At first I imagined that my trip would be a failure, as
I knew a mere nothing of the language, and the elephants and their
mahouts were alike strangers to me, but I soon discovered that their
excellent training as keddah servants constantly employed in the capture
of wild elephants under their indefatigable superintendent, Mr.
Sanderson, rendered them capable almost instinctively of understanding
all my ways, and we became excellent friends, both man and beast.
I arranged my long line of elephants according to their paces and
dispositions, and each day they preserved the same positions, so that
every mahout knew his place, and the elephants were accustomed to the
animals upon the right and left. In the centre were the slowest, and
upon either flank were the fastest elephants, while two exceedingly
speedy animals, with intelligent mahouts, invariably acted as scouts,
generally a quarter of a mile ahead on either flank.
My own elephant was accompanied on one side by Moota Gutche, on the
other by a rough but dependable character whose name I have forgotten. I
kept these always with me, as they were useful in the event of a tiger
that would not bolt from the dense wild-rose thickets, in which case our
three elephants could push him out.
This arrangement was perfect, and after a few days' experience our line
worked with the precision of well-drilled cavalry; sometimes, with extra
elephants, I had as many as fifty in the field. The result of this
discipline was that no tiger or leopard ever escaped if once on foot;
although hunted in some instances for hours, the animal was invariably
killed. A remarkable instance of this occurred at the large island of
Bargh Chur, which includes several thousand acres, the greater portion
being covered with enormous grass and dense thickets of tamarisk, which,
in the hot season, is the cool and loved resort of tigers. There were
also extensive jungles in swampy portions of the island, so intermixed
with reeds and marsh grass of twelve or fourteen feet high, that it was
difficult to penetrate, even upon an elephant.
I was out at the usual early hour, shortly after sunrise, the shikaris
having returned to camp with the news that none of the bullocks tied up
for baits during the preceding night had been killed; it therefore
remained to try our fortune by simply beating the high grass jungle in
line, on speculation, and in the same manner to drive the occasional
dense coverts of feathery tamarisk.
We had proceeded with a line of about five-and-thirty elephants, well
extended ten yards apart, and in this manner we had advanced about a
mile, when our attention was attracted by a native calling to us from a
large ant-hill which enabled him to be distinguished above the grass. We
immediately rode towards him, and were informed that a tiger had killed
his cow the night before, and had dragged the body into jungle so dense
that he had been afraid to follow. This was good news; we therefore took
the man upon an elephant as our guide towards the reported spot.
The elephants continued to advance in line, occasionally disturbing wild
pigs and hog deer, which existed in great numbers, but could hardly have
been shot even had I wished, as the grass was so thick and long that the
animals could not be seen; there were only signs of their disturbance by
the sudden rush and the waving of the grass just in front of the
advancing elephants, who were thus kept in continual excitement.
In about twenty minutes we emerged from the high grass upon a great
extent of highly cultivated land, where the sandy loam had been reduced
to the fine surface of a well-kept garden. Bordering upon this open
country was an extensive jungle composed of trees averaging about a foot
in diameter, but completely wedged together among impenetrable reeds
fully eighteen feet in length, and nearly an inch in thickness, in
addition to a network of various tough creepers, resulting from a rich
soil that was a morass during the rainy season. Although the reeds
appeared tolerably dry, they would not burn, as there were signs among
some half-scorched places where attempts had been recently made to fire
the jungle.
Our guide soon pointed to the spot where his cow had been dragged by the
tiger into this formidable covert. There was no mistake about the marks,
and the immense tracks in the soft ground proved the size and sex of the
destroyer.
Nobody questioned the fact of the tiger being at home, and the only
question was "how to beat him out." The jungle was quite a mile in
length without a break in its terrible density; it was about half a mile
in width, bounded upon one side by the cleared level ground in
cultivation, and on the other by the high grass jungle we had left, but
this had been partially scorched along the edge in the attempts to burn.
A good look-out would have spied any animal at a hundred and fifty yards
had it attempted to leave the jungle.
As the country was a dead level, it was difficult to forecast the
retreat of a tiger when driven from such a thicket, and it was a serious
question whether it would be possible to dislodge him.
Whenever you commence a drive, the first consideration should be, "If
the animal is there, where did it come from?"---as it will in all
probability attempt to retreat to that same locality. There was no
possibility of guessing the truth in such a country of dense grass, and
with numerous islands of the same character throughout this portion of
the Brahmaputra, but there was one advantage in the fact that one side
was secure, as the tiger would never break covert upon the cultivated
land; there remained the opposite side, which would require strict
watching, as he would probably endeavour to slink away through the high
grass to some distant and favourite retreat.
I therefore determined to take my stand at the end of the thick jungle
which we had passed upon arrival, at the corner where it joined the
parched grass that had been fire-scorched, and near the spot where the
cow had been dragged in. I accordingly sent the elephants round to
commence the drive about two hundred yards distant, entering from the
cultivated side and driving towards me, as I concluded the tiger in such
massive jungle would not be far from the dead body. At the same time, I
sent two scouting elephants to occupy positions outside the jungle on
the high grass side, within sight of myself; I being posted on my
elephant at the corner, so that I commanded two views---the end, and the
grass side.
My signal, a loud whistle, having been given, the line of elephants
advanced towards my position. The crashing of so many huge beasts
through the dense crisp herbage sounded in the distance like a strong
wind, varied now and then by the tearing crunch as some opposing
branches were torn down to clear the way.
I was mounted upon a female elephant, a good creature named Nielmonne,
who was reputed to be staunch, but as the line of beaters approached
nearer, and the varied sounds increased in intensity, she became very
nervous and restless, starting should a small deer dart out of the
jungle, and evidently expecting momentarily the appearance of the enemy.
There are very few elephants that will remain unmoved when awaiting the
advance of a line of beaters, whether they may be of their own species
or human beings. On this occasion the rushing sound of the yielding
jungle, which was so thick as to test the elephants' powers in clearing
a passage through it, was presently varied by a sharp trumpet, then by a
low growl, followed by that peculiar noise emitted by elephants when
excited, resembling blows upon a tambourine or kettle-drum. This is a
sound that invariably is heard whenever an elephant detects the fresh
scent of a tiger; and Nielmonne, instead of standing quiet, became
doubly excited, as she evidently understood that the dreaded game was on
foot, and advancing before the line.
As I was posted at the sharp angle of the corner, I presently observed
several elephants emerge upon my left and right, as the line advanced
with wonderful regularity, and so close were the animals together that
it was most unlikely any tiger could have broken back.
My servant Michael was behind me in the howdah. He was a quiet man, who
thoroughly understood his work, and seldom spoke without being first
addressed. On this occasion he broke through the rule. "Nothing in this
beat, sahib," he exclaimed . . . . "Hold your tongue, Michael, till the
cover's beaten out. Haven't I often told you that you can't tell what's
in the jungle until the last corner is gone through?"
Nearly all the elephants were now out, and only about half a dozen
remained in the jungle, all still advancing in correct line, and perhaps
a dozen yards remaining of dense reeds and creepers forming the acute
angle at the extremity. They still came on. Two or three of the mahouts
shouted, "The tiger's behind, we must go back and take a longer beat."
Nothing remained now except six or seven yards of the sharp corner, and
the elephants marched forward, when a tremendous roar suddenly startled
them in all directions, and one of the largest tigers I have ever seen
sprang forward directly towards Nielmonne, who, I am ashamed to say,
spun round as though upon a pivot, and prevented me from taking a most
splendid shot. The next instant the tiger had bounded back with several
fierce roars, sending the line of elephants flying, and once more
securing safety in the almost impervious jungle from which he had been
driven.
This was a most successful drive, but a terrible failure, owing entirely
to the nervousness of my elephant. I never saw a worse jungle, and now
that the tiger had been moved, it would be doubly awkward to deal with
him, as he would either turn vicious and spring upon an elephant
unawares from so dense a covert, or slink from place to place as the
line advanced, but would never again face the open.
I looked at my watch; it was exactly half-past eight. The mahouts
suggested that we should not disturb him, but give him time to sleep,
and then beat for him in the afternoon. I did not believe in sleep after
he had been so rudely aroused by a long line of elephants, but I clearly
perceived that the mahouts did not enjoy the fun of beating in such
dreadful jungle, and this they presently confessed, and expressed a wish
to have me in the centre of the line, as there was no gun with the
elephants should the tiger attack.
I knew that I should be useless, as it would be impossible to see a foot
ahead in such dense bush, but to give them confidence I put my elephant
in line, and sent forward several scouting elephants to form a line
along a narrow footpath which cut the jungle at right angles about a
quarter of a mile distant.
Once more the line advanced, the elephants marching shoulder to
shoulder, and thus bearing down everything before them, as I determined
to take the jungle backwards and forwards in this close order lest the
wary tiger might crouch, and escape by lying close.
Several times the elephants sounded, and we knew that he must be close
at hand, but it was absolutely impossible to see anything beyond the
thick reedy mass, through which the line of elephants bored as through a
solid obstacle.
Three times with the greatest patience we worked the jungle in this
searching manner, when on the third advance I left the line, finding the
impossibility of seeing anything, and took up my position outside the
jungle on the cultivated land, exactly where the footpath was occupied
by the scout elephants at intervals, which intersected the line of
advance.
Presently there was a commotion among the elephants, two or three shrill
trumpets, then the kettle-drum, and for a moment I caught sight of a dim
shadowy figure stealing through some high reeds upon the border which
fringed the jungle. I immediately fired, although the elephant was so
unsteady that I could not be sure of the shot; also the object was so
indistinct, being concealed in the high reeds, that I should not have
observed it upon any other occasion than our rigid search. Immediately
afterwards, a shout from one of the mahouts upon a scouting elephant
informed us that the tiger had crossed the path and had gone forward,
having thus escaped from the beat!
Here was fresh work cut out! Up to this moment we had managed to keep
him within an area of a quarter of a mile in length, by half a mile in
width; he had now got into new ground, and was in about a three-quarter
mile length of the same unbeaten jungle.
There was nothing else to do but to pursue the same tactics, and we
patiently continued to beat forward and backward, again and again, but
without once sighting our lost game. It was half-past twelve, and the
sun was burning hot, the sky being cloudless. The elephants once more
emerged from the sultry jungle; they were blowing spray with their
trunks upon their flanks, from water sucked up from their stomachs; and
the mahouts were all down-hearted and in despair. "It's of no use," they
said, "he's gone straight away, who can tell where? When you fired,
perhaps you wounded him, or you missed him; at any rate, he's frightened
and gone clean off, we shall never see him again; the elephants are all
tired with the extreme heat, and we had better go to the river for a
bath."
