Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Anjar" to "Apollo"
by Various · English · Gutenberg #34018 · 1,168,853 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Anjar" to "Apollo"
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Anjar" to "Apollo"
Author: Various
Release date: October 2, 2010 [eBook #34018]
Most recently updated: January 7, 2021
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34018
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ANJAR" TO "APOLLO" ***
Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME II, SLICE II
Anjar to Apollo
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
ANJAR ANTIGONUS GONATAS
ANJOU ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS
ANKERITE ANTIGUA
ANKLAM ANTILEGOMENA
ANKLE ANTILIA
ANKOBER ANTILLES
ANKYLOSIS ANTILOCHUS
ANKYLOSTOMIASIS ANTIMACASSAR
ANNA, BALDASARRE ANTIMACHUS
ANNA (Indian penny) ANTI-MASONIC PARTY
ANNA AMALIA ANTIMONY
ANNABERG ANTINOMIANS
ANNABERGITE ANTINOMY
ANNA COMNENA ANTINOUS
ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA ANTIOCH
ANNALISTS ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA
ANNALS ANTIOCHUS
ANNAM ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON
ANNAN ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE
ANNA PERENNA ANTIOPE
ANNAPOLIS (Maryland, U.S.A.) ANTIOQUIA
ANNAPOLIS (Nova Scotia) ANTIPAROS
ANN ARBOR ANTIPATER
ANNATES ANTIPHANES
ANNE (queen of Great Britain) ANTIPHILUS
ANNE (empress of Russia) ANTIPHON
ANNE OF BRITTANY ANTIPHONY
ANNE OF CLEVES ANTIPODES
ANNE OF DENMARK ANTIPYRINE
ANNE OF FRANCE ANTIQUARY
ANNEALING AND TEMPERING ANTIQUE
ANNECY ANTI-SEMITISM
ANNELIDA ANTISEPTICS
ANNET, PETER ANTISTHENES
ANNEXATION ANTISTROPHE
ANNICERIS ANTITHESIS
ANNING, MARY ANTITYPE
ANNISTON ANTIUM
ANNO, SAINT ANTIVARI
ANNOBON ANT-LION
ANNONA ANTOFAGASTA
ANNONAY ANTOINE, ANDRE
ANNOY ANTONELLI, GIACOMO
ANNUITY ANTONELLO DA MESSINA
ANNULAR, ANNULATE ANTONINI ITINERARIUM
ANNUNCIATION ANTONINUS, SAINT
ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' ANTONINUS LIBERALIS
ANOA ANTONINUS PIUS
ANODYNE ANTONIO
ANOINTING ANTONIO, NICOLAS
ANOMALY ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA
ANORTHITE ANTONIUS
ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE ANTONOMASIA
ANQUETIL, DUPERRON, ABRAHAM ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL HENRI LOUIS
ANSA ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL
ANSBACH ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL
ANSDELL, RICHARD ANTRIM (county of Ireland)
ANSELM (archbishop) ANTRIM (town of Ireland)
ANSELM (French theologian) ANTRUSTION
ANSELME ANTWERP (province of Belgium)
ANSON, GEORGE ANSON ANTWERP (city of Belgium)
ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL ANU
ANSONIA ANUBIS
ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS ANURADHAPURA
ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER ANVIL
ANSTRUTHER ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D'
ANSWER ANWARI
ANT ANWEILER
ANTAE ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG
ANTAEUS ANZIN
ANTALCIDAS AONIA
ANTANANARIVO AORIST
'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD AOSTA
ANTARCTIC APACHE
ANTEATER APALACHEE
ANTE-CHAPEL APALACHICOLA
ANTE-CHOIR APAMEA
ANTE-FIXAE APARRI
ANTELOPE APATITE
ANTEMNAE APATURIA
ANTENOR (Athenian sculptor) APE
ANTENOR (Trojan elder) APELDOORN
ANTEQUERA APELLA
ANTEROS APELLES
ANTHELION APELLICON
ANTHEM APENNINES
ANTHEMION APENRADE
ANTHEMIUS APERTURE
ANTHESTERIA APEX
ANTHIM THE IBERIAN APHANITE
ANTHOLOGY APHASIA
ANTHON, CHARLES APHELION
ANTHONY, SAINT APHEMIA
ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT APHIDES
ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL APHORISM
ANTHOZOA APHRAATES
ANTHRACENE APHRODITE
ANTHRACITE APHTHONIUS
ANTHRACOTHERIUM APHTHONIUS, AELIUS FESTUS
ANTHRAQUINONE APICIUS
ANTHRAX APICULTURE
ANTHROPOID APES APION
ANTHROPOLOGY APIS
ANTHROPOMETRY APLITE
ANTHROPOMORPHISM APNOEA
ANTI APOCALYPSE
ANTIBES APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE
ANTICHRIST APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
ANTICLIMAX APOCATASTASIS
ANTICOSTI APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
ANTICYCLONE APODICTIC
ANTICYRA APOLDA
ANTIETAM APOLLINARIS
ANTI-FEDERALISTS APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS
ANTIGO APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS
ANTIGONE APOLLO
ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS
ANJAR, a fortified town of India, and the capital of a district of the
same name in the native state of Cutch, in the presidency of Bombay. The
country is dry and sandy, and entirely depends on well irrigation for
its water supply. The town is situated nearly 10 miles from the Gulf of
Cutch. It suffered severely from an earthquake in 1819, which destroyed
a large number of houses, and occasioned the loss of several lives. In
1901 the population was 18,014. The town and district of Anjar were both
ceded to the British in 1816, but in 1822 they were again transferred to
the Cutch government in consideration of an annual money payment.
Subsequently it was discovered that this obligation pressed heavily upon
the resources of the native state, and in 1832 the pecuniary equivalent
for Anjar, both prospectively and inclusive of the arrears which had
accrued to that date, was wholly remitted by the British government.
