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The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Ebert to Estremadura

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Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Ebert to Estremadura

Author: Various


        
Release date: April 12, 2011 [eBook #35844]
                Most recently updated: January 7, 2021

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA. EBERT TO ESTREMADURA ***




Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net





Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
are listed at the end of the text.

The colour plate ENTOMOLOGY was originally the Frontispiece to the Volume.

       *       *       *       *       *


In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [a:]
"a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; [n.] "n with dot below";
[:a] "a with diaeresis"; ['e] "e with acute"; [`e] "with grave"; [^e] "with
circumflex"; and so forth.

THE

NEW . GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME . IV . PART . 2

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
COMPANY . _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

       *       *       *       *       *







LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

       *       *       *       *       *

VOLUME IV PART 2

EBERT to ESTREMADURA

       *       *       *       *       *

PLATES

                                                                  Page

  ELECTRICAL MACHINERY                                            200
  ENTOMOLOGY (_coloured_)                                         267

MAPS IN COLOUR


  ENGLAND AND WALES                                               242

       *       *       *       *       *







KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

       *       *       *       *       *

The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _[^a]_me, Ger. B_a_hn = ['a] of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_e[^u]_ne = Ger. long _[:o]_, as in
S_[:o]_hne, G_[:o]_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _[:o]_
short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _[^u]_ as in d_[^u]_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
gr_[:u]_n, B_[:u]_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
M_[:u]_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

       *       *       *       *       *

EBERT, Fritz, first President of the new German Republic, born at
Heidelberg in 1870, the son of a tailor. Having received an elementary
education in his youth, he first worked in his father's shop, and was then
apprenticed to a saddler. He spent his spare time in reading and acquiring
knowledge, entered journalism, and in 1892 became editor of the _Bremer
B[:u]rgerzeitung_. In 1908 he was elected to the Reichstag, and in 1916
became president of the Socialist group of this Assembly. He appealed for
peace in the Reichstag in Sept., 1918, and having thus become rather
prominent, he succeeded Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor of the Empire.
The office was suppressed a few days later, and Ebert became Provisional
President of Germany. He crushed the efforts made by the Spartacus group to
prevent the elections for the National Assembly, and altogether showed tact
and energy in those critical days. The National Assembly met at Weimar, and
elected Ebert as first President of the Reich on 11th Feb., 1919.

E'BIONITES (Heb. _ebyonim_, poor), a sect of the first century, so called
from their leader, Ebion. Irenaeus described them as Jewish Christians.
They held several dogmas in common with the Nazarenes, united the
ceremonies of the Mosaic institution with the precepts of the gospel, and
observed both the Jewish Sabbath and Christian Sunday. They denied the
divinity of Christ and rejected many parts of the New Testament.

EBLIS, or IBLIS, in Mohammedan mythology, the chief of the evil spirits;
also the name given to the prince of darkness, or Satan.

EB'OLI, a city of Campania, Southern Italy, a few miles from the Gulf of
Salerno. Pop. 12,741.

EB'ONY, the popular name of various plants of different genera, agreeing in
having wood of a dark colour. The best-known ebony is derived from plants
of the genus Diospyros, nat. ord. Ebenaceae. The most valuable is the
heart-wood of _D. Eb[)e]num_, which grows in great abundance in the flat
parts of Ceylon, and is of such size that logs of its heart-wood 2 feet in
diameter and from 10 to 15 feet long are easily procured. Other varieties
of valuable ebony are obtained from _D. melanoxylon_ of Coromandel, _D.
tesseleria_ of Mauritius, and other species. Ebony is hard, heavy, and
durable, and admits of a fine polish or gloss. The most usual colour is
black, red, or green. The best is jet black, free from veins, very heavy,
astringent, and of an acrid pungent taste. On burning coals it yields an
agreeable perfume, and when green it readily takes fire from its abundance
of fat. It is wrought into toys, and used for mosaic and inlaid work.

EBONY LORE. In ancient times ebony was a sacred wood. The Indians carved
from it images of gods and drinking-cups. It was first used by the ancient
Egyptians, who called it _heben_, and imported it from 'God-land' (Punt).
The Hebrew name is _hobn[=i]m_, the Greek _ebenos_, the Hindi
_[=a]ban[=u]sa_. Ezekiel (xxvii, 15) connects ebony with Tyre. The ebony
displayed in Rome by Pompey in his triumph over Mithridates came, according
to Solinus, from India. The Chinese call it _Wu-men_ ('black-streaked
wood'), and anciently imported it from India and Indo-China.

E'BRO (Lat. _Ib[=e]rus_), one of the largest rivers in Spain, which has its
source in the province of Santander, about 25 miles S. of the Bay of
Biscay, and after a south-easterly course of about 500 miles enters the
Mediterranean. Its navigation is much interrupted by rapids and shoals, to
avoid which a canal about 100 miles long has been constructed nearly
parallel to its course. Saragossa is the principal town on the river.

['E]CART['E] ([=a]-k[:a]r't[=a]), a card-game for two players, is played
with thirty-two cards, the smaller ones, from two to six inclusive, not
being used. The remaining cards rank as follows: king (highest), queen,
knave, ace, ten, &c. In the English mode of playing, the players cut for
the deal, which is decided by the lowest card. The dealer gives five cards
to either player, three and two at a time, and turns up the eleventh card
for trump. If he turns up a king he scores one; and if a king occurs in the
hand of either player, the holder may score one by announcing it before the
first trick. The non-dealer leads; trumps take all other suits, but the
players must follow suit if they can. Three tricks count one point, five
tricks two points; five points make game. Before play begins, the
non-dealer may claim to discard (['e]carter) any of the cards in his hand,
and to replace them by fresh ones from the pack. This claim the dealer may
or may not allow. Should he allow it, he can himself discard as many cards
as he pleases. Sometimes only one discard is allowed, sometimes more. Cf.
Cavendish, _The Laws of ['E]cart['e] adopted by the Turf Club_.

ECBAT'ANA, the chief city or ancient metropolis of Media, the summer
residence of the Median and Persian and afterwards of the Parthian kings.
It was a place of great splendour at an early period. Its site can no
longer be fixed with certainty, though many explorers agree in identifying
it with the modern Hamadan.

ECCE HOMO (ek's[=e]; Lat., 'Behold the man!'), a name often given to
crucifixes and pictures which represent Christ bound and crowned with
thorns. The most celebrated of these paintings are by Sodoma, Correggio (in
the National Gallery), Titian, Tintoretto, Guido Reni, and Murillo. The
expression is derived from the words spoken by Pilate when he showed Christ
to the multitude before he was led forth to Crucifixion (_John_, xix, 5).

[Illustration: Eccentric and Rod

P, Pulley. M, Strap. N, Rod. O, Centre of shaft. E, Centre of eccentric. O,
E, Is the throw or radius of the eccentric.]

ECCEN'TRIC, a term in mechanics applied to contrivances for converting
circular into reciprocating (backwards and forwards) rectilinear motion,
consisting of circular discs attached to a revolving shaft, not centrally,
i.e. eccentrically.

ECCHYMOSIS is extravasation of blood into the tissues underlying the skin.
It is most frequently produced as the result of a bruise from injury, but
may be due to some pathological condition.

ECCLEFECHAN (ek-l-fe_h_'an), a Scottish village in Dumfriesshire, near the
Caledonian Railway main line, noteworthy as the birth-place and
burial-place of Thomas Carlyle. Pop. 670.

ECCLES, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles from Manchester, of which
it may be considered a suburb. The town, engaged in textile industries, is
famous for its cakes. Since 1918 it returns one member to Parliament. Pop.
41,946.

ECCLESIAS'TES (-t[=e]z), the title by which the _Septuagint_ translators
rendered the Hebrew _Koheleth_ ('the gatherer of the people'), a symbolic
name explained by the design of the book and the dramatic position occupied
by Solomon in it, one of the canonical books of the Old Testament. The book
consists of 12 chapters, being a series of discourses on the vanity of
earthly things, and the tone, which is sceptical, is such as is found in
Omar Khayy['a]m. According to Jewish tradition, it was written by Solomon;
but the best modern criticism has decided that its style and language, no
less than its thought, belong to a much later date.

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONERS, in England, a body corporate, constituted in
1836, with extensive powers in regard to the organization of the Church,
the distribution of episcopal duties, and the formation of parishes. It
consists of all the bishops of England and Wales, five cabinet ministers,
four judges, and twelve others. Their decisions are ratified by orders in
council, and acquire the force of Acts of Parliament. The Commissioners
deal with an annual income of about 2 million pounds.

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS, courts in which the canon law is administered and
which deal with ecclesiastical cases, affecting benefices and the like. In
England they are the _Archdeacon's Court_, _the Consistory Courts_, _the
Court of Arches_, _the Court of Peculiars_, _the Prerogative Courts of the
two archbishops_, _the Faculty Court_, and _the Privy Council_, which is
the court of appeal, though its jurisdiction may by Order in Council be
transferred to the new Court of Appeal. No separate ecclesiastical courts
existed in England before the Norman Conquest, but by a charter of William
I a distinction was made between courts civil and courts ecclesiastical. In
Scotland the ecclesiastical courts are the _Kirk-session_, _Presbytery_,
_Synod_, _General Assembly_ (which is the supreme tribunal as regards
doctrine and discipline), and the _Teind Court_, consisting of the judges
of the Court of Session, which has jurisdiction in all matters affecting
the teinds of a parish. In the Isle of Man ecclesiastical courts still
have, as formerly in England, jurisdiction in probate and matrimonial
cases.

ECCLESIASTICAL LAW may, in the broad sense of the term, be taken to include
the regulations existing in any Church or sect, however small, for the
formation of its own polity and for the control of its members. It is,
however, more generally applied to those legal bonds which exist between
Established Churches and the State. The Roman Catholic Church claims to be
the one and only true Church, regards her laws as being of universal
application, and herself as an equal with the State; nevertheless she has,
in non-Catholic countries, no higher legal standing than any small and
obscure dissenting congregation, and is in this respect a 'free' Church.
Protestant ecclesiastical law claims no such sovereign power, and in no way
interferes with the State law. In England the Convocations of York and
Canterbury have no authority to change the law, their power being limited
to the making of recommendations. All changes in Church law are made by
Parliament. Laymen can be, and often are, officials of the ecclesiastical
courts. The civil law is subject to the canon law, above which is the
common law, with, yet higher, statute law. Over all is the nominal
supremacy of the Crown. Ecclesiastical law deals with such affairs and
property of the Church of England as ecclesiastical parishes, churches, and
matters matrimonial; but only so far as these are not controlled by common
or statute law. It has long ceased to have any practical control of the
laity. In Ireland, ecclesiastical law disappeared with the disestablishment
of the Church.

ECCLESIAS'TICUS, a book placed by Protestants and Jews among the apocryphal
scriptures. The author calls himself Jesus the son of Sirach, Originally
written in Hebrew, it was translated into Greek by the author's grandson in
the second century B.C. In 1896 fragments of four MSS. in the Hebrew
original were discovered in the _Geniza_, or hiding-place for worn out
copies of biblical books, in the synagogue at Cairo. Another fragment was
discovered in Palestine by Mrs. Agnes Lewis.--Cf. Schechter and Taylor,
_The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Portions of the Book Ecclesiasticus_.

['E]CHELLES, LES (l[=a]-z[=a]-sh[=a]l; 'the Ladders'), a village, France,
department of Savoie, 12 miles south-west of Chamb['e]ry, in a valley from
which egress at one end was formerly by means of ladders, but now by a
tunnel. Pop. 798.

['E]CHELON (esh'e-lon), a formation of successive and parallel units facing
in the same direction, each on a flank and to the rear of the unit in front
of it.

ECHENEIS, the type genus of a small family (Echeneididae) of aberrant
spiny-finned fishes, in which the first dorsal fin is modified into a
transversely ridged suctorial disc. See _Remora_.

ECHEVERIA (ech-e-v[=e]'ri-a), a genus of succulent plants, ord.
Crassulaceae (house-leek), chiefly natives of Mexico, but now cultivated in
European and other gardens and greenhouses, some for their flowers, others
for their foliage.

ECHIDNA ([=e]-kid'na), a genus of Australian toothless mammals, in size and
general appearance resembling a large hedgehog, excepting that the spines
are longer and the muzzle is protracted and slender, with a small aperture
at the extremity for the protraction of a long flexible tongue. The habits
of the Echidna are nocturnal; it burrows, having short strong legs with
five toes, and feeds on insects, which it catches by protruding its long
sticky tongue. It is nearly allied to the Ornithorhynchus, the two forming
a peculiar class of animals, having in their structure some peculiarities
at once of mammals, birds, and reptiles. In 1884 it was found that, as
Geoffrey St. Hilaire had suspected, the Echidna, the closely related
Proechidna of New Guinea, and the Ornithorhynchus constitute the lowest
sub-class of mammals, the Prototheria or Monotremata, which present many
reptilian characters. They possess a cloaca into which the intestine and
urinogenital ducts open and are oviparous. During the breeding season a
temporary pouch is formed, and into this the milk-glands open, but there
are no teats. The egg when laid is put into the pouch by the mother, and is
there hatched in a very immature state. It feeds by licking up the milk in
the pouch. Later on, the mother digs a burrow, where she leaves the young
at night, returning during the day to suckle it. One species (_E.
hystrix_), from its appearance is popularly known as the _porcupine
ant-eater_.

ECHINOCACTUS (e-k[=i]'-), a genus of cactaceous plants inhabiting Mexico
and South America, and remarkable for their peculiar forms, being globular,
oblong, or cylindrical, and without leaves, fluted and ribbed, with stiff
spines clustered on woolly cushions. Some of them are very bulky. The
flowers are large and showy. See _Cactus_.

ECHINOCOCCUS, the very large compound cyst which forms the bladder-worm
stage in the life-history of a small tapeworm (_Taenia echinococcus_)
living in the intestine of the dog. The cysts are found in various
abdominal organs of herbivorous animals, and sometimes infest human beings,
especially in Iceland.

ECHINODERMATA (e-k[=i]-n[=o]-d[.e]r'ma-ta), a phylum or sub-kingdom of
invertebrate animals characterized by having a tough integument in which
lime is deposited in scattered plates (sea-cucumber), flexibly articulated
plates (star-fishes), or so as to form a rigid test or shell like that of
the sea-urchin; and by the radial arrangement of many of the parts of the
adult. Movable spines are commonly present. There is a system of tubes into
which seawater is admitted (ambulacral system), and commonly tube-feet,
that are put into use by being distended with fluid. Some of them, as the
encrinites or sea-lilies, are permanently fixed by a stalk when adult.
Their development is accompanied by metamorphosis, and the embryo shows a
distinctly bilateral aspect, though the radiate arrangement prevails in the
adult. By some they are classed with the Scolecida in the sub-kingdom
Annuloida. The phylum is divided into nine classes: Asteroidea
(star-fishes); Ophiuroidea (brittle-stars), Echinoidea (sea-urchins),
Holothuroidea (sea-cucumbers), Crinoidea (sea-lilies, feather-stars, the
latter free-moving), Thecoidea or Edrioasteroidea (extinct, stalkless but
fixed), Carpoidea (extinct, stalked), Cystoidea (extinct, stalked),
Blastoidea (extinct, stalked). All are marine.

ECHINOMYS, or SPINY RAT, a genus of South American rodent mammals
distinguished by the presence of spines among the coarse fur. The long tail
is covered by scales and hair intermixed, the ears are large, and all the
extremities possess five digits.

ECHINUS (e-k[=i]'nus), SEA-URCHIN, or SEA-EGG, a genus of marine animals,
the type of an order (Echinoidea) of the phylum Echinodermata (see above).
In this type the body is spheroidal and invested in a test or shell
composed of regularly arranged plates closely united together. It is
covered with movable spines articulated by ball-and-socket joints. The
mouth is situated in the centre of the under surface, and there is a
complicated masticatory apparatus (Aristotle's lantern) consisting of five
chisel-ended teeth supported by an elaborate framework. The anus is
similarly placed on the upper side, and is surrounded by a circlet of ten
plates (apical disc), one of which bears a furrowed tubercle (madreporite)
perforated by small holes through which water enters the water-vascular
system. Locomotion is effected by meridional rows of tube-feet, aided by
the spines. _E. esculentus_ and some other species are edible. See
_Sea-urchin_.

[Illustration: Echinus]

ECHINUS (e-k[=i]'nus), in architecture, the _ovolo_ or quarter-round convex
moulding, seen in capitals of the Doric order. It is especially frequently
found carved with the egg-and-dart ornament.

ECHO (ek'[=o]), the repetition of a sound caused by the reflection of
sound-waves from some surface, as the wall of a building. The echo may,
however, be very distinct when the reflecting surface is very irregular,
and it is probable that the resonance of the obstacles and the masses of
air which they enclose contribute in producing the echo. The waves of sound
on meeting the surface are turned back in their course according to the
same laws that hold for reflection of light. In order that the echo may
return to the place from which the sound proceeds, the reflection must be
direct, and not at an angle to the line of transmission, otherwise the echo
may be heard by others but not by the transmitter of the sound. This may be
effected either by a reflecting surface at right angles to the line of
transmission, or by several reflecting surfaces which in the end bring the
sound back to the point of issue. Sound travels about 1125 feet in a
second; consequently, an observer standing at half that distance from the
reflecting object would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such
an echo would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a
second. As the distance decreases, the echo repeats fewer syllables till it
becomes mono-syllabic. The most practised ear cannot distinguish in a
second more than from nine to twelve successive sounds, so that a distance
of not less than 60 feet is needed to enable an average ear to distinguish
between the echo and the original sounds. At a near distance the echo only
clouds the original sounds, and this often interferes with the hearing in
churches and other large buildings. Woods, rocks, and mountains produce
natural echoes in every variety, for which particular localities have
become famous.

ECHO, in Greek mythology, a mountain nymph (one of the Oreads). Legend
relates that by her talking she detained Hera, when the latter sought to
surprise Zeus among the mountain nymphs. To punish her the goddess deprived
her of speech, unless first spoken to. She subsequently fell in love with
Narcissus, and because he did not reciprocate her affection she pined away
until nothing was left but her voice.

ECHUCA (e-ch[:o]'ka), an Australian town, colony of Victoria, on the
Murray, over which is an iron railway and roadway bridge, connecting it
with Moama in New South Wales; trade (partly by the river) in timber and
wool. Pop. 4137.

['E]CIJA ([=a]-th[=e]-_h_[.a]), an ancient town of Southern Spain, province
of Seville, on the Genil, with manufactures of textile fabrics and a good
trade. It is one of the hottest places in Spain. Pop. 23,217.

ECK, Johann Maier von, the celebrated opponent of Luther, born in 1486,
died in 1543. Having obtained a reputation for learning and skill in
disputation, he was made doctor of theology, canon in Eichst[:a]dt, and
pro-chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt. He went to Rome in 1520,
and returned with a Papal bull against Luther, in attempting to publish
which he met with violent popular opposition. In 1530, while at the Diet of
Augsburg, he made the remarkable admission that he could confute the
Augsburg Confession by the fathers but not by the Scriptures. Eck was
present also at the Diets of Worms (1540) and Ratisbon (1541).

ECK'ERMANN, Johann Peter, German writer, born in 1792, died in 1854. In
1813 he served in the army against the French, and was afterwards appointed
to a small governmental post. He finally settled in Weimar, where he became
private secretary to Goethe. After Goethe's death he published his
_Conversations with Goethe_, a book which has been translated into all
European languages.

ECKM[:U]HL (ek'm[:u]l), a village of Bavaria, circle of Lower Bavaria, on
the Gross Laber, 13 miles S.S.E. of Ratisbon, the scene of a sanguinary
battle between the French and Austrians on 22nd April, 1809, in which the
latter were defeated.

ECLAMP'SIA, a medical term applied to convulsions that seem to be of an
epileptic character, but differ from true epilepsy as being due to some
special poison. The use of the term is now practically restricted to
puerperal eclampsia, convulsions occurring in pregnant women, generally
those suffering from kidney disease.

ECLEC'TICS (Gr. _eklektikos_, select) is a name given to all those
philosophers who do not follow one system entirely, but select what they
think the best parts of all systems. The system is called _eclecticism_. In
ancient philosophy Cicero was the most conspicuous representative of
eclecticism, and in modern times the eclectic method found a notable
supporter in the French philosopher Victor Cousin.

ECLIPSE (ek-lips'; Gr. _ekleipsis_, a failing, _ekleip[=o]_, I fail), an
interception or obscuration of the light of the sun, moon, or other
heavenly body by the intervention of another and non-luminous body. A star
or planet may be hidden by the moon; in this case the phenomenon is called
an occultation.

[Illustration: Diagrams illustrating the Theory of Eclipses]

_An Eclipse of the Moon_ is an obscuration of the light of the moon
occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon;
consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon. Further, the
moon's direction from the earth must make only a very small angle with the
axis of the earth's shadow, or line joining centres of sun and earth
produced. But as the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than 5deg with the
plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that though the moon is in
opposition it does not come within the shadow of the earth. The theory of
lunar eclipses will be understood from fig. 1, where S represents the sun,
E the earth, and M the moon. If the sun were a point of light, there would
be a sharp outlined shadow or _umbra_ only, but since the luminous surface
is so large there is always a region in which the light of the sun is only
partially cut off by the earth, which region is known as the _penumbra_ (P
P). Hence during a lunar eclipse the moon first enters the penumbra, then
is totally or partially immersed in the umbra, then emerges through the
penumbra again.

