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The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Estremoz to Felspar

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Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Estremoz to Felspar

Author: Various


        
Release date: April 12, 2011 [eBook #35845]
                Most recently updated: January 7, 2021

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA. ESTREMOZ TO FELSPAR ***




Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net





Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.

       *       *       *       *       *


Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.

THE

NEW . GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME . IV . PART . 3

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
COMPANY . _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

       *       *       *       *       *







LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

       *       *       *       *       *

VOLUME IV PART 3

ESTREMOZ to FELSPAR

       *       *       *       *       *

PLATES

                                                                  Page

  ETHNOLOGY                                                       304

MAPS IN COLOUR


  EUROPE                                                          322

       *       *       *       *       *







KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

       *       *       *       *       *

The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne,
G_oe_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_ue_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

       *       *       *       *       *

ESTREMOZ', a town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, 22 miles west
of Elvas. Pop. about 8000.

ESZEK (es-sek'), or ESSEG, a town of Yugo-Slavia, formerly in Hungary, on
the Drave, 13 miles from its confluence with the Danube. It has barracks,
town house, normal school, an important trade, and several fairs. Pop.
31,000.

ETAMPES ([=a]-tae[n.]p), a town of France, department of Seine-et-Oise, 30
miles S. by W. of Paris. Pop. 9450.

ETAPLES, a town of Northern France, department of Pas-de-Calais, on the
right bank of the estuary of the Canche, 17 miles south of Boulogne. During
the European War, Etaples became a place of great importance. It was a huge
British encampment, including many hospitals, and a cemetery with over
11,000 graves. It was also of importance as a training-centre, and the
famous 'Bull-ring' was there. Pop. 6000.

ETAP'PEN (Ger.), a department in Continental armies the business of which
is to relieve the commanders of the field army of all responsibility for
their communications in the rear. The officers of this department supervise
all arrangements for loading and unloading at stations, forwarding,
feeding, and billeting.

ETA'WAH, a town, Hindustan, United Provinces, capital of district of the
same name, on left bank of the Jumna, picturesquely situated among ravines,
and richly planted with trees. It has some good buildings, and a
considerable trade. Pop. 45,350.--The district has an area of 1694 sq.
miles, and a pop. of 760,120.

ETCHING, a method of engraving lines upon a metal plate by means of acid,
whence the term has come to denote an impression taken on paper or similar
material from the etched plate. Sometimes, though incorrectly, applied to a
line-drawing in pen and ink. The usual process is to cover the plate
(generally of copper) with an _etching-ground_ of waxes and resins, on
which the lines are opened up by means of a sharp-pointed _etching-needle_,
either from a design transferred to the ground, or by the artist working
directly. The lines are then _bitten_ by putting the plate into dilute
nitric or hydrochloric acid, the back and edges being protected by
_stopping-out varnish_. The plate is removed when the lightest lines are
sufficiently bitten. If some lines need deeper biting, the rest may be
covered with stopping-out varnish, and the plate replaced in the acid; or
acid may be applied locally. If a plate is removed before biting is
complete, in order to take a trial impression, it is recovered with a
transparent ground, additional lines opened up if necessary, and
_rebitten_. In _soft-ground etching_, the ground is mixed with tallow, thin
paper laid upon it, and the design firmly drawn thereon with a pencil. When
the paper is removed, the ground adheres to it where the lines were drawn.
The plate is bitten in the usual way. This produces the effect of a chalk
or pencil drawing. _Dry-point_ is a method of working direct on to the
copper with a sharp point, which raises a _burr_ on each side of the line,
giving it a characteristic quality. Dry-point, etching proper, and
engraving proper are often combined in one plate; and a mixture of etching
with mezzotint or aquatint is not uncommon. In _printing_, a matter of
first-rate importance, the ink is rubbed into the lines and superfluous ink
_wiped_ from the surface of the plate, ink being left in any place where a
tint is required. Impressions may then be taken by hand; but a press is
generally used, being more expeditious and yielding more even results. The
papers used are various, but those of Japanese make are most popular. The
number of good impressions possible from one plate is limited by the
wearing of the plate; in particular, the burr of dry-point soon disappears.
A _state_ is the name given to each stage in the progress of a print, which
is the result of new work on the plate. Differences due to variations in
the amount of ink used, or to wiping, do not constitute states; but the
addition of a title, artist's signature, &c., will make a state. As
distinct from the engraved line, the etched line has a freedom and
spontaneity resembling that made by pen or pencil.

The process was apparently used as a means of decorating metal some time
before prints were taken. The earliest-known etching is dated 1513. Among
the first to use the process was Albrecht Duerer (1471-1528), who between
1515 and 1518 produced six plates on iron, showing great power and
precision, but hardly realizing all the qualities of the medium. Among his
followers, the German Little Masters, Hans Sebald Beham and Albrecht
Altdorfer were responsible for some interesting plates, as was Lucas van
Leyden (1494-1533), the Dutchman. Among the earliest Italian etchers were
Francesco Mazzuoli (1503-40) and Andrea Schiavone (1522-82), who show more
freedom and delicacy than the Germans. But at this time etching was mainly
the by-product of artists whose chief work was painting or engraving. Its
great period opened in the seventeenth century. Jacques Callot (1592-1635),
born at Nancy, who worked there and at Rome, produced about one thousand
plates of small size, the most important being two series of the _Miseries
of War_. He is remarkable for his fine sense of design, the fantastic,
grotesque quality of his figures, and the delicacy and variety of his line,
obtained by rebiting and by combining engraving with etching. Claude
Lorrain (1600-82), the landscape painter, possibly under the influence of
Callot, produced some fifty plates, very delicately etched, and suggestive
of atmosphere. Sir Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641), beside being court painter
to Charles I of England, was the greatest Flemish etcher of his day. His
eighteen etched portraits of famous contemporaries (fifteen of which were
included in his _Iconography_, published 1645), in their direct handling
and vivid characterization, are among the finest work of the kind ever
done. But the central figure in etching, not only of the seventeenth
century but of all time, is Rembrandt van Ryn (1606-69), whose work is
unrivalled both in quality and influence. His etchings show the same
realism, understanding of humanity, and creative imagination which mark all
his work. Roughly, they fall into three groups, according to the time at
which they were produced. In the first period, the ordinary etched line is
mainly used, and the artist is evidently feeling his way; in the second,
chiaroscuro is more marked, and dry-point used freely; in the third, the
handling is very free and vigorous, chiaroscuro becomes the dominant
feature, and dry-point the usual method. Development on these lines marks
all his plates, which consist of (1) portraits, e.g. _Jan Six_ (_c._ 1646)
and _Clement de Jonghe_ (1651); (2) figure compositions, many of scriptural
subjects, which include the masterpiece _Christ receiving Little Children_
(_c._ 1650), commonly known as 'The Hundred Guilder Print'; (3) landscapes,
e.g. _The Goldweigher's Field_, the least numerous class, but one which has
inspired the greatest mass of work. The Dutch painters contemporary with or
following Rembrandt were in some cases prolific etchers, notably Ferdinand
Bol and Adrian van Ostade, and reproduce in that medium the characteristics
of their painting. In the eighteenth century etching fell somewhat into
disuse, save in Italy, where G. B. Tiepolo (1696-1770), the decorative
painter, produced some fifty plates, and Antonio Canale (Canaletto,
1697-1768) showed in his few etchings the same power to express structure
and aerial perspective as in his painting. More prolific was G. B. Piranesi
(1720-88), who published a series of views of the Classical and Renaissance
architecture of Rome, professedly with an archaeological aim, but of great
artistic interest. His imaginative power, bold design, and vigorous
handling are best seen in the fantastic plates of his _Carceri_. In
England, William Hogarth (1697-1764) produced a few etchings; Thomas
Rowlandson (1756-1827), the caricaturist, used etching as the basis of his
aquatints; and John Crome (1768-1821), the landscape painter, etched some
characteristic plates. But it was Francisco Goya (1746-1828) whose work
ushered in a new era. His bitterly satirical _Caprichos_ (1793-6, 72
plates), _Proverbios_ (1810-5, 18 plates), _Desastres de la Guerra_ (_c._
1810, 82 plates), and the more popular but no less remarkable _Tauromaquia_
(_c._ 1815, 33 plates illustrating bull-fighting), in all of which the
bitten line is allied with aquatint, show a powerful and fantastic
imagination, brilliant design and draughtsmanship, and superb technique.
Widely different in character are the 71 plates of the _Liber Studiorum_,
one of the most remarkable works of J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851). In these
etching merely provides the ground plan for the use of mezzotint, or, more
rarely, aquatint. In the nineteenth century the revival inaugurated by Goya
was carried on in France by several of the Barbizon group of landscape
painters, notably by J. F. Millet (1814-75), responsible for some simple
but impressive plates. A more important figure as an etcher is Alphonse
Legros (1837-1911), whose admirable portraits recall those of Van Dyck,
though elsewhere he shows something of Goya's taste for the grotesque. This
last also appears in the work of Charles Meryon (1821-68), one of the
greatest of French etchers, whose feeling for decorative design and
decisive handling are best seen in his views of Paris. Apart from other
etchers of the period are Jules Jacquemart and Felix Braquemond, remarkable
for their exquisite delicacy in the reproduction of surface texture. Of the
Impressionist painters, Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) produced some very
individual plates, marked by the use of broken lines and much rebiting, in
the effort to secure atmospheric effect. Similarly, by means of open
shading and absence of outline, Anders Zorn (1860-1918), the Swede, has
aimed at reproducing the play of light round objects; but his portraits are
his best work. The chief figure in nineteenth-century etching, however, is
J. A. McN. Whistler (1834-1903), whose _French Set_ (1858), _Thames Set_
(1871), _Venice Set_ (1880), and _Twenty-six Etchings_ (1886) show his
delicate yet decisive handling, his economy of means, his feeling for
design, and his power of securing luminosity and atmosphere. Part of his
success was due to insistence upon printing his own plates. His
brother-in-law, Sir Francis Seymour Haden (1818-1910), the distinguished
doctor, also took a prominent part in the revival of etching, and in his
plates showed remarkable skill. The same accomplishment marks the work of
William Strang, A.R.A. (died 1921), who has produced many notable portraits
of contemporary celebrities, including R. L. Stevenson and Thomas Hardy.
Another artist of great technical skill, excelling in the use of dry-point,
is Felicien Rops (1833-98), a Belgian, whose work is remarkable for its
union of satire and licentiousness. The most notable living etchers are
chiefly found in England, and include Sir Frank Short, famous also for his
mezzotints; D. Y. Cameron, a disciple of Whistler, though of marked
individuality in his treatment of architecture; Muirhead Bone, whose
architectural work is unrivalled and has inspired many followers; James
McBey; and Augustus John, who stands apart from his contemporaries in his
preference for figure subjects. In France, Jean-Louis Forain has produced
some remarkable work, notably series dealing with the life of Christ, and
with Lourdes, which show his satiric power and a very distinctive
technique. See _Engraving_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. M. Hind, _A Short History of
Engraving and Etching_ (very complete and authoritative). For technical
details, M. Lalanne, _Etching_; Paton, _Etching and Mezzotint Engraving_.

ETE'OCLES and POLYNI'CES, two heroes of ancient Greek legend, sons of
Oedipus, King of Thebes. After their father's banishment from Thebes,
Eteocles usurped the throne to the exclusion of his brother, an act which
led to an expedition of Polynices and six others against Thebes. This war
is known as the Seven against Thebes, and forms the basis of Aeschylus's
_The Seven against Thebes_. The two brothers fell by each other's hand. See
_Antigone_.

ETE'SIAN WINDS (Gr. _etos_, year), winds which, blowing over the
Mediterranean regions from a general northerly direction during some weeks
of the summer, replace the heated air that rises from the Sahara and other
parts of Africa. By carrying with them moisture from the sea, they add
greatly to the fertility of Egypt.

ETHANE, (C_2H_6), a hydrocarbon belonging to the paraffin series. It is a
colourless inflammable gas, and is found amongst the gaseous constituents
of the Pennsylvanian oil-wells.

ETH'ELBERT, King of Kent, born about A.D. 560, died 616. He succeeded his
father, Hermenric, and reduced all the English states, except
Northumberland, to the condition of his dependents. Ethelbert married
Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, King of Paris, and a Christian princess,
an event which led indirectly to the introduction of Christianity into
England by St. Augustine. Ethelbert was the first English king to draw up a
code of laws.

ETHELBERT, King of England, son of Ethelwulf, succeeded to the government
of the eastern side of the kingdom in A.D. 857, and in 860, on the death of
his brother Ethelbald, became sole king. His reign was much disturbed by
the inroads of the Danes. He died in 866.

ETH'ELRED I, King of England, son of Ethelwulf, succeeded his brother
Ethelbert in A.D. 866. The Danes became so formidable in his reign as to
threaten the conquest of the whole kingdom. Ethelred died in consequence of
a wound received in an action with the Danes in 871, and was succeeded by
his brother Alfred.

ETHELRED II, King of England, son of Edgar, born A.D. 968, succeeded his
brother, Edward the Martyr, in 978, and, for his want of vigour and
capacity, was surnamed _the Unready_. In his reign began the practice of
buying off the Danes by presents of money. After repeated payments of
tribute, he effected, in 1002, a massacre of the Danes; but this led to
Sweyn gathering a large force together and carrying fire and sword through
the country. They were again bribed to depart; but, upon a new invasion,
Sweyn obliged the nobles to swear allegiance to him as King of England;
while Ethelred, in 1013, fled to Normandy. On the death of Sweyn he was
invited to resume the government, and died at London in the midst of his
struggle with Canute (1016).

ETH'ELWULF, King of England, succeeded his father, Egbert, about A.D. 837,
died 857. His reign was in great measure occupied in repelling Danish
incursions; but he is best remembered for his donation to the clergy, which
is often quoted as the origin of the system of tithes. Alfred the Great was
the youngest of his five children.

ETH'ENDUN, BATTLE OF, the victory which Alfred the Great gained over the
Danes (878), and which led to the treaty with Guthrum, the Danish king of
East England. The locality is doubtful.

ETHER, or AETHER, sometimes called _luminiferous ether_ to prevent
confusion with the well-known volatile liquid of the same name, a
hypothetical medium filling the whole of what seems to be empty space, and
even the interstices between the atoms of material bodies. Most thinkers
believe that such a medium must be postulated if we are to explain the
transmission of physical actions between bodies at a distance from one
another. With the exception of ordinary mechanical pressures and tensions,
the simplest examples of influences that can pass across space are sound
and light. Sound, we know, is carried by the air, a medium more subtle than
solid or liquid bodies, but still easily recognizable by its effects on our
senses, and by its mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. We know a
good deal about air, and about the process that goes on when sound is
passing through it. But the ether is incomparably more elusive than air. It
affects the sense of sight, indeed, as the air affects the sense of
hearing; but, so far as we know, it has no weight, no specific heat, no
chemical affinity. Except that it is the medium which conveys light,
electric and magnetic actions, and possibly gravitation, we know extremely
little about it. An extreme school of modern physicists is even inclined to
deny, or at least to ignore, its existence altogether.

Early speculators regarded the ether as a species of fluid, which could be
displaced by ordinary matter, so that upholders of the wave theory of light
necessarily thought of waves like those of sound, in which the direction of
vibration is in the line of transmission, for no other kind of wave can
occur in a fluid. Young and Fresnel, however, insisted on the view that the
movements of the medium are at right angles to the direction of
propagation, and pointed out that this might be explained by supposing the
medium to possess elasticity of shape. The obvious objection to the
conception of a solid which permits the planets to move through it with
apparently perfect freedom was met long afterwards by Stokes and Kelvin,
who instanced such substances as shoemaker's wax and jelly, which are rigid
enough to be capable of elastic vibration, and yet permit bodies to pass
through them with more or less ease. Fresnel's work called attention to the
subject of the elasticity of bodies, and led to the discovery of the
general equations of vibration of an elastic solid by Navier in 1821.
Navier's equations, slightly generalized, were used by Cauchy with a
certain amount of success to explain reflection, refraction, and the
phenomena of crystal-optics. In 1837 George Green published a variety of
elastic solid theory which was a decided improvement on Cauchy's, but many
difficulties remained, and it is now almost universally agreed that the
vibrations of an ordinary elastic solid do not furnish an exact parallel to
the vibrations which constitute light. One of the chief difficulties is
that in an ordinary elastic solid two types of waves can occur, one
distortional, with the displacement of a particle perpendicular to the
direction of transmission, and the other dilatational, with the
displacement along the line of transmission, as in sound. Waves of light
must be of the distortional kind, and the velocity of the other kind of
wave may be quite different from the velocity of light. A kind of ether in
which this difficulty of the longitudinal wave does not occur was imagined
by Cauchy and afterwards discussed by Lord Kelvin, who called it the
contractile, or labile, ether. This is an elastic body with negative
compressibility, like homogeneous foam which is prevented from collapsing
by attachment to the sides of a containing vessel. Another type of
quasi-elastic solid was brought forward by James MacCullagh in 1839.
MacCullagh's solid possesses what may be called elasticity of rotation, but
offers no resistance to deformations in which elementary parts of the solid
preserve their orientation. The equations of motion of this ether devised
by MacCullagh are very similar to those obtained much later from a very
different physical point of view by Clerk Maxwell. Elastic solid theories,
however, have fallen into the background before the advancing popularity of
the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Maxwell's equations of
the electromagnetic field are deduced from easily demonstrable experimental
facts, supplemented by the characteristic hypothesis that the electric
current always travels in a closed circuit, even in cases where, as in the
discharge of a condenser, the material circuit is open, so that the path of
the current has to be completed through the ether. Other essential features
of Maxwell's view are that electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic action
is transmitted by means of stresses in a medium which possesses some sort
of elasticity and inertia not exactly of an ordinary mechanical kind, and
that the energy of all such action resides in the medium. 'Maxwell's
equations', especially as modified by H. A. Lorentz so as to take account
of the atomic structure of electricity, are fundamental in modern
electrodynamics and the electron theory of matter. The form of Maxwell's
equations shows that electromagnetic action can be propagated in waves with
a definite velocity, which depends on the specific inductive capacity and
the magnetic permeability of the medium. Maxwell had no difficulty in
showing from experimental data that the velocity given by his theory, which
turns out to depend on the ratio of the electrostatic and electromagnetic
units of charge, is identical with the known velocity of light. He
concludes that waves of light are electric waves. The actual production of
waves by electrical means was experimentally demonstrated by Sir Oliver
Lodge, and more completely by Heinrich Hertz, and is now a commonplace of
wireless telegraphy and telephony. The question of the nature of the
mechanical process by which physical actions are carried on in the ether
weighed heavily on Maxwell, as on other nineteenth-century physicists.
Mechanical models of many kinds have been devised to represent ethereal
action. Were it sufficient for the purpose, certainly nothing could be
simpler than the elastic solid model. Other models of much interest are the
gyrostatic ether and the vortex sponge ether of Lord Kelvin, and the
molecular vortex ether of Maxwell. It is recorded that the celebrated
mathematician Gauss had made out a theory of electrodynamics, but always
declined to publish it because he was unable to devise a mental picture of
the physical action represented by his mathematics; and it was probably a
similar reason that led Lord Kelvin to declare, so late as 1904, that "the
electromagnetic theory has not helped us hitherto". Sir J. J. Thomson has
developed a theory of moving tubes of electric force, which produce
magnetic fields by their motion. Possibly light may consist of tremors in
these tubes, and if the tubes are discrete, it may become practicable to
reconcile the modern quantum theory (q.v.) with the phenomena of
interference of light, with which at present it seems to be utterly
inconsistent.