ANJOU, the old name of a French territory, the political origin of which
is traced to the ancient Gallic state of the _Andes_, on the lines of
which was organized, after the conquest by Julius Caesar, the Roman
_civitas_ of the _Andecavi_. This was afterwards preserved as an
administrative district under the Franks with the name first of _pagus_,
then of _comitatus_, or countship of Anjou. This countship, the extent
of which seems to have been practically identical with that of the
ecclesiastical diocese of Angers, occupied the greater part of what is
now the department of Maine-et-Loire, further embracing, to the north,
Craon, Bazouges (Chateau-Gontier), Le Lude, and to the east,
Chateau-la-Valliere and Bourgueil, while to the south, on the other
hand, it included neither the present town of Montreuil-Bellay, nor
Vihiers, Cholet, Beaupreau, nor the whole district lying to the west of
the Ironne and Thouet, on the left bank of the Loire, which formed the
territory of the Mauges. It was bounded on the north by the countship of
Maine, on the east by that of Touraine, on the south by that of Poitiers
and by the Mauges, on the west by the countship of Nantes.
From the outset of the reign of Charles the Bald, the integrity of Anjou
was seriously menaced by a two-fold danger: from Brittany and from
Normandy. Lambert, a former count of Nantes, after devastating Anjou in
concert with Nominoe, duke of Brittany, had by the end of the year 851
succeeded in occupying all the western part as far as the Mayenne. The
principality, which he thus carved out for himself, was occupied, on his
death, by Erispoe, duke of Brittany; by him it was handed down to his
successors, in whose hands it remained till the beginning of the 10th
century. All this time the Normans had not ceased ravaging the country;
a brave man was needed to defend it, and finally towards 861, Charles
the Bald entrusted it to Robert the Strong (q.v.), but he unfortunately
met with his death in 866 in a battle against the Normans at Brissarthe.
Hugh the Abbot succeeded him in the countship of Anjou as in most of his
other duties, and on his death (886) it passed to Odo (q.v.), the eldest
son of Robert the Strong, who, on his accession to the throne of France
(888), probably handed it over to his brother Robert. In any case,
during the last years of the 9th century, in Anjou as elsewhere the
power was delegated to a viscount, Fulk the Red (mentioned under this
title after 898), son of a certain Ingelgerius.
In the second quarter of the 10th century Fulk the Red had already
usurped the title of count, which his descendants kept for three
centuries. He was succeeded first by his son Fulk II. the Good (941 or
942-c. 960), and then by the son of the latter, Geoffrey I.
_Grisegonelle_ (Greytunic) (c. 960-21st of July 987), who inaugurated a
policy of expansion, having as its objects the extension of the
boundaries of the ancient countship and the reconquest of those parts of
it which had been annexed by the neighbouring states; for, though
western Anjou had been recovered from the dukes of Brittany since the
beginning of the 10th century, in the east all the district of Saumur
had already by that time fallen into the hands of the counts of Blois
and Tours. Geoffrey Greytunic succeeded in making the count of Nantes
his vassal, and in obtaining from the duke of Aquitaine the concession
in fief of the district of Loudun. Moreover, in the wars of king
Lothaire against the Normans and against the emperor Otto II. he
distinguished himself by feats of arms which the epic poets were quick
to celebrate. His son Fulk III. Nerra (q.v.) (21st of July 987-21st of
June 1040) found himself confronted on his accession with a coalition of
Odo I., count of Blois, and Conan I., count of Rennes. The latter having
seized upon Nantes, of which the counts of Anjou held themselves to be
suzerains, Fulk Nerra came and laid siege to it, routing Conan's army at
Conquereuil (27th of June 992) and re-establishing Nantes under his own
suzerainty. Then turning his attention to the count of Blois, he
proceeded to establish a fortress at Langeais, a few miles from Tours,
from which, thanks to the intervention of the king Hugh Capet, Odo
failed to oust him. On the death of Odo I., Fulk seized Tours (996); but
King Robert the Pious turned against him and took the town again (997).
In 1016 a fresh struggle arose between Fulk and Odo II., the new count
of Blois. Odo II. was utterly defeated at Pontlevoy (6th of July 1016),
and a few years later, while Odo was besieging Montboyau, Fulk surprised
and took Saumur (1026). Finally, the victory gained by Geoffrey Martel
(q.v.) (21st of June 1040-14th of November 1060), the son and successor
of Fulk, over Theobald III., count of Blois, at Nouy (21st of August
1044), assured to the Angevins the possession of the countship of
Touraine. At the same time, continuing in this quarter also the work of
his father (who in 1025 took prisoner Herbert Wake-Dog and only set him
free on condition of his doing him homage), Geoffrey succeeded in
reducing the countship of Maine to complete dependence on himself.
During his father's life-time he had been beaten by Gervais, bishop of
Le Mans (1038), but now (1047 or 1048) succeeded in taking the latter
prisoner, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Leo IX. at the council
of Reims (October 1049). In spite, however, of the concerted attacks of
William the Bastard (the Conqueror), duke of Normandy, and Henry I.,
king of France, he was able in 1051 to force Maine to recognize his
authority, though failing to revenge himself on William.
On the death of Geoffrey Martel (14th of November 1060) there was a
dispute as to the succession. Geoffrey Martel, having no children, had
bequeathed the countship to his eldest nephew, Geoffrey III. the
Bearded, son of Geoffrey, count of Gatinais, and of Ermengarde, daughter
of Fulk Nerra. But Fulk le Rechin (the Cross-looking), brother of
Geoffrey the Bearded, who had at first been contented with an appanage
consisting of Saintonge and the _chatellenie_ of Vihiers, having allowed
Saintonge to be taken in 1062 by the duke of Aquitaine, took advantage
of the general discontent aroused in the countship by the unskilful
policy of Geoffrey to make himself master of Saumur (25th of February
1067) and Angers (4th of April), and cast Geoffrey into prison at Sable.
Compelled by the papal authority to release him after a short interval
and to restore the countship to him, he soon renewed the struggle, beat
Geoffrey near Brissac and shut him up in the castle of Chinon (1068). In
order, however, to obtain his recognition as count, Fulk IV. Rechin
(1068-14th of April 1109) had to carry on a long struggle with his
barons, to cede Gatinais to King Philip I., and to do homage to the
count of Blois for Touraine. On the other hand, he was successful on the
whole in pursuing the policy of Geoffrey Martel in Maine: after
destroying La Fleche, by the peace of Blanchelande (1081), he received
the homage of Robert "Courteheuse" ("Curthose"), son of William the
Conqueror, for Maine. Later, he upheld Elias, lord of La Fleche, against
William Rufus, king of England, and on the recognition of Elias as count
of Maine in 1100, obtained for Fulk the Young, his son by Bertrade de
Montfort, the hand of Eremburge, Elias's daughter and sole heiress.