_An Eclipse of the Sun_ is an obscuration of the whole or part of the face
of the sun, occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth
and the sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new moon.
Fig. 2 is a diagram showing the cause of a solar eclipse. The dark or
central part of the moon's shadow, where the sun's rays are wholly
intercepted, is here the _umbra_, and the light part, where they are only
partially intercepted, is the _penumbra_; and it is evident that if a
spectator be situated on that part of the earth where the umbra falls,
there will be a total eclipse of the sun at that place; in the penumbra
there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra there will be no
eclipse. As the moon is not always at the same distance from the earth, and
as the moon is a comparatively small body, if an eclipse should happen when
the moon is so far from the earth that her shadow falls short of the earth,
a spectator situated on the earth in a direct line with the centres of the
sun and moon would see a ring of light round the dark body of the moon.
Such an eclipse is called _annular_, as shown in fig. 3; when this happens,
there can be no total eclipse anywhere. An eclipse can never be annular
longer than 12 minutes 24 seconds, nor total longer than 7 minutes 58
seconds. The longest possible entire duration of an eclipse of the sun is a
little over 4 hours.

An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc and ends on
the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of her
disc and ends on the western. The largest possible number of eclipses in a
year is seven, four of the sun and three of the moon, or five of the sun
and two of the moon. The smallest is two, both of the sun. But a solar
eclipse affects only a limited area of the earth, while a lunar eclipse is
visible from more than a terrestrial hemisphere, as the earth rotates
during its progress. Therefore at any given place eclipses of the moon are
more frequently visible than those of the sun.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Buchanan,
_The Theory of Eclipses_; W. T. Lynn, _Remarkable Eclipses_.

ECLIP'TIC, the sun's path, the great circle of the celestial sphere, in
which the sun appears to describe his annual course from west to
east--really corresponding to the path which the earth describes. (See
_Earth_.) The Greeks observed that eclipses of the sun and moon took place
near this circle; whence they called it the _ecliptic_. The ecliptic has
been divided into twelve equal parts, each of which contains 30deg, and
which are occupied by the twelve celestial signs, viz.:

  [Aries] Aries (the Ram), 21st March.
  [Taurus] Taurus (the Bull), 20th April.
  [Gemini] Gemini (the Twins), 21st May.
  [Cancer] Cancer (the Crab), 21st June.
  [Leo] Leo (the Lion), 23rd July.
  [Virgo] Virgo (the Virgin), 23rd Aug.
  [Libra] Libra (the Balance), 23rd Sept.
  [Scorpio] Scorpio (the Scorpion), 23rd Oct.
  [Sagittarius] Sagittarius (the Archer), 22nd Nov.
  [Capricornus] Capricornus (the Goat), 22nd Dec.
  [Aquarius] Aquarius (the Water-carrier), 20th Jan.
  [Pisces] Pisces (the Fishes), 19th Feb.

These are also called signs of the _zodiac_, the zodiac being a belt of the
heavens extending 9deg on each side of the ecliptic. The days of the month
annexed show when the sun, in its annual revolution, enters each of the
signs of the zodiac. From the First Point of Aries, or the place of the sun
at the vernal equinox, the degrees of the ecliptic are counted from west to
east. The plane of the ecliptic is that by which the position of the
planets and the latitude and longitude of the stars are reckoned. The axis
of the earth is not fixed in direction in space, but performs a slow
conical motion about the pole of the ecliptic in about 26,000 years. In
consequence of this the points at which the equator intersects the
ecliptic, viz. the First Point of Aries and First Point of Libra, recede
westwards upon the ecliptic at the rate of about 50 seconds a year. The
signs of the zodiac, therefore, do not now coincide, as they did some 2000
years ago, with the constellations of the same names, and the First Point
of Aries has now regressed through the greater part of the constellation
Pisces. The angle at which the ecliptic and equator are mutually inclined
is also variable, and has been diminishing for about 4000 years at the rate
of about 50 seconds in a century. Laplace gave a theory to show that this
variation has certain fixed limits, and that after a certain time the angle
will begin to increase again. See _Precession_ and _Nutation_.

ECLOGUE (ek'log), a term usually applied to what Theocritus called
_idyls_--short, highly finished poems, principally of a descriptive or
pastoral kind, and in which the loves of shepherds and shepherdesses are
described. Eclogues flourished among the ancients (_Bucolics_ of Virgil),
and, under the name of pastorals, were fashionable in the sixteenth
century, Spenser's _Shepherds' Calendar_ being a good example. They were
revived in the eighteenth century by Pope.

['E]COLE DES BEAUX ARTS ('School of Fine Arts'), the French Government
school of fine arts at Paris, founded by Mazarin in 1648, and provided with
an extensive staff of teachers. The competitions for the _grands prix de
Rome_ take place at this school. All artists between the ages of fifteen
and twenty-five, whether pupils of this school or not, may compete, after
passing two preliminary examinations. The successful competitors receive an
annual allowance from the State for three or four years, two of which must
be passed at Rome. The Palais des Beaux Arts, the home of the ['E]cole, was
begun in 1820 and finished in 1863.

['E]COLE NORMALE SUP['E]RIEURE ('Superior Normal School'), a school at
Paris for the training of those teachers who have the charge of the
secondary education in France, founded by decree of the Convention in 1794,
reorganized by Napoleon in 1808, and again in 1830 by the Government of
Louis-Philippe. By the decree of 1903 the school forms part of the
University of Paris. It maintains a hundred students and has a course of
three years' duration.

['E]COLE POLYTECHNIQUE ('Polytechnic School'), a school in Paris
established with the purpose of giving instruction in matters connected
with the various branches of the public service, such as mines, roads and
bridges, engineering, the army and the navy, and Government manufactures.
It was founded in 1794, and is under the direction of the Minister of War.
Candidates are admitted only by competitive examination, and have to pay
for their board 1000 francs a year. The pupils who pass satisfactory
examinations at the end of their course are admitted to that branch of
public service which they select.

ECOLOGY, or OECOLOGY, the study of the relations of plants to their
surroundings, a branch of plant geography.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horwood, _British
Wild-flowers_; Tansley, _Types of British Vegetation_; Warming, _Oecology_.

ECONOMICS is the name applied, in substitution for the older one of
political economy, to the scientific study of men in relation to the
production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The origin
of both names lies in the analogy between provision for the needs of a
household and for those of a State. To the former the term 'economy' was
originally applied, as in Xenophon's treatise on the subject. But it was
soon adopted to describe that branch of the art of government which dealt
with public revenue and expenditure, and a matter intimately connected
therewith, the enrichment of the community as a whole.

This conception of economics inspired all economic writings until late in
the eighteenth century, a typical example being Thomas Mun's _England's
Treasure by Foreign Trade_ (1664), containing an exposition of the
mercantile system which sought to increase natural wealth by regulation of
the balance of trade. The treatment of economics as a science had its
origin in the writings of the Physiocrats, a group of French philosophers
of whom Quesnay (1694-1774) was the most prominent, and with whom Turgot
(1727-81), the great minister of Louis XVI, held many doctrines in common.
The Physiocrats argued that the wealth of the community was raised to the
maximum, not by State regulation, but by entire freedom in the economic
sphere. But the chief importance of the Physiocrats lay in their paving the
way for Adam Smith (1723-90), who in 1776 published _The Wealth of
Nations_, a book which has exercised profound and widespread influence on
thought and action, and is still a leading authority on the subject. Adam
Smith definitely retained the conception of economics as part of the art of
government. "Political economy", he says, "proposes two distinct objects:
first, to provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... and
secondly, to supply the State or Commonweal with a revenue sufficient for
the public service. It proposes to enrich both the people and the
sovereign." But the book is also largely occupied with an investigation of
the production, distribution, and exchange of wealth when free from all
regulation and restriction, together with a powerful indictment of such
regulation. This doctrine of non-interference by the State came to be known
as the _laissez-faire_ doctrine, from a phrase used by Gournay, one of the
Physiocrats. Mainly through Adam Smith's influence, it became the orthodox
view of the State's relation to trade and industry. This meant that the
aims of economics, in its older sense, were best achieved without State
action at all; and, consequently, economics came to mean simply the study
of what are in fact men's activities in relation to wealth. This conception
is clearly expressed in such writers as Ricardo (1772-1823), whose
_Principles of Political Economy and Taxation_ enunciates the theory of
rent which has formed the basis of all subsequent reasoning on the subject,
and states a theory of wages which gave colour to Karl Marx's doctrine of
the exploitation of wage-earners by capitalists. It is also evident in the
work of Nassau Senior (1790-1864), in the important _Principles of
Political Economy_ of John Stuart Mill (1806-73), and is most fully
expressed by J. E. Cairnes (1823-78).

This conception has formed the basis of all modern economics, despite
important differences in the method of treating material. The modern view
of the matter is well stated by Dr. Alfred Marshall in his _Principles of
Economics_, a most important contribution to the subject, which has
exercised much influence. Economics he defines as "a study of mankind in
the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and
social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with
the rise of material requisites of well-being". The separation between
economics and the investigation of social phenomena in general is not so
rigidly maintained to-day as in the past. It is realized that men's
activities in relation to wealth are affected by other than purely economic
considerations, and that political, moral, religious, and aesthetic forces
must be taken into account. At the same time, the science deals only with
what is, and not with what ought to be done; and is therefore distinct from
_Ethics_, which is concerned with moral judgments. Of late years, interest
in the application of ethical considerations to economic problems has
increased considerably, using the conclusions of economic science as its
material, mainly in connection with problems of distribution, especially
wages. One of the most important of modern political movements, Socialism,
makes a just distribution of wealth the keynote of its doctrines. In so far
as man's conduct is studied in economics, the science is concerned with
psychological considerations; but it is distinct from _psychology_, taking
the principles thereof as data rather than establishing them as
conclusions. The traditional arrangement of the subject matter of economics
into the production, exchange, and distribution of wealth is still
maintained; but in recent years consumption, the end of almost all man's
productive activity, has received much attention, notably from W. S. Jevons
(1835-82) and Marshall. Important conceptions in this connection are those
of the _diminishing utility_ to an individual or group of individuals of
each successive increment of any commodity received beyond a certain point;
and of _consumer's surplus_, measured by the difference between the price a
person pays for a thing and what he would pay rather than go without it.
Any rigid distinction between the different branches of economics is,
however, impossible. For example, all processes of exchange may be
considered as part either of distribution or of production.

The central problem of economics is really that of how the exchange value
of commodities and services is determined; since in this determination all
the forces regulating production, distribution, and consumption are brought
to a focus, and their action and interaction can be investigated. The study
of value covers that of all forces affecting either the demand for or the
supply of a commodity, including its cost of production. On the side of
production, technical processes are not studied in detail, though some
knowledge of them is indispensable; but matters common to all production
are dealt with, such as the so-called _laws of increasing and diminishing_
return, which are statements of the relation between the amounts of labour,
land, and capital used in production, and the amount of product. Other
questions considered are transport, markets of all kinds, banking,
currency, finance, and trusts and combinations. The study of distribution
includes the methods by which wages, interest and profits, and rent are
determined; and since each of these is payment for a service (of labour,
capital, and land respectively) it is really an aspect of the study of
value. Distribution also covers such subjects as trade unionism,
co-operation, and labour disputes. Economics also deals with public finance
(including taxation), treating of the effects of different methods of
collecting and expending the State revenue. In considering the
above-mentioned subjects, the method of economics is strictly that of a
science, in that it aims partly at a descriptive analysis of material, and
partly at a statement of cause and effect. The laws of economics are, like
other scientific laws, statements of tendencies. They are not laws such as
the commands or prohibitions of the State, though they are often loosely
referred to in this way. That economics should be able to generalize and to
predict about the action of men is due to its dealing not with individuals,
but with large groups, so that individual peculiarities can be neglected
and the general characteristics of the group ascertained. It is in this
connection that considerable controversy has arisen. The older writers on
economics were mainly deductive in method, i.e. they took a few general
principles, such as that every man follows his own interest and knows where
that interest lies, and made certain assumptions, such as the existence of
free competition; and on this basis worked out a group of principles which
were sometimes quite unrelated to actual facts. This method is undoubtedly
a most powerful one, and of great value provided that the original
assumptions are kept clearly in mind, and variations from them in a
particular case allowed for in applying conclusions. But the unreality of
some of its results produced a reaction, of which an early instance is the
famous _Essay on the Principle of Population_ by T. R. Malthus, published
in 1798. This book inaugurated the rise of a school of economists who
treated their subject from an inductive and historical point of view. The
historians, who have been especially prominent in Germany, and of whom
representatives are Roscher (1817-94), de Laveleye (1822-92), and Cliffe
Leslie (1825-82), hold that economics should in the main be descriptive,
and not attempt to formulate laws. The inductive school, of whom J. S. Mill
is an important member, base their work upon more extensive investigation
than the older writers, and constantly test their conclusions by reference
to facts. Another important reaction against the early economists arose
from the identification of the latter with the doctrine of _laissez-faire_.
Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804) and Friedrich List (1789-1840) argued in
favour of an extension of State activity, especially for the purpose of
protecting industry against foreign competition, and may be considered the
fathers of modern protectionist doctrine. In most modern treatment of
economics, the deductive and inductive methods are employed side by side.
The study of economic history has developed as a separate branch, but
economists recognize that it provides them with much valuable material.
Important recent developments in method are the increased use of
statistics, made possible by their more widespread and careful compilation,
and the application of mathematical methods to economic data. It is
recognized that, with due care, many conceptions which are with difficulty
expressed in words can be treated on mathematical lines to yield results of
great service. In this work the researches of Italian writers, such as
Pantaleoni and Pareto, are of conspicuous importance.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. C.
Pigou, _Wealth and Welfare_; _Preferential and Protective Import Duties_;
E. Cannan, _Wealth_; J. N. Keynes, _Scope and Method of Political Economy_;
G. Cassel, _Nature and Necessity of Interest_; W. Smart, _Distribution of
Income_; C. R. Fay, _Co-operation_; A. Andreades, _History of the Bank of
England_; H. Levy, _Monopoly and Competition_; C. F. Bastable, _Public
Finance_.

['E]CRASEUR is a wire loop or chain for amputating a growth suitably
situated for such an instrument. The chain is passed round the base or
pedicle of the growth, and gradually tightened by a screw till the growth
falls off. Its application in surgery is limited.

ECTOCARPACEAE, a family of Brown Algae, section Phaeosporeae. The typical
genus is Ectocarpus, comprising small, branched, filamentous plants of salt
or brackish water. According to the species, growth of the filaments may be
apical, intercalary, or common to all cells, whereas among the more
advanced members of the Brown Algae either apical or intercalary growth is
characteristic of entire families. The gametes show every gradation from
complete similarity (isogamy) to a condition like that of Cutleria.

ECUADOR (ek-w[.a]-d[=o]r') (_Republica Del Ecuador_), a republic of South
America, situated under the equator, whence it takes its name, between Peru
and Colombia. It is of triangular shape, its base resting on the Pacific,
but the boundaries between it and its neighbours are not very definitely
fixed; estimated area, about 116,000 sq. miles. The state has still a
boundary dispute with Peru, that with Colombia having been settled by
treaty in 1917. The country is divided into fifteen provinces, one
territory--'El Oriente'--and the Archipelago of Galapagos, officially
called 'Colon'. It falls, as regards the surface, into three sections: the
comparatively narrow and low-lying coast regions, the mountain region, and
the extensive plains on the east. The mountain region is formed by a double
range of snow-clad mountains--several of them active volcanoes--which
enclose a longitudinal valley or tableland, with a breadth of 20 to 40
miles, and varying in elevation from 8500 to 13,900 feet. The most elevated
of these mountains are, in the western range, Chimborazo, Pichincha, and
Cotacachi, Chimborazo being 20,703 feet high. In the eastern range are
Cayambe, Antisana, and Cotopaxi (19,500 feet). The cultivated land and the
population of Ecuador lie chiefly in this elevated region, which extends
along between the summits of the Cordillera, and may be considered as
divided by transverse ridges or dikes into the valleys of Quito, Hambato,
and Cuenca. The chief towns here are Quito, the capital, with a pop. of
70,000, Riobamba, and Cuenca, all situated at a height of 9000 feet or more
above the sea. The chief ports of Ecuador are Guayaquil and Esmeraldas. The
most considerable rivers, the Tigre, Napo, Pastaza, &c., belong to the
basin of the Amazon; and some of them, notably the Napo, are navigable for
long distances. On the western slope of the Andes the chief rivers are the
Esmeraldas and the Guayaquil. Ecuador is comparatively poor in Mammalia;
although various kinds of deer as well as tapirs and peccaries are found in
the forests. Parrots and humming-birds are also numerous, but perhaps the
most remarkable of the birds in Ecuador is the condor, which dwells on the
slopes of the Andes. Reptiles, including serpents, are numerous. The
forests yield cinchona bark, caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, and vegetable ivory.
The climate on the plains, both in the east and the west, is moist, hot,
and unhealthy. In the higher regions the climate is rough and cold, but in
great part the elevated valleys, as that of Quito, enjoy a delightful
climate. Here the chief productions are potatoes, barley, wheat, and
European fruits. In the lower regions are grown all the food-products of
tropical climates, cocoa, coffee, and sugar. The foreign commerce is not
large, the exports and imports being annually about L2,700,000 and
L1,670,000 respectively. In 1919 the imports from Ecuador to the United
Kingdom amounted to L1,257,350, and the exports to Ecuador to L373,346.
Cocoa forms three-fourths (or more) of the whole export; the remainder is
made up of tagua or ivory-nuts, rubber, straw hats, coffee, and gold. A
little gold is mined, and Panama hats are made. The State recognizes no
religion, but grants freedom of worship to all. A system of education was
organized in 1897 and improved in 1912. There are three universities: the
Central University, at Quito; the Guayas University, in Guayaquil; and the
Azuay University, in Cuenca. There are schools for higher education and
primary schools. The executive government is vested in a President elected
for four years, who is assisted by a Council of State. The Congress is the
legislative body, and consists of two Houses, one formed of Senators, two
for each province, the other of Deputies, one for every 30,000 inhabitants,
both elected by universal suffrage. The Congress has extensive privileges,
and cannot be dissolved by the President. The seat of government is Quito.
In 1920 both the revenue and expenditure amounted to nearly L2,000,000. The
debt amounts to about L5,620,000. The monetary standard is gold, the gold
_condor_ of ten _sucres_ being equivalent to a sovereign. The metric system
of weights and measures is the legal one. Railways and telegraphs have made
little progress.--Ecuador at the time of the conquest of Peru by the
Spaniards formed part of the great empire of the Incas. As the Presidency
of Quito it was long included in the Vice-Royalty of Peru. From 1710 it
became part of the Presidency of New Granada (or Santa F['e] de Bogot['a]).
In the revolutionary war against Spain, Ecuador, along with the
neighbouring territories, secured its independence (1822), and was
ultimately erected into a separate Republic in 1831. The present
Constitution of the Republic was promulgated on 6th May, 1906. Of the
present population, the aboriginal red race form more than half; the rest
are negroes, mulattoes, mestizoes, a degenerate breed of mixed negro and
Indian blood, and Spanish Creoles or whites. The last-named are the chief
possessors of the land, but are deficient in energy. Pop. (estimated)
2,000,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Garcia-Calderon, _Latin America: its Rise and
Progress_; C. R. Enock, _Ecuador_; T. H. Stabler, _Travels in Ecuador_.

ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, a general ecclesiastical council regarded as
representing the whole Christian world or the universal Church; specially
applied to the general councils of the early Christian Church, beginning
with that of Nicaea in 325, and later to those of the Roman Catholic
Church, of which the most recent was the Vatican Council at Rome in 1870.

EC'ZEMA is a skin eruption marked by the appearance of papules or vesicles
and accompanied by irritation of the affected part, frequently very severe.
The characteristic watery discharge of the disease is produced by the
bursting of the vesicles. There is difference of opinion among
dermatologists as to whether or not it is primarily caused by germs.
Various predisposing causes, like digestive disturbances, anaemia, and
nervous disorders are important factors in determining the course of the
disease. Eczema may affect practically any part of the skin, but is most
frequently seen on the scalp, ears, face, hands, nipples, armpits, and the
genital regions.

ED'AM, a town of North Holland, near the Zuider Zee, 12 miles N.N.E. of
Amsterdam, noted for its cheese markets; but 'Edam cheese' is mostly made
elsewhere. Pop. 6623.