The extraordinary developments in both theoretical and experimental physics
during recent years have diverted attention to some extent from the
question of the constitution of the ether, and the problem of its mode of
working is more frequently considered from a mathematical and
pseudo-metaphysical point of view than from the old standpoint of Newtonian
dynamics. It was from a question about the ether, however, that the theory
of relativity, the most important of recent speculations, took its origin.
Is the ether fixed, or does it move? Is it carried along with the earth in
its motion round the sun, or does the ether pass through the atoms of
material bodies as the sea passes through the meshes of a net? The elastic
solid analogy, and the simplicity of the classical explanation of the
aberration of light, are evidence in favour of a fixed ether. But the
celebrated interference experiment of Michelson and Morley, which was
capable of detecting a comparatively small relative velocity of earth and
ether, gave a null result. Various electrical experiments also point to the
conclusion that the medium in which optical and electrical effects take
place is carried along with the earth in its motion. We are thus placed in
a dilemma. We must either reconcile the idea of a fixed ether with the
Michelson-Morley and kindred experiments, or we must explain aberration on
the supposition that earth and ether move together. Both alternatives have
had their supporters. Those who, like Sir Joseph Larmor and Sir Oliver
Lodge, believe in a fixed ether rely on the hypothesis of the 'Fitzgerald
contraction', according to which bodies moving through the ether with
velocity v are contracted in the direction of their motion by the fraction
[sqrt](1 - v^2/c^2) of their length, c being the velocity of light. This
contraction is in ordinary cases very small, amounting only to a few inches
for the diameter of the earth when moving round the sun. The hypothesis
follows naturally enough from the accepted theory of the motion of
electrons, and leads to a perfectly simple explanation of the
Michelson-Morley result. The most prominent champion of a moving ether was
Sir George Stokes. He assumed that, so far as the earth's motion through it
is concerned, the ether behaves as a perfect liquid, so that it moves along
with the earth, and he proved that aberration would be unaffected by this
motion, provided it is everywhere irrotational, or free from spin. Stokes's
theory has been extended by Larmor so as to cover a very important set of
phenomena found by Arago and Airy, and explained in a general way by
Fresnel. These phenomena relate to the velocity of light in material media
which are in motion relative to the earth, running water for example.
Fresnel proved that all the experimental results are explained if the
velocity of light in the water, with respect to the earth, is given by the
formula c' + v(1 - 1/m^2), where c' is the velocity of light in still
water, v is the velocity of the water relative to the earth, and m is the
index of refraction of water. At present the fashionable view of all the
phenomena is that taken in Einstein's theory of relativity (q.v.), which
makes revolutionary suppositions with respect to the measurement of space
and time, and assumes that the velocity of light is a universal constant,
independent of the motion either of the source of light or of the observer.
Once its initial assumptions are granted, the theory undoubtedly gives
simple and natural explanations of the chief optical and electrical
phenomena, and in particular leads at once to Fresnel's formula given
above. Most English writers on the subject, among whom A. S. Eddington, E.
Cunningham, and A. N. Whitehead are prominent, continue to believe that an
ether exists, in spite of the fact that as relativists they hold that no
experiment can ever enable us to determine our motion through
it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. T. Whittaker, _History of the Theories of Aether and
Electricity_; Sir Joseph Larmor, _Aether and Matter_; A. S. Eddington,
_Space, Time, and Gravitation_; O. W. Richardson, _Electron Theory of
Matter_; R. W. Wood, _Physical Optics_.

ETHER, or ETHYL ETHER, (C_2H_5)_2O, a colourless, inflammable liquid
produced by distillation of alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is
almost immiscible with water, lighter than alcohol, has a sweet taste, and
evaporates rapidly in air, producing extreme cold. The vapour of ether
mixed with air forms an explosive mixture. Ether is a valuable solvent for
many organic substances, fats, oils, &c., and is also used in surgery as an
anaesthetic.

ETHEREGE (eth'[.e]-rej), Sir George, English writer of comedy, born about
1635, died about 1691. He studied at Cambridge, travelled afterwards on the
Continent, and then returned to enter himself at one of the Inns of Court.
Devoting himself less to legal studies than to literature and society, he
wrote several plays. In 1664 he had his first comedy represented, _The
Comical Revenge, or, Love in a Tub_, which was well received. Four years
later his _She Would if She Could_ appeared, a brilliant play, though
frivolous and immoral. Eight years afterwards (1676) he produced his best
comedy, _The Man of Mode, or Sir Fopling Flutter_. Etherege's plays are
witty and sparkling, and the characters, genuine portraits of the men and
women he saw, are vividly if lightly drawn.

ETHICAL CULTURE. It has been said by a prominent leader of the movement for
ethical culture that the one dogma admitted is the doctrine of personality.
The movement eliminates from its teaching all hitherto received religions,
admits no Christian symbolism, and acknowledges neither a personal Creator
nor a personal Saviour. Christ is, however, highly reverenced as a man. The
world as it _should be_ is regarded not as an unattainable though beautiful
ideal to be admired and longed for, but as a possible reality to be
achieved by strenuous concerted action. The means by which it is hoped to
bring about this much-to-be-desired result is the reaction on each other of
carefully selected and highly cultivated personalities. Such virtues,
therefore, as kindness, pity, justice, charity, temperance, and chastity
are deemed less necessary as a personal moral duty in each human being than
as a means by which a perfect world may be attained. Man's duty is towards
no divine being, but to his fellow-man. In place of that help from above
which theologians deem needful to attain even a short step in the direction
of perfection, the power of conscience is considered as sufficient for all
needs, and disciples are counselled that they should

  More strictly, then, the inward judge obey,

since they no longer believe in divine anger or approval.

Germs of the movement may be found in many writers, and Emerson seems to
have foreseen it when he said: "The mind of this age has fallen away from
theology to morals. I conceive it to be an advance." But the obvious
founder of ethical societies was Felix Adler (born 1851), who, in 1876,
established in New York a Society of Ethical Culture. He also set in motion
such useful work as training-schools, kindergartens, and nursing. In 1885
his associate, W. Salter, established the Chicago Ethical Society. Both
have written extensively on the subject; while English supporters of the
movement include Sir Leslie Stephen, Sir J. Seeley, Professor Sidgwick, and
others. Several ethical societies exist in Britain, carrying out much
educational and philanthropic work. There are both Sunday services and
Sunday schools, and in many cases the branches are more or less closely
affiliated with labour and its associations. With regard to this community
of work and aim, it may be noted that while ethical culturists look forward
to a time when no man shall exploit his fellow human beings for personal
ends, absolute equality for all is not promised, being recognized as
impossible.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Felix Adler, _Creed and Deed_; W. M. Salter,
_Ethical Religion_.

ETH'ICS, otherwise called _Moral Philosophy_ or _Morals_, is the science
which treats of the nature and laws of the actions of intelligent beings,
considered as to whether they are _right_ or _wrong_, _good_ or _bad_. Its
subject-matter is human conduct and character in view of a standard or
ideal. It refers to constant elements in human nature, and, like aesthetics
and logic, is of universal application. The science is more or less closely
connected with theology, psychology, politics, political economy, and
jurisprudence, but what most strictly belongs to it is the investigation of
the principles and basis of duty or the moral law, and an inquiry into the
nature and origin of the faculty by which duty is recognized. Various
answers have been given to the question why we call an action good or bad,
such as that it is consistent or not with the will of God, or with the
nature of things, or with the greatest happiness of the greatest number, or
that an inward faculty decides it to be such or such; and a great variety
of _ethical_ systems has been proposed. The foundations of the leading
systems were laid in antiquity, the names of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
Epicurus, the Cynics, and the Stoics being especially prominent. All the
Greek philosophers, however, considered ethics from an individualistic
standpoint, and paid little attention either to politics or to sociology.
The introduction of Christianity brought a new element into ethical
speculation, and among Christians ethics were intimately associated with
theology, and morality was regarded as based on and regulated by a definite
code contained in the sacred writings. The speculations of the Greeks were
not, however, disregarded, and some of the ablest Christian moralists (as
Augustine, Peter Lombard, Erigena, Anselm, and Aquinas) endeavoured to
harmonize the Greek theories with the Christian dogmatics. Most modern
ethical systems consider the subject as apart from theology and as based on
independent philosophical principles, and they fall into one of two great
classes--the utilitarian systems, which recognize as the chief good,
happiness, or the greatest possible satisfaction of the tendencies of our
nature; and the rationalistic systems, which recognize that ideas of law
and obligation can have their source only in reason. _Utilitarianism_ has
been rightly called universal hedonism, as distinguished from the hedonism
of Epicurus, which was egoistic. The first of the modern Utilitarian school
in England was Hobbes (1588-1679). Among subsequent names are those of
Cudworth, Locke, Clarke, Shaftesbury, Butler, Hutcheson, Hume, Adam Smith,
Reid, Paley, Whewell, Bentham, J. S. Mill, &c. Paley held that men ought to
act so as to further the greatest possible happiness of the race, because
God wills the happiness of men, and rewards and punishes them according to
their actions, the divine commands being ascertained from Scripture and the
light of nature. Bentham's utilitarianism is considerably different from
Paley's. It was entirely dissociated from theology or Scripture, and
maintained that increase of happiness ought to be the sole object of the
moralist and legislator, pleasure and pain being the sole test of actions.
To utilitarianism as a special development belong the later 'evolution
ethics' represented by Herbert Spencer, in which biological conceptions,
such as 'the preservation of the human race', take the place of the
Benthamite criterion for determining what is good and bad in actions.
Another theory of ethics places the moral principle in the sentimental part
of our nature, that is, in the direct sympathetic pleasure or sympathetic
indignation we have with the impulses which prompt to action or expression.
By means of this theory, which he treats as an original and inexplicable
fact in human nature, Adam Smith explains all the phenomena of the moral
consciousness. In considering the ethical systems of the Rationalistic
school, systems which recognize that the ideas of law and obligation can
have their source only in reason, the question, what is the source of the
laws by which reason governs, gives rise to a number of psychological
theories, amongst which we may notice Clarke's view of the moral principles
as rational intuitions or axioms analogous to those of mathematics;
Butler's theory of the natural authority of conscience; the position of
Reid, Stewart, and other members of the later Intuitional school, who
conceive a moral faculty implanted in man which not only perceives the
'rightness' or 'moral obligation' of actions, but also impels the will to
perform what is seen to be right. Very similar, as far as classification
goes, is the position of Kant, who holds that reason recognizes the
immediate obligation of certain kinds of conduct, and that an action is
only good when done from a good motive, and that this motive must be
essentially different from a natural inclination of any
kind.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Sidgwick, _The Method of Ethics_; A. C. Bradley,
_Ethical Studies_; H. Spencer, _Principles of Ethics_; L. Stephen, _The
Science of Ethics_; _The English Utilitarians_; W. Wundt, _Ethics_; J.
Martineau, _Types of Ethical Theory_; A. Sutherland, _The Origin and Growth
of the Moral Instinct_; E. Westermarck, _The Origin and Development of
Moral Ideas_; W. R. Sorley, _The Moral Life_; C. Read, _Natural and Social
Morality_.

ETHIOPIA, or AETHIOPIA (Heb. _Cush_), in ancient geography, the country
lying to the south of Egypt, and comprehending the modern Nubia, Kordofan,
Abyssinia, and other adjacent districts; but its limits were not clearly
defined. It was vaguely spoken of in Greek and Roman accounts as the land
of the _Ichthyophagi_ or fish-eaters, the _Macrobii_ or long-livers, the
_Troglodytes_ or dwellers in caves, and of the _Pygmies_ or dwarf races. In
ancient times its history was closely connected with that of Egypt, and
about the eighth century B.C. it imposed a dynasty on Lower Egypt, and
acquired a predominant influence in the valley of the Nile. In sacred
history Ethiopia is repeatedly mentioned as a powerful military kingdom
(see particularly _Is._ xx, 5). In the sixth century B.C. the Persian
Cambyses invaded Ethiopia; but the country maintained its independence till
it became tributary to the Romans in the reign of Augustus. Subsequently
Ethiopia came to be the designation of the country now known as Abyssinia
(q.v.), and the Abyssinian monarchs still call themselves rulers of
Ethiopia.

ETHIOPIAN LANGUAGE, THE, or more accurately the _Geez_ language, is the old
official and ecclesiastical language of Abyssinia, introduced into that
kingdom by settlers from South Arabia. In the fourteenth century it was
supplanted as the language of the Christian Church of Abyssinia by the
Amharic. It is a Semitic language resembling Aramaic and Hebrew as well as
Arabic. It has a Christian literature of some importance. The principal
work is a translation of the Bible, including the Old and New Testaments
and _Apocrypha_, to which are appended some non-canonical writings, such as
the _Shepherd of Hermas_ and the _Book of Enoch_. The language is to some
extent represented by the modern dialects of Tigre, and by that spoken by
some nomadic tribes of the Sudan. For the Ethiopian or Abyssinian Church,
see _Abyssinia_ and _Copt_.

ETH'MOID BONE (Gr. _[=e]thmoeides_, like a sieve), a light spongy bone
situated in the upper part of the cavity of the nose. The olfactory nerves
pass upward through its numerous perforations to reach the brain.

ETHNOL'OGY AND ETHNOG'RAPHY, sciences dealing with man, the aim of the
former being to analyse and interpret the meaning of the social phenomena
of mankind, as shown in their customs, languages, institutions, &c., the
latter being more concerned with descriptive details and the orderly
collection of facts relating to particular tribes and localities. Both
terms, however, are used very loosely and in a variety of ways, often being
confused with _anthropology_, the general science or natural history of
mankind, of which the other two are parts. Anthropology, again, is
sometimes used in the narrower sense implied in the word _somatology_, the
study of the physical structure and distinctive characteristics of the
various races of mankind. When the term ethnology is used by the politician
or journalist, in most cases it is intended to refer to the racial
components in a given territory; in other words, it is used in the sense in
which the scientific writer would employ the word anthropology. For
instance, when the endeavour was made in the earlier part of the nineteenth
century to liberate the Greeks from Turkish dominion, the plea was put
forward that they differed in race; and the delimitation of the territory
of the Greek state was claimed on what was called 'the ethnological basis',
the geographical distribution of people of Greek nationality. Even since
then, and especially during the European War and the subsequent attempt at
a settlement, claims have been put forward to fix the boundaries of Italy,
Yugo-Slavia, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, &c., on the basis of race and
nationality. But further confusion arises from the attempt to apply this
anthropological or ethnological test in deciding whether physical type,
language, religion, or social traditions and usages are to be the test of
nationality. In this article it will be convenient to give the term
ethnology its widest meaning, and to consider not merely the customs,
beliefs, and institutions of various peoples, but also the early history of
the human family, its differentiation into races and the significance of
their geographical distribution, and the different phases of culture which
are found in the various communities even of the same race.

[Illustration: The Piltdown Skull.

As restored by Dr. Smith Woodward and Mr. Frank O'Barlow. The dark portions
are those actually recovered.]

During the last eighty years the discovery of a series of fossilized
remains of extinct genera and species of the human family and of apes has
given us a glimpse of the origin and early history of mankind. Man's
ancestors probably parted company with those of the anthropoid apes
somewhere in the neighbourhood of Northern India early in the Miocene
period; and before the close of the Pliocene period their descendants had
gradually acquired the highly developed brain and the intelligence which
imply the emergence of the distinctively human characteristics. The most
significant token of the attainment of the status of men was the
acquisition of the power of speech, which enabled its possessors to hand on
the accumulated knowledge and the fruits of experience, and so enormously
to increase their powers. The earliest-known representative of the human
family was the Ape-man, _Pithecanthropus_, who at the end of the Pliocene
period wandered east as far as Java, where the fossilized remains of a
skull were found thirty years ago by Professor Eugen Dubois. At a later
date a much more highly developed type, one, moreover, that was much closer
to the ancestry of modern men than the aberrant Ape-man of Java, wandered
as far west as England, where a representative of this extinct genus was
discovered by the late Mr. Charles Dawson in 1912 at Piltdown, in Sussex.
This very primitive member of the human family has been called the
'Dawn-man' or _Eoanthropus_ by Dr. Smith Woodward. He has a brain which,
though poorly developed, is definitely human, but his face (and especially
the jaws) retains considerable resemblance to that of an ape. Of the other
fossilized remains of extinct varieties of the human family, the most
important are those known respectively as Heidelberg man and Neanderthal
man. The former is almost as old as the Piltdown man, and its former
existence was revealed by the discovery in the Mauer Sands, near
Heidelberg, in 1908, of a very massive and chinless jaw. At a much later
date Europe was inhabited by a brutal species of mankind, Neanderthal man,
which became extinct when in the Neoanthropic Age men of our own species
made their way into Europe and completely superseded the less efficient
Neanderthal species. The latter were men of vast strength, with short,
clumsy, thick-set limbs, a stooping gait, thick neck, and a great flattened
head with a coarse face. These people inhabited Europe in the days when the
elephant and the woolly rhinoceros lived there; they made the rough stone
implements known as Mousterian. But, in spite of their enormous strength,
these people were not able to hold their own in competition with the
nimbler wits and the more skilled hands of _Homo sapiens_, who introduced
into Europe a more finished technique in making implements, and revealed
his genius and manual dexterity in the remarkable pictures which he painted
on the walls of caves, especially in Southern France and Northern Spain. We
have no information concerning the place of origin or the course of the
wanderings of these earliest members of our own species.

But an extremely primitive race has survived until the present time to
demonstrate the original type of _Homo sapiens_. The aboriginal Australian,
like all existing races of men, belongs to the same species as ourselves,
but it represents with singularly little modification the original type and
colouring of _Homo sapiens_. Fossilized remains of the proto-Australian
race have been found in Queensland (at Talgai) and in Java (at Wadjak); but
the wandering of the race from its original Asiatic centre of
characterization is indicated by the survival of remnants of this people in
the pre-Dravidian jungle tribes of India (mainly in the Deccan), the Vedda
of Ceylon, the Sakai of the Malay Peninsula, the Toala of Celebes, and
other peoples of the Malay Archipelago, whose existence blazes the track
from India to Australia.

The Australian race is on the average about 5 feet 2 inches in height;
their skin is dark-brown or black; hair black and wavy or curly; skull
typically long (dolichocephalic), with a relatively small brain-case; the
nose is flat and broad, and the jaws large and prominent. What lowly
culture these people now possess has been mainly acquired within relatively
recent times by contact with more civilized peoples.

[Illustration: Australian Aborigine, from east side of Lake Eyre.]

Long after the proto-Australians separated from the rest of mankind and
wandered east, another group wandered west, and, probably in tropical
Africa, became specialized in structure to become the Negro race. The
negro, like the Australian, retains many primitive characters, such as the
black skin, and the small brain, but in other respects, such, for example,
as the extremely flattened and curved hair ('pepper-corns'), he has become
highly specialized and sharply differentiated from all other varieties of
mankind. At an early period in the history of the race the negro divided
into two groups--a pygmy variety or Negrillo, and the ordinary tall negro.
One of the branches of the pygmy stock became further specialized in
structure (in the course of which the black colour of the skin was lost),
and became the Bushman race which has gradually been pushed into the
deserts of South Africa (see _Hottentot_).

After the differentiation of the Negro race into pygmy and tall varieties,
representatives of both divisions spread along the southern coast of Asia,
the former, known in the East as Negritos, reaching the Andaman Islands,
the Malay Peninsula (Semangs), the Philippines (Aetas), and New Guinea
(Pygmies), and the taller Negroids to Melanesia, New Guinea, and the
neighbouring islands of the Malay Archipelago. Many authorities regard the
extinct Tasmanian people as a branch of this race.

But the vast majority of the Negro race is found in Africa south of the
Sahara Desert and the populations sprung from them in the American
continent and the West Indies.

The African negro is subdivided into two main groups known respectively as
Nilotic and Bantu; but in addition there are the pygmies of the equatorial
and Congo regions, and the Bushmen and Hottentots of the Kalahari Desert,
Namaqualand, Lake Ngami, and the Orange River. The Nilotic negro ranges
across the continent from Somaliland to Nigeria, and is differentiated from
the Bantu chiefly from the fact that along this belt there has been a
constant passing to and fro of Hamitic and Semitic peoples for many
centuries, leading not only to very considerable recent racial admixture,
but also to cultural and especially linguistic influences, which have
brought about the breaking up of the population into a series of nations of
varied speech and customs. Among the Bantus, on the other hand, although
their culture is lower than that of the Nilotic negroes, there is more
uniformity both of race and customs. In race they are negro mixed in early
times with the proto-Hamitic peoples of East Africa, whence the mongrel
population moved south, driving the Bushmen and Hottentots before them.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

After the ancestors of the Australian and Negro races had separated from
the rest of mankind, which had spread throughout a great part of Asia,
North-Eastern Africa, and Europe, the coming of the Glacial epoch created
barriers of ice which shut up the various groups each within its own
domain. Somewhere in Eastern Asia, possibly in the basin of the Yellow
River, the proto-Mongolian race gradually assumed its characteristic
traits. In East Africa and the neighbouring tract of Asia the ancestors of
the Brown or so-called Mediterranean race were free to roam east and west
from India to the African and European coasts of the Atlantic. Farther
north, probably in Europe, the Nordic or Blond race (in the map labelled
Northern or Teutonic race) assumed its distinctive features; and somewhere
in the region between its area of characterization and that of the Yellow
race--probably in the region to the north-east of the Caspian--the
so-called Alpine (Armenoid) or proto-Slav race developed. It is
distinguished from the Brown and Blond races by the broad skull and heavy
jaw, no less than by the robustness of build and the great tendency to
hairiness; from the Mongolian people the Armenoids are distinguished by the
prominence of the nose, the character of the hair, and the colour of the
skin. The term Alpine, which is usually applied to this race, is singularly
inappropriate; for, although in Europe and Asia Minor the members of this
race show a partiality for high mountains, the vast majority of the members
of the race dwell in the plains of Russia, which also may have been the
original home of the race. In view of the topographical relationship of the
area of characterization of this race to the homes of the other races,
Nordic, Brown, Negro, Australian, and Mongol, arranged in a great arc
around it, it might not be inappropriate to call the so-called Alpine
(Armenoid or proto-Slav) race by the non-committal title 'Central'. At the
close of the Glacial epoch, when the melting of the ice unlocked the
domains of these races, members of the Central race poured into Asia Minor
and Syria, and down to the head of the Persian Gulf; they also made their
way north of the Caspian and Black Sea into Europe, mingling there with the
Nordic people. But they also moved east in Siberia and mingled with the
proto-Mongolian race. It was soon after this event that members of the
proto-Mongolian stock, possibly with some admixture of people of the
Central race, wandered to North-Eastern Asia and crossed the Behring Strait
to colonize America for the first time. From the north-west coast of
America these immigrants in course of time made their way south and east,
until eventually the whole of the New World from Hudson Bay to Cape Horn
was inhabited. Many centuries afterward (especially between 300 B.C. and
A.D. 1000) there was a great influx of a variety of other peoples from
Polynesia and the Old World on to the Pacific coast of the Americas, which
profoundly altered the physical type of the population of Central America
and the Andean coast.