Fulk V. the Young (14th of April 1109-1129) succeeded to the countship
of Maine on the death of Elias (11th of July 1110); but this increase of
Angevin territory came into such direct collision with the interests of
Henry I., king of England, who was also duke of Normandy, that a
struggle between the two powers became inevitable. In 1112 it broke out,
and Fulk, being unable to prevent Henry I. from taking Alencon and
making Robert, lord of Belleme, prisoner, was forced, at the treaty of
Pierre Pecoulee, near Alencon (23rd of February 1113), to do homage to
Henry for Maine. In revenge for this, while Louis VI. was overrunning
the Vexin in 1118, he routed Henry's army at Alencon (November), and in
May 1119 Henry demanded a peace, which was sealed in June by the
marriage of his eldest son, William the Aetheling, with Matilda, Fulk's
daughter. William the Aetheling having perished in the wreck of the
"White Ship" (25th of November 1120), Fulk, on his return from a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land (1120-1121), married his second daughter
Sibyl, at the instigation of Louis VI., to William Clito, son of Robert
Courteheuse, and a claimant to the duchy of Normandy, giving her Maine
for a dowry (1122 or 1123). Henry I. managed to have the marriage
annulled, on the plea of kinship between the parties (1123 or 1124). But
in 1127 a new alliance was made, and on the 22nd of May at Rouen, Henry
I. betrothed his daughter Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., to
Geoffrey the Handsome, son of Fulk, the marriage being celebrated at Le
Mans on the 2nd of June 1129. Shortly after, on the invitation of
Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, Fulk departed to the Holy Land for good,
married Melisinda, Baldwin's daughter and heiress, and succeeded to the
throne of Jerusalem (14th of September 1131). His eldest son, Geoffrey
IV. the Handsome or "Plantagenet," succeeded him as count of Anjou
(1129-7th of September 1151). From the first he tried to profit by his
marriage, and after the death of Henry I. (1st of December 1135), laid
the foundation of the conquest of Normandy by a series of campaigns:
about the end of 1135 or the beginning of 1136 he entered that country
and rejoined his wife, the countess Matilda, who had received the
submission of Argentan, Domfront and Exmes. Having been abruptly
recalled into Anjou by a revolt of his barons, he returned to the charge
in September 1136 with a strong army, including in its ranks William,
duke of Aquitaine, Geoffrey, count of Vendome, and William Talvas, count
of Ponthieu, but after a few successes was wounded in the foot at the
siege of Le Sap (October 1) and had to fall back. In May 1137 began a
fresh campaign in which he devastated the district of Hiemois (round
Exmes) and burnt Bazoches. In June 1138, with the aid of Robert of
Gloucester, Geoffrey obtained the submission of Bayeux and Caen; in
October he devastated the neighbourhood of Falaise; finally, in March
1141, on hearing of his wife's success in England, he again entered
Normandy, when he made a triumphal procession through the country. Town
after town surrendered: in 1141, Verneuil, Nonancourt, Lisieux, Falaise;
in 1142, Mortain, Saint-Hilaire, Pontorson; in 1143, Avranches,
Saint-Lo, Cerences, Coutances, Cherbourg; in the beginning of 1144 he
entered Rouen, and on the 19th of January received the ducal crown in
its cathedral. Finally, in 1149, after crushing a last attempt at
revolt, he handed over the duchy to his son Henry "Curtmantel," who
received the investiture at the hands of the king of France.
All the while that Fulk the Young and Geoffrey the Handsome were
carrying on the work of extending the countship of Anjou, they did not
neglect to strengthen their authority at home, to which the unruliness
of the barons was a menace. As regards Fulk the Young we know only a few
isolated facts and dates: about 1109 Doue and L'Ile Bouchard were taken;
in 1112 Brissac was besieged, and about the same time Eschivard of
Preuilly subdued; in 1114 there was a general war against the barons who
were in revolt, and in 1118 a fresh rising, which was put down after the
siege of Montbazon: in 1123 the lord of Doue revolted, and in 1124
Montreuil-Bellay was taken after a siege of nine weeks. Geoffrey the
Handsome, with his indefatigable energy, was eminently fitted to
suppress the coalitions of his vassals, the most formidable of which was
formed in 1129. Among those who revolted were Guy of Laval, Giraud of
Montreuil-Bellay, the viscount of Thouars, the lords of Mirebeau,
Amboise, Partbenay and Sable. Geoffrey succeeded in beating them one
after another, razed the keep of Thouars and occupied Mirebeau. Another
rising was crushed in 1134 by the destruction of Cand and the taking of
L'Ile Bouchard. In 1136, while the count was in Normandy, Robert of
Sable put himself at the head of the movement, to which Geoffrey
responded by destroying Briollay and occupying La Suze, and Robert of
Sable himself was forced to beg humbly for pardon through the
intercession of the bishop of Angers. In 1139 Geoffrey took Mirebeau,
and in 1142 Champtoceaux, but in 1145 a new revolt broke out, this time
under the leadership of Elias, the count's own brother, who, again with
the assistance of Robert of Sable, laid claim to the countship of Maine.
Geoffrey took Elias prisoner, forced Robert of Sable to beat a retreat,
and reduced the other barons to reason. In 1147 he destroyed Doue and
Blaison. Finally in 1150 he was checked by the revolt of Giraud, lord of
Montreuil-Bellay: for a year he besieged the place till it had to
surrender: he then took Giraud prisoner and only released him on the
mediation of the king of France.
Thus, on the death of Geoffrey the Handsome (7th of September 1151), his
son Henry found himself heir to a great empire, strong and consolidated,
to which his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (May 1152) further added
Aquitaine.
