← catalogue

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dübner, Johann Friedrich" to "Dyeing"

by Various · English · Gutenberg #34751 · 1,210,246 chars · public domain (US)

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dübner, Johann Friedrich" to "Dyeing"
    
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dübner, Johann Friedrich" to "Dyeing"

Author: Various


        
Release date: December 24, 2010 [eBook #34751]
                Most recently updated: January 7, 2021

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34751

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "DÜBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH" TO "DYEING" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net









Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH: "During the Hundred Days he
      attained the rank of captain, and was employed in raising
      fortifications at Grenoble." 'captain' amended from 'captian'.

    ARTICLE DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH: "... were acknowledged by a gift
      of 60,000 francs from the diet and various honours from different
      cities and cantons of the confederation." 'confederation' amended
      from 'confederaton'.

    ARTICLE DUHRING, EUGEN KARL: "In economics he is best known by his
      vindication of the American writer H.C. Carey, who attracts him
      both by his theory of value, which suggests an ultimate harmony of
      the interests of capitalist and labourer ..." 'In' amended from
      'It'.

    ARTICLE DUNBLANE: "The first church is alleged to have been erected
      by Blane, a saint of the 7th century, but the cathedral was founded
      by David I. in 1141 ..." 'was' amended from 'as'.

    ARTICLE DUPONT, PIERRE: "... and in 1851 he paid the penalty of
      having become the poet laureate of the socialistic aspirations of
      the time by being condemned to seven years of exile from France."
      'condemned' amended from 'comdemned'.

    ARTICLE DURAN: "... and filled by men who derived their income from
      a profession, especially medicine." 'especially' amended from
      'epecially'.

    ARTICLE DURANCE: "After passing through some narrow gorges near
      Sisteron the bed of the river becomes wide, and spreads desolation
      around, the frequent overflows being kept within bounds by numerous
      dykes and embankments." 'embankments' amended from 'enbankments'.

    ARTICLE DURER, ALBRECHT: "This altarpiece was afterwards replaced
      at Frankfort (all except the portraits of the donors, which
      remained behind) by a copy, while the original was transported to
      Munich, where it perished by fire in 1674." 'portraits' amended
      from 'protraits'.

    ARTICLE DURER, ALBRECHT: "... but by means of an infinity of single
      lines swept, with a miraculous certainty and fineness of touch, in
      the richest and most intricate of decorative curves." 'and' amended
      from 'amd'.

    ARTICLE DURHAM: "DURHAM, a city and municipal and parliamentary
      borough, and the county town of Durham, England, 256 m. N. by W.
      from London, on the North Eastern railway." 'municipal' amended
      from 'muncipal'.

    ARTICLE DURHAM: "... and in 1889 a hostel was opened for the
      accommodation of women, who may take any course of instruction
      except the theological." 'accommodation' amended from
      'accomodation'.

    ARTICLE DURHAM: "Among other subjects may be mentioned the granting
      of degrees in hygiene, and of diplomas in public health and
      education ..." 'degrees' amended from 'degress'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


           VOLUME VIII, SLICE VIII

              Dubner to Dyeing




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  DUBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH         DUNFERMLINE, JAMES ABERCROMBY
  DUBOIS, FRANCOIS THEODORE        DUNFERMLINE (burgh of Scotland)
  DUBOIS, GUILLAUME                DUNGANNON
  DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE             DUNGARPUR
  DUBOIS, PAUL                     DUNGARVAN
  DUBOIS, PIERRE                   DUNGENESS
  DUBOIS (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)    DUNGEON
  DUBOIS-CRANCE, EDMOND ALEXIS     DUNKELD
  DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL            DUNKIRK (France)
  DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE             DUNKIRK (New York, U.S.A.)
  DUBUQUE                          DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN
  DU CAMP, MAXIME                  DUNMORE
  DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE      DUNMOW
  DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI BRAHAIN    DUNNE, FINLEY PETER
  DUCAS (Byzantine family)         DUNNOTTAR CASTLE
  DUCAS (Byzantine historian)      DUNOIS, JEAN
  DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT  DUNOON
  DUCAT                            DUNROBIN CASTLE
  DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI         DUNS
  DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME AMAND        DUNSINANE
  DU CHESNE, ANDRE                 DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN
  DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER    DUNSTABLE
  DUCIS, JEAN FRANCOIS             DUNSTAFFNAGE
  DUCK                             DUNSTAN, SAINT
  DUCKING and CUCKING STOOLS       DUNSTER
  DUCKWEED                         DUNTOCHER
  DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS       DUNTON, JOHN
  DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F.           DUNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH
  DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT            DUNWICH
  DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER              DUOVIRI
  DUCTLESS GLANDS                  DUPANLOUP, FELIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT
  DUDERSTADT                       DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY
  DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF      DUPIN, ANDRE MARIE JEAN JACQUES
  DUDLEY, EDMUND                   DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES
  DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT               DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANCOIS
  DUDLEY, THOMAS                   DUPONT, PIERRE
  DUDLEY (English county & town)   DUPONT DE L'ETANG, PIERRE ANTOINE
  DUDO                             DUPONT DE L'EURE, JACQUES CHARLES
  DUDWEILER                        DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL
  DUEL                             DUPORT, ADRIEN
  DUENNA                           DUPORT, JAMES
  DUET                             DUPPEL
  DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS  DU PRAT, ANTOINE
  DUFF, ALEXANDER                  DUPRE, JULES
  DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK      DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANCOIS
  DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE               DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE
  DUFFTOWN                         DUPUY, PIERRE
  DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN         DUPUY DE LOME, STANISLAS LAURENT
  DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH         DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME
  DUFRENOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND     DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO
  DUFRESNY, CHARLES                DUQUESNE, ARRAHAM
  DUGAZON                          DUQUESNE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
  DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM             DURAMEN
  DUGONG                           DURAN
  DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENE              DURAN, AGUSTIN
  DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND            DURANCE
  DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE           DURAND, ASHER BROWN
  DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS  DURAND, GUILLAUME
  DUHRING, EUGEN KARL              DURAND, GUILLAUME
  DUIGENAN, PATRICK                DURANDO, GIACOMO
  DUIKER                           DURANGO (state of Mexico)
  DUILIUS, GAIUS                   DURANGO (city of Mexico)
  DUISBURG                         DURANI
  DUK-DUK                          DURANTE, FRANCESCO
  DUKE                             DURAO, JOSE DE SANTA RITA
  DUKE OF EXETER'S DAUGHTER        DURAZZO
  DUKER, CARL ANDREAS              D'URBAN, SIR BENJAMIN
  DUKERIES, THE                    DURBAN
  DUKES, LEOPOLD                   DURBAR
  DUKINFIELD                       DUREN
  DULCIGNO                         DURENE
  DULCIMER                         DURER, ALBRECHT
  DULKEN                           DURESS
  DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS             D'URFEY, THOMAS
  DULSE                            DURFORT
  DULUTH                           DURGA
  DULWICH                          DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON
  DUMAGUETE                        DURHAM (county of England)
  DUMANJUG                         DURHAM (city of England)
  DU MARSAIS, CESAR CHESNEAU       DURHAM (North Carolina, U.S.A.)
  DUMAS, ALEXANDRE                 DURIAN
  DUMAS, ALEXANDRE (Fils)          DURIS
  DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU         DURKHEIM
  DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE       DURLACH
  DU MAURIER, GEORGE BUSSON        DUROC, GERAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL
  DUMBARTON                        DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH
  DUMBARTONSHIRE                   DURRA
  DUMB WAITER                      DURUY, JEAN VICTOR
  DUM-DUM                          DU RYER, PIERRE
  DUMESNIL, MARIE FRANCOISE        DUSE, ELEANORA
  DUMFRIES                         DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG
  DUMFRIESSHIRE                    DUSSELDORF
  DUMICHEN, JOHANNES               DUSSERAH
  DUMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG            DUST
  DUMONT                           DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE
  DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT             DUTCH LANGUAGE
  DUMONT, FRANCOIS                 DUTCH LITERATURE
  DUMONT, JEAN                     DUTCH WARS
  DUMONT, PIERRE ETIENNE LOUIS     DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY, THE
  DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULES          DUTENS, LOUIS
  DUMORTIERITE                     DUTROCHET, RENE JOACHIM HENRI
  DUMOULIN, CHARLES                DUTT, MICHAEL MADHU SUDAN
  DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANCOIS      DUTY
  DUMP                             DU VAIR, GUILLAUME
  DUNASH                           DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX
  DUNBAR, GEORGE                   DUVAL, CLAUDE
  DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE            DUVENECK, FRANK
  DUNBAR, WILLIAM                  DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN
  DUNBAR (seaport of Scotland)     DUVEYRIER, HENRI
  DUNBLANE                         DUX
  DUNCAN (Scottish kings)          DUXBURY
  DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN              DVINA
  DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN             DVINSK
  DUNCAN, THOMAS                   DVORAK, ANTON
  DUNCE                            DWARAKA
  DUNCKER, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG     DWARF
  DUNCKLEY, HENRY                  DWARS
  DUNCOMBE, SIR CHARLES            DWIGHT, JOHN
  DUNDALK                          DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN
  DUNDEE, JOHN OF CLAVERHOUSE      DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM
  DUNDEE (city of Scotland)        DWIGHT, TIMOTHY
  DUNDERLANDSDAL                   DYAKS
  DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE       DYCE, ALEXANDER
  DUNEDIN                          DYCE, WILLIAM
  DUNES                            DYEING
  DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON




DUBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1802-1867), German classical scholar
(naturalized a Frenchman), was born in Hor selgau, near Gotha, on the
20th of December 1802. After studying at the university of Gottingen he
returned to Gotha, where from 1827-1832 he held a post (_inspector
coenobii_) in connexion with the gymnasium. During this period he made
his name known by editions of Justin and Persius (after Casaubon). In
1832 he was invited by the brothers Didot to Paris, to co-operate in a
new edition of H. Etienne's Greek _Thesaurus_. He also contributed
largely to the _Bibliotheca Graeca_ published by the same firm, a series
of Greek classics with Latin translation, critical notes and valuable
indexes. One of Dubner's most important works was an edition of Caesar
undertaken by command of Napoleon III., which obtained him the cross of
the Legion of Honour. His editions are considered to be models of
literary and philological criticism, and did much to raise the standard
of classical scholarship in France. He violently attacked Burnouf's
method of teaching Greek, but without result. Dubner may have gone too
far in his zeal for reform, and his opinions may have been too harshly
expressed, but time has shown him to be right. The old text-books have
been discarded, and a great improvement in classical teaching has taken
place in recent years. Dubner died at Montreuil-sous-Bois, near Paris,
on the 13th of December 1867.

  See F. Godefroy, _Notice sur J.F. Dubner_ (1867); Sainte-Beuve,
  _Discours a la memoire de Dubner_ (1868); article in _Allgemeine
  deutsche Biographic_.




DUBOIS, FRANCOIS CLEMENT THEODORE (1837-   ), French musical composer,
was born at Rosney (Marne) on the 24th of August 1837. He studied at the
Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas, and won the Grand Prix de Rome in
1861 with his cantata _Atala_. After the customary sojourn in Rome,
Dubois returned to Paris and devoted himself to teaching. He was
appointed "maitre de Chapelle" at the church of Ste Clotilde, where
Cesar Franck was organist, in 1863, and remained at this post for five
years, during which time he composed a quantity of sacred music, notably
_Les Sept Paroles du Christ_ (1867), a work which has become well known
in France. In 1868 he became "maitre de Chapelle" at the church of the
Madeleine, and nine years later succeeded Camille Saint-Saens there as
organist. He became professor of harmony at the Conservatoire in 1871,
and was appointed professor of composition in succession to Leo Delibes
in 1891. At the death of Ambroise Thomas in 1896 he became director of
the Conservatoire. Dubois is an extremely prolific composer and has
written in a variety of forms. His sacred works include four masses, a
requiem, _Les Sept Paroles du Christ_, a large number of motets and
pieces for organ. For the theatre he has composed _La Guzla de l'Emir_,
an opera comique in one act, played at the Theatre Lyrique de l'Athenee
in 1873; _Le Pain bis_, an opera comique in one act, given at the Opera
Comique in 1879; _La Farandole_, a ballet in three acts, produced at the
Grand Opera in 1883; _Aben-Hamet_, a four-act opera, heard at the
Theatre Italien in 1884; _Xaviere_, a dramatic idyll in three acts,
played at the Opera Comique in 1895. His orchestral works include two
concert overtures, the overture to _Frithioff_ (1880), several suites,
_Marche heroique de Jeanne d'Arc_ (1888), &c. He is also the author of
_Le Paradis perdu_, an oratorio which gained for him the prize offered
by the city of Paris in 1878; _L'Enlevement de Proserpine_ (1879), a
_scene lyrique_; _Delivrance_ (1887), a cantata; _Hylas_ (1890), a
_scene lyrique_ for soli, chorus and orchestra; _Notre Dame de la mer_,
a symphonic poem (1897); and a musical setting of a Latin ode on the
baptism of Clovis (1899). In addition, he composed much for the piano
and voice.




DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656-1723), French cardinal and statesman, was born
at Brive, in Limousin, on the 6th of September 1656. He was, according
to his enemies, the son of an apothecary, his father being in fact a
doctor of medicine of respectable family, who kept a small drug store as
part of the necessary outfit of a country practitioner. He was educated
at the school of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Brive, where
he received the tonsure at the age of thirteen. In 1672, having finished
his philosophy course, he was given a scholarship at the college of St
Michel at Paris by Jean, marquis de Pompadour, lieutenant-general of the
Limousin. The head of the college, the abbe Antoine Faure, who was from
the same part of the country as himself, befriended the lad, and
continued to do so for many years after he had finished his course,
finding him pupils and ultimately obtaining for him the post of tutor to
the young duke of Chartres, afterwards the regent duke of Orleans.
Astute, ambitious and unrestrained by conscience, Dubois ingratiated
himself with his pupil, and, while he gave him formal school lessons, at
the same time pandered to his evil passions and encouraged him in their
indulgence. He gained the favour of Louis XIV. by bringing about the
marriage of his pupil with Mademoiselle de Blois, a natural but
legitimated daughter of the king; and for this service he was rewarded
with the gift of the abbey of St Just in Picardy. He was present with
his pupil at the battle of Steinkirk, and "faced fire," says Marshal
Luxembourg, "like a grenadier." Sent to join the French embassy in
London, he made himself so active that he was recalled by the request of
the ambassador, who feared his intrigues. This, however, tended to raise
his credit with the king. When the duke of Orleans became regent (1715)
Dubois, who had for some years acted as his secretary, was made
councillor of state, and the chief power passed gradually into his
hands.

His policy was steadily directed towards maintaining the peace of
Utrecht, and this made him the main opponent of the schemes of Cardinal
Alberoni for the aggrandizement of Spain. To counteract Alberoni's
intrigues, he suggested an alliance with England, and in the face of
great difficulties succeeded in negotiating the Triple Alliance (1717).
In 1719 he sent an army into Spain, and forced Philip V. to dismiss
Alberoni. Otherwise his policy remained that of peace. Dubois's success
strengthened him against the bitter opposition of a large section of the
court. Political honours did not satisfy him, however. The church
offered the richest field for exploitation, and in spite of his
dissolute life he impudently prayed the regent to give him the
archbishopric of Cambray, the richest in France. His demand was
supported by George I., and the regent yielded. In one day all the
usual orders were conferred on him, and even the great preacher
Massillon consented to take part in the ceremonies. His next aim was the
cardinalate, and, after long and most profitable negotiations on the
part of Pope Clement XI., the red hat was given to him by Innocent XIII.
(1721), whose election was largely due to the bribes of Dubois. It is
estimated that this cardinalate cost France about eight million francs.
In the following year he was named first minister of France (August). He
was soon after received at the French Academy; and, to the disgrace of
the French clergy, he was named president of their assembly.

When Louis XV. attained his majority in 1723 Dubois remained chief
minister. He had accumulated an immense private fortune, possessing in
addition to his see the revenues of seven abbeys. He was, however, a
prey to the most terrible pains of body and agony of mind. His health
was ruined by his debaucheries, and a surgical operation became
necessary. This was almost immediately followed by his death, at
Versailles, on the 10th of August 1723. His portrait was thus drawn by
the duc de St Simon:--"He was a little, pitiful, wizened, herring-gutted
man, in a flaxen wig, with a weasel's face, brightened by some
intellect. All the vices--perfidy, avarice, debauchery, ambition,
flattery--fought within him for the mastery. He was so consummate a liar
that, when taken in the fact, he could brazenly deny it. Even his wit
and knowledge of the world were spoiled, and his affected gaiety was
touched with sadness, by the odour of falsehood which escaped through
every pore of his body." This famous picture is certainly biassed.
Dubois was unscrupulous, but so were his contemporaries, and whatever
vices he had, he gave France peace after the disastrous wars of Louis
XIV.

  In 1789 appeared _Vie privee du Cardinal Dubois_, attributed to one of
  his secretaries, Mongez; and in 1815 his _Memoires secrets et
  correspondance inedite_, edited by L. de Sevelinges. See also A.
  Cheruel, _Saint-Simon et l'abbe Dubois_; L. Wiesener, _Le Regent,
  l'abbe Dubois et les Anglais_ (1891); and memoirs of the time.




DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848), French Catholic missionary in India,
was ordained in the diocese of Viviers in 1792, and sailed for India in
the same year under the direction of the Missions Etrangeres. He was at
first attached to the Pondicherry mission, and worked in the southern
districts of the present Madras Presidency. On the fall of Seringapatam
in 1799 he went to Mysore to reorganize the Christian community that had
been shattered by Tipu Sultan. Among the benefits which he conferred
upon his impoverished flock were the founding of agricultural colonies
and the introduction of vaccination as a preventive of smallpox. But his
great work was his record of _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_.
Immediately on his arrival in India he saw that the work of a Christian
missionary should be based on a thorough acquaintance with the innermost
life and character of the native population. Accordingly he abjured
European society, adopted the native style of clothing, and made himself
in habit and costume as much like a Hindu as he could. He gained an
extraordinary welcome amongst people of all castes and conditions, and
is still spoken of in many parts of South India with affection and
esteem as "the prince's son, the noblest of Europeans." Although Dubois
modestly disclaimed the rank of an author, his collections were not so
much drawn from the Hindu sacred books as from his own careful and vivid
observations, and it is this, united to a remarkable prescience, that
makes his work so valuable. It is divided into three parts: (1) a
general view of society in India, and especially of the caste system;
(2) the four states of Brahminical life; (3) religion--feasts, temples,
objects of worship. Not only does the abbe give a shrewd, clear-sighted,
candid account of the manners and customs of the Hindus, but he provides
a very sound estimate of the British position in India, and makes some
eminently just observations on the difficulties of administering the
Empire according to Western notions of civilization and progress with
the limited resources that are available. Dubois's French MS. was
purchased for eight thousand rupees by Lord William Bentinck for the
East India Company in 1807; in 1816 an English translation was
published, and of this edition about 1864 a curtailed reprint was
issued. The abbe, however, largely recast his work, and of this revised
text (now in the India Office) an edition with notes was published in
1897 by H.K. Beauchamp. Dubois left India in January 1823, with a
special pension conferred on him by the East India Company, and on
reaching Paris was appointed director of the Missions Etrangeres, of
which he afterwards became superior (1836-1839). He translated into
French the famous book of Hindu fables called _Panchatantra_, and also a
work called _The Exploits of the Guru Paramarta_. Of more interest were
his _Letters on the State of Christianity in India_, in which he
asserted his opinion that under existing circumstances there was no
human possibility of so overcoming the invincible barrier of Brahminical
prejudice as to convert the Hindus as a nation to any sect of
Christianity. He acknowledged that low castes and outcastes might be
converted in large numbers, but of the higher castes he wrote: "Should
the intercourse between individuals of both nations, by becoming more
intimate and more friendly, produce a change in the religion and usages
of the country, it will not be to turn Christians that they will forsake
their own religion, but rather ... to become mere atheists." He died in
1848.




DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905), French sculptor and painter, was born at
Nogent-sur-Seine on the 18th of July 1829. He studied law to please his
family, and art to please himself, and finally adopted the latter, and
placed himself under Toussaint. After studying at the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts, Dubois went to Rome. His first contributions to the Paris
Salon (1860) were busts of "The Countess de B." and "A Child." For his
first statues, "St John the Baptist" and "Narcissus at the Bath" (1863),
he was awarded a medal of the second class. The statue of "The Infant St
John," which had been modelled in Florence in 1860, was exhibited in
Paris in bronze, and was acquired by the Luxemburg. "A Florentine Singer
of the Fifteenth Century," one of the most popular statuettes in Europe,
was shown in 1865; "The Virgin and Child" appeared in the Paris
Universal Exhibition in 1867; "The Birth of Eve" was produced in 1873,
and was followed by striking busts of Henner, Dr Parrot, Paul Baudry,
Pasteur, Gounod and Bonnat, remarkable alike for life, vivacity,
likeness, refinement and subtle handling. The chief work of Paul Dubois
was "The Tomb of General Lamoriciere" in the cathedral of Nantes, a
brilliant masterpiece conceived in the Renaissance spirit, with
allegorical figures and groups representing Warlike Courage, Charity,
Faith and Meditation, as well as bas-reliefs and enrichments; the two
first-named works were separately exhibited in the Salon of 1877. The
medallions represent Wisdom, Hope, Justice, Force, Rhetoric, Prudence
and Religion. The statue of the "Constable Anne de Montmorency" was
executed for Chantilly, and that of "Joan of Arc" (1889) for the town of
Reims. The Italian influence which characterized the earlier work of
Dubois disappeared as his own individuality became clearly asserted. As
a painter he restricted himself mainly to portraiture. "My Children"
(1876) being probably his most noteworthy achievement. His drawings and
copies after the Old Masters are of peculiar excellence: they include
"The Dead Christ" (after Sebastian del Piombo) and "Adam and Eve" (after
Raphael). In 1873 Dubois was appointed keeper of the Luxemburg Museum.
He succeeded Guillaume as director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, 1878,
and Perraud as member of the Academie des Beaux-Arts. Twice at the Salon
he obtained the medal of honour (1865 and 1876), and once at the
Universal Exhibition (1878). He also won numerous other distinctions,
and was appointed grand cross of the Legion of Honour. He was made a
member of several European orders, and in 1895 was elected an honorary
foreign academician of the Royal Academy of London. He died at Paris in
1905.




DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-c. 1312), French publicist in the reign of
Philip the Fair, was the author of a series of political pamphlets
embodying original and daring views. He was known to Jean du Tillet in
the 16th, and to Pierre Dupuy in the 17th century, but remained
practically forgotten until the middle of the 19th century, when his
history was reconstructed from his works. He was a Norman by birth,
probably a native of Coutances, where he exercised the functions of
royal advocate of the bailliage and procurator of the university. He was
educated at the university of Paris, where he heard St Thomas Aquinas
and Siger of Brabant. He was, nevertheless, no adherent of the
scholastic philosophy, and appears to have been conversant with the
works of Roger Bacon. Although he never held any important political
office, he must have been in the confidence of the court when, in 1300,
he wrote his anonymous _Summaria, brevis et compendiosa doctrina felicis
expedicionis et abbreviationis guerrarum et litium regni Francorum_,
which is extant in a unique MS., but is analysed by N. de Wailly in the
_Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (2nd series, vol. iii.). In the
contest between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. Dubois identified
himself completely with the secularizing policy of Philip, and poured
forth a series of anti-clerical pamphlets, which did not cease even with
the death of Boniface. His _Supplication du pueble de France au roy
contre le pape Boniface le VIII^e_, printed in 1614 in _Acta inter
Bonifacium VIII. et Philippum Pulchrum_, dates from 1304, and is a
heated indictment of the temporal power. He represented Coutances in the
states-general of 1302, but in 1306 he was serving Edward I. as an
advocate in Guienne, without apparently abandoning his Norman practice
by which he had become a rich man. The most important of his works, his
treatise _De recuperatione terrae sanctae_,[1] was written in 1306, and
dedicated in its extant form to Edward I., though it is certainly
addressed to Philip. Dubois outlines the conditions necessary to a
successful crusade--the establishment and enforcement of a state of
peace among the Christian nations of the West by a council of the
church; the reform of the monastic, and especially of the military,
orders; the reduction of their revenues; the instruction of a number of
young men and women in oriental languages and the natural sciences with
a view to the government of Eastern peoples; and the establishment of
Philip of Valois as emperor of the East. The king of France was in fact,
when once the pope was deprived of the temporal power, to become the
suzerain of the Western nations, and in a later and separate memoir
Dubois proposed that he should cause himself to be made emperor by
Clement V. His zeal for the crusade was probably subordinate to the
desire to secure the wealth of the monastic orders for the royal
treasury, and to transfer the ecclesiastical jurisdiction to the crown.
His ideas on education, on the celibacy of the clergy, and his schemes
for the codification of French law, were far in advance of his time. He
was an early and violent "Gallican," and the first of the great French
lawyers who occupied themselves with high politics. In 1308 he attended
the states-general at Tours. He is generally credited with _Quaedam
proposita papae a rege super facto Templariorum_, a draft epistle
supposed to be addressed to Clement by Philip. This was followed by
other pamphlets in the same tone, in one of which he proposed that a
kingdom founded on the property of the Templars in the East should be
established on behalf of Philip the Tall.

  See an article by E. Renan in _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxvi.
  pp. 471-536; P. Dupuy _Hist. de la condamnation ... des Templiers_
  (Brussels, 1713), and _Hist. du differend entre le pape Boniface VIII
  et Philippe le Bel_ (Paris 1655); and _Notices et extraits de
  manuscrits_, vol. xx.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Printed in _Collections a servir a l'etude de l'histoire_ (1891).




DUBOIS, a borough of Clearfield county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 129 m. by
rail N.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 6149, (1900) 9375, of whom 1655 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,623. It is served by the Pennsylvania,
the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg, and the Buffalo & Susquehanna
railways. The borough is built on a small plateau surrounded by hills,
on the west slope of the Alleghany Mountains, nearly 1400 ft. above
sea-level. Its chief importance is as a coal and lumber centre; among
its manufacturing establishments are blast furnaces, iron works, machine
shops, railway repair shops, tanneries, planing mills, flour mills,
locomotive works and a glass factory. Dubois was first settled in 1872,
was named in honour of its founder, John Dubois, and was incorporated in
1881.




DUBOIS-CRANCE, EDMOND LOUIS ALEXIS (1747-1814), French Revolutionist,
born at Charleville, was at first a musketeer, then a lieutenant of the
_marechaux_, or guardsmen of the old regime. He embraced liberal ideas,
and in 1789 was elected deputy to the states-general by the third estate
of Vitry-le-Francois. At the Constituent Assembly, of which he was named
secretary in November 1789, he busied himself mainly with military
reforms. He wished to see the old military system, with its caste
distinctions and its mercenaries, replaced by an organization of
national guards in which all citizens should be admitted. In his report,
on the 12th of December 1789, he gave utterance for the first time to
the idea of _conscription_, which he opposed to the recruiting system of
the old regime. His report was not, however, adopted. He succeeded in
securing the Assembly's vote that any slave who touched French soil
should become free. After the Constituent, Dubois-Crance was named
_marechal de camp_, but he refused to be placed under the orders of
Lafayette and preferred to serve as a simple grenadier. Elected to the
Convention by the department of the Ardennes, he sat among the
_Montagnards_, but without following any one leader, either Danton or
Robespierre. In the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for death without delay
or appeal. On the 21st of February 1793 he was named president of the
Convention. Although he was a member of the two committees of general
defence which preceded that of public safety, he did not belong to the
latter at its creation. But he composed a remarkable report on the army,
recommending two measures which contributed largely to its success, the
rapid advancement of the lower officers, which opened the way for the
most famous generals of the Revolution, and the fusion of the volunteers
with the veteran troops. In August 1793 Dubois-Crance was designated
"representative on mission" to the army of the Alps, to direct the siege
of Lyons, which had revolted against the republic. Accused of lack of
energy, he was replaced by G. Couthon. On his return he easily justified
himself, but was excluded from the Jacobin club at the instance of
Robespierre, before whom he refused to bend. Consequently he was
naturally drawn to participate in the revolution of the 9th of Thermidor
of the year II., directed against Robespierre. But he would not join the
Royalist reaction which followed, and was one of the committee of five
which had to oppose the Royalist insurrection of Vendemiaire (see FRENCH
REVOLUTION). It was also during this period that Dubois-Crance was named
a member of the committee of public safety, then much reduced in
importance. After the Convention, under the Directory, Dubois-Crance was
a member of the Council of the Five Hundred, and was appointed
inspector-general of infantry; then, in 1799, minister of war. Opposed
to the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Brumaire, he lived in retirement
during the Consulate and the Empire. He died at Rethel on the 29th of
June 1814. His portrait stands in the foreground in J.L. David's
celebrated sketch of the "Oath of the Tennis Court."

  Among the numerous writings of Dubois-Crance may be noticed his
  _Observations sur la constitution militaire, ou bases du travail
  propose au comite militaire_. See H.F.T. Jung, _Dubois de Crance.
  L'armee et la Revolution, 1789-1794_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884).




DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL (1818-1896), German physiologist, was born in
Berlin on the 7th of November 1818. The Prussian capital was the place
both of his birth and of his life's work, and he will always be counted
among Germany's great scientific men; yet he was not of German blood.
His father belonged to Neuchatel, his mother was of Huguenot descent,
and he spoke of himself as "being of pure Celtic blood." Educated first
at the French college in Berlin, then at Neuchatel, whither his father
had returned, he entered in 1836 the university of Berlin. He seems to
have been uncertain at first as to the bent of his studies, for he sat
at the feet of the great ecclesiastical historian August Neander, and
dallied with geology; but eventually he threw himself into the study of
medicine, with such zeal and success as to attract the notice of the
great teacher of anatomy and physiology, who was then making Berlin
famous as a school for the sciences ancillary to medicine. Johannes
Muller may be regarded as the central figure in the history of modern
physiology. the physiology of the 19th century. Muller's earlier
studies had been distinctly physiological; but his inclination, no less
than his position as professor of anatomy as well as of physiology in
the university of Berlin, led him later on into wide studies of
comparative anatomy, and these, aided by the natural bent of his mind
towards problems of general philosophy, gave his views of physiology a
breadth and a depth which profoundly influenced the progress of that
science in his day. He had, about the time when the young Du
Bois-Reymond came to his lectures, published his great _Elements of
Physiology_, the dominant note of which may be said to be this:--"Though
there appears to be something in the phenomena of living beings which
cannot be explained by ordinary mechanical, physical or chemical laws,
much may be so explained, and we may without fear push these
explanations as far as we can, so long as we keep to the solid ground of
observation and experiment." Muller recognized in the Neuchatel lad a
mind fitted to carry on physical researches into the phenomena of living
things in a legitimate way. He made him in 1840 his assistant in
physiology, and as a starting-point for an inquiry put into his hands
the essay which the Italian, Carlo Matteucci, had just published on the
electric phenomena of animals. This determined the work of Du
Bois-Reymond's life. He chose as the subject of his graduation thesis
"Electric Fishes," and so commenced a long series of investigations on
animal electricity, by which he enriched science and made for himself a
name. The results of these inquiries were made known partly in papers
communicated to scientific journals, but also and chiefly in his work
_Researches on Animal Electricity_, the first part of which appeared in
1848, the last in 1884.

This great work may be regarded under two aspects. On the one hand, it
is a record of the exact determination and approximative analysis of the
electric phenomena presented by living beings. Viewed from this
standpoint, it represents a remarkable advance of our knowledge. Du
Bois-Reymond, beginning with the imperfect observations of Matteucci,
built up, it may be said, this branch of science. He did so by inventing
or improving methods, by devising new instruments of observation or by
adapting old ones. The debt which science owes to him on this score is a
large one indeed. On the other hand, the volumes in question contain an
exposition of a theory. In them Du Bois-Reymond put forward a general
conception by the help of which he strove to explain the phenomena which
he had observed. He developed the view that a living tissue, such as
muscle, might be regarded as composed of a number of electric molecules,
of molecules having certain electric properties, and that the electric
behaviour of the muscle as a whole in varying circumstances was the
outcome of the behaviour of these native electric molecules. It may
perhaps be said that this theory has not stood the test of time so well
as have Du Bois-Reymond's other more simple deductions from observed
facts. It was early attacked by Ludimar Hermann, who maintained that a
living untouched tissue, such as a muscle, is not the subject of
electric currents so long as it is at rest, is isoelectric in substance,
and therefore need not be supposed to be made up of electric molecules,
all the electric phenomena which it manifests being due to internal
molecular changes associated with activity or injury. Although most
subsequent observers have ranged themselves on Hermann's side, it must
nevertheless be admitted that Du Bois-Reymond's theory was of great
value if only as a working hypothesis, and that as such it greatly
helped in the advance of science.

Du Bois-Reymond's work lay chiefly in the direction of animal
electricity, yet he carried his inquiries--such as could be studied by
physical methods--into other parts of physiology, more especially into
the phenomena of diffusion, though he published little or nothing
concerning the results at which he arrived. For many years, too, he
exerted a great influence as a teacher. In 1858, upon the death of
Johannes Muller, the chair of anatomy and physiology, which that great
man had held, was divided into a chair of human and comparative anatomy,
which was given to K.B. Reichert (1811-1883), and a chair of
physiology, which naturally fell to Du Bois-Reymond. This he held to his
death, carrying out his researches for many years under unfavourable
conditions of inadequate accommodation. In 1877, through his influence,
the government provided the university with a proper physiological
laboratory. In 1851 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences of
Berlin, and in 1867 became its perpetual secretary. For many years he
and his friend H. von Helmholtz, who like him had been a pupil of
Johannes Muller, were prominent men in the German capital. Acceptable at
court, they both used their position and their influence for the
advancement of science. Both, from time to time as opportunity offered,
stepped out of the narrow limits of the professorial chair and gave the
world their thoughts concerning things on which they could not well
dwell in the lecture room. Du Bois-Reymond, as has been said, had in his
earlier years wandered into fields other than those of physiology and
medicine, and in his later years he went back to some of these. His
occasional discourses, dealing with general topics and various problems
of philosophy, show that to the end he possessed the historic spirit
which had led him as a lad to listen to Neander; they are marked not
only by a charm of style, but by a breadth of view such as might be
expected from Johannes Muller's pupil and friend. He died in the city of
his birth and adoption on the 26th of November 1896.     (M. F.)




DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE (1670-1742), French author, was born at Beauvais in
December 1670. After studying for the church, he renounced theology for
the study of public law and politics. He was employed by M. de Torcy,
minister of foreign affairs, and by the regent and Cardinal Dubois in
several secret missions, in which he acquitted himself with great
success. He was rewarded with a pension and several benefices. Having
obtained these, he retired from political life, and devoted himself to
history and literature. He gained such distinction as an author that in
1720 he was elected a member of the French Academy, of which, in 1723,
he was appointed perpetual secretary in the room of M. Dacier. He died
at Paris on the 23rd of March 1742, repeating as he expired the
well-known remark of an ancient, "Death is a law, not a punishment." His
first work was _L'Histoire des quatre Gordiens prouvee et illustree par
des medailles_ (Paris, 1695, 12mo), which, in spite of its ingenuity,
did not succeed in altering the common opinion, which only admits three
emperors of this name. About the commencement of the war of 1701, being
charged with different negotiations both in Holland and in England, with
the design to engage these powers if possible to adopt a pacific line of
policy, he, in order to promote the objects of his mission, published a
work entitled _Les Interets de l'Angleterre mal entendus dans la guerre
presente_ (Amsterdam, 1703, 12mo). But as this work contained indiscreet
disclosures, of which the enemy took advantage, and predictions which
were not fulfilled, a wag took occasion to remark that the title ought
to be read thus: _Les Interets de l'Angleterre mal entendus par l'abbe
Dubos_. It is remarkable as containing a distinct prophecy of the revolt
of the American colonies from Great Britain. His next work was
_L'Histoire de la Ligue de Cambray_ (Paris, 1709, 1728 and 1785, 2 vols.
12mo), a full, clear and interesting history, which obtained the
commendation of Voltaire. In 1734 he published his _Histoire critique de
l'etablissement de la monarchie francaise dans les Gaules_ (3 vols.
4to)--a work the object of which was to prove that the Franks had
entered Gaul, not as conquerors, but at the request of the nation,
which, according to him, had called them in to govern it. But this
system, though unfolded with a degree of skill and ability which at
first procured it many zealous partisans, was victoriously refuted by
Montesquieu at the end of the thirtieth book of the _Esprit des lois_.
His _Reflexions critiques sur la poesie et sur la peinture_, published
for the first time in 1719 (2 vols. 12mo), but often reprinted in three
volumes, constitute one of the works in which the theory of the arts is
explained with the utmost sagacity and discrimination. Like his history
of the League of Cambray, it was highly praised by Voltaire. The work
was rendered more remarkable by the fact that its author had no
practical acquaintance with any one of the arts whose principles he
discussed. Besides the works above enumerated, a manifesto of
Maximilian, elector of Bavaria, against the emperor Leopold, relative to
the succession in Spain, has been attributed to Dubos, chiefly, it
appears, from the excellence of the style.




DUBUQUE, a city and the county-seat of Dubuque county, Iowa, U.S.A., on
the Mississippi river, opposite the boundary line between Wisconsin and
Illinois. Pop. (1890) 30,311; (1900) 36,297; (1905, state census) 41,941
(including 6835 foreign-born, the majority of whom were German and
Irish); (1910 U.S. census) 38,494. Dubuque is served by the Illinois
Central, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul (which has repair shops
here), the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Chicago Great Western
railways; it also has a considerable river traffic. The river is spanned
here by a railway bridge and two wagon bridges. The business portion of
the city lies on the low lands bordering the river; many of the
residences are built on the slopes and summits of bluffs commanding
extensive and picturesque views. Among the principal buildings are the
Carnegie-Stout free public library (which in 1908 had 23,600 volumes,
exclusive of the valuable Senator Allison collection of public
documents), the public high school, and the house of the Dubuque Club.
Dubuque is a Roman Catholic archiepiscopal see, and is the seat of St
Joseph's College (1873), a small Roman Catholic institution; of Wartburg
Seminary (1854), a small Evangelical Lutheran theological school; of the
German Presbyterian Theological School of the North-west (1852); of St
Joseph's Ladies' Academy; and of Bayless Business College. Fifteen miles
from Dubuque is a monastery of Trappist monks. Among the city's
charitable institutions are the Finley and the Mercy hospitals, a home
for the friendless, a rescue home, a House of the Good Shepherd, and an
insane asylum. In 1900 Dubuque ranked fourth and in 1905 fifth among the
cities of the state as a manufacturing centre, the chief products being
those of the planing mills and machine shops, and furniture, sashes and
doors, liquors, carriages, wagons, coffins, clothing, boots and shoes,
river steam boats, barges, torpedo boats, &c., and the value of the
factory product being $9,279,414 in 1905 and $9,651,247 in 1900. The
city lies in a region of lead and zinc mines, quantities of zinc ore in
the form of black-jack being taken from the latter. Dubuque is important
as a distributing centre for lumber, hardware, groceries and dry-goods.

As early as 1788 Julien Dubuque (1765-1810), attracted by the lead
deposits in the vicinity, which were then being crudely worked by the
Sauk and Fox Indians, settled here and carried on the mining industry
until his death. In June 1829 miners from Galena, Illinois, attempted to
make a settlement here in direct violation of Indian treaties, but were
driven away by United States troops under orders from Colonel Zachary
Taylor. Immediately after the Black Hawk War, white settlers began
coming to the mines. Dubuque was laid out under an act of Congress
approved on the 2nd of July 1836, and was incorporated in 1841.




DU CAMP, MAXIME (1822-1894), French writer, the son of a successful
surgeon, was born in Paris on the 8th of February 1822. He had a strong
taste for travel, which his father's means enabled him to indulge as
soon as his college days were over. Between 1844 and 1845, and again, in
company with Gustave Flaubert, between 1849 and 1851, he travelled in
Europe and the East, and made excellent use of his experiences in books
published after his return. In 1851 he was one of the founders of the
_Revue de Paris_ (suppressed in 1858), and was a frequent contributor to
the _Revue des deux mondes_. In 1853 he was made an officer of the
Legion of Honour. He served as a volunteer with Garibaldi in 1860, and
gave an account of his experiences in his _Expedition des deux Siciles_
(1861). In 1870 he was nominated for the senate, but his election was
frustrated by the downfall of the Empire. He was elected a member of the
French Academy in 1880, mainly, it is said, on account of his history of
the Commune, published under the title of _Les Convulsions de Paris_
(1878-1880). His writings include among others the _Chants modernes_
(1855), _Convictions_ (1858); numerous works on travel, _Souvenirs et
paysages d'orient_ (1848), _Egypte, Nubie, Palestine, Syrie_ (1852);
works of art criticism, _Les Salons de 1857, 1859, 1861_; novels,
_L'Homme au bracelet d'or_ (1862), _Une Histoire d'amour_ (1889);
literary studies, _Theophile Gautier_ (1890). Du Camp was the author of
a valuable book on the daily life of Paris, _Paris, ses organes, ses
fonctions, sa vie dans la seconde moitie du XIX^e siecle_ (1869-1875).
He published several works on social questions, one of which, the
_Moeurs de mon temps_, was to be kept sealed in the Bibliotheque
Nationale until 1910. His _Souvenirs litteraires_ (2 vols., 1882-1883)
contain much information about contemporary writers, especially Gustave
Flaubert, of whom Du Camp was an early and intimate friend. He died on
the 9th of February 1894. Du Camp was one of the earliest amateur
photographers, and his books of travel were among the first to be
illustrated by means of what was then a new art.




DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE, SIEUR (1610-1688), one of the lay members
of the great 17th century group of French critics and scholars who laid
the foundations of modern historical criticism, was born at Amiens on
the 18th of December 1610. At an early age his father sent him to the
Jesuits' college at Amiens, where he greatly distinguished himself.
Having completed the usual course at this seminary, he applied himself
to the study of law at Orleans, and afterwards went to Paris, where in
1631 he was received as an advocate before the parliament. Meeting with
very slight success in his profession, he returned to his native city,
and in July 1638 married Catherine Dubois, daughter of a royal official,
the treasurer in Amiens; and in 1647 he purchased the office of
treasurer from his father-in-law, but its duties did not interfere with
the literary and historical work to which he had devoted himself since
returning to Amiens. Forced to leave his native city in 1668 in
consequence of a plague, he settled in Paris, where he resided until his
death on the 23rd of October 1688. In the archives of Paris Du Cange was
able to consult charters, diplomas, manuscripts and a multitude of
printed documents, which were not to be met with elsewhere. His industry
was exemplary and unremitting, and the number of his literary works
would be incredible, if the originals, all in his own handwriting, were
not still extant. He was distinguished above nearly all the writers of
his time by his linguistic acquirements, his accurate and varied
knowledge, and his critical sagacity. Of his numerous works the most
important are the _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae
latinitatis_ (Paris, 1678), and the _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et
infimae graecitatis_ (Lyons, 1688), which are indispensable aids to the
student of the history and literature of the middle ages. To the three
original volumes of the Latin _Glossarium_, three supplementary volumes
were added by the Benedictines of St Maur (Paris, 1733-1736), and a
further addition of four volumes (Paris, 1766), by a Benedictine, Pierre
Carpentier (1697-1767). There were other editions, and an abridgment
with some corrections was brought out by J.C. Adelung (Halle,
1772-1784). The edition in seven volumes edited by G.A.L. Henschel
(Paris, 1840-1850) includes these supplements and also further additions
by the editor, and this has been improved and published in ten volumes
by Leopold Favre (Niort, 1883-1887). An edition of the Greek
_Glossarium_ was published at Breslau in 1889.

Du Cange took considerable interest in the history of the later empire,
and wrote _Historia Byzantina duplici commentario illustrato_ (Paris,
1680), and an introduction to his edition and translation into modern
French of Geoffrey de Villehardouin's _Histoire de l'empire de
Constantinople sous les empereurs francais_ (Paris, 1657). He also
brought out editions of the Byzantine historians, John Cinnamus and John
Zonaras, as _Joannis Cinnami historiarum de rebus gestis a Joanne et
Manuele Comnenis_ (Paris, 1670) and _Joannis Zonarae Annales ab exordio
mundi ad mortem Alexii Comneni_ (Paris, 1686). He edited Jean de
Joinville's _Histoire de St Louis, roi de France_ (Paris, 1668), and his
other works which may be mentioned are _Traite historique du chef de St
Jean Baptiste_ (Paris, 1666); _Lettre du Sieur N., conseiller du roi_
(Paris, 1682); _Cyrilli, Philoxeni, aliorumque veterum glossaria_, and
_Memoire sur le projet d'un nouveau recueil des historiens de France,
avec le plan general de ce recueil_, which has been inserted by Jacques
Lelong in his _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris,
1768-1778). His last work, _Chronicon Paschale a mundo condito ad
Heraclii imperatoris annum vigesimum_ (Paris, 1689), was passing through
the press when Du Cange died, and consequently it was edited by Etienne
Baluze, and published with an _eloge_ of the author prefixed.

His autograph manuscripts and his large and valuable library passed to
his eldest son, Philippe du Fresne, who died unmarried in 1692. They
then came to his second son, Francois du Fresne, who sold the
collection, the greater part of the manuscripts being purchased by the
abbe du Champs. The abbe handed them over to a bookseller named
Mariette, who resold part of them to Baron Hohendorf. The remaining part
was acquired by a member of the family of Hozier, the French
genealogists. The French government, however, aware of the importance of
all the writings of Du Cange, succeeded, after much trouble, in
collecting the greater portion of the manuscripts, which were preserved
in the imperial library at Paris. Some of these were subsequently
published, and the manuscripts are now found in various libraries. The
works of Du Cange published after his death are: an edition of the
Byzantine historian, Nicephorus Gregoras (Paris, 1702); _De imperatorum
Constantinopolitanorum seu inferioris aevi vel imperii uti vocant
numismatibus dissertatio_ (Rome, 1755); _Histoire de l'etat de la ville
d'Amiens et de ses comtes_ (Amiens, 1840); and a valuable work _Des
principautes d'outre-mer_, published by E.G. Rey as _Les Familles
d'outre-mer_ (Paris, 1869).

  See H. Hardouin, _Essai sur la vie et sur les ouvrages de Ducange_
  (Amiens, 1849); and L.J. Feugere, in the _Journal de l'instruction
  publique_ (Paris, 1852).




DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI JOSEPH BRAHAIN (1783-1833), French novelist and
dramatist, was born on the 24th of November 1783 at the Hague, where his
father was secretary to the French embassy. Dismissed from the civil
service at the Restoration, Victor Ducange became one of the favourite
authors of the liberal party, and owed some part of his popularity to
the fact that he was fined and imprisoned more than once for his
outspokenness. He was six months in prison for an article in his journal
_Le Diable rose, ou le petit courrier de Lucifer_ (1822); for
_Valentine_ (1821), in which the royalist excesses in the south of
France were pilloried, he was again imprisoned; and after the
publication of _Helene ou l'amour et la guerre_ (1823), he took refuge
for some time in Belgium. Ducange wrote numerous plays and melodramas,
among which the most successful were _Marco Loricot, ou le petit Chouan
de 1830_ (1836), and _Trente ans, ou la vie d'un joueur_ (1827), in
which Frederick Lemaitre found one of his best parts. Many of his books
were prohibited, ostensibly for their coarseness, but perhaps rather for
their political tendencies. He died in Paris on the 15th of October
1833.




DUCAS, DUKAS or DOUKAS, the name of a Byzantine family which supplied
several rulers to the Eastern Empire. The family first came into
prominence during the 9th century, but was ruined when Constantine
Ducas, a son of the general Andronicus Ducas, lost his life in his
effort to obtain the imperial crown in 913. Towards the end of the 10th
century there appeared another family of Ducas, which was perhaps
connected with the earlier family through the female line and was
destined to attain to greater fortune. A member of this family became
emperor as Constantine X. in 1059, and Constantine's son Michael VII.
ruled, nominally in conjunction with his younger brothers, Andronicus
and Constantine, from 1071 to 1078. Michael left a son, Constantine,
and, says Gibbon, "a daughter of the house of Ducas illustrated the
blood, and confirmed the succession, of the Comnenian dynasty." The
family was also allied by marriage with other great Byzantine houses,
and after losing the imperial dignity its members continued to take an
active part in public affairs. In 1204 Alexius Ducas, called Mourzoufle,
deposed the emperor Isaac Angelus and his son Alexius, and vainly tried
to defend Constantinople against the attacks of the Latin crusaders.
Nearly a century and a half later one Michael Ducas took a leading part
in the civil war between the emperors John V. Palaeologus and John VI.
Cantacuzenus, and Michael's grandson was the historian Ducas (see
below). Many of the petty sovereigns who arose after the destruction of
the Eastern Empire sought to gain prestige by adding the famous name of
Ducas to their own.




DUCAS (15th cent.), Byzantine historian, flourished under Constantine
XIII. (XI.) Dragases, the last emperor of the East, about 1450. The
dates of his birth and death are unknown. He was the grandson of Michael
Ducas (see above). After the fall of Constantinople, he was employed in
various diplomatic missions by Dorino and Domenico Gateluzzi, princes of
Lesbos, where he had taken refuge. He was successful in securing a
semi-independence for Lesbos until 1462, when it was taken and annexed
to Turkey by Sultan Mahommed II. It is known that Ducas survived this
event, but there is no record of his subsequent life. He was the author
of a history of the period 1341-1462; his work thus continues that of
Gregoras and Cantacuzene, and supplements Phrantzes and Chalcondyles.
There is a preliminary chapter of chronology from Adam to John
Palaeologus I. Although barbarous in style, the history of Ducas is both
judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the
closing years of the Greek empire. The account of the capture of
Constantinople is of special importance. Ducas was a strong supporter of
the union of the Greek and Latin churches, and is very bitter against
those who rejected even the idea of appealing to the West for assistance
against the Turks.

  The history, preserved (without a title) in a single Paris MS., was
  first edited by I. Bullialdus (Bulliaud) (Paris, 1649); later editions
  are in the Bonn _Corpus scriptorum Hist. Byz._, by I. Bekker (1834)
  and Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, clvii. The Bonn edition contains a
  15th century Italian translation by an unknown author, found by
  Leopold Ranke in one of the libraries of Venice, and sent by him to
  Bekker.




DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT, BARON (1813-1893), French historian,
was born at Bourges on the 16th of November 1813. In 1849 he became
aide-de-camp to Prince Jerome Bonaparte, ex-king of Westphalia, then
governor of the Invalides, on whose commission he wrote _Memoires pour
servir a l'histoire de la campagne de 1812 en Russie_ (1852).
Subsequently he published _Memoires du roi Joseph_ (1853-1855), and, as
a sequel, _Histoire des negociations diplomatiques relatives aux traites
de Morfontaine, de Luneville et d'Amiens_, together with the unpublished
correspondence of the emperor Napoleon I. with Cardinal Fesch
(1855-1856). From papers in the possession of the imperial family he
compiled _Memoires du prince Eugene_ (1858-1860) and _Refutation des
memoires du duc de Raguse_ (1857), part of which was inserted by
authority at the end of volume ix. of the _Memoires_. He was attache to
Jerome's son, Prince Napoleon, during the Crimean War, and wrote a
_Precis historique des operations militaires en Orient, de mars 1854 a
octobre 1855_ (1857), which was completed many years later by a volume
entitled _La Crimee et Sebastopol de 1853 a 1856, documents intimes et
inedits_, followed by the complete list of the French officers killed or
wounded in that war (1892). He was also employed by Prince Napoleon on
the _Correspondance_ of Napoleon I., and afterwards published certain
letters, purposely omitted there, in the _Revue historique_. These
documents, subsequently collected in _Les Rois freres de Napoleon_
(1883), as well as the _Journal de la reine Catherine de Westphalie_
(1893), were edited with little care and are not entirely trustworthy,
but their publication threw much light on Napoleon I. and his entourage.
His _Souvenirs d'un officier du 2^e Zouaves_, and _Les Dessous du coup
d'etat_ (1891), contain many piquant anecdotes, but at times degenerate
into mere tittle-tattle. Ducasse was the author of some slight novels,
and from the practice of this form of literature he acquired that levity
which appears even in his most serious historical publications.




DUCAT, the name of a coin, generally of gold, and of varying value,
formerly in use in many European countries. It was first struck by Roger
II. of Sicily as duke of Apulia, and bore an inscription "_Sit tibi,
Christe, datus, quem tu regis, iste ducatus_" (Lord, thou rulest this
duchy, to thee be it dedicated); hence, it is said, the name. Between
1280 and 1284 Venice also struck a gold coin, known first as the ducat,
afterwards as the zecchino or sequin, the ducat becoming merely a money
of account. The ducat was also current in Holland, Austria, the
Netherlands, Spain and Denmark (see NUMISMATICS). A gold coin termed a
ducat was current in Hanover during the reigns of George I. and George
III. A pattern gold coin was also struck by the English mint in 1887 for
a proposed decimal coinage. On the reverse was the inscription "one
ducat" within an oak wreath; above "one hundred pence," and below the
date between two small roses. There is a gold coin termed a ducat in the
Austria-Hungary currency, of the value of nine shillings and fourpence.




DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI (1835-1903), traveller and anthropologist, was
born either at Paris or at New Orleans (accounts conflict) on the 31st
of July 1835. In his youth he accompanied his father, an African trader
in the employment of a Parisian firm, to the west coast of Africa. Here,
at a station on the Gabun, the boy received some education from
missionaries, and acquired an interest in and knowledge of the country,
its natural history, and its natives, which guided him to his subsequent
career. In 1852 he exhibited this knowledge in the New York press, and
was sent in 1855 by the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia on
an African expedition. From 1855 to 1859 he regularly explored the
regions of West Africa in the neighbourhood of the equator, gaining
considerable knowledge of the delta of the Ogowe river and the estuary
of the Gabun. During his travels he saw numbers of the great anthropoid
apes called the gorilla (possibly the great ape described by
Carthaginian navigators), then known to scientists only by a few
skeletons. A subsequent expedition, from 1863 to 1865, enabled him to
confirm the accounts given by the ancients of a pygmy people inhabiting
the African forests. Narratives of both expeditions were published, in
1861 and 1867 respectively, under the titles _Explorations and
Adventures in Equatorial Africa, with Accounts of the Manners and
Customs of the People, and of the Chace of the Gorilla, Crocodile, and
other Animals_; and _A Journey to Ashango-land, and further penetration
into Equatorial Africa_. The first work excited much controversy on the
score of its veracity, but subsequent investigation proved the
correctness of du Chaillu's statements as to the facts of natural
history; though possibly some of the adventures he described as
happening to himself were reproductions of the hunting stories of
natives (see _Proc. Zool. Soc._ vol. i., 1905, p. 66). The map
accompanying _Ashango-land_ was of unique value, but the explorer's
photographs and collections were lost when he was forced to flee from
the hostility of the natives. After some years' residence in America,
during which he wrote several books for the young founded upon his
African adventures, du Chaillu turned his attention to northern Europe,
and published in 1881 _The Land of the Midnight Sun_, in 1889 _The
Viking Age_, and in 1900 _The Land of the Long Night_. He died at St
Petersburg on the 29th of April 1903.




DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME BENJAMIN AMAND (1806-1875), French physician, was
born on the 17th of September 1806 at Boulogne, the son of a
sea-captain. He was educated at Douai, and then studied medicine in
Paris until the year 1831, when he returned to his native town to
practise his profession. Two years later he first tried the effect of
electro-puncture of the muscles on a patient under his care, and from
this time on devoted himself more and more to the medical applications
of electricity, thereby laying the foundation of the modern science of
electro-therapeutics. In 1842 he removed to Paris for the sake of its
wider clinical opportunities, and there he worked until his death over
thirty years later. His greatest work, _L'Electrisation localisee_
(1855), passed through three editions during his lifetime, though by
many his _Physiologie des mouvements_ (1867) is considered his
masterpiece. He published over fifty volumes containing his researches
on muscular and nervous diseases, and on the applications of electricity
both for diagnostic purposes and for treatment. His name is especially
connected with the first description of locomotor ataxy, progressive
muscular atrophy, pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis, glosso-labio laryngeal
paralysis and other nervous troubles. He died in Paris on the 17th of
September 1875.

  For a detailed life see _Archives generales de medicine_ (December
  1875), and for a complete list of his works the 3rd edition of
  _L'Electrisation localisee_ (1872).




DU CHESNE [Latinized DUCHENIUS, QUERNEUS, or QUERCETANUS], ANDRE
(1584-1640), French geographer and historian, generally styled the
father of French history, was born at Ile-Bouchard, in the province of
Touraine, in May 1584. He was educated at Loudun and afterwards at
Paris. From his earliest years he devoted himself to historical and
geographical research, and his first work, _Egregiarum seu selectarum
lectionum et antiquitatum liber_, published in his eighteenth year,
displayed great erudition. He enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal
Richelieu, a native of the same district with himself, through whose
influence he was appointed historiographer and geographer to the king.
He died in 1640, in consequence of having been run over by a carriage
when on his way from Paris to his country house at Verriere. Du Chesne's
works were very numerous and varied, and in addition to what he
published, he left behind him more than 100 folio volumes of manuscript
extracts now preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale (L. Delisle, _Le
Cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliotheque imperiale_, t. L, 333-334).
Several of his larger works were continued by his only son Francois du
Chesne (1616-1693), who succeeded him in the office of historiographer
to the king. The principal works of Andre du Chesne are--_Les Antiquites
et recherches de la grandeur et majeste des rois de France_ (Paris,
1609), _Les Antiquites et recherches des villes, chateaux, &c., de toute
la France_ (Paris, 1609), _Histoire d'Angleterre, d'Ecosse, et
d'Irelande_ (Paris, 1614), _Histoire des Papes jusqu'a Paul V_ (Paris,
1619), _Histoire des rois, ducs, et comtes de Bourgogne_ (1619-1628, 2
vols. fol.), _Historiae Normanorum scriptores antiqui_ (1619, fol., now
the only source for some of the texts), and his _Historiae Francorum
scriptores_ (5 vols. fol., 1636-1649). This last was intended to
comprise 24 volumes, and to contain all the narrative sources for French
history in the middle ages; only two volumes were published by the
author, his son Francois published three more, and the work remained
unfinished. Besides these du Chesne published a great number of
genealogical histories of illustrious families, of which the best is
that of the house of Montmorency. His _Histoire des cardinaux francais_
(2 vols. fol. 1660-1666) and _Histoire des chanceliers et gardes des
sceaux de France_ (1630) were published by his son Francois. Andre also
published a translation of the _Satires_ of Juvenal, and editions of the
works of Alcuin, Abelard, Alain Chartier and Etienne Pasquier.




DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER (1843-   ), French scholar and
ecclesiastic, was born at Saint Servan in Brittany on the 13th of
September 1843. Two scientific missions--to Mount Athos in 1874 and to
Asia Minor in 1876--appeared at first to incline him towards the study
of the ancient history of the Christian churches of the East.
Afterwards, however, it was the Western church which absorbed almost his
whole attention. In 1877 he received the degree of _docteur es lettres_
with two remarkable theses, a dissertation _De Macario magnete_, and an
_Etude sur le Liber pontificalis_, in which he explained with unerring
critical acumen the origin of that celebrated chronicle, determined the
different editions and their interrelation, and stated precisely the
value of his evidence. Immediately afterwards he was appointed professor
at the Catholic Institute in Paris, and for eight years presented the
example and model, then rare in France, of a priest teaching church
history according to the rules of scientific criticism. His course, bold
even to the point of rashness in the eyes of the traditionalist
exegetists, was at length suspended. In November 1885 he was appointed
lecturer at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. In 1886 he published
volume i. of his learned edition of the _Liber pontificalis_ (completed
in 1892 by volume ii.), in which he resumed and completed the results he
had attained in his French thesis. In 1888 he was elected member of the
Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, and was afterwards
appointed director of the French school of archaeology at Rome. Much
light is thrown upon the Christian origins, especially those of France,
by his _Origines du culte chretien, etude sur la liturgie latine avant
Charlemagne_ (1889; Eng. trans. by M.L. McClure, _Christian Worship:
its Origin and Evolution_, London, 1902, 2nd ed. 1904); _Memoire sur
l'origine des dioceses episcopaux dans l'ancienne Gaule_ (1890), the
preliminary sketch of a more detailed work, _Fastes episcopaux dans
l'ancienne Gaule_ (vol. i. _Les provinces du sud-est_, 1894, and vol.
ii. _L'Aquitaine et les Lyonnaises_, 1899); and _Catalogues episcopaux
de la province de Tours_ (1898). When a proposal was set on foot to
bring about a reconciliation between the Roman Church and the Christian
Churches of the East, the Abbe Duchesne endeavoured to show that the
union of those churches was possible under the Roman supremacy, because
unity did not necessarily entail uniformity. His _Autonomies
ecclesiastiques; eglises separees_ (1897), in which he speaks of the
origin of the Anglican Church, but treats especially of the origin of
the Greek Churches of the East, was received with scant favour in
certain narrow circles of the pontifical court. In 1906 he began to
publish, under the title of _Histoire ancienne de l'eglise_, a course of
lectures which he had already delivered upon the early ages of the
Church, and of which a few manuscript copies were circulated. The second
volume appeared in 1908. In these lectures Duchesne touches cleverly
upon the most delicate problems, and, without any elaborate display of
erudition, presents conclusions of which account must be taken. His
incisive style, his fearless and often ruthless criticism, and his wide
and penetrating erudition, make him a redoubtable adversary in the field
of polemic. The _Bulletin critique_, founded by him, for which he wrote
numerous articles, has contributed powerfully to spread the principles
of the historical method among the French clergy.




DUCIS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1733-1816), French dramatist and adapter of
Shakespeare, was born at Versailles on the 22nd of August 1733. His
father, originally from Savoy, was a linen-draper at Versailles; and all
through life he retained the simple tastes and straightforward
independence fostered by his bourgeois education. In 1768 he produced
his first tragedy, _Amelise_. The failure of this first attempt was
fully compensated by the success of his _Hamlet_ (1769), and _Romeo et
Juliette_ (1772). _Oedipe chez Admete_, imitated partly from Euripides
and partly from Sophocles, appeared in 1778, and secured him in the
following year the chair in the Academy left vacant by the death of
Voltaire. Equally successful was _Le Roi Lear_ in 1783. _Macbeth_ in
1783 did not take so well, and _Jean sans peur_ in 1791 was almost a
failure; but _Othello_ in 1792, supported by the acting of Talma,
obtained immense applause. Its vivid picturing of desert life secured
for _Abufas, ou la famille arabe_ (1795), an original drama, a
flattering reception. On the failure of a similar piece, _Phedor et
Vladimir ou la famille de Siberie_ (1801), Ducis ceased to write for the
stage; and the rest of his life was spent in quiet retirement at
Versailles. He had been named a member of the Council of the Ancients in
1798, but he never discharged the functions of the office; and when
Napoleon offered him a post of honour under the empire, he refused.
Amiable, religious and bucolic, he had little sympathy with the fierce,
sceptical and tragic times in which his lot was cast. "Alas!" he said in
the midst of the Revolution, "tragedy is abroad in the streets; if I
step outside of my door, I have blood to my very ankles. I have too
often seen Atreus in clogs, to venture to bring an Atreus on the stage."
Though actuated by honest admiration of the great English dramatist,
Ducis is not Shakespearian. His ignorance of the English language left
him at the mercy of the translations of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788)
and of Pierre de la Place (1707-1793); and even this modified
Shakespeare had still to undergo a process of purification and
correction before he could be presented to the fastidious criticism of
French taste. That such was the case was not, however, the fault of
Ducis; and he did good service in modifying the judgment of his fellow
countrymen. He did not pretend to reproduce, but to excerpt and
refashion; and consequently the French play sometimes differs from its
English namesake in everything almost but the name. The plot is
different, the characters are different, the _motif_ different, and the
scenic arrangement different. To _Othello_, for instance, he wrote two
endings. In one of them Othello was enlightened in time and Desdemona
escaped her tragic fate. _Le Banquet de l'amitie_, a poem in four cantos
(1771), _Au roi de Sardaigne_ (1775), _Discours de reception a
l'academie francaise_ (1779), _Epitre a l'amitie_ (1786), and a _Recueil
de poesies_ (1809), complete the list of Ducis's publications.