The members of the proto-Mongolian race who remained in Asia spread over a
large area from the Arctic Ocean south to Tibet, China, Indo-China and the
Malay Archipelago, the Philippines, Formosa, Nicobar Islands, and
Madagascar. Their domain became divided geographically into three minor
areas of characterization, of the Northern, Southern, and Oceanic Mongols
respectively. In the Northern Mongols are included the Koreans, the
Japanese and the people of Liu-Kiu, the Tungus (including the Manchu, Gold,
&c.), the Kalmuks, Buriats, Koryaks, Chuckchis, Kamchadales, Gilyaks.

The Central race became differentiated into a considerable number of
varieties. Apart from the Slavs, there were several groups which became
isolated the one from the other in Asia Minor and Syria. One of these
developed in an extreme degree the characteristic features of the race--the
brachycephaly, the prominence of the nose and the high-ramus of the jaw.
These are the Armenian and kindred people. Another branch gave origin to
the Northern Semites, who made their way into Palestine and Mesopotamia.
(The Southern Semites belong to another race--the Brown.) Another branch of
the Central race preceded these two in making their way to the sea-coasts
of the Levant and the Persian Gulf--this may be called the Maritime branch
of the Central race.

The Slav branch of the Central race was making its way into Europe long
before the Neolithic phase of culture there. It passed north of the Black
Sea via Poland. But at the end of the Neolithic phase there were two
streams of other branches of the race--the true Alpine subdivision passing
from Anatolia into the Carpathians and the Alps, to Switzerland, Bavaria,
Savoy, and Brittany, and the Maritime division passing round the coasts to
the Iberian Peninsula, the British Isles, and Western Europe.

The Brown race spread in East Africa from Somaliland to the Mediterranean
and all its coasts, to Western Europe, and the British Isles; in the other
direction to Arabia, the shores of the Persian Gulf, and eastward along the
coast to India, where it mingled with the pre-Dravidian (proto-Australian)
population to give rise to the mongrel Dravidian people. The spread of
these Brown people farther east into the Malay Archipelago explains the
origin of the Indonesians, who occupied the islands before the coming south
of the Mongols, but after the proto-Australians and the proto-Negroes had
passed through towards Australia and Melanesia respectively.

From very early times there has been an intermingling of the different
races. In East Africa every degree of intermingling of the Hamitic branch
of the Brown race has been taking place for more than sixty centuries with
negroes, both of the Sudanese and the Bantu stocks. At a later time Arabs
poured into Africa and added their quota to the mixture. In India the
original pre-Dravidian (proto-Australian) aborigines became diluted with a
large influx of the Brown race to form the Dravidian people, who acquired a
high civilization from the west. At a later date people of the Central race
speaking an Aryan language swarmed through the north-western frontier and
introduced their language and culture into India.

Before this happened the Brown race had extended farther east and provided
the basis for the population of Indonesia, supplanting to a great extent
the earlier proto-Australian and Negroid peoples there. Then the Malays
came down from the north and added to the Indonesian mixture a strong
Mongolian element. Colonists from the Malay Archipelago settled in
Madagascar and added to its mixture of Brown (Semites and Hamites) and
Black (Bantu) elements representatives of the Mongolian (Malay) race. In
the course of their maritime expeditions the Malay Archipelago gave to
Japan a not inconsiderable contribution both of people and culture.

But the area of the most complex admixture of races in ancient times was
Siberia. With the melting of the ice barriers at the close of the Glacial
epoch the proto-Mongolian and proto-Central peoples came into intimate
contact; and to this mixture was added a proto-Nordic element, as well as a
not inconsiderable influx of members of the Brown race, who came from the
south through Turkestan to exploit the gold and copper of the Yenesei
region. The presence of their dolichocephalic skulls in a region where
brachycephaly is the rule has been a perpetual puzzle to anthropologists,
who at the present time attempt to solve the problem by assuming the
presence of an aboriginal race of long-headed people, who were exterminated
by the Mongols and the Turks. The greed for the riches of the head-waters
of the Yenesei has made Siberia the home of strife for fifty centuries.
This has led not only to a puzzling admixture of races in the affected
area, but has started raids of Mongols and Turks, which at various times
extended as far as Europe (Huns and Avars), India, and China. So mixed are
the races in Siberia that it is not easy to determine whether some of them
should be classed as mainly Turki or mainly Mongol; and this applies also
to the colonies (Bulgars, Magyars, Finns, Lapps, &c.) which at various
times the Asiatic invaders left behind them in Europe, each of which has
been profoundly altered by admixture since then.

In the great Mongolian domain that occupies so great a part of Northern and
Eastern Asia there are certain definitely alien elements. The Yakuts (of
the region near the Lena River) are definitely Turki in race, and the
curious hairy Ainus (of Yezo, Sakhalin, and some of the Kurile Islands) are
certainly members of the Central race.

A peculiar branch of the northern Mongols is clearly differentiated from
the rest to form the Eskimo people who occupy Greenland and Arctic America.
They present a marked contrast to the American Indians. The American Indian
may be regarded essentially as a branch of the proto-Mongolian race mixed
to some extent with a proto-Central element. But on the Pacific littoral
there has been considerable admixture with a variety of peoples from
Eastern Asia and Oceania for several centuries (_c._ 300 B.C. to A.D.
1000). Although the peoples conform on the whole to a definite type as
regards the characters of their hair and features, there is a considerable
range of variation as regards height, skull-form, and other racial
features. The people of the states where a high civilization prevailed ten
centuries ago--Mexico, Central America, Peru, and Chile--are clearly
differentiated from the rest of the American population by the more
obtrusive evidence of admixture with Polynesian and Asiatic peoples. In
addition to the peoples of the north-west coast (Haidas and Salish) and of
the ancient civilizations (Mayas and Aztecs) of Central America and Mexico,
the population of North America can be divided (see map) into the following
tribes: (1) Athabascan, (2) Algonquin, (3) Iroquoian, (4) Siouan, (5)
Shoshonean (in the map called 'Kiowan'), (6) Muskhogean, and (7) Pueblo
(not indicated in the map, but in Arizona, north of Mexico).

In South America the centre of the ancient civilization was in the region
of the Quichua (Inca) and Aymara peoples. The semi-civilized Chibcha people
occupied the table-land of Bogota. To the south of Peru the coastal people
(Araucanians) were to some extent influenced by the more highly civilized
Incas to their north. The presence of gold in the Matto Grosso region of
Brazil attracted men from Peru, and set in motion migrations of people
towards the Rio de la Plata in the south and towards Venezuela in the
north. Among the linguistically distinct peoples found in the latter area
are the Tupi, Arawaks, and Caribs. A very primitive people, the Botocudo,
occupy the eastern coast of Brazil south of the River San Francisco.

From the beginning man was a maker of implements of stone and bone: but for
a vast number of centuries he was merely a hunter who did not attempt
anything more in the way of industry. Civilization probably originated in
the Nile Valley when men found barley growing there naturally, and
discovered that it provided them with a supply of food which could maintain
them throughout the year. When the population in the valley increased, so
that the natural supply of barley became inadequate, men learned to imitate
the inundation, and by scraping channels in the sand to render the desert
fertile. Thus was agriculture and irrigation invented, and thus were men
led to organize the labour of the community under the direction of a leader
who was primarily an irrigation engineer, but eventually became a king and
the god Osiris, the dead king, whose reputation as the bestower of
life-giving water became apotheosized as the giver of life and immortality.

Pottery was probably invented as an outcome of the mode of life and the
needs of these early agriculturists, and the domestication of cattle and
the use of their milk for food helped to neutralize the ill-effects of a
too exclusively cereal diet. Other events followed in the train of this
first adoption of a settled mode of life. The disposal of the dead in the
sands that fringed the area of cultivation, and the natural preservation of
the corpse that often resulted, shaped the beliefs of the people with
reference to the fate of the dead. Incidentally it led to the invention of
the arts of the carpenter, the stone-mason, and the embalmer; and as an
outcome of these practices architecture, as well as the ritual of the
temple, had its origin.

Long before these events primitive man had begun to ponder over the meaning
of death. At first he associated it with such injuries as he had learned by
experience killed animals that he hunted; and as the escape of blood caused
unconsciousness and death, he framed the belief that blood was the
substance of consciousness and of life. To exchange blood was to share
knowledge; to give blood was to confer fresh vital substance, i.e. to
minimize the risk of extinction or prolong the existence of living or dead.
This is the fundamental idea underlying all religious belief and
ritual--the giving of life and immortality.

But the act of birth is also a process of life-giving. The cowrie-shell
(and subsequently other shells and the pearls contained in them) came to be
regarded as a symbol of this life-giving power, and an amulet which could
protect both the living and the dead from the risk of extinction. The
demand for these precious elixirs of life became so intense that they
acquired a fictitious value as currency, and models of them were made to
serve as amulets in their stead. The beauty and the lightness of the models
of such shells made of the soft useless plastic metal found in the Egyptian
and Nubian deserts was probably the means by which gold first acquired any
value, and afterwards by confusion came to be credited with the same
life-giving attributes as were at first bestowed merely upon the form of
the amulets made from it. Thus gold came to be regarded as an elixir of
life, and men began to search for the precious substance far and wide,
incidentally spreading abroad the germs of the arts and crafts, the beliefs
and practices of our common civilization. The use of malachite as a
cosmetic provided the circumstances that eventually led men to discover how
a gold-like substance, copper, could be obtained from the green ore; and in
course of time it came to be realized that the metal was useful for other
purposes than the mere making of amulets and jewellery. When the full value
of copper as a material for making tools and weapons was fully appreciated,
the ore became of tremendous economic importance, and men sought for it far
and wide, as they had previously prospected for flint and gold.

The people who introduced the Neolithic culture into Europe brought with
them from Egypt a knowledge of agriculture, of pottery-making, of
domestication of animals, of linen, and of the characteristic burial
customs and religious beliefs. But these rudiments of civilization were
also diffused to Crete and Cyprus, to Syria and Asia Minor, to Elam and
Sumer by prospectors searching for the things which the growth of
civilization was making valuable, the incense and the timber, the gold and
precious stones, the copper and other metals. It is probable that the germs
of Egyptian civilization were first planted in Elam by men prospecting for
copper, and that Sumerian and Babylonian civilization received their
initial inspiration in this way. Crete was inoculated with the germs of
civilization by Egypt directly, as well as indirectly, from Asia Minor,
which was subjected to the double influence of Egyptian and Sumerian
culture. In the Age of Copper, Elamite culture was diffused abroad by
miners to Turkestan and Baluchistan, thence respectively to Siberia and
China (Shensi province), and to India. In the neighbourhood of the
south-eastern corner of the Caspian the alloy bronze was probably invented
soon after 3000 B.C. by mixing tin and copper; and the influence of this
epoch-making event rapidly spread to Babylonia, to Crete, and to Europe,
where it inaugurated the Age of Bronze. It also spread to China, to India,
and many centuries later across the Pacific to Central America.

The needs of the early Egyptians compelled them to devise sea-going ships,
which in turn became the models of the Cretans, the people of East Africa,
the Babylonians, the Phoenicians, and the Greeks. These ships trafficked in
the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, then farther west and east, to
the Atlantic seaboard of Western Europe and the shores of the Indian Ocean.
The search for gold and pearls led early mariners to Southern India and
Ceylon, to Burmah and Indonesia, to the whole coast-line of Eastern Asia,
New Guinea, and Melanesia, and in course of time to Polynesia and the
coasts of Central America and Peru. Wherever these adventurers found gold
or copper, pearls or precious stones, they settled to exploit these sources
of wealth, and incidentally planted the germs of their methods of
cultivation, their stonework, their burial customs and beliefs. Such
expeditions were probably responsible for introducing into Polynesia its
first colonists, a mixture of people of Brown and Maritime Central races,
mingled with other elements in the course of their easterly wanderings. The
earliest movement into Polynesia apparently took with it a considerable
element of Melanesian blood, which eventually was carried to New Zealand
and the Moriori Islands in the south, and to Easter Island and the American
coast in the east. The germs of the ancient civilizations of Central
America and Peru were carried across the Pacific from Cambodia and
Indonesia between the years 300 B.C. and A.D. 1000, the periods of greatest
activity being probably the third and fourth centuries A.D.

The elements of this imported culture were planted in Honduras and
Guatemala and the Isthmus region (Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia), and
from there spread in the fifth century A.D. to Yucatan and then to Mexico.
It also spread from the isthmus down the Pacific littoral of South America,
the earliest centre of civilization being the region around Lake Titicaca.
From Mexico the culture spread in a degraded form up the Mississippi to the
Great Lakes, as well as north-west into Arizona.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H.
Keane, _Man, Past and Present_, revised edition by A. Hingston Quiggin and
A. C. Haddon, is a useful guide to the literature of anthropology and
ethnology; see also Robert Munro, _Prehistoric Britain_; W. J. Sollas,
_Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives_; M. Boule, _Les Hommes
fossiles_; G. Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_; such
periodicals as the _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, _Man_,
and especially _L'Anthropologie_, give the current literature.

ETH'YL, the name given to the radicle C_2H_5, contained in ether,
(C_2H_5)_2O, alcohol, C_2H_5OH, &c. _Ethyl_ has not been isolated, as it
immediately combines with another _ethyl_ group forming diethyl or butane,
C_2H_5--C_2H_5. _Ethyl chloride_, C_2H_5Cl, formed by the action of
hydrochloric acid on alcohol, is much used for the production of low
temperature--as a local anaesthetic. _Ethyl nitrite_, C_2H_5NO_2,
constitutes _sweet spirits of nitre_ when dissolved in alcohol.

ETH'YLAMINE, C_2H_5NH_2, an organic base formed by the substitution of 1
atom of hydrogen in ammonia by ethyl group. Thus

    H                C_2H_5
   /                /
  N--H ammonia --> N--H ethylamine.
   \                \
    H                H

It has the odour and many of the characteristic reactions of ammonia, but
unlike ammonia it is inflammable and liquid at ordinary temperature.

ETH'YLENE, or OLEFIANT GAS, C_2H_4, an unsaturated hydrocarbon, the first
member of the olefine series. It is a colourless gas with a faint odour,
and burns with a bright luminous flame. It is a constituent of ordinary
coal-gas, and may be obtained from alcohol by heating it with twice its
volume of concentrated sulphuric acid.

ETIENNE ([=a]-ti-[=a]n), ST., a town of Southern France, department of
Loire, on the Furens, 32 miles S.W. of Lyons. It has spacious streets with
substantial houses, but, owing to the number of public works, presents a
dingy appearance. The principal buildings and institutions are the
cathedral, an ancient Romanesque structure; the town house, court-house,
exchange, communal college, mining school, gallery of arts, library, and
museum. The town stands in the centre of one of the most valuable mineral
fields of France; and in addition to the extensive collieries,
blast-furnaces, and other ironworks in the vicinity, has manufactures of
ribbons, silks, cutlery, and fire-arms. Pop. 148,656.

[Illustration: Two Seedlings of _Sinapis alba_ of Equal Age

A, Grown in the dark, etiolated.

B, Grown in ordinary daylight, normal. The roots bear root-hairs.]

ETIOLATION (Fr. _etioler_, to blanch), or BLANCHING, of plants, is a state
produced by the absence of light, by which the green colour is prevented
from appearing. It is effected artificially, as in the case of celery, by
raising up the earth about the stalks of the plants; by tying the leaves
together to keep the inner ones from the light; by covering with pots,
boxes, or the like, or by setting in a dark place. The green colour of
etiolated plants may be restored by exposure to light. Etiolated plants are
also abnormal in other respects; the stems, or in some cases the leaves,
become extraordinarily elongated, and the internal structure undergoes
modification in various ways.

ETIOLOGY (Gr. _aitia_, cause, and _logos_, discourse, account), a
biological term introduced by Huxley, and denoting that branch of biology
which deals with the origin and mode of development of organic beings. In
medicine the word _etiology_, signifies the study of the causes and origin
of disease. The term is also applied in philosophy to the science of Cause
and Effect.

ETIVE (et'iv), LOCH, an inlet of the sea on the west coast of Scotland,
Argyleshire, nearly 20 miles long, of very unequal breadth, but at the
broadest part about 1-1/2 miles. The scenery of its shores is very
beautiful. About 3 miles from the sea, at Connel Ferry, a ridge of sunken
rocks crossing it causes a turbulent rapid, which at half-tide forms a sort
of waterfall.

ETNA, or AETNA, MOUNT, the greatest volcano in Europe, a mountain in the
province of Catania in Sicily; height, 10,758 feet. It rises immediately
from the sea, has a circumference of more than 100 miles, and dominates the
whole north-east part of Sicily, having a number of towns and villages on
its lower slopes. The top is covered with perpetual snow; midway down is
the woody or forest region; at the foot is a region of orchards, vineyards,
olive groves, &c. Etna thus presents the variety of climates common to high
mountains in lower latitudes, oranges and lemons and other fruits growing
at the foot, the vine rather higher up, then oaks, chestnuts, beeches, and
pines, while on the loftiest or desert region vegetation is of quite a
stunted character. A more or less distinct margin of cliff separates the
mountain proper from the surrounding plain; and the whole mass seems formed
of a series of superimposed mountains, the terminal volcano being
surrounded by a number of cones, all of volcanic origin, and nearly 100 of
which are of considerable size. The different aspects of the mountain
present an astonishing variety of features--woods, forests, pastures,
cultivated fields, bare rocky precipices, streams of lava, masses of ashes
and scoriae, as also picturesque towns and villages. From the summit the
view presents a splendid panorama, embracing the whole of Sicily, the
Lipari Islands, Malta, and Calabria. The eruptions of Etna have been
numerous, and many of them destructive. That of 1169 overwhelmed Catania
and buried 15,000 persons in the ruins. In 1669 the lava spread over the
country for forty days, and 10,000 persons are estimated to have perished.
In 1693 there was an earthquake during the eruption, when over 60,000 lives
were lost. One eruption was in 1755, the year of the Lisbon earthquake.
There were also eruptions in 1832, 1865, 1874, 1879, and 1886. Among more
recent eruptions are those of 1892, 1899, 1911, and 1914. An eruption is
ordinarily preceded by premonitory symptoms of longer or shorter duration.
The population of the district of Etna is about 300,000.

E'TON, a town of England, in Buckinghamshire, on the left bank of the
Thames, 22 miles west of London. An iron bridge connects it with Windsor,
on the opposite side of the river. Eton derives its celebrity wholly from
its college, called the King's College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor,
one of the great public schools of England, founded by Henry VI in 1440.
The building, which was commenced in 1441 and finished in 1523, has
received important additions in recent times in the shape of mathematical
and science schools, and a museum. The college foundation now consists of
provost, headmaster, lower master, seventy scholars, and two conducts (or
chaplains). The oppidans, or boys not on the foundation, number about 1100.
They are mostly lodged and boarded in the masters' houses. Pop. 3366.

ETREPILLY, (1) a small town of France, department of Aisne, is situated
near Chateau-Thierry. Millstones are obtained from quarries in the
neighbourhood. (2) A small town of France, department of Seine-et-Marne,
stands on the left bank of an affluent of the Marne. Agricultural
implements are manufactured.