EDDA (meaning 'great-grandmother'), the name given to two ancient
collections of Icelandic literature, the one consisting of mythological
poems, the other being mainly in prose. The first of these collections,
called the _Elder_ or _Poetic Edda_, was compiled in the thirteenth
century, and discovered in 1643 by Brynjulf Sveinsson, an Icelandic bishop.
For a long time an earlier date was given, the compiler being erroneously
believed to have been Saemund Sigfusson, a learned Icelandic clergyman, who
lived from about 1056 to 1133. It consists of thirty-three pieces, written
in alliterative verse, and comprising epic tales of the Scandinavian gods
and goddesses, and narratives dealing with the Scandinavian heroes. These
poems are now assigned to a period extending from the ninth to the eleventh
century. The _Prose Edda_, or _Younger Edda_, presents a kind of prose
synopsis of the Northern mythology; a treatise on the Scaldic poetry and
versification, with rules and examples; and lastly a poem (with a
commentary) in honour of Haco of Norway (died 1263). In its earliest forms
this collection is ascribed to Snorri Sturlason, who was born in Iceland in
1178, and was assassinated there in 1241 on his return from Norway, where
he had been scald or court poet. Cf. S. Bugge, _Home of the Eddic Poems_.

EDDY, Mary Baker, founder of Christian Science (q.v.), born at Bow, New
Hampshire, United States, 16th July, 1821, died 3rd Dec., 1910. She was
married three times, to Mr. Glover, Mr. Patterson, and Mr. Asa Gilbert
Eddy, all of whom she survived. She began to teach her system of
psychotherapeutics in 1866, and founded the first Christian Science Church
in Boston in 1879. In 1881 she established the Metaphysical College at
Massachusetts. Her works, besides _Science and Health with Key to the
Scriptures_, include: _Unity of God_, _No and Yes_, _Pulpit and Press_,
_The First Church of Christ_, _Christian Science versus Pantheism_.--Cf. G.
Milmine, _Life of M. B. G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science_.

EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, a lighthouse in the English Channel, erected to mark
a group of rocks lying in the fair-way from the Start to the Lizard. The
rocks are covered only at the flood. The first lighthouse was of wood, and
built by Henry Winstanley in 1696. It was carried away in the storm of
1703. Another lighthouse, also of wood, was built in 1709 by Rudyerd, but
was burned down in 1755. It was succeeded by one built by Smeaton between
1757 and 1759, a circular tower 85 feet high; but, as the foundations on
which it stood became much weakened, a new structure, designed by Sir J. N.
Douglass, was built between 1879 and 1882 on the neighbouring reef. Its
light is visible 17-1/2 miles.

EDELWEISS ([=a]-d[.e]l-v[=i]s; Ger., 'noble white'), _Leontopodium
alp[=i]num_, a composite plant inhabiting the Alps, and often growing in
the most inaccessible places. Its flower-heads are surrounded by a
spreading foliaceous woolly involucre, and its foliage is also of the same
woolly character. It is not difficult to cultivate, but is apt to lose its
peculiar woolly appearance.

E'DEN (Heb. _eden_, delight), the original abode of the first human pair.
It is said to have had a garden in the eastern part of it, and we are told
that a river went out of Eden to water this garden, and from thence it was
parted into four heads, which were called respectively Pison, Gihon,
Hiddekel, and Euphrates (Phrat), but this does not enable us to identify
the locality. It was not the whole of Eden that was assigned to man for his
first habitation, but the part towards the east, to which the translators
of the Authorized Version have given the name of the Garden of Eden, and
which Milton, in _Paradise Lost_, calls Paradise, that word (originally
Persian) having in its Greek form (_paradeisos_) been applied to the Garden
of Eden by the translators of the _Septuagint_.

EDEN, a river in England, in Westmorland and Cumberland, falling into the
Solway Firth after a course of 65 miles.--Also, a river in Fifeshire,
Scotland.

EDENTA'TA ([=e]-), or TOOTHLESS ANIMALS, the name applied to a primitive
order of mammals mostly native to the neotropical region, but also
represented in South Africa and South Asia. The body is often covered by
horny scales or bony plates, the digits are clawed, and the teeth either
imperfect or absent altogether. I. New World forms.--(1) _Ant-eaters._
Toothless, with long narrow snout, and protrusible tongue. Covered with
dense fur. The great ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jubata_) lives on the
ground; the much smaller Tamandua and Cycloturus are arboreal. (2)
_Sloths._ Toothed arboreal leaf-eaters, covered by coarse fur, and provided
with very strong curved claws, by which they hang upside down from
branches. The three-toed sloth (Bradypus) has three digits in the
fore-limb, the two-toed sloth (Cholaepus) only two. (3) _Armadillos._
Burrowing forms protected by a strong carapace of bony plates, and
possessing numerous imperfect teeth. (4) _Extinct types._ The so-called
ground sloths were of large size, Megatherium being nearly as large as an
elephant, and Mylodon not much smaller. Glossodon, allied to the latter,
survived into the human period. Glyptodon resembled a gigantic armadillo.
II. Old World forms.--(1) The _aard-vark_ (Orycteropus) is a burrowing
African form about the size of a pig, covered with coarse hair; long ears
and snout; 20 imperfect grinding teeth. (2) _Scaly ant-eaters_ or
_pangolins_ (Manis), native to South Africa and South Asia, are toothless
forms not unlike the American ant-eaters in build, but the body is covered
dorsally and laterally by large overlapping scales.

EDES'SA, the name of two ancient cities.--1. The ancient capital of
Macedonia, and the burial-place of its kings, now _Vodhena_. It is probably
the same as the still more ancient Aegae. Philip II was murdered at Edessa
in 336 B.C.--2. An important city in the north of Mesopotamia, which,
subsequent to the establishment of Christianity, became celebrated for its
theological schools. In 1098, in the first Crusade, Edessa came into the
hands of Baldwin, but ultimately became part of the Turkish Empire. It is
thought to be the modern Urfah or Orfa.

EDFU, or EDFOO' (ancient APOLLINOPOLIS), a village in Upper Egypt, province
of Assouan, on the left bank of the Nile, with manufactures of cottons and
pottery. Its ancient magnificence is attested by several remains,
especially a temple, founded by Ptolemy Philopator (181-145 B.C.), the
largest in Egypt after those of Karnak and Luxor. Pop. 12,594.

ED'GAR (_the Peaceful_), one of the most distinguished of the Saxon Kings
of England, was the son of King Edmund I. He succeeded to the throne in
959, and managed the civil and military affairs of his kingdom with great
vigour and success. In ecclesiastical affairs he was guided by Dunstan,
Archbishop of Canterbury, and he was a great patron of the monks. He died
in 975, and was succeeded by his son Edward the Martyr.

EDGAR ATHELING, grandson of Edmund Ironside and son of Edward the Outlaw,
was born in Hungary, where his father had been conveyed in infancy to
escape the designs of Canute. After the battle of Hastings, Edgar (who had
been brought to England in 1057) was proclaimed King of England by the
Saxons, but made peace with William and accepted the earldom of Oxford.
Having been engaged in some conspiracy against the king, he was forced to
seek refuge in Scotland, where his sister Margaret became the wife of
Malcolm Canmore. Edgar subsequently was reconciled to William and was
allowed to live at Rouen, where a pension was assigned to him. In 1097,
with the sanction of William Rufus, he undertook an expedition to Scotland
for the purpose of displacing the usurper Donald Bane, in favour of his
nephew Edgar, son of Malcolm Canmore, and in this object he succeeded. He
afterwards took part in Duke Robert's unsuccessful struggle with Henry I,
but was allowed to spend the remainder of his life quietly in England.

EDGEHILL, a ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles north-west of Banbury,
where was fought a fierce but indecisive battle on 23rd Oct., 1642, between
the Royalists under Charles I and the forces of the Parliament under the
Earl of Essex.

EDGEWORTH, Maria, Irish novelist, born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, 1st
Jan., 1767, died 22nd May, 1849, at Edgeworthstown. She was the daughter of
Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1744-1817) of Edgeworthstown, County Longford,
Ireland. Her first novel, _Castle Rackrent_, a tale of Irish life,
published in 1800, immediately established her reputation. Her later works
include: _Belinda_, _Moral Tales_, _Leonora_, _Popular Tales_, _Tales of
Fashionable Life_, _Patronage_, _Harrington_, _Ormond_, and _Helen_,
besides an _Essay on Irish Bulls_, and a work on _Practical Education_,
largely based on Rousseau's _['E]mile_. Miss Edgeworth's characteristics
are a simple and lucid style and considerable power of observation, but she
was not a great creative artist.

ED'INBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, and one of the finest as well as
most ancient cities in the British Empire, lies within 2 miles of the south
shore of the Firth of Forth. It is picturesquely situated, being built on
three eminences which run in a direction from east to west, and surrounded
on all sides by lofty hills except on the north, where the ground slopes
gently towards the Firth of Forth. The central ridge, which constituted the
site of the ancient city, is terminated by the castle on the west, situated
on a high rock, and by Holyrood House on the east, not far from which rise
the lofty elevations of Salisbury Crags, Arthur's Seat (822 feet high), and
the Calton Hill overlooking the city. The valley to the north, once the
North Loch, but now drained and traversed by the North British Railway,
leads to the New Town on the rising ground beyond, a splendid assemblage of
streets, squares, and gardens. The houses here, all built of a beautiful
white freestone found in the neighbourhood, are comparatively modern and
remarkably handsome. The principal streets of the New Town are Princes
Street, George Street, and Queen Street. From Princes Street, which is
lined by fine gardens adorned with Sir W. Scott's monument and other
notable buildings, a magnificent view of the Old Town with its picturesque
outline may be obtained. The principal street of the Old Town is that which
occupies the crest of the ridge on which the latter is built, and which
bears at different points the names of Canongate, High Street, Lawnmarket,
and Castle Hill. This ancient and very remarkable street is upwards of one
mile in length, rising gradually with a regular incline from a small plain
at the east end of the town, on which stands the palace of Holyrood, and
terminating in the huge rock on which the castle is built, 437 feet above
sea-level. The houses are lofty and of antique appearance. Amongst the
notable buildings are the ancient Parliament House, since the Union the
seat of the supreme courts of Scotland; St. Giles' Church or Cathedral, an
imposing edifice in the later Gothic style, dating from the fourteenth
century and carefully restored between 1879 and 1883; the Tron Church;
Victoria Hall (where the General Assembly of the Established Church meets),
with a fine spire; and also John Knox's House, besides some of the old
family houses of the Scottish nobility and other buildings of antiquarian
interest. From this main street descend laterally in regular rows numerous
narrow lanes called _closes_, many of them extremely steep, and very few at
their entrances more than 6 feet wide; those which are broader, and admit
of the passage of carriages, are called _wynds_. In these and the adjacent
streets the houses are frequently more than 120 feet in height, and divided
into from six to ten stories, or _flats_, the communication between which
is maintained by broad stone stairs, winding from the lowest part of the
building to the top. In the Old Town the most remarkable public building is
the castle, an extensive mass, of which the oldest portion--and the oldest
building in the city--is St. Margaret's Chapel, the private oratory of the
Saxon princess Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore; another portion being a
lofty range of old buildings, in a small apartment of which Queen Mary gave
birth to James VI in 1566; while in an adjoining apartment are kept the
ancient regalia of Scotland. Here is also the old Parliament Hall, restored
during 1888 and 1889. The castle as a fortress contains accommodation for
2000 soldiers, and the armoury space for 30,000 stand of arms. An old piece
of ordnance built of staves of malleable iron, cask fashion, and known as
_Mons Meg_, stands conspicuous in an open area. The palace of Holyrood, or
Holyrood House as it is more generally called, stands, as already
mentioned, at the lower or eastern extremity of the street leading to the
castle. No part of the present palace is older than the time of James V
(1528), while the greater portion of it dates only from the time of Charles
II. In the north-west angle of the building are the apartments which were
occupied by Queen Mary, nearly in the same state in which they were left by
that unfortunate princess. Adjoining the palace are the ruins of the chapel
belonging to the Abbey of Holyrood, founded in 1128 by David I. On the
south side of the Old Town, and separated from it also by a hollow crossed
by two bridges (the South Bridge and George IV Bridge), stands the
remaining portion of the city, which, with the exception of a few
unimportant streets, is mostly modern. Besides the buildings already
noticed, Edinburgh possesses a large number of important edifices and
institutions, chief amongst which are the Royal Institution (accommodating
the Royal Society and other bodies), a beautiful Grecian building; the
National (Picture) Gallery, another fine building in the Greek style, the
two buildings standing on a conspicuous site between East and West Princes
Street Gardens; the National Portrait Gallery, a building due to private
munificence and accommodating also the National Museum of Antiquities; the
Museum of Science and Art; the Episcopal Cathedral of St. Mary's, one of
the largest religious edifices of modern times; the university buildings,
including those of the medical department, standing apart from the others;
the infirmary buildings; the high school, register office, and others.
Amongst the more prominent educational institutions are the university, the
high school, the academy, the United Free Church New College, the Edinburgh
School of Medicine (connected with the Royal College of Physicians and the
Royal College of Surgeons), Medical College for Women, College of
Agriculture, the Edinburgh Veterinary College, Fettes College, the
Heriot-Watt College, normal schools, technical, commercial, and other
institutions, and endowed secondary schools. The Advocates' Library, the
largest in Scotland, contains upwards of 550,000 printed volumes and 3000
MSS.; the university library, 200,000; the library of Writers to the
Signet, 100,000. There is also a rate-supported public library in a
building erected at the expense of the late Andrew Carnegie. Printing,
bookbinding, coach-building, type-founding, machine-making, the making of
rubber goods, furniture-making, ale-brewing on a very large scale, and
distilling are the principal industries. Edinburgh is the head-quarters of
the book trade in Scotland, and the seat of the chief Government
departments. It is a great resort of tourists and other travellers. On
account of its picturesque and commanding situation and its literary fame,
Edinburgh is often called the 'Modern Athens'. The origin of Edinburgh is
uncertain. Its name is by many thought to be derived from Eadwinsburh, the
Burgh of Edwin, a powerful Northumbrian king of the early seventh century,
who absorbed the Lothians in his rule. The town was made a royal burgh in
the time of David I; but it was not till the fifteenth century that it
became the recognized capital of Scotland, and from that time it was the
scene of many important events in Scottish history. The city is now
governed by a council, which elects from its members a Lord Provost, a city
treasurer, and seven bailies. It returns five members to Parliament, and
within the municipal boundaries are included Portobello, Granton, Liberton,
Duddingston, and since 1920 also the port of Leith. Pop.
420,281.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Gillies, _Edinburgh, Past and Present_; M. O.
Oliphant, _Royal Edinburgh, Her Saints, Kings, Prophets, and Poets_;
W. H. O. Smeaton, _Edinburgh and its Story_; H. E. Maxwell, _Edinburgh: a
Historical Study_.

EDINBURGH, COUNTY OF, or MIDLOTHIAN, is bounded north by the Firth of
Forth, along which it extends 11 or 12 miles; and by the counties of
Linlithgow, Haddington, Berwick, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, and Roxburgh;
area, 234,926 acres, over half of which is arable or under permanent
pasture. The south-south-east and south-west parts of the county are
diversified with hills, of which the two principal ranges are the Pentlands
and Moorfoots, the former stretching across the county to within 4 miles of
Edinburgh. The principal rivers are the North and South Esks and the Water
of Leith, all running into the Forth. The lowlands towards the Forth are
the most fertile; the farms are of considerable size, and the most approved
methods of agriculture are in use. The hilly parts are chiefly under
pasturage and dairy farming. The chief crops are oats, barley, turnips, and
potatoes. The manufactures are comparatively limited, but include ale,
whisky, gunpowder, paper, and tiles. The fisheries are valuable. The chief
towns are: Edinburgh, Dalkeith, and Musselburgh. Midlothian and Peebles
return two members to Parliament. Pop. 506,378.

EDINBURGH, DUKE OF, H.R.H. Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, K.G., K.T., K.P.,
&c., Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second son of Queen Victoria, was born
at Windsor Castle, 6th Aug., 1844, died in 1900. At the age of fourteen he
joined the navy as naval cadet, and served on various foreign stations. In
1862 he declined the offer of the throne of Greece. On his majority he
received L15,000 a year from Parliament, and was created Duke of Edinburgh,
Earl of Kent, and Earl of Ulster. In 1867 he was appointed to the command
of the frigate _Galatea_, in which he visited Australia, Japan, China, and
India. In 1873 he received an additional annuity of L10,000, and next year
he married the Grand-Duchess Marie, only daughter of the Emperor of Russia.
In 1882 he was made a vice-admiral, and subsequently held important
commands. In 1898 he succeeded his uncle as ruler of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and
resigned L15,000 of his annuity and his other privileges as an English
prince, but retained his rank of admiral. He had one son (who predeceased
him) and four daughters. He was succeeded as Duke of Saxe-Coburg by his
nephew, Leopold Charles, Duke of Albany.

EDINBURGH REVIEW, THE, a quarterly review established in 1802. It had an
immediate and striking success, the brilliancy and vigour of its articles
being much above the standard of the periodical literature of that time. In
politics it was Whig, and did good service to the party. The _Review_ was
founded by a knot of young men living in Edinburgh, the more prominent of
whom were Brougham, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, and Francis Horner. It was
edited from 1803 to 1829 by Jeffrey, under whom it was very successful. In
reply to his criticisms Byron wrote his _English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers_. Among the famous contributors to the _Review_ were Lord
Macaulay, Lord John Russell, and John Stuart Mill.

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY, the latest of the Scottish universities, was founded
in 1582 by a charter granted by James VI. The number of professors and
other teachers is now over 240. The university is a corporation consisting
of a chancellor, rector, principal, professors, registered graduates and
alumni, and matriculated students. Its government is administered by the
University Court, the Senatus Academicus, and the General Council, as in
the other Scottish universities, in all of which new ordinances have been
introduced under the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889. The University
Court, which is the supreme governing body of the university, consists of
the rector, who is president, the principal, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh,
and eleven assessors. The Senatus superintends the teaching and discipline
of the university, and consists of the principal and professors. The
General Council consists of the chancellor, who is president, the members
of the University Court and Senatus, and the graduates of the university.
It takes cognizance of matters generally affecting the well-being of the
university. The chancellor is the official head of the university, and it
is through him or his deputy, the vice-chancellor, that degrees are
conferred. He is elected for life by the General Council. The principal is
the resident head of the university and president of the Senatus, and is
appointed for life (at Edinburgh by a body called the 'Curators', elsewhere
by the Crown). The lord rector is elected for three years by the
matriculated students. There are six faculties in the university, viz.
arts, science, divinity, law, medicine, and music. Some of the professors
are appointed by the Crown, others by special electors, and a considerable
number by the curators, who represent the university court and the town
council. The number of students in 1919-20 was over 4300. Candidates for
degrees in the different faculties must now pass an entrance examination
before attendance upon classes. Women are admitted to all courses and
degrees, equally with men, except in the faculty of divinity. Those
desirous of taking the degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) must attend classes
and pass examinations in at least seven subjects, selected from four
departments, viz. language and literature, mental philosophy, science,
history and law, the course of study extending over three academic years at
least. There is a considerable restriction in choice of subjects, since
four of them must be (_a_) Latin or Greek; (_b_) English or a Modern
Language; (_c_) Logic or Moral Philosophy; (_d_) Mathematics or Natural
Philosophy; and the whole subjects must include both of (_a_) or both of
(_c_), or two out of the three--mathematics, natural philosophy, and
chemistry. Four medical degrees are conferred: Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.),
Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B.), Master of Surgery (Ch.M.), and Doctor of
Medicine (M.D.). Before any of these degrees can be obtained the candidate
must have been engaged in medical study for at least five years. The
degrees in law are Bachelor of the Law (B.L.), Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.),
and Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), the last being purely honorary. In divinity the
degrees are Bachelor and Doctor of Divinity (B.D. and D.D.), the latter
being honorary. In science the degrees are likewise Bachelor and Doctor
(B.Sc. and D.Sc.), both conferred in the three departments of pure science,
engineering, and public health. There is also a B.Sc. in agriculture. The
degree of Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) is conferred for proficiency in
mental science, and that of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) for proficiency in
literary, philological, and linguistic studies. The degrees of Bachelor and
Doctor of Music (Mus.B. and Mus.D.) are also conferred. There is a joint
board of examiners for the four Scottish universities, having the control
and supervision of the preliminary examinations. The university has
splendid laboratories and museums. The foundation stone of a new science
laboratory was laid by King George on 6th July, 1920. The library contains
200,000 volumes. There are bursaries, scholarships, and fellowships,
amounting annually to about L12,500. Since 1918 the University of Edinburgh
unites with the other Scottish universities in returning three members to
Parliament. The constituency consists of the General
Council.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Kerr, _Scottish Education, School and
University, from Early Times to 1908_; _University Calendar_; Sir Alex.
Grant, _The Story of the University of Edinburgh from Early Times to 1908_.