I held a council of war, with the elephants in a circle around me. It is
of no use to oppose men when they are disgusted, you must always start a
new idea. I agreed with my men, but I suggested that as we were all hot,
and the elephants fatigued, the tiger must be in much the same state, as
we had kept him on the run since eight o'clock in the morning, I having
actually timed the hour "half-past eight" when he charged out of the
last corner. "Now," said I, "do you remember that yesterday evening I
killed a buck near some water in a narrow depression in the middle of
tamarisk jungle? I believe that is only a continuation of this horrible
thicket, and if the tiger is nearly played out, he would naturally make
for the water and the cool tamarisk. You form in line in the jungle
here, and give me a quarter of an hour's start, while I go ahead and
take up my position by that piece of water. You then come on, and if the
tiger is in the jungle, he will come forward towards the water, where I
shall meet him; if he's not there, we shall anyhow be on our direct
route, and close to our camp by the river."
This was immediately accepted, and leaving the elephants to form line, I
hurried forward on Nielmonne, keeping in the grass outside the edge of
the long jungle.
I had advanced about three-quarters of a mile, when the character of the
jungle changed to tamarisk, and I felt certain that I was near the spot
of yesterday. I accordingly ordered the mahout to turn into the thick
feathery foliage to the left, in search of the remembered water. There
was a slight descent to a long but narrow hollow about 50 or 60 yards
wide; this was filled with clear water for an unknown length.
I was just about to make a remark, when, instead of speaking, I gently
grasped the mahout by the head as I leaned over the howdah, and by this
signal stopped the elephant.
There was a lovely sight, which cheered my heart with that inexpressible
feeling of delight which is the reward for patience and hard work. About
120 yards distant on my left, the head and neck of a large tiger, clean
and beautiful, reposed above the surface, while the body was cooling,
concealed from view. Here was our friend enjoying his quiet bath, while
we had been pounding away up and down the jungles which he had left.
The mahout, although an excellent man, was much excited. "Fire at him,"
he whispered.
"It is too far to make certain," I replied in the same undertone.
"Your rifle will not miss him; fire, or you will lose him. He will see
us to a certainty and be off. If so, we shall never see him again,"
continued Fazil, the mahout.
"Hold your tongue," I whispered. "He can't see us, the sun is at our
back, and is shining in his eyes --- see how green they are."
At this moment of suspense the tiger quietly rose from his bath, and sat
up on end like a dog. I never saw such a sight. His head was beautiful,
and the eyes shone like two green electric lights, as the sun's rays
reflected from them, but his huge body was dripping with muddy water, as
he had been reclining upon the alluvial bottom.
"Now's the time," whispered the over-eager mahout. "You can kill him to
a certainty. Fire, or he'll be gone in another moment."
"Keep quiet, you fool, and don't move till I tell you." For quite a
minute the tiger sat up in the same position; at last, as though
satisfied that he was in safety and seclusion, he once more lay down
with only the head and neck exposed above the surface.
"Back the elephant gently, but do not turn round," I whispered.
Immediately Nielmonne backed through the feathery tamarisk without the
slightest sound, and we found ourselves outside the jungle. We could
breathe freely.
"Go on now, quite gently, till I press your head; then turn to the
right, descending through the tamarisk, till I again touch your puggery"
(turban).
I counted the elephant's paces as she moved softly parallel with the
jungle, until I felt sure of my distance. A slight pressure upon the
mahout's head, and Nielmonne turned to the right. The waving plumes of
the dark-green tamarisk divided as we gently moved forward, and in
another moment we stopped. There was the tiger in the same position,
exactly facing me, but now about 75 paces distant.
"Keep the elephant quite steady," I whispered; and, sitting down upon
the howdah seat, I took a rest with the rifle upon the front bar of the
gun-rack. A piece of tamarisk kept waving in the wind just in front of
the rifle, beyond my reach. The mahout leaned forward and gently bent it
down. Now, all was clear. The tiger's eyes were like green glass. The
elephant for a moment stood like stone. I touched the trigger.
There was no response to the loud report of 6 drams of powder from the
'577 rifle, no splash in the unbroken surface of the water. The tiger's
head was still there, but in a different attitude, one-half below the
surface, and only one cheek, and one large eye still glittering like an
emerald, above.
"Run in quick,"---and the order was instantly obeyed, as Nielmonne
splashed through the pool towards the silent body of the tiger. There
was not a movement of a muscle. I whistled loud, then looked at my
watch---on the stroke of 1 P.M. From 8.30 till that hour we had worked
up that tiger, and although there was no stirring incident connected
with him, I felt very satisfied with the result.
In a short time the elephants arrived, having heard the shot, followed
by my well-known whistle. Moota Gutche was the first to approach; and
upon observing the large bright eye of the tiger above water, he
concluded that it was still alive; he accordingly made a desperate
charge, and taking the body on his tusks, he sent it flying some yards
ahead; not content with this display of triumph, he followed it up, and
gave it a football-kick that lifted it clean out of the water. This
would have quickly ended in a war-dance upon the prostrate body, that
would have crushed it and destroyed the skin, had not the mahout, with
the iron driving-hook, bestowed some warning taps upon the crown of
Moota Gutche's head that recalled him to a calmer frame of mind. A rope
was soon made fast to the tiger's neck, and Moota Gutche hauled it upon
dry ground, where it was washed as well as possible, and well
scrutinized for a bullet-hole.
There was no hole whatever in that tiger. The bullet having entered the
nostril, broken the neck, and run along the body, the animal
consequently had never moved. The first shot, when obscured in thick
jungle, had probably deflected from the interposing reeds---at all
events it missed. This tiger, when laid out straight, but without being
pulled to increase its length, measured exactly 9 feet 8 inches from
nose to tail.
CHAPTER III
THE ELEPHANT (continued)
The foregoing chapter is sufficient to explain the ferocity of the male
elephant at certain seasons which periodically affect the nervous
system. It would be easy to multiply examples of this cerebral
excitement, but such repetitions are unnecessary. The fact remains that
the sexes differ materially in character, and that for general purposes
the female is preferred in a domesticated state, although the male
tusker is far more powerful, and when thoroughly trustworthy is capable
of self-defence against attack, and of energy in work that would render
it superior to the gentler but inferior female. (The female differs
from other quadrupeds in the position of her teats, which are situated
upon the breast between the fore legs. She is in the habit of caressing
her calf with her trunk during the operation of suckling.)
It may be inferred that a grand specimen of a male elephant is of rare
occurrence. A creature that combines perfection of form with a firm but
amiable disposition, and is free from the timidity which unfortunately
distinguishes the race, may be quite invaluable to any resident in
India. The actual monetary value of an elephant must of necessity be
impossible to decide, as it must depend upon the requirements of the
purchaser and the depth of his pocket. Elephants differ in price as much
as horses, and the princes of India exhibit profuse liberality in paying
large sums for animals that approach their standard of perfection.
The handsomest elephant that I have ever seen in India belongs to the
Rajah of Nandgaon, in the district bordering upon Reipore. I saw this
splendid specimen among twenty others at the Durbar of the Chief
Commissioner of the Central Provinces in December 1887, and it
completely eclipsed all others both in size and perfection of points.
The word "points" is inappropriate when applied to the distinguishing
features of an elephant, as anything approaching the angular would be
considered a blemish. An Indian elephant to be perfect should be 9 feet
6 inches in perpendicular height at the shoulder. The head should be
majestic in general character, as large as possible,--especially broad
across the forehead, and well rounded. The boss or prominence above the
trunk should be solid and decided, mottled with flesh-coloured spots;
these ought to continue upon the cheeks, and for about three feet down
the trunk. This should be immensely massive; and when the elephant
stands at ease, the trunk ought to touch the ground when the tip is
slightly curled. The skin of the face should be soft to the touch, and
there must be no indentations or bony hollows, which are generally the
sign of age. The ears should be large, the edges free from inequalities
or rents, and above all they ought to be smooth, as though they had been
carefully ironed. When an elephant is old, the top of the ear curls, and
this symptom increases with advancing years. The eyes should be large
and clear, the favourite colour a bright hazel. The tusks ought to be as
thick as possible, free from cracks, gracefully curved, very slightly to
the right and left, and projecting not less than three feet from the
lips. The body should be well rounded, without a sign of any rib. The
shoulders must be massive with projecting muscular development; the back
very slightly arched, and not sloping too suddenly towards the tail,
which should be set up tolerably high. This ought to be thick and long,
the end well furnished with a double fringe of very long thick hairs or
whalebone-looking bristles. The legs should be short in proportion to
the height of the animal, but immensely thick, and the upper- portion
above the knee ought to exhibit enormous muscle. The knees should be
well rounded, and the feet be exactly equal to half the perpendicular
height of the elephant when measured in their circumference, the weight
pressing upon them whilst standing.
The skin generally ought to be soft and pliable, by no means tight or
strained, but lying easily upon the limbs and body.
An elephant which possesses this physical development should be equal in
the various points of character that are necessary to a highly-trained
animal.
When ordered to kneel, it should obey instantly, and remain patiently
upon the ground until permitted to rise from this uneasy posture. In
reality the elephant does not actually kneel upon its fore knees, but
only upon those of the hinder legs, while it pushes its fore legs
forward and rests its tusks upon the ground. This is a most unnatural
position, and is exceedingly irksome. Some elephants are very impatient,
and they will rise suddenly without orders while the ladder is placed
against their side for mounting. Upon one occasion a badly-trained
animal jumped up so suddenly that Lady Baker, who had already mounted,
was thrown off on one side, while I, who was just on the top of the
ladder, was thrown down violently upon the other. A badly-tutored
elephant is exceedingly dangerous, as such vagaries are upon so large a
scale that a fall is serious, especially should the ground be stony.
A calm and placid nature free from all timidity is essential. Elephants
are apt to take sudden fright at peculiar sounds and sights. In
travelling through a jungle path it is impossible to foretell what
animals may be encountered on the route. Some elephants will turn
suddenly round and bolt, upon the unexpected crash of a wild animal
startled in the forest. The scent or, still worse, the roar of a bear
within 50 yards of the road will scare some elephants to an extent that
will make them most difficult of control. The danger may be imagined
should an elephant absolutely run away with his rider in a dense forest;
if the unfortunate person should be in a howdah he would probably be
swept off and killed by the intervening branches, or torn to shreds by
the tangled thorns, many of which are armed with steel-like hooks.
It is impossible to train all elephants alike, and very few can be
rendered thoroughly trustworthy; the character must be born in them if
they are to approach perfection.
Our present perfect example should be quite impassive, and should take
no apparent notice of anything, but obey his mahout with the regularity
of a machine. No noise should disturb the nerves, no sight terrify, no
attack for one moment shake the courage; even the crackling of fire
should be unheeded, although the sound of high grass blazing and
exploding before the advancing line of fire tries the nerves of
elephants more than any other danger.
An elephant should march with an easy swinging pace at the rate of 5
miles an hour, or even 6 miles within that time upon a good flat road.