ETRU'RIA (Gr. _Tyrrhenia_), the name anciently given to that part of Italy
which corresponded partly with the modern Tuscany, and was bounded by the
Mediterranean, the Apennines, the River Magra, and the Tiber. The name of
Tusci or Etrusci was used by the Romans to designate the race of people
anciently inhabiting this country, but the name by which they called
themselves was Rasena (or perhaps more correctly Ta-rasena). These Rasena
entered Italy at a very early period from the north, and, besides occupying
Etruria proper, extended their influence to Campania, Elba, and Corsica.
Etruria proper was in a flourishing condition before the foundation of
Rome, 753 B.C. It was known very early as a confederation of twelve great
cities, each of which formed a republic by itself. Amongst the chief were
Veii, Clusium, Volsinii, Arretium, Cortona, Falerii, and Faesulae; but the
list may have varied at different epochs. The chiefs of these republics
were styled _lucum[=o]nes_, and united the office of priest and general.
They were elected for life. After a long struggle with Rome, the Etruscan
power was completely broken by the Romans in a series of victories, from
the fall of Veii in 396 B.C. to the battle at the Vadimonian Lake (283
B.C.). The Etruscans had attained a high state of civilization. They
carried on a flourishing commerce, and at one time were powerful at sea.
They were less warlike than most of the nations around them, and had the
custom of hiring mercenaries for their armies. Of the Etruscan language
little is known, although about 6000 inscriptions have been preserved. It
was written in characters essentially the same as the ancient Greek. The
Etruscans were specially distinguished by their religious institutions and
ceremonies, which reveal tendencies gloomy and mystical. Their gods were of
two orders, the first nameless, mysterious deities, exercising a
controlling influence in the background on the lower order of gods, who
manage the affairs of the world. At the head of these is a deity resembling
the Roman Jupiter (in Etruscan _Tinia_). But it is characteristic of the
Etruscan religion that there is also a Vejovis or evil Jupiter. The
Etruscan name of Venus was _Turan_, of Vulcan _Sethlans_, of Bacchus
_Phuphluns_, of Mercury _Turms_. Etruscan art was in the main borrowed from
Greece. For articles in terra-cotta, a material which they used mainly for
ornamental tiles, sarcophagi, and statues, Etruscans were especially
celebrated. In the manufacture of pottery they had made great advances; but
most of the painted vases popularly known as Etruscan are undoubtedly
productions of Greek workmen. The skill of the Etruscans in works of metal
is attested by ancient writers, and also by numerous extant specimens, such
as necklaces, ear-rings, and bracelets. The bronze candelabra, of which
many examples have been preserved, were eagerly sought after both in Greece
and Rome. A peculiar manufacture was that of engraved bronze mirrors. These
were polished on one side, and have on the other an engraved design, taken
in most cases from Greek legend or mythology. The Etruscans showed great
constructive and engineering skill. They were acquainted with the principle
of the arch, and the massive ruins of the walls of their ancient cities
still testify to the solidity of their constructions. Various arts and
inventions were derived by the Romans from the Etruscans.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G.
Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries in Etruria_; Seymour, _Up Hill and Down Dale
in Ancient Etruria_.

ETRURIA, a village of England, in Staffordshire, between Hanley and
Burslem, famous as the place where Josiah Wedgwood established his pottery
works in 1769. Pop. 8056.

ETRURIA, KINGDOM OF, in Italy, founded by Napoleon I in 1801. Its capital
was Florence. In 1807 Napoleon incorporated it with the French Empire.

[Illustration: Etruscan Pottery (from Veii)]

ETRUSCAN VASES, a class of beautiful ancient painted vases made in Etruria,
but not strictly speaking a product of Etruscan art, since they were really
the productions of a ripe age of Greek art, the workmanship, subjects,
style, and inscriptions being all Greek. They are elegant in form and
enriched with bands of beautiful foliage and other ornaments, figures and
similar subjects of a highly artistic character. One class has black
figures and ornaments on a red ground--the natural colour of the clay;
another has the figures left of the natural colour and the ground painted
black. The former class belong to a date about 600 B.C., the latter date
about a century later, and extend over a period of about 300 or 350 years,
when the manufacture seems to have ceased. During this period there was
much variety in the form and ornamentation, gold and other colours besides
the primitive ones of black and red being frequently made use of. The
subjects represented upon these vases frequently relate to heroic
personages of the Greek mythology, but many scenes of an ordinary and even
of a domestic character are depicted. The figures are usually in profile:
temples are occasionally introduced; and many curious particulars may be
learned from these vase pictures regarding the Hellenic ritual, games,
festivities, and domestic life.

ETT'RICK, a pastoral district of Scotland, in Selkirkshire, watered by the
Ettrick, and anciently part of Ettrick Forest, which included Selkirk with
parts of Peebles and Edinburgh. The Ettrick receives the Yarrow 2 miles
above Selkirk, and enters the Tweed 3 miles below. The _Ettrick Shepherd_,
the Scottish poet James Hogg, was a native of this district.

ETTY, William, an English painter, born in 1787, died in 1849. He studied
at the Royal Academy, worked long without much recognition, but at length
in 1820 he won public notice by his _Coral Finders_. In 1828 he was elected
an academician. Among his works, which were greatly admired, are a series
of three pictures (1827-31) illustrating the _Deliverance of Bethulia by
Judith_, _Benaiah_ (one of David's mighty men), and _Women Interceding for
the Vanquished_. All these are very large pictures, and are now in the
National Gallery of Scotland (Edinburgh). Others of note are: _The Judgment
of Paris_; _The_ _Rape of Proserpine_; and _Youth at the Prow, and Pleasure
at the Helm_. Etty especially excelled at painting undraped figures.

ETYMOL'OGY (Gr. _etymos_, true, and _logos_, account), a term applied (1)
to that part of grammar which treats of the various inflections and
modifications of words and shows how they are formed from simple roots; (2)
to that branch of philology which traces the history of words from their
origin to their latest form and meaning. Etymology in this latter sense, or
the investigation of the origin and growth of words, is amongst the oldest
of studies. Plato and other Greek philosophers, the Alexandrian
grammarians, the scholiasts, the Roman Varro, and others wrote much on this
subject. Their work, however, is made up of conjectures at best ingenious
rather than sound, and very often wild and fantastic. It was not till
recent times, and particularly since the study of Sanskrit, that etymology
has been scientifically studied. Languages then began to be properly
classed in groups and families, and words were studied by a comparison of
their growth and relationship in different languages. It was recognized
that the development of language is not an arbitrary or accidental matter,
but proceeds according to general laws. The result was a great advance in
etymological knowledge and the formation of a new science of
_philology_.--Cf. W. W. Skeat, _The Science of Etymology_.

EU (_eu_), a town in Northern France, department of Seine-Inferieure, about
17 miles north-east of Dieppe. It is notable for its old twelfth-century
church and the celebrated Chateau d'Eu, part of which was destroyed in
1902. Pop. 4900.

EUBOE'A, formerly called Negropont, a Greek island, the second largest
island of the Aegean Sea. It is 90 miles in length; 30 in greatest breadth,
reduced at one point to 4 miles. It is separated from the mainland of
Greece by the narrow channels of Egripo and Talanta. It is connected with
the Boeotian shore by a bridge. There are several mountain peaks over 2000
feet in height, and one over 7000 feet. The island is well-wooded and
remarkably fertile. Wine is a staple product, and cotton, wool, pitch, and
turpentine are exported. The chief towns are Chalcis and Karysto. The
island was anciently divided among seven independent cities, the most
important of which were Chalcis and Eretria, and its history is for the
most part identical with that of those two cities. With some small islands
it forms a modern nomarchy, with a pop. of 116,900.

EUBU'LUS, a Greek comic poet, who flourished at Athens about 375 B.C. His
subjects were chiefly mythological, and he delighted in ridiculing the
tragic poets, especially Euripides.

[Illustration: Eucalyptus globulus

1, Section of unopened flower. 2, Anthers. 3, Section of fruit.]

EUCALYP'TUS, a genus of trees, nat. ord. Myrtaceae, mostly natives of
Australia, and remarkable for their gigantic size, some of them attaining
the height of 480 or 500 feet. In the Australian colonies they are known by
the name of gum trees, from the gum which exudes from their trunks;
individual species are known as 'stringy bark', 'iron bark', _karri_, or
_jarrah_. The wood of some is excellent for building and many purposes. The
_E. glob[)u]lus_, or blue gum, yields an essential oil which is valuable as
a febrifuge, antasthmatic, and antispasmodic. The medicinal properties of
this tree also make it useful as a disinfectant, and as an astringent in
affections of the respiratory passages, being employed in the form of an
infusion, a decoction, or an extract, and cigarettes made of the leaves
being also smoked. The E. glob[)u]lus and the E. amygdalina are found to
have an excellent sanitary effect when planted in malarious districts such
as the Roman Campagna, parts of which have already been reclaimed by their
use. This result is partly brought about by the drainage of the soil (the
trees absorbing great quantities of moisture), partly perhaps by the
balsamic odour given out. E. mannif[)e]ra and others yield a sweet
secretion resembling manna. Some, especially E. rostrata, yield a kind of
gum kino. The Eucalyptus has been introduced with success into India,
Palestine, Algiers, and Southern France.

EUCHARIST ([=u]'ka-rist; Gr. _eucharistia_, from _eu_, well, and _charis_,
grace), a name for the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, in reference to the
blessing and thanksgiving which accompany it.

EUCHARISTIC CONGRESSES, gatherings of the Roman Catholic clergy and laity,
held with the object of glorifying the Sacrament of the Eucharist, were
inaugurated by Bishop de Segur, of Lille. The first congress, held in that
city (1881) excited little but local interest; but the movement rapidly
developed, succeeding congresses being held at Avignon (1882), Liege
(1883), Paris (1888), Jerusalem (1893), Lourdes (1899), Rome (1905), and
elsewhere. In 1908 the congress held in London was attended by Cardinal
Vannutelli, the first Papal legate to visit England for three centuries, by
six other cardinals, fourteen archbishops, and seventy bishops. A proposal
to carry the Sacrament through London in procession aroused much
opposition, and the project was abandoned on the personal intervention of
Mr. Asquith, then Premier.

EUCHRE ([=u]'k[.e]r), a card-game very popular in America, is usually
played by two or four persons. After the cut for deal five cards are dealt
(either by twos and threes or by threes and twos) to each player, and the
uppermost card of those undealt is turned up for trump. The first player
has the option either to 'order up' (namely to make this card trump) or to
pass. In the latter case it is left to the next player to decide if he will
play first or pass, and so on till the turn of the dealer comes. He must
either play on this trump or turn it down, when all the players have again
in turn their choice of making a new trump or passing. If a trump is
'ordered up' or taken in the first round, the dealer may take it into his
cards, discarding in its place his poorest card. If the player who elects
to play wins five tricks, he counts two; if he wins three tricks, he counts
one; if he wins fewer than three tricks, he is _euchred_, and each
independent opponent counts two. The cards rank as at whist, except that
the knave of the trump suit, called the _right bower_ (from the Ger.
_bauer_, a peasant), is the highest card, the knave of the other suit of
the same colour being the second highest.

EUCKEN, Rudolf Christoph, German philosopher and theologian, born in East
Friesland in 1846. Educated at the Universities of Goettingen and Berlin,
he was professor of philosophy at Basel from 1871 to 1874, when he obtained
a similar appointment at Jena. Opposed both to utilitarianism and
positivism. Eucken is one of the leaders of those German philosophers who
maintain that the spiritual interests of man should be taken into
consideration, and oppose the philosophic systems which treat life only
from the physical and biological points of view. His spiritualistic
philosophy has found many adherents, and his works are very popular. In
1908 he won the Nobel prize for literature, and in 1910 he was made a D.D.
of the University of Glasgow. His works include: _The Life of the Spirit_
(1909), _The Problem of Human Life as viewed by the Great Thinkers_ (1909),
The Meaning and Value of Life (1909), _Main Currents of Modern Thought_
(1911), _Life's Basis and Life's Ideal_ (1911), _Can we still be
Christians?_ (1913).

EUCLID (_Eucleid[=e]s_), of Alexandria, a distinguished Greek
mathematician, who flourished about 300 B.C. His _Stoicheia_ (Elements of
Geometry), in thirteen books, are still extant, and form the most usual
introduction to the study of geometry. The work was known to the Arabs,
translations of it having appeared in the time of Harun-al-Rashid and of
Al-Mamun. It was translated from the Arabic into Latin by Adelard of Bath,
and an English translation from the Latin appeared in 1570. The severity
and accuracy of Euclid's methods of demonstration have as a whole never
been surpassed. Besides the _Elements_, some other works are attributed to
Euclid.--Cf. R. S. Heath, _The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements_.

EUCLID (_Eucleid[=e]s_), of Megara, an ancient Greek philosopher, the
founder of the Megaric school of philosophy, and a pupil of Socrates.

EUDIOM'ETER (Gr. _eudios_, serene), an instrument originally designed for
ascertaining the purity of the air or the quantity of oxygen it contains,
but now employed generally in the analysis of gaseous mixtures. It consists
of a graduated glass tube, either straight or bent in the shape of the
letter [1], hermetically sealed at one end and open at the other. Two
platinum wires, intended for the conveyance of electric sparks through any
mixture of gases, are inserted through the glass near the closed end of the
tube, and approach but do not touch each other. To determine the proportion
of oxygen in a given specimen of air, hydrogen is introduced into the tube
with a measured volume of the air, and the mixture is fired by an electric
spark. Water is formed, and the quantity of oxygen can be estimated from
the diminution of volume. In a mixture of gases, chemical absorbents may be
used to remove the gases one by one, the amounts present being determined
by the successive changes of volume.

EUGENE ([=u]-j[=e]n'), or Francois Eugene, Prince of Savoy, fifth son of
Eugene Maurice, Duke of Savoy-Carignan, and Olympia Mancini, a niece of
Cardinal Mazarin. He was born at Paris 18th Oct., 1663, and died in Vienna
21st April, 1736. Offended with Louis XIV, he entered the Austrian service
in 1683, serving his first campaign as a volunteer against the Turks. Here
he distinguished himself so much that he received a regiment of dragoons.
Later, at the sieges of Belgrade and Mayence, he increased his reputation,
and on the outbreak of war between France and Austria he received the
command of the Imperial forces sent to Piedmont to act in conjunction with
the troops of the Duke of Savoy. At the end of the war he was sent as
commander-in-chief to Hungary, where he defeated the Turks at the battle of
Zenta (11th Sept., 1697). The War of the Spanish Succession brought Eugene
again into the field. In Northern Italy he outmanoeuvred Catinat and
Villeroi, defeating the latter at Cremona (1702). In 1703 he commanded the
Imperial army in Germany, and in co-operation with Marlborough frustrated
the plans of France and her allies. In the battle of Blenheim, Eugene and
Marlborough defeated the French and Bavarians under Marshal Tallard, 13th
Aug., 1704. Next year Eugene, returning to Italy, forced the French to
raise the siege of Turin, and in one month drove them out of Italy. During
the following years he fought on the Rhine, took Lille, and, in conjunction
with Marlborough, defeated the French at Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet
(1709), where he himself was dangerously wounded. After the recall of
Marlborough, which Eugene opposed in person at London, without success, and
the defection of England from the alliance against France, his further
progress was in a great measure checked. In the war with Turkey, in 1716,
Eugene defeated two superior armies at Peterswardein and Temesvar, and, in
1717, took Belgrade, after having gained a decisive victory over a third
army that came to its relief. During fifteen years of peace which followed,
Eugene served Austria as faithfully in the Cabinet as he had done in the
field. He was one of the great generals of modern times.--Cf. G. B.
Malleson, _Prince Eugene of Savoy_.

EUGE'NIA (so named in honour of Prince _Eugene_), a genus of Myrtaceae,
nearly related to the myrtle. It contains numerous species, some of which
produce delicious fruits. Cloves are the dried flower-buds of _E.
caryophyllata_.

EUGENICS has been defined as "the study of agencies under social control
that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations,
either physically or mentally". It is concerned with the investigation of
the physical, mental, and moral traits of mankind, and especially with the
factors of inheritance of desirable and undesirable qualities. The interest
in the subject is largely due to the untiring zeal of the late Sir Francis
Galton, who devoted most of his life to the study of the manifold problems
that came within the scope of 'eugenics', and, in accordance with the terms
of his will (1908), founded the Galton Chair of Eugenics in the University
of London. The library and laboratory of the Galton benefaction form part
of the Department of Applied Statistics, under the direction of Professor
Karl Pearson, F.R.S., at University College, London, who is also the editor
of the journal _Biometrika_, which is devoted to the statistical side of
the problems of anthropology and heredity. The aim of the Galton laboratory
is to collect material relating to human heredity, and to investigate its
significance; and also to extend the knowledge of eugenics by professional
instruction, lectures, publications, and experimental work. The scope of
its activities will best be appreciated by the study of such works as the
late Sir Francis Galton's _Natural Inheritance_ (1889) and _Essays in
Eugenics_ (1909), and Professor Karl Pearson's _Groundwork of Eugenics_
(1909), _Practical Problems of Eugenics_ (1909), and _State of National
Eugenics_ (1909). _The Treasury of Human Inheritance_, issued in parts from
the Galton laboratory, is a monumental record of facts relating to the
hereditary transmission of human qualities. The Eugenics Education Society,
under the presidency of Major Leonard Darwin, has for its aim the
stimulation of public interest in the subject, and the discussion of the
problems of heredity. It issues a journal, _The Eugenics Review_, now in
its twelfth year.

It has long been known that by means of careful selection of parents it was
possible to breed horses, cattle, dogs, &c., and a great variety of food-
and flowering-plants, with desirable qualities highly developed. But it is
obvious that such direct methods cannot be applied to human beings for the
purpose of breeding men and women with special traits. What the eugenic
societies aim at doing is to educate the people to realize the far-reaching
effects of the inheritance of good or bad qualities, in the hope that such
knowledge may exert some influence in the choice of partners in matrimony.
But their efforts are especially directed to the exposure of the disastrous
results that may ensue from the contamination of a family by the
intermarriage of one of its members with an individual subject to some
hereditary defect of a physical, mental, or moral nature.

The study of eugenics is intimately related to a wide range of subjects: to
genetics, which explains the laws that govern the heredity of specific
traits in man, and suggests certain practical applications of the rules of
breeding to race improvement by cutting off undesirable strains and by
selecting mates desirable from the eugenic standpoint; to the study of
biographies of individuals and the genealogies of families, for the purpose
of obtaining data for the investigation of the working of inheritance; to
anthropology, history, and archaeology, law and politics, economics and
sociology, medicine and psychology, and statistical science.

The tremendous stimulus which the rapid development of eugenics has given
to the wider recognition of the significance of heredity in human affairs
has tended to obscure the importance of social environment and individual
experience, especially in children of tender age, in shaping the attitude
of the individual. Education is a vastly more important factor--the manner
and attitude of the teacher, rather than the subject-matter of his or her
lessons--than the eugenic enthusiasts, with their over-emphasis on the
dominance of hereditary influences, are willing to admit. In the causation
of many diseases, commonly reputed to be hereditary, such as tuberculosis
and certain forms of insanity, the social and physical circumstances
probably play a more important part than heredity in determining the onset
of the illness, even when some undoubted hereditary aptitude to fall a
victim to one or other of these affections is admitted. In no branch of
medicine or sociology is this fallacy more fruitful of error than in the
domain of mental disease. Apart from certain physical defects of the
nervous system and specific infections, such as syphilis, the causes of
mental alienation are to be sought rather in some maladjustment to the
individual's social circumstances, often the result of some emotional
disturbance, even in early childhood, which created the attitude of mind
that eventually determined the mental conflict expressed by the insanity.
The study of the effects of the strain of war has shown that anxiety, if
sufficiently intense and prolonged, can produce mental disturbance in
anyone, whatever his heredity and antecedents. By over-emphasizing the
importance of inheritance in the causation of such conditions as insanity
and epilepsy, and ignoring the effects of the profound social disturbance
an insane parent may inflict upon any home, and especially upon the
impressionable minds of young children in it, the eugenic societies have
been responsible for raising up a growing body of opposition to their
views. Not only in the domains of medicine and psychology, but also in
those of ethnology and sociology, there is a feeling that the eugenic
claims have been pushed too far. But when the subject of eugenics has been
pruned of these extravagances, it will exert a far-reaching influence upon
social and political organization and events by compelling respect for the
vast importance of heredity as a factor that plays some part in determining
the physical, mental, and moral qualities of mankind. References to the
voluminous literature will be found in _The Eugenics Review_ (published by
the Eugenics Education Society, Kingsway, London).