  An edition of his works in three volumes appeared in 1813; _Oeuvres
  posthumes_ were edited by Campenon in 1826; and _Hamlet_, _Oedipe chez
  Admete_, _Macbeth_ and _Abufar_ are reprinted in vol. ii. of Didot's
  _Chefs-d'oeuvre tragiques_. See Onesime Leroy, _Etude sur la personne
  et les ecrits de Ducis_ (1832), based on Ducis's own memoirs preserved
  in the library at Versailles; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t.
  vi., and _Nouveaux lundis_, t. iv.; Villemain, _Tableau de la litt. au
  XVIII^e siecle_.




DUCK. (1) (From the verb "to duck," to dive, put the head under water,
in reference to the bird's action, cf. Dutch _duiker_, Ger. _Taucher_,
diving-bird, _duiken_, _tauchen_, to dip, dive, Dan. _dukand_, duck, and
Ger. _Ente_, duck; various familiar and slang usages are based on
analogy with the bird's action), the general English name for a large
number of birds forming the greater part of the family _Anatidae_ of
modern ornithologists. Technically the term duck is restricted to the
female, the male being called drake (cognate with the termination of
Ger. _Enterich_), and in one species mallard (Fr. _Malart_).

The _Anatidae_ may be at once divided into six more or less well marked
subfamilies--(1) the _Cygninae_ or swans, (2) the _Anserinae_ or
geese--which are each very distinct, (3) the _Anatinae_ or
freshwater-ducks, (4) those commonly called _Fuligulinae_ or sea-ducks,
(5) the _Erismaturinae_ or spiny-tailed ducks, and (6) the _Merginae_ or
mergansers.

The _Anatinae_ are the typical group, and it is these only that are
considered here. We start with the _Anas boschas_ of Linnaeus, the
common wild duck, which from every point of view is by far the most
important species, as it is the most plentiful, the most widely
distributed, and the best known--being indeed the origin of all the
British domestic breeds. It inhabits the greater part of the northern
hemisphere, reaching in winter so far as the Isthmus of Panama in the
New World, and in the Old being abundant at the same season in Egypt and
north-western India, while in summer it ranges throughout the
Fur-Countries, Greenland, Iceland, Lapland and Siberia. Most of those
which fill British markets are no doubt bred in more northern climes,
but a considerable proportion of them are yet produced in the British
Islands, though not in anything like the numbers that used to be
supplied before the draining of the great fen-country and other marshy
places. The wild duck pairs very early in the year--the period being
somewhat delayed by hard weather, and the ceremonies of courtship, which
require some little time. Soon after these are performed, the respective
couples separate in search of suitable nesting-places, which are
generally found, by those that remain with us, about the middle of
March. The spot chosen is sometimes near a river or pond, but often very
far removed from water, and it may be under a furze-bush, on a dry
heath, at the bottom of a thick hedge-row, or even in any convenient
hole in a tree. A little dry grass is generally collected, and on it the
eggs, from 9 to 11 in number, are laid. So soon as incubation commences
the mother begins to divest herself of the down which grows thickly
beneath her breast-feathers, and adds it to the nest-furniture, so that
the eggs are deeply imbedded in this heat-retaining substance--a portion
of which she is always careful to pull, as a coverlet, over her
treasures when she quits them for food. She is seldom absent from the
nest, however, but once, or at most twice, a day, and then she dares not
leave it until her mate, after several circling flights of observation,
has assured her she may do so unobserved. Joining him the pair betake
themselves to some quiet spot where she may bathe and otherwise refresh
herself. Then they return to the nest, and after cautiously
reconnoitring the neighbourhood, she loses no time in reseating herself
on her eggs, while he, when she is settled, repairs again to the waters,
and passes his day listlessly in the company of his brethren, who have
the same duties, hopes and cares. Short and infrequent as are the
absences of the duck when incubation begins, they become shorter and
more infrequent towards its close, and for the last day or two of the
28 necessary to develop the young it is probable that she will not stir
from the nest at all. When all the fertile eggs are hatched her next
care is to get the brood safely to the water. This, when the distance is
great, necessarily demands great caution, and so cunningly is it done
that but few persons have encountered the mother and offspring as they
make the dangerous journey.[1] If disturbed the young instantly hide as
they best can, while the mother quacks loudly, feigns lameness, and
flutters off to divert the attention of the intruder from her brood, who
lie motionless at her warning notes. Once arrived at the water they are
comparatively free from harm, though other perils present themselves
from its inmates in the form of pike and other voracious fishes, which
seize the ducklings as they disport in quest of insects on the surface
or dive beneath it. Throughout the summer the duck continues her care
unremittingly, until the young are full grown and feathered; but it is
no part of the mallard's duty to look after his offspring, and indeed he
speedily becomes incapable of helping them, for towards the end of May
he begins to undergo his extraordinary additional moult, loses the power
of flight, and does not regain his full plumage till autumn. About
harvest-time the young are well able to shift for themselves, and then
resort to the corn-fields at evening, where they fatten on the scattered
grain. Towards the end of September or beginning of October both old and
young unite in large flocks and betake themselves to the larger waters.
If long-continued frost prevail, most of the ducks resort to the
estuaries and tidal rivers, or even leave these islands almost entirely.
Soon after Christmas the return-flight commences, and then begins anew
the course of life already described.

For the farmyard varieties, descending from _Anas boschas_, see POULTRY.
The domestication of the duck is very ancient. Several distinct breeds
have been established, of which the most esteemed from an economical
point of view are those known as the Rouen and Aylesbury; but perhaps
the most remarkable deviation from the normal form is the so-called
penguin-duck, in which the bird assumes an upright attitude and its
wings are much diminished in size. A remarkable breed also is that often
named (though quite fancifully) the "Buenos-Ayres" duck, wherein the
whole plumage is of a deep black, beautifully glossed or bronzed. But
this saturation, so to speak, of colour only lasts in the individual for
a few years, and as the birds grow older they become mottled with white,
though as long as their reproductive power lasts they "breed true." The
amount of variation in domestic ducks, however, is not comparable to
that found among pigeons, no doubt from the absence of the competition
which pigeon-fanciers have so long exercised. One of the most curious
effects of domestication in the duck, however, is, that whereas the wild
mallard is not only strictly monogamous, but, as Waterton believed, a
most faithful husband, remaining paired for life, the civilized drake is
notoriously polygamous.

Very nearly allied to the common wild duck are a considerable number of
species found in various parts of the world in which there is little
difference of plumage between the sexes--both being of a dusky hue--such
as _Anas obscura_, the commonest river-duck of America, _A.
superciliosa_ of Australia, _A. poecilorhyncha_ of India, _A. melleri_
of Madagascar, _A. xanthorhyncha_ of South Africa, and some others.

Among the other genera of _Anatinae_, we must content ourselves by
saying that both in Europe and in North America there are the groups
represented by the shoveller, garganey, gadwall, teal, pintail and
widgeon--each of which, according to some systematists, is the type of a
distinct genus. Then there is the group _Aix_, with its beautiful
representatives the wood-duck (_A. sponsa_) in America and the
mandarin-duck (_A. galericulata_) in Eastern Asia. Besides there are the
sheldrakes (_Tadorna_), confined to the Old World and remarkably
developed in the Australian Region; the musk-duck (_Cairina_) of South
America, which is often domesticated and in that condition will produce
hybrids with the common duck; and finally the tree-ducks
(_Dendrocygna_), which are almost limited to the tropics. (For
duck-shooting, see SHOOTING.)     (A. N.)

2 (Probably derived from the Dutch _doeck_, a coarse linen material, cf.
Ger. _Tuch_, cloth), a plain fabric made originally from tow yarns. The
cloth is lighter than canvas or sailcloth, and differs from these in
that it is almost invariably single in both warp and weft. The term is
also used to indicate the colour obtained at a certain stage in the
bleaching of flax yarns; it is a colour between half-white and cream,
and this fact may have something to do with the name. Most of the flax
ducks (tow yarns) appear in this colour, although quantities are
bleached or dyed. Some of the ducks are made from long flax, dyed black,
and used for kit-bags, while the dyed tow ducks may be used for inferior
purposes. The fabric, in its various qualities and colours, is used for
an enormous variety of purposes, including tents, wagon and motor hoods,
light sails, clothing, workmen's overalls, bicycle tubes, mail and other
bags and pocketings. _Russian duck_ is a fine white linen canvas.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] When ducks breed in trees, the precise way in which the young get
    to the ground is still a matter of uncertainty. The mother is
    supposed to convey them in her bill, and most likely does so, but
    they are often simply allowed to fall.




DUCKING and CUCKING STOOLS, chairs used for the punishment of scolds,
witches and prostitutes in bygone days. The two have been generally
confused, but are quite distinct. The earlier, the Cucking-stool[1] or
Stool of Repentance, is of very ancient date, and was used by the
Saxons, who called it the _Scealding_ or _Scolding Stool_. It is
mentioned in Domesday Book as in use at Chester, being called _cathedra
stercoris_, a name which seems to confirm the first of the derivations
suggested in the footnote below. Seated on this stool the woman, her
head and feet bare, was publicly exposed at her door or paraded through
the streets amidst the jeers of the crowd. The Cucking-stool was used
for both sexes, and was specially the punishment for dishonest brewers
and bakers. Its use in the case of scolding women declined on the
introduction in the middle of the 16th century of the Scold's Bridle
(see BRANKS), and it disappears on the introduction a little later of
the Ducking-stool. The earliest record of the use of this latter is
towards the beginning of the 17th century. It was a strongly made wooden
armchair (the surviving specimens are of oak) in which the culprit was
seated, an iron band being placed around her so that she should not fall
out during her immersion. Usually the chair was fastened to a long
wooden beam fixed as a seesaw on the edge of a pond or river. Sometimes,
however, the Ducking-stool was not a fixture but was mounted on a pair
of wooden wheels so that it could be wheeled through the streets, and at
the river-edge was hung by a chain from the end of a beam. In sentencing
a woman the magistrates ordered the number of duckings she should have.
Yet another type of Ducking-stool was called a tumbrel. It was a chair
on two wheels with two long shafts fixed to the axles. This was pushed
into the pond and then the shafts released, thus tipping the chair up
backwards. Sometimes the punishment proved fatal, the unfortunate woman
dying of shock. Ducking-stools were used in England as late as the
beginning of the 19th century. The last recorded cases are those of a
Mrs Ganble at Plymouth (1808); of Jenny Pipes, "a notorious scold"
(1809), and Sarah Leeke (1817), both of Leominster. In the last case the
water in the pond was so low that the victim was merely wheeled round
the town in the chair.

  See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle,
  _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (Chicago, 1896); W.C. Hazlitt,
  _Faiths and Folklore_ (London, 1905); Llewellynn Jewitt in _The
  Reliquary_, vols. i. and ii. (1860-1862); _Gentleman's Magazine_ for
  1732.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Probably from "cuck," to void excrement; but variously connected
    with Fr. _coquin_, rascal.




DUCKWEED, the common botanical name for species of _Lemna_ which form a
green coating on fresh-water ponds and ditches. The plants are of
extremely simple structure and are the smallest and least differentiated
of flowering plants. They consist of a so-called "frond"--a flattened
green more or less oval structure which emits branches similar to itself
from lateral pockets at or near the base. From the under surface a root
with a well-developed sheath grows downwards into the water. The
flowers, which are rarely found in Britain, are developed in one of the
lateral pockets. The inflorescence is a very simple one, consisting of
one or two male flowers each comprising a single stamen, and a female
flower comprising a flask-shaped pistil. The order Lemnaceae to which
they belong is regarded as representing a very reduced type nearly
allied to the Aroids. It is represented in Britain by four species of
_Lemna_, and a still smaller and simpler plant, _Wolffia_, in which the
fronds are only one-twentieth of an inch long and have no roots.

[Illustration:

  1, _Lemna minor_ (Lesser Duckweed) nat. size.
  2, Plant in flower.
  3, Inflorescence containing two male flowers each of one stamen, and a
       female flower, the whole enclosed in a sheath.
  4, _Wolffia arrhiza._

  (2, 3, 4 enlarged.)]




DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS (1748-1817), British admiral, was born at
Leatherhead, in Surrey, on the 28th of February 1748. He entered the
navy in 1759, and obtained his commission as lieutenant in June 1770,
when he was appointed to the "Princess Royal," the flagship of Admiral
Byron, in which he sailed to the West Indies. While serving on board
this vessel he took part in the engagement with the French fleet under
Count D'Estaing. In July 1779 he became commander, and was appointed to
the "Rover" sloop; in June of the following year he attained the rank of
post-captain. Soon afterwards he returned to England in charge of a
convoy. The outbreak of the war with France gave him his first
opportunity of obtaining marked distinction. Appointed first to the
"Orion" and then to the "Queen" in the Channel Fleet, under the command
of Lord Howe, he took part in the three days' naval engagement with the
Brest fleet, which terminated in a glorious victory on the 1st of June
1794. For his conduct on this occasion he received a gold medal and the
thanks of parliament. He next proceeded to the West Indies, where he was
stationed for some time at St Domingo. In 1798 he commanded the
"Leviathan" in the Mediterranean, and had charge of the naval detachment
which, in conjunction with a military force, captured Minorca. Early in
1799 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral, and sent to the West
Indies to succeed Lord Hugh Seymour. During the voyage out he captured a
valuable Spanish convoy of eleven merchantmen. In March 1801 he was the
naval commander of the combined force which reduced the islands of St
Bartholomew and St Martin, a service for which he was rewarded with the
order of the Bath and a pension of L1000 a year. Promoted to be
vice-admiral of the blue, he was appointed in 1804 to the Jamaica
station. Two years later, while cruising off Cadiz with Lord
Collingwood, he was detached with his squadron to pursue a French fleet
that had been sent to the relief of St Domingo. He came up with the
enemy on the 6th February 1806, and, after two hours' fighting,
inflicted a signal defeat upon them, capturing three of their five
vessels and stranding the other two. For this, the most distinguished
service of his life, he received the thanks of the Jamaica assembly,
with a sword of the value of a thousand guineas, the thanks of the
English parliament, and the freedom of the city of London. In 1807 he
was again sent to the Mediterranean to watch the movements of the Turks.
In command of the "Royal George" he forced the passage of the
Dardanelles, but sustained considerable loss in effecting his return,
the Turks having strengthened their position while he was being kept in
play by their diplomatists and Napoleon's ambassador General
Sebastiani. He held the command of the Newfoundland fleet for four years
from 1810, and at the close of that period he was made a baronet. In
1815 he was appointed to the chief command at Plymouth, which he held
until his death on the 14th of April 1817. Sir John Duckworth sat in
parliament for some time as member for New Romney.

  See _Naval Chronicle_, xviii.; Ralfe's _Naval Biography_, ii.




DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F. (1856-   ), English poet and critic, who first
became known in England under her maiden name of Mary F. Robinson, was
born at Leamington on the 27th of February 1856. She was educated at
University College, London, devoting herself chiefly to the study of
Greek literature. Her first volume of poetry, _A Handful of
Honeysuckle_, was published in 1879. Her next work was a translation
from Euripides, _The Crowned Hippolytus_ (1881). Monographs on Emily
Bronte (1883) and on Marguerite of Angouleme (1886) followed; and _The
New Arcadia and other Poems_ (1884) and _An Italian Garden_ (1886)
contain some of her best verses. Her poems attracted the attention of
the orientalist, James Darmesteter (q.v.), then in Peshawur, and he made
an admirable translation of them in French. The acquaintance led to
their marriage in 1888, and from that time a large part of her work was
done in French. Madame Darmesteter translated her husband's _Etudes
anglaises_ into English (1896). Her most considerable prose work is the
_Life of Ernest Renan_ (1897). She also wrote the _End of the Middle
Ages_ (1888); the volume on _Froissart_ (1894) in the _Grands ecrivains
francais_; essays on the Brontes, the Brownings and others, entitled
_Grands ecrivains d'Outre-Manche_ (1901). After Darmesteter's death, she
married in 1901 Emile Duclaux, the associate of Pasteur, and director of
the Pasteur institute. He died in 1904. She published _Retrospect and
other Poems_ in 1893, and in 1904 appeared The _Return to Nature, Songs
and Symbols_. The qualities of Mary Robinson's work, its conciseness and
purity of expression, were only gradually recognized. Her _Collected
Poems, Lyrical and Narrative_ were published in 1902.




DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT (1704-1772), French author, was born at Dinan, in
Brittany, in 1704. At an early age he was sent to study at Paris. After
some time spent in dissipation he began to cultivate the society of the
wits of the time, and became a member of the club or association of
young men who published their joint efforts in light literature under
the titles of _Recueil de ces messieurs_, _Etrennes de la St-Jean_,
_Oeufs de Paques_, &c. His romance of _Acajou and Zirphile_, composed to
suit a series of plates which had been engraved for another work, was
one of the fruits of this association, and was produced in consequence
of a sort of wager amongst its members. Duclos had previously written
two other romances, which were more favourably received--_The Baroness
de Luz_ (1741), and the _Confessions of the Count de***_ (1747). His
first serious publication was the _History of Louis XI._, which is dry
and epigrammatical in style, but displays considerable powers of
research and impartiality. The reputation of Duclos as an author was
confirmed by the publication of his _Considerations sur les moeurs de ce
siecle_ (1751), a work justly praised by Laharpe, as containing a great
deal of sound and ingenious reflection. It was translated into English
and German. The _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire du dix-huitieme
siecle_, intended by the author as a sort of sequel to the preceding
work, are much inferior in style and matter, and are, in reality, little
better than a kind of romance. In consequence of his _History of Louis
XI._, he was appointed historiographer of France, when that place became
vacant on Voltaire's retirement to Prussia. His _Secret Memoirs of the
Reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV._ (for which he was able to utilize
the _Memoires_ of Saint Simon, suppressed in 1755), were not published
until after the Revolution.

Duclos became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1739, and of
the French Academy in 1747, being appointed perpetual secretary in 1747.
Both academies were indebted to him not only for many valuable
contributions, but also for several useful regulations and improvements.
As a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, he composed several memoirs
on trial by combat, on the origin and revolutions of the Celtic and
French languages, and on scenic representations and the ancient drama.
As a member of the French Academy, he assisted in compiling the new
edition of the _Dictionary_, which was published in 1762; and he made
some just and philosophical remarks on the _Port Royal Grammar_. On
several occasions he distinguished himself by vindicating the honour and
prerogatives of the societies to which he belonged, and the dignity of
the literary character in general. He used to say of himself, "I shall
leave behind me a name dear to literary men." The citizens of Dinan,
whose interests he always supported with zeal, appointed him mayor of
their town in 1744, though he was resident at Paris, and in this
capacity he took part in the assembly of the estates of Brittany. Upon
the requisition of this body the king granted him letters of nobility.
In 1763 he was advised to retire from France for some time, having
rendered himself obnoxious to the government by the opinions he had
expressed on the dispute between the duc d'Aiguillon and M. de la
Chalotais, the friend and countryman of Duclos. Accordingly he set out
first for England (1763), then for Italy (1766); and on his return he
wrote his _Considerations on Italy_. He died at Paris on the 26th of
March 1772. The character of Duclos was singular in its union of
impulsiveness and prudence. Rousseau described him very laconically as a
man _droit et adroit_. In his manners he displayed a sort of bluntness
in society, which frequently rendered him disagreeable; and his caustic
wit on many occasions created enemies. To those who knew him, however,
he was a pleasant companion. A considerable number of his _bons mots_
have been preserved by his biographers.

  A complete edition of the works of Duclos, including an unfinished
  autobiography, was published by Auger (1821). See also Saint-Beuve,
  _Causeries du lundi_, t. ix.; Rene Kerviler, _La Bretagne et
  l'Academie francaise du XVIII^e siecle_ (1889); L. Mandon, _De la
  valeur historique des memoires secrets de Duclos_ (1872).




DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER (1754-1816), French politician and director, was
born at Dax. He was an advocate when elected deputy to the Convention by
the department of the Landes. He sat in the "Plain," i.e. in the party
which had no opinion of its own, which always leaned to the stronger
side. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., without appeal or delay, but
played no noticeable part in the Convention. He was a member of the
Council of the Five Hundred, over which he presided on the 18th of
Fructidor in the year V. (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). At the end of his term
he became a judge of the peace, but after the parliamentary _coup
d'etat_ of the 30th of Prairial of the year VIII. he was named a member
of the executive Directory, thanks to the influence of Barras, who
counted on using him as a passive instrument. Ducos accepted the _coup
d'etat_ of Bonaparte on the 18th of Brumaire, and was one of the three
provisional consuls. He became vice-president of the senate. The Empire
heaped favours upon him, but in 1814 he abandoned Napoleon, and voted
for his deposition. He sought to gain the favour of the government of
the Restoration, but in 1816 was exiled in virtue of the law against the
regicides. He died in March 1816 at Ulm, from a carriage accident. In
spite of his absolute lack of talent, he attained the highest of
positions--an exceptional fact in the history of the French Revolution.