As a rule, the females have an easier pace than the large males. When
the order to stop is given, instead of hesitating, the elephant should
instantly obey, remaining rigidly still without swinging the head or
flapping the ears, which is its inveterate and annoying habit. The
well-trained animal should then move backward or forward, either one or
several paces, at a sign from the mahout, and then at once become as
rigid as a rock.
Should the elephant be near a tiger, it will generally know the position
of the enemy by its keen sense of smell. If the tiger should suddenly
charge from some dense covert with the usual short but loud roars, the
elephant ought to remain absolutely still to receive the onset, and to
permit a steady aim from the person in the howdah. This is a very rare
qualification, but most necessary in a good shikar elephant. Some
tuskers will attack the tiger, which is nearly as bad a fault as running
in the opposite direction; but the generality, even if tolerably steady,
will swing suddenly upon one side, and thus interrupt the steadiness of
aim.
The elephant should never exercise its own will, but ought to wait in
all cases for the instructions of the mahout, and then obey immediately.
Such an animal, combining the proportions and the qualities I have
described, might be worth in India about / 1500 to any Indian Rajah, but
there may be some great native sportsmen who would give double that
amount for such an example of perfection, which would combine the beauty
required for a state elephant, with the high character of a shikar
animal.
Native princes and rajahs take a great pride in the trappings of their
state elephants, which is exhibited whenever any pageant demands an
extraordinary display. I have seen cloths of silk so closely embroidered
with heavy gold as to be of enormous value, and so great a weight that
two men could barely lift them. Such cloths may have been handed down
from several generations, as they are seldom used excepting in the state
ceremonies which occur at distant intervals. A high caste male elephant
in its gold trappings, with head-piece and forehead lap equally
embroidered, and large silver bells suspended from its tusks, is a
magnificent object during the display attending a durbar. At such an
occasion there may be a hundred elephants all in their finery, each
differing from the other both in size and in the colours of their
surroundings.
The outfit for an elephant depends upon the work required. The first
consideration is the protection of the back. Although the skin appears
as though it could resist all friction, it is astonishing how quickly a
sore becomes established, and how difficult this is to heal. The mahouts
are exceedingly careless, and require much supervision; the only method
to ensure attention is to hold them responsible and to deduct so many
rupees from their pay should the backs of their animals be unsound.
With proper care an elephant ought never to suffer, as the pad should be
made to fit its figure specially. The usual method is to cover the back
from the shoulders to the hips with a large quilted pad stuffed with
cotton, about 2 1/2 inches thick. In my opinion, wool is preferable to
cotton, and, instead of this coverlet being compact, there should be
an opening down the centre, to avoid all pressure upon the spine. A
quilted pad stuffed with wool, 3 inches thick, with an opening down the
middle, would rest comfortably upon the animal's back, and would
entirely relieve the highly-arched backbone, which would thus be exposed
to a free current of air, and would remain hard instead of becoming
sodden through perspiration. Upon this soft layer the large pad is
fixed. This is made of the strongest sacking, stuffed as tight as
possible with dried reeds of a tough variety that is common in most
tanks; this is open in the centre and quite a foot thick at the sides,
so that it fills up the hollow, and rests the weight upon the ribs at a
safe distance from the spine.
There are various contrivances in the shape of saddles. The ordinary
form for travelling is the char-jarma; this is an oblong frame,
exceedingly strong, which is lashed upon the pad secured by girths. It
is stuffed with cotton, and neatly covered with native cloth. A stuffed
back passes down the centre like a sofa, and two people on either side
sit dos-a-dos, as though in an Irish car. Iron rails protect the ends,
and swing foot-boards support the feet. This is, in my opinion, the most
comfortable way of riding, but some care is necessary in proportioning
the weights to ensure a tolerable equilibrium, otherwise, should the
route be up and down steep nullahs, the char-jarma will shift upon one
side, and become most disagreeable to those who find themselves on the
lower level. Natives prefer a well-stuffed pad, as they are accustomed
to sit with their legs doubled up in a manner that would be highly
uncomfortable to Europeans. Such pads are frequently covered with
scarlet cloth and gold embroidery, while the elephant is dressed in a
silk and gold cloth reaching to its knees. The face and head are painted
in various colours and devices, exhibiting great taste and skill on the
part of the designer. It is curious to observe the dexterity with which
an otherwise ignorant mahout will decorate the head of his animal by
drawing most elaborate curves and patterns, that would tax the ability
of a professional artist among Europeans.
The howdah is the only accepted arrangement for sporting purposes, and
much attention is necessary in its construction, as the greatest
strength should be combined with lightness. There ought to be no doors,
as they weaken the solidity of the whole. The weight of a good roomy
howdah should not exceed two hundredweight, or at the outside 230
pounds. It must be remembered that the howdah is not adapted for
travelling, as there is a disagreeable swinging motion inseparable from
its position upon the elephant's back which is not felt upon either the
pad or the char-jarma. The howdah is simply for shooting, as you can
fire in any direction, which is impossible from any other contrivance
where the rider sits in a constrained position.
A good howdah should be made of exceedingly strong and tough wood for
the framework, dovetailed, and screwed together, the joints being
specially secured by long corner straps of the best iron. The frame
ought to be panelled with galvanised wire of the strongest description,
the mesh being one-half inch. The top rail, of a hard wood, should be
strengthened all around the howdah by the addition of a male bamboo 1
1/2 inch in diameter, securely lashed with raw hide, so as to bind the
structure firmly together, and to afford a good grip for the hand. As
the howdah is divided into two compartments, the front being for the
shooter, and the back part for his servant, the division should be
arranged to give increased strength to the construction by the firmness
of the cross pieces, which ought to bind the sides together in forming
the middle seat; the back support of which should be a padded shield of
thick leather, about 15 inches in diameter, secured by a broad strap of
the same material to buckles upon the sides. This will give a yielding
support to the back of the occupant when sitting. The seat should lift
up, and be fitted as a locker to contain anything required; and a
well-stuffed leather cushion is indispensable. The gun-rack should be
carefully arranged to contain two guns upon the left, and one upon the
right of the sitter. These must be well and softly padded, to prevent
friction. The floor should be covered either with thick cork or
cork-matting to prevent the feet from slipping.
It must be remembered that a howdah may be subjected to the most severe
strain, especially should a tiger spring upon the head of an elephant,
and the animal exert its prodigious strength to throw off its assailant.
The irons for fastening the girths should therefore be of the toughest
quality, and, instead of actual girths, only thick ropes of cotton ought
to be used. A girth secured with a buckle is most dangerous, as, should
the buckle give way, an accident of the most alarming kind must
assuredly occur. The howdah ought to be lashed upon the elephant by six
folds of the strong cotton rope described, tightened most carefully
before starting. It should be borne in mind that much personal attention
is necessary during this operation, as the natives are most careless.
Two or three men ought to sit in the howdah during the process of
lacing, so as to press it down tightly upon the pad, otherwise it will
become loose during the march, and probably lean over to one side, which
is uncomfortable to both man and beast. A large hide of the sambur deer,
well cured and greased so as to be soft and pliable, should, invariably
protect the belly of the elephant, and the flanks under the fore legs,
from the friction of the girthing rope. The breastplate and crupper also
require attention. These ought to be of the same quality of cotton rope
as used for the girths, but that portion of the crupper which passes
beneath the tail should pass through an iron tube bent specially to fit,
like the letter V elongated, U. This is a great safeguard against
galling, and I believe it was first suggested by Mr. G. P. Sanderson.
A fine male elephant, well accoutred with his howdah thoroughly secured,
and a good mahout, is a splendid mount, and the rider has the
satisfaction of feeling that his animal is well up to his weight. I do
not know a more agreeable sensation than the start in the early morning
upon a thoroughly dependable elephant, with all the belongings in
first-rate order, and a mahout who takes a real interest in his work; a
thorough harmony exists between men and beast, the rifles are in their
places, and you feel prepared for anything that may happen during the
hazardous adventures of the day.
But how much depends upon that mahout! It is impossible for an ordinary
bystander to comprehend the secret signs which are mutually understood
by the elephant and his guide, the gentle pressure of one toe, or the
compression of one knee, or the delicate touch of a heel, or the almost
imperceptible swaying of the body to one side; the elephant detects
every movement, howsoever slight, and it is thus mysteriously guided by
its intelligence; the mighty beast obeys the unseen helm of thought,
just as a huge ship yields by apparent instinct to the insignificant
appendage which directs her course, the rudder. All good riders know the
mystery of a "good hand" upon a horse; this is a thing that is
understood, but cannot be described except by a negative. There are
persons who can sit a horse gracefully and well, but who have not the
instinctive gift of hand. The horse is aware of this almost as soon as
the rider has been seated in the saddle. In that case, whether the horse
be first-class or not, there will be no comfort for the animal, and no
ease for the rider.
If such a person puts his horse at a fence, the animal will not be
thoroughly convinced that his rider wishes him to take it. There are
more accidents occasioned by a "bad hand" than by any other cause. If
this is the case with a horse well bitted, what must be the result
should an elephant be guided by a mahout of uncertain temperament? The
great trouble when travelling on an elephant is the difficulty in
getting the mahout to obey an order immediately, and at the same time to
convey that order to the animal without the slightest hesitation.
Natives frequently hesitate before they determine the right from left.
This is exasperating to the highest degree, and is destructive to the
discipline of an elephant. There must be no uncertainty; if there is the
slightest vacillation, it will be felt instinctively in the muscles of
the rider, and the animal, instead of obeying mechanically the requisite
pressure of knee or foot, feels that the mahout does not exactly know
what he is about. This will cause the elephant to swing his head,
instead of keeping steady and obeying the order without delay. In the
same manner, when tiger-shooting, the elephant will at once detect
anything like tremor on the part of his mahout. Frequently a good
elephant may be disgraced by the nervousness of his guide, nothing being
so contagious as fear.
Although I may be an exception in the non-admiration of the elephant's
sagacity to the degree in which it is usually accepted, there is no one
who more admires or is so foolishly fond of elephants. I have killed
some hundreds in my early life, but I have learnt to regret the past,
and 1 nothing would now induce me to shoot an elephant unless it were
either a notorious malefactor, or in self-defence. There is, however, a
peculiar contradiction in the character of elephants that tends to
increase the interest in the animal. If they were all the same, there
would be a monotony; but this is never the case, either among animals or
human beings, although they may belong to one family. The elephant, on
the other hand, stands so entirely apart from all other animals, and its
performances appear so extraordinary owing to the enormous effect which
its great strength produces instantaneously, that its peculiarities
interest mankind more than any smaller animal. Yet, when we consider the
actual aptitude for learning, or the natural habits of the creature, we
are obliged to confess that in proportion to its size the elephant is a
mere fool in comparison with the intelligence of many insects. If the
elephant could form a home like the bee, and store up fodder for a
barren season; if it could build a nest of comfort like a bird, to
shelter itself from inclement weather; if it could dam up a river like
the beaver, to store water for the annual drought; if it could only,
like the ordinary squirrel or field mouse, make a store for a season of
scarcity, how marvellous we should think this creature, simply because
it is so huge! It actually does nothing remarkable, unless specially
instructed; but it is this inertia that renders it so valuable to man.