EUGENIE (eu-zh[=a]-n[=e]), Marie de Guzman, ex-Empress of the French, born
at Granada, in Spain, 5th May, 1826, died at Seville 11th July, 1920. Her
father, the Count de Montijo, was of a noble Spanish family; her mother was
of Scotch extraction, maiden name Kirkpatrick. On 29th Jan., 1853, she
became the wife of Napoleon III and Empress of the French. On 16th March,
1856, a son was born of the marriage. When the war broke out with Germany,
she was appointed regent (15th July, 1870) during the absence of the
emperor, but on the 4th Sept. the Revolution forced her to flee from
France. She went to England, where she was joined by the Prince Imperial
and afterwards by the emperor. Camden House, Chislehurst, became the
residence of the imperial exiles. On 9th Jan., 1873, the emperor died, and
six years later the Prince Imperial was slain while with the British army
in the Zulu War. In 1881 the empress transferred her residence to
Farnborough, in Hampshire. During the European War she established a
hospital at Farnborough. In 1918 she handed over to Clemenceau the letters
which she had received from William I in 1870. The letters shed a striking
light upon the ambitions of Prussia. She was buried in the mausoleum at
Farnborough.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Lano, _The Empress Eugenie_; Tschuddi,
_Eugene, Empress of the French_; Stoddart, _The Life of Empress Eugenie_;
E. Legge, _The Empress Eugenie and her Son_.

EUGE'NIUS, the name of four Popes.--1. EUGENIUS I, elected 8th Sept., 654,
while his predecessor, Martin I, was still living; died in 657 without
having exerted any material influence on his times.--2. EUGENIUS II held
the see from 824-827.--3. EUGENIUS III, born at Pisa, was a disciple of St.
Bernard of Clairvaux. He was raised to the popedom in 1145; was obliged to
quit Rome in 1146 in consequence of the commotions caused by Arnold of
Brescia; returned with the help of King Roger of Sicily in 1150, and died
in 1153.--4. EUGENIUS IV, from Venice, originally called Gabriel
Condolmero, was raised to the popedom in 1431. In consequence of his
opposition to the Council of Basel he was deposed. He died in 1447.

EUGENOL, or ALLYLGUAIACOL, is found in cloves, the leaves of cinnamon, and
other plants. About 90 per cent of _clove oil_ is composed of eugenol.

EU'GUBINE TABLES, the name given to seven bronze tablets or tables found in
1444 at the town of Gubbio, the ancient Iguvium or Eugubium, now in the
Italian province of Perugia, bearing inscriptions in the language of the
ancient Umbrians, which seems to have somewhat resembled the ancient Latin
as well as the Oscan. They seem to have been inscribed three or four
centuries B.C., and refer to sacrificial usages and ritual.

EUHEM'ERISM, a method or system (so named from its founder Euhemerus, a
Greek philosopher) of interpreting myths and mythological deities, by which
they are regarded as deifications of dead heroes and poetical exaggerations
of real histories.

EULENSPIEGEL (oi'len-sp[=e]-gl), Till, a name which has become associated
in Germany with all sorts of wild, whimsical frolics, and with many amusing
stories. Some such popular hero of tradition and folk-lore seems to have
really existed in Germany, probably in the first half of the fourteenth
century, and a collection of popular tales of a frolicsome character,
originally written in Low German, purports to contain his adventures. The
earliest edition of such is a Strasbourg one of the year 1515 in the
British Museum. Better known, however, is that of 1519, published also at
Strasbourg by Thomas Muerner (under the title _Howle-glass_). The work was
early translated into English and almost all European tongues. A modern
English translation appeared in 1890.

EULER (oi'l[.e]r or ue'l[.e]r), Leonard, a distinguished mathematician,
born at Basel in 1707, died at St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in 1783. He was
educated at the University of Basel under the Bernouillis, through whose
influence he procured a place in the Academy of St. Petersburg. In 1741 he
accepted an invitation from Frederick the Great to become professor of
mathematics in the Berlin Academy, but in 1766 returned to St. Petersburg,
where he became director of the mathematical class of the academy. Euler's
profound and inventive mind gave a new form to the science. He applied the
analytic method to mechanics, and greatly improved the integral and
differential calculus. He also wrote on physics, and employed himself in
metaphysical and philosophical speculations. Amongst his numerous writings
are: the _Theoria Motuum Planetarum et Cometarum, Introductio in Analysin
Infinitorum_, and _Opuscula Analytica_.

EU'MENES (-n[=e]z), the name of two kings of Pergamus.--1. EUMENES I
succeeded his uncle Philetaerus 263 B.C. He reigned for twenty-two years,
and then died in a fit of drunkenness.--2. EUMENES II succeeded his father
Attalus 197 B.C., and, like him, attached himself to the Romans, who, as a
reward for his services in the war against Antiochus of Syria, bestowed
upon him the Thracian Chersonesus and almost all Asia on this side of the
Taurus. He died in 159 B.C.

EUMENIDES ([=u]-men'i-d[=e]z). See _Furies_.

EUMYCETES, or HIGHER FUNGI, a common name for those Fungi which possess a
septate mycelium. They also have a well-marked type of 'principal'
spore--either the _ascospore_ (Ascomycetes) or the _basidiospore_
(Basidiomycetes)--and rarely produce definite sexual organs. Opposed to
Phycomycetes.

EUNOMIANS, the followers of Eunomius, Bishop of Cyzicum, in the fourth
century A.D., who held that Christ was a created being of a nature unlike
that of the Father.

EU'NUCH, an emasculated male. The term is of Greek origin (_eunouchos_,
from _eun[=e]_, a couch or bed, _echein_, to hold or guard); but eunuchs
became known to the Greeks no doubt from the practice among Eastern nations
of having them as guardians of their women's apartments. Eunuchs were
employed in somewhat similar duties among the Romans in the luxurious times
of the empire, and under the Byzantine monarchs they were common. The
Mohammedans still have them about their harems. Emasculation, when effected
in early life, produces singular changes in males and assimilates them in
some respects to women, causing them in particular to have the voice of a
female. Hence it was not uncommon in Italy to castrate boys in order to fit
them for soprano singers when adults.

EUON'YMUS, the spindle trees or prickwoods, a genus of shrubs or trees,
nat. ord. Celastrineae, containing about fifty species, natives of the
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. The root-bark of _E.
atropurpureus_ is the source of euonymin, a bitter principle with a
powerful stimulating effect on the liver.

EUPATO'RIA, formerly Koslov, a seaport on the western coast of the Crimea,
government of Taurida. It was here that the allied forces landed at the
commencement of the Crimean War (14th to 18th Sept., 1854). Pop. 30,432.

EUPATO'RIUM, a genus of plants, chiefly natives of America, belonging to
the nat. ord. Compositae. Their roots are perennial, possessing a rough,
bitter, or aromatic taste; the flowers are small, white, reddish, or
bluish, in corymbs. Amongst the many species are _E. cannab[=i]num_, or
hemp-agrimony, a British plant.

EUPEN (oi'pen), a town and district of Belgium, formerly part of Rhenish
Prussia, 7 miles S.S.W. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has manufactures of woollen
and linen cloth, hats, soap, leather, and chemicals; paper, flax, and
worsted mills; and an important trade. The town was ceded to Prussia at the
Peace of Paris in 1814. On 26th May, 1919, Eupen was occupied by Belgian
troops, and by the Treaty of Versailles Eupen and Malmedy were handed over
to Belgium. Pop. 13,540.

EUPHO'NIUM, a brass bass instrument, generally introduced into military
bands, and frequently met with in the orchestra as a substitute for the
superseded ophicleide. It is one of the saxhorn family of instruments. It
is tuned in C or in B flat, and is furnished with three or four valves or
pistons.

EUPHORBIA. See _Spurge_.

EUPHORBIA'CEAE, the spurgeworts, a nat. ord. of herbaceous plants, shrubs,
or very large trees, which occur in all regions of the globe. Most of them
have an acrid milky juice, and diclinous or monoecious flowers. The fruit
is dry or slightly fleshy, and three-lobed. Among the genera are:
Euphorbia, which yields an oil used as a powerful cathartic; Croton,
affording croton-oil; the _Ric[)i]nus comm[)u]nis_, or castor-oil plant;
the _Buxus sempervirens_, or box-wood plant; the _Manihot utilissima_,
which yields the food known as tapioca or cassava. In most members of the
genera the milky juice contains caoutchouc.

EUPHOR'BIUM, a yellowish-white body, which is the solidified juice of
certain plants of the genus Euphorbia, either exuding naturally or from
incisions made in the bark. It is a powerfully acrid substance, virulently
purgative and emetic.

EUPHRA'TES, or EL FRAT, a celebrated river of Western Asia, Mesopotamia,
having a double source in two streams rising in the Anti-Taurus range. Its
total length is about 1750 miles, and the area of its basin 260,000 sq.
miles. It flows mainly in a south-easterly course through the great
alluvial plains of Babylonia and Chaldaea till it falls into the Persian
Gulf by several mouths, of which only one in Persian territory is
navigable. About 100 miles from its mouth it is joined by the Tigris, when
the united streams take the name of Shatt-el-Arab. It is navigable for
about 1200 miles, but navigation is somewhat impeded by rapids and
shallows. The melting of snow in the Taurus and Anti-Taurus causes a
flooding in spring. The water is highest in May and June, when the current,
which rarely exceeds 3 miles an hour, rises to 5. In the Bible (_Gen._ XV,
18) the Euphrates is _The River_, or _The Great River_.

EU'PHUISM (Gr. _euphues_, well endowed by nature), an affected style of
speech which distinguished the conversation and writings of many of the
wits of the court of Queen Elizabeth. The name and the style were derived
from _Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit_ (about 1580), and _Euphues and his
England_ (about 1582), both written by John Lyly (1554-1606). A well-known
euphuist in fiction is Sir Piercie Shafton in Scott's _Monastery_. Scott,
however, had not studied Lyly sufficiently, and Sir Piercie raves
bombastically rather than talks euphuistically. The chief characteristics
of genuine euphuism were extreme artificiality and numerous allusions to
natural history embellished by imagination.

EU'POLIS, an Athenian comic poet, who flourished about 429 B.C. Neither the
date of his birth nor that of his death is known with certainty. He
belongs, like Aristophanes and Cratinus, to the Old Comedy. His works are
all lost except small fragments. According to Suidas, he produced seventeen
plays, seven of which won the first prize. His best-known plays are the
_Kolakes_ (Flatterers), in which he attacked the prodigal Callias, and the
_Baptae_ (Dippers), in which he attacked Alcibiades and the exotic ritual
practised at his clubs.

EURA'SIANS (syncopated from European-Asians), a name euphemistically given
to the 'half-castes' of India, the offspring of European fathers and Indian
mothers. They are particularly common in the three presidential
capitals--Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Belonging strictly to neither race,
Eurasians are not infrequently ostracized by both; and their anomalous
position often exerts a baneful influence upon their character. They
generally receive a European education, and the young men are often engaged
in Government or mercantile offices. The girls, in spite of their dark
tint, are generally very pretty and often marry Europeans.

EURE (_eu_r), a river of North-West France, which rises in the department
of the Orne, and falls into the Seine after a course of 124 miles, being
navigable for about half the distance. It gives its name to a department in
the north-west of France, forming part of Normandy; area, 2330 sq. miles.
The surface consists of an extensive plain, intersected by rivers, chief of
which is the Seine. It is extensively cultivated; apples, pears, plums, and
cherries form important crops, and a little wine is produced. The mining
and manufacturing industries are extensive, and the department has a
considerable trade in woollen cloth, linen and cotton fabrics, carpets,
leather, paper, glass. Evreux is the capital. Pop. 303,092.

EURE-ET-LOIR (_eu_r-[.e]-lwaer), a department in the north-west of France,
forming part of the old provinces of Orleannais and Ile-de-France; area,
2293 sq. miles. A ridge of no great height divides the department into a
north and a south basin, traversed respectively by the Eure and the Loire.
The soil is extremely fertile, and there is scarcely any waste land. A
considerable portion is occupied by orchards and vineyards, but the greater
part is devoted to cereal crops. The department is essentially
agricultural, and has few manufactures. The capital is Chartres. Pop.
251,259.

EURE'KA (Gr. _heur[=e]ka_, I have found it), the exclamation of Archimedes
when, after long study, he discovered a method of detecting the amount of
alloy in King Hiero's crown. Hence the word is used as an expression of
triumph at a discovery or supposed discovery.

EURHYTHMICS, a general term, but usually used to denote a system of
education evolved by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze of Geneva. This form of training
bears on all art, but especially on the art of music. Eurhythmics is
essentially an original contribution to education. It aims at training
musical sense on the broadest lines, using the body as an instrument of
expression. Breaking away from preconceived ideas of music as a phenomenon
of sound only, M. Dalcroze claims that music is innate. From this
standpoint it follows that musicality as such is capable of cultivation
apart from instrumental performance. Rhythm, not being a quality confined
to music, but found common to all art, and fundamental to life, can,
therefore, be developed from within the human being. This the Dalcroze
system claims to do. Rhythm of sound plays a leading part in that it is
allied to movement. Exercises at the piano are played to which the pupil
listens, and to which he responds in movement--movement so closely allied
to the music that it is a form of musical imagery. The technique is
developed on simple lines to serve this end only. The system is
progressive, starting from elementary rhythmic structure, and ending with
complete musical form. It is far-reaching in educative purpose. It claims
to free innate rhythm, to develop it for individual self-expression; to
bring mind and body into closer unity, and in their interaction to give
poise to both; to train accurate musical listening, ready assimilation of
musical language and its spontaneous translation into terms of movement; to
give musical experiences which shall be heard and felt; to cultivate
musical expression and creation (in movement); to blend self-discipline
with emotion.

EURIP'IDES, the last of the three great Greek writers of tragedies, was
born about 480 B.C., and died 406 B.C. Tradition declares that he was born
at Salamis, on the very day of the Greek naval victory there. He was, as
far as we can tell, of good birth; at any rate, he was well educated, and
was able to live a life of ease and leisure, and to collect one of the
largest libraries of the time. The comic poets, especially Aristophanes,
delighted to say that his mother, Cleito, was a cabbage-woman, but there is
probably little or no truth in this statement. Euripides was originally
trained as an athlete, but conceived an intense dislike for that
occupation. Greatly daring, he expressed his view openly (Fragment 284).
Like a popular modern dramatist, his recreation was probably 'anything
except sport'. He then took to painting, but abandoned it in favour of
writing tragedies. His first play (not preserved), the _Peliades_, was
produced when he was twenty-five years of age. He is said to have written
ninety-two dramas, eight of which were satyr-plays. Ancient critics allow
seventy-five of these to have been genuine. During his long career he only
won the first prize five times. Euripides did not take any part in public
life, but devoted himself entirely to a life of speculation and to writing
plays. There is a tradition, not, however, on a very firm basis, that he
was twice married, and that both marriages were failures. He is represented
by Aristophanes as a woman-hater, but indeed he portrays women more
sympathetically than Aeschylus or Sophocles. The women had little cause to
congratulate themselves on securing Aristophanes as a champion, for his
scorpions are far more stinging then Euripides' whips. Euripides left
Athens about 409 B.C., and went to the court of King Archelaus in
Macedonia. There he died in 406 B.C.; according to some accounts, he was
killed by savage dogs which were set on him by some of his rivals at the
king's court.

Seventeen tragedies and one satyr-play have been preserved to us. The
latter (_The Cyclops_) is interesting as being the only example of a
satyr-play which we possess. In itself it is not amusing. It has been
admirably translated by Shelley. The seventeen tragedies in the order of
their production are: _Alcestis_, _Medea_, _Hippolytus_, _Hecuba_,
_Andromache_, _Ion_, _Suppliants_, _Heracleidae_, _Hercules Furens_,
_Iphigenia among the Tauri_, _Trojan Women_, _Helena_, _Phoenissae_,
_Electra_, _Orestes_, _Iphigenia at Aulis_, and _The Bacchae_. The
_Rhesus_, a feeble production long attributed to Euripides, is almost
certainly not his work.

The work of Euripides still retains the power of arousing strong likes and
dislikes. He has had sturdy supporters and fanatical detractors. The truth
is that if the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles are looked upon as
models for all Greek tragedy, Euripides falls far short of his models.
Euripides, however, though he died shortly before Sophocles, belonged to a
younger and quite different generation, and held different views about art,
morality, religion, and almost everything of importance. His aim was rather
different from that of the earlier poets, and he must be judged, not by
their standards, but on his own merits. His own merits are amply sufficient
to justify the high opinion held of him in the ancient world, and supported
by many of the greatest of the moderns. The dethroning of Euripides was the
result of a German conspiracy, carried out with much energy by Niebuhr, and
with even more by Schlegel. They enjoyed themselves while pulling Euripides
to pieces much as schoolboys who have detected a flaw in the armour of
their master. Many proofs can be adduced that Euripides was not a
sophistical trifler; but one glance at his bust is enough to assure anyone
of unbiased judgment that he was a man of remarkable breadth of mind and
intellectual gifts. The fact remains, however, that the extant plays of
Euripides are of very unequal merit. The _Helena_ is not a good play; it
was ridiculed by Aristophanes, but he did not succeed in making it much
more absurd than it was already. The _Hecuba_ and the _Heracleidae_ are not
well constructed, and the _Electra_ and _Orestes_ challenge too directly
the masterpieces of the earlier tragedians. In his greatest plays, however,
Euripides can bear comparison with any poet. The _Medea_ is a play which
still never fails to please; the _Hippolytus_ and the _Ion_ are admirable
dramas and admirably constructed; above all, the _Bacchae_ is a
masterpiece, more picturesque than any other Greek tragedy, a play not
unworthy to be set near _The Tempest_ and _Cymbeline_.

Euripides has been accused by his detractors of degrading his art, because
he opened his plays with a prologue and ended them with the intervention of
a god. Both devices, if not desirable, are quite pardonable. Possible plots
were becoming more and more scarce; Euripides did not wish to adopt trite
themes, and so went into the by-ways of mythology, or adopted a less
well-known alternative version of a well-known legend. He could not count
on his audience already possessing enough knowledge of the story to enable
them to understand his plays without a prologue. The _deus ex machina_, as
the god who ends some of the plays is called, was often warranted or
required by the plot which called for a conventional ending. Euripides has
also been accused, by Aristophanes and by many less entertaining writers,
of taking away all the dignity of tragedy. It is quite true that he is a
realist. Sophocles represented men as they ought to be, Euripides
represented them as they were. This was an unforgiveable offence in the
eyes of the 'men of Marathon' at Athens. The tragic heroes were not mere
stage characters, they considered; they were often ancestors or national
heroes, and it was impious to represent them as speaking ordinary language,
or sharing the weaknesses of ordinary men. Euripides did do this, did it
intentionally, and did it excellently. He came at an awkward transition
period, and the lack of success of some of his work is owing to the
impossibility of pouring new wine into old bottles. The old tragedy was too
tightly bound by convention to suit Euripides, who wished to portray living
men and women, and to have an exciting plot. The new comedy--the romantic
comedy of Menander--had not yet been invented. Had it been, Euripides would
surely have written comedies. The comic poets of the next century turned to
him for a model, and it was one of them, Philemon, who said that if he were
quite sure that dead men retained their perception he would hang himself to
see Euripides. Euripides is, in fact, the earliest writer of romantic
plays, a fact well illustrated by his _Alcestis_, which is one of his best
plays. In it tragedy and comedy are harmoniously blended, and it has a
happy ending.

For better and for worse Euripides is a very modern poet, and makes a
special appeal to the present generation. But his pathos, his wide
sympathies, and his wonderful poetry have appealed to the best judges in
all ages. Theocritus, Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Milton, and Browning have been
among his admirers; his detractors include a few Teutonic professors, and a
few who honour the memory of Aeschylus and Sophocles on the other side
idolatry.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. W. Verrall, _Euripides the Rationalist_;
G. G. A. Murray, _Euripides and his Age_ (Home University Library); W. B.
Donne, _Euripides_ (Ancient Classics for English Readers); Sir J. P.
Mahaffy, Euripides: _an Account of his Life and Works_; N. J. Patin, _Etude
sur Euripide_; P. Masqueray, _Euripide et ses idees_. There is a complete
verse translation by A. S. Way, and verse translations of several plays by
G. G. A. Murray. There is a 'transcript' of the _Alcestis_ in Browning's
_Balaustion's Adventure_, and of the _Hercules Furens_ in his
_Aristophanes' Apology_.

EURIPUS ([=u]-r[=i]'pus), in ancient geography, the strait between the
Island of Euboea and Boeotia in Greece.

EUROC'LYDON, a tempestuous wind of the Levant, which was the occasion of
the shipwreck of the vessel in which St. Paul sailed, as narrated in
_Acts_, XXVII, 14-44. The north-east wind is the wind evidently meant in
the narrative; and an alternative reading adopted in the revised version is
_euraculon_ (euraquilo) or north-easter.

EURO'PA, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Ag[=e]nor, King of the
Phoenicians, and the sister of Cadmus. The fable relates that she was
abducted by Jupiter, who for that occasion had assumed the form of a white
bull, and swam with his prize to the Island of Crete. Here Europa bore to
him Minos, Sarp[=e]don, and Rhadamanthus.