At length on the death of King Stephen, Henry was recognised as king of
England (19th of December 1154). But then his brother Geoffrey, who had
received as appanage the three fortresses of Chinon, Loudun and
Mirebeau, tried to seize upon Anjou, on the pretext that, by the will of
their father, Geoffrey the Handsome, all the paternal inheritance ought
to descend to him, if Henry succeeded in obtaining possession of the
maternal inheritance. On hearing of this, Henry, although he had sworn
to observe this will, had himself released from his oath by the pope,
and hurriedly marched against his brother, from whom in the beginning of
1156 he succeeded in taking Chinon and Mirebeau; and in July he forced
Geoffrey to give up even his three fortresses in return for an annual
pension. Henceforward Henry succeeded in keeping the countship of Anjou
all his life; for though he granted it in 1168 to his son Henry "of the
Short Mantle," when the latter became old enough to govern it, he
absolutely refused to allow him to enjoy his power. After Henry II.'s
death in 1189 the countship, together with the rest of his dominions,
passed to his son Richard I. of England, but on the death of the latter
in 1199, Arthur of Brittany (born in 1187) laid claim to the
inheritance, which ought, according to him, to have fallen to his father
Geoffrey, fourth son of Henry II., in accordance with the custom by
which "the son of the eldest brother should succeed to his father's
patrimony." He therefore set himself up in rivalry with John Lackland,
youngest son of Henry II., and supported by Philip Augustus of France,
and aided by William des Roches, seneschal of Anjou, he managed to enter
Angers (18th of April 1199) and there have himself recognized as count
of the three countships of Anjou, Maine and Touraine, for which he did
homage to the king of France. King John soon regained the upper hand,
for Philip Augustus having deserted Arthur by the treaty of Le Goulet
(22nd of May 1200), John made his way into Anjou; and on the 18th of
June 1200 was recognized as count at Angers. In 1202 he refused to do
homage to Philip Augustus, who, in consequence, confiscated all his
continental possessions, including Anjou, which was allotted by the king
of France to Arthur. The defeat of the latter, who was taken prisoner at
Mirebeau on the ist of August 1202, seemed to ensure John's success, but
he was abandoned by William des Roches, who in 1203 assisted Philip
Augustus in subduing the whole of Anjou. A last effort on the part of
John to possess himself of it, in 1214, led to the taking of Angers
(17th of June), but broke down lamentably at the battle of La
Roche-aux-Moines (2nd of July), and the countship was attached to the
crown of France.
Shortly afterwards it was separated from it again, when in August 1246
King Louis IX. gave it as an appanage to his son Charles, count of
Provence, soon to become king of Naples and Sicily (see NAPLES). Charles
I. of Anjou, engrossed with his other dominions, gave little thought to
Anjou, nor did his son Charles II. the Lame, who succeeded him on the
7th of January 1285. On the 16th of August 1290, the latter married his
daughter Margaret to Charles of Valois, son of Philip III. the Bold,
giving her Anjou and Maine for dowry, in exchange for the kingdoms of
Aragon and Valentia and the countship of Barcelona given up by Charles.
Charles of Valois at once entered into possession of the countship of
Anjou, to which Philip IV. the Fair, in September 1297, attached a
peerage of France. On the 16th of December 1325, Charles died, leaving
Anjou to his eldest son Philip of Valois, on whose recognition as king
of France (Philip VI.) on the 1st of April 1328, the countship of Anjou
was again united to the crown. On the 17th of February 1332, Philip VI.
bestowed it on his son John the Good, who, when he became king in turn
(22nd of August 1350), gave the countship to his second son Louis I.,
raising it to a duchy in the peerage of France by letters patent of the
25th of October 1360. Louis I., who became in time count of Provence and
king of Naples (see Louis I., king of Naples,) died in 1384, and was
succeeded by his son Louis II., who devoted most of his energies to his
kingdom of Naples, and left the administration of Anjou almost entirely
in the hands of his wife, Yolande of Aragon. On his death (29th of April
1417) she took upon herself the guardianship of their young son Louis
III., and in her capacity of regent defended the duchy against the
English. Louis III., who also succeeded his father as king of Naples,
died on the 15th of November 1434, leaving no children. The duchy of
Anjou then passed to his cousin Rene, second son of Louis II. and
Yolande of Aragon, and king of Naples and Sicily (see NAPLES).
Unlike his predecessors, who had rarely stayed long in Anjou, Rene from
1443 onwards paid long visits to it, and his court at Angers became one
of the most brilliant in the kingdom of France. But after the sudden
death of his son John in December 1470, Rene, for reasons which are not
altogether clear, decided to move his residence to Provence and leave
Anjou for good. After making an inventory of all his possessions, he
left the duchy in October 1471, taking with him the most valuable of his
treasures. On the 22nd of July 1474 he drew up a will by which he
divided the succession between his grandson Rene II. of Lorraine and his
nephew Charles II., count of Maine. On hearing this, King Louis XI., who
was the son of one of King Rene's sisters, seeing that his expectations
were thus completely frustrated, seized the duchy of Anjou. He did not
keep it very long, but became reconciled to Rene in 1476 and restored it
to him, on condition, probably, that Rene should bequeath it to him.
However that may be, on the death of the latter (10th of July 1480) he
again added Anjou to the royal domain.
Later, King Francis I. again gave the duchy as an appanage to his
mother, Louise of Savoy, by letters patent of the 4th of February 1515.
On her death, in September 1531, the duchy returned into the king's
possession. In 1552 it was given as an appanage by Henry II. to his son
Henry of Valois, who, on becoming king in 1574, with the title of Henry
III., conceded it to his brother Francis, duke of Alencon, at the treaty
of Beaulieu near Loches (6th of May 1576). Francis died on the 10th of
June 1584, and the vacant appanage definitively became part of the royal
domain.
At first Anjou was included in the _gouvernement_ (or military command)
of Orleanais, but in the 17th century was made into a separate one.