ED'ISON, Thomas Alva, an American inventor, born in Ohio in 1847. He was
poorly educated, became a newsboy on the Grand Trunk Railway, and
afterwards, having obtained some type, issued a small sheet of his own
known as the _Grand Trunk Herald_, printing it in a freight car. He then
set himself to learn telegraph work, and in a short time became an expert
operator. In 1863, while at Indianopolis, he invented an automatic
telegraph repeater. This was the first of a long series of improvements and
inventions. He opened an extensive establishment at Newark for the
manufacture of electrical, printing, automatic, and other apparatus. In
1876, his health breaking down, he gave up manufacturing and devoted
himself to investigation and invention. Amongst his numerous inventions are
the quadruplex and sextuplex telegraph, the carbon telephone transmitter,
the 'Edison system' of lighting, the electric fire-alarm, the 'Edison
electric railway', the phonograph, and the megaphone. His improvements in
the cinematograph made it practicable, though he did not originate the idea
of it.

ED'MONTON, an urban district and parliamentary borough in England, county
of Middlesex, 7-1/2 miles north of London, with an extensive trade in
timber, carried on by the Lea River navigation. The 'Bell at Edmonton' has
become famous by association with the adventures of Cowper's _John Gilpin_.
The borough returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 64,820.

EDMONTON, a town of North-Western Canada, on the North Saskatchewan (here
navigable). Since 1905 it is the capital of the province of Alberta, and
has grown considerably in recent years. It is an important station on the
Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific, and Canadian Northern railway
systems, and is the distributing centre of an immense area, being also the
centre of an excellent farming district. Easily-mined coal is worked here.
Pop, 61,000.

ED'MUND, ST., King of the East Angles, began to reign in 855, died in 870.
He was revered by his subjects for his justice and piety. In 870 his
kingdom was invaded, and he himself slain, by the Danes. The Church made
him a martyr, and a town (Bury St. Edmunds) grew up round the place where
he was buried.

EDMUND I, King of England, an able and spirited prince, succeeded his
brother Athelstan in 940. He conquered Cumbria, which he bestowed on
Malcolm, King of Scotland, on condition of doing homage for it to himself.
He was slain at a banquet 26th May, 946.

EDMUND II, surnamed _Ironside_, King of England, the eldest son of Ethelred
II, was born in 989. He was chosen king in 1016, Canute having been already
elected king by another party. He won several victories over Canute, but
was defeated at Assandun in Essex, and forced to surrender the midland and
northern counties to Canute. He died after a reign of only seven months.

EDOM, in the New Testament _Idumaea_, in ancient times a country lying to
the south of Palestine. The Edomites are said in _Genesis_ to be the
descendants of Esau, who was also called Edom (a word signifying 'red'),
and who dwelt in Mount Seir, the mountain range now called _Jebel Shera_,
stretching between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah. Edom is frequently
mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. The Edomites were subdued by King
David, and after the separation of the ten tribes remained subject to the
Kingdom of Judah until the reign of Jehoram, when they revolted and secured
their independence for a time. They were again subdued about half a century
later by Amaziah, and again, in the reign of Ahaz, recovered their
independence, which they maintained till the time of the invasion of Judea
by Nebuchadnezzar. They fell under the rule of the Persians, and afterwards
their fortunes were merged in those of Arabia. The chief city in this
region was Petra, which now presents remarkable ruins, as well as several
rock-cut temples.

EDRED, King of England, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded to the throne on
the murder of his brother, Edmund I, in May, 946. He quelled a rebellion of
the Northumbrian Danes, and died in 955.

[Illustration: Edriophthalmata

1, Fresh-water shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_). _a_, Single eye. 2, Head of
Cymothoa. _b_, Clusters of simple eyes.]

EDRIOPHTHAL'MATA, one of the great divisions of the Crustacea, including
all those genera which have their eyes sessile, or embedded in the head,
and not fixed on a peduncle or stalk as in the crabs, lobsters, &c. It is
divided into two orders. (1) Amphipoda, laterally flattened, as in the
marine sandhopper (Talitrus), and the fresh-water shrimp (Gammarus). (2)
Isopoda, flattened from above downwards. Sea-slaters or wood-lice (Ligia
and Idothea); fish parasites (Cymothoa); fresh-water wood-lice (Asellus);
land wood-lice (Oniscus, Porcellio, Armadillidium, which can roll up).

EDRI'SI, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed, a famous Arabian geographer, a descendant
of the ancient princely family of the Edrisites, born about A.D. 1100, died
about 1180. He studied at the Moorish university of Cordova, after which he
travelled through various countries. At the request of King Roger II of
Sicily he constructed a globe with a map of the earth, which represented
all the geographical knowledge of the age. He accompanied this with a
descriptive treatise completed about 1154, and still extant. The work was
published at Rome in Arabic (1592), and in 1619 a Latin translation of it,
under the title of _Geographia Nubiensis_, appeared in Paris.

EDUCATION is the name applied to the systematic instruction given by each
succeeding generation to the young of the race to fit them for the work of
life. The word itself is derived from the Latin verb _educare_, which means
to rear, to nourish, to bring up, and also to educate. Long before the dawn
of civilization men saw that the young had to be prepared for the battle of
life; had to learn how to make and how to use the offensive and defensive
weapons employed against their enemies; how to form or build shelters to
protect themselves against the weather and against their foes; how to make
traps or snares for the wild things on which they fed; how, in fact, to use
their powers of mind and body in such a way as to secure for themselves the
fullest and most satisfactory life possible under the circumstances in
which they found themselves.

While education thus understood would be the story of man on the earth, an
account of his more or less satisfactory, but always continuous, efforts to
perfect the relations between his desires and his environment, it would
have to embrace also an account of the conflict between the demands of
communities and the rights of individuals. Education, however, as we
understand it, is more limited in its scope. It is the instrument employed
by the State for the training of its citizens.

The Greeks were the first Europeans to treat education as a science. The
results they obtained were good, and have to a certain extent determined
the course taken by European education ever since. Plato defined the aim of
the education of which he gives us an account in the _Republic_, to be the
"development in the body and in the soul of all the perfection which it is
possible for them to attain". This was the Greek ideal of what education
should aim at; a high ideal indeed; but one that omits an element of
immense importance which we find introduced in Milton's definition of the
'end of learning', that is, the aim of education. Milton boldly declares
this to be: "To repair the ruin of our first parents by regaining to know
God aright, and out of that knowledge to love Him, as we may the nearest by
possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly
grace of faith makes up the highest perfection". Perfection is the end
sought in both cases, and which seems the nobler it is unnecessary to say.
This impression is deepened when he proceeds to declare that as "Our
understanding cannot ... arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and
things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior
creatures, the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet
teaching".

By Aristotle the order of education was: first, education of the body, the
just and proportionate development of its powers. The instrument employed
for this purpose was gymnastics; not the gymnastics employed in training
professional athletes, but more moderate exercises; for, as the philosopher
insists, too strenuous bodily exertion is apt to spoil the child, because
body and mind must not be hard worked at the same time. Music, according to
him, had various aims: education proper, the training of the affections,
and the occupation of leisure. Drawing was taught as a branch of music for
the purpose of developing the child's sense of beauty, mathematics were
taught to cultivate his intellect, and dialectic (logic and philosophy) to
prepare the pupil for a scientific training.

To the idealistic philosopher Plato, the whole life of man, at least the
whole of what we may call the active life, was educative. Education was
State-controlled, and at the end of the first six years, spent by the child
in the seclusion of family life, the State took charge. The aim of the
education proposed by Plato was to develop in the child the cardinal
virtues--honour to parents, love of fellow-citizens, courage, truthfulness,
and self-control. From the seventh to the tenth year the training was
mainly in gymnastics; from the tenth to the thirteenth the child learned to
read and to write; from the thirteenth to the sixteenth his affections and
his sense of the beautiful were cultivated through learning poetry and
studying music; from the seventeenth to the twentieth year he applied
himself mainly to athletics, so that he might be qualified to take his
share in the defence of the State. At twenty men were called upon to choose
their occupation; to turn their minds to the study of the sciences; and to
shape by practical military and other services to the State that character
which it was the aim of education to form. From thirty to thirty-five Plato
supposes the citizens of his ideal republic to devote themselves to the
study of _Dialectics_, the method of purely intellectual knowledge, by
which reason, using hypothesis, arrives at the first principles of things.
From thirty-five to fifty the life of the citizen was to be given up to
public service, that is, to the promotion in the position for which he was
best fitted of the general well-being.

The training set forth by the Greek philosophers was the training thought
necessary to fit a man to be a ruler. As the Greek city states were slave
states, and most of the manual work was performed by slaves, that necessary
part of the training of the youth of the community is ignored. This fact
has had, undoubtedly, an enormous influence on the ideas of education put
forward since. The preliminary training demanded by the Greeks included,
besides gymnastics, grammar and music. At a later time these were
understood to include the seven arts: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic
(_Trivium_), and Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astronomy (_Quadrivium_).
To the Greeks, myths were the instruments of the earliest education, the
aim of which was the development of a character in the citizen which would
lead him to give his best and most loyal services to the State.

The aim of Greek education was the formation of the philosophic thinker,
the man fitted by nature and training to guide and direct the energies of
the man of action. Roman education, on the other hand, directed its efforts
mainly to the moulding of the man of action himself. The Romans adopted the
form rather than the spirit of Greek education. The aim of Roman education
was to make a man who could do things; a practical man, a man full of
energy, who was ever ready to sacrifice himself in the interests of the
State; a man who knew the laws and who regulated his conduct by them; who
reverenced his father and his country's gods; and found his chief pleasure
in the complete overthrow and utter destruction of his country's foes. He
could discourse eloquently and not unphilosophically; and he spared neither
himself nor others in his effort to maintain the freedom of his country,
and to bring destruction on the enemies of Rome. Roman education began in
the home, and during the earlier years was largely directed by the mother.
Later the preparation of the boy for life was taken over by the father; but
it is probable that, from very early times many, if not most, Romans boys
were sent to school, where, under the _magister literarius_ (elementary
teacher), the _grammaticus_ (advanced teacher), and the _rhetor_
(professor), they acquired the knowledge and accomplishments it was needful
for them to obtain.

The Roman schools, elementary and secondary, seem to have been conducted in
a verandah, and boys and girls seem to have been taught in the same school.
The chief Roman writers on education are Cicero, Seneca, and Quintilian.
Quintilian tells us that Cato also wrote a treatise on the subject, but
that that work had been lost. The oratorical training of which Quintilian
was the expositor seems to have been largely out of connection with real
life; and, though he claims that the orator must be a widely cultured,
wise, and honourable man, seems to have developed a tendency to the
bombastic abuse of ornate and stilted speech. The practical effects, too,
of the corruption of family education were far from satisfactory. Moral
degradation followed, and humanity seems to have been rescued only by the
introduction of a new ideal of life, which substituted for the pagan
self-reliance, self-control, moderation, and proportion, self-denial,
self-forgetfulness, and humility; which made the last, indeed, the chief
virtue, and looked on pride and self-confidence as spiritual sins.

The introduction of Christianity was followed by the inroads into the Roman
Empire of barbarous tribes from the north and east. Before these attacks
the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and with it to a greater or less extent
the educational system of the time.

It must be remembered that between three and four hundred years elapsed
between the downfall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginnings of the
Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne. Classical or pagan culture, as profane
learning, was at a discount, and the aim of the monasticism which grew out
of the introduction of Christianity was mystic absorption in the
contemplation of God.

This interval was followed by the efforts of Charlemagne to revive Roman
culture, and to establish schools throughout Western Europe. In this he was
aided by Alcuin and other scholars from England, where in the comparative
quiet that followed the conquest of Britain there had grown up a system of
education. Throughout his dominions three classes of schools were
established by Charlemagne, the Palace School, the Bishop's School, and the
Monastery School. These were intended to take the place of the splendid
system of public schools that had grown up under the Roman Empire. The
course of studies established in these mediaeval schools, following the
practice of Greece and Rome, was divided into two parts: the _Trivium_,
including Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric; and the _Quadrivium_, which
embraced Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, and Astronomy. Education in the
palace or castle schools had a different aim. It sought to develop the
bodily powers, and to awake in the pupils that respect for the weak which
was shown in the worship of women, and that love of justice, and belief in
its supremacy, which characterized the _chivalry_ of the Middle Ages.

The scholastic education of this time laid special stress on formal logic
and metaphysics. Latin was taught, was, indeed, the universal language of
the period. Questions about the nature of the unseen and the spiritual
occupied much of men's minds; while their time was taken up in discussing
the character of universals, the true realities which lay behind the
individual manifestations of experience. As a rule, the physical world was
ignored, and human intelligence disregarded; but there were notable
exceptions, among which the teachings of Bishop Grosseteste (died 1253) and
of Roger Bacon (1214 to 1294) take a prominent place.

It was during the period of scholasticism that universities, in imitation
of the trade guilds of the time, sprung up in different parts of Europe,
particularly in Spain, Italy, France, and England. To the famous schools
both in England and on the Continent scholars flocked from all parts, and
their instruction presented little difficulty, as Latin, the language in
which the instruction was given, was the common language of scholars in
Western Europe. The establishment of universities in different countries
was a sign rather than a cause or result of that intellectual and spiritual
awakening which, after nearly a thousand years of almost complete
stagnation, manifested itself among the peoples of Europe.

It is usual to date the Renaissance from 1453, the fall of Constantinople;
but it must not be forgotten that owing to the clash between East and West,
the struggle between Christianity and Mohammedanism (the Crusades, as these
religious wars were called), there had from the end of the eleventh century
been a considerable change of outlook among the nations of Western Europe.
This was specially the case in Italy, where city states, not unlike those
of Greece in their character, had sprung up, and where, as in Greece in the
time of Pericles, there had been the great outburst of literary activity
which is associated with the names of Boccaccio, Dante, and Petrarch. In
Northern and Western Europe the intelligence stimulated by the new learning
was directed towards the improvement of the method of study. All study was
linguistic. Latin was the instrument of common intercourse; Greek and
Hebrew were sacred as the tongues in which the Scriptures had been
conveyed; it was no wonder, therefore, that the humanistic education was
almost entirely confined to the study of languages. Sturm (1507 to 1589)
drew up a scheme of studies which had long a great influence on the school
courses of instruction throughout Europe.

The reaction against authority which marked the Reformation period was
specially noted for the reaction against the purely verbal education given
to the young, whose education, as we learn from Locke, was calculated to
teach them "not to believe, but to dispute", and to fit them "for the
university, not for the world". On the Continent Rabelais (1483 to 1533)
led this realistic movement, which was continued by Montaigne (1533 to
1592) in France, and under the influence of Bacon by Brinsley and Hoole in
England, and Ratke and Comenius on the Continent. Up to this time the chief
English writers on the subject of education had been Sir Thomas Elyot in
his _Governour_, Roger Ascham in his _Scholemaster_, and Richard Mulcaster
in his _Positions_.

The intellectual activity which marked in England the closing decades of
the sixteenth and the first part of the seventeenth century saw the issue
of Milton's _Tractate_, one of the most famous books on education ever
produced. The _Tractate_ discusses only the kind of education that should
be given to gentlemen's sons between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, so
that it is strictly limited in its application, as it does not deal with
the education of the people, nor with the education of women. The ideal
which Milton put before him as the aim of "a complete and generous
education" was "to fit a man to perform justly, skilfully, and
magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war".
Milton in his _Tractate_ discusses studies, exercise, and diet, showing
that he clearly understood that education was concerned with the body as
well as the mind and spirit.

Towards the close of the seventeenth century Locke, an English physician
and philosopher, published (1693) his _Thoughts concerning Education_, a
book which influenced immensely the character and direction of future
educational studies. As he informs his readers in his letter to Edward
Clarke, he counsels everyone "after having well examined and distinguished
what fancy, custom, or reason advises in the case ... to promote everywhere
that way of training up youth ... which is the easiest, shortest, and
likeliest to produce virtuous, useful, and able men in their distinct
callings". He begins his essay with the statement, "A sound mind in a sound
body is a short but full description of a happy state in this world", and
the suggestions he makes as to the physical, moral, and intellectual
training of the young are for the most part sound. He decried a too severe
discipline, maintaining that "If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in
children, ... they lose all their vigour and industry". On the other hand,
he held that if you "Remove hope and fear, there is an end of all
discipline"; and he held that, as far as possible, "Childish actions are to
be left perfectly free and unrestrained". He applied the science of
psychology to the study of child nature, and of the methods to be employed
in training it; and so prepared the way for the modern methods of
education. "Interest is the secret of Herbart", according to one of his
devoted admirers. Locke seems to have anticipated this when he declares
that "None of the things they are to learn should ever be made a burden to
them, or imposed on them as a task".

Though his attitude towards the universe was utterly opposed to the
attitude of Locke, Rousseau drew almost all that was practical in his
scheme for the education of the young from the English writer. Rousseau's
work, though largely inspired by Locke, was essentially of a revolutionary
kind. It held that man is the great corrupter; that "Everything is good as
it comes from the hands of the Creator; and that man's handling makes
everything worse". In effect he said, leave the child as much as possible
alone. An attempt constantly to direct him can only result in stupefying
him. It is true we receive our education from nature, from men, and from
things; but nature must be our guide in determining the use of the other
two. As few restraints as possible must be imposed on the child, and the
use of books should be prohibited. For the child there should be "no other
book but the world", and "no other instruction but facts". The child's
education he divides into four stages, infancy, childhood, boyhood, and
youth. The first two stages last till the beginning of the thirteenth year,
when the boy is supposed to be fit for instruction. From such instruction
the teaching of words must disappear, and the teaching of things must take
its place. The subjects most suitable for instruction were, Rousseau
declared, measuring, drawing, geometry, speaking, and singing. Books, he
declares, are useless, are, indeed, altogether harmful. The method he
advocates is the method of self-teaching and the use of the senses, which
Rousseau held would work to the profit of the intelligence. The child's
knowledge should rest on his own observation, and not on belief in
authority, and each child should be taught a manual trade.

At fifteen, according to Rousseau, real education begins; and it is the
duty of the teacher to study the subject he has to act upon, in other
words, to discover the nature of the pupil, which must in all cases
determine the means and the method employed in his education. Two things
must be taught. These are the true relations, racial and individual, that
exist among men; and how to direct and control the emotions aroused by the
environment so that the best results may arise. Here he finds occasion for
the use of moral teaching and for instruction in religion. The facts of
history must be placed before him; but he must be left to form his own
judgment. He is now to be taught religion as a help to the regulation of
the passions; but not the religion of any particular sect. His time is to
be given up largely to reading and to the acquirement of taste; to the
study of history and eloquence; and to attendance at the theatre.

The revolutionary doctrines preached by Rousseau in his _['E]mile_ and in
his other educational works had an immense effect on the Continent, and
particularly on the work of one of his most ardent admirers, the Swiss
farmer and schoolmaster Pestalozzi, an eccentric, dubbed by his
schoolfellows "Harry Oddity of Fools-town". Thinking the education demanded
for ['E]mile by Rousseau vastly superior to that which he himself received,
he very early became an ardent admirer of the system advocated by the
French philosopher, and an eager reformer. _['E]mile_ and the _Contrat
Social_ were condemned by the magistrates of Zurich, and Pestalozzi and
some of his fellow-students were imprisoned for the _Memorial_ in which
they defended these works. Later Pestalozzi determined to be a farmer. He
was married at the age of twenty-three, and started growing madder and
vegetables on some poor land near Zurich. On the land he built for himself
a house, the _Neuhof_.

In the winter of 1774 he hit upon the expedient of taking into his house
some twenty poor children of the neighbourhood, whom he treated as his own.
They worked with him in summer in the fields, and in winter in the house.
Improved health for the children, increased intelligence, and a manifest
devotion to their benefactor were some of the results speedily displayed,
and the experiment drew much attention to itself. Urged on by his love for
the children, Pestalozzi took in a larger number, and in a very short time
found himself bankrupt. In this period of seeming disaster Pestalozzi
turned author. The books which he produced were greedily read on the
Continent, and aroused the greatest interest. After some work at Stanz and
at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi settled to work in the castle of Yverdun on Lake
Neuch[^a]tel, which became in the early years of the nineteenth century a
place of pilgrimage for European students and lovers of education. Forced
to leave Yverdun in 1815, he continued his work at Clindy till 1824.

Friedrich Froebel spent the years 1807 to 1809 at Yverdun, and so fitted
himself to carry on the work Pestalozzi had to some extent made popular.
His name, however, is specially associated with the schools for very young
children to which he gave the name of _Kindergarten_, that is, 'gardens of
children', places where young children, like young plants, were properly
watched and tended. For the children in these schools their employment was
to be play, play from which and by which they acquired clear notions
regarding themselves and their environment. "Education", he asserted,
"should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself,
to peace with nature, and to unity with God." He held that powers were
developed by exercise; that failure to use any part of the body or mind led
to the shrinkage of the part, and sometimes even to its complete loss. He
held that if we wish to develop the body we must exercise the body, and
that, similarly, if we wish to develop the intellect or the emotions they
must be exercised. He insists that teachers must be careful to interfere as
little as possible; must remember at all times that the aim of teaching is
"to bring ever more and more out of man rather than to put more and more
into him". He based his system on action; agreed with Montaigne that
"children's games were their most serious occupations"; and with Locke that
"All the plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good
and useful habits". Froebel was not the founder of infant schools. These
were first established on the Continent and in Britain with the object of
helping mothers. In Britain their establishment is associated with the
names of the educational enthusiasts James Buchanan and Samuel Wilderspin.