EUROPE, the smallest of the great continents, but the most important in the
history of civilization for the last two thousand years. It forms a huge
peninsula projecting from Asia, and is bounded on the north by the Arctic
Ocean; on the west by the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by the
Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus Range; on the east by the
Caspian Sea, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains. The most northerly
point on the mainland is Cape Nordkyn, in Lapland, in lat. 71deg 6'; the
most southerly points are Punta da Tarifa, lat. 36deg N., in the Strait of
Gibraltar, and Cape Matapan, lat. 36deg 17', which terminates Greece. The
most westerly point is Cape Roca in Portugal, in long. 9deg 28' W., while
Ekaterinburg is in long. 60deg 36' E. From Cape Matapan to North Cape is a
direct distance of 2400 miles, from Cape St. Vincent to Ekaterinburg,
north-east by east, 3400 miles; area of the continent, about 3,865,000 sq.
miles. Great Britain and Ireland, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, Corsica,
Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete, the Ionian and the Balearic Islands are the
chief islands of Europe. The shores are very much indented, giving Europe
an immense length of coast-line (estimated at nearly 50,000 miles). The
chief seas or arms of the sea are: the White Sea on the north; the North
Sea on the west, from which branches off the great gulf or inland sea known
as the Baltic; the English Channel, between England and France; the
Mediterranean, communicating with the Atlantic by the Strait of Gibraltar
(at one point only 19 miles wide); the Adriatic and Archipelago, branching
off from the Mediterranean: and the Black Sea, connected with the
Archipelago through the Hellespont, Sea of Marmora, and Bosporus.

[Illustration]

_Surface._--The mountains form several distinct groups or systems of very
different geological dates, the loftiest mountain masses being in the south
central region. The Scandinavian mountains in the north-west, to which the
great northern peninsula owes its form, extend above 900 miles from the
Polar Sea to the south point of Norway. The highest summits are about 8000
feet. The Alps, the highest mountains in Europe (unless Mount Elbruz in the
Caucasus is claimed as European), extend from the Mediterranean first in a
northerly and then in an easterly direction, and attain their greatest
elevation in Mont Blanc (15,780 feet), Monte Rosa, and other summits.
Branching off from the Alps, though not geologically connected with them,
are the Apennines, which run south-east through Italy, constituting the
central ridge of the peninsula. The highest summit is Monte Corno (9541
feet). Mount Vesuvius, the celebrated volcano in the south of the
peninsula, is quite distinct from the Apennines. By south-eastern
extensions the Alps are connected with the Balkan and the Despoto-Dagh of
the south-eastern peninsula of Europe. Among the mountains of South-Western
Europe are several massive chains, the loftiest summits being in the
Pyrenees, and in the Sierra Nevada in the south of the Iberian Peninsula.
The highest point in the former, La Maladetta or Mount Maudit, has an
elevation of 11,165 feet; Mulahacen, in the latter, is 11,703 feet, and
capped by perpetual snow. West and north-west of the Alps are the Cevennes,
Jura, and Vosges; north and north-east, the Harz, the Thueringerwald
Mountains, the Fichtelgebirge, the Erzgebirge and Boehmerwaldgebirge.
Farther to the east the Carpathian chain encloses the great plain of
Hungary, attaining an elevation of 8000 or 8500 feet. The Ural Mountains
between Europe and Asia reach the height of 5540 feet. Besides Vesuvius,
other two volcanoes are Etna in Sicily, and Hecla in Iceland. A great part
of Northern and Eastern Europe is level. The _great plain_ of North Europe
occupies part of France, Western and Northern Belgium, Holland, the
northern provinces of Germany, and the greater part of Russia. A large
portion of this plain, extending through Holland and North Germany, is a
low sandy level not infrequently protected from inroads of the sea only by
means of strong dykes. The other great plains of Europe are the Plain of
Lombardy (the most fertile district in Europe) and the Plain of Hungary.
Part of Southern and South-Eastern Russia consists of steppes.

[Illustration]

_Rivers and Lakes._--The main European watershed runs in a winding
direction from south-west to north-east, at its north-eastern extremity
being of very slight elevation. From the Alps descend some of the largest
of the European rivers, the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Po, while the Danube,
a still greater stream, rises in the Black Forest north of the Alps. The
Volga, which enters the Caspian Sea, an inland sheet without outlet, is the
longest of European rivers, having a direct length of nearly 1700 miles,
including windings 2400 miles. Into the Mediterranean flow the Ebro, the
Rhone, and the Po; into the Black Sea, the Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, and
Don (through the Sea of Azov); into the Atlantic, the Guadalquivir, the
Guadiana, the Tagus, and Loire: into the English Channel, the Seine; into
the North Sea, the Rhine, Elbe; into the Baltic, the Oder, the Vistula, and
the Duna; into the Arctic Ocean, the Dvina. The lakes of Europe may be
divided into two groups, the southern and the northern. The former run
along both sides of the Alps, and among them, on the north side, are the
lakes of Geneva, Neuchatel, Thun, Lucerne, Zuerich, and Constance; on the
south side, Lago Maggiore, and the lakes of Como, Lugano, Iseo, and Garda.
The northern lakes extend across Sweden from west to east, and on the east
side of the Baltic a number of lakes, stretching in the same direction
across Finland on the borders of Russia, mark the continuation of the line
of depression. It is in Russia that the largest European lakes are
found--Lakes Ladoga and Onega.

_Geology._--The geological features of Europe are exceedingly varied. The
older formations prevail in the northern part as compared with the southern
half and the middle region. North of the latitude of Edinburgh and Moscow
there is very little of the surface of more recent origin than the strata
of the Upper Jura belonging to the Mesozoic period, and there are vast
tracts occupied either by eruptive rocks or one or other of the older
sedimentary formations. Denmark belongs to the Cretaceous period, as does
also a large part of Russia between the Volga and the basin of the Dnieper.
Middle and Eastern Germany, with Poland and the valley of the Dnieper,
present on the surface Eocene formations of the Tertiary period. The
remainder of Europe is remarkable for the great diversity of its
superficial structure, rocks and deposits belonging to all periods being
found within it, and having for the most part no great superficial extent.
Europe possesses abundant stores of those minerals which are of most
importance to man, such as coal and iron, Britain being particularly
favoured in this respect. Coal and iron are also obtained in France,
Belgium, and Germany. Gold is found to an unimportant extent, and silver is
widely spread in small quantities. The richest silver ores are in Norway,
Spain, the Erzgebirge, and the Harz Mountains. Spain is also rich in
quicksilver. Copper ores are abundant in the Ural Mountains, Thuringia,
Cornwall, and Spain. Tin ores are found in Cornwall, the Erzgebirge, and
Brittany.

[Illustration]

_Climate._--Several circumstances concur to give Europe a climate
peculiarly genial, such as its position almost wholly within the temperate
zone, and the great extent of its maritime boundaries. Much benefit is also
derived from the fact that its shores are exposed to the warm marine
currents and warm winds from the south-west, which prevent the formation of
ice on most of its northern shores. The eastern portion has a less
favourable climate than the western. The extremes of temperature are
greater, the summer being hotter and the winter colder, while the lines of
equal mean temperature decline south as we go east. The same advantages of
mild and genial temperature which western has over eastern Europe, the
continent collectively has over the rest of the Old World. The diminution
of mean temperature, as well as the intensity of the opposite seasons,
increases as we go east. Peking, in lat. 40deg N., has as severe a winter
as Petrograd in lat. 60deg N.

_Vegetable Productions._--With respect to the vegetable kingdom, Europe may
be divided into four zones. The first, or most northern, is that of fir and
birch. The birch reaches almost to North Cape; the fir ceases a degree
farther south. The cultivation of grain extends farther north than might be
supposed. Barley ripens even under the seventieth parallel of north
latitude; wheat ceases at 64deg in Norway, 62deg in Sweden. Within this
zone, the southern limit of which extends from lat. 64deg in Norway to lat.
62deg in Russia, agriculture has little importance, its inhabitants being
chiefly occupied with the care of reindeer or cattle, and in fishing. The
next zone, which may be called that of the oak and beech, and cereal
produce, extends from the limit above mentioned to the forty-eighth
parallel. The Alps, though beyond the limit, by reason of their elevation
belong to this zone, in the moister parts of which cattle husbandry has
been brought to perfection. Next we find the zone of the chestnut and vine,
occupying the space between the forty-eighth parallel and the mountain
chains of Southern Europe. Here the oak still flourishes, but the pine
species become rarer. Rye, which characterizes the preceding zone on the
continent, gives way to wheat, and in the southern portion of it to maize
also. The fourth zone, comprehending the southern peninsulas, is that of
the olive and evergreen woods. The orange flourishes in the southern
portion of it, and rice and even cotton are cultivated in some places in
Italy and Spain.

_Animals._--As regards animals, the reindeer and polar-bears are peculiar
to the north. In the forests of Poland and Lithuania the urus, a species of
wild ox, is still occasionally met with. Bears and wolves still inhabit the
forests and mountains; but, in general, cultivation and population have
expelled wild animals. The domesticated animals are nearly the same
throughout. The ass and mule lose their size and beauty north of the
Pyrenees and Alps. The Mediterranean Sea has many species of fish, but no
great fishery; the northern seas, on the other hand, are annually filled
with countless shoals of a few species, chiefly the herring, mackerel, cod,
and salmon.

_Inhabitants._--Europe is occupied by several different peoples or races,
in many parts now greatly intermingled. The Celts once possessed the west
of Europe from the Alps to the British Islands. But the Celtic
nationalities were broken by the wave of Roman conquest, and the succeeding
invasions of the Germanic tribes completed their political ruin. At the
present day the Celtic language is spoken only in the Scottish Highlands
(Gaelic), in some parts of Ireland (Irish), in Wales (Cymric), and in
Brittany (Armorican). Next to the Celtic comes the Teutonic race,
comprehending the Germanic and Scandinavian branches. The former includes
the Germans, the Dutch, and the English. The Scandinavians are divided into
Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. To the east, in general, of the Teutonic
race, though sometimes mixed with it, come the Slavonians, that is, the
Russians, the Poles, the Czechs or Bohemians, the Serbians, Croatians, &c.
In the south and south-east of Europe are the Greek and Latin peoples, the
latter comprising the Italians, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. All the
above peoples are regarded as belonging to the Indo-European or Aryan
stock. To the Mongolian stock belong the Turks, Finns, Lapps, and Magyars
or Hungarians, all immigrants into Europe in comparatively recent times.
The Basques at the western extremity of the Pyrenees are a people whose
affinities have not yet been determined. The total population of Europe is
about 400 millions; nine-tenths speak the languages of the Indo-European
family, the Teutonic group, the Slavonic, and the Latin. The prevailing
religion is the Christian, embracing the Roman Catholic Church, which is
the most numerous, the various sects of Protestants (Lutheran, Calvinistic,
Anglican, Baptists, Methodists, &c.), and the Greek Church. A part of the
inhabitants profess the Jewish, a part the Mohammedan religion.

[Illustration]

_Political Divisions._--In 1921 Europe consisted of the following
independent states, kingdoms, or republics: Albania, Armenia, Austria,
Azerbijan, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, Esthonia, Finland,
France, Georgia, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Greece, Hungary,
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands
(Holland), Norway, Poland, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Serbia
(Yugo-Slavia), Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine. Of these the
following were kingdoms: Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Great Britain, Greece,
Italy, Montenegro, Netherlands (Holland), Norway, Serbia (Yugo-Slavia),
Spain, and Sweden. Turkey (whose possessions in Europe were limited to
Constantinople) was an empire, Luxemburg was a grand-duchy, Liechtenstein
and Monaco principalities, whilst all the other European states were
republics.

_History._--Europe was probably first peopled from Asia, but at what date
we know not. The first authentic history begins in Greece at about 776 B.C.
Greek civilization was at its most flourishing period about 430 B.C. After
Greece came Rome, which by the early part of the Christian era had
conquered Spain, Greece, Gaul, Helvetia, Germany between the Danube and the
Alps, Illyria, and Dacia. Improved laws and superior arts of life spread
with the Roman Empire throughout Europe, and the unity of government was
also extremely favourable to the extension of Christianity. With the
decline of the Roman Empire a great change in the political constitution of
Europe was produced by the universal migration of the northern nations. The
Ostrogoths and Lombards settled in Italy, the Franks in France, the
Visigoths in Spain, and the Anglo-Saxons in South Britain, reducing the
inhabitants to subjection, or becoming incorporated with them. Under
Charlemagne (771-814) a great Germanic empire was established, so extensive
that the kingdoms of France, Germany, Italy, Burgundy, Lorraine, and
Navarre were afterwards formed out of it. About this time the northern and
eastern nations of Europe began to exert an influence in the affairs of
Europe. The Slavs, or Slavonians, founded kingdoms in Bohemia, Poland,
Russia, and the north of Germany; the Magyars appeared in Hungary; and the
Normans agitated all Europe, founding kingdoms and principalities in
England, France, Sicily, and the East. The Crusades and the growth of the
Ottoman power are amongst the principal events which influenced Europe from
the twelfth to the fifteenth century. The conquest of Constantinople by the
Turks (1453), by driving the learned Greeks from this city, gave a new
impulse to letters in Western Europe, which was carried onwards by the
invention of printing and the Reformation. The discovery of America was
followed by the temporary preponderance of Spain in Europe, and next of
France. Subsequently Prussia and Russia gradually increased in territory
and strength. The French revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic wars had a
profound effect on Europe, the dissolution of the old German Empire being
one of the results. The most important events in European history from the
revolution of 1789 to 1914, the beginning of the European War, were: the
establishment of the independence of Greece; the disappearance of Poland as
a separate state; the unification of Italy under Victor Emmanuel; the
Franco-German War, resulting in the consolidation of Germany into an empire
under the leadership of Prussia: and the partial dismemberment of the
Turkish Empire. The European War, 1914-8 (q.v.), revolutionized the
continent and altered the map of Europe. The chief results were the
disintegration of the Dual Monarchy and of Russia, the abolition of the
German Empire, and the deposition of hereditary rulers in the smaller
German states, which instituted republican Governments. The following new
states were formed from the constituent parts of Russia and
Austria-Hungary: Albania, Armenia, Azerbijan, Czecho-Slovakia, Esthonia,
Finland, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Yugo-Slavia, and Ukraine. Poland,
dissolved in the eighteenth century, was again reconstituted. France
regained Alsace and Lorraine, Turkey lost almost all her possessions in
Europe, whilst Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Italy, and Roumania were greatly
enlarged, acquiring new territories. All these alterations of boundaries
and additions of territories were based on ethnological grounds, the new
states being inhabited by peoples belonging to the same ethnical group and
speaking the same language. See articles on the various
countries.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Freeman, _General Sketch of European
History_; A. Hassall (editor), _Periods of European History_; _European
History Chronologically Arranged_; A. S. Rappoport, _History of European
Nations_; O. Browning, _General History of the World_; H. S. Williams, _The
Historian's History of the World_.

EUROPEAN WAR, 1914-8. The European War, which began in Aug., 1914, and
involved the greater part of the globe before the last shot was fired in
Nov., 1918, had its ostensible origin in the assassination of the Austrian
heir-apparent, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife, at Serajevo,
capital of Bosnia, once part of the ancient kingdom of Serbia. This crime
was committed by a Bosnian student, but Austria-Hungary held Serbia
responsible, and, inspired by Germany, sent an ultimatum on 23rd July,
amounting to a demand that Serbia should surrender her independence. Two
days later, notwithstanding that Serbia conceded every demand, with two
reservations which she offered to submit to the Hague Tribunal,
Austria-Hungary declared war on her. Germany, who had seen in the Serajevo
tragedy a pretext for making her long-premeditated bid for world dominion,
"knew very well what she was about in backing up Austria-Hungary in this
matter", as the German Ambassador in Vienna frankly told the British
representative at the time; and when Russia, as the traditional protector
of the Slavs, mobilized her southern armies to save Serbian independence if
necessary, she threatened instant mobilization on her own part unless
Russia stopped these military measures within twelve hours. It was
technically impossible for Russia to do anything of the kind, but her
protest to this effect was unavailing. Germany declared war on Russia on
3rd Aug., and as this inevitably involved war at the same time with
Russia's ally France, she sent a note on the following day to Belgium
demanding safe passage for German troops through Belgian territory, though
Prussia as well as Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria had
guaranteed the neutrality and independence of Belgium by the treaty of
1839, repeatedly confirming this on subsequent occasions. When the British
Ambassador in Berlin protested against the threatened violation of treaty
rights, the German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, repudiated the treaty as a
mere "scrap of paper".

On 3rd Aug., when Germany formally declared war on France--though her
troops had already invaded French territory at various points--Belgium
refused Germany's demands, and called on Great Britain and France for
assistance. It was this call, and Germany's refusal on the following day to
accede to the British demands that Belgian neutrality should be
respected--declaring war on Belgium instead and violating her territory
early that morning--which decided Great Britain to range herself wholly on
the Franco-Russian side. The German Ambassador in London had already been
warned (on 31st July) that we should be drawn into the struggle if Germany
persisted in her threatened attack on France. Two days previously Germany
had made the 'infamous bid' to Great Britain that if she would remain
neutral no territory would be taken from France herself, though no
undertaking could be given with regard to the French colonies. British
mobilization orders were issued on 4th Aug., and at 11 p.m. on that date
Great Britain declared war on Germany.

Fortunately the British navy was ready for any emergency, with the Grand
Fleet--the command of which was given to Admiral Sir John Jellicoe--still
assembled in full strength at Portland, after the manoeuvres, the order for
its dispersal having been countermanded on 27th July. Lord Kitchener, home
on leave from Egypt, had also been stopped by a telegram from Mr. Asquith,
then Prime Minister, as he was stepping on the Channel boat at Dover on his
return journey (3rd Aug.), and two days later was appointed Secretary of
State for War. Meantime the Austrians had already bombarded Belgrade (29th
July); Italy had declined (1st Aug.) to be drawn into the conflict with her
Austro-German partners of the Triple Alliance on the grounds that their war
was an aggressive one; and German troops, as already mentioned, had invaded
France at several points on 2nd Aug., before formally declaring war on that
country.

_Western Front, 1914_

The struggle on the Western front began in earnest on the following day,
when war was declared on France and the Germans captured Trieux, near
Briey, and Luneville was bombarded by German aeroplanes. The German system
of mobilization had been quicker than the French and Russian, but the
opening moves filled the Allied commanders with too-confident hopes.
Although slower to mobilize than the Germans, a Russian army under
Rennenkampf succeeded in invading East Prussia in force; the Belgians made
a magnificent stand for their frontier fortresses when the Germans, denied
the right of way which they had demanded, endeavoured to force the great
highway of Western Europe which passes through Liege; and the French,
besides checking the enemy at Dinant, had already recovered part of the
lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine.

On 16th Aug. the First British Expeditionary Force, under General Sir John
French, completed its landing at Boulogne, and four days later had arrived
and concentrated on the line Avesnes-Le Cateau, on the left or exposed
flank of the French Fifth Army under General de Lanzerac. It consisted of
50,000 infantry with its artillery, and five brigades of cavalry--some
70,000 troops altogether, a mere drop in the ocean compared with the
millions of men who were marching to battle for the great military powers,
but destined to play a part in the forthcoming struggle out of all
proportion to its size.

The position at this juncture was, briefly, as follows: the Germans having
at length captured the last forts of Liege, with its gallant commander
General Leman, were overrunning Belgium. Brussels had just been evacuated
(20th Aug.), and the main Belgian army, menaced by greatly superior forces
of the enemy, and disappointed in its hope of effective support from the
Franco-British troops, was retiring to seek the protection of the forts of
Antwerp. Having occupied Brussels on the 20th, the German Higher Command
appointed Baron von der Goltz as Governor. A reign of terror in Belgium had
already been inaugurated as part of Germany's deliberate policy of
'frightfulness', including the ruthless execution of civilians on
unsubstantiated charges of shooting at the invaders.

The French armies, under the supreme command of General Joffre, who, like
Lord Kitchener, had been an engineer student when the Franco-Prussian War
broke out, and had been Chief of the General Staff since 1911, were now
disposed for the double purpose of meeting the threatened German onslaught
and preparing the counter-offensive on which French doctrines of strategy
had been based. Starting from the Swiss frontier there were nine divisions
forming the Alsace force, the main offensive group, consisting of the
French First and Second Armies, being extended along the Lorraine frontier,
and the Third Army about Verdun. The Fourth Army formed the mass of
manoeuvre held in reserve behind the centre, while the Fifth, whose left
wing was now extended by the British Expeditionary Force, faced the
Ardennes as far as the Belgian frontier.