If the elephant were to be continually exerting its natural
intelligence, and volunteering all manner of gigantic performances in
the hope that they would be appreciated by its rider, it would be
unbearable; the value of the animal consists in its capacity to learn,
and in its passive demeanour, until directed by the mahout's commands.
Nothing can positively determine the character of any elephant; every
animal, I believe, varies more or less in courage according to its state
of health, which must influence the nervous system. The most courageous
man may, if weakened by sickness, be disgusted with himself by starting
at an unexpected sound, although upon ordinary occasions he would not be
affected. Animals cannot describe their feelings, and they may sometimes
feel "out of sorts" without being actually ill, but the nervous system
may be unstrung.
I once saw a ridiculous example of sudden panic in an otherwise most
dependable elephant. This was a large male belonging to the Government,
which had been lent to me for a few months, and was thoroughly staunch
when opposed to a charging tiger; in fact, I believe that Moolah Bux was
afraid of nothing, and he was the best shikar elephant I have ever
ridden. One day we were driving a rocky hill for a tiger that was
supposed to be concealed somewhere among the high grass and broken
boulders, and, as the line of beaters was advancing, I backed the
elephant into some thick jungle, which commanded an open but narrow
glade at the foot of the low hill. Only the face of the elephant was
exposed, and as this was grayish brown, something similar to the colour
of the leafless bushes, we were hardly noticeable to anything that might
break covert.
The elephant thoroughly understood the work in hand; and as the loud
yells and shouts of the beaters became nearer, Moolah Bux pricked his
ears and kept a vigilant look-out. Suddenly a hare emerged about 100
yards distant; without observing our well-concealed position it raced at
full speed directly towards us, and in a few seconds it ran almost
between the elephant's legs as it made for the protection of the jungle.
The mighty Moolah Bux fairly bolted with a sudden terror as this
harmless and tiny creature dashed beneath him, and although he recovered
himself after 5 or 6 yards, nevertheless for the moment the monster was
scared almost by a mouse.
It is this uncertainty of character that has rendered the elephant
useless for military purposes in the field since the introduction of
fire-arms. In olden times there can be no doubt that a grand array of
elephantine cavalry, with towers containing archers on their backs,
would have been an important factor when in line of battle; but
elephants are useless against fire-arms, and in our early battles with
the great hordes brought against us by the princes of India, their
elephants invariably turned tail, and added materially to the defeat of
their army.
Only a short time ago, at Munich, a serious accident was occasioned by a
display of ten or twelve elephants during some provincial fete, when
they took fright at the figure of a dragon vomiting fire, and a general
stampede was the consequence, resulting in serious injuries to fifteen
or sixteen persons.
I once had an elephant who ought to have killed me upon several
occasions through sheer panic, which induced him to run away like a
railway locomotive rushing through a forest. This was the tusker Lord
Mayo, who, although a good-tempered harmless creature, appeared to be
utterly devoid of nerves, and would take fright at anything to which it
was unaccustomed. The sound of the beaters when yelling and shouting in
driving jungle was quite sufficient to start this animal off in a
senseless panic, not always for a short distance, as on one occasion it
ran at full speed for upwards of a mile through a dense forest, in spite
of the driving-hook of the mahout, which had been applied with a maximum
severity.
It is curious to observe how all the education of an elephant appears to
vanish when once the animal takes fright and bolts for the nearest
jungle. That seems to be the one idea which is an instinct of original
nature, to retreat into the concealment of a forest.
I was on one occasion mounted upon Lord Mayo in the Balagh district when
the beaters were not dependable. A tiger had killed a bullock at the
foot of a wooded hill bordered by an open plain. As the beaters had
misbehaved upon several occasions by breaking their line, I determined
to take command of the beat in person. I therefore formed the line in
the open, with every man equidistant, there being about a hundred and
twenty villagers. I had placed my shikari with a rifle in a convenient
position about 200 yards in advance, upon a mucharn or platform that had
been constructed for myself.
Having after some trouble arranged the beaters in a proper line, I gave
the order for an advance. In an instant the shouts arose, and three or
four tom-toms added to the din.
I was mounted upon Lord Mayo near the centre of the line in the open
glade. No sooner had the noise begun, than a violent panic seized this
senseless brute, and without the slightest warning it rushed straight
ahead for the thick forest at a pace that would nearly equal that of a
luggage train. It was in vain that the mahout dug the iron spike into
its head and alternately seized its ears by the unsparing hook, away it
ran, regardless of all punishment or persuasion, until it reached the
jungle, and with a crash we entered in full career!
Fortunately there was no howdah, only a pad well secured by thick ropes.
To clutch these tightly, and to dodge the opposing branches by ducking
the head, now swinging to the right, then doubling down upon the left to
allow the bending trees to sweep across the pad, then flinging oneself
nearly over the flank to escape a bough that threatened instant
extermination; all these gymnastics were performed and repeated in a few
seconds only, as the panic-stricken brute ploughed its way, regardless
of all obstructions, which threatened every instant to sweep us off its
back. The active mahout of my other elephant, knowing the character of
Lord Mayo, had luckily accompanied us with a spear, and although at the
time I was unaware of his presence, he was exerting himself to the
utmost in a vain endeavour to overtake our runaway elephant. At first I
imagined that the great pace would soon be slackened, and that a couple
of hundred yards would exhaust the animal's wind, especially as the
ground was slightly rising. Instead of this, it was going like a
steam-engine, and if there had been the usual amount of thorny creepers
we should have been torn to pieces.
" Keep him straight for the hill," I shouted, as I saw we were
approaching an inclination. "Don't let him turn to right or left, keep
his head straight for the steep ground;" and the mahout, who had been
yelling for assistance, and had lost both his turban and skull-cap, did
all that he could by tunnelling into the brute's head with his
formidable hook to direct it straight up the hill. I never knew an
elephant go at such a pace over rocky ground. Young trees were smashed
down, some branches torn, others bent forward, which swung backwards
with dangerous force, and yet on we tore without a sign of diminishing
speed. How I longed for an anchor to have brought up our runaway ship
head to wind! We had the coupling chains upon the pad, and my
interpreter, Modar Bux, at length succeeded in releasing these, and in
throwing them down for any person following to make use of. After a run
of quite half a mile, we fortunately arrived at a really steep portion
of the hill, where the rocks were sufficiently large to present a
difficulty to any runaway. The mahout who had been following our course,
breathless and with bleeding feet, here overtook us. Placing himself in
advance of the elephant, who seemed determined to continue its flight
among the rocks, he dug the spear deep into the animal's trunk, and kept
repeating the apparently cruel thrusts until at length it stopped.
Several men now arrived with the coupling chains, which were at length
with difficulty adjusted, and the elephant's fore legs were shackled
together. It was curious to observe the dexterous manner in which it
resisted this operation, and had it not been for the dread of the spear
I much doubt whether it could have been accomplished.
This was the first time that I had experienced a runaway elephant, but I
soon found that both my steeds were equally untrustworthy. A few weeks
after this event we had completed the morning's march and found the camp
already prepared for our arrival, at a place called Kassli, which is a
central depot for railway sleepers as they are received from the native
contractors. These were carefully piled in squares of about twenty each,
and covered a considerable area of ground at intervals. A large ox had
died that morning, and as it was within 50 yards of the tent it was
necessary to remove it; the vultures were already crowded in the
surrounding trees waiting for its decomposition. As usual, none of the
natives would defile themselves by touching the dead body. I accordingly
gave orders that one of the elephants should drag it about a mile down
wind away from the camp. Lord Mayo was brought to the spot, and the
sweeper, being of a low caste, attached a very thick rope to the hind
legs of the ox; the other end being made fast to the elephant's pad in
such a manner as to form traces. The elephant did not exhibit the
slightest interest in the proceeding, and everything was completed, the
body of the ox being about 6 or 7 yards behind.
No sooner did Lord Mayo move forward in obedience to the mahout's
command, and feel the tug of the weight attached, than he started off in
a panic at a tremendous pace, dragging the body through the lanes
between the piles of sleepers, upsetting them, and sending them flying
in all directions, as the dead ox caught against the corners; and,
helter-skelter, he made for the nearest jungle about 300 yards distant.
Fortunately some wood-cutters were there, who yelled and screamed to
turn him back; but although this had the effect of driving him from the
forest, he now started over the plain down hill, dragging the heavy ox
behind as though it had been a rabbit, and going at such a pace that
none of the natives could overtake him, although by this time at least
twenty men were in full pursuit.
The scene was intensely ridiculous, and the whole village turned out to
enjoy the fun of a runaway elephant with a dead ox bounding over the
inequalities of the ground; no doubt Lord Mayo imagined that he was
being hunted by the carcase which so persistently followed him wherever
he went. There was no danger to the driver, as the elephant was kept
away from the forest. The ground became exceedingly rough and full of
holes from the soakage during the rainy season. This peculiar soil is
much disliked by elephants, as the surface is most treacherous, and
cavernous hollows caused by subterranean water action render it unsafe
for the support of such heavy animals. The resistance of the dead ox,
which constantly jammed in the abrupt depressions, began to tell upon
the speed, and in a short time the elephant was headed, and surrounded
by a mob of villagers. I was determined that he should now be compelled
to drag the carcase quietly in order to accustom him to the burden; we
therefore attached the coupling chains to his fore legs, and drove him
gently, turning him occasionally to enable him to inspect the carcase
that had smitten him with panic. In about twenty minutes he became
callous, and regarded the dead body with indifference.
Although an elephant is capable of great speed, it cannot jump, neither
can it lift all four legs off the ground at the same time; this
peculiarity renders it impossible to cross any ditch with hard
perpendicular sides that will not crumble or yield to pressure, if such
a ditch should be wider than the limit of the animal's extreme pace. If
the limit of a pace should be 6 feet, a 7-foot ditch would effectually
stop an elephant.
Although the strength of an elephant is prodigious whenever it is fully
exerted, it is seldom that the animal can be induced to exhibit the
maximum force which it possesses. A rush of a herd of elephants, with a
determined will against the enclosure of palisades used for their
capture would probably break through the barrier, but they do not appear
to know their strength, or to act together. This want of cohesion is a
sufficient proof that in a wild state they are not so sagacious as they
have been considered. I do not describe the kraal or keddah, which is so
well known by frequent descriptions as the most ancient and practical
method of capturing wild elephants; but although in Ceylon the kraal has
been used from time immemorial, the Singhalese are certainly behind the
age as compared with the great keddah establishments of India. In the
latter country there is a ditch inside the palisaded enclosure, which
prevents the elephants from exerting their force against the structure;
in Ceylon this precaution is neglected, and the elephants have
frequently effected a breach in the palisade. In Ceylon all the old
elephants captured within the kraal or keddah are considered worthless,
and only those of scarcely full growth are valued; in India, all
elephants irrespective of their age are valued, and the older animals
are as easily domesticated as the young.