Nearly ten years before Froebel's stay with Pestalozzi at Yverdun, Herbart,
next to Kant and Hegel the most influential of German philosophers, visited
the inspired educationist at Burgdorf, and found him employing methods
based on the principles which he himself had worked out in his psychology.
To both it was clear that there is a definite order in which subjects
should be taught to the children, and that this order is determined, not
merely by the relation of the subjects to each other, but by their power of
satisfying the growing wants and capacities of the child. Pestalozzi had
arrived intuitively at a method, and had practically applied it, which
Herbart had scientifically worked out as applicable to the whole
educational field. Three years later Herbart published pamphlets on
Pestalozzi's best-known book, _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, and on
_The A.B.C. of Sense-perception_, and in these showed what weight he
attached to observation as an instrument of education. Two years later he
published one of his most notable works on education, _The Aesthetic
Revelation of the World_, and in 1806 _General Pedagogy_. In 1809 he was
appointed professor of philosophy at K[:o]nigsberg, where he remained till
1833, and where his services to the cause of education, both by his
writings and by his establishment of normal schools and experimental
schools, cannot be exaggerated. He warns teachers not to educate too much;
to be careful not to destroy the individuality of the child, such
individuality being that which characterizes individuals of the same class.
He lays the greatest stress on the importance to the teacher of child
study, maintaining that he will be unable to teach unless he knows the
child as he is. For Herbart the aim of education is summed up in morality,
"the highest aim of humanity and consequently of education", itself. "I
have no conception", he writes, "of education without instruction, just as
I do not acknowledge any instruction that does not educate." "Instruction",
he says elsewhere, "will form the circle of thought, and education the
character; the last is nothing without the first." A great deal, according
to Herbart, depends upon the pupil himself, who "grasps rightly what is
natural to him", and who must be saved from the tendency to one-sidedness
in which following his bent would result, by the cultivation in him of
many-sidedness. This cultivation involves the control of the pupil's mental
activity, and the instrument for this control is interest, which causes the
pupil's complete absorption in its object. For the attainment of this
Herbart proposes certain formal steps of instruction. These steps are
usually set forth as (1) Preparation, (2) Presentation, (3) Comparison, (4)
Generalization, (5) Application.

The nineteenth century was a period of continuously increasing interest in
education, and of a generally growing belief in its utility. It was taken
up by the Governments of the different countries, and ordered and regulated
almost out of existence. Seven years before the death of Pestalozzi the
first public grant for education was made by the British Parliament, and
from that time up to the present the Government has continued to extend its
power over the education of the country. For a long time the Government in
Britain was satisfied to subsidize elementary education; but later it
insisted on hard-and-fast lines of instruction. So thoroughly were these
regulated in most countries that a French Minister of Education could boast
he was able to say what work every child in France was engaged in at that
particular moment.

In Britain it was only bit by bit, and with very considerable reluctance,
that the Government took upon itself the responsibility for the education
of the country. In Scotland a national system of general education,
constituted in 1560, remained in force until reconstructed by the
_Education Act_ of 1872. (See _Scotland_.) Compulsory education was
introduced into England in 1870, together with what was described as
payment by results; and, for some time, the aim which the teacher had to
keep before him was the production at the annual examination of the largest
number of pupils who could satisfy the tests in Reading, Writing, and
Arithmetic, or, as they were called, the 'three R's', and so earn the
Government grant. For between thirty and forty years this unnatural and
mechanical system remained in force. From 1864 onwards Commission after
Commission sought to reduce English secondary education to order. The most
notable of these was The Bryce Commission of Enquiry into Secondary
Education, 1894-5, whose recommendations have since been put into force by
legislation. One of the results of the increasing interest in education
throughout England was the founding, early in the latter half of last
century, of great day schools, like the City of London, St. Paul's, and
Merchant Taylors, in London and other large cities; and, after the passing
of the Education Act of 1902, the establishment everywhere of Council
Secondary Schools.

Of the immense number of works on education issued during the last half of
the nineteenth century, perhaps the best known are those of Herbert Spencer
and of Professor Bain. The former seeks to explain education from the
Darwinian standpoint, and the latter to determine from psychology the
intellectual value of the various subjects taught in school, and the
average age at which they should be taught to children. Of practical
English educators during the nineteenth century, the most outstanding names
are undoubtedly those of Arnold of Rugby, Thring of Uppingham, and Abbott
of the City of London School.

In recent times the advances made in the theoretical and practical studies
of the sciences of anthropology, physiology, and psychology have exercised
an enormous influence on educational theories and practices. Careful
observations of young children by scientific observers like Darwin,
Dearborn, and Preyer have added greatly to our knowledge of child-nature;
and helped to suggest new methods of studying it and developing it. The
result has been the promulgation within the present century of a number of
educational methods, some of which, in contrast to the older practices,
must seem almost revolutionary. Among these must be remembered the
'Heuristic Method' of teaching science put forward by Professor H. E.
Armstrong. The object of the method is to put the student as completely as
may be in the position of an original investigator; and it has been classed
by writers on education as being, like so many other modern methods, a
'play method'. Froebel in his kindergarten was one of the first to
introduce successfully the play method in education, and the 'gifts' by
which the plan was carried through were of his own devising; but such
cannot be said of Dr. Montessori, whose method of education engrosses so
much attention at the present time. The Montessori apparatus was originally
devised by Dr. Seguin for the instruction of mental defectives. Dr.
Montessori used the apparatus first for the training of young children; but
the cardinal feature of the Montessori system is the determined effort to
make the child entirely responsible for his own education, and to interfere
as little as possible with his development. The apparatus is so contrived
that it can only be used in one way if the problem is to be solved; so the
child is forced to attend to the differences in size and shape and
carefully to compare the different pieces. In addition, the Montessori
system attempts to cultivate the social virtues; teaches the children to
live and to work and play with others, and so to learn to be well-mannered.
The teacher in this system retires into the background, and the children
are left to go their own way, to choose their own tasks, and to be their
own critics. Great attention is also given to the physical development of
the children.

Experimental education has been attempted both in Germany, where the need
for it was first put forward by Kant, and in England; but it is in the
United States of America that the chief advances in this direction have
been made. There the Binet attempt to measure the intelligence of the
child, to fix in fact a metric scale of intelligence, has been elaborated,
and the Binet-Simon system of tests devised, and later modified by L. M.
Terman. There, too, schools have been established which have tried the
working out of what may be described as the non-interference with the pupil
principle. Among these may be mentioned the 'George Junior Republic' and
the Gary Schools. The latter, we are told by their founder, were "not
instituted to turn out good workers for the steel company, but for the
educational value of the work they involved". To this must be added the
'Dalton Laboratory Plan', tried lately as an experiment by Miss Helen
Parkhurst in a public secondary day school in Dalton. By this plan, the
time-table is abolished, the child undertakes to get up a certain amount of
work each month in each particular subject, and is left free to distribute
his time as he chooses, so that he can devote more time to those subjects
in which he is backward. The school is divided into departments
(laboratories) each under a specialist who gives the help needed, but
leaves the pupil to himself as much as possible.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bartley,
_The Schools for the People_; Norwood and Hope, _Higher Education of Boys
in England_; Quick, _Essays on Educational Reformers_; Browning, _An
Introduction to the History of Education Theories_; Sleight, _Educational
Values and Methods_; Nunn, _Education: Its Data and First Principles_;
Wilton, _What do we mean by Education?_ _The New Teaching_, edited by
Adams; Kerr, _Scottish Education_; Morrison, _Education Authorities'
Handbook_; Dewey, _Schools of To-morrow_; Rusk, _Introduction to
Experimental Education_; Montessori, _The Montessori Method_ and _The
Advanced Montessori Method_.

EDUCATION ACT, the name given to several Acts dealing with education in
Great Britain. Among the principal Education Acts are: (1) that of 1870,
which introduced compulsory education; (2) that of 1891, which reduced, or
in some cases abolished, school fees; (3) that of 1902, which authorized
the levying of an education rate; and (4) that of 1918, which raised the
age for leaving school, and made education compulsory up to the age of
eighteen by means of continuation schools. Pupils must attend these schools
for 320 hours each year.

EDWARD, known as _the Elder_, King of England, son of Alfred the Great,
born about 870, died in 925. He succeeded his father in 901, and his reign
was distinguished by successes over the Danes. He fortified many inland
towns, acquired dominion over Northumbria and East Anglia, and subdued
several of the Welsh tribes.

EDWARD, surnamed _the Martyr_, King of England, succeeded his father,
Edgar, at the age of fifteen, in 975. His reign of four years was chiefly
distinguished by ecclesiastical disputes. He was treacherously slain in 979
by a servant of his stepmother, at her residence, Corfe Castle. The pity
caused by his innocence and misfortune induced the people to regard him as
a martyr.

EDWARD, King of England, surnamed _the Confessor_, was the son of Ethelred
II, and was born at Islip, in Oxfordshire, about 1004. On the death of his
maternal brother, Hardicanute the Dane, in 1041, he was called to the
throne, and thus renewed the Saxon line. Edward was a weak and
superstitious, but well-intentioned prince, who acquired the love of his
subjects by his monkish sanctity and care in the administration of justice.
His queen was the daughter of Godwin, Earl of Kent. He died in 1066, and
was succeeded by Harold, the son of Godwin. Edward caused a body of laws to
be compiled from those of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred, to which the nation
was long fondly attached. He was canonized by Pope Alexander III in 1161.

EDWARD, Prince of Wales, surnamed _the Black Prince_, born 15th June, 1330,
the eldest son of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault. In 1346 he commanded
part of the forces at the battle of Cr['e]cy, and earned the praise of his
warlike father. It was on this occasion that he adopted the motto _Ich
dien_ (I serve), used by all succeeding Princes of Wales. In 1355 he
commanded the army which invaded France from Gascony, and distinguished
himself the following year at the great battle of Poitiers. By the Peace of
Br['e]tigny the provinces of Poictou, Saintonge, P['e]rigord, and Limousin
were annexed to Guienne and formed into a sovereignty for the prince under
the title of the Principality of Aquitaine. A campaign in Castile, on
behalf of Pedro the Cruel, and the heavy taxes laid on Aquitaine to meet
the expenses, caused a rebellion, and ultimately involved him in a war with
the French king. His own health did not allow him to take the field, and
having seen his generals defeated he withdrew into England, and after
lingering some time died (1376), leaving an only son, afterwards Richard
II.

EDWARD I (of the Norman line), King of England, son of Henry III, was born
at Winchester in 1239, died 7th July, 1307. The contests between his father
and the barons called him early into active life, and he finally quelled
all resistance to the royal authority by the decisive defeat of Leicester
at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. He then proceeded to Palestine, where he
showed signal proofs of valour, although no conquest of any importance was
achieved. His father's death in 1272 gave him the crown. On his return home
he showed great vigour as well as a degree of severity in his
administration. He commenced a war with Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, which
ended in the annexation of that Principality to the English Crown in 1283.
Edward's ambition was to gain possession of Scotland, but the death of
Margaret, the Maid of Norway, who was to have been married to Edward's son,
for a time frustrated the king's designs. But on 26th Dec., 1292, John
Baliol was induced to do homage for his crown to Edward at Newcastle.
Baliol was forced by the indignation of the Scottish people into war with
England. Edward entered Scotland in 1296, devastated it with fire and
sword, and placed the administration of the country in the hands of
officers of his own. Next summer a new rising took place under William
Wallace. Wallace's successes recalled Edward to Scotland with an army of
100,000 men. Wallace was at length betrayed into his hands and executed as
a traitor. All Edward's efforts, however, to reduce the country to
obedience were unavailing, and with the flight of Robert Bruce, Earl of
Carrick, to Scotland, the banner of Scottish independence was again
unfurled. Edward assembled another army and marched against Bruce, but only
lived to reach Burgh-on-Sands, a village near Carlisle, where he died.
Edward I was wise in council and vigorous in action. During his reign great
progress was made in the establishment of law and order throughout the
land.

EDWARD II, King of England, born at Carnarvon Castle in 1284, and the first
English Prince of Wales, succeeded his father, Edward I, in 1307. He was of
an agreeable figure and mild disposition, but indolent and fond of
pleasure. After marching as far as Cumnock, in Ayrshire, with the army
collected by his father, he returned, dismissed his troops, and abandoned
himself entirely to amusements. His weakness for a clever but dissolute
young Gascon, Piers Gaveston, on whom he heaped honours without limit,
roused the nobles to rebellion. Gaveston was captured in Scarborough
Castle, and executed as a public enemy on 19th June, 1312. Two years after
this, Edward assembled an immense army to check the progress of Robert
Bruce, but was completely defeated at Bannockburn. In 1322 he made another
expedition against Scotland, but without achieving anything important. The
king's fondness for another favourite, Hugh le Despenser, had made a number
of malcontents, and Queen Isabella, making a visit to France, entered into
a correspondence with the exiles there, and formed an association of all
hostile to the king. Aided by a force from the Count of Hainault, she
landed in Suffolk in 1326. Her army was completely successful. The
Despensers, father and son, were captured and executed, and the king was
taken prisoner and confined in Kenilworth, and ultimately in Berkeley
Castle, where he was murdered 21st Sept., 1327.

EDWARD III, King of England, son of Edward II by Isabella of France, was
born in 1312, died 21st June, 1377. On his father's deposition in 1327 he
was proclaimed king under a council of regency, while his mother's lover,
Mortimer, really possessed the principal power in the State. The pride and
oppression of Mortimer led to a general confederacy against him, and to his
seizure and execution (10th Oct., 1330). Edward now turned his attention to
Scotland, and, having levied a well-appointed army, defeated the regent,
Douglas, at Halidon Hill, in July, 1333. This victory produced the
restoration of Edward Baliol, who was, however, again expelled, and again
restored, until the ambition of the English king was diverted by the
prospect of succeeding to the throne of France. Collecting an army and
accompanied by the Black Prince, he crossed over to France. The memorable
battle of Cr['e]cy followed, 25th Aug., 1346, which was succeeded by the
siege of Calais. In the meantime David II, having recovered the throne of
Scotland, invaded England with a large army, but was defeated and taken
prisoner by a much inferior force under Lord Percy. In 1348 a truce was
concluded with France; but on the death of King Philip, in 1350, Edward
again invaded France, plundering and devastating. Recalled home by a
Scottish inroad, he retaliated by carrying fire and sword from Berwick to
Edinburgh. In the meantime the Black Prince had penetrated from Guienne to
the heart of France, fought the famous battle of Poitiers, and taken King
John prisoner. A truce was then made, at the expiration of which (1359)
Edward again crossed over to France and laid waste the provinces of Picardy
and Champagne, but at length consented to a peace. This confirmed him in
the possession of several provinces and districts of France which were
entrusted to the Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), but gradually all the
English possessions in France, with the exception of Bordeaux, Bayonne, and
Calais, were lost.

EDWARD IV, King of England, was born in 1442, died in April, 1483. His
father, Richard, Duke of York, was grandson of Edmund, Earl of Cambridge
and Duke of York, fourth son of Edward III, while the rival line of
Lancaster descended from John of Gaunt, the third son. The York line had
intermarried with the female descendants of Lionel, the second son, which
gave it the preferable right to the Crown. Edward, on the defeat and death
of his father at the battle of Wakefield, assumed his title, and, having
entered London after his splendid victory over the troops of Henry VI and
Queen Margaret at Mortimer's Cross, in Feb. 1461, was declared king by
acclamation. The victory of Towton, soon after his accession, confirmed his
title, and three years after this, on 4th May, 1464, the battle of Hexham
completely overthrew the party of Henry VI. The king now made an imprudent
marriage with Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey, at the very time when he
had dispatched the Earl of Warwick to negotiate a marriage for him with the
sister of the French king. He thus alienated powerful friends, and Warwick,
passing over to the Lancastrian cause, gathered a large army, and compelled
Edward to fly (in Sept. 1470). Henry's title was once more recognized by
Parliament. But in 1471 Edward, at the head of a small force given him by
the Duke of Burgundy, landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire, and his army, being
quickly increased by partisans, marched swiftly on London and took the
unfortunate Henry prisoner. Warwick now advanced with an army to Barnet,
where a battle was fought, 4th April, 1471, which ended in the death of
Warwick and a decisive victory for Edward. Shortly afterwards Edward also
met and defeated a Lancastrian army, headed by Queen Margaret and her son
Edward, at Tewkesbury. The prince was murdered, and the queen was thrown
into the Tower, where Henry VI soon after died. Edward was preparing for an
expedition against France when he died.

EDWARD V, King of England, the eldest son of Edward IV, was in his
thirteenth year when he succeeded his father in 1483. His uncle, the Duke
of Gloucester, soon made himself king as Richard III, and caused the young
king and his brother to be sent to the Tower, where he had them smothered
by ruffians.

EDWARD VI, King of England, son of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour, was born in
1537, died in July, 1553. At his father's death he was only nine years of
age. His education was entrusted to men of the first character for
learning, under whose training he made great progress, and grew up with a
rooted zeal for the doctrines of the Reformation. His reign was, on the
whole, tumultuous and unsettled. In Oct., 1551, the Protector Somerset, who
had hitherto governed the kingdom with energy and ability, was deposed by
the intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who became all-powerful.
He induced the dying Edward to set aside the succession of his sisters,
Mary and Elizabeth, and settle the crown upon Lady Jane Grey, to whom he
had married his son Lord Guildford Dudley. Edward VI restored many of the
grammar schools suppressed by Henry VIII, and these schools are still known
as King Edward's schools.

EDWARD VII, King of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India, eldest
son of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, was born at Buckingham Palace
on 9th Nov., 1841, died 6th May, 1910. In Dec., 1841, he was created Prince
of Wales. He was educated under private tutors and at Edinburgh, Oxford,
and Cambridge; visited Canada and the United States in 1860; and underwent
military training at the Curragh camp in 1861. Promoted to the rank of
general in 1862, he visited Palestine and the East, and next year took his
seat in the House of Lords. On 10th March, 1863, he was married in St.
George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of
Christian IX of Denmark, and from this time onwards he discharged many
public ceremonial functions. Attacked by typhoid fever in the winter of
1871, his life was for a time despaired of, but he recovered early in 1872,
his recovery being made the occasion of a thanksgiving service in St.
Paul's Cathedral. During 1875 and 1876 he visited India. He was a member of
the Poor Law Commission of 1893. He promoted the establishment of the
Imperial Institute as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee (1887), and he
commemorated her diamond jubilee (1897) by founding the Prince of Wales's
(now King's) Hospital Fund for the better financial support of the London
hospitals. On the death of Queen Victoria on 22nd Jan., 1901, he succeeded
to the throne, and was crowned on 9th Aug., 1902. King Edward did much to
promote friendly relations with foreign powers, especially with France and
the United States. It was through his personal influence that the Entente
Cordiale with France was brought about. To him and Queen Alexandra were
born: Albert Victor Christian Edward, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, born
1864, died 1892; George Frederick Ernest Albert, who succeeded his father
as George V, born 1865, married 1893, to Princess Victoria Mary of Teck;
Princess Louise, now Princess Royal, born 1867, married 1889, to the Duke
of Fife, who died 29th Jan., 1912; Princess Victoria, born 1868; and
Princess Maud, born 1869, married 1896, to Prince Charles of Denmark, now
King of Norway as Haakon VII.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Life of the King_, by 'One of
His Majesty's Servants'; Holt-White, _The People's King_; E. Legge, _King
Edward in his true Colours_; J. P. Brodhurst, _The Life and Times of Edward
VII_; W. H. Wilkins, _Edward the Peacemaker_.

EDWARD, Thomas, a Scottish naturalist, born 1814, died 1886. The son of
poor parents, he was apprenticed to a shoemaker and worked at his trade
till nearly the end of his life, but succeeded in acquiring much knowledge
of natural history and some fame as a naturalist. An interesting biography
of Edward (_Life of a Scottish Naturalist_), written by Samuel Smiles,
appeared in 1876, and a pension of L50 a year was shortly afterwards
conferred on him by Queen Victoria.

EDWARDS, Amelia Blandford, English novelist and Egyptologist, born in
London in 1831, died in 1892. She gave early evidence of great literary
ability by her contributions to periodicals, and attracted attention by her
novel _My Brother's Wife_ (1855). Among her best-known novels are: _Hand
and Glove_ (1859), _Barbara's History_ (1864), _Half a Million of Money_
(1865), _Debenham's Vow_ (1870), and _Lord Brackenbury_ (1880). Miss
Edwards wrote also ballads and books of travel, and in 1882 founded the
Egypt Exploration Fund and devoted herself to Egyptology, leaving funds to
found a chair of Egyptology in University College, London.

EDWARDS, Bryan, English writer, born in Wiltshire in 1743, died in 1800. He
inherited a large fortune from an uncle in Jamaica, where he long resided.
His _History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West
Indies_ appeared in 1793.