Saumur, however, and the Saumurois, for which King Henry IV. had in 1589
created an independent military governor-generalship in favour of
Duplessis-Mornay, continued till the Revolution to form a separate
_gouvernement_, which included, besides Anjou, portions of Poitou and
Mirebalais. Attached to the _generalite_ (administrative circumscription)
of Tours, Anjou on the eve of the Revolution comprised five _elections_
(judicial districts):--Angers, Beauge, Saumur, Chateau-Gontier,
Montreuil-Bellay and part of the _elections_ of La Fleche and Richelieu.
Financially it formed part of the so-called _pays de grande gabelle_ (see
GABELLE), and comprised sixteen special tribunals, or _greniers a sel_
(salt warehouses):--Angers, Beauge, Beaufort, Bourgueil, Cande,
Chateau-Gontier, Cholet, Craon, La Fleche, Saint-Florent-le-Vieil,
Ingrandes, Le Lude, Pouance, Saint-Remy-la-Varenne, Richelieu, Saumur.
From the point of view of purely judicial administration, Anjou was
subject to the parlement of Paris; Angers was the seat of a presidial
court, of which the jurisdiction comprised the _senechaussees_ of Angers,
Saumur, Beauge, Beaufort and the duchy of Richelieu; there were besides
presidial courts at Chateau-Gontier and La Fleche. When the Constituent
Assembly, on the 26th of February 1790, decreed the division of France
into departments, Anjou and the Saumurois, with the exception of certain
territories, formed the department of Maine-et-Loire, as at present
constituted.
AUTHORITIES.--(1) _Principal Sources_: The history of Anjou may be
told partly with the aid of the chroniclers of the neighbouring
provinces, especially those of Normandy (William of Poitiers, William
of Jumieges, Ordericus Vitalis) and of Maine (especially _Actus
pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degentium_). For the 10th, 11th and 12th
centuries especially, there are some important texts dealing entirely
with Anjou. The most important is the chronicle called _Gesta consulum
Andegavorum_, of which only a poor edition exists (_Chroniques des
comtes d'Anjou_, published by Marchegay and Salmon, with an
introduction by E. Mabille, Paris, 1856-1871, collection of the
_Societe de l'histoire de France_). See also with reference to this
text Louis Halphen, _Etude sur les chroniques des comtes d'Anjou et
des seigneurs d'Amboise_ (Paris, 1906). The above may be supplemented
by some valuable annals published by Louis Halphen, _Recueil d'annales
angevines et vendomoises_ (Paris, 1903), (in the series _Collection de
textes pour servir a l'etude et a l'enseignement de l'histoire_). For
further details see Auguste Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de
France_ (Paris, 1902), ii. 1276-1310, and the book of Louis Halphen
mentioned below.
(2) _Works_: The _Art de verifier les dates_ contains a history of
Anjou which is very much out of date, but has not been treated
elsewhere as a whole. The 11th century only has been treated in detail
by Louis Halphen, in _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1906),
which has a preface with bibliography and an introduction dealing with
the history of Anjou in the 10th century. For the 10th, 11th and 12th
centuries, a good summary will be found in Kate Norgate, _England
under the Angevin Kings_ (2 vols., London, 1887). On Rene of Anjou,
there is a book by A. Lecoy de la Marche, _Le Roi Rene_ (2 vols.,
Paris, 1875). Lastly, the work of Celestin Port, _Dictionnaire
historique, geographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire_ (3 vols.,
Paris and Angers, 1874-1878), and its small volume of _Preliminaires_
(including a summary of the history of Anjou), contain, in addition to
the biographies of the chief counts of Anjou, a mass of information
concerning everything connected with Angevin history. (L. H.*)
ANKERITE, a member of the mineral group of rhombohedral carbonates. In
composition it is closely related to dolomite, but differs from this in
having magnesia replaced by varying amounts of ferrous and manganous
oxides, the general formula being Ca(Mg, Fe, Mn)(CO3)2. Normal ankerite
is Ca2MgFe(CO3)4. The crystallographic and physical characters resemble
those of dolomite and chalybite. The angle between the perfect
rhombohedral cleavages is 73 deg. 48', the hardness 3-1/2 to 4, and the
specific gravity 2.9 to 3.1; but these will vary slightly with the
chemical composition. The colour is white, grey or reddish.
Ankerite occurs with chalybite in deposits of iron-ore. It is one of the
minerals of the dolomite-chalybite series, to which the terms
brown-spar, pearl-spar and bitter-spar are loosely applied. It was first
recognized as a distinct species by W. von Haidinger in 1825, and named
by him after M.J. Anker of Styria. (L. J. S.)
ANKLAM, or ANCLAM, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, on the Peene, 5 m. from its mouth in the Kleines Haff, and 53
m. N.W. of Stettin, by the railway to Stralsund. Pop. (1900) 14,602. The
fortifications of Anklam were dismantled in 1762 and have not since been
restored, although the old walls are still standing; formerly, however,
it was a town of considerable military importance, which suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' and the Seven Years' Wars; and this
fact, together with the repeated ravages of fire and of the plague, has
made its history more eventful than is usually the case with towns of
the same size. It does not possess any remarkable buildings, although it
contains several, private as well as public, that are of a quaint and
picturesque style of architecture. The church of St Mary (12th century)
has a modern tower, 335 ft. high. The industries consist of
iron-foundries and factories for sugar and soap; and there is a military
school. The Peene is navigable up to the town, which has a considerable
trade in its own manufactures, as well as in the produce of the
surrounding country, while some shipbuilding is carried on in wharves on
the river.
Anklam, formerly Tanglim, was originally a Slav fortress; it obtained
civic rights in 1244 and joined the Hanseatic league. In 1648 it passed
to Sweden, but in 1676 was retaken by Frederick William I. of
Brandenburg, and after being plundered by the Russians in 1713 was ceded
to Prussia by the peace of Stockholm in 1720.
ANKLE, or ANCLE (a word common, in various forms, to Teutonic languages,
probably connected in origin with the Lat. _angulus_, or Gr. [Greek:
ankulos], bent), the joint which connects the foot with the leg (see
JOINTS).
ANKOBER, a town in, and at one time capital of, the kingdom of Shoa,
Abyssinia, 90 m. N.E. of Adis Ababa, in 9 deg. 34' N., 39 deg. 54' E.,
on a mountain about 8500 ft. above the sea. Ankober was made (c. 1890)
by Menelek II. the place of detention of political prisoners. Pop. about
2000.