Germany was not seriously alarmed by the spectacular advance of the French
into their lost provinces. It suited the strategy of her War Staff to keep
the French mass of manoeuvre as far as possible from the point at which it
would soon be sorely needed; and their feint attacks in the direction of
Longwy, Luneville, and Belfort were designed to strengthen the belief that
their real offensive would come in the frontal assault which the French
dispositions had assumed. Germany, however, had always intended to strike
through Belgium when the time came to deliver the knock-out blow to France
before Russia had time to mobilize her millions.

The German advance was proceeding according to the plan which had been
worked out in detail as far back as 1904 by the soldier-scholar of the
Garde-Ulanen, Count von Schlieffen, who died two years before his great
scheme was put into execution. Based on the assumption that Germany and
Austria-Hungary would have to fight France, Russia, Great Britain, and
Belgium without the aid of Italy, it provided for an immediate attack by
the right wing of the German army of such weight and ferocity as to destroy
the French left by a single blow, and then roll up the main French armies
one after the other. The South and Russian fronts were meantime to be
lightly held, everything being staked on the sudden, overwhelming blow in
the north through Belgium. One of the bitter controversies in Germany,
after the war, raged round the responsibility for the failure of this plan,
the execution of which devolved on General von Moltke, nephew of the great
strategist of the Franco-Prussian War. The Kaiser believed that the name of
Moltke would strike terror into the hearts of Germany's enemies, but the
second Moltke lacked the genius of his predecessor, and the course of
events proved that he was not equal to the task of carrying out so
prodigious a plan.

It was doubly necessary to strike at once with an immediate maximum of
strength now that Britain had already ranged herself alongside the Allies.
This maximum of strength was attained long before France had completed her
mobilization, and enabled Germany to launch her unexpected blow with
crushing effect. She had reckoned, however, without the stubborn defence of
the Belgians in the opening moves of the game, a defence which clogged the
wheels of her mighty war machine at the critical moment; and was wholly
unprepared for Britain's great achievement in transporting her
'insignificant' but indomitable army, without a hitch, complete in every
detail, and establishing it in its place in the line of battle, hundreds of
miles from its base, in less than three weeks from the declaration of war.
Clearly there was no time to be lost in solving the military problem on the
Western front before the Russians could throw their full weight into the
scales.

The secret of Germany's sudden attempt to overwhelm the Allied left by an
outflanking movement was well kept. The position in Belgium was obviously
grave; but Joffre still clung to the belief that if the Germans attacked
the Allied left in force, they would leave their own position in front of
the French Fifth Army so exposed as to give him an opening for a successful
counter-stroke with de Lanzerac's troops in co-operation with the British.
Up to the 22nd General French's preparations were all in the direction of
offensive action on these lines; his two corps had taken up their positions
through Binche and Mons and along the canal to Conde.

The German tide which now swept through the plains of Belgium entirely
upset the Allied calculations. General French woke on 22nd Aug. to find the
troops of the French Fifth Army on his right in unmistakeable retreat. The
full force of the German blow, delivered by von Buelow's Second Army, had
been felt by de Lanzerac's troops on the Sambre at daybreak, and had
pressed them back from the river. The British position held by the 1st
Corps (1st and 2nd Divisions) under General Sir Douglas Haig, the 2nd Corps
(3rd and 5th Divisions) under General Sir H. Smith-Dorrien, and the Cavalry
Division under General Allenby, became isolated by the retreat of de
Lanzerac--"the most complete example", as Lord French long afterwards
described him, "of the Staff College pedant whose 'superior education' had
given him little idea of how to conduct war". De Lanzerac asked General
French if he would attack the flank of the German columns which were
pressing him back from the Sambre, but the British Commander, who had
received definite instructions from Lord Kitchener that his command was to
be an entirely independent one, "and that you will in no case come in any
sense under the orders of any Allied general", replied that with his own
position so seriously threatened by the retreat of de Lanzerac's troops
such an operation was impracticable, but he agreed to retain his present
position for the next twenty-four hours.

The British army fulfilled this pledge, and the barrier thus held and
maintained during the subsequent retreat, though shattered in parts, saved
the French left from being outflanked by the invading right wing of the
Germans under von Kluck. The whole situation became extremely critical on
the following day (23rd Aug.). Namur, the forts of which had been regarded
as impregnable, fell before the crushing attack of the heavy Austrian
howitzers brought up by the advancing Germans; the French thrust into
Alsace-Lorraine had just been countered by the German Fifth Army under the
Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, which compelled the French to retreat
from all but a corner of Alsace; and the main German attack, launched at
the other end of the line, forced the French back both from the Sambre and
the Meuse. The French Fifth Army, the position of which was considerably
weakened by the fall of Namur, was attacked both by von Buelow's army in
front, and by a Saxon army under von Hausen on its right. It was forced
back until von Hausen found a gap on its right flank, through which he
proceeded to pour his Saxons with the object of rolling up the French Third
and Fourth Armies under Ruffey and Langle de Cary. These retreated in turn,
to recover alignment with de Lanzerac's Fifth Army, which had retreated
from the British right. The British army was thus left 'in the air',
outflanked not only on the right, where von Buelow was now advancing on it
from Charleroi, but also on the left, where von Kluck's right wing was
sweeping down in full force from the north-west.

The onslaught on the British front began shortly after noon with a
bombardment of some 600 guns along the whole line of 25 miles; followed by
a great frontal attack in mass formation. The British troops, all experts
at musketry, used their rifles with such deadly effect that the frontal
attack crumpled up. The line held; but with the German tide surging round
on either flank the position became increasingly critical. Under the
threatened turning movement General Smith-Dorrien withdrew from the Mons
salient, and before nightfall took up a fresh line some 3 miles south of
the canal. The advanced troops of the 1st Corps had not been seriously
engaged, and held their ground. It was not until late that night that the
desperate situation on his right was fully revealed to General French; and
when news also arrived from Joffre that the British army would probably be
attacked the next day by at least three German corps and two cavalry
divisions, it became clear that a general and immediate retirement was
inevitable. What actually happened was that the enemy attacked with no
fewer than four corps, and at least two cavalry divisions.

_The Retreat from Mons_

The great retreat began shortly after dawn on the 24th with a feint attack
by the 1st Division, under cover of which the 2nd Corps moved back 5 miles,
and then stood in turn to protect the retirement of the 1st Corps. Further
withdrawals were effected that day by alternate corps, covered by heavy
rear-guard actions, until the 1st Corps had reached the line between
Maubeuge and Bavai, with the 2nd Corps extending the line from Bavai to
Bry. Von Kluck's army, though kept in check by the retreating troops,
followed closely on their heels and round their left flank, their design
apparently being to turn the British left and press them back on Maubeuge,
the fortress close on their right rear, which, well fortified and
provisioned as it was, offered, as General French afterwards pointed out
(in _1914_), a terrible temptation to an army seeking shelter against
overwhelming odds. Bazaine's example at Metz in 1870, and a shrewd
suspicion that the German move was deliberately planned with that end in
view, proved sufficient reasons for avoiding the trap. A further retreat
was accordingly ordered to the line Le Cateau-Cambrai, some miles farther
back.

Tournai, which was held by a French Territorial brigade, fell that day.
There was nothing apparently to prevent the German host at this juncture
from continuing its course to the coast and seizing the Channel ports as
far as the Seine. That, doubtless, would have been included in the
programme had the Germans anticipated a campaign of any considerable
duration. The Kaiser, however, had promised his troops that they should be
home again "before the leaves fall"; and to bring this about it was
necessary to settle with the Allied army once and for all. Where von Moltke
failed, according to Ludendorff and other critics after the war, was in not
striking farther to the north or north-west, and in not throwing still more
weight into the scale from his left wing.

On the 25th the French were still retreating all along the line save at
Maubeuge, the garrison of which held out until 7th Sept., and at Longwy,
north of Verdun, which fell on 28th Aug. The British army, battle-worn and
suffering severely from the heat, but resisting all the German efforts to
turn its western flank, marched stubbornly back, gallantly assisted by
Allenby's cavalry. The French were a day's march ahead of them when the
British reached the Le Cateau position. General French decided, therefore,
that, sorely as the troops needed rest, there was nothing for it but to
resume the retreat at daybreak, and issued orders to that effect. The
hardest fighting on the 25th had fallen to the 1st Corps at Landrecies,
where Haig's weary troops were violently attacked at nightfall, before they
could snatch any rest, by fresh enemy troops sent forward in pursuit in
motors and lorries. The German infantry paid dearly for their temerity in
advancing through the narrow streets of the town in close order, two or
three British machine-guns mowing them down in hundreds. The attack was a
disastrous failure.

The 2nd Corps did not reach Le Cateau until ten or eleven o'clock that
night, thoroughly exhausted after a hard day's fighting and marching.
Smith-Dorrien had lost heavily in the operations, and was so convinced that
his troops were unfit to resume the march at daybreak that he elected to
stand and abide by the result. The magnificent fight put up by his troops
on the following day, assisted by Allenby and Sordet's cavalry, and two
divisions of French Territorial troops under d'Amade, which had been
detailed to guard the British left flank, saved the situation, and averted,
in the considered opinion expressed by General French five years later, "a
stupendous repetition of Sedan". The actual result was a total loss of some
14,000 officers and men, about 80 guns, and numbers of machine-guns, as
well as quantities of ammunition and material. According to General French,
these losses heavily handicapped the British army in the subsequent stages
of the retreat, and were felt throughout the first battle of the Marne and
the early operations on the Aisne. In his dispatch of Sept., 1914, the
British Commander-in-Chief had written of this battle in eulogistic terms.
It was not till some time later, he explains, that he came to know the full
details of the battle and to appreciate it in all its details. For General
Smith-Dorrien it is urged that his stand at Le Cateau broke the full force
of the German pursuit, and checked its course in time.

On the 27th the shattered 2nd Corps, having broken off the action,
continued the retreat with the 1st Corps. On the 28th Gough, with the 3rd
Cavalry Brigade at St. Quentin, and Chetwode, with the 5th at Cerizy,
turned on the leading German cavalry at both these places and threw them
back on their main bodies in confusion. For the first time since the
retreat began the worn-out British infantry, having reached the line of the
Oise between Noyon and La Fere, were able to rest and sleep in peace.

On the 29th the British troops reached the line Compiegne-Soissons, the
Germans on the same day occupying La Fere and Amiens, as well as Rethel and
other towns along the French front. Bapaume held out until the
rolling-stock had been removed from Amiens, but the flood-tide of invasion
now seemed to be carrying everything before it. Uhlans threatened to cut
Sir John French's communications with his base at Boulogne and Dieppe. The
base was accordingly transferred to St. Nazaire, at the mouth of the Loire.
Timely help came to the retiring British troops on the 29th by a brilliant
counter-stroke near Guise on the part of the French Fifth Army on their
right; but neither the British nor the French troops on de Lanzerac's right
were in a position to make a stand in support of that reaction. The Aisne
was forced by the invaders on the 28-29th, and Rheims, Chalons, and Laon
abandoned to them within the ensuing forty-eight hours. Falling back
doggedly from the Aisne and the Oise, the British troops withdrew on 2nd
Sept. to Chantilly-Nanteuil, the German advance having been checked on the
previous day by the 4th (Guards) Brigade in a stiff rear-guard action at
Villers-Cotterets.

The great retreat was coming to an end. Victory and Paris seemed within the
enemy's grasp. He had--as he thought--so shattered the British army that it
was now entirely negligible as a fighting force. He was ignorant of the
real strength of the force that was gathering on the British left north of
Paris--the new French Sixth Army under General Maunoury. It seemed both to
von Kluck and the German Higher Command that they had only the shaken
French Fifth Army seriously to reckon with on the Allied left, and, as von
Kluck was considered more than strong enough for the task, von Moltke took
the Garde Reserve Corps and 11th Army Corps from his right wing to East
Prussia, where the Russians were now carrying the war well into the
Fatherland.

The help rendered by the Russians at this critical phase of the war was
invaluable, and played no small part in the approaching struggle on the
Marne. In his fears for the safety of Paris, Joffre was naturally anxious
to profit by this relief, and discussed with Sir John French the
possibility of taking the offensive at the earliest possible moment. There
appears to have been some misunderstanding as to Sir John's plans at this
point. The British Commander-in-Chief declares that he had every intention
of remaining in the line and filling the gap between the French Fifth and
Sixth Armies, but the French Higher Command was apparently under the
impression that he was determined not to fight any more until his troops
had been given a week to reorganize and refit. Lord Kitchener himself
hurried to Paris to clear the matter up, but "full accord", according to
President Poincare, long afterwards, "was not re-established without
trouble". As soon, however, as the offensive was ordered, continued the
same authority, the British Commander-in-Chief gave his assistance without
reserve. "His army fought with magnificent courage, and Great Britain
played a brilliant part in the common victory."

In the meantime the retreat continued, the British, on 2nd Sept., reaching
the line of the Marne towards Lagny and Meaux, with the French Fifth Army,
now under the command of Franchet d'Esperey, on their right, retiring on
Chateau-Thierry, and Maunoury's new Sixth Army, on their left, retiring
towards Paris. It was at this point that von Kluck made the fatal mistake
of dismissing the British army as practically crushed and out of action.
Diverting the advance of the German First Army, he left Paris on his right
in order to deal what he hoped would be a decisive blow at the French Fifth
Army south of the Marne. By 5th Sept. the British army had fallen back to
the Forest of Crecy to bring it in line with the French Fifth Army.

Not only was the British army at length receiving sorely needed
reinforcements, but the French army was every moment increasing in strength
and numbers as it fell back on its reserves. Besides the French Sixth Army
on the British left, another new French army had sprung into being behind
the marshes of St. Gond--the Ninth, under Foch, who filled the gap between
Franchet d'Esperey's Fifth and Langle de Cary's Fourth Army--behind Vitry.
Eastward the line was continued by the French Third Army, now commanded by
Sarrail in place of Ruffey; and Castlenau's Second Army, now fighting the
battle of the Grand Couronne de Nancy which stemmed the German invasion at
this point, and prevented the threatened envelopment on the Allies' right,
where the Kaiser himself had gone to inspire the troops of Prince Rupprecht
of Bavaria.

_First Battles of Marne and Aisne_

Secure on the right, Joffre was at last able to deliver the great
counter-stroke on the left which the Germans had invited by their
tremendous bid for swift and decisive victory. The retreat came to an end
on 5th Sept., when Joffre gave Sir John French his final plans for the
coming offensive, and von Kluck, ignorant of the recuperative powers of the
British, as well as of the strength of the French Sixth Army on their left,
marched across their front in pursuit of d'Esperey's Fifth. That night the
Germans crossed the Marne, and the Grand and Petit Morin--two streams which
branch off roughly parallel to one another south of the Marne--while some
of their patrols reached the Seine, there catching a fleeting glimpse of
the capital where they confidently hoped the French would soon be brought
to terms.

When at last the retreat came to an end, the British army had been
reinforced by the 4th Division, which, with the 19th Infantry Brigade--and
subsequently the 6th Division--became the Third Army Corps under General
Pulteney, who arrived in France to take command of it on 30th Aug.
Deficiencies in armament and material had also been partially made good,
but, most important of all, Sir John French bore witness, "the promise of
an immediate advance against the enemy had sent a thrill of exultation and
enthusiasm throughout the whole force".

The first battle of the Marne had scarcely opened on 6th Sept., 1914, when
von Kluck, realizing that Maunoury's force on his extreme right was
becoming dangerous, sent two army corps northwards to deal with it.
Maunoury had already crossed the Marne and fought the first battle of the
Ourcq on the 5th. The dispatch of the two German corps to keep him in check
made a way now for the British troops, when, according to plan, they turned
on the invaders with the object of assailing their flank with the French
Sixth Army on their left; while the French Fifth Army, and the French
armies to its right, made a simultaneous frontal attack.

Both Joffre and French were under the impression that the German thrust was
still in full career when their counter-stroke was delivered. Already,
however, the tide had begun to turn. Von Kluck, realizing too late--what
should have been obvious from the first--that his communications were being
seriously threatened on the Ourcq, saw that retreat was inevitable unless
he could crush the forces gathering so ominously against his right flank.
The opening of the battle of the Marne thus became on von Kluck's part an
effort to overwhelm Maunoury on his right, while he kept the British army
and French Fifth Army at bay with strong rear-guards and cavalry. The
surprise of the day to the Germans was probably the remarkable part played
by the British, who, instead of being practically wiped out, as the enemy
fondly believed, attacked with an energy and dash which carried everything
before them, and, but for filling their allotted role of maintaining
alignment with the French armies on each flank, would doubtless have
advanced farther than they did. As it was, the progress made was
considerable. The Germans were driven back to the Grand Morin, and the line
of that stream made good on the following day.

Meantime the French Fifth Army on their right, materially helped by this
success, had also recovered a good deal of ground, while Foch and Langle de
Cary, farther east, held their own against the fierce assaults of the
German centre. A last desperate effort was being made to hack a way through
at this point, and Sarrail, on Langle de Cary's right, had to give way a
little along the Meuse. That day the Germans reached the most southerly
point of their advance, at Provins. The deciding phase of the battle,
however, was developing with dramatic swiftness on von Kluck's right wing.
Maunoury was hard pressed by the repeated onslaughts of the enemy, whose
heavy reinforcements at this point held the issue in the balance for
several days. General Gallieni, the Governor of Paris, hurried up fresh
troops to Maunoury in motor-buses and taxis, and the French line held.

The British army helped matters considerably by driving the Germans across
the Grand Morin at Coulommiers on the 7th, and on the following day from
the Petit Morin, thus also helping d'Esperey with the French Fifth Army, on
its right, to continue his advance farther east as far as Montmirail. On
the 9th came the decisive blows which removed all doubts as to the issue of
the battle. Von Kluck's retreat on his left flank exposed the right of von
Buelow's Second Army, which was further jeopardized by a gap which appeared
on its left, where it should have linked up with von Hausen's Third Army.
This double opening gave Foch, facing von Buelow in the marshes of St.
Gond, the opportunity which he sought of smashing the enemy's centre. He
seized it by a series of lightning blows which drove the German centre back
on the morning of the 10th in complete disorder, pursued by Foch's
victorious infantry.

[Illustration]

All the reinforcements sent to von Kluck were now of no avail against the
French Sixth Army, which had been fighting against odds since 6th Sept.,
helped not a little by Pulteney's 3rd Corps on its right flank. Maunoury
carried the Ourcq on the 9th, and Pulteney's corps was able to cross the
Marne, after stiff fighting at La Ferte-sous-Jouarre, at dawn on the
following day, when the German retreat became general. The left of the
British 2nd Corps had crossed the Marne at Nanteuil, where the bridges were
found unbroken and the enemy gone, on the morning of the 9th, but was
ordered not to advance too far north until the 1st and 2nd Corps were
firmly established on the northern bank. The 1st crossed later in the day
at Charly-sur-Marne and Saulchery, clearing the ground of the enemy and
making many captures; but the 3rd Corps had a harder task at La
Ferte-sous-Jouarre, and, as already mentioned, was not completely
established on the other side until the following morning. The first battle
of the Marne ended on the night of the 10th with the enemy in full retreat
to the north and north-east and the Allies in hot pursuit. By the 12th he
had been driven back from the Seine a distance of 65 miles, and the great
German plan of a sudden crushing defeat of the Allies in the West had
collapsed like a house of cards.

The hopes thus raised among the Allies of a speedy termination of the war
in their favour were, on the other hand, equally illusory. Though the
Germans lost heavily in officers and men, as well as in guns and other war
material, their retreat was no disorderly flight. Many desperate rear-guard
actions were fought all along the line, but the enemy retired steadily to
prepared positions on the Aisne, where the eyes of all the commanders were
to be opened to the possibilities of trench warfare under modern
conditions. It needed many hard lessons before the truth was driven home.

When the first battle of the Aisne opened on 13th Sept., the British army
already had its outposts on that river, the main body being in positions
somewhat to the south, between Soissons and Bourg. Throwing bridges across
during the night, the advance was continued on the opposite bank on the
following day, though not without heavy British casualties, amounting to
between 1500 and 2000, including 3 commanding officers. The 6th Division
arrived from England at this stage, and joined its own 3rd Corps on the
left. Further advance was stayed by the strength of the enemy's entrenched
positions, in which he now determined to make his stand. Here he was backed
by an overpowering superiority in artillery which, with fierce
counter-attacks on the part of his infantry, gallantly repulsed though they
were, caused such severe losses that the British Commander-in-Chief was
forced to assume a defensive role, while Maunoury, de Castlenau, and Foch
each made stupendous efforts to break the enemy's line and renew the war of
movement and manoeuvre on which their military principles had been based.
All, however, ended in the same dreary deadlock of entrenchments.