The keddah establishment at Dacca is the largest in India, and during
the last season, under the superintendence of Mr. G. P. Sanderson, 404
elephants were captured in the Garo Hills, 132 being taken in one drive.
It is difficult to believe that any district can continue to produce
upon this wholesale scale, and it is probable that after a few years
elephants will become scarce in the locality. Nevertheless there is a
vast tract of forest extending into Burmah, and the migratory habits of
the elephant at certain seasons may continue the supply, especially if
certain fruits or foliage attract them to the locality.
This migratory instinct is beyond our powers of explanation in the case
of either birds, beasts, or fishes. How they communicate, in order to
organise the general departure, must remain a mystery. It is well known
that in England, previous to the departure of the swallows, they may be
seen sitting in great numbers upon the telegraph wires as though
discussing the projected journey; in a few days after, there is not a
swallow to be seen.
I once, and only once, had an opportunity of seeing elephants that were
either migrating, or had just arrived from a migration. This was between
3 degrees and 4 degrees N. latitude in Africa, between Obbo and Farajok.
We were marching through an uninhabited country for about 30 miles, and
in the midst of beautiful park-like scenery we came upon the magnificent
sight of vast herds of elephants. These were scattered about the country
in parties varying in numbers from ten to a hundred, while single bulls
dotted the landscape with their majestic forms in all directions. In
some places there were herds of twenty or thirty entirely composed of
large tuskers; in other spots were parties of females with young ones
interspersed, of varying growths, and this grand display of elephantine
life continued for at least 2 miles in length as we rode parallel with
the groups at about a quarter of a mile distant. It would have been
impossible to guess the number, as there was no regularity in their
arrangement, neither could I form any idea of the breadth of the area
that was occupied. I have often looked back upon that extraordinary
scene, and it occurred to me forcibly in after years, when I had 3200
elephants' tusks in one station of Central Africa, which must have
represented 1600 animals slain for their fatal ivory.
The day must arrive when ivory will be a production of the past, as it
is impossible that the enormous demand can be supplied. I have already
explained that the African savage never tames a wild animal, neither
does he exhibit any sympathy or pity, his desire being, like the gunner
of the nineteenth century, to exterminate. It may be readily imagined
that wholesale destruction is the result whenever some favourable
opportunity delivers a large herd of elephants into the native hands.
There are various methods employed for trapping, or otherwise
destroying. Pitfalls are the most common, as they are simple, and
generally fatal. Elephants are thirsty creatures, and when in large
herds they make considerable roads in their passage towards a river.
They are nearly always to be found upon the same track when nightly
approaching the usual spot for drinking or for a bath. It is therefore a
simple affair to intercept their route by a series of deep pitfalls dug
exactly in the line of their advance. These holes vary in shape; the
circular are, I believe, the most effective, as the elephant falls head
downwards, but I have seen them made of different shapes and proportions
according to the individual opinions of the trappers.
It is exceedingly dangerous, when approaching a river, to march in
advance of a party without first sending forward a few natives to
examine the route in front. The pits are usually about 12 or 14 feet in
depth. These are covered over with light wood, and crossed with slight
branches or reeds, upon which is laid some long dry grass; this is
covered lightly with soil, upon which some elephant's dung is scattered,
as though the animal had dropped it during the action of walking. A
little broken grass is carelessly distributed upon the surface, and the
illusion is complete. The night arrives, and the unsuspecting elephants,
having travelled many miles of thirsty wilderness, hurry down the
incline towards the welcome river. Crash goes a leading elephant into a
well-concealed pitfall! To the right and left the frightened members of
the herd rush at the unlooked-for accident, but there are many other
pitfalls cunningly arranged to meet this sudden panic, and several more
casualties may arise, which add to the captures on the following
morning, when the trappers arrive to examine the position of their pits.
The elephants are then attacked with spears while in their helpless
position, until they at length succumb through loss of blood.
There is another terrible method of destroying elephants in Central
Africa. During the dry season, when the withered herbage from 10 to 14
feet in height is most inflammable, a large herd of elephants may be
found in the middle of such high grass that they can only be perceived
should a person be looking down from some elevated point. If they should
be espied by some native hunter, he would immediately give due notice to
the neighbourhood, and in a short time the whole population would
assemble for the hunt. This would be arranged by forming a circle of
perhaps 2 miles in diameter, and simultaneously firing the grass so as
to create a ring of flames around the centre. An elephant is naturally
afraid of fire, and it has an instinctive horror of the crackling of
flames when the grass has been ignited. As the circle of fire contracts
in approaching the encircled herd, they at first attempt retreat until
they become assured of their hopeless position; they at length become
desperate, being maddened by fear, and panic-stricken by the wild shouts
of the thousands who have surrounded them. At length, half-suffocated by
the dense smoke, and terrified by the close approach of the roaring
flames, the unfortunate animals charge recklessly through the fire,
burnt and blinded, to be ruthlessly speared by the bloodthirsty crowd
awaiting this last stampede. Sometimes a hundred or more elephants are
simultaneously destroyed in this wholesale slaughter. The flesh is then
cut into long strips and dried, every portion of the animal being smoked
upon frames of green wood, and the harvest of meat is divided among the
villages which have contributed to the hunt. The tusks are also shared,
a certain portion belonging by right to the various headmen and the
chief.
When man determines to commence war with the animal kingdom the result
must be disastrous to the beasts, if the human destroyers are in
sufficient numbers to ensure success. Although fire-arms may not be
employed, the human intelligence must always overpower the brute
creation, but man must exist in numerical superiority if the wild beasts
are to be fairly vanquished by a forced retreat from the locality. From
my own observation I have concluded that wild animals of all kinds will
withstand the dangers of traps, pitfalls, fire, and the usual methods
for their destruction employed by savages, but they will be rapidly
cleared out of an extensive district by the use of fire-arms. There is a
peculiar effect in the report of guns which appears to excite the
apprehension of danger in the minds of all animals. This is an
extraordinary instance of the general intelligence of wild creatures, as
they must be accustomed to the reports of thunder since the day of their
birth. Nevertheless they draw a special distinction between the loud
peal of thunder and the comparatively innocent explosion of a fire-arm.
Many years ago in Ceylon I devoted particular attention to this subject,
especially as it affects the character of elephants. How those creatures
manage to communicate with each other it is impossible to determine, but
the fact remains that a very few days' shooting will clear out an
extensive district, although the area may comprise a variation of open
prairie with a large amount of forest. I have frequently observed, in
the portion of Ceylon known as the Park country, the tracks of elephants
in great numbers which have evidently been considerable herds that have
joined together in a general retreat from ground which they considered
insecure. In that district I have arrived at the proper season, when the
grass after burning has grown to the height of about 2 feet, and it has
literally been alive with elephants. In a week my late brother General
Valentine Baker and myself shot thirty-two, and I sent a messenger to
invite a friend to join us, in the expectation of extraordinary sport.
Upon his arrival after five or six days, there was not an elephant in
the country, excepting two or three old single bulls which always
infested certain spots.
The reports of so many heavy rifles, which of necessity were fired every
evening at dusk in the days of muzzle-loaders, for the sake of cleaning,
must have widely alarmed the country, but independently of this special
cause there can be no doubt that after a few days' heavy shooting, the
elephants will combine in some mysterious manner and disappear from an
extensive district. In many ways these creatures are perplexing to the
student of natural history. It would occur to most people that in
countries where elephants abound we should frequently meet with those
that are sick, or so aged that they cannot accompany the herd. Although
for very many years I have hunted both in Asia and Africa I have never
seen a sick elephant in a wild state, neither have I ever come across an
example of imbecility through age. It is rarely we discover a dead
elephant that has not met with a violent death, and only once in my life
have I by accident found the remains of a tusker with the large tusks
intact. This animal had been killed in a fight, as there were
unmistakable signs of a fearful struggle, the ground being trodden
deeply in all directions.
It is supposed by the natives that when an elephant is mortally sick it
conceals itself in the thickest and most secluded portion of the jungle,
to die in solitude. Most animals have the same instinct, which induces
them to seek the shelter of some spot remote from all disturbance; and
should we find their remains, it will be near water, where the thirst of
disease has been assuaged at the last moment. The ox tribe are subject
to violent epidemics, and I have not only found the bodies of buffaloes
in great numbers upon occasions during some malignant murrain, but they
have been scattered throughout the country in all directions, causing a
frightful stench, and probably extending the infection. A few years ago
there was an epidemic among the bisons in the Reipore district of India;
this spread into neighbouring districts over a large extent of country,
and caused fearful ravages, but none of the deer tribe were attacked,
the disease being confined specially to the genus Bos. There are
interesting proofs of the specific poison of certain maladies which are
limited in their action to a particular class of animal. We find the
same in vegetable diseases, where a peculiar insect will attack a
distinct family of plants, or where a special variety of fungoid growth
exerts a similar baneful influence.
Wounded elephants have a marvellous power of recovery when in their wild
state, although they have no gift of surgical knowledge, their simple
system being confined to plastering their wounds with mud, or blowing
dust upon the surface. Dust and mud comprise the entire pharmacopoeia of
the elephant, and this is applied upon the most trivial as well as upon
the most serious occasion. If an elephant has a very slight sore back,
it will quickly point out the tender part by blowing dust with its
trunk upon the spot which it cannot reach. Should the mahout have
seriously punished the crown with the cruel driving-hook, the elephant
applies dust at the earliest opportunity. I have seen them, when in a
tank, plaster up a bullet-wound with mud taken from the bottom. This
application is beneficial in protecting the wound from the attack of
flies. The effect of these disgusting insects is quite shocking when an
unfortunate animal becomes fly-blown, and is literally consumed by
maggots. An elephant possesses a wonderful superiority over all other
animals in the trunk, which can either reach the desired spot directly,
or can blow dust upon it when required. All shepherds in England
appreciate the difficulty when their sheep are attacked by flies, but
they can be relieved by the human hand; a wild animal, on the contrary,
has no alleviation, and it must eventually succumb to its misery. There
is a peculiar fly in most tropical climates, but more especially in
Ceylon, which lays live maggots, instead of eggs that require some time
to hatch. These are the most dreadful pests, as the lively young maggots
exhibit a horrible activity in commencing their work the instant they
see the light; they burrow almost immediately into the flesh, and grow
to a large size within twenty-four hours, occasioning the most loathsome
sores. The best cure for any wound thus attacked, and swarming with live
maggots, is a teaspoonful of calomel applied and rubbed into the deep
sore.
I have seen the Arabs in the Soudan adopt a most torturing remedy when a
camel has suffered from a fly-blown sore back. Upon one occasion I saw a
camel kneeling upon the ground with a number of men around it, and I
found that it was to undergo a surgical operation for a terrible wound
upon its hump. This was a hole as large and deep as an ordinary
breakfast-cup, which was alive with maggots. The operator had been
preparing a quantity of glowing charcoal, which was at a red heat. This
was contained in a piece of broken chatty, a portion of a water jar, and
it was dexterously emptied into the diseased cavity on the camel's back.