ANKYLOSIS, or ANCHYLOSIS (from Gr. [Greek: ankulos], bent, crooked), a
stiffness of a joint, the result of injury or disease. The rigidity may
be complete or partial and may be due to inflammation of the tendinous
or muscular structures outside the joint or of the tissues of the joint
itself. When the structures outside the joint are affected, the term
"false" ankylosis has been used in contradistinction to "true"
ankylosis, in which the disease is within the joint. When inflammation
has caused the joint-ends of the bones to be fused together the
ankylosis is termed _osseous_ or complete. Excision of a completely
ankylosed shoulder or elbow may restore free mobility and usefulness to
the limb. "Ankylosis" is also used as an anatomical term, bones being
said to ankylose (or anchylose) when, from being originally distinct,
they coalesce, or become so joined together that no motion can take
place between them.
ANKYLOSTOMIASIS, or ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS (also called helminthiasis,
"miners' anaemia," and in Germany _Wurmkrankheit_), a disease to which
in recent years much attention has been paid, from its prevalence in the
mining industry in England, France, Germany, Belgium, North Queensland
and elsewhere. This disease (apparently known in Egypt even in very
ancient times) caused a great mortality among the negroes in the West
Indies towards the end of the 18th century; and through descriptions
sent from Brazil and various other tropical and sub-tropical regions, it
was subsequently identified, chiefly through the labours of Bilharz and
Griesinger in Egypt (1854), as being due to the presence in the
intestine of nematoid worms (_Ankylostoma duodenalis_) from one-third to
half an inch long. The symptoms, as first observed among the negroes,
were pain in the stomach, capricious appetite, pica (or dirt-eating),
obstinate constipation followed by diarrhoea, palpitations, small and
unsteady pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the skin and mucous
membranes, diminution of the secretions, loss of strength and, in cases
running a fatal course, dysentery, haemorrhages and dropsies. The
parasites, which cling to the intestinal mucous membrane, draw their
nourishment from the blood-vessels of their host, and as they are found
in hundreds in the body after death, the disorders of digestion, the
increasing anaemia and the consequent dropsies and other cachectic
symptoms are easily explained. The disease was first known in Europe
among the Italian workmen employed on the St Gotthard tunnel. In 1896,
though previously unreported in Germany, 107 cases were registered
there, and the number rose to 295 in 1900, and 1030 in 1901. In England
an outbreak at the Dolcoath mine, Cornwall, in 1902, led to an
investigation for the home office by Dr Haldane F.R.S. (see especially
the Parliamentary Paper, numbered Cd. 1843), and since then discussions
and inquiries have been frequent. A committee of the British Association
in 1904 issued a valuable report on the subject. After the
Spanish-American War American physicians had also given it their
attention, with valuable results; see Stiles (_Hygienic Laboratory
Bulletin_, No. 10, Washington, 1903). The American parasite described by
Stiles, and called _Uncinaria americana_ (whence the name Uncinariasis
for this disease) differs slightly from the Ankylostoma. The parasites
thrive in an environment of dirt, and the main lines of precaution are
those dictated by sanitary science. Malefern, santonine, thymol and
other anthelmintic remedies are prescribed.
ANNA, BALDASARRE, a painter who flourished during part of the 16th and
17th centuries. He was born at Venice, probably about 1560, and is said
to have been of Flemish descent. The date of his death is uncertain, but
he seems to have been alive in 1639. For a number of years he studied
under Leonardo Corona, and on the death of that painter completed
several works left unfinished by him. His own activity seems to have
been confined to the production of pieces for several of the churches
and a few private houses in Venice, and the old guide-books and
descriptions of the city notice a considerable number of paintings by
him. Scarcely any of these, however, have survived.
ANNA (Hindustani _ana_), an Indian penny, the sixteenth part of a rupee.
The term belongs to the Mahommedan monetary system (see RUPEE). There is
no coin of one anna, but there are half-annas of copper and two-anna
pieces of silver. The term anna is frequently used to express a
fraction. Thus an Anglo-Indian speaks of two annas of dark blood (an
octoroon), a four-anna (quarter) crop, an eight-anna (half) gallop.
ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe-Weimar, daughter of Charles I.,
duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was born at Wolfenbuttel on the 24th of
October 1739, and married Ernest, duke of Saxe-Weimar, 1756. Her husband
died in 1758, leaving her regent for their infant son, Charles Augustus.
During the protracted minority she administered the affairs of the duchy
with the greatest prudence, strengthening its resources and improving
its position in spite of the troubles of the Seven Years' War. She was a
patroness of art and literature, and attracted to Weimar many of the
most eminent men in Germany. Wieland was appointed tutor to her son; and
the names of Herder, Goethe and Schiller shed an undying lustre on her
court. In 1775 she retired into private life, her son having attained
his majority. In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through Italy,
accompanied by Goethe. She died on the 10th of April 1807. A memorial of
the duchess is included in Goethe's works under the title _Zum Andenken
der Furstin Anna-Amalia._
See F. Bornhak, _Anna Amalia Herzogin von Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach_
(Berlin. 1892).
ANNABERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, in the
Erzgebirge, 1894 ft. above the sea, 6 m. from the Bohemian frontier,
18-1/2 m. S. by E. from Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,811. It has
three Evangelical churches, among them that of St Anne, built 1499-1525,
a Roman Catholic church, several public monuments, among them those of
Luther, of the famous arithmetician Adam Riese, and of Barbara Uttmann.
Annaberg, together with the neighbouring suburb, Buchholz, is the chief
seat of the braid and lace-making industry in Germany, introduced here
by Barbara Uttmann in 1561, and further developed by Belgian refugees,
who, driven from their country by the duke of Alva, settled here in
1590. The mining industry, for which the town was formerly also famous
and which embraced tin, silver and cobalt, has now ceased. Annaberg has
technical schools for lace-making, commerce and agriculture, in addition
to high grade public schools for boys and girls.