DUCTLESS GLANDS, in anatomy. A certain number of glands in the body,
often of great physiological importance, have no _ducts_ (Lat. _ductus_,
from _ducere_, to lead, i.e. vessels, tubes or canals for conveying away
fluid or other substance); and their products, known as internal
secretions, are at once carried away by the veins or lymphatics which
drain them. Among these structures are the _spleen_, the _adrenals_, the
_thyroid gland_, the _parathyroids_, the _thymus_ and the _carotid_ and
_coccygeal_ bodies. In addition to these the lymphatic glands are
described in the article on the lymphatic system (q.v.), and the pineal
and pituitary bodies in the article on the brain (q.v.).

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Spleen--Visceral Aspect.

From D.J. Cunningham, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.]


THE SPLEEN

The human _spleen_ (Gr. [Greek: splen]) is an oval, flattened gland, of
a dull purple colour, and about 5 in. long by 3 broad, situated in the
upper and back part of the left side of the abdominal cavity. If the
right hand is passed round the left side of its owner's body, as far as
it will reach, it approximately covers the spleen. The long axis of the
organ is obliquely placed so that the upper pole is much nearer the
vertebral column than the lower pole. For practical purposes the long
axis of the left tenth rib corresponds with that of the spleen. There is
an external or parietal surface and an internal or visceral, the latter
of which is again subdivided; these surfaces are limited by ventral and
dorsal borders. The external, parietal, or phrenic surface is convex to
adapt it to the concavity of the diaphragm, against the posterior part
of which it lies; external to the diaphragm is the pleural cavity, and
more externally still, the ninth, tenth and eleventh ribs. The internal
or visceral surface is divided by a prominent ridge into a gastric or
anterior and a renal or posterior surface. Sometimes a triangular
impression called the basal surface is formed at the lower part of the
visceral surface by the left end of the transverse colon, though at
other times no such impression is seen. It is probable that the exact
shape of the spleen depends a good deal on the amount of distension of
the surrounding hollow viscera at the time of death. (For details of the
basal surface see D.J. Cunningham, _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxix.
p. 501.) The gastric surface is concave and adapts itself to the fundus
of the stomach, while just in front of the ridge separating the gastric
and renal surfaces is the hilum, where the vessels enter and leave the
organ; in front of this the tail of the pancreas usually touches the
spleen. The renal surface is as a rule smaller than the gastric and,
like it, is concave; it is moulded on to the upper part of the outer
border of the left kidney and just reaches the left adrenal body. The
anterior or ventral border of the spleen has usually two or more notches
in it, though these are often also seen on the dorsal border. The whole
spleen is surrounded by peritoneum, which is reflected off on to the
stomach as the gastro-splenic omentum, and on to the kidney as the
lieno-renal ligament; occasionally the lesser sac reaches it near its
connexion with the pancreas. Small accessory spleens are fairly often
found in the neighbourhood of the spleen, though it is possible that
some of these may be haemo-lymph glands (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM).

  Microscopically the spleen has a fibro-elastic coat in which
  involuntary muscle is found (fig. 2). This coat sends multitudes of
  fine trabeculae into the interior of the organ, which subdivide it
  into numbers of minute compartments, in which the red, highly
  vascular, spleen pulp is contained. This pulp contains small spherical
  masses of adenoid tissue, forming the Malpighian corpuscles, situated
  on the terminal branches of the splenic blood-vessels, together with
  numerous cells, some of which are red blood corpuscles, others lymph
  corpuscles, others contain pigment granules or fat, while others have
  in their interior numerous blood corpuscles. The arteries of the
  spleen in part end in capillaries from which the veins arise, but more
  frequently they open into lacunae or blood spaces, which give origin
  to the veins.

  _Embryology._--The spleen is developed in the dorsal mesogastrium (see
  COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES) from the mesenchyme, or that portion of
  the mesoderm, the cells of which lie scattered in a matrix. Large
  lymphoid cells are early seen among those of the mesenchyme, but
  whether these migrate from the coelomic epithelium, or are originally
  mesenchymal is doubtful, though the former seems more probable. The
  network of the spleen seems certainly to be derived from cells of the
  mesenchyme which lose their nuclei.

  _Comparative Anatomy._--The spleen is regarded as the remains of a
  mass of lymphoid tissue which, in a generalized type of vertebrate,
  stretched all along the alimentary canal. It is absent as a distinct
  gland in the Acrania and Cyclostomata. In the fishes it is closely
  applied to the U-shaped stomach, and in some of the Elasmobranchs,
  e.g. the basking and porbeagle sharks (Selache and Lamna), it is
  divided into small lobules. In Protopterus among the Dipnoi it is
  enclosed within the walls of the stomach. In the Anura (frogs and
  toads) among the Amphibia it is a spherical mass close to the rectum,
  and this may be explained by regarding it as derived from a different
  part of the original mass, already mentioned, to that which persists
  in other vertebrates. In the Iguana among the reptiles the organ has
  many notches, and each one corresponds to the point of entrance of a
  vessel. In Mammals the notches, when they are present, so frequently
  correspond to the points of entrance of arteries at the hilum that the
  present writer believes that the former are determined by the latter
  in many cases (see F.G. Parsons on the Notches of the Spleen, _J.
  Anat. and Phys._ vol. 35, p. 416; also Charnock Bradley, _Proceedings
  of R. Soc. Edin._, vol. 24, pt. 6, p. 521). The Monotremata and
  Marsupialia have curious Y-shaped spleens. As a rule flesh-eating
  animals have larger and more notched spleens than vegetable feeders,
  though among the Cetacea the spleen is relatively very small.

[Illustrtion: FIG. 2.--Section of the Spleen seen under a low power.

  A, Fibrous capsule.           d, Blood-vessels.
  b, Trabeculae.                e, Spleen pulp.
  c, Malpighian corpuscles.]


ADRENAL GLANDS

The adrenal glands or suprarenal capsules are two conical bodies,
flattened from before backward, resting on the upper poles of the
kidneys close to the sides of the vertebral column; each has an anterior
and posterior surface and a concave base which is in contact with the
kidney. When viewed from in front the right gland is triangular and the
left crescentic. On the anterior surface there is a transverse sulcus or
hilum from which a large vein emerges. The arteries are less constant in
their points of entry, and are derived from three sources, the phrenic,
the abdominal aorta and the renal arteries. The glands are entirely
retro-peritoneal, though the right one, even on its anterior surface, is
very little covered by peritoneum. In a vertical transverse section each
gland is seen to consist of two parts, cortical and medullary. The
cortical substance is composed of bundles of cells, separated by a
stroma, which have a different appearance in different parts. Most
superficially is the zona glomerulosa, then the zona fascicularis, and
most deeply the zona reticularis. These names convey a fair idea of the
appearance of the bundles. To the naked eye the cortical part is yellow
while the medullary is red. The medullary part consists of small islets
of cells, which resemble columnar epithelium lying among venous sinuses;
these cells are said to be in close connexion with the sympathetic nerve
filaments from the great solar plexus.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Anterior surface of right suprarenal capsule.
B, Anterior surface of left suprarenal capsule. The upper and inner
parts of each kidney are indicated in outline. On the right capsule the
dotted line indicates the upper limit of the peritoneal covering.

From D.J. Cunningham, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.]

  _Embryology._--The generally accepted opinion at present is that the
  cortical substance is derived from the coelomic epithelium covering
  the mesoderm of the upper (cephalic) portion of the Wolffian body, and
  corresponds to the nephrostomes of mesonephridial tubules (see URINARY
  SYSTEM), while the medullary part grows out from the sympathetic
  ganglia and so is probably ectodermal in origin. J. Janosik, however
  (_Archiv. f. mikrosk. Anat._ bd. xxii. 1883 and _Sitzungsber. d.
  Wiener Akad._, 1885), thinks that the cortical part is derived from
  the germ epithelium covering the upper part of the genital ridge. C.
  S. Minot (_Human Embryology_, 1897) believes that the original cells
  which grow in from the sympathetic disappear later, and that the adult
  medullary cells are derived from the cortical.

  In the early human embryo the adrenals are larger than the kidneys,
  and at birth they are proportionately much larger than in the adult.
  (For literature see. _Development of the Human Body_, J.P. McMurrich,
  London, 1906; and _Handbuch der Entwickelungslehre_, by O. Hertwig,
  Jena.)

  _Comparative Anatomy._--Adrenals are unknown in Amphioxus and the
  Dipnoi (mud fish). In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) they are
  said by some to arise in connexion with the cephalic part of the
  pronephros, though other writers deny their presence at all (see W.E.
  Collinge and Swale Vincent, _Anat. Anz._ bd. xii., 1896). In the
  Elasmobranchs and Holocephali the medullary and cortical parts are
  apparently distinct, the former being represented by a series of
  organs situated close to the intercostal arteries, while the latter
  may be either median or paired, and, as they are placed between the
  kidneys, are often spoken of as interrenals. In the Amphibia the
  glands are sunk into the surface of the kidney. In reptiles and birds
  they are long lobulated bodies lying close to the testis or ovary and
  receiving an adrenal portal vein. In the lower mammals they are not as
  closely connected with the kidneys as they are in man, and their shape
  is usually oval or spherical.


THE THYROID GLAND

The thyroid body or gland is a deep red glandular mass consisting of two
lobes which lie one on each side of the upper part of the trachea and
lower part of the larynx; these are joined across the middle line by the
isthmus which lies in front of the second and third rings of the
trachea. Occasionally, from the top of the isthmus, a nearly but not
quite median pyramidal lobe runs up toward the hyoid bone, while in
other cases the isthmus may be absent. The gland is relatively larger in
women and children than in the adult male. It is enclosed in a capsule
of cervical fascia and is supplied by the superior and inferior thyroid
arteries on each side, though occasionally a median thyroidea ima artery
is present. On microscopical examination the gland shows a large number
of closed tubular alveoli, lined by columnar epithelial cells,
unsupported by a basement membrane, and filled with colloid or
jelly-like material. These are supported by fibrous septa growing in
from the true capsule, which is distinct from the capsule of cervical
fascia. The lymphatic vessels are large and numerous, and have been
shown by E.C. Baber (_Phil. Trans._, 1881) to contain the same colloid
material as the alveoli. Accessory thyroids, close to the main gland,
are often found.

  _Embryology._--The median part of the gland is developed from a tube
  which grows down in the middle line from the junction of the buccal
  and pharyngeal parts of the tongue (q.v.), between the first and
  second branchial arches. This tube is called the thyro-glossal duct
  and is entodermal in origin. The development of the hyoid bone
  obliterates the middle part of the duct, leaving its upper part as the
  foramen caecum of the tongue, while its lower part bifurcates, and so
  the asymmetrical arrangement of the pyramidal lobe is accounted for.
  A. Kanthack (_J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxv., 1891) has denied the
  existence of this duct, but on slender grounds. The lateral parts of
  the gland are developed from the entoderm of the fourth visceral
  clefts, and, joining the median part, lose their pharyngeal connexion.
  Nearly, but not quite, the whole of the lateral lobes probably belong
  to this part. (For literature and further details see Quain's
  _Anatomy_, London, 1892, and J.P. McMurrich's _Development of the
  Human Body_, London, 1906.)

  _Comparative Anatomy._--The endostyle or hypobranchial groove of
  Tunicata (sea squirts) and Acrania (Amphioxus) is regarded as the
  first appearance of the median thyroid; this is a median entodermal
  groove in the floor of the pharynx, secreting a glairy fluid in which
  food particles become entangled and so pass into the intestine. In the
  larval lamprey (Ammocoetes) among the Cyclostomata the connexion with
  the pharynx is present, but in the adult lamprey (Petromyzon), as in
  all adult vertebrates, this connexion is lost. In the Elasmobranchs
  the single median thyroid lies close to the mandibular symphysis, but
  in the bony fish (Teleostei) it is paired. In the mud fish (Dipnoi)
  there is also an indication of a division into two lobes. In the
  Amphibia the thyroid forms numerous vesicles close to the anterior end
  of the pericardium. In Reptilia it lies close to the trachea, and in
  the Chelonia and Crocodilia is paired. In birds it is also paired and
  lies near the origin of the carotid arteries. In Mammalia the lateral
  lobes make their first appearance. In the lower orders of this class
  the isthmus is often absent. (For further details and literature see
  R. Wiedersheim's _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_, Jena, 1902,
  and also for literature, Quain's _Anatomy_, London, 1896.)


PARATHYROID GLANDS

These little oval bodies, of considerable physiological importance, are
two in number on each side. From their position they are spoken of as
postero-superior and antero-inferior; the postero-superior are embedded
in the thyroid at the level of the lower border of the cricoid
cartilage, while the antero-inferior may be embedded in the lower edge
of the lateral lobes of the thyroid or may be found a little distance
below in relation to the inferior thyroid veins. They are often very
difficult to find, but it is easiest to do so in a perfectly fresh,
full-term foetus or young child. Microscopically they consist of solid
masses of epithelioid cells with numerous blood-vessels between, while,
embedded in their periphery, are often found masses of thymic tissue
including the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. They have been regarded
as undeveloped portions of thyroid tissue in an embryonic state, but the
experiments of Gley (_Comptes rendus de la Soc. de Biol._ No. 11, 1895)
and of W. Edmunds (_Proc. Physiol. Soc.--Journ. Phys._ vol. xviii.,
1895) do not confirm this. They are developed from the entoderm of the
third and fourth branchial grooves.

  Parathyroids have been found in the orders of Primates, Cheiroptera,
  Carnivora, Ungulata and Rodentia among the Mammalia, and also in
  Birds. In the other classes of vertebrates little is known of them.
  The fullest and most recent account of these bodies is that of D.A.
  Welsh in Journ. _Anat. and Phys._ vol. 32, 1898, pp. 292 and 380.


THE THYMUS GLAND

The thymus gland (Gr. [Greek: thymos], from a fancied resemblance to the
corymbs of the Thyme) is a light pink gland, consisting of two unequal
lobes, which lies in the superior and anterior mediastina of the thorax
in front of the pericardium and great vessels; it also extends up into
the root of the neck to within a short distance of the thyroid gland. It
continues to grow until the second year of life, after which it remains
stationary until puberty, when it usually degenerates rapidly. The
writer has seen it perfectly well developed in a man between 40 and 50,
though such cases are rare; probably, however, some patches of its
tissue remain all through life. Each lobe is divided into a large number
of lobules divided by areolar tissue, and each of these, under the
microscope, is seen to consist of a cortical and medullary part. The
cortex is composed of lymphoid tissue and resembles the structure of a
lymphatic gland (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM); it is imperfectly divided into a
number of follicles. In the medulla the lymphoid cells are fewer, and
nests of epithelial cells are found, called the concentric corpuscles of
Hassall. The vascular supply is derived from all the vessels in the
neighbourhood, the lymphatics are very large and numerous, but the
nerves, which come from the sympathetic and vagus, are few and small. H.
Watney (_Phil. Trans._, 1882) has discovered haemoglobin, and apparently
developing red blood corpuscles, in the thymus. (For further details see
Gray's or Quain's _Anatomy_.)

  _Embryology._--The thymus is formed from a diverticulum, on each side,
  from the entoderm lining the third branchial groove, but the connexion
  with the pharynx is soon lost. The lymphoid cells and concentric
  corpuscles are probably the derivatives of the original cells lining
  the diverticulum.

  _Comparative Anatomy._--The thymus is always a paired gland. In most
  fishes it rises from the dorsal part of all five branchial clefts; in
  Lepidosiren (Dipnoi), from all except the first; in Urodela from 3rd,
  4th and 5th, and in Anura from the 2nd only (see T.H. Bryce,
  "Development of Thymus in Lepidosiren," _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol.
  40, p. 91). In all fishes, including the Dipnoi (mud fish) it is
  placed dorsally to the gill arches on each side. In the Amphibia it is
  found close to the articulation of the mandible. In the Reptilia it is
  situated by the side of the carotid artery; but in young crocodiles it
  is lobulated and extends all along the neck, as it does in birds,
  lying close to the side of the oesophagus. In Mammals the Marsupials
  are remarkable for having a well-developed cervical as well as
  thoracic thymus (J. Symington, _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. 32, p. 278).
  In some of the lower mammals the gland does not disappear as early as
  it does in man. The thymus of the calf is popularly known as "the
  chest sweetbread."


CAROTID BODIES

These are two small bodies situated, one on each side, between the
origins of the external and internal carotid arteries. Microscopically
they are divided into nodules or cell balls by connective tissue, and
these closely resemble the structure of the parathyroids, but are
without any thymic tissue. The blood-vessels in their interior are
extremely large and numerous. The modern view of their development is
that they are part of the sympathetic system, and the reaction of their
cells to chromium salts bears this out. (See Kohn, _Archiv f. mikr.
Anat._ lxx., 1907.)

In the Anura there is a rete or network into which the carotid artery
breaks up in the position of the carotid body, and this has an important
effect on the course of the circulation. It is probable, however, that
this structure has nothing to do with the carotid body of Mammalia.


COCCYGEAL BODY

This is a small median body, about the size of a pea, situated in front
of the apex of the coccyx and between the insertions of the levatores
ani muscles. It resembles the carotid body in its microscopical
structure, but is not so vascular. Concentric corpuscles, like those of
the thymus, have been recorded in it. It derives its arteries from the
middle sacral and its nerves from the sympathetic. Of its embryology and
comparative anatomy little is known, though J.W. Thomson Walker has
recently shown that numerous, outlying, minute masses of the same
structure lie along the course of the middle sacral artery (_Archiv f.
mikroscop. Anat._ Bd. lxiv.). The probability is that, like the carotid
body, it is sympathetic in origin. (Quain's _Anatomy_ gives excellent
illustrations of the histology of this as well as of all the other
ductless glands.)

  For the literature on and further details concerning the foregoing
  structures the following works should be consulted: Quain's
  _Anatomy_, vol. 1 (1908, London, Longman & Co.); McMurrich's
  _Development of the Human Body_ (London, Rebman, 1906); Wiedersheim's
  _Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1898).     (F. G. P.)




DUDERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,
situated in a beautiful and fertile valley (formerly called _Goldene
Mark_) watered by the Hahle, and on the railway Wulften-Leinefelde. Pop.
(1905) 5327. It is an interesting medieval town with many ancient
buildings. Notable are the two Roman Catholic churches, beautiful Gothic
edifices of the 14th century, the Protestant church, and the handsome
town-hall. Its chief industries are woollen and cotton manufactures,
sugar-refining and cigar-making; it has also a trade in singing-birds.
Duderstadt was founded by Henry I. (the Fowler) in 929, passed later to
the monastery of Quedlinburg, and then to Brunswick. It was a member of
the Hanseatic League, and during the Thirty Years' War became a
stronghold of the Imperialists. It was taken by Duke William of Weimar
in 1632; in 1761 its walls were dismantled, and, after being alternately
Prussian and Hanoverian, it passed finally in 1866 with Hanover to
Prussia.




DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF. The holders of these English titles are
descended from John de Sutton (c. 1310-1359) of Dudley castle,
Staffordshire, who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1342. Sutton
was the son of another John de Sutton, who had inherited Dudley Castle
through his marriage with Margaret, sister and heiress of John de Somery
(d. 1321); he was called Lord Dudley, or Lord Sutton of Dudley, the
latter being doubtless the correct form. However, his descendants, the
Suttons, were often called by the name of Dudley; and from John Dudley
of Atherington, Sussex, a younger son of John Sutton, the 5th baron, the
earls of Warwick and the earl of Leicester of the Dudley family are
descended.

John Sutton or Dudley (c. 1400-1487), the 5th baron, was first summoned
to parliament in 1440, having been viceroy of Ireland from 1428 to 1430.
He served Henry VI. as a diplomatist and also as a soldier, being taken
prisoner at the first battle of St Albans in 1455, but this did not
prevent him from enjoying the favour of Edward IV. He died on the 30th
of September 1487. He was succeeded as 6th baron by his grandson Edward
(c. 1459-1532), and one of his sons, William Dudley, was bishop of
Durham from 1476 until his death in 1483. His descendant Edward Sutton
or Dudley, the 9th baron (1567-1643), had several illegitimate sons.
Among them was Dud Dudley (1599-1684), who in 1665 published _Metallum
Martis_, describing a process of making iron with "pit-coale, sea-coale,
&c." which was put in operation at his father's ironworks at Pensnet,
Worcestershire, of which he was manager. His success aroused much
opposition on the part of other ironmasters, and his commercial ventures
at Himley, at Askew Bridge and at Bristol ended in loss and disaster.
During the Civil War he was a colonel in the army of Charles I.

Dying without lawful male issue in June 1643, the 9th baron was
succeeded in the barony by his grand-daughter, Frances (1611-1697); she
married Humble Ward (c. 1614-1670), the son of a London goldsmith, who
was created Baron Ward of Birmingham in 1644. Their son Edward
(1631-1701) succeeded both to the barony of Dudley and to that of Ward,
but these were separated when his grandson William died unmarried in May
1740. The barony of Dudley passed to a nephew, Ferdinando Dudley Lea,
falling into abeyance on his death in October 1757; that of Ward passed
to the heir male, John Ward (d. 1774), a descendant of Humble Ward. In
1763 Ward was created Viscount Dudley, and in April 1823 his grandson,
John William Ward (1781-1833), became the 4th viscount.