The poor creature sprang to its feet, and screaming with agony, dashed
at full gallop across the desert in a frantic state, with the fire
scorching its flesh, and doubtless making it uncomfortable for the
maggots. Fire is the Arabs' vade mecum; the actual cautery is deeply
respected, and is supposed to be infallible. If internal inflammation
should attack the patient, the surface is scored with a red-hot iron.
Should guinea-worm be suspected, there is no other course to pursue than
to burn the suffering limb in a series of spots with a red-hot iron
ramrod. The worm will shortly make its appearance at one of these
apertures after some slight inflammation and suppuration. This fearful
complaint is termed Frendeet in the Soudan, and it is absorbed into the
system generally by drinking foul water. At the commencement of the
rainy season, when the ground has been parched by the long drought of
summer, the surface-water drains into the hollows and forms muddy pools.
The natives shun such water, as it is almost certain to contain the eggs
of the guinea-worm. These in some mysterious manner are hatched within
the body if swallowed in the act of drinking, and whether they develop
in the stomach or in the intestines, it is difficult to determine, but
the result is the same. The patient complains of rheumatic pains in one
limb; this increases until the leg or arm swells to a frightful extent,
accompanied by severe inflammation and great torment. The Arab
practitioner declares that the worm is at work, and is seeking for a
means of escape from the body. He accordingly burns half a dozen holes
with a red-hot iron or ramrod. In a few days the head of the guinea-worm
appears; it is immediately captured by a finely-split reed, and by
degrees is wound like a cotton thread by turning the reed every day.
This requires delicate manipulation, otherwise the worm might break, and
a portion remain in the flesh, which would increase the inflammation. An
average guinea-worm would be about three feet in length. Animals do not
appear to suffer from this complaint, although they are subject to the
attacks of great varieties of parasites. Elephants are frequently
troubled with internal worms. I witnessed a curious instance of the
escape of such insects from the stomach through a hole caused by a
bullet, nevertheless the animal appeared to be in good condition.
It was a fine moonlight night on the borders of Abyssinia that I sat up
to watch the native crops, which were a great attraction to the wild
elephants, although there was no heavy jungle nearer than 20 miles. It
was the custom of these animals to start after sunset, and to arrive at
about ten o'clock in the vast dhurra fields of the Arabs, who, being
without fire-arms, could only scare them by shouts and flaming torches.
The elephants did not care much for this kind of disturbance, and they
merely changed their position from one portion of the cultivated land to
another more distant, and caused serious destruction to the crop
(Sorghum vulgare), which was then nearly ripe. The land was rich, and
the dhurra grew 10 or 12 feet high, with stems as thick as sugar-cane,
while the large heads of corn contained several thousand grains the size
of a split-pea. This was most tempting food for elephants, and they
travelled nightly the distance named to graze upon the crops, and then
retreated before sunrise to their distant jungles.
I do not enjoy night shooting, but there was no other way of assisting
the natives, therefore I found myself watching, in the silent hours of
night, in the middle of a perfect sea of cultivation, unbroken for many
miles. There is generally a calm during the night, and there was so
perfect a stillness that it was almost painful, the chirp of an insect
sounding as loud as though it were a bird. At length there was a distant
sound like wind, or the rush of a stream over a rocky bed. This might
have been a sudden gust, but the sharp crackling of brittle dhurra stems
distinctly warned us that elephants had invaded the field, and that they
were already at their work of destruction.
As the dhurra is sown in parallel rows about 3 feet apart, and the
ground was perfectly flat, there was no difficulty in approaching the
direction whence the cracking of the dhurra could be distinctly heard.
The elephants appeared to be feeding towards us with considerable
rapidity, and in a few minutes I heard the sound of crunching within 50
yards of me. I immediately ran along the clear passage between the tall
stems, and presently saw a black form close to me as it advanced in the
next alley to my own. I do not think I was more than 4 or 5 yards from
it when it suddenly turned its head to the right, and I immediately took
a shot behind the ear. I had a white paper sight upon the muzzle of the
large rifle (No. 10), which was plainly distinguished in the bright
moonlight, and the elephant fell stone dead without the slightest
struggle.
After some delay from the dispersion of my men who carried spare guns, I
re-loaded, and followed in the direction which the herd had taken.
Although upon the "qui vive," they had not retreated far, as they were
unaccustomed to guns, and they were determined to enjoy their supper
after the long march of 20 miles to the attractive dhurra fields. I came
up with them about three-quarters of a mile from the first shot; here
there was the limit of cultivation, and all was wild prairie land; they
had retreated by the way they had arrived, with the intention, no doubt,
of returning again to the dhurra when the disturbing cause should have
disappeared. I could see the herd distinctly as they stood in a compact
body numbering some ten or twelve animals. The only chance was to run
straight at them in order to get as near as possible before they should
start, as I expected they would, in panic. Accordingly I ran forward,
when, to my surprise, two elephants rushed towards me, and I was obliged
to fire right and left. One fell to the ground for a moment, but
recovered; the other made no sign, except by whirling round and joining
the herd in full retreat.
That night I used a double-barrel muzzle-loader (No. 10), with conical
bullet made of 12 parts lead, 1 part quicksilver, 7 drams of powder.
Some days later we heard native reports concerning an elephant that had
been seen badly wounded, and very lame.
Forty-two days after this incident I had moved camp to a place called
Geera, 22 miles distant. It was a wild uninhabited district at that time
on the banks of the Settite river, with the most impervious jungle of
hooked thorns, called by the Arabs "kittul." This tree does not grow
higher than twenty-five feet, but it spreads to a very wide flat-topped
head, the branches are thick, the wood immensely strong and hard, while
the thorns resemble fish-hooks minus the barb. This impenetrable asylum
was the loved resort of elephants, and it was from this particular
station that they made their nocturnal raids upon the cultivated
district more than 20 miles distant in a direct line.
We slept out that night upon the sandy bed of a small stream, which at
that season of great heat had evaporated. Upon waking on the following
morning we found the blankets wet through with the heavy dew, and the
pillows soaking. Having arranged the camp, I left Lady Baker to give the
necessary orders, while I took my rifles and a few good men for a
reconnaissance of the neighbourhood.
The river ran through cliffs of rose-coloured limestone; this soon
changed to white; and we proceeded down stream examining the sandy
portions of the bed for tracks of game that might have passed during the
preceding night. After about a mile we came upon tracks of elephants,
which had apparently come down to drink at our side of the river, and
had then returned, I felt sure, to the thorny asylum named Tuleet.
There was no other course to pursue but to follow on the tracks; this we
did until we arrived at the formidable covert to which I have alluded.
It was impossible to enter this except at certain places where wild
animals had formed a narrow lane, and in one of these by-ways we
presently found ourselves, sometimes creeping, sometimes walking, but
generally adhering firmly every minute to some irrepressible branch of
hooked thorns, which gave us a pressing invitation to "wait a bit." In
a short time we found evident signs that the elephants were near at
hand. The natives thrust their naked feet into the fresh dung to see if
it was still warm. This was at length the case, and we advanced with
extra care. The jungle became so thick that it was almost impossible to
proceed. I wore a thick flaxen shirt which would not tear. This had
short sleeves, as I was accustomed to bare arms from a few inches above
the elbow. Not only my shirt, but the tough skin of my arms was every
now and then hooked up fast by these dreadful thorns, and at last it
appeared impossible to proceed. Just at that moment there was a sudden
rush, a shrill trumpet, and the jungle crashed around us in magnificent
style to those who enjoy such excitement, and a herd of elephants dashed
through the dense thicket and consolidated themselves into a mighty
block as they endeavoured to force down the tough thorny mass ahead of
them. This was a grand opportunity to run in, but a phalanx of opposing
rumps like the sterns of Dutch vessels in a crowd rendered it impossible
to shoot, or to pass ahead of the perplexed animals. A female elephant
suddenly wheeled round, and charged straight into us; fortunately I
killed her with a forehead shot exactly below the boss or projection
above the trunk. I now took a spare rifle, the half-pounder, and fired
into the flank of the largest elephant in the herd, just behind the last
rib, the shot striking obliquely, thus aimed to reach the lungs, as I
could not see any of the fore portion of the body.
The dense compressed thorny mass of jungle offered such resistance that
it was some time before it gave way before the united pressure of these
immense animals. At length it yielded as the herd crashed through, but
it then closed again upon us and made following impossible. However, we
felt sure that the elephant I had hit with the half-pound explosive
shell would die, and after creeping through upon the tracks with the
greatest difficulty for about 150 yards, we found it lying dead upon its
side.
The whole morning was occupied in cutting up the flesh and making a
post-mortem examination. We found the inside partially destroyed by the
explosive shell, which had shattered the lungs, but there was an old
wound still open where a bullet had entered the chest, and missing the
heart and lungs in an oblique course, it had passed through the stomach,
then through the cavity of the body beneath the ribs and flank, and had
penetrated the fleshy mass inside the thigh. In that great resisting
cushion of strong muscles the bullet had expended its force, and found
rest from its extraordinary course of penetration. After some trouble, I
not only traced its exact route, but I actually discovered the
projectile embedded in a foul mass of green pus, which would evidently
have been gradually absorbed without causing serious damage to the
animal. To my surprise, it was my own No. 10 two-groove conical bullet,
composed of twelve parts lead and one of quicksilver, which I had fired
when this elephant had advanced towards me at night, forty-two days ago,
and 22 miles, as far as I could ascertain, from the spot where I had now
killed it. The superior size of this animal to the remainder of the herd
had upon both occasions attracted my special attention, hence the fact
of selection, but I was surprised that any animal should have recovered
from such a raking shot. The cavity of the body abounded with hairy
worms about 2 inches in length. These had escaped from the stomach
through the two apertures made by the bullet; and upon an examination of
the contents, I found a great number of the same parasites crawling
among the food, while others were attached to the mucous membrane of the
paunch. This fact exhibits the recuperative power of an elephant in
recovering from a severe internal injury.
The natives of Central Africa have a peculiar method of destroying them,
by dropping a species of enormous dagger from the branch of a tree. The
blade of this instrument is about 2 feet in length, very sharp on both
edges, and about 3 inches in width at the base. It is secured in a
handle about 18 inches long, the top of which is knobbed; upon this
extremity a mass of well-kneaded tenacious clay mixed with chopped straw
is fixed, weighing 10 or 12 lbs., or even more. When a large herd of
elephants is discovered in a convenient locality, the hunt is thus
arranged:--A number of men armed with these formidable drop-spears or
daggers ascend all the largest and most shady trees throughout the
neighbouring forest. In a great hunt there may be some hundred trees
thus occupied. When all is arranged, the elephants are driven and forced
into the forest, to which they naturally retreat as a place of refuge.