ANNABERGITE, a mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel arsenate,
Ni3(AsO4)2 + 8H2O, crystallizing in the monoclinic system and
isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals are minute and
capillary and rarely met with, the mineral occurring usually as soft
earthy masses and encrustations. A fine apple-green colour is its
characteristic feature. It was long known (since 1758) under the name
nickel-ochre; the name annabergite was proposed by H.J. Brooke and W.H.
Miller in 1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the
mineral. It occurs with ores of nickel, of which it is a product of
alteration. A variety, from Creetown in Kirkcudbrightshire, in which a
portion of the nickel is replaced by calcium, has been called
dudgeonite, after P. Dudgeon, who found it. (L. J. S.)
ANNA COMNENA, daughter of the emperor Alexius I. Comnenus, the first
woman historian, was born on the 1st of December 1083. She was her
father's favourite and was carefully trained in the study of poetry,
science and Greek philosophy. But, though learned and studious, she was
intriguing and ambitious, and ready to go to any lengths to gratify her
longing for power. Having married an accomplished young nobleman,
Nicephorus Bryennius, she united with the empress Irene in a vain
attempt to prevail upon her father during his last illness to disinherit
his son and give the crown to her husband. Still undeterred, she entered
into a conspiracy to depose her brother after his accession; and when
her husband refused to join in the enterprise, she exclaimed that
"nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman."
The plot being discovered, Anna forfeited her property and fortune,
though, by the clemency of her brother, she escaped with her life.
Shortly afterwards, she retired into a convent and employed her leisure
in writing the _Alexiad_--a history, in Greek, of her father's life and
reign (1081-1118), supplementing the historical work of her husband. It
is rather a family panegyric than a scientific history, in which the
affection of the daughter and the vanity of the author stand out
prominently. Trifling acts of her father are described at length in
exaggerated terms, while little notice is taken of important
constitutional matters. A determined opponent of the Latin church and an
enthusiastic admirer of the Byzantine empire, Anna Comnena regards the
Crusades as a danger both political and religious. Her models are
Thucydides, Polybius and Xenophon, and her style exhibits the striving
after Atticism characteristic of the period, with the result that the
language is highly artificial. Her chronology especially is defective.
Editions in Bonn _Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz._, by J. Schopen and A.
Reifferscheid (1839-1878), with Du Cange's valuable commentary; and
Teubner series, by A. Reifferscheid (1884). See also C. Krumbacher,
_Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (2nd ed. 1897); C. Neumann,
_Griechische Geschichtschreiber im 12 Jahrhunderte_ (1888); E. Oster,
_Anna Komnena_ (Rastatt, 1868-1871); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch.
48; Finlay, _Hist, of Greece_, iii. pp. 53, 128 (1877); P. Adam,
_Princesses byzantines_ (1893); Sir Walter Scott, _Count Robert of
Paris_; L. du Sommerard, _Anne Comnene ... Agnes de France_ (1907); C.
Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (1906).
ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA, sometimes called ANNA CARLOVNA (1718-1746), regent of
Russia for a few months during the minority of her son Ivan, was the
daughter of Catherine, sister of the empress Anne, and Charles Leopold,
duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. In 1739 she married Anton Ulrich (d.
1775), son of Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and their son Ivan
was adopted in 1740 by the empress and proclaimed heir to the Russian
throne. A few days after this proclamation the empress died, leaving
directions regarding the succession, and appointing her favourite Ernest
Biren, duke of Courland, as regent. Biren, however, had made himself an
object of detestation to the Russian people, and Anna had little
difficulty in overthrowing his power. She then assumed the regency, and
took the title of grand-duchess, but she knew little of the character of
the people with whom she had to deal, was utterly ignorant of the
approved Russian mode of government, and speedily quarrelled with her
principal supporters. In December 1741, Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the
Great, who, from her habits, was a favourite with the soldiers, excited
the guards to revolt, overcame the slight opposition that was offered,
and was proclaimed empress. Ivan was thrown into prison, where he soon
afterwards perished. Anna and her husband were banished to a small
island in the river Dvina, where on the 18th of March 1746 she died in
childbed.
ANNALISTS (from Lat. _annus_, year; hence _annales_, sc. _libri_, annual
records), the name given to a class of writers on Roman history, the
period of whose literary activity lasted from the time of the Second
Punic War to that of Sulla. They wrote the history of Rome from the
earliest times (in most cases) down to their own days, the events of
which were treated in much greater detail. For the earlier period their
authorities were state and family records--above all, the _annales
maximi_ (or _annales pontificum_), the official chronicle of Rome, in
which the notable occurrences of each year from the foundation of the
city were set down by the pontifex maximus. Although these annals were
no doubt destroyed at the time of the burning of Rome by the Gauls, they
were restored as far as possible and continued until the pontificate of
P. Mucius Scaevola, by whom they were finally published in eighty books.
Two generations of these annalists have been distinguished--an older and
a younger. The older, which extends to 150 B.C., set forth, in bald,
unattractive language, without any pretensions to style, but with a
certain amount of trustworthiness, the most important events of each
successive year. Cicero (_De Oratore_, ii. 12. 53), comparing these
writers with the old Ionic logographers, says that they paid no
attention to ornament, and considered the only merits of a writer to be
intelligibility and conciseness. Their annals were a mere compilation of
facts. The younger generation, in view of the requirements and criticism
of a reading public, cultivated the art of composition and rhetorical
embellishment. As a general rule the annalists wrote in a spirit of
uncritical patriotism, which led them to minimize or gloss over such
disasters as the conquest of Rome by Porsena and the compulsory payment
of ransom to the Gauls, and to flatter the people by exaggerated
accounts of Roman prowess, dressed up in fanciful language. At first
they wrote in Greek, partly because a national style was not yet formed,
and partly because Greek was the fashionable language amongst the
educated, although Latin versions were probably published as well. The
first of the annalists, the father of Roman history, as he has been
called, was Q. FABIUS PICTOR (see FABIUS PICTOR); contemporary with him
was L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, who flourished during the Hannibalic war.[1]
Like Fabius Pictor, he wrote in Greek. He was taken prisoner by Hannibal
(Livy xxi. 38), who is said to have given him details of the crossing of
the Alps. His work embraced the history of Rome from its foundation down
to his own days. With M. PORCIUS CATO (q.v.) historical composition in
Latin began, and a livelier interest was awakened in the history of
Rome. Among the principal writers of this class who succeeded Cato, the
following may be mentioned. L. CASSIUS HEMINA (about 146), in the fourth
book of his Annals, wrote on the Second Punic War. His researches went
back to very early times; Pliny (_Nat. Hist_. xiii. 13 [27]) calls him
_vetustissimus auctor annalium_. L. CALPUFNIUS Piso, surnamed _Frugi_
(see under PISO), wrote seven books of annals, relating the history of
the city from its foundation down to his own times. Livy regards him as
a less trustworthy authority than Fabius Pictor, and Niebuhr considers
him the first to introduce systematic forgeries into Roman history. Q.