EDWARDS, John Passmore, British philanthropist and journalist, born at
Blackwater, Cornwall, in March, 1823, died on 22nd April, 1911. Trained as
a journalist, he became representative of the paper _The Sentinel_, and was
opposed to the Corn Laws. In 1862 he bought _The Building News_, and in
1876 the London _Echo_, of which he was director for twenty years. Although
somewhat unpopular on account of his opposition to the Boer War, he is
remembered as a public benefactor, having founded numerous Passmore Edwards
institutions, public libraries, and settlements, and contributed largely to
hospitals. He was a delegate to the peace congresses at Brussels, Paris,
and Frankfort (1848-50), and twice refused a knighthood.

EDWARDS, Jonathan, American theologian and metaphysician, born 5th Oct.,
1703, died 22nd March, 1758. He entered Yale College in 1716, and studied
till 1722, when he received a licence as preacher. In 1723 he was elected a
tutor in Yale College, but resigned in 1726 to be ordained as minister at
Northampton (Mass.). After more than twenty-three years of zealous service
here, he was dismissed by the congregation owing to the severity with which
he sought to exercise church discipline. He then went as a missionary among
the Indians at Stockbridge, in Massachusetts. Here he composed his famous
work on the _Freedom of the Will_, which appeared in 1754. In 1757 he was
chosen president of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, but died shortly
afterwards.

EDWY, King of England, son of Edmund I, succeeded his uncle Edred in 955.
Taking part with the secular clergy against the monks, he incurred the
confirmed enmity of the latter. The Papal party, headed by Dunstan, was
strong enough to excite a rebellion, by which Edwy was driven from the
throne to make way for his brother Edgar. He died in 959, being probably
not more than eighteen or nineteen years old.

EECLOO ([=a]k-l[=o]'), a town, Belgium, province of East Flanders, 11 miles
north-west of Ghent, the seat of textile manufactures. Pop. 13,536.

[Illustration: Eel-bucks on the Thames]

EEL, the popular name of fishes belonging to the teleostean sub-order
Apodes. The common eel (_Anguilla vulgaris_) is the type of a special
family (Anguillidae) and has a very wide distribution in the fresh waters
of the globe. It is snake-shaped, devoid of ventral fins, and the minute
scales are embedded in the slimy skin. When five or six years old it
migrates to the deep sea for spawning, after which it probably dies.
Curious flattened larvae (Leptocephalus) hatch out from the floating eggs,
and undergo a metamorphosis to become young eels or elvers, which when a
year old ascend rivers in vast numbers as 'eel fare'. Eels are esteemed as
an article of food, and even elvers are compressed into a sort of cake. In
England river eels are caught in great numbers by means of eel-bucks or
eelpots, traps consisting of a kind of basket with a funnel-shaped entrance
composed of willow rods converging towards a point, so that the eels can
easily force their way in but cannot return. A stocking or tube of coarse
cloth hanging from an aperture of a box down into the interior is also
used. In England a kind of trident called an _eel-spear_ is used also for
taking them. A fisherman wades to the shallows, and, as he strikes his
spear in the mud in every direction around him, the eels reposing on the
bottom are caught between the prongs. They are also taken by hooks and
lines and in other ways. See _Conger-eel_; _Muraena_. Electric eels belong
to another group. See _Electrical Fishes_.

EFFEN'DI, a Turkish title which signifies lord or master. It is
particularly applied to the civil, as _aga_ is to the military officers of
the Sultan. Thus the Sultan's first physician is called _Hakim effendi_,
and the priest in the seraglio _Imam effendi_.

EFFERVES'CENCE, the rapid escape of a gas from a liquid, producing a
turbulent motion in it, and causing it to boil up. It, is produced by the
actual formation of a gas in the liquid, as in fermentation, or by the
liberation of a gas which has been forced into it, as in aerated beverages.

EFFICIENCY, in mechanics and engineering, the ratio of the useful energy
given out by a machine to the energy supplied to it. Energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but it may assume various forms, and, within limits,
can be changed from any one of these forms to any other. A machine or
engine is an apparatus for converting energy in some given form into energy
in another assigned form. In practice it is found impossible to convert the
whole of the given energy into the form wanted, there being always a
residue which is not of the right kind, and is, therefore, counted as
useless. The smaller the residue, the more efficient is the machine. In the
machines of elementary mechanics, such as the lever or the screw, the
energy supplied is work done by the power or effort, and the energy wanted
is work done on the load. If E is the effort, and W the load, then if there
were no friction we would have E = Wr, where r is the velocity ratio, or
ratio of the velocities of the points of application of load and effort.
The relation found by experiment, however, is usually of the type E = Wr +
C, where C is a constant. The efficiency is the fraction Wr/E or 1 - C/E,
so that it increases with the load. In _heat engines_, energy in the form
of heat is converted into mechanical energy. Heat is taken in at the
source, part of it is changed into mechanical energy, and the remainder is
rejected to the condenser. According to the second law of thermodynamics,
the efficiency of such an engine has a definite upper limit which it cannot
exceed, this being the ratio of the difference of the temperatures of the
source and the condenser to the temperature of the source, these
temperatures being measured on the absolute scale, that is, from -273deg C.
reckoned as the zero. The efficiency of a steam-engine is usually compared
with that of an ideal engine working between the same temperatures, and
going through a definite periodic set of operations called the Rankine
cycle. If the thermal efficiency of an actual engine is 27 per cent, and
that of an ideal engine working on the Rankine cycle is 30 per cent,
obviously the important figure is the ratio of 27 to 30, or 90 per cent.

The performance of a steam-engine depends, not only on its _thermal
efficiency_, but also on its _boiler efficiency_ and its _mechanical
efficiency_. The boiler efficiency is the percentage of the heat obtainable
from the fuel consumed which is actually used in the engine; in a good
boiler it may be 75 per cent. The mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the
work given out at the crank-shaft to the work done on the piston; in other
words, it is the ratio of brake horse-power to indicated horse-power. It
may perhaps be 80 per cent. To arrive at the over-all efficiency, the
various partial or component efficiencies must be multiplied together. In
comparing one type of engine with another, what is important is obviously
this over-all efficiency, or ratio of energy output to the theoretical
energy value of the fuel employed. Thus, to take the case of marine
engines, the Diesel oil-engine is inferior to the turbine and to the
reciprocator in point both of thermal and of mechanical efficiency. But
when the efficiency of the boilers is taken into account, the Diesel comes
out very decidedly ahead of the others. Taking coal at 10,000 British
thermal units per pound, and Diesel oil at 18,000 British thermal units per
pound, Mr. T. R. Wollaston has given the following figures for the number
of British thermal units consumed per brake horse-power hour: steam-engine
19,000; steam turbine 21,000; gas-engine 15,000; Diesel engine 9000.
Electrical plant in general reaches a high standard of efficiency. Some
figures are: transmission lines 85 to 95 per cent; motors and generators at
full load 70 to 80 per cent from 1 to 5 h.p., 80 to 90 per cent from 5 to
50 h.p., and 95 per cent for large sizes. Electrical transformers are the
most efficient of all machines. Their efficiency ranges from about 90 per
cent in small sizes, up to perhaps 98.5 per cent for large machines at full
load. See _Energy_; _Internal-combustion Engines_; _Steam-engines_;
_Thermodynamics_.

EFFLORES'CENCE, the property which certain hydrated salts have of losing
water when exposed to air. Thus washing-soda, Na_2CO_3, 10H_2O, if left in
air becomes opaque, loses its crystalline appearance, and finally falls to
a powder by loss of water. The term is also applied in botany to the
process of flowering.

EFFLUENTS, a general term applying to liquids, on being discharged, after
undergoing some form of treatment. The term is more particularly applied to
the purified liquid discharged into rivers and streams from sewage-works,
the crude sewage having been freed of the grosser solids, and rendered
clear and innocuous to animal and vegetable life.

EFFODIEN'TIA, the name proposed for a new order of mammals to include
pangolins and aard-varks. See _Edentata_.

['E]GALIT['E], Philippe. See _Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph_.

EGBERT, considered the first king of all England, was of the royal family
of Wessex. He succeeded Brihtric in 802 as King of Wessex. He reduced the
other kingdoms and rendered them dependent on him in 829, thus becoming
their overlord. He died in 839.

EGEDE, Hans ([=a]'ge-d[=a]), the apostle of Greenland, born in 1686 in
Norway, died in 1758. In 1721 Egede set sail for Greenland with the
intention of converting the natives to Christianity, and for fifteen years
performed the most arduous duties as missionary, winning by his persevering
kindness the confidence of the natives. In 1736 he returned to Copenhagen,
where he was made a bishop and director of the Greenland Missions.

EGER ([=a]'g[.e]r), a town of Bohemia, Czecho-Slovakia, on a rocky eminence
above the Eger, 91 miles west of Prague; once an important fortress, though
now quite dismantled. It has manufactures of woollens, cottons, leather,
and soap. Wallenstein was assassinated there (1634). Pop. 26,620.

EGE'RIA, a nymph who received divine honours among the Romans. Numa is said
to have received from her the laws which he gave to the Romans.

EGERSUND ([=a]'g[.e]r-s[u:]nd), a seaport on the south-west coast of
Norway, some distance south of Stavanger, and connected with it by railway,
has a large pottery-work, fishing and shipping trade. Pop. 3500.

EGERTON, Francis. See _Bridgewater, Duke of_.

[Illustration: Section of Hen's Egg

A, White or albumen. B, Vitelline membrane. C, Chalaza. D, White yolk. E,
Germinal disc. F, Shell. G, Air space. H, Shell membrane. K, Yellow yolk.]

EGG, (1) in the narrower sense, the female reproductive or germ-cell, which
after impregnation or fertilization by a male germ-cell (spermatozoon or
sperm) develops into an embryo. (See _Ovum_.) (2) The term is applied, more
broadly, to a more complicated reproductive body that consists of an ovum
together with supplementary parts. The egg of a bird, for example, includes
the fertilized and developing ovum (yolk), nutritive white (albumen), and
protective double egg membrane covered by a porous calcareous shell. The
eggs of animals lower than the birds have usually only three parts, viz.
the germinal spot or dot, the germinal vesicle, and the vitellus or yolk;
the first being contained in the vesicle, and that again in the yolk. The
common domestic fowl, the turkey, the pea-hen, and the common duck produce
the eggs which are commonest in the market. The eggs of the green plover
(_Vanellus cristatus_) are esteemed as a delicacy. The hard roes of fishes
are the ovaries, containing innumerable eggs (over nine millions in the
cod). The salted hard roes of the sturgeon are known as caviare. A hen's
egg of good size weighs about 1000 grams, of which the white constitutes
600, the yolk 300, and the shell 100. When the white of an egg is warmed it
coagulates to a firm opaque mass. Eggs form an important article in British
commerce; the number imported in 1919 amounted to the value of L8,613,000,
mainly from Russia, Denmark, Austria, France, and Italy.

EGG, an island of Scotland. See _Eigg_.

EGGA, a town of N. Nigeria, on the right bank of the Niger, about 70 miles
above the junction of the Binue. Pop. 10,000.

EGGAR, or EGGER, a name given to moths of the family Lasiocampidae.
_Lasiocampa trifolii_, a well-known British moth, is called the
grass-egger, and the _L. quercus_ the oak-egger, from the food of their
caterpillars.

EGG-BIRD, or SOOTY TERN (_Sterna fuliginosa_), a bird of considerable
commercial importance in the West Indies, as its eggs, in common with those
of two other species of tern, form an object of profitable adventure to the
crews of numerous small vessels.

EGGLESTON, Edward, American novelist and miscellaneous writer, born in
1837, died in 1902. He entered the ministry of the Methodist Church, was
engaged in pastoral work for some years, afterwards as pastor of an
independent church founded by himself. He wrote and edited much, among his
books being: _The Hoosier Schoolmaster_ (1871), which first appeared in
_Hearth and Home_; _The End of the World_: _A Love Story_; _Roxy_, a highly
popular novel (1878); _The Hoosier Schoolboy_; _The Graysons_; _Household
History of the United States_; _The Faith Doctor_. His novels are marked by
abundance of incident, skilful handling of dialect, and realistic
portraiture.

EGG-PLANT, or BRINJAL (_Sol[=a]num melong[)e]na_), nat. ord. Solanaceae, an
herbaceous plant, from 1 foot to 18 inches high, with large white or
purplish flowers. The fruit is about the size of a goose's egg, and
generally yellow, white, or violet, and when boiled or stewed is used as an
article of food. It is cultivated in India, the United States, &c., and in
European hothouses. There are several other species of egg-plants, as _S.
indicum_ and _S. sodomeum_.

EGHAM, an urban district of England, county of Surrey, on the Thames
opposite Staines, about 21 miles from London, with the Royal Holloway
College for women, and the Holloway Sanatorium. Near it is Runnymede, where
King John signed Magna Charta.

EGIL SKALLAGRIM, an Icelandic bard or poet of the tenth century, who
distinguished himself by his warlike exploits in predatory invasions of
Scotland and Northumberland. Having fallen into the hands of a hostile
Norwegian prince, he procured his freedom by the composition and recitation
of a poem called _Egil's Ransom_, which is still extant.

EGINHARD, or EINHARD, friend and biographer of Charles the Great
(Charlemagne), born in Maingau (East Franconia) about 770, died in 840. He
was educated in the monastery at Fulda, and his capacity attracted the
attention of Charles, who made him superintendent of public buildings, and
of whom he became the constant companion. He also enjoyed the favour of his
son Louis the Pious. His later years were passed at
M[:u]hlheim-on-the-Main, where he founded a monastery. His _Vita Caroli
Magni_ is a work of great value, and his letters are also important.

EG'LANTINE, one of the names of the sweetbrier (_Rosa rubiginosa_), a kind
of wild rose. The name has sometimes been erroneously used for other
species of the rose and for the honeysuckle.

EG'MONT, Lamoral, Count, Prince of Gavre, was born in 1522, of an
illustrious family of Holland. He adopted a military career, accompanied
Charles V in his African expeditions, and distinguished himself under
Philip II in the battles of St. Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558).
Philip having gone to Spain, Egmont soon became involved in the political
and religious disputes which arose between the Netherlands and their
Spanish rulers. He tried to adjust the difficulties between both parties,
and in 1565 went to Spain to arrange matters with Philip. He was well
received, sent back with honour, but quite deceived as to the king's real
intentions. In 1567 the Duke of Alva was sent with an army to the
Netherlands to reduce the insurgents. One of his first measures was to
seize Count Egmont and Count Horn. After a trial before a tribunal
instituted by Alva himself they were executed at Brussels 5th June, 1568. A
well-known drama of Goethe's is founded on the story of Egmont.

E'GOISM, as a philosophical doctrine, the view that the elements of all
knowledge and the reality of the things known are dependent on the personal
existence of the knower. This theory is also called Subjective Idealism or
Solipsism. It maintains that his individual ego is the only being that a
man can logically assert to exist. As an ethical theory (practical egoism)
it is the opposite of altruism. It maintains that the governing principle
of conduct for the individual is his own good on the whole, and that
self-interest is the basis of morality. Egoism is to be distinguished from
egotism, which denotes the practice of putting forward or dwelling upon
oneself, of thinking, talking, or writing about oneself.

EGREMONT, a town of England, in Cumberland, in the valley of the Ehen, 3
miles from the sea, giving name to a parliamentary division. It has ruins
of an ancient (twelfth century) castle associated with a legend that served
Wordsworth as the subject of a poem. Iron-ore and limestone are worked.
Pop. 6300.

[Illustration: Little Egret (_Ard[)e]a garzetta_)]

EG'RET, a name given to those species of white herons which have the
feathers of the lower part of the back elongated and their webs disunited,
reaching to the tail or beyond it at certain seasons of the year. Their
forms are more graceful than those of common herons. The American egret
(_Ard[)e]a egretta_) is about 37 inches long to the end of the tail;
plumage soft and blended; head not crested; wings moderate; the tail short,
of twelve weak feathers. The European egret (_A. alba_) is about 40 inches
long, of a pure white plumage; the bill is black or dark brown, yellow at
the base and about the nostrils, and the legs are almost black. The little
egret (_A. garzetta_) is about 22 inches long from bill to end of tail, the
plumage is white. The term egret is used in the feather trade for a bunch
of the loose plumes, valued as an ornament.

[Illustration: Diagrammatic Section across Egypt from Farafra Oasis to
Sinai]

EGYPT (from Gr. _Aiguptos_) is, as Herodotus has said, "the gift of the
Nile". This great river, about 4000 miles in length, rises as the White
Nile, three degrees south of the equator, drawing its waters from the
Central African lakes. To the south of Khartoum, and 1350 miles from the
sea, it is joined by the Blue Nile, which rises in the mountains of
Abyssinia, and about 140 miles farther on it is fed by the Atbara, its last
tributary. On the tableland of Nubian sandstone between Khartoum and
Elephantine the river forms two great loops, and is intercepted by shallows
or cataracts, of which there are six in all. The 'first cataract'--the last
on the journey northward--is at Assouan, where a ridge of intercepting
granite crops up. At Edfu, about 68 miles farther north, the limestone
formation is entered, and the Nile then flows uninterrupted between
flanking hills that here and there attain the height of 1000 feet. Egypt
proper extends from Assouan to the Mediterranean. At a distance of about
100 miles from the sea the Nile divides into the branches forming the
Delta. To the south of Cairo it sends out the Bahr Yusuf, a branch about
200 miles long, which flows into the fertile Fayum. The narrow valley, the
average breadth of which is 10 miles, is 'the land of Egypt'. Its
cultivable area is not so large as Belgium, being under 10,000 sq. miles in
extent. Rain falls to the north of Cairo, but in Upper Egypt there are
showers only once in every three or four years. The fertility of the
country is due to the Nile. Each year the great river rises in flood when
the equatorial lakes are suddenly swollen by heavy tropical rains and the
snow melts in the Abyssinian mountains. The mean summer heat is 83deg F. in
the Delta and 122deg F. in the valley. It is a dry heat, not so oppressive
as that of India, and malaria is practically unknown. The most trying part
of the year is during the period of 'Low Nile'. Before the surplus waters
were stored in the Assouan Dam, the river shrank so low that its flow
seemed uncertain. For about two months the hot and blistering 'hanseen' (or
'sand-wind') keeps blowing. A new season is ushered in by the cool north
wind--the Etesian wind of the Greeks--which clears the accumulated dust
from vegetation. It is lauded in ancient texts by priestly poets and
Pharaohs. About the same time the conspicuous star Sirius makes its
appearance. It was anciently regarded as a form of the Mother Goddess. On
the 'Night of the Drop', in June, a fertilizing tear was supposed to fall
from this star, and thereafter the 'new Nile' was born. For about four days
(before the Assouan Dam was constructed) the rising river flowed green, the
slimy matter on the marshes of Upper Egypt being pushed forward by the 'new
water'. This was the 'Green Nile'. Then the Nile turned blood-red with
Abyssinian clay. This was the 'Red Nile'. As soon as the fertilizing 'new
water' touched the parched sands, Egypt awoke to new life. Countless
insects appeared, new grass and flowers sprang up, and trees and shrubs
broke into brilliant blossoms that filled the air with sweet perfume.
Bursting over its banks, the steadily rising river flooded the valley
generously and refreshingly. According to the Coptic Calendar, the
inundation season lasted from June till September, the seed-time from
October till January, and the harvest began in February.

[Illustration: Part of the Hieroglyphic Legend of Heru-Behutet and the
Winged Disk, cut on the Walls of the Temple of Edf[^u] in Upper Egypt

Translation: In the three hundred and sixty-third year of R[=a]-Heru-Khuti,
who liveth for ever and for ever, His Majesty was in TA-KENS, and his
soldiers were with him; (the enemy) did not conspire (auu) against their
lord, and the land (is called) UAUATET unto this day. And R[=a] set out on
an expedition in his boat, and his followers were with him, and he arrived
at UTHES-HERU, (which lay to) the west of this nome, and to the east of the
canal PAKHENNU, which is called ( ... to this day). And Heru-Behutet was in
the boat of R[=a], and he said unto his father R[=a]-Heru-Khuti (i.e.
R[=a]-Harmachis), "I see that the enemies are conspiring against their
lord; let thy fiery serpent gain the mastery ... over them."--Reproduced by
permission from Vol. XXXII of _Books on Egypt and Chaldaea_, by Sir E. A.
Wallis Budge.]