Educated at Oxford, John William Ward entered parliament in 1802, and
except for a few months he remained in the House of Commons until he
succeeded his father in the peerage. In 1827 he was minister for foreign
affairs under Canning and then under Goderich and under Wellington,
resigning office in May 1828. As foreign minister he was only a cipher,
but he was a man of considerable learning and had some reputation as a
writer and a talker. Dudley took an interest in the foundation of the
university of London, and his _Letters_ to the bishop of Llandaff were
published by the bishop (Edward Copleston) in 1840 (new ed. 1841). He
was created Viscount Ednam and earl of Dudley in 1827, and when he died
unmarried on the 6th of March 1833 these titles became extinct. His
barony of Ward, however, passed to a kinsman, William Humble Ward
(1781-1835), whose son, William (1817-1885), inheriting much of the dead
earl's great wealth, was created Viscount Ednam and earl of Dudley in
1860. The 2nd earl of Dudley in this creation was the latter's son
William Humble (b. 1866), who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1902
to 1906, and in 1908 was appointed governor-general of Australia.

  See H.S. Grazebrook in the _Herald and Genealogist_, vols. ii., v.
  and vi.; in _Notes and Queries_, 2nd series, vol. xi.; and in vol. ix.
  of the publications of the William Salt Society (1888).




DUDLEY, EDMUND (c. 1462-1510), minister of Henry VII. of England, was a
son of John Dudley of Atherington, Sussex, and a member of the great
baronial family of Sutton or Dudley. After studying at Oxford and at
Gray's Inn, Dudley came under the notice of Henry VII., and is said to
have been made a privy councillor at the early age of twenty-three. In
1492 he helped to negotiate the treaty of Etaples with France and soon
became prominent in assisting the king to check the lawlessness of the
barons, and at the same time to replenish his own exchequer. He and his
colleague Sir Richard Empson (q.v.) are called _fiscales judices_ by
Polydore Vergil, and owing to their extortions they became very
unpopular. Dudley, who was speaker of the House of Commons in 1504, in
addition to aiding Henry, amassed a great amount of wealth for himself,
and possessed large estates in Sussex, Dorset and Lincolnshire. When
Henry VII. died in April 1509, he was thrown into prison by order of
Henry VIII. and charged with the crime of constructive treason, being
found guilty and attainted. After having made a futile attempt to escape
from prison, he was executed on the 17th or 18th of August 1510.
Dudley's nominal crime was that during the last illness of Henry VII. he
had ordered his friends to assemble in arms in case the king died, but
the real reason for his death was doubtless the unpopularity caused by
his avarice. During his imprisonment he sought to gain the favour of
Henry VIII. by writing a treatise in support of absolute monarchy called
_The Tree of Commonwealth_. This never reached the king's hands, and was
not published until 1859, when it was printed privately in Manchester.
Dudley's first wife was Anne, widow of Roger Corbet of Morton,
Shropshire, by whom he had a daughter, Elizabeth, who married William,
6th Lord Stourton. By his second wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Edward
Grey, Viscount Lisle, he had three sons: John, afterwards duke of
Northumberland (q.v.); Andrew (d. 1559), who was made a knight and held
various important posts during the reign of Edward VI.; and Jasper.

  See Francis Bacon, _History of Henry VII._, edited by J.R. Lumby
  (Cambridge, 1881); and J.S. Brewer, _The Reign of Henry VIII._,
  edited by J. Gairdner (London, 1884).




DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT (1573-1649), titular duke of Northumberland and earl
of Warwick, English explorer, engineer and author, was the son of Robert
Dudley, earl of Leicester (q.v.), the favourite of Queen Elizabeth. His
mother was Lady Douglas Sheffield, daughter of Thomas, first Baron
Howard of Effingham. Leicester, who deserted Lady Douglas Sheffield for
Lettice Knollys, widow of the first earl of Essex, denied that they were
married. She asserted that they were, at Esher in Surrey, but her
marriage with Sir Edward Stafford of Grafton, after her desertion by
Leicester, would seem to be a tacit confession that her claim had no
foundation. Her son Robert was born in May 1573, was recognized by
Leicester, and sent to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1587. He inherited all
Leicester's property under the earl's will at his death in 1588, and in
the following year the property of Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick. In
1594 he made a voyage to the West Indies, and in 1596 he took part in
the expedition to Cadiz and was knighted. In 1592 he had married a
sister of Thomas Cavendish the circumnavigator. On her death he married
Alicia Leigh in 1596, by whom he had four daughters. After the death of
Elizabeth he endeavoured to secure recognition of his legitimacy, and
of his right to inherit the titles of his father and uncle. The
proceedings were quashed by the Star Chamber. In 1605 he obtained leave
to travel abroad, and went to Italy accompanied by the beautiful Miss
Elizabeth Southwell, daughter of Sir Robert Southwell of Woodrising, in
the dress of a page. When ordered to return home and to provide for his
deserted wife and family, he refused, was outlawed, and his property was
confiscated. On the continent he avowed himself a Roman Catholic,
married Elizabeth Southwell at Lyons, and entered the service of Cosimo
II., grand-duke of Tuscany. In the service of the grand-duke he is said
to have done some fighting against the Barbary pirates, and he was
undoubtedly employed in draining the marshes behind Leghorn, and in the
construction of the port. In 1620 the emperor Ferdinand II. gave him a
patent recognizing his claim not only to the earldom of Warwick but to
the duchy of Northumberland, which had been held by his grandfather, who
was executed by Queen Mary Tudor. In Italy Dudley was known as Duca di
Nortombria and Conte di Warwick. He died near Florence on the 6th of
September 1649, leaving a large family of sons and daughters. His
deserted wife, Alicia, was created duchess of Dudley by Charles I. in
1644, and died in 1670, when the title became extinct. Through a
daughter who married the Marquis Paleotti, Dudley was the ancestor of
the wife of the first duke of Shrewsbury (of the revolution of 1688),
and of her brother who was executed at Tyburn for murder on the 17th of
March 1718. Dudley was the author of a pamphlet addressed to King James
I., showing how the "impertinences of parliament" could be bridled by
military force. But his chief claim to memory is the magnificent _Arcano
dell mare_, published in Italian at Florence in 1645-1646 in three
volumes folio. It is a collection of all the naval knowledge of the age,
and is particularly remarkable for a scheme for the construction of a
navy in five rates which Dudley designed and described. It was reprinted
in Florence in two volumes folio in 1661 without the charts of the first
edition.

  AUTHORITIES.--G.L. Craik, _Romance of the Peerage_ (London,
  1848-1850), vol. iii.; Sir N.H. Nicolas, _Report of Proceedings on
  the Claim to the Barony of L'Isle_ (London, 1829); and _The Italian
  Biography of Sir R. Dudley_, published anonymously, privately and
  without date or name of place, but known to have been written by
  Doctor Vaughan Thomas, vicar of Stoneleigh, who died in 1858.
       (D. H.)




DUDLEY, THOMAS (1576-1653), British colonial governor of Massachusetts,
was born in Northampton, England, in 1576, a member of the elder branch
of the family to the younger branch of which Robert Dudley, earl of
Leicester, belonged. He was the son of a country gentleman of some means
and high standing, was captain of an English company in the French
expedition of 1597, serving under Henry of Navarre, and eventually
became the steward of the earl of Lincoln's estates, which he managed
with great success for many years. Having been converted to Puritanism,
he became a strict advocate of its strictest tenets. About 1627 he
associated himself with other Lincolnshire gentlemen who in 1629 entered
into an agreement to settle in New England provided they were allowed to
take the charter with them. This proposal the general court of the
Plymouth Company agreed to, and in April 1630 Dudley sailed to America
in the same ship with John Winthrop, the newly appointed governor,
Dudley himself at the last moment being chosen deputy-governor in place
of John Humphrey (or Humfrey), the earl of Lincoln's son-in-law, whose
departure was delayed. Dudley was for many years the most influential
man in the Massachusetts Bay colony, save Winthrop, with whose policy he
was more often opposed than in agreement. He was deputy-governor in
1629-1634, in 1637-1640, in 1646-1650 and in 1651-1653, and was governor
four times, in 1634, 1640, 1645 and 1650. Soon after his arrival in the
colony he settled at Newton (Cambridge), of which he was one of the
founders; he was also one of the earliest promoters of the plan for the
establishment of Harvard College. Winthrop's decision to make Boston the
capital instead of Newton precipitated the first of the many quarrels
between the two, Dudley's sterner and harsher Puritanism, being in
strong contrast to Winthrop's more tolerant and liberal views. He was an
earnest and persistent heresy-hunter--not only the Antinomians, but
even such a good Puritan as John Cotton, against whom he brought
charges, feeling the weight of his stern and remorseless hand. His
position he himself best expressed in the following brief verse found
among his papers:

  "Let men of God in courts and churches watch
   O'er such as do a Toleration hatch,
   Lest that ill egg bring forth a Cockatrice
   To poison all with heresy and vice."

He died at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 31st of July 1653.

  See Augustine Jones, _Life and Work of Thomas Dudley, the Second
  Governor of Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1899); and the _Life of Mr Thomas
  Dudley, several times Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts, written
  as is supposed by Cotton Mather_, edited by Charles Deane (Cambridge,
  1870). Dudley's interesting and valuable "Letter to the Countess of
  Lincoln," is reprinted in Alexander Young's _Chronicles of the
  Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay_ (Boston, 1846), and in
  the New Hampshire Historical Society _Collections_, vol. iv. (1834).

His son JOSEPH DUDLEY (1647-1720), colonial governor of Massachusetts,
was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of September 1647. He
graduated at Harvard College in 1665, became a member of the general
court, and in 1682 was sent by Massachusetts to London to prevent the
threatened revocation of her charter by Charles II. There, with an eye
to his personal advancement, he secretly advised the king to annul the
charter; this was done, and Dudley, by royal appointment, became
president of the provisional council. With the advent of the new
governor, Sir Edmund Andros, Dudley became a judge of the superior court
and censor of the press. Upon the deposition of Andros, Dudley was
imprisoned and sent with him to England, but was soon set free. In
1691-1692 he was chief-justice of New York, presiding over the court
that condemned Leisler and Milburn. Returning to England in 1693, he was
lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Wight and a member of parliament, and
in 1702, after a long intrigue, secured from Queen Anne a commission as
governor of Massachusetts, serving until 1715. His administration was
marked, particularly in the earlier years, by ceaseless conflict with
the general court, from which he demanded a regular fixed salary instead
of an annual grant. He was active in raising volunteers for the
so-called Queen Anne's War, and in 1707 sent a fruitless expedition
against Port Royal. He was accused by the Boston merchants, who
petitioned for his removal, of being in league with smugglers and
illicit traders, and in 1708 a bitter attack on his administration was
published in London, entitled _The Deplorable State of New England by
reason of a Covetous and Treacherous Governor and Pusillanimous
Counsellors_. His character may be best summed up in the words of one of
his successors, Thomas Hutchinson, that "he had as many virtues as can
consist with so great a thirst for honour and power." He died at Roxbury
on the 2nd of April 1720.

Joseph Dudley's son, PAUL DUDLEY (1675-1751), graduated at Harvard in
1690, studied law at the Temple in London, and became attorney-general
of Massachusetts (1702 to 1718). He was associate justice of the
superior court of that province from 1718 to 1745, and chief justice
from 1745 until his death. He was a member of the Royal Society
(London), to whose _Transactions_ he contributed several valuable papers
on the natural history of New England, and was the founder of the
Dudleian lectures on religion at Harvard.

  The best extended account of Joseph Dudley's administration is in J.
  G. Palfrey's _History of New England_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1875).




DUDLEY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough and market-town of
Worcestershire, England, in a portion of that county enclaved in
Staffordshire, 8 m. W.N.W. of Birmingham, and 121 N.W. of London by the
London & North Western railway. The Great Western railway also serves
the town. Pop. (1891) 45,724; (1901) 48,733. Dudley lies on an elevated
ridge, in the midst of the district of the midlands known as the Black
Country, which is given up to ironworks and coal mines. The "ten-yard"
coal, in the neighbourhood, is the thickest seam worked in England.
Limestone is extensively quarried, fire-clay is abundant; and
iron-founding, brass-founding, engineering works, glass works and brick
works are comprised in the industries. Among the principal buildings are
the churches of the five parishes into which the town is divided, the
town hall, county court, free libraries, and school of art, grammar
school with university and foundation scholarships, technical school,
mechanics' institute, Guest hospital (founded by Joseph Guest, a
citizen, in 1868), and a dispensary. In the market-place stands a large
domed fountain, erected by the earl of Dudley (1867). There is a
geological society with a museum, for the neighbourhood of Dudley is
full of geological interest, the Silurian limestone abounding in
fossils. To the north of the town are extensive remains of an ancient
castle, surrounded by beautiful grounds. The hill on which it stands is
of limestone, which by quarrying has been hollowed out in extensive
chambers and galleries. The view from the castle is remarkable. The
whole district is seen to be set with chimneys, pit-buildings and
factories; and at night the glare of furnaces reveals the tireless
activity of the Black Country. Dudley and its environs are connected by
a tramway system, and water communication is afforded by the Dudley
canal with Birmingham and with the river Severn.

Included in the parliamentary borough, but in Staffordshire, and 2-1/2
m. by rail S.W. of Dudley, is Brierley Hill, a market-town on the river
Stour and the Stourbridge and Birmingham Canals. Its chief buildings are
the modern church of St Michael, standing on a hill, the Roman Catholic
church of St Mary, by A.W. Pugin, the town hall and free library.
Between this and Dudley lie the great ironworks of Roundoak, and the
extensive suburb of Netherton in the enclaved portion of Worcestershire.
The industries are similar to those of Dudley. Three miles W. of Dudley
is Kingswinford, a mining township, with large brick works, giving name
to a parliamentary division of Staffordshire. The parliamentary borough
of Dudley returns one member. The town itself is governed by a mayor, 10
aldermen and 30 councillors. Area 3546 acres.

In medieval times the importance of Dudley (_Dudelei_) depended on the
castle, which is mentioned in the Domesday Survey. Before the Conquest
Earl Eadwine held the manor, which in 1086 belonged to William
FitzAnsculf, from whom it passed, probably by marriage, to Fulk Paynel,
afterwards to the Somerys, Suttons and Wards, whose descendants (earls
of Dudley) now hold it. The first mention of Dudley as a borough occurs
in an inquisition taken after the death of Roger de Somery in 1272. This
does not give a clear account of the privileges held by the burgesses,
but shows that they had probably been freed from some or all of the
services required from them as manorial tenants, in return for a fixed
rent. In 1865 Dudley was incorporated. Before that time it was governed
by a high and low bailiff appointed every year at the court leet of the
manor. Roger de Somery evidently held a market by prescription in Dudley
before 1261, in which year he came to terms with the dean of
Wolverhampton, who had set up a market in Wolverhampton to the
disadvantage of Roger's market at Dudley. According to the terms of the
agreement the dean might continue his market on condition that Roger and
his tenants should be free from toll there. Two fairs, on the 21st of
September and the 21st of April, were granted in 1684 to Edward Lord
Ward, lord of the manor. Dudley was represented in the parliament of
1295, but not again until the privilege was revived by the Reform Act of
1832. Mines of sea-coal in Dudley are mentioned as early as the reign of
Edward I., and by the beginning of the 17th century mining had become an
important industry.




DUDO, or DUDON (fl. c. 1000), Norman historian was dean of St Quentin,
where he was born about 965. Sent in 986 by Albert I. count of
Vermandois, on an errand to Richard I., duke of Normandy, he succeeded
in his mission, and, having made a very favourable impression at the
Norman court, spent some years in that country. During a second stay in
Normandy Dudo wrote his history of the Normans, a task which Duke
Richard I. had urged him to undertake. Very little else is known about
his life, except that he died before 1043. Written between 1015 and
1030, his _Historia Normannorum_, or _Libri III. de moribus et actis
primorum Normanniae ducum_, was dedicated to Adalberon, bishop of Laon.
Dudo does not appear to have consulted any existing documents for his
history, but to have obtained his information from oral tradition, much
of it being supplied by Raoul, count of Ivry, a half-brother of Duke
Richard I. Consequently the _Historia_ partakes of the nature of a
romance, and on this ground has been regarded as untrustworthy by such
competent critics as E. Dummler and G. Waitz. Other authorities,
however, e.g. J. Lair and J. Steenstrup, while admitting the existence
of a legendary element, regard the book as of considerable value for the
history of the Normans. Although Dudo was acquainted with Virgil and
other Latin writers, his Latin is affected and obscure. The _Historia_,
which is written alternately in prose and in verse of several metres, is
divided into four parts, and deals with the history of the Normans from
852 to the death of Duke Richard I. in 996. It glorifies the Normans,
and was largely used by William of Jumieges, Wace, Robert of Torigni,
William of Poitiers and Hugh of Fleury in compiling their chronicles,
and was first published by A. Duchesne in his _Historiae Normannorum
scriptores antiqui_, at Paris in 1619. Another edition is in the
_Patrologia Latina_, tome cxli. of J.P. Migne (Paris, 1844), but the
best is perhaps the one edited by J. Lair (Caen, 1865).

  See E. Dummler, "Zur Kritik Dudos von St Quentin" in the _Forschungen
  zur deutschen Geschichte_, Bande vi. and ix. (Gottingen, 1866); G.
  Waitz, "Uber die Quellen zur Geschichte der Begrundung der
  normannischen Herrschaft in Frankreich," in the _Gottinger gel.
  Anzeigen_ (Gottingen, 1866); J.C.H.R. Steenstrup, _Normannerne_,
  Band i. (Copenhagen, 1876); J. Lair, _Etude critique et historique sur
  Dudon_ (Caen, 1865); G. Kortung, _Uber die Quellen des Roman de Rou_
  (Leipzig, 1867); W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band
  i. (Berlin, 1904); and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de
  France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1902).




DUDWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the
Sulzbach, 4 m. by rail N.E. from Saarbrucken. It has extensive coal
mines and ironworks and produces fire-proof bricks. Pop. (1905) 16,320.




DUEL (Ital. _duello_, Lat. _duellum_--old form of _bellum_--from _duo_,
two), a prearranged encounter between two persons, with deadly weapons,
in accordance with conventional rules, with the object of voiding a
personal quarrel or of deciding a point of honour. The first recorded
instance of the word occurs in Coryate's _Crudities_ (1611), but
Shakespeare has _duello_ in this sense, and uses "duellist" of Tybalt in
_Romeo and Juliet_. In its earlier meaning of a judicial combat we find
the word latinized in the Statute of Wales (Edw. I., Act 12), "_Placita
de terris in partibus istis non habent terminari per duellum_."

Duels in the modern sense were unknown to the ancient world, and their
origin must be sought in the feudal age of Europe. The single combats
recorded in Greek and Roman history and legend, of Hector and Achilles,
Aeneas and Turnus, the Horatii and Curiatii, were incidents in national
wars and have nothing in common with the modern duel. It is, however,
noteworthy that in Tacitus (_Germania_, cap. x.) we find the rudiments
of the judicial duel (see WAGER, for the wager of battle). Domestic
differences, he tells us, were settled by a legalized form of combat
between the disputants, and when a war was impending a captive from the
hostile tribe was armed and pitted against a national champion, and the
issue of the duel was accepted as an omen. The judicial combat was a
Teutonic institution, and it was in fact an appeal from human justice to
the God of battles, partly a sanction of the current creed that might is
right, that the brave not only will win but deserve to win. It was on
these grounds that Gundobald justified, against the complaints of a
bishop, the famous edict passed at Lyons (A.D. 501) which established
the wager of battle as a recognized form of trial. It is God, he argued,
who directs the issue of national wars, and in private quarrels we may
trust His providence to favour the juster cause. Thus, as Gibbon
comments, the absurd and cruel practice of judicial duels, which had
been peculiar to some tribes of Germany, was propagated and established
in all the monarchies of Europe from Sicily to the Baltic. Yet in its
defence it may be urged that it abolished a worse evil, the compurgation
by oath which put a premium on perjury, and the ordeal, or judgment of
God, when the cause was decided by blind chance, or more often by
priestcraft.


  The judicial combat.

Those who are curious to observe the formalities and legal rules of a
judicial combat will find them described at length in the 28th book of
Montesquieu's _Esprit des lois_. On these regulations he well remarks
that, as there are an infinity of wise things conducted in a very
foolish manner, so there are some foolish things conducted in a very
wise manner. For our present purpose it is sufficient to observe the
development of the idea of personal honour from which the modern duel
directly sprang. In the ancient laws of the Swedes we find that if any
man shall say to another, "You are not a man equal to other men," or
"You have not the heart of a man," and the other shall reply, "I am a
man as good as you," they shall meet on the highway, and then follow the
regulations for the combat. What is this but the modern challenge? By
the law of the Lombards if one man call another arga, the insulted party
might defy the other to mortal combat. What is _arga_ but the _dummer
Junger_ of the German student? Beaumanoir thus describes a legal process
under Louis le Debonnaire:--The appellant begins by a declaration before
the judge that the appellee is guilty of a certain crime; if the
appellee answers that his accuser lies, the judge then ordains the duel.
Is not this the modern point of honour, by which to be given the lie is
an insult which can only be wiped out by blood?