It is their habit to congregate beneath large shady trees when thus
disturbed, in complete ignorance of the fact that the assassins are
already among the branches. When an elephant stands beneath a tree thus
manned, the hunter drops his weighted spearhead so as to strike the back
just behind the shoulder. The weight of the clay lump drives the sharp
blade up to the hilt, as it descends from a height of 10 or 12 feet
above the animal. Sometimes a considerable number may be beneath one
tree, in which case several may be speared in a similar manner. This
method of attack is specially fatal, as the elephants, in retreating
through the forest, brush the weighted handle of the spear-blade against
the opposing branches; these act as levers in cutting the inside of the
animal by every movement of the weapon, and should this be well centred
in the back there is no escape.
There is no animal that is more persistently pursued than the elephant,
as it affords food in wholesale supply to the Africans, who consume the
flesh, while the hide is valuable for shields; the fat when boiled down
is highly esteemed by the natives, and the ivory is of extreme value. No
portion of the animal is wasted in Africa, although in Ceylon the
elephant is considered worthless, and is allowed to rot uselessly upon
the ground where it fell to die.
The professional hunters that are employed by European traders shoot the
elephant with enormous guns, or rifles, which are generally rested upon
a forked stick driven into the ground. In this manner they approach to
about 50 yards' distance, and fire, if possible simultaneously, two
shots behind the shoulder. If these shots are well placed, the elephant,
if female, will fall at once, but if a large male, it will generally run
for perhaps 100 or more yards until it is forced to halt, when it
quickly falls, and dies from suffocation, if the lungs are pierced.
The grandest of all hunters are the Hamran Arabs, upon the Settite
river, on the borders of Abyssinia, who have no other weapon but the
heavy two-edged sword. I gave an intimate account of these wonderful
Nimrods many years ago in the _Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_, but it is
impossible to treat upon the elephant without some reference to these
extraordinary people.
Since I visited that country in 1861, the published account of those
travels attracted several parties of the best class of ubiquitous
Englishmen, and I regret to hear that all those mighty hunters who
accompanied me have since been killed in the desperate hand-to-hand
encounters with wild elephants. Their life is a constant warfare with
savage beasts, therefore it may be expected that the termination is a
death upon their field of battle, invariably sword in hand.
James Bruce, the renowned African traveller of the last century, was the
first to describe the Agagheers of Abyssinia, and nothing could be more
graphic than his description both of the people and the countries they
inhabit, through which I have followed in Bruce's almost forgotten
footsteps, with the advantage of possessing his interesting book as my
guide wheresoever I went in 1861. Since that journey, the deplorable
interference of England in Egypt which resulted in the abandonment of
the Soudan and the sacrifice of General Gordon at Khartoum has
completely severed the link of communication that we had happily
established established, which had laid the foundations for future
civilisation. The splendid sword-hunters of the Hamran Arabs, who were
our friends in former days, have been converted into enemies by the
meddling of the British Government with affairs which they could not
understand. It is painful to look back to the past, when Lady Baker and
myself, absolutely devoid of all escort, passed more than twelve months
in exploring the wildest portions of the Soudan, attended only by one
Egyptian servant, assisted by some Arab boys which we picked up in the
desert among the Arab tribes. In those days the name of England was
respected, although not fairly understood. There was a vague impression
in the Arab mind that it was the largest country upon earth; that its
Government was the emblem of perfection; that the military power of the
country was overwhelming (having conquered India); and that the English
people always spoke the truth, and never forsook their friends in the
moment of distress. There was also an idea that England was the only
European Power which regarded the Mussulmans with a friendly eye, and
that, were it not for British protection, the Russians would eat the
Sultan and overthrow the mosques, to trample upon the Mahommedan power
in Constantinople. England was therefore regarded as the friend and the
ally of the Mahommedans; it was known that we had together fought
against the Russians, and it was believed that we were always ready to
fight in the same cause when called upon by the Sultan. All British
merchandise was looked upon as the ne plus ultra of purity and
integrity; there could be no doubt of the quality of goods, provided
that they were of English manufacture.
An Englishman cannot show his face among those people at the present
day. The myth has been exploded. The golden image has been scratched,
and the potter's clay beneath has been revealed. This is a terrible
result of clumsy management. We have failed in every way. Broken faith
has dissipated our character for sincerity, and our military operations
have failed to attain their object, resulting in retreat upon every
side, to be followed up even to the seashores of the Red Sea by an enemy
that is within range of our gun-vessels at Souakim. This is a
distressing change to those who have received much kindness and passed
most agreeable days among the Arab tribes of the Soudan deserts, and I
look back with intense regret to the errors we have committed, by which
the entire confidence has been destroyed which formerly was associated
with the English name. The countries which we opened by many years of
hard work and patient toil throughout the Soudan, even through the
extreme course of the White Nile to its birthplace in the equatorial
regions, have been abandoned by the despotic order of the British
Government, influenced by panic instead of policy; telegraphic lines
which had been established in the hitherto barbarous countries of
Kordofan, Darfur, the Blue Nile territories of Senaar, and throughout
the wildest deserts of Nubia to Khartoum have all been abandoned to the
rebels, who under proper management should have become England's
friends.
This has been our civilising influence (?), by which we have broken down
the work of half a century, and produced the most complete anarchy where
five-and-twenty years ago a lady could travel in security. England
entered Egypt in arms to _re-establish the authority of the Khedive!_ We
have dislocated his Empire, and forsaken the Soudan.
CHAPTER IV
The experience of modern practice has hardly decided the vexed question
"whether the African species is more difficult to train than the gentle
elephant of Asia." In a wild state there can be no doubt that the
African is altogether a different animal both in appearance and in
habits; it is vastly superior in size, and although of enormous bulk, it
is more active and possesses greater speed than the Asiatic variety. Not
only is the marked difference in shape a distinguishing peculiarity,--the
hollow back, the receding front, the great size of the ears,--but the
skin is rougher, and more decided in the bark-like appearance of its
texture.
The period of gestation is considered to be the same as the Asiatic
elephant, about twenty-two months, but this must be merely conjecture,
as there has hitherto been no actual proof. My own experience induces me
to believe that the African elephant is more savage, and although it may
be tamed and rendered docile, it is not so dependable as the Asiatic.
Only last year I saw an African female in a menagerie who had killed her
keeper, and was known to be most treacherous. Her attendant informed me
that she was particularly fond of change, and would welcome a new keeper
with evident signs of satisfaction, but after three or four days she
would tire of his society and would assuredly attempt to injure him,
either by backing and squeezing him against the wall, or by kicking
should he be within reach of her hind legs.
Few persons are aware of the extreme quickness with which an elephant
can kick, and the great height that can be reached by this mischievous
use of the hind foot. I have frequently seen an elephant kick as sharp
as a small pony, and the effect of a blow from so ponderous a mass
propelled with extreme velocity may be imagined. This is a peculiar
action, as the elephant is devoid of hocks, and it uses the knees of the
hind legs in a similar manner to those of a human being, therefore a
backward kick would seem unnatural; but the elephant can kick both
backwards and forwards with equal dexterity, and this constitutes a
special means of defence against an enemy, which seldom escapes when
exposed to such a game between the fore and hind feet of the infuriated
animal.
Although it is generally believed that an elephant moves the legs upon
each side simultaneously, like the camel, it does not actually touch the
ground with each foot upon the same side at exactly the same moment, but
the fore foot touches the surface first, rapidly followed by the hind,
and in both cases the heel is the first portion of the foot that reaches
its destination. The effect may be seen in the feet of an elephant after
some months' continual marching upon hard ground: the heels are worn
thin and are quite polished, as though they had been worn down by the
friction of sand-paper,-in fact, they are in the same condition as the
heels of an old boot.
The Indian native princes do not admire the African elephant, as it
combines many points which are objectionable to their peculiar ideas of
elephantine proportions. According to their views, the hollow back of an
African elephant would amount to a deformity. The first time that I ever
saw a large male of that variety I was of the same opinion. I was
hunting with the Hamran Arabs in a wild and uninhabited portion of
Abyssinia, along the banks of the Settite river, which is the main
stream of the Atbara, the chief affluent of the Nile.
As before stated, I have already published an account of these wonderful
hunters in the Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia, and it is sufficient to
describe them as the most fearless and active followers of the chase,
armed with no other weapon than the long, straight, two-edged Arab
sword, with which they attack all animals, from the elephant and
rhinoceros to the lion and buffalo. The sword is sharpened to the finest
degree, and the blade is protected for about six inches above the
cross-hilt with thick string, bound tightly round so as to afford a grip
for the right hand, while the left grips the hilt in the usual manner.
This converts the ordinary blade into a two-handed sword, a blow from
which will sever a naked man into two halves if delivered at the waist.
It may be imagined that a quick cut from such a formidable weapon will
at once divide the hamstring of any animal. The usual method of
attacking the elephant is as follows:-Three, or at the most four mounted
hunters sally forth in quest of game. When the fresh tracks of elephants
are discovered they are steadily followed up until the herd, or perhaps
the single animal, is found. If a large male with valuable tusks, it is
singled out and separated from the herd. The leading hunter follows the
retreating elephant, accompanied by his companions in single file. After
a close hunt, keeping within 10 yards of the game, a sudden halt becomes
necessary, as the elephant turns quickly round and faces its pursuers.
The greatest coolness is required, as the animal, now thoroughly roused,
is prepared to charge. The hunters separate to right and left, leaving
the leader to face the elephant. After a few moments, during which the
hunter insults the animal by shouting uncomplimentary remarks concerning
the antecedents of its mother, and various personal allusions to
imaginary members of the family, the elephant commences to back a
half-dozen paces as a preliminary to a desperate onset. This is the
well-known sign of the coming charge. A sharp shrill trumpet! and, with
its enormous ears thrown forward, the great bull elephant rushes towards
the apparently doomed horse. As quick as lightning the horse is turned,
and a race commences along a course terribly in favour of the elephant,
where deep ruts, thick tangled bush, and the branches of opposing trees
obstruct both horse and rider. Everything now depends upon the
sure-footedness of the horse and the cool dexterity of the rider. For
the first 100 yards an elephant will follow at 20 miles an hour, which
keeps the horse flying at top speed before it. The rider, even in this
moment of great danger, looks behind him, and adapts his horse's pace so
narrowly to that of his pursuer that the elephant's attention is wholly
absorbed by the hope of overtaking the unhappy victim.
In the meantime, two hunters follow the elephant at full gallop; one
seizes his companion's reins and secures the horse, while the rider
springs to the ground with the same agility as a trained circus-rider,
and with one dexterous blow of his flashing sword he divides the back
sinew of the elephant's hind leg about 16 inches above the heel. The
sword cuts to the bone. The elephant that was thundering forward at a
headlong speed suddenly halts; the foot dislocates when the great weight
of the animal presses upon it deprived of the supporting sinew. That one
cut of the sharp blade, disables an animal which appeared invincible.