_Early Religion and Civilization._--In its earliest phases the religion of
ancient Egypt reflected the natural phenomena of the Nile Valley in their
relation to the needs, experiences, and achievements of mankind. The flood
was an annual 'miracle of mercy', and the early people tried to account for
it. They concluded it was a gift of the gods. It ensured the food-supply;
it brought health and relief from the oppressive heat endured when the
sand-wind prevailed and the river was low. The new water was 'the water of
life'; it fertilized the parched soil and caused barley and millet (which
grew wild in the Delta) to spring up, trees to yield fruit, and curative
herbs to appear on the river banks. In the prehistoric period the Nile was
identified with Osiris, who, according to the traditions of the Delta
people, once reigned as their king, and introduced the agricultural mode of
life which made it possible for large and growing communities to dwell in
the narrow valley. In the Pyramid Texts (_c._ 2700 B.C.) Osiris is the
controller of the Nile, the principle of life in the Nile, and the Nile
itself. In one of his phases the god is the 'Green One'--the Green Nile. A
Pyramid Text reads: "Horus comes! He beholds his father in thee, Green One,
in thy name of Water of Greenness". The soul-substance (literally 'the
seed') of Osiris was the vital principle in the green or new water. Osiris
was the serpent-soul in the water, and the serpent (leviathan) of the ocean
which 'encircled the netherworld'. The god is addressed in a Pyramid Text:
"Thou art great, thou art green in thy name of Great Green" (Mediterranean
Sea). Osiris was slain by Set, and his life-blood was the Red Nile, which
entered the soil and vegetation. Osiris was not regarded as the Green One
because vegetation is green; the ancient Egyptians appear to have
attributed the greenness of vegetation to the Green Nile, the
soul-substance of Osiris. The sap of shrubs and trees was 'Blood'--the
blood of the god. Osiris continued to live after death. On earth he was in
barley, fruit, &c., and in the fertilized soil. He was in the other world
Judge and King of the Dead. In his underworld Paradise the souls of the
dead grew corn and cultivated fruit-trees--the 'food of life'. The Osirian
cult had origin in the Delta of Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt a solar cult
exalted Horus, the falcon god, as chief deity. Their heaven was beyond the
sky 'to the east'. In the Pyramid Texts there is clear evidence that the
solar cult believed the souls of the dead went eastward, while the Osirian
cult believed they went westward. Osiris was called 'First of the
Westerners'. The 'Easterners' of the south (Upper Egypt) conquered the
'Westerners' of the north (Lower Egypt), and Egypt was united into a single
kingdom by the traditional King Mena, with whom begins the dynastic history
of Egypt. This conquest appears to have been due to the introduction of
copper weapons.

The idea that the Horites were invaders from Arabia or Mesopotamia has been
abandoned. Copper was anciently found in the wadis of Upper Egypt and on
the shores of the Red Sea. After boat-building and navigation were well
advanced copper was mined in Sinai. According to Egyptian evidence, Edfu
was the centre of the early copper industry and of the Horus cult. As
Egyptian copper is naturally hard, it required no amalgam. Egypt,
therefore, never had a Bronze Age, nor had it a Neolithic Age. The copper
artifacts were imitations of Palaeolithic forms of the Solutrian type.
After the conquest there occurred fusions of religious cults. Local
pantheons reflected local politics. But although the sun-cult of Heliopolis
exalted Ra [Illustration: Painted inner wooden coffin of
Pen-Amen-Neb-Nest-Taui, a prophet of the God Amen and of the Goddess Bast
at Thebes.] [Illustration: Types of Columns from Egyptian Temples.] (or Re)
as King of the Gods, the belief that all that existed originated in water
persisted till the end. The water-mother was Hathor, who gave birth to
Osiris. As the Nile was supposed to come from heaven, she was the
sky-goddess; her animal was the primeval cow of a pre-dynastic cult, and
she was the shell-spirit of water as well--the Egyptian Aphrodite. The
shell, pearl, cow, sky, sun, moon, and stars were connected with Hathor as
Nut. Ra, the sun-god, was, like Osiris, regarded as her son. Her attributes
were in time absorbed by Isis. At the dawn of the Dynastic Age the
religious beliefs of the Egyptian peoples were already well developed, the
agricultural mode of life was established in the Nile Valley and in the
Delta area, the calendar had been introduced, while copper weapons and
implements were in use. The subsequent history of the official religion has
a political aspect. Local cults rose into prominence as a city-state or
ruling family achieved political ascendancy. Memphite theology and the
Memphite god Ptah (the god of artisans) assumed importance when the city of
Memphis became the capital of the united kingdom. Heliopolis ('the city of
the sun') was the northern centre of the solar cult, which, during the
fourth and fifth dynasties (_c._ 2900-2625 B.C.), became influential enough
to impose its theology on the court. The popular Osirian faith was
absorbed. Pharaohs were 'Sons of Ra', the sun-god, and Ra supplanted the
southern sun-god Horus. Before the Pyramid Age the Osirian and Horite cults
had been blended, and Horus became the son of Osiris. Although the living
Pharaoh, however, was the son of Ra, he was also a Horus; after death he
became an Osiris. The culture-blending process introduced many
complexities. During the twelfth dynasty (2000-1788 B.C.) the name of the
Theban god Amon entered into royal names. But the permanent political
ascendancy of Amon of Thebes really followed upon the expulsion of the
Hyksos military aristocracy about 1580 B.C. By this time the northern sun
cult's influence had become sufficiently strong to have Ra blended with the
Theban deity who was subsequently known as Amon-Ra. Before the close of the
eighteenth dynasty (_c._ 1350 B.C.) a royal sun cult, promoted by Pharaoh
Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), exalted Aton, the sun-disc, as sole god of Egypt
and the rest of the world. The Amon-Ra cult regained its political
ascendancy with the rise of the nineteenth dynasty. In later times the
chief gods of the reigning families were blended forms of Amon, Ra, Ptah,
and Osiris. Not only the gods, but the rival Paradises, were blended.
Osiris's under-world Paradise was transferred to the mythical other world
beyond the horizon, and the sun-barque of the sun-god, which carried the
soul of the Pharaoh, was supposed to touch at 'the port of Paradise'. It
went westward and passed through the under-world, and emerged again next
morning at dawn in the east. The contradictions in the Egyptian religious
texts are believed to be mainly due to the blending of beliefs regarding
the fate of man which were originally fundamentally different. Local
deities were embraced in the official theology, but at their centres
remained prominent and influential. But these, too, were in time so
strongly influenced by the solar and Osirian faiths that they suffered in
no small degree loss of identity except in name. The religious beliefs of
Egypt as a whole were never completely systematized. There were no heresies
because there were no orthodox beliefs. Any religious cult was tolerated,
so long as it acknowledged the supremacy of the god or pantheon of the
ruling family. In the later period the cult of Serapis (Asar Hapi), the
bull form of Osiris, was popular.

[Illustration: Egyptian Pottery-making

From a wall-painting in the tombs of Beni-Hassan.]

_Arts and Crafts._--Art developed in ancient Egypt under religious
patronage. The earliest use made of Nubian gold was in manufacturing
imitation luck-shells worn by the pre-dynastic peoples. Gold thus acquired
a religious significance; at an early period it was associated with the
sun-deity--the mother-goddess in her solar aspect was called 'Golden
Hathor'. The hieroglyph for gold (_nub_) is a collar of beads. Exquisite
gold ornaments in symbolic shapes were produced during the early dynasties.
No finer gold ornaments have ever been produced anywhere than those of the
twelfth dynasty (_c._ 2000 B.C.). These include chased gold pectoral
ornaments and coronets and crowns inlaid with stones. When copper was first
introduced it was used like gold. After implements were made of copper,
vases of alabaster, diorite, &c., were worked with increasing skill and
taste. The hardest stone was hewn and dressed for building purposes. No
people have ever shown greater skill than the Egyptians in their stonework.
The sculptors set themselves, when constructing temples, to imitate in
stone the lashed palm-sticks, reeds, and papyrus stems used in the earliest
shrines to stiffen the mud walls. Massive temple pillars were decorated
with lotus petals, rose petals, &c. The early artists, who carved ivory,
began to work in stone after copper implements were invented, and produced
low reliefs in temples and tomb-chapels. Statuary in limestone, wood, and
copper in the early dynastic period was vigorous and realistic. The
sculptors were using the hardest material by the time of the Pyramid Age
(_c._ 2700 B.C.). A great tomb-statue of Pharaoh-Khafra, in diorite,
preserved in the Cairo Museum, is one of the triumphs of Egyptian
sculpture. The Empire-period sculpture reached a high level of excellence.
It was to provide 'soul-bodies' for dead Pharaohs that these great works of
art were produced. A great advance in the manufacture of pottery was
achieved during the Pyramid Age, when the potter's wheel was invented. To
Egypt the ancient world owed this notable contrivance. It was introduced in
time into Babylonia, Iran, India, China, Crete, Greece, and Western Europe.
Shipbuilding is another Egyptian industry which promoted progress. Cretan
and Phoenician vessels were of Egyptian design. In all histories of
shipping and navigation the ancient Egyptians are credited with being the
pioneers of maritime enterprise. The custom of mummification arose in
Egypt, and promoted the study of anatomy. Surgery had its origin in
mummification, as astronomy had in astrology, and chemistry had in alchemy.
Connected with each temple were architects, artists and sculptors,
metal-workers and dyers. Ships were constructed to obtain wood for temples
and to import pearls, precious stones, herbs, incense-bearing shrubs and
trees, &c., for religious purposes. In the history of early civilization
the Egyptian priests play a prominent part as patrons of the arts and
crafts.

[Illustration: Nefert, a royal princess of the Old Kingdom period

From a limestone statue in the Cairo Museum.]

_History._--In the hot, dry sands of Upper Egypt, which preserve the dead
from decay, have been found the bodies of large numbers of pre-dynastic
Egyptians. They were of the type known as the 'Mediterranean race'. The
contents of their stomachs have yielded husks of barley and millet and
fragments of mammalian and fish bones. Circumcision was practised, and some
men shaved. These people used malachite as an eyelid paint. When they
discovered that copper could be extracted from malachite, it was used at
first like gold, as has been stated. The production of copper implements
and weapons was followed by the conquest of Lower Egypt by the copper-using
Upper Egyptians. After the latter moved north, they found that the bodies
of their dead decayed, and the practice of mummification was introduced.
Before 3000 B.C. the broad-headed, long-bearded Armenoid type began to
filter into Lower Egypt. The blending of Armenoids and Arabians in Syria
produced 'the hybrid race of Semites'. In Egypt the ethnic fusion was most
marked at the commercial capital, Memphis, and especially during the time
of the pyramid builders (_c._ 2900-2750 B.C.). The spread of 'copper
culture', and the importation into Egypt of timber from Lebanon, apparently
brought the ancient races into close contact. Withal, shipbuilding and the
art of navigation had advanced by leaps and bounds. Before the Pyramid Age
there were sea-traders on the Mediterranean, and the Egyptians imported
copper from Sinai across the Red Sea. The legendary Pharaoh who united
Upper and Lower Egypt was Mena or Menes. From his time (_c._ 3400 B.C.)
till the close of the sixth dynasty (_c._ 2475 B.C.) the capital was
Memphis. This period is known as that of the 'Old Kingdom'. Among its
outstanding monarchs were Khufu, Khafra, and Menkure of the fourth dynasty,
the builders of the largest pyramids. Herodotus refers to them as _Cheops_,
_Chephren_, and _Mykerinos_. The 'Middle Kingdom' begins with the rise of
Thebes in Upper Egypt as the centre of political power. During this period
the nobility became so influential that the Pharaohs had to recognize their
rights and privileges. In the period of the famous twelfth dynasty (_c._
2000-1788 B.C.) the Theban monarchs established a uniform control of Egypt.
The later kings of this dynasty were unable, however, to withstand the
inroads of Asiatics, and the Middle Kingdom came to an end with the Hyksos
invasion. Of the Hyksos, the so-called 'Shepherd Kings', little is known.
They were civilized Asiatics, and during their overlordship of Egypt, which
embraced the thirteenth till the seventeenth dynasties (_c._ 1800-1575
B.C.), the horse and chariot were introduced into Egypt. A Theban royal
house rose into prominence during the latter part of their sway, and the
Hyksos were finally expelled by Pharaoh Aahmes, who founded the eighteenth
dynasty. The Empire period was then inaugurated. Egypt's greatest emperor,
Thothmes III (1515-1461 B.C.), extended his conquests to the borders of
Asia Minor, and received tribute from the Hittites, and even from Cyprus
and Crete. During the reign of Akhenaton, the Hittites and their allies,
the Amorites, seized the Egyptian sphere of influence in Syria and Northern
Palestine.

In the nineteenth dynasty (1350-1205 B.C.) much of the lost territory was
recovered. Rameses II (1325-1258 B.C.) fought his Waterloo at Kadesh, but
found it necessary about 1300 B.C. to conclude a treaty of peace with the
Hittites, the Assyrian Power at the time becoming very powerful and
aggressive. Rameses III of the twentieth dynasty was the last great Pharaoh
of the Empire period. He successfully resisted the threatened invasions of
naval and military peoples from Greece and Anatolia in 1200 B.C. It is
believed that the Trojan War (1194-1184 B.C.) was waged by the same
confederacy which had attempted to invade the Delta region. No fewer than
nine Pharaohs named Rameses ruled in Egypt after Rameses III. Most of these
were priest-kings. A Libyan dynasty held sway for about two centuries
(950-750 B.C.). One of its Pharaoh-Sheshhonks was the 'Shishak' who was an
ally of Solomon; after the death of that monarch he invaded Palestine. The
Ethiopians of Nubia (Sudan) subsequently overran Egypt. One of its
Pharaohs, Shabaka, was the ally of King Hosea of Israel against Assyria; he
was defeated at Raphia by Sargon in 720 B.C. The last Ethiopian Pharaoh,
Taharka, was in 662 B.C. overcome by the invading army of the Assyrian
Emperor, Ashur-banipal. The northern royal family of Sais then came into
power, and the twenty-sixth dynasty, which lasted for about 130 years
(662-525 B.C.), was inaugurated by Psamtik I. Pharaoh-Necho, referred to in
the Bible, was the second ruler. It was during Necho's reign that his
Phoenician mariners circumnavigated Africa. Egyptian culture was at the
time spreading far and wide along sea and land routes. Trade was
flourishing. The greatest world-power at the time, however, was Persia, and
in 525 B.C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses and became a Persian province,
with short interruptions of weak native dynasties (the twenty-eighth to
thirtieth), until in 332 B.C. Alexander the Great seized it and founded
Alexandria. The Ptolemaic dynasty afterwards held sway for about three
centuries. During this period learning and the arts flourished. Alexandria
was not only a commercial town, but a centre of culture and the capital of
Egypt. Osiris was worshipped there in the form of Serapis. During the
latter part of the dynasty the native Egyptians were using Greek and
Graecized names, and the whole country was more or less Hellenized. The
fifteenth Ptolemy was the younger brother of the famous Cleopatra, the
seventh of her name. He vanished, and was succeeded by Cleopatra's son,
Caesarion--Ptolemy XVI--whose father was Julius Caesar. Both Cleopatra and
her son perished when Egypt became a Roman province in 30 B.C. A daughter
of Cleopatra and Antony became the wife of Juba, King of Morocco.

[Illustration: Queen Ahmes (wife of Thothmes I)

From a relief on the wall of the temple at Der-el-Bahari. The face is of
Mediterranean type. She represents the royal line which soon afterwards
fused with a foreign strain, so that the facial type changed.]

[Illustration: Head of Rameses II

From the mummy]

The Romans drew vast quantities of gold from the mines of Nubia (_nub_
means 'gold') and made Egypt their 'granary'. Egyptian religious beliefs
and customs were perpetuated by the Roman emperors. Tiberius and Vespasian
restored ancient Nilotic temples. The worship of Isis spread to Rome.
Hadrian had to give a decision in a dispute between Memphis and Heliopolis
regarding the sacred bull. But Egyptian native learning was decaying, and
the knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was dying out. Christianity was
introduced during the Roman period, and the Coptic Church established. In
A.D. 642 the Romans finally abandoned Egypt, which, till 868, became a
province of the successive Mohammedan caliphates of Medina, of Damascus,
and Baghdad. The Turkish soldiery dominated Egypt for a period. The Shia
heretics afterwards became powerful, and the Christians were well treated.
In 1250 the Mamelukes (descendants of slaves) came into power. Their
pomp-loving sultans and emirs lived in great splendour. They came under
Turkish sway early in the sixteenth century, but when Napoleon conquered
Egypt in the eighteenth century they were again semi-independent. The
British drove the French out of Egypt. Mehemet Ali, an Albanian officer in
a Turko-Albanian force, had himself declared Sultan of Egypt, but when he
overran Syria and threatened to march to Constantinople, Russia intervened.
Britain and France afterwards prevailed on Mehemet Ali to rule Egypt as the
viceroy of the Sultan of Turkey. His successor and grandson, Abbas I, built
the first railway in Egypt. The next viceroy, Said Pasha, son of Mehemet
Ali, granted to a French company the right to construct the Suez Canal.
Egypt became bankrupt under his successor, Ismail Pasha, the first Khedive
(Prince), during whose reign the Suez Canal was opened. He was deposed when
the British and French took over the control of Egyptian finance. During
the term of his successor, Tewfik Pasha, the Arabi Pasha rebellion took
place. The military occupation of Egypt by British troops was followed by
peace and good government. But trouble broke out in the Sudan. Mohammed
Ahmed declared himself the Mahdi (Messiah) of the Mohammedans, and
conquered a great part of the Sudan. In Nov., 1883, General Hicks ('Hicks
Pasha') led an army of 10,000 Egyptians against the false prophet, but
while marching across the driest part of the Sudan, misled by spies who
acted as guides, his thirst-stricken army was entirely destroyed by the
Mahdi's force. This victory gave the false prophet great prestige. In Jan.,
1884, General Gordon was sent to Khartoum as Governor-General of the Sudan,
but was completely isolated there. Khartoum was captured and the gallant
general slain on 26th Jan., 1885, before a relieving force could reach him.
The Mahdi died in June, 1885, and was succeeded by Abdullah the Khalifa.
After a period of reorganization and preparation in Egypt, the reconquest
of the Sudan was begun. Lord (then Sir Herbert) Kitchener was Sirdar, or
Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army, and his expeditionary force was
strengthened by British regiments. In April, 1898, the Khalifa's army was
defeated on the banks of the Atbara, and on 2nd Sept. Kitchener won a great
victory near Omdurman. The Khalifa escaped, but was rounded up by Sir
Reginald Wingate's force, and slain with his emirs at Umme Dubraykat on
24th Nov., 1899. Thereafter the Sudan came under the control of a
British-Egyptian _condominium_, which appointed a Governor-General.

[Illustration: The Great Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx

Built by Cheops (Khufu) and Cephron (Khafra) as their future tombs, in
order to secure immortality by the preservation of the mummy.]

At the time of the outbreak of the Great War, in the autumn of 1914, the
Khedive of Egypt was in Constantinople. He sided with the Central Powers.
He was consequently deposed by Britain, and Prince Hussein Kamil was
declared Sultan of Egypt; the suzerainty of Turkey terminated at the same
time. The new ruler of Egypt was the uncle of the deposed Khedive, Abbas
Pasha Hilmi (second son of the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, and brother of
Tewfik Pasha, the second Khedive). Hussein Kamil died in 1917 and was
succeeded by Ahmed Fuad Pasha. Under the Peace Treaty, Egypt is recognized
as an independent kingdom protected by Great Britain. The capital of modern
Egypt is Cairo, situated near the site of ancient Memphis. Thebes is
represented by Luxor and Karnak.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (Religion) Breasted,
_Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_; Renouf, _Book of
the Dead_; Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_; Wiedemann, _Religion of the
Ancient Egyptians_; Sayce, _Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia_; G.
Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_; (History)--G. Elliot
Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_; Breasted, _A History of Egypt_; Flinders
Petrie, _A History of Egypt_; King and Hall, _Egypt and Western Asia in the
Light of Recent Discoveries_; H. R. Hall, _The Ancient History of the Near
East_; Sir A. Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_; Lord Cromer, _Modern
Egypt_.

EGYPTIAN BLUE, a brilliant and very permanent pigment used by the Romans in
the early centuries of the Christian era. It has been found in ancient
frescoes in the Vatican, and also at Pompeii. The chemist Fouqu['e] proved
by analysis that it is a double silicate of calcium and copper.

EGYPTIAN VULTURE (_Neophron perenopt[)e]rus_), a bird that frequents both
shores of the Mediterranean, but rarely passes farther north, though it has
been found in the British islands. It is one of the smaller vultures, about
the size of a raven. The general colour is white, the quill feathers of the
wing being dark brown. It frequents the streets of Eastern towns, where it
is protected on account of its services as a scavenger. This vulture is
sometimes known as Pharaoh's Hen, on account of its frequent representation
in Egyptian hieroglyphics. In Spain it is called the _quebranta-huesos_
(bone-smasher) in reference to its supposed habit of breaking up bones left
by other vultures.

EHRENBERG ([=a]'r[.e]n-ber_h_), Christian Gottfried, a German scientist,
born in 1795, died in 1876. After studying theology, medicine, and natural
history, he joined in 1820 an expedition to Palestine, Egypt, and
Abyssinia, returning to Berlin in 1825. In 1829 he accompanied Humboldt to
the Ural and Altai ranges and to Central Siberia. His great work on
Infusoria appeared in 1838, and was at once recognized as the highest
authority on the subject. It was followed in 1854 by his _Microgeology_.

EHRENBREITSTEIN ([=a]'ren-br[=i]t-st[=i]n), a dismantled Prussian fortress
formerly of great strength and situated opposite the confluence of the
Moselle with the Rhine, on a precipitous rock 387 feet above the river, and
inaccessible on three sides. It is connected with Coblentz on the opposite
shore by a bridge of boats. The fortifications, which were erected between
1816 and 1820 at a cost of L1,200,000, could accommodate a garrison of
14,000 men, and possessed room for stores to last an army of 60,000 for a
year.