From Germany the judicial combat rapidly spread to France, where it
flourished greatly from the 10th to the 12th century, the period of
customary law. By French kings it was welcomed as a limitation of the
judicial powers of their half independent vassals. It was a form of
trial open to all freemen and in certain cases, as under Louis VI., the
privilege was extended to serfs. Even the church resorted to it not
unfrequently to settle disputes concerning church property. Abbots and
priors as territorial lords and high justiciaries had their share in the
confiscated goods of the defeated combatant, and Pope Nicholas when
applied to in 858 pronounced it "a just and legitimate combat." Yet only
three years before the council of Valence had condemned the practice,
imposing the severest penance on the victor and refusing the last rites
of the church to the vanquished as to a suicide. In 1385 a duel was
fought, the result of which was so preposterous that even the most
superstitious began to lose faith in the efficacy of such a judgment of
God. A certain Jacques Legris was accused by the wife of Jean Carrouge
of having introduced himself by night in the guise of her husband whom
she was expecting on his return from the Crusades. A duel was ordained
by the parlement of Paris, which was fought in the presence of Charles
VI. Legris was defeated and hanged on the spot. Not long after, a
criminal arrested for some other offence confessed himself to be the
author of the outrage. No institution could long survive so open a
confutation, and it was annulled by the parlement. Henceforward the duel
in France ceases to be an appeal to Heaven, and becomes merely a
satisfaction of wounded honour. Under Louis XII. and Francis I. we find
the first vestiges of tribunals of honour. The last instance of a duel
authorized by the magistrates, and conducted according to the forms of
law, was the famous one between Francois de Vivonne de la Chataignerie
and Guy Chabot de Jarnac. The duel was fought on the 10th of July 1547
in the courtyard of the chateau of St Germain-en-Laye, in the presence
of the king and a large assembly of courtiers. It was memorable in two
ways. It enriched the French language with a new phrase; a sly and
unforeseen blow, such as that by which de Jarnac worsted La
Chataignerie, has since been called a _coup de Jarnac_. And Henry,
grieved at the death of his favourite, swore a solemn oath that he would
never again permit a duel to be fought. This led to the first of the
many royal edicts against duelling. By a decree of the council of Trent
(cap. xix.) a ban was laid on "the detestable use of duels, an invention
of the devil to compass the destruction of souls together with a bloody
death of the body."

In England, it is now generally agreed, the wager of battle did not
exist before the time of the Norman Conquest. Some previous examples
have been adduced, but on examination they will be seen to belong rather
to the class of single combats between the champions of two opposing
armies. One such instance is worth quoting as a curious illustration of
the superstition of the time. It occurs in a rare tract printed in
London, 1610, _The Duello_, or _Single Combat_. "Danish irruptions and
the bad aspects of Mars having drencht the common mother earth with her
sonnes' blood streames, under the reigne of Edmund, a Saxon monarch,
_misso in compendium_ (so worthy Camden expresseth it) _bello utriusque
gentis fata Edmundo Anglorum et Canuto Danorum regibus commissa fuerunt,
qui singulari certamine de summa imperij in hac insula_ (that is, the
Eight in Glostershire) _depugnarunt."_ By the laws of William the
Conqueror the trial by battle was only compulsory when the opposite
parties were both Normans, in other cases it was optional. As the two
nations were gradually merged into one, this form of trial spread, and
until the reign of Henry II. it was the only mode for determining a suit
for the recovery of land. The method of procedure is admirably described
by Shakespeare in the opening scene in _Richard II._, where Henry of
Bolingbroke, duke of Hereford, challenges Thomas, duke of Norfolk; in
the mock-heroic battle between Horner the Armourer and his man Peter in
_Henry VI._; and by Sir W. Scott in the _Fair Maid of Perth_, where
Henry Gow appears before the king as the champion of Magdalen Proudfute.
The judicial duel never took root in England as it did in France. In
civil suits it was superseded by the grand assize of Henry II., and in
cases of felony by indictment at the prosecution of the crown. One of
the latest instances occurred in the reign of Elizabeth, 1571, when the
lists were actually prepared and the justices of the common pleas
appeared at Tothill Fields as umpires of the combat. Fortunately the
petitioner failed to put in an appearance, and was consequently
nonsuited (see Spelman, _Glossary_, s.v. "Campus"). As late as 1817 Lord
Ellenborough, in the case of _Thornton_ v. _Ashford_, pronounced that
"the general law of the land is that there shall be a trial by battle in
cases of appeal unless the party brings himself within some of the
exceptions." Thornton was accused of murdering Mary Ashford, and claimed
his right to challenge the appellant, the brother of the murdered girl,
to wager of battle. His suit was allowed, and, the challenge being
refused, the accused escaped. Next year the law was abolished (59 Geo.
III., c. 46).


  The duel of honour.

  In France.

In sketching the history of the judicial combat we have traced the
parentage of the modern duel. Strip the former of its legality, and
divest it of its religious sanction, and the latter remains. We are
justified, then, in dating the commencement of duelling from the
abolition of the wager of battle. To pursue its history we must return
to France, the country where it first arose, and the soil on which it
has most flourished. The causes which made it indigenous to France are
sufficiently explained by the condition of society and the national
character. As Buckle has pointed out, duelling is a special development
of chivalry, and chivalry is one of the phases of the protective spirit
which was predominant in France up to the time of the Revolution. Add to
this the keen sense of personal honour, the susceptibility and the
pugnacity which distinguish the French race. Montaigne, when touching on
this subject in his essays, says, "Put three Frenchmen together on the
plains of Libya, and they will not be a month in company without
scratching one another's eyes out." The third chapter of d'Audiguier's
_Ancien usage des duels_ is headed, "Pourquoi les seuls Francais se
battent en duel." English literature abounds with allusions to this
characteristic of the French nation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, who was
ambassador at the court of Louis XIII., says, "There is scarce a
Frenchman worth looking on who has not killed his man in a duel." Ben
Jonson, in his _Magnetic Lady_, makes Compass, the scholar and soldier,
thus describe France, "that garden of humanity":--

  "There every gentleman professing arms
   Thinks he is bound in honour to embrace
   The bearing of a challenge for another,
   Without or questioning the cause or asking
   Least colour of a reason."

Duels were not common before the 16th century. Hallam attributes their
prevalence to the barbarous custom of wearing swords as a part of
domestic dress, a fashion which was not introduced till the later part
of the 15th century. In 1560 the states-general at Orleans supplicated
Charles IX. to put a stop to duelling. Hence the famous ordinance of
1566, drawn up by the chancellor de l'Hopital, which served as the basis
of the successive ordinances of the following kings. Under the frivolous
and sanguinary reign of Henry III., "who was as eager for excitement as
a woman," the rage for duels spread till it became almost an epidemic.
In 1602 the combined remonstrances of the church and the magistrates
extorted from the king an edict condemning to death whoever should give
or accept a challenge or act as second. But public opinion was revolted
by such rigour, and the statue remained a dead letter. A duel forms a
fit conclusion to the reign. A hair-brained youth named L'Isle Marivaux
swore that he would not survive his beloved king, and threw his cartel
into the air. It was at once picked up, and Marivaux soon obtained the
death he had courted. Henry IV. began his reign by an edict against
duels, but he was known in private to favour them; and, when de Crequi
asked leave to fight Don Philip of Savoy, he is reported to have said,
"Go, and if I were not a king I would be your second." Fontenay-Mareuil
says, in his _Memoires_, that in the eight years between 1601 and 1609,
2000 men of noble birth fell in duels. In 1609 a more effective measure
was taken at the instance of Sully by the establishment of a court of
honour. The edict decrees that all aggrieved persons shall address
themselves to the king, either directly or through the medium of the
constables, marshals, &c.; that the king shall decide, whether, if an
accommodation could not be effected, permission to fight should be
given; that the aggressor, if pronounced in the wrong, shall in any case
be suspended from any public office or employment, and be mulcted of
one-third of his revenue till he has satisfied the aggrieved party; that
any one giving or receiving a challenge shall forfeit all right of
reparation and all his offices; that any one who kills his adversary in
an unauthorized duel shall suffer death without burial, and his children
shall be reduced to villanage; that seconds, if they take part in a
duel, shall suffer death, if not, shall be degraded from the profession
of arms. This edict has been pronounced by Henri Martin "the wisest
decree of the ancient monarchy on a matter which involves so many
delicate and profound questions of morals, politics, and religion
touching civil rights" (_Histoire de France_, x. 466).

In the succeeding reign the mania for duels revived. Rostand's _Cyrano_
is a life-like modern portraiture of French bloods in the first half of
the 17th century. De Houssaye tells us that in Paris when friends met
the first question was, "Who fought yesterday? who is to fight to-day?"
They fought by night and day, by moonlight and by torch-light, in the
public streets and squares. A hasty word, a misconceived gesture, a
question about the colour of a riband or an embroidered letter, such
were the commonest pretexts for a duel. The slighter and more frivolous
the dispute, the less were they inclined to submit them to the king for
adjudication. Often, like gladiators or prize-fighters, they fought for
the pure love of fighting. A misunderstanding is cleared up on the
ground. "N'importe," cry the principals, "puisque nous sommes ici,
battons-nous." Seconds, as Montaigne tells us, are no longer witnesses,
but must take part themselves unless they would be thought wanting in
affection or courage; and he goes on to complain that men are no longer
contented with a single second, "c'etait anciennement des duels, ce sont
a cette heure rencontres et batailles." There is no more striking
instance of Richelieu's firmness and power as a statesman than his
conduct in the matter of duelling. In his _Testament politique_ he has
assigned his reasons for disapproving it as a statesman and
ecclesiastic. But this disapproval was turned to active detestation by a
private cause. His elder brother, the head of the house, had fallen in a
duel stabbed to the heart by an enemy of the cardinal. Already four
edicts had been published under Louis XIII. with little or no effect,
when in 1626 there was published a new edict condemning to death any one
who had killed his adversary in a duel, or had been found guilty of
sending a challenge a second time. Banishment and partial confiscation
of goods were awarded for lesser offences. But this edict differed from
preceding ones not so much in its severity as in the fact that it was
the first which was actually enforced. The cardinal began by imposing
the penalties of banishment and fines, but, these proving ineffectual to
stay the evil, he determined to make a terrible example. To quote his
own words to the king, "Il s'agit de couper la gorge aux duels ou aux
edits de votre Majeste." The count de Boutteville, a renommist who had
already been engaged in twenty-one affairs of honour, determined out of
pure bravado to fight a twenty-second time. The duel took place at
midday on the Place Royale. Boutteville was arrested with his second,
the count de Chapelles; they were tried by the parlement of Paris,
condemned and, in spite of all the influence of the powerful house of
Montmorenci, of which de Boutteville was a branch, they were both
beheaded on the 21st of June 1627. For a short time the ardour of
duellists was cooled. But the lesson soon lost its effect. Only five
years later we read in the _Mercure de France_ that two gentlemen who
had killed one another in a duel were, by the cardinal's orders, hanged
on a gallows, stripped and with their heads downwards, in the sight of
all the people. This was a move in the right direction, since, for
fashionable vices, ridicule and ignominy is a more drastic remedy than
death. It was on this principle that Caraccioli, prince of Melfi, when
viceroy of Piedmont, finding that his officers were being decimated by
duelling, proclaimed that all duels should be fought on the parapet of
the Ponte Vecchio, and if one of the combatants chanced to fall into the
river he should on no account be pulled out.

Under the long reign of Louis XIV. many celebrated duels took place, of
which the most remarkable were that between the duke of Guise and Count
Coligny, the last fought on the Place Royale, and that between the dukes
of Beaufort and Nemours, each attended by four friends. Of the ten
combatants, Nemours and two others were killed on the spot, and none
escaped without some wound. No less than eleven edicts against duelling
were issued under le Grand Monarque. That of 1643 established a supreme
court of honour composed of the marshals of France; but the most famous
was that of 1679, which confirmed the enactments of his predecessors,
Henry IV. and Louis XII. At the same time a solemn agreement was entered
into by the principal nobility that they would never engage in a duel on
any pretence whatever. A medal was struck to commemorate the occasion,
and the firmness of the king, in refusing pardon to all offenders,
contributed more to restrain this scourge of society than all the
efforts of his predecessors.

The subsequent history of duelling in France may be more shortly
treated. In the preamble to the edict of 1704 Louis XIV. records his
satisfaction at seeing under his reign an almost entire cessation of
those fatal combats which by the inveterate force of custom had so long
prevailed. Addison (_Spectator_, 99) notes it as one of the most
glorious exploits of his reign to have banished the false point of
honour. Under the regency of Louis XV. there was a brief revival. The
last legislative act for the suppression of duels was passed on the 12th
of April 1723. Then came the Revolution, which in abolishing the _ancien
regime_ fondly trusted that with it would go the duel, one of the
privileges and abuses of an aristocratic society. Dupleix, in his
_Military Law concerning the Duel_ (1611), premises that these have no
application to lawyers, merchants, financiers or justices. This explains
why in the legislation of the National Assembly there is no mention of
duels. Camille Desmoulins when challenged shrugged his shoulders and
replied to the charge of cowardice that he would prove his courage on
other fields than the Bois de Boulogne. The two great Frenchmen whose
writings preluded the French Revolution both set their faces against it.
Voltaire had indeed, as a young man, in obedience to the dictates of
society, once sought satisfaction from a nobleman for a brutal insult,
and had reflected on his temerity in the solitude of the Bastille.[1]
Henceforward he inveighed against the practice, not only for its
absurdity, but also for its aristocratic exclusiveness. Rousseau had
said of duelling, "It is not an institution of honour, but a horrible
and barbarous custom, which a courageous man despises and a good man
abhors." Napoleon was a sworn foe to it. "Bon duelliste mauvais soldat"
is one of his best known sayings; and, when the king of Sweden sent him
a challenge, he replied that he would order a fencing-master to attend
him as plenipotentiary. After the battle of Waterloo duels such as Lever
loves to depict were frequent between disbanded French officers and
those of the allies in occupation. The restoration of the Bourbons
brought with it a fresh crop of duels. Since then duels have been
frequent in France--more frequent, however, in novels than in real
life--fought mainly between politicians and journalists, and with rare
exceptions bloodless affairs. If fought with pistols, the distance and
the weapons chosen render a hit improbable; and, if fought with rapiers,
honour is generally satisfied with the first blood drawn. Among
Frenchmen famous in politics or letters who have "gone out" may be
mentioned Armand Carrel, who fell in an encounter with Emile Girardin;
Thiers, who thus atoned for a youthful indiscretion; the elder Dumas;
Lamartine; Ste Beuve, who to show at once his sangfroid and his sense of
humour, fought under an umbrella; Ledru Rollin; Edmond About; Clement
Thomas; Veuillot, the representative of the church militant; Rochefort;
and Boulanger, the Bonapartist _fanfaron_, whose discomfiture in a duel
with Floquet resulted in a notable loss of popular respect.


  In England.

Duelling did not begin in England till some hundred years after it had
arisen in France. There is no instance of a private duel fought in
England before the 16th century, and they are rare before the reign of
James I. A very fair notion of the comparative popularity of duelling,
and of the feeling with which it was regarded at various periods, might
be gathered by examining the part it plays in the novels and lighter
literature of the times. The earliest duels we remember in fiction are
that in the _Monastery_ between Sir Piercie Shafton and Halbert
Glendinning, and that in _Kenilworth_ between Tressilian and Varney.
(That in _Anne of Geierstein_ either is an anachronism or must reckon as
a wager by battle.) Under James I. we have the encounter between Nigel
and Lord Dalgarno. The greater evil of war, as we observed in French
history, expels the lesser, and the literature of the Commonwealth is in
this respect a blank. With the Restoration there came a reaction against
Puritan morality, and a return to the gallantry and loose manners of
French society, which is best represented by the theatre of the day. The
drama of the Restoration abounds in duels. Passing on to the reign of
Queen Anne, we find the subject frequently discussed in the _Tatler_ and
the _Spectator_, and Addison points in his happiest way the moral to a
contemporary duel between Mr Thornhill and Sir Cholmeley Dering. "I come
not," says Spinomont to King Pharamond, "I come not to implore your
pardon, I come to relate my sorrow, a sorrow too great for human life to
support. Know that this morning I have killed in a duel the man whom of
all men living I love best." No reader of _Esmond_ can forget
Thackeray's description of the doubly fatal duel between the duke of
Hamilton and Lord Mohun, which is historical, or the no less life-like
though fictitious duel between Lord Mohun and Lord Castlewood. The duel
between the two brothers in Stevenson's _Master of Ballantrae_ is one of
the best conceived in fiction. Throughout the reigns of the Georges they
are frequent. Richardson expresses his opinion on the subject in six
voluminous letters to the _Literary Repositor_. Sheridan, like Farquhar
in a previous generation, not only dramatized a duel, but fought two
himself. Byron thus commemorates the bloodless duel between Tom Moore
and Lord Jeffrey:--

  "Can none remember that eventful day,
   That ever glorious almost fatal fray,
   When Little's leadless pistols met the eye,
   And Bow Street myrmidons stood laughing by?"

There are no duels in Miss Austen's novels, but in those of Miss
Edgeworth, her contemporary, there are three or four. As we approach the
19th century they become rarer in fiction. Thackeray's novels, indeed,
abound in duels. "His royal highness the late lamented commander-in-chief"
had the greatest respect for Major Macmurdo, as a man who had conducted
scores of affairs for his acquaintance with the greatest prudence and
skill; and Rawdon Crawley's duelling pistols, "the same which I shot
Captain Marker," have become a household word. Dickens, on the other hand,
who depicts contemporary English life, and mostly in the middle classes,
in all his numerous works has only three; and George Eliot never once
refers to a duel. Tennyson, using a poet's privilege, laid the scene of a
duel in the year of the Crimean War, but he echoes the spirit of the times
when he stigmatizes "the Christless code that must have life for a blow."
Browning, who delights in cases of conscience, has given admirably the
double moral aspect of the duel in his two lyrics entitled "Before" and
"After."

To pass from fiction to fact we will select the most memorable English
duels of the last century and a half. Lord Byron killed Mr Chaworth in
1765; Charles James Fox and Mr Adams fought in 1779; duke of York and
Colonel Lennox, 1789; William Pitt and George Tierney, 1796; George
Canning and Lord Castlereagh, 1809; Mr Christie killed John Scott,
editor of the _London Magazine_, 1821; duke of Wellington and earl of
Winchelsea, 1829; Mr Roebuck and Mr Black, editor of _Morning
Chronicle_, 1835; Lord Alvanley and a son of Daniel O'Connell in the
same year; Earl Cardigan wounded Captain Tuckett, was tried by his
peers, and acquitted on a legal quibble, 1840.

The year 1808 is memorable in the annals of duelling in England. Major
Campbell was sentenced to death and executed for killing Captain Boyd in
a duel. In this case it is true that there was a suspicion of foul play;
but in the case of Lieutenant Blundell, who was killed in a duel in
1813, though all had been conducted with perfect fairness, the surviving
principal and the seconds were all convicted of murder and sentenced to
death, and, although the royal pardon was obtained, they were all
cashiered. The next important date is the year 1843, when public
attention was painfully called to the subject by a duel in which Colonel
Fawcett was shot by his brother-in-law, Lieutenant Monro. The survivor,
whose career was thereby blasted, had, it was well known, gone out most
reluctantly, in obedience to the then prevailing military code. A full
account of the steps taken by the prince consort, and of the
correspondence which passed between him and the duke of Wellington, will
be found in the _Life of the Prince_ by Sir Theodore Martin. The duke,
unfortunately, was not an unprejudiced counsellor. Not only had he been
out himself, but, in writing to Lord Londonderry on the occasion of the
duel between the marquess and Ensign Battier in 1824, he had gone so far
as to state that he considered the probability of the Hussars having to
fight a duel or two a matter of no consequence. In the previous year
there had been formed in London the association for the suppression of
duelling. It included leading members of both houses of parliament and
distinguished officers of both services. The first report, issued in
1844, gives a memorial of the association presented to Queen Victoria
through Sir James Graham, and in a debate in the House of Commons (15th
of March 1844) Sir H. Hardinge, the secretary of war, announced to the
House that Her Majesty had expressed herself desirous of devising some
expedient by which the barbarous practice of duelling should be as much
as possible discouraged. In the same debate Mr Turner reckoned the
number of duels fought during the reign of George III. at 172, of which
91 had been attended with fatal results; yet in only two of these cases
had the punishment of death been inflicted. But though the proposal of
the prince consort to establish courts of honour met with no favour, yet
it led to an important amendment of the articles of war (April 1844).
The 98th article ordains that "every person who shall fight or promote a
duel, or take any steps thereto, or who shall not do his best to prevent
duel, shall, if an officer, be cashiered, or suffer such other penalty
as a general court-martial may award." These articles, with a few verbal
changes, were incorporated in the consolidated Army Act of 1879 (section
38), which is still in force.


  In Germany.