CLAUDIUS QUADRIGARIUS (about 80 B.C.) wrote a history, in at least
twenty-three books, which began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls
and went down to the death of Sulla or perhaps later. He was freely used
by Livy in part of his work (from the sixth book onwards). A long
fragment is preserved in Aulus Gellius (ix. 13), giving an account of
the single combat between Manlius Torquatus and the Gaul. His language
was antiquated and his style dry, but his work was considered important.
VALERIUS ANTIAS, a younger contemporary of Quadrigarius, wrote the
history of Rome from the earliest times, in a voluminous work consisting
of seventy-five books. He is notorious for his wilful exaggeration, both
in narrative and numerical statements. For instance, he asserts the
number of the Sabine virgins to have been exactly 527; again, in a
certain year when no Greek or Latin writers mention any important
campaign, Antias speaks of a big battle with enormous casualties.
Nevertheless, Livy at first made use of him as one of his chief
authorities, until he became convinced of his untrustworthiness. C.
LICINIUS MACER (died 66), who has been called the last of the annalists,
wrote a voluminous work, which, although he paid great attention to the
study of his authorities, was too rhetorical, and exaggerated the
achievements of his own family. Having been convicted of extortion, he
committed suicide (Cicero, _De Legibus_, i. 2, _Brutus_, 67; Plutarch,
_Cicero_, 9).
The writers mentioned dealt with Roman history as a whole; some of the
annalists, however, confined themselves to shorter periods. Thus, L.
CAELIUS ANTIPATER (about 120) limited himself to the Second Punic War.
His work was overloaded with rhetorical embellishment, which he was the
first to introduce into Roman history. He was regarded as the most
careful writer on the war with Hannibal, and one who did not allow
himself to be blinded by partiality in considering the evidence of other
writers (Cicero, _De Oratore_, ii. 12). Livy made great use of him in
his third decade. SEMPRONIUS ASELLIO (about 100 B.C.), military tribune
of Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia, composed _Rerum Gestanim
Libri_ in at least fourteen books. As he himself took part in the events
he describes, his work was a kind of memoirs. He was the first of his
class who endeavoured to trace the causes of events, instead of
contenting himself with a bare statement of facts. L. CORNELIUS SISENNA
(119-67), legate of Pompey in the war against the pirates, lost his life
in an expedition against Crete. He wrote twenty-three books on the
period between the Social War and the dictatorship of Sulla. His work
was commended by Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 95), who, however, blames him for
not speaking out sufficiently. Cicero remarks upon his fondness for
archaisms (_Brutus_, 74. 259). Sisenna also translated the tales of
Aristides of Miletus, and is supposed by some to have written a
ccmmentary on Plautus. The autobiography of Sulla may also be mentioned.
See C.W. Nitzsch, _Die romische Annalistik_ (1873); H. Peter, _Zur
Kritik der Quellen der dlteren romischen Geschichte_ (1879); L.O.
Brocker, _Moderne Quellenforscher und antike Geschichtschreiber_
(1882); fragments in H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae_
(1870, 1906), and _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_ (1883); also
articles ROME, _History_ (ancient) _ad fin_., section "Authorities,'"
and LIVY, where the use made of the annalists by the historian is
discussed; Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencydopadie_, art. "Annales"; the
histories of Roman Literature by M. Schanz and Teuffel-Schwabe;
Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. ii. ch. 9, bk. iii. ch. 14,
bk. iv. ch. 13, bk. v. ch. 12; C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das
Studium der alien Geschichte_ (1895); H. Peter, bibliography of the
subject in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, cxxvi. (1906). (J. H. F.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] He is not to be confused with L. Cincius, the author of various
political and antiquarian treatises (_de Fastis, de Comitiis, de
Priscis Verbis_), who lived in the Augustan age, to which period
Mommsen, considering them a later fabrication, refers the Greek
annals of L. Cincius Alimentus.
ANNALS (_Annales_, from _annus_, a year), a concise historical record in
which events are arranged chronologically, year by year. The chief
sources of information in regard to the annals of ancient Rome are two
passages in Cicero (_De Oratore_, ii. 12. 52) and in Servius (_ad Aen_.
i. 373) which have been the subject of much discussion. Cicero states
that from the earliest period down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius
Scaevola (c. 131 B.C.), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record
on a white tablet (_album_), which was exhibited in an open place at his
house, so that the people might read it, first, the name of the consuls
and other magistrates, and then the noteworthy events that had occurred
during the year (_per singulos dies_, as Servius says). These records
were called in Cicero's time the _Annales Maximi_. After the pontificate
of Publius, the practice of compiling annals was carried on by various
unofficial writers, of whom Cicero names Cato, Pictor and Piso. The
_Annales_ have been generally regarded as the same with the _Commentarii
Pontificum_ cited by Livy, but there seems reason to believe that the
two were distinct, the _Commentarii_ being fuller and more
circumstantial. The nature of the distinction between annals and history
is a subject that has received more attention from critics than its
intrinsic importance deserves. The basis of discussion is furnished
chiefly by the above-quoted passage from Cicero, and by the common
division of the work of Tacitus into _Annales_ and _Hlstoriae_. Aulus
Gellius, in the _Nodes Alticae_ (v. 18), quotes the grammarian Verrius
Flaccus, to the effect that history, according to its etymology ([