EHRLICH, Paul, German physician, born in Silesia in 1854, died in 1915.
Educated at Breslau, Strasburg, and Leipzig, he became _privat-dozent_ at
the University of Berlin in 1889, and in 1896 was appointed director of the
Royal Institute for Serum Research at Steglitz, which was transferred to
Frankfurt in 1899, and became the Royal Institute for Experimental
Therapeutics. His studies in the histology of blood are very important, but
his claim to fame is based upon his discovery of _salvarsan_ (606) and of
_neosalvarsan_ (614), arsenic compounds which are very efficacious in the
treatment of syphilis. He delivered the Croonian lectures in 1900 and the
Harben lectures in 1907, received honorary degrees from the universities of
Oxford and Chicago, and in 1908 shared the Nobel prize for medicine with
Metchnikoff of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. His works include:
_Beitr[:a]ge zu Histologie und Klinik des Blutes_, _Anaemie_, _Abhandlungen
[:u]ber Salvarsan_, &c.

EIBENSTOCK ([=i]'ben-stok), a town in the south-east of Saxony, with
important manufactures of lace. Pop. 9528.

EICHHORN ([=i]_h_'horn), Johann Gottfried, German Orientalist, historian,
&c., born in 1752, died in 1827. He became professor of Oriental languages
at Jena, and then at G[:o]ttingen. Amongst his works are: _The Hebrew
Prophets_, _History of Literature_, _History of the Last Three Centuries_,
_Introductions to the Old and New Testaments and to the Apocrypha_.

EICHST[:A]TT ([=i]_h_'stet), an old town, Bavaria, in a deep valley of the
Altm[:u]hl, 67 miles N.N.W. of Munich. Its principal edifice is a fine
Gothic cathedral, founded in 1259. Pop. 8029.

EIDER ([=i]'d[.e]r), a river of Schleswig-Holstein, rises 8 miles S. of
Kiel, and after a winding course falls into the North Sea at T[:o]nning;
length, 112 miles. By means of a canal it long gave communication between
the North Sea and Baltic, but the new ship canal here has superseded this
route.

[Illustration: Eider Duck (_Somateria molliss[)i]ma_), female]

EIDER DUCK (_Somateria molliss[)i]ma_), a species of duck found from 45deg
north to the highest latitudes yet visited, both in Europe and America. Its
favourite haunts are solitary rocky shores and islands. In Greenland and
Iceland they occur in great numbers, and also breed on the western islands
of Scotland. The eider duck is about twice the size of the common duck,
being about 2 feet 3 inches in length, 3 feet in breadth of wing, and from
6 to 7 lb. in weight. The male is black, head and back white, with a black
crown. The female is reddish drab spotted with black, and with two white
bands on the wings. They feed largely on shell-fish and crustaceans. Their
nests are usually formed of drift grass or dry seaweed, lined with a large
quantity of down, which the female plucks from her own breast. In this soft
bed she lays five eggs, which she covers over with a layer of down. If
this, with the eggs, is removed, the bird repeats the process. One female
generally furnishes about 1/2 lb. of down, but the quantity is reduced by
cleaning. This down, from its superior warmth, lightness, and elasticity,
is in great demand for beds and coverlets; and the districts in Norway and
Iceland where these birds abound are guarded with the greatest vigilance as
a most valuable property. As found in commerce this down is in balls of the
size of a man's fist, and weighing from 3 to 4 lb. It is so fine and
elastic that 5 lb. of the best quality is sufficient for a whole bed. The
down from dead birds is little esteemed, having lost its elasticity. The
king eider duck (_Somateria spectab['i]lis_) is another species resembling
the preceding and inhabiting the same coasts.--Cf. J. G. Millais, _British
Diving Ducks_.

EIFFEL ([=a]-fel), Alexandre Gustave, French engineer, born in 1832;
attended, from 1852 to 1855, the ['E]cole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures
at Paris, and devoted himself chiefly to the designing of large structures
in iron, especially bridges and viaducts, the great bridge over the Douro
being one of his works. His name is best known, however, from the lofty
iron tower erected by him in connection with the Paris Exhibition of 1889,
rising to the height of 985 feet on the Champ de Mars. He was condemned in
1893 to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 francs for
misappropriation of funds belonging to the Panama Canal Company, but the
judgment was set aside on technical grounds. In 1913 he published a work
entitled _Resistance of the Air_. See next article.

EIFFEL TOWER, a structure named after the originator, one of the sights of
Paris, is by far the loftiest structure in existence, surpassing the
Washington Obelisk, the next highest (555 feet), by 430 feet. It cost about
L260,000, and was erected partly at the cost of the State, partly by funds
provided by Eiffel himself, who formed a company for the purpose. The
company derived its profits from the fees which visitors had to pay, but
the tower became the property of the State in 1909. The top may be reached
by stairs and lifts. The first stage or platform is at the height of 189
feet, and forms a quadrilateral 213 feet square, fitted up as a restaurant.
The next platform is at the height of about 380 feet, and is 98 feet
square. The third platform is at the height of 906 feet, and is large
enough to accommodate a good number of persons, affording a magnificent
view. The lantern higher up is supplied with powerful electric
searchlights, and on the very summit is a small area utilized chiefly for
scientific observations. The tower has been utilized in experiments
connected with the fall of bodies, vibration of the pendulum, and pressure
of the air. In recent years the tower has become an important wireless
telegraphy station.

EIGG (eg), an island on the west coast of Scotland, county of Inverness,
about 10 miles from the mainland, and 5 miles long by about 3 broad. It has
bold, rocky shores, and terminates to the south in a lofty promontory
called the Scuir of Eigg, with a peak of columnar pitchstone porphyry 1339
feet above the sea, and on one side perpendicular as a wall. It is the
scene of the massacre, towards the end of the sixteenth century, of 200
Macdonalds by the Macleods of Skye, who suffocated them in a cave where
they had taken refuge. Pop. 211.

EIGHT-HOUR DAY. The eight-hour day was proposed in England as early as
1833, and in 1869 the Trade Union Congress of Birmingham formulated the
demand that this ideal working day should be adopted throughout the United
Kingdom. The Trade Unions and the Socialists sought to secure the
establishment of the eight-hour day through legislation, and it gradually
came into force not only in coal-mining, but in various trades and
industries. The agitation in favour of an eight-hour day became very strong
in Europe towards the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the
twentieth centuries, and in England it was granted to miners in 1908, and
to railway employees in 1919. Since the European War the movement has made
great headway, and it now forms part of the programme of the Labour parties
in almost all European countries.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hedfield and Gibbins, _A
Shorter Working Day_; Robertson, _The Eight Hour Question_.

EIGHTY CLUB, THE, a club formed in 1879 by a number of prominent English
Liberals with a view to the promotion of the success of Liberalism at the
general election of 1880, whence its name. The members lecture on political
subjects and address Liberal associations throughout the country. Women
were first admitted to membership in 1920.

EIKON BASILIK[=E] ([=i]'kon ba-sil'i-k[=e]; Gr., 'the royal image'), the
name of a book published shortly after the execution of Charles I in Jan.,
1649, and supposed by some to have been written by the king himself. At the
Restoration Gauden, afterwards Bishop of Worcester, laid claim to the
authorship, and a memorandum in the copy of the Earl of Anglesea, Lord
Privy Seal under Charles II, affirms his claim with the authority of
Charles II and the Duke of York. The Royalist Clarendon, author of the
_History of the Rebellion_, accepted this statement, but others refused to
credit Gauden with the authorship. Within a year of its publication, 48,000
copies of the book were sold, and the republicans put forward Milton to
answer it, his _Eikonoklastes_ (that is 'image-breaker') appearing the same
year, by order of Parliament. The _Eikon Basilik[=e]_ professes to be a
sort of private journal of the king, written in an affectedly dignified
strain, and containing numerous assertions of love for his misguided and
ungrateful people.--Cf. Almack, _Bibliography of the King's Book, or Eikon
Basilik[=e]_.

EILDON HILLS ([=e]l'don), a picturesque hill-mass with three summits, south
of Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland, reaching a height of nearly 1400 feet,
fabled to have been cleft in three by Michael Scott.

EILEITHYIA ([=i]-l[=i]-th[=i]'ya), the Greek name of the ancient Egyptian
city Nekheb (the modern El-Kab), on the Nile, some distance above Esneh.
Important remains have been obtained from rock-tombs in the neighbourhood,
and there are several ruined temples.

EILENBURG ([=i]'l[.e]n-b[u:]r_h_), a town, Prussian Saxony, 26 miles N.N.E.
of Merseburg, on an island of the Mulde. It has manufactures of calico.
Pop. 17,400.

EIMBECK ([=i]m'bek), or EINBECK, a town of Prussia, province of Hanover, 40
miles south of Hanover, once famous for its beer (_Eimbecker Bier_, whence
_Bock_). Pop. 9430.

EINSIEDELN ([=i]n'z[=e]-d[.e]ln), a village and district, Switzerland, in
the canton and 9 miles north by east of Schwyz, 3000 feet above the sea,
celebrated for its Benedictine abbey. An image of the Virgin, alleged to
possess miraculous powers, annually attracts immense numbers of pilgrims.
Pop. 8438.

EINSTEIN, Albert (1879- ), physicist, was born at Ulm, W[:u]rtemberg,
Germany, of German-Jewish parents. He was educated at the Gymnasium in
Munich, and, on leaving school in his sixteenth year, accompanied his
parents to Milan. Six months later, he enrolled at the Technical High
School in Zurich, where he studied from 1896 to 1900. He held a post in the
Swiss Patent Office from 1902 to 1909, then various professorships in
Zurich till 1914, when he received a call to the Prussian Academy of
Science, Berlin, as successor to van't Hoff. Einstein has been twice
married. He has become famous as the author of the Theory of Relativity
(q.v.). The 'special theory', which deals chiefly with electrodynamics and
optics, was published in 1905, and the 'general theory' or theory of
gravitation, about ten years later. His name became popularly known in
1919, after observations made during the solar eclipse of that year had
verified his prediction of the bending of rays of light coming from a star
and passing close to the sun. He has made other valuable contributions to
Theoretical Physics, among these being a theory of the Brownian movements
and various important applications of the modern quantum theory of energy.
In 1921 he visited the United States and Britain, and delivered many
lectures on Relativity.

EISENACH ([=i]'z[.e]n-[=a]_h_), a town of Germany, in the former
grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the mountains of Thuringia, at the
junction of the Nesse and H[:o]rsel. It is an attractive town, and contains
a palace erected in 1742. It has manufactures of pottery, leather, woollen
yarn, &c. Sebastian Bach was born there in 1685. Near it lies the Wartburg,
where Luther was kept for safety during 1521 and 1522. Pop. 38,362.

EISENBERG ([=i]'z[.e]n-ber_h_), a town of Germany, former duchy of
Saxe-Altenburg, with a palace and various manufactures. Pop. 10,750.

EISLEBEN ([=i]s'l[=a]-b[.e]n), a town, Prussian Saxony, 25 miles north-west
of Merseburg, celebrated as the place where Luther was born and where he
died. There are many memorials of Luther, and also a bronze statue of the
reformer erected in 1883. Copper is extensively worked in the
neighbourhood. Pop. 24,630.

EISNER, Kurt, Bavarian revolutionary leader, born in 1867 at Berlin, of a
Jewish family. He studied at the University of Marburg, and early acquired
a vast erudition. Entering journalism, he contributed to the _Frankfurter
Zeitung_, where he published an article attacking the Kaiser. For this he
was condemned to nine months' imprisonment. He then wrote for the Socialist
press and eventually became editor-in-chief of the _Vorw[:a]rts_. In 1907
he published a work entitled _The Fall of the Empire_ which attracted much
attention, and in 1910 he attacked Prussian ascendancy in the _Munich
Post_. Eisner took an active part in the Revolution of 1918, and was
appointed Prime Minister of Bavaria. A revolutionary and a Socialist, he
was, however, opposed to Bolshevism, which he did not hesitate to criticize
violently. But his policy of separation, his aim of liberating the South
German States, and his constant attacks upon the Kaiser and the whole
military caste of Germany, brought him many enemies. Whilst on his way from
his house to the Foreign Office he was shot at and killed by Count Arco
Valley on 21st Feb., 1919.

EISTEDDFOD ([=i]-steth'v[=o]d; W. _eistedd_, to sit, and _bod_, to be; pl.
_eisteddfodau_), an ancient assembly of Welsh bards for the purpose of
musical and poetical contests, the judges being originally appointed by
commissions from the native princes, and after the conquest from the
English kings. There are two kinds of eisteddfodau, the national or
general, and the provincial gatherings which take place in many parts of
Wales. The last commission was issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1568, but the
eisteddfod fell into abeyance during the seventeenth century. In 1798 the
ancient custom was revived by the Gwynnedigion Society, and on a more
elaborate scale by the Cambrian Society, which grew out of the
Gwynnedigion. Eisteddfodau are now held annually in North and South Wales
alternately, and are attended by many thousands of people. The festivals of
1919 and 1920 were held at Corwen and at Barry, Glamorgan,
respectively.--Cf. Rhys and Brynmor Jones, _The Welsh People_.

EJECT'MENT, in law, an action wherein the title to lands and tenements may
be tried and the possession recovered. It is commenced by a writ addressed
to the tenant in possession and all entitled to defend the possession,
bearing that the plaintiff lays claim to the property in question, and
calling upon all interested to appear within a certain time to defend their
rights. In its older form the action was remarkable for the curious
fictions on which procedure was based. The names of John Doe, an imaginary
plaintiff, and of Richard Roe, an imaginary defendant, were familiar in
cases of this kind in the English courts until 1852, when the Common Law
Procedure Act abolished these fictitious suitors.

EJECTOR, in mechanical engineering, an appliance for ejecting gases,
vapours, or liquids from closed spaces by the use of another gas, vapour,
or liquid at a higher pressure. For instance, the air may be extracted from
a condenser by an ejector. A jet of steam is directed along a short
specially-shaped pipe leading from the condenser to the outside atmosphere.
The velocity of the steam when it leaves the jet in the pipe is very high,
and it blows out into the atmosphere in spite of the atmospheric pressure
against it. In blowing out into the atmosphere it sucks the air in the
condenser along with it, and after it has been in operation some time
practically the whole of the air is sucked out of the condenser. The
appliance works on the principle of momentum. The active jet mixes with the
material to be ejected and imparts a common momentum to the mixture, which
is sufficient to enable it to pass outside the vessel from which the
ejection is taking place. The same principle is used in the mercury
air-pump (see _Air-pump_).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. E. Dalby, _Steam Power_;
_Modern Mechanical Engineering_ (The Gresham Publishing Company).

EKAT'ERINBURG, a town, Russia, in the government and 170 miles S.E. of
Perm, founded in 1723 by Peter the Great. It is the mining and metallurgy
centre of the Ural regions; and gem-cutting, the making of machinery,
cloth, and candles are industries. Pop. 70,000.

EKAT'ERINODAR, a town of Russia in the Caucasus, chief town of the Kuban
territory, on the River Kuban, a poorly-built place with a considerable
trade. Pop. 107,360.

EKAT'ERINOSLAV, a town of the Ukraine, capital of a government of the same
name, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 250 miles N.E. of Odessa. Founded
in 1787, it is a manufacturing centre, producing iron, machinery, tobacco,
and beer. Pop. 220,100.--The government, which is intersected by the
Dnieper and reaches the Sea of Azov, has great mineral wealth, especially
in coal (Donetz basin), iron, manganese, and rock-salt; and its fertile
black-earth soil produces abundant crops of wheat and other grains. Area,
24,478 sq. miles; pop. 3,537,300.

ELAEAGNA'CEAE, the oleaster family of plants, a small nat. ord. of
apetalous dicotyledons scattered over the northern regions. The only
British member is the sea-buckthorn (_Hippophae rhamnoides_).

ELA'IN, the oily principle of fat obtained by submitting fat to the action
of boiling alcohol, allowing the stearin to crystallize, and then
evaporating the alcoholic solution. It is not unlike vegetable oil in its
appearance and its properties, and forms soaps with alkalies.

E'LAM, the ancient name of a country on the eastern border of Babylonia.
Its civilization dates back beyond 3000 B.C. Before 2000 B.C. it was strong
enough to subdue part of Babylonia. Its power was finally broken by the
last Assyrian monarchs. The capital was Susa, which became prominent again
after the rise of Cyrus. Its splendour during the Persian period is
reflected in the _Book of Esther_, in which it is referred to as 'Shushan'.

[Illustration: Eland (_Oreas canna_)]

E'LAND, _Oreas_ (_Orias_) _canna_, a species of antelope inhabiting Africa,
the largest of all its kind, being about the size of an ox. Its flesh,
especially that of the thighs, which are dried and used in this state, is
highly prized. It is now almost extinct south of the Limpopo, but it is
plentiful in the Kalahari. The colour is a light or greyish brown, and it
possesses a short mane. The horns, which are about 18 inches long and
nearly straight, are spirally keeled.

EL'ANUS, the name of certain species of raptorial birds of the genus
El[=a]nus, belonging to the kites. The type species is the black-winged
kite (_E. caeruleus_) of Africa and South Asia, which strays to South-West
Europe. A very similar form (_E. leucurus_) is native to tropical and
subtropical America, and other species (_E. scriptus_ and _E. axillaris_)
are Australian.

ELAPHOMYCES, a genus of Ascomycetous fungi, section Plectascineae, with
closed, subterranean ascus-fruits resembling those of the genuine truffles
(Tuberineae), but not closely allied to that family. _E. cervinus_ (Hart's
truffle) is not infrequent in Britain; it forms 'mycorhiza' with roots of
oak, beech, and various conifers.

E'LAPS, a genus of poisonous American snakes, the type of the family
Elapidae, to which belongs the cobra de capello.

EL-ARISH, Egyptian city on the Mediterranean, on the Wadi el-Arish, and
chief city of the territory bearing the same name. It was taken by the
French under Kl['e]ber in 1799, but abandoned the same year. Pop. about
5000.

ELASMOBRANCHII (-brang'ki-i), a sub-class of fishes, including sharks,
dog-fishes, rays (skates); and also Chimaera (q.v.) and its allies. They
are predaceous forms, in which the mouth is a transverse slit on the under
side of the head, the numerous simple teeth are in several rows (except in
chimaeroids), the short intestine possesses a spiral valve and opens into a
cloaca. The tail is asymmetrical (heterocercal), and numerous placoid
scales (dermal denticles) are embedded in the skin. The skeleton is
cartilaginous; the heart possesses a muscular conus arteriosus with
numerous rows of pocket-valves; and there are five (sometimes six or seven)
pairs of gill-pouches opening by slits to the exterior, these not being
covered by an external flap (operculum) except in chimaeroids.
Fertilization is internal, and the male is provided with a pair of
copulatory organs (claspers) projecting backwards from the pelvic fins. The
eggs sometimes develop within the body of the mother, but are usually laid
in horny pouches (mermaids' purses). The group is of great antiquity, and
many extinct fossil types are known.

ELASMOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of Mammalia, found in the post-Pliocene
strata of Europe, comprising animals of great size allied to the
rhinoceros, and having probably one large horn and a smaller nasal horn.

ELASTIC BITUMEN, ELATERITE, or MINERAL CAOUTCHOUC, an elastic mineral
bitumen of a blackish-brown colour, and subtranslucent. It has been found
at Castleton, in Derbyshire.

ELASTICITY, the property in virtue of which bodies resist change of volume
or of shape, and tend to regain their original bulk or shape when the
deforming forces are removed. Solids possess elasticity of volume and of
shape. Liquids and gases have elasticity of volume; they resist
compression, but offer only a transient resistance to change of shape (see
_Viscosity_). The elasticity of a gas is measured by the pressure to which
the gas is subjected, if there is no change of temperature. When a gas is
compressed suddenly, it has a greater elasticity on account of the rise of
temperature which takes place. Liquids are less compressible than gases;
water is compressed by about 1 part in 20,000 when the pressure on it is
increased by one atmosphere. A knowledge of the elastic properties of
solids is of importance in all branches of applied mechanics. Homogeneous
solids offer definite resistance to compression, twisting, stretching, and
bending, and this resistance is expressed by a number called a modulus. Let
the deforming force be reckoned per unit of area, e.g. a pressure in tons
per square inch; this is called the stress. The unital deformation produced
by the stress is called the strain, for example, compression per unit of
volume. The modulus is obtained by dividing the stress by the strain; if
this is done with the above example, the ratio will give the bulk modulus.
When the applied forces cause change of shape without change of volume, the
ratio of stress to strain is called the shape modulus or the rigidity of
the material. This property is brought into play when mechanical power is
transmitted by means of shafting. Young's modulus is employed in the cases
of stretching and bending. It is given by the ratio stretching force per
unit area to stretch per unit length. In 1678 Hooke stated the law that
stress is proportional to the strain which it causes. This law is found in
practice to be true for metals within a certain range of stress which lies
below the elastic limit. If the stress is increased beyond this limit, the
material begins to give way, and permanent change of shape or volume takes
place. In the processes of riveting and wire-drawing, the material is
purposely strained beyond the elastic limit, whilst the correct working of
a spring balance requir

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