In the German army duels are still authorized by the military code as a
last resort in grave cases. A German officer who is involved in a
difficulty with another is bound to notify the circumstance to a council
of honour at the latest as soon as he has either given or received a
challenge. A council of honour consists of three officers of different
ranks and is instructed, if possible, to bring about a reconciliation.
If unsuccessful it must see that the conditions of the duel are not out
of proportion to the gravity of the quarrel. Public opinion was greatly
roused by a tragic duel fought by two officers of the reserve in 1896;
and the German emperor in a cabinet order of 1897, confirmed in 1901,
enforced the regulation of the military court of honour, and gave
warning that any infringement would be visited with the full penalties
of the law. It is, notwithstanding, still the fact that a German officer
who is not prepared to accept a challenge and fight, if the opinion of
his regiment demands it, must leave the service. The German penal code
(_Reichsstrafgesetzbuch_, pars. 101-110) only punishes a duel when it is
fought with lethal weapons; and much controversy has raged round the
question of the _Mensuren_ or students' duels, which, as being conducted
with sharpened rapiers, have, despite the precautions taken, in the way
of bandaging the vital parts of the body which a cut would reach, to
reduce the risk of a fatal issue to a minimum, been declared by the
Supreme Court of the Empire to fall under the head of duels, and as such
to be punishable.

The _Mensuren_ (German students' duels) above referred to are frequently
misunderstood. They bear little resemblance, save in form, to the duel
_a outrance_, and should rather be considered in the light of athletic
games, in which the overflow of high animal spirits in young Germany
finds its outlet. These combats are indulged in principally by picked
representatives of the "corps" (recognized clubs), and according to the
position and value of the _Schmisse_ (cuts which have landed) points are
awarded to either side. Formerly these so-called duels could be openly
indulged in at most universities without let or hindrance. Gradually,
however, the academic authorities took cognizance of the illegality of
the practice, and in many cases inflicted punishment for the offence.
Nowadays, owing to the decision of the supreme court reserving to the
common law tribunals the power to deal with such cases, the governing
bodies at the universities have only a disciplinary control, which is
exercised at the various seats of learning in various degrees: in some
the practice is silently tolerated, or at most visited by reprimand; in
others, again, by relegation or _carcer_--with the result that the
students of one university frequently visit another, in order to be able
to fight out their battles under less rigorous surveillance.


  Modern views.

Any formal discussion of the morality of duelling is, in England at
least, happily superfluous. No fashionable vice has been so unanimously
condemned both by moralists and divines, and in tracing its history we
are reminded of the words of Tacitus, "in civitate nostra et vetabitur
semper et retinebitur." Some, however, of the problems, moral and
social, which it suggests may be shortly noticed. That duelling
flourished so long in England the law is, perhaps, as much to blame as
society. It was doubtless from the fact that duels were at first a form
of legal procedure that English law has refused to take cognizance of
private duels. A duel in the eye of the law differs nothing from an
ordinary murder. The greatest English legal authorities, from the time
of Elizabeth downwards, such as Coke, Bacon and Hale, have all
distinctly affirmed this interpretation of the law. But here as
elsewhere the severity of the penalty defeated its own object. The
public conscience revolted against a Draconian code which made no
distinction between wilful murder and a deadly combat wherein each party
consented to his own death or submitted to the risk of it. No jury could
be found to convict when conviction involved in the same penalty a Fox
or a Pitt and a Turpin or a Brownrigg. Such, however, was the
conservatism of English publicists that Bentham was the first to point
out clearly this defect of the law, and propose a remedy. In his
_Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation_, published in
1789, Bentham discusses the subject with his usual boldness and logical
precision. In his exposition of the absurdity of duelling considered as
a branch of penal justice, and its inefficiency as a punishment, he only
restates in a clearer form the arguments of Paley. So far there is
nothing novel in his treatment of the subject. But he soon parts company
with the Christian moralist, and proceeds to show that duelling does,
however rudely and imperfectly, correct and repress a real social evil.
"It entirely effaces a blot which an insult imprints upon the honour.
Vulgar moralists, by condemning public opinion upon this point, only
confirm the fact." He then points out the true remedy for the evil. It
is to extend the same legal protection to offences against honour as to
offences against the person. The legal satisfactions which he suggests
are some of them extremely grotesque. Thus for an insult to a woman, the
man is to be dressed in a woman's clothes, and the retort to be
inflicted by the hand of a woman. But the principle indicated is a sound
one, that in offences against honour the punishment must be analogous to
the injury. Doubtless, if Bentham were now alive, he would allow that
the necessity for such a scheme of legislation had in a great measure
passed away. That duels have since become extinct is no doubt
principally owing to social changes, but it may be in part ascribed to
improvements in legal remedies in the sense which Bentham indicated. A
notable instance is Lord Campbell's Act of 1843, by which, in the case
of a newspaper libel, a public apology coupled with a pecuniary payment
is allowed to bar a plea. In the Indian Code there are special
enactments concerning duelling, which is punishable not as murder but as
homicide.

Suggestions have from time to time been made for the establishment of
courts of honour, but the need of such tribunals is doubtful, while the
objections to them are obvious. The present tendency of political
philosophy is to contract rather than extend the province of law, and
any interference with social life is justly resented. Real offences
against reputation are sufficiently punished, and the rule of the
lawyers, that mere scurrility or opprobrious words, which neither of
themselves import nor are attended with any hurtful effects, are not
punishable, seems on the whole a wise one. What in a higher rank is
looked upon as a gross insult may in a lower rank be regarded as a mere
pleasantry or a harmless joke. Among the lower orders offences against
honour can hardly be said to exist; the learned professions have each
its own tribunal to which its members are amenable; and the highest
ranks of society, however imperfect their standard of morality may be,
are perfectly competent to enforce that standard by means of social
penalties without resorting either to trial by law or trial by battle.

The duel, which in a barbarous age may be excused as "a sort of wild
justice," was condemned by Bacon as "a direct affront of law and tending
to the dissolution of magistracy." It survived in more civilized times
as a class distinction and as an ultimate court of appeal to punish
violations of the social code. In a democratic age and under a settled
government it is doomed to extinction. The military duels of the
European continent, and the so-called American duel, where the lot
decides which of the two parties shall end his life, are singular
survivals. For real offences against reputation law will provide a
sufficient remedy The learned professions will have each its own
tribunal to which its members are amenable. Social stigma is at once a
surer and a juster defence against conduct unworthy of a gentleman. Yet
the duel dies hard, and even to-day it is approved or palliated by some
notable publicists and professors in France and Germany. M.H. Marion
(_La Grande Encyclopedie_), in an article strongly condemnatory of
duels, still holds that the wrongdoer is bound to accept a challenge,
though he may not take the offensive, and further allows that obligatory
duels may be the only way of evoking a sense of honour and of
maintaining discipline in the army. Dr Paulsen goes much further, and
not only defends the duels of university students (_Mensuren_) as an
encouragement of physical exercise, a proof of courage and a protest of
worth against wealth, but maintains generally that the duel should be
retained as an expedient in those exceptional cases when a man cannot
bring himself to drag before a law court the outrage done to his
personal honour. But in such cases Dr Paulsen would have the courts hold
the injured person scathless, whether he be challenger or challenged,
and visit the aggressor with condign punishment.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Castillo, _Tractatus de duello_ (Turin, 1525); J.P.
  Pigna, _Il Duello_ (1554); Muzio Girolamo, _Traite du duel_ (Venice,
  1553): Boyssat, _Recherches sur les duels_ (Lyons, 1610); J. Savaron,
  _Traite contre les duels_ (Paris, 1610); Brantome, _Memoire sur les
  duels rodomontades_; F. Bacon, _Charge concerning Duels_, &c. (1614);
  d'Audiguier, _Le Vray et ancien usage des duels_ (Paris, 1617); _His
  Majesties Edict and severe Censure against private combats_ (London,
  1618); Cockburn, _History of Duels_ (London, 1720); Brillat Savarin,
  _Essai sur le duel_ (1819); Chateauvillard, _Essai sur le duel_
  (1836); Colombey, _Histoire anecdotique du duel_ (Paris); Fourgeroux
  de Champigneules, _Histoire des duels anciens et modernes_ (2 vols.,
  Paris, 1835-1837); Millingen, _History of Duelling_ (London, 1841); L.
  Sabine, _Notes on Duels_ (Boston, 1855); Steinmetz, _Romance of
  Duelling_ (London, 1868). See also Eugene Cauchy, _Du duel_, &c.
  (1846), a learned and philosophic treatise by a French lawyer; G.
  Letainturier-Fradin, _Le Duel a travers les ages_ (Paris, 1892);
  Mackay, _History of Popular Delusions, Duels and Ordeals_; and for a
  valuable list of authorities, Buckle, _History of Civilization in
  England_, ii. 137, note 71. For judicial combats see Gibbon, _Decline
  and Fall_, ch. xxxviii. For courts of honour see _Armed Strength of
  the German Empire_ (1876). For _Mensur_, see Paulsen, _The German
  Universities_ (1906), ch. vi.     (F. S.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Voltaire met the chevalier Rohan-Chabot at the house of the
    Marquis of Sully. The chevalier, offended by Voltaire's free speech,
    insolently asked the marquis, "Who is that young man?" "One," replied
    Voltaire, "who if he does not parade a great name, honours that he
    bears." The chevalier said nothing at the time, but, seizing his
    opportunity, inveigled Voltaire into his coach, and had him beaten by
    six of his footmen. Voltaire set to work to learn fencing, and then
    sought the chevalier in the theatre, and publicly challenged him. A
    _bon-mot_ at the chevalier's expense was the only satisfaction that
    the philosopher could obtain. "Monsieur, si quelque affaire d'interet
    ne vous a point fait oublier l'outrage dont j'ai a me plaindre,
    j'espere que vous m'en rendrez raison." The chevalier was said to
    employ his capital in petty usury.




DUENNA (Span. _duena_, a married lady or mistress, Lat. _domina_),
specifically the chief lady-in-waiting upon the queen of Spain. The word
is more widely applied, however, to an elderly lady in Spanish and
Portuguese households (holding a position midway between a governess and
companion) appointed to take charge of the young girls of the family;
and "duenna" is thus used in English as a synonym for chaperon (q.v.).




DUET (an adaptation of the Ital. _duetto_, from Lat. _duo_, two), a term
in music for a composition for two performers, both either vocal or
instrumental. The term is not properly applied to a composition for one
voice and one instrument, the latter being regarded as an accompaniment,
though in the modern evolution of this latter form of composition it
often has the same character. Both parts must be of equal importance; if
one is subordinated to the other it becomes an accompaniment and the
work ceases to be a duet. Instrumental duets are written either for two
different instruments, such as Mozart's duets for violin and piano, or
for two similar instruments. Duets written for the pianoforte are either
for two performers on two separate instruments or for two performers on
the same instrument, when they are termed "_duets a quatre mains_."




DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS (1798-1881), French statesman, was born
at Saujon (Charente-Inferieure) on the 4th of December 1798. He became
an advocate at Bordeaux, where he won a great reputation by his
oratorical gifts, but soon abandoned law for politics, and in 1834 was
elected deputy. In 1839 he became minister of public works in the Soult
ministry, and succeeded in freeing railway construction in France from
the obstacles which till then had hampered it. Losing office in 1840,
Dufaure became one of the leaders of the Opposition, and on the outbreak
of the revolution of 1848 he frankly accepted the Republic, and joined
the party of moderate republicans. On October 13th he became minister of
the interior under G. Cavaignac, but retired on the latter's defeat in
the presidential election. During the Second Empire Dufaure abstained
from public life, and practised at the Paris bar with such success that
he was elected _batonnier_ in 1862. In 1863 he succeeded to Pasquier's
seat in the French Academy. In 1871 he became a member of the Assembly,
and it was on his motion that Thiers was elected President of the
Republic. Dufaure became the minister of justice as chief of the party
of the "left-centre," and his tenure of office was distinguished by the
passage of the jury-law. In 1873 he fell with Thiers, but in 1875
resumed his former post under L.J. Buffet, whom he succeeded on the 9th
of March 1876 as president of the council. In the same year he was
elected a life senator. On December the 12th he withdrew from the
ministry owing to the attacks of the republicans of the left in the
chamber and of the conservatives in the senate. After the check which
the conservatives received on the 16th of May he returned to power on
the 24th of December 1877. Early in 1879 Dufaure took part in compelling
the resignation of Marshal MacMahon, but immediately afterwards (1st
February), worn out by opposition, he himself retired. He died in Paris
on the 28th of June 1881.

  See G. Picot, _M. Dufaure, sa vie et ses discours_ (Paris, 1883).




DUFF, ALEXANDER (1806-1878), Scottish missionary in India, was born on
the 26th of April 1806, at Auchnahyle in the parish of Moulin,
Perthshire. At St Andrews University he came under the influence of Dr
Chalmers. He then accepted an offer made by the foreign mission
committee of the general assembly to become their first missionary to
India. He was ordained in August 1829, and started at once for India,
but was twice shipwrecked before he reached Calcutta in May 1830, and
lost all his books and other property. Making Calcutta the base of his
operations, he at once identified himself with a policy which had
far-reaching results. Up to this time Protestant missions in India had
been successful only in reaching low-caste and outcaste peoples,
particularly in Tinevelly and south Travancore. The Hindu and Mahommedan
communities had been practically untouched. Duff saw that, to reach
these communities, educational must take the place of evangelizing
methods, and he devised the policy of an educational mission. The
success of his work had the effect (1) of altering the policy of the
government of India in matters of education, (2) of securing the
recognition of education as a missionary agency by Christian churches at
home, and (3) of securing entrance for Christian ideas into the minds of
high-caste Hindus. He first opened an English school in which the Bible
was the centre of the school work, and along with it all kinds of
secular knowledge were taught from the rudiments upwards to a university
standard. The English language was used on the ground that it was
destined to be the great instrument of higher education in India, and
also as giving the Hindu the key of Western knowledge. The school soon
began to expand into a missionary college, and a government minute was
adopted on the 7th of March 1835, to the effect that in higher education
the object of the British government should be the promotion of European
science and literature among the natives of India, and that all funds
appropriated for purposes of education would be best employed on English
education alone. Duff wrote a pamphlet on the question, entitled "A New
Era of the English Language and Literature in India." He returned home
in 1834 broken in health, but succeeded in securing the approval of his
church for his educational plans, and also in arousing much interest in
the work of foreign missions.

In 1840 he returned to India. In the previous year the earl of Auckland,
governor-general, had yielded to the "Orientalists" who opposed Duff,
and adopted a policy which was a compromise between the two. At the
Disruption of 1843 Duff sided with the Free Church, gave up the college
buildings, with all their effects, and with unabated courage set to work
to provide a new institution. He had the support of Sir James Outram and
Sir Henry Lawrence, and the encouragement of seeing a new band of
converts, including several young men of high caste. In 1844 Viscount
Hardinge opened government appointments to all who had studied in
institutions similar to Duff's foundation. In the same year Duff took
part in founding the _Calcutta Review_, of which from 1845 to 1849 he
was editor. In 1849 he returned home. He was moderator of the Free
Church assembly in 1851. He gave evidence before various Indian
committees of parliament on matters of education. This led to an
important despatch by Viscount Halifax, president of the board of
control, to the marquess of Dalhousie, the governor-general, authorizing
an educational advance in primary and secondary schools, the provision
of technical and scientific teaching, and the establishment of schools
for girls.

In 1854 Duff visited the United States, where what is now New York
University gave him the degree of LL.D.; he was already D.D. of
Aberdeen. In 1856 he returned to India, where the mutiny soon broke out;
his descriptive letters were collected in a volume entitled _The Indian
Mutiny, its Causes and Results_ (1858). Duff gave much thought and time
to the university of Calcutta, which owes its examination system and the
prominence given to physical sciences to his influence. In 1863 Sir
Charles Trevelyan offered him the post of vice-chancellor of the
University, but his health compelled him to leave India. As a memorial
of his work the Duff Hall was erected in the centre of the educational
buildings of Calcutta; and a fund of L11,000 was raised for his
disposal, the capital of which was afterwards to be used for invalided
missionaries of his own church. In 1864 Duff visited South Africa, and
on his return became convener of the foreign missions committee of the
Free Church. He raised L10,000 to endow a missionary chair at New
College, Edinburgh, and himself became first professor. Among other
missionary labours of his later years, he helped the Free Church mission
on Lake Nyassa, travelled to Syria to inspect a mission at Lebanon, and
assisted Lady Aberdeen and Lord Polwarth to establish the Gordon
Memorial Mission in Natal. In 1873 the Free Church was threatened with a
schism owing to negotiations for union with the United Presbyterian
Church. Duff was called to the chair, and guided the church happily
through this crisis. He also took part in forming the alliance of
Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian system. He died on the 12th
of February 1878. By his will he devoted his personal property to found
a lectureship on foreign missions on the model of the Bampton Lectures.

  See his _Life_, by George Smith (2 vols.).     (D. Mn.)




DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK TEMPLE HAMILTON-TEMPLE-BLACKWOOD, 1ST
MARQUESS OF (1826-1902), British diplomatist, son of Price Blackwood,
4th Baron Dufferin, was born at Florence, Italy, on the 21st of June
1826. The Irish Blackwoods were of old Scottish stock,[1] tracing their
descent back to the 14th century. John Blackwood of Bangor (1591-1663),
the ancestor of the Irish line, made a fortune and acquired landed
property in county Down, and his great-grandson Robert was created a
baronet in 1763. Sir Robert's son, Sir John, married the heiress of the
Hamiltons, earls of Clanbrassil and viscounts of Clandeboye ("clan of
yellow Hugh"), and thus brought into the family a large property in the
borough of Killyleagh and barony of Dufferin, county Down. Sir John
Blackwood (d. 1799) declined a peerage, and so did his heir James at the
time of the Union, but the Irish title of Baroness Dufferin was
conferred (1800) on Sir John's widow, and James (d. 1836) succeeded as
second baron in 1808. His brother Hans (d. 1839) became third baron, and
by his marriage with Miss Temple (a descendant of the Temples of Stowe)
was the father of Price Blackwood, 4th baron. Among other distinguished
members of the family was Admiral Sir Henry Blackwood, Bart.
(1770-1832)--a brother of James and Hans--one of Nelson's captains, who
commanded the "Euryalus" at Trafalgar. Price Blackwood, too, was in the
Navy; his marriage in 1825 with Helen Selina Sheridan, a daughter of
Thomas Sheridan, and granddaughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the
dramatist and politician, was against his parents' wishes, but his young
wife's talents and beauty soon won them over.

Frederick went to Eton (1839-1843) and Christ Church, Oxford
(1845-1847), where he took a pass school and was President of the Union.
His father died in 1841, and the influence of his mother--one of three
unusually accomplished sisters, the other two being the duchess of
Somerset and Mrs Norton (q.v.)--was very marked on his mental
development; she lived till 1867 and is commemorated by the "Helen's
Tower" erected by her son in her honour at Clandeboye (the Irish seat of
the Blackwoods) in 1861, and adorned with epigraphical verses written by
Tennyson, Browning and others. On leaving Oxford Lord Dufferin busied
himself for some little while with the management of his Irish estates.
In 1846-1848 he was active in relieving the distress in Ireland due to
the famine, and he was always generous and liberal in his relations with
his tenants. In 1855 he already advocated compensation for disturbance
and for improvements; but while supporting reasonable reform, he
demanded justice for the landowners. In later years (1868-1881) he wrote
much, in opposition to J.S. Mill, on behalf of Irish landlordism, and,
when Gladstone adopted Home Rule, Lord Dufferin, who had been attached
throughout his career to the Liberal party, regarded the new policy as
fatal both to Ireland and to the United Kingdom, though, being then an
ambassador, he took no public part in opposing it.

Starting with every personal and social advantage, Lord Dufferin quickly
became a favourite both at Court and in London society; and in 1849 he
was made a lord-in-waiting. In political life he followed Lord John
Russell, and in 1850 was further attached to the party by being created
a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Clandeboye. In 1855 Lord John
Russell took him as attache on his special mission to the Vienna
Conference. Meanwhile Lord Dufferin was enlarging his experience by
foreign travel, and in 1856 he went on a yachting-tour to Iceland, which
he described with much humour and graphic power in his successful book,
_Letters from High Latitudes_; this volume made his reputation as a
writer, though his only other purely literary publication was his
memorial edition (1894) of his mother's _Poems and Verses_. In 1860 Lord
John Russell sent him as British representative on a joint commission of
the powers appointed to inquire into the affairs of the Lebanon (Syria),
where the massacres of Christian Maronites by the Mussulman Druses had
resulted in the landing of a French force and the possibility of a
French occupation. Lord Dufferin was associated with French, Russian,
Prussian and Turkish colleagues, and his difficult diplomatic position
was made none the less delicate by his conscientious endeavour to be
just to all parties. Even if he had not satisfied himself that the
Mahommedans were by no means wholly to blame, the question of punishment
was in any case complicated by the problem of future administration. His
own proposal to put the whole Syrian province under a responsible
governor, appointed by the sultan for a term of years, with unfettered
jurisdiction, was rejected; but at last it was agreed to place a
Christian governor, subordinate to the Porte, over the Lebanon district,
and to set up local administrative councils. In May 1861 the French
forces departed, and Lord Dufferin was thanked for his services by the
government.

In 1862 he married Hariot, daughter of Captain A. Rowan Hamilton, of
Killyleagh Castle, Down. He held successively the posts of
under-secretary for India (1864-1866) and under-secretary for war (1866)
in Lord Palmerston's and Earl Russell's ministries; and he was
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, outside the cabinet, under Mr
Gladstone (1868-1872). In 1871 he was created earl of Dufferin.

In 1872 he was appointed governor-general of Canada. There his tact and
personal charm and genial hospitality were invaluable. He had already
become known as a powerful and graceful orator, and a man of culture and
political distinction; and his abilities were brilliantly displayed in
dealing with the problems of

Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/34751