As the elephant moves both legs upon the same side simultaneously, the
disabling of one leg entirely cripples all progress, and the creature
becomes absolutely helpless. The hunter, having delivered his fatal
stroke, springs nimbly upon one side to watch the effect, and then
without difficulty he slashes the back sinew of the remaining leg, with
the result that the animal bleeds to death. This is a cruel method, but
it requires the utmost dexterity and daring on the part of the hunters,
most of whom eventually fall victims to their gallantry.
I was accompanied by these splendid sword-hunters of the Hamran Arabs in
1861 during my exploration of the Nile tributaries of Abyssinia; and
upon the first occasion that I was introduced to an African male
elephant, the animal was standing at the point of a long sandbank which
had during high water formed the bed of the river, where a sudden bend
had hollowed out the inner side of the curve and thrown up a vast mass
of sand upon the opposite shore. This bank was a succession of terraces,
each about 4 feet high, formed at intervals during the changes in the
level of the retreating stream. The elephant was standing partly in the
water drinking, and quite 100 yards from the forest upon the bank. The
huge dark mass upon the glaring surface of white sand stood out in bold
relief and exhibited to perfection the form and proportions of the
animal; but it was so unlike the Indian elephant of my long experience
that I imagined some accident must have caused a deformity of the back,
which was deeply hollowed, instead of being convex like the Asiatic
species. I whispered this to my hunters, who did not seem to understand
the remark; and they immediately dismounted, exclaiming that the loose
sand was too deep for their horses, and they preferred to be on foot.
It was difficult to approach this elephant, as there was no cover
whatever upon the large area of barren sand; the only method was to keep
close to the level of the water below the terraces, as the head of the
animal was partially turned away from us whilst drinking. I had a very
ponderous single rifle weighing 22 lbs., which carried a conical shell
of half a pound, with a charge of 16 drams of powder. The sand was so
deep that any active movement would have been impossible with the load
of so heavy a weapon; I therefore determined to take a shoulder shot
should I be able to arrive unperceived within 50 yards. Stooping as low
as possible, and occasionally lying down as the ever-swinging head moved
towards us, we at length arrived at the spot which I had determined upon
for the fatal shot. Just at that moment the elephant perceived us, but
before he had made up his mind, I fired behind the shoulder, and as the
smoke cleared, I distinctly saw the bullet-hole, with blood flowing from
the wound. I think the elephant would have charged, but without a
moment's hesitation my gallant Hamrans rushed towards him sword in hand
in the hope of slashing his hamstring before he could reach the forest.
This unexpected and determined onset decided the elephant to retreat,
which he accomplished at such a pace, owing to the large surface of his
feet upon the loose sand, that the active hunters were completely
distanced, although they exerted themselves to the utmost in their
attempts to overtake him.
The wound through the shoulder was fatal, and the elephant fell dead in
thick thorny jungle, to which it had hurried as a secure retreat. This
was a very large animal, but as I did not actually measure it, any guess
at the real height would be misleading. As before noted, the measurement
of the African elephant Jumbo, when sold by the Zoological Society of
London, was 11 feet in height of shoulder, and 6 tons 10 cwts. nett when
weighed before shipment at the docks. That animal might be accepted as a
fair specimen, although it would be by no means unusual to see wild
elephants which greatly exceed this size.
The peculiar shape of head renders a front shot almost impossible, and
the danger of hunting the African elephant is greatly enhanced by this
formation of the skull, which protects the brain and offers no defined
point for aim.
I have never succeeded in killing a male African elephant by the
forehead shot, although it is certainly fatal to the Asiatic variety if
placed rather low, in the exact centre of the boss or projection above
the trunk. Should an African elephant charge, there is no hope of
killing the animal by a direct shot, and the only chance of safety for
the hunter is the possession of good nerves and a powerful
double-barrelled rifle, No. 8 or No. 4, with 14 drams of powder and a
well-hardened bullet. The right-hand barrel will generally stop a
charging elephant if the bullet is well placed very low, almost in the
base of the trunk. Should this shot succeed in turning the animal, the
left-hand barrel would be ready for a shot in the exact centre of the
shoulder; after which, time must be allowed for the elephant to fall
from internal haemorrhage.
There is no more fatal policy in hunting dangerous game than a contempt
of the animal, exhibited by a selection of weapons of inferior calibre.
Gunmakers in London of no practical experience, but who can only trust
to the descriptions of those who have travelled in wild countries,
cannot possibly be trusted as advisers. Common sense should be the
guide, and surely it requires no extraordinary intelligence to
understand that a big animal requires a big bullet, and that a big
bullet requires a corresponding charge of powder, which necessitates a
heavy rifle. If the hunter is not a Hercules, he cannot wield his club;
but do not permit him to imagine that he can deliver the same knock-down
blow with a lighter weapon, simply because he cannot use the heavier.
We lost only last year one of the most daring and excellent men, who was
an excellent representative of the type which is embraced in the proud
word "Englishman"--Mr. Ingram--who was killed by a wild female
elephant in Somali-land, simply because he attacked the animal with a
'450 rifle. Although he was mounted, the horse would not face some
prickly aloes which surrounded it, and the elephant, badly but not
really seriously wounded, was maddened by the attack, and, charging
home, swept the unfortunate rider from his saddle and spitted him with
her tusks.
This year (1889) we have to lament the death of another fine specimen of
our countrymen, the Hon. Guy Dawnay, who has been killed by a wild
buffalo in East Africa. The exact particulars will never be ascertained,
but it appears that he was following through thick jungle a wounded
buffalo, which suddenly turned and was not stopped by the rifle.
I cannot conceive anything more dangerous than the attack of such
animals with an inferior weapon. Nothing is more common than the
accounts of partially experienced beginners, who declare that the '450
bore is big enough for anything, because they have happened to kill a
buffalo or rhinoceros by a shoulder shot with such an inferior rifle. If
the animal had been facing them, it would have produced no effect
whatever, except to intensify the charge by maddening the already
infuriated animal.
This is the real danger in the possession of what is called a " handy
small-bore," when in wild countries abounding in dangerous game. You are
almost certain to select for your daily companion the lightest and
handiest rifle, in the same manner that you may use some favourite
walking-stick which you instinctively select from the stand that is
filled with a variety.
All hunters of dangerous animals should accustom themselves to the use
of large rifles, and never handle anything smaller than a '577, weighing
12 lbs., with a solid 650 grain hard bullet, and at the least 6 drams of
powder. I impress this upon all who challenge the dangers of the chase
in tropical climates. No person of average strength will feel the weight
of a 12 lb. rifle when accustomed to its use. Although this is too small
as a rule for heavy game, it is a powerful weapon when the bullet is
hardened by a tough mixture of antimony or quicksilver. A shoulder shot
from such a rifle will kill any animal less than an elephant, and the
front shot, or temple, or behind the ear, will kill any Asiatic
elephant.
I would not recommend so small a bore for heavy thick-skinned game, but
the '577 rifle is a good protector, and you need not fear any animal in
your rambles through the forest when thus armed, whereas the '450 and
even the '500 would be of little use against a charging buffalo.
At the same time it must be distinctly understood that so light a
projectile as 650 grains will not break the bone of an elephant's leg,
neither will it penetrate the skull of a rhinoceros unless just behind
the ear. This is sufficient to establish the inferiority of small-bores.
I have seen in a life's experience the extraordinary vagaries of rifle
bullets, and for close ranges of 20 yards there is nothing, in my
opinion, superior to the old spherical hardened bullet with a heavy
charge of powder. The friction is minimised, the velocity is accordingly
increased, and the hard round bullet neither deflects nor alters its
form, but it cuts through intervening branches and goes direct to its
aim, breaking bones and keeping a straight course through the animal.
This means death.
At the same time it must be remembered that a '577 rifle may be enabled
to perform wonders by adapting the material of the bullet to the purpose
specially desired. No soft-skinned animal should be shot with a hardened
bullet, and no hard-skinned animal should be shot with a soft bullet.
You naturally wish to kill your animal neatly--to double it up upon the
spot. This you will seldom or never accomplish with a very hard bullet
and a heavy charge of powder, as the high velocity will drive the hard
projectile so immediately through the animal that it receives no
striking energy, and is accordingly unaware of a fatal wound that it may
have received, simply because it has not sustained a shock upon the
impact of a bullet which has passed completely through its body.
To kill a thin-skinned animal neatly, such as a tiger, lion, large deer,
etc. etc., the bullet should be pure lead, unmixed with any other metal.
This will flatten to a certain degree immediately upon impact, and it
will continue to expand as it meets with resistance in passing through
the tough muscles of a large animal, until it assumes the shape of a
fully developed mushroom, which, after an immense amount of damage in
its transit, owing to its large diameter, will remain fixed beneath the
skin upon the side opposite to its place of entry. This bestows the
entire striking energy of the projectile, and the animal succumbs to the
tremendous shock, which it would not have felt had the bullet passed
through, carrying on its striking energy until stopped by some other
object beyond.
I must repeat that although gunmakers object to the use of pure lead for
rifle bullets, upon the plea that lead will form a coating upon the
inner surface of the barrel, and that more accurate results will be
obtained in target practice by the use of hardened metal, the argument
does not apply to sporting practice. You seldom fire more than half a
dozen shots from each barrel during the day, and the rifle is well
cleaned each evening upon your return to camp. The accuracy with a pure
leaden bullet is quite sufficient for the comparatively short ranges
necessitated by game-shooting. The arguments of leading the barrel,
etc., cannot be supported, and the result is decidedly in favour of pure
lead for all soft-skinned animals.
The elephant requires not only a special rifle, but the strongest
ammunition that can be used without injury to the shooter by recoil. It
is impossible to advocate any particular size of rifle, as it must
depend upon the strength of the possessor. As a rule I do not approve of
shells, as they are comparatively useless if of medium calibre, and can
be only effective when sufficiently large to contain a destructive
bursting charge. I have tried several varieties of shells with
unsatisfactory results, excepting the half-pounder, which contained a
burst bursting charge of 8 drams of the finest grained powder.
This pattern was my own invention, as I found by experience that the
general defect of shells was the too immediate explosion upon impact.
This would cause extensive damage to the surface, but would fail in
penetration.
Picrate of potash was at one time supposed to combine an enormous
explosive power with perfect safety in carriage, as the detonating
shells were proof against the blow of a hammer, and would only explode
upon impact through the extreme velocity of their discharge from a
rifle-barrel. These were useless against an elephant, as they had no
power of penetration, and the shell destroyed itself by bursting upon
the hard skin. I tried these shells against trees, but although the bark
would be shattered over an extensive area, upon every occasion the
projectile failed to penetrate the wood, as it had ceased to exist upon
explosion on the surface.
My half-pound shell was exceedingly simple. A cast-iron bottle, sim
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/3657