Failing to shift the enemy from these impregnable positions, Joffre
endeavoured to outflank the German right wing, already threatened by
Maunoury's advance along the Oise. Two new French armies were formed from
the reserves to extend the Allied left--the Seventh, entrusted to de
Castlenau, whose Second Army was transferred to Dubail, and the Tenth, the
command of which was given to Maud'huy. De Castlenau's Seventh Army, though
it failed to turn the enemy's flank--the movement having been anticipated
by him--succeeded in extending the pressure of Maunoury's left, which had
swung round by the 20th until it ran north from Compiegne to west of
Lassigny, and in building the first section of Joffre's great besieging
wall which, gradually extending from the Alps to the sea, became the
impenetrable barrier between the enemy and his main objectives. The Allies'
line was continued by de Castlenau through Roye to Albert, and thence, by
Maud'huy's Tenth Army, through Arras to Lens.

Von Moltke had now been superseded in the German Higher Command by
Falkenhayn, who promptly countered Joffre's new strategy by similar
extensions of the German front, thus beginning the outflanking race
destined only to end in stalemate on the coast. While extending their right
the Germans made a strenuous effort to regain the initiative by a blow with
the army group nominally commanded by the German Crown Prince on Sarrail's
flank on the Meuse. It was a blow aimed at Verdun and the whole of the
Allied line, which it hoped to break through at this point and so take in
the rear. Verdun, however, had been rendered impenetrable by miles of
powerfully protected outer defences, and practically the only success which
fell to the Crown Prince on this occasion was the capture of the
Camp-des-Romains and St. Mihiel on the Meuse, thus creating the remarkable
salient east of Verdun which was destined to remain until the
Franco-American force flattened it out in the victorious advance of the
Allies four years later. The German Crown Prince fared even worse a week
later, when he attacked along the main road through the Argonne towards
Verdun, only to be flung back. It was after this double failure that the
Germans bombarded Rheims and shattered her noble cathedral.

The crucial phase of the struggle in the West had shifted towards the coast
as the first battle of the Aisne died down on 28th Sept., and the campaigns
began in Artois which led in due course to the fierce struggles for the
Labyrinth, the Vimy Ridge, Lens, and Loos. The extension of the French left
placed the British army in an anomalous position. Even before Joffre had
begun to build his barrier in this direction the British Commander-in-Chief
had felt strongly that his proper sphere of action was on the Belgian
frontier on the left flank of the French armies, for the two-fold purpose
of defending the Channel ports and being in position to concert combined
action with the British navy. He suggested this move to the north to Joffre
on 29th Sept., pointing out its strategical advantages and the possibility
of doing so now that the position of his force on the right bank of the
Aisne had been thoroughly well entrenched. Joffre agreed in principle to
General French's proposal, but postponed the movement until 3rd Oct.

_Retreat from Antwerp_

By this time the critical situation of the Belgian army at Antwerp had
become hopeless, and the danger of a German descent on the Channel ports
suddenly became acute. Since their retreat towards Antwerp after their
evacuation of Brussels on 20th Aug., the Belgians had kept the Germans at
bay by vigorous counter-attacks, and threatened their communications by
sundry sorties from the fortress. These sorties and counter-attacks,
calling for reinforcements at a time when every soldier was needed on the
main fighting fronts, infuriated the Germans and led to the reign of terror
which included the deliberate destruction of Louvain and similar outrages
at Malines, Termonde, and elsewhere.

Having made his position secure on the Aisne, and brought up his heavy
guns, the enemy began his bombardment of the outer forts of Antwerp on 28th
Sept. By the 3rd of Oct. the Belgians were endangered not only by the
besieging army, but also by the ever-lengthening German line which, having
now been extended from Lassigny to Lille--only 38 miles from the
sea--threatened to isolate the Belgian forces from the Franco-British
armies. They accordingly decided that plans must be made at once to
withdraw from Antwerp in the direction of Ghent, both to protect the
coast-line and gain touch with the Allies. The British troops hurriedly
sent to reinforce the Belgians--a brigade of Royal Marines and part of the
recently formed Naval Division--had no influence on the fate of the
fortress, but helped in protecting the flight of the citizens and in the
final retreat of the Belgian army. Some 1500 of the Royal Naval Division
were forced across the Dutch frontier and interned, and about 800 were made
prisoners. The remnants of the British force, and the bulk of the Belgian
army, escaped westward, leaving the Germans on 9th Oct. in possession of
the deserted city. A little more and the German commander (von Beseler)
might have closed the gap beyond the Scheldt through which this retreat had
been made. Luckily for the Allies, too, the German Higher Command failed,
as Lord French long afterwards expressed it, to gather the richer harvest
which had been put within its grasp by the capture of Antwerp. There was
then apparently no insuperable obstacle to an immediate German advance on
Dunkirk, Calais, and Boulogne, before the Allied troops could arrive from
the main theatres to prevent it. "As on the Marne, so at Antwerp, they were
not prepared to seize the psychological moment and to play boldly for the
great stake".

General French, who had been given no voice in the Antwerp dispositions,
was now in the midst of the British move from the Aisne front to the north,
where he was to be reinforced by the 7th Infantry and 3rd Cavalry
Divisions, which had been landed on the Belgian coast to defend Zeebrugge
and Ostend under Rawlinson's command, and the Indian contingent, which had
just arrived at Orleans under Willcocks.

_First Battle of Ypres_

The two corps under de Castlenau and de Maud'huy were now under the supreme
command of General Foch, who had orders to control all the French armies
operating in the northern theatre, and was confident that it was still
possible to outflank the Germans and bend them back behind the Scheldt. At
the end of a fortnight the British army had been successfully transported
to the north from the Aisne--after successfully holding the line of that
river for twenty-five days against many desperate efforts of the enemy to
break through--and had taken up its position on the left of Maud'huy's
corps, the Allies' line being extended thence into Flanders by the French
8th Corps (under d'Urbal), which had been called up by Joffre to this end,
as well as to help the sorely tried Belgians. Meantime the Germans, besides
pressing Maud'huy hard in front of Arras, and forcing his Territorials out
of Lille, had driven the retreating Belgian army out of Houthulst Forest to
the line of the Yser north of Ypres, whence it took refuge behind the Yser
and completed the Allied line to the coast. Rawlinson's 4th Corps, covering
the retreat of the Belgian army, had hard fighting most of the way before
it succeeded in joining the main British army, the German forces from
Antwerp concentrating westwards in ever increasing numbers. By the 15th
Capper's 7th Division was east of Ypres, while Byng's 3rd Cavalry Division,
a day earlier, had connected up with Gough's 2nd Cavalry Division in front
of Kemmel and assisted in the capture of that position, a gain which proved
of the utmost importance in the subsequent struggle for Ypres. Allenby's
Cavalry Corps had greatly distinguished itself during the two previous
days, driving the enemy back all the way in a magnificent sweep to the
north and north-east.

A brilliant series of advances by Pulteney's 3rd Corps on 12-15th Oct.,
leading to the capture of Bailleul and Meteren, and the line Sailly-Nieppe,
confirmed French in the belief which he shared with Foch that the enemy had
exhausted his strength, and that the time was ripe for a strong offensive
eastwards. The advance had scarcely been started, however, before reports
arrived of a powerful offensive on the part of the Germans towards Ypres
and the Yser. The power and weight of the enemy's opposition on the British
front increased each day. Armentieres and the Bois Grenier were won by 15th
Oct., but the failure of the 4th Corps in its advance on Menin was one of
numerous indications that the Germans were being heavily reinforced. By the
21st all General French's worst forebodings were realized by the certainty
established that the small German force which had been operating between
Ostend and Menin on the 18th had been increased by no fewer than four
corps. This discovery, in the British Commander-in-Chief's own words, "came
like a veritable bolt from the blue". There was no longer any hope of
continuing the offensive on the part of the comparatively weak British
line, extended as it was on too long a front. It was a case of holding on
now until relief arrived.

The threat was twofold. Not only were the Germans massing in tremendous
strength in the north; they were also seriously threatening the British
right. Maud'huy, round Arras, was fighting a battle which, like that which
the British were waging round Ypres, was one of the landmarks of the war.
He sent word on the 16th that the enemy was intent on driving in a wedge
between Ypres and La Bassee--a threat which, had it matured, would have
finally separated the Allies, and compelled the British either to surrender
or be driven into the sea. Faced by this double threat, General French
decided to risk the possible disaster on his right, and concentrate against
the German tide in the north, which otherwise must gain the seaboard, with
possibly fatal consequences to the whole British campaign.

Fortunately the First Army under Haig had already been ordered in the
direction best calculated to meet the new situation, though there was no
longer any hope of its original orders--to turn the enemy's flank and drive
him back to Ghent--being carried out. In this first phase of the battle of
Ypres, which lasted until the night of 26th Oct., the northern portion of
the British line, notwithstanding the enemy's immense reinforcements,
progressed slowly but surely, and took heavy toll in killed, wounded, and
prisoners. A certain amount of ground was lost to the south, between
Zonnebeke and La Bassee--the commanders of both the 2nd and 3rd Corps being
anxious about their positions on more than one occasion--but at no point
was any serious break made in the line. Maud'huy at the same time was
gallantly keeping the enemy in check in the Arras region, though he could
not drive him from Lens and the Vimy Ridge; while on the left the French
and Belgians were withstanding repeated assaults on the swaying front
between Dixmude and the sea. The line held, and was now more or less firmly
established.

The second phase of the battle of Ypres consisted in the repeated attempts
of the Germans to break through this line at all costs. It began on 27th
Oct., and lasted through five of the most momentous days in the history of
the British army. On this day the French 9th Corps, which had been sent by
Joffre to the assistance of the sorely tried British troops, took over the
trenches in the northern part of the British salient. Capper's 7th
Division, exhausted by incessant fighting and fearful losses, was
temporarily attached to Haig's 1st Corps in the centre, and took over the
ground south of the Ypres-Menin road. Byng's 3rd Cavalry Division was at
the same time placed under Allenby. The 4th Corps was thus temporarily
broken up, Rawlinson being sent home to supervise the preparation of the
8th Division for France.

The British line was further reduced in numbers during the opening days of
this new phase of the battle by the repeated but unavailing attempt of the
enemy to advance, the Germans meantime mounting up reserves of
reinforcements for a decisive blow until, by the 30th, they outnumbered the
battle-worn British by two to one. Then came the onslaught in full, almost
overpowering strength. "October 31st and November 1st", afterwards wrote
the British Commander-in-Chief in his story of _1914_, "will remain for
ever memorable in the history of our country, for during those two days, no
more than one thin and straggling line of tired-out British soldiers stood
between the Empire and its practical ruin as an independent first-class
Power." The storm centre of the British battle-line was the
Wytschaete-Messines ridge, where Allenby's Cavalry Corps and Shaw's 9th
Brigade of the 3rd Division withstood for forty-eight hours the supreme
efforts of two and a half German army corps to dislodge them. The honours
of those heroic days were shared by the French 9th Corps and the British
1st Corps (with the 7th Division attached) in their continued defence of
the Ypres salient; and the British 2nd Corps, which held a long line on the
right in difficult country, and, though forced to give up Neuve Chapelle on
the 28th, withstood repeated attacks by superior numbers until the Indian
Corps took over their positions.

[Illustration: Map showing lines of the Allied Armies in Northern France at
the end of October and beginning of November, 1914

1, Yser line, defended by Franco-Belgian forces.

2, Ypres to La Bassee line, guarded chiefly by British troops.

3, French lines to a point above Verdun.

4, French lines adjacent to the Alsace-Lorraine frontier.]

The culminating phase of the battle began on the 29th, when overwhelming
masses of the enemy stormed the centre of the Ypres salient, held by Haig's
1st Corps and the 7th Division, and forced our troops back on Gheluvelt.
The ground was recovered before nightfall, but fighting of the fiercest
character continued all round and beyond the salient, the critical sector
of the 31st extending from Gheluvelt to Messines, on the south, where the
1st Cavalry Division was heavily pressed, and the London Scottish received
their costly baptism of fire. The Germans got into Messines that day, but
were hurled out again, and the line in this sector was completely restored
by nightfall. The climax of the crisis had been reached shortly after
midday in the Gheluvelt area, when the 1st Corps, after doing more than
could be expected of any men in their prolonged stand against the heaviest
odds, was at last broken, part of the 1st Division falling back rapidly
along the Ypres-Menin road, with the Germans at their heels. "I felt",
afterwards wrote General French, who was not more than a mile or so away at
the time, "as if the last barrier between the Germans and the Channel
seaboard was broken down", and he spent the worst half-hour his life had
ever known. The situation was saved by Brigadier-General FitzClarence,
V.C., commanding the 1st Guards Brigade of the 1st Division, who, on his
own initiative, and in the nick of time, ordered the 2nd Worcesters to
counter-attack. The Worcesters, who were in reserve to the 2nd Division,
rushed up to fill the gap, and, saving the South Wales Borderers, drove the
Germans out of Gheluvelt and re-established the line, which was completely
restored before dark. FitzClarence was killed only a week or two later in
the same part of the field.

The third phase of the battle of Ypres lasted from 1st Nov. to the 10th.
Its most dangerous hours were at the very beginning, when both Messines and
Wytschaete were lost, and only the timely arrival of the French 16th Corps,
which partially restored the situation, and the devoted bravery of
Allenby's Cavalry Corps, staved off this new threat of disaster. It is
impossible here to follow all the confused operations in the remainder of
this phase, in which fighting continued with varying intensity, and mingled
success, all along the line from La Bassee to the sea.

The outstanding feature of the fourth and final phase, which extended from
11th Nov. to the 21st, was the succession of heavy assaults by the pick of
the Prussian Guard, ordered by the Kaiser personally to carry the Ypres
salient at all hazards. It failed, but not before the Germans had pierced
the front along the Menin road in the first clash of arms on the morning of
the 11th, a battalion of Royal Fusiliers being practically wiped out in
gallantly disputing their passage. Haig met the situation "with the same
grim determination, steadfast courage, and skilful forethought"--the words
are those of Lord French--"which had characterized his handling of the
operations throughout". The line was re-established, but only after fearful
losses on both sides. The 1st (Guards) Brigade mustered at night only 4
officers and 300 men.

The French and Belgians were also attacked all along their line between
Ypres and the sea--where British monitors swept the coast with shells for 6
miles inland--but the enemy was held off, save at Dixmude, which he
captured and held. Between Dixmude, which had been stubbornly defended by
Admiral Ronarc'h and his French marines, and Nieuport the sluices of the
Yser had been opened by the Belgians, and the low-lying country across
which the Germans were striving to force a way so flooded as to render all
their efforts futile.

It was during this final effort of the Germans to reach the Channel ports
in 1914 that Lord Roberts arrived at the front to visit the Indian Corps,
who had withstood some heavy assaults on the old line of the Second Army,
between Armentieres and La Bassee. Lord Roberts had scarcely fulfilled his
mission, inspiring the troops with his presence at a critical time, when he
was taken suddenly ill on 13th Oct. and died on the following day.

North of Armentieres the British 3rd Corps under Pulteney, which held the
line thence towards Messines, had its share of fighting on the left bank of
the Lys, and though its deeds in maintaining its positions were
overshadowed by the epic struggles in the salient, its minor battles played
their part in the victory of First Ypres. The great battle died down with
the failure of the supreme effort of the Prussian Guard. Rains and floods
and mud combined to call a halt in the struggle for the Channel ports, and
the Western front was now established for the winter. There were
occasionally attacks by the Germans at Ypres and Festubert, and more than
one attempt on their part to cross the flooded Yser on rafts; but all to no
purpose; and before the end of the year (20th Dec.) a five days' battle
between the Indian troops and the Germans round Givenchy left matters much
as they were before, the British positions, with the aid of British troops,
being held. The French also broke the monotony of trench warfare with
encouraging advances in Alsace, towards Noyon, in the Argonne, and
elsewhere, but no vital changes took place in the general situation.

_Eastern Front, 1914_

Foiled in their grandiose plans in the West, the Germans were forced to
rest content with their valuable territorial gains in France and Belgium,
and remain on the defensive there while they turned to the more threatening
situation on the Eastern front. As already noted, the Germans had
under-estimated the rapidity of the Russian mobilization. They had not
anticipated an offensive on that front until they could spare as many
reserves as necessary from the West, and the forces left to guard their
vulnerable frontier of East Prussia were as inadequate to stay the
unexpected advance which the Grand Duke Nicholas, who was in supreme
command of the Russian armies, ordered under Generals Rennenkampf and
Samsonoff, as were the Belgians to prevent the march of the Germans across
their territory. By 25th Aug. the Russian armies, whose advance had begun
as early as the 7th, had pushed so far ahead that all East Prussia seemed
in danger of falling into their hands. General von Francois, commanding the
German troops, had been driven into Koenigsberg, the cradle of the Prussian
monarchy; Gumbinnen, Justerberg, Allenstein, Soldau, had all been captured;
and the hopes of a flight to Berlin before the Russian 'steam-roller'--too
often raised in the early stages of the war--seemed not unlikely to be
realized.

Germany's hour of danger, however, produced the man who was destined to
play a ruling part in the remaining phases of the struggle--Paul von
Hindenburg, a veteran of the Franco-Prussian War, then on the retired list.
Hindenburg knew the topography of East Prussia by heart, and had commanded
army corps in manoeuvres along that frontier for many years. Appointed at
this critical moment to supersede General von Francois, he collected
160,000 men from every available source, and by means of Germany's
unequalled strategic railway system had concentrated them in a favourable
position between Allenstein and Soldau for delivering the blow which would
cut the communications of the southern army under Samsonoff, and smash it
piecemeal in the treacherous marshes of the Masurian Lakes, the tracks
through which, though well known to Hindenburg, were a veritable tangle to
the Russians.

Tempted by their initial triumphs, the Russians had themselves courted
disaster by placing themselves in precarious positions. Samsonoff's
southern army had not only lost touch with the northern force under
Rennenkampf, which had occupied Insterberg on the 23rd on its march on
Koenigsberg, but had also failed to secure either Allenstein or Soldau.
Hindenburg was quick to seize every advantage, and his lethal thrust on the
26th, when he retook Soldau and outflanked the Russian left, was followed
by a similar enveloping movement on their right before they realized what
had happened. Masses of German guns came up and completed the move. Too
late the Russians fled along the only road left open to them--by way of
Ortelsberg and Johannisberg, across a narrow slip of land between the
marshes. Save for little more than one corps, which succeeded in escaping
along this route before it was closed, practically the whole of Samsonoff's
army was wiped out in this decisive battle of Tannenberg, as the victors
named it. Samsonoff himself was killed by a shell on 31st Aug. Altogether
the Russians lost in killed and wounded some 30,000; no fewer than 90,000
were taken prisoners.

Hindenburg, whose Chief of Staff was General von Ludendorff--already
distinguished in the war as the leader in the assault on Liege--at once
became a national hero throughout Germany. The Central Powers, however, had
little further cause for rejoicing on the Eastern front in 1914, once
Hindenburg had been enticed to the Niemen by the rapid retreat of
Rennenkampf after the Tannenberg _debacle_. The Grand Duke Nicholas had
sent General Ruzsky from Galicia to retrieve the situation, and the new
leader made as good use of the Niemen River--a formidable obstacle to cross
with its width of some 200 yards--as Hindenburg had done of the Masurian
Lakes. The operations, which ended in the failure of the Germans to cross
the river, and their heavy defeat at Augustovo after a sanguinary nineteen
days' battle beginning on 1st Oct., restored confidence to the Russian
army.

General Ruzsky had already made his mark in the opening campaign in
Galicia, where the Austro-Hungarian armies, after invading Russian Poland
at the opening of the war, were driven back in a series of mighty battles
which left the Russians in possession of Lemberg and all Eastern Galicia.
Brussiloff was meantime sweeping on towards the Carpathian passes, while
Ivanoff, commanding the Russians in Poland, forced back the invading armies
under Dankl and the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand beyond the Vistula and
Cracow. Przemysl alone held out in Galicia, and this was invested by the
Russians towards the end of September, when the Germans, far to the north
on the Niemen, were rapidly losing the advantage and prestige they had won
at Tannenberg. Hence Germany's increasing need for help from the Western
front.

In order to check the Russian advance on the key position of Cracow,
Hindenburg was now called from the East Prussian front to take over the
supreme command of the unified German and Austro-Hungarian armies in a
crushing blow at the Russian centre in Poland. Hindenburg's advance on
Warsaw was planned by his Chief of Staff, Ludendorff, to keep pace with a
parallel advance of the Austro-German armies in the south, intended to
raise the siege of Przemysl and turn the Russians out of Lemberg. The
combined forces of the Central Powers amounted to some two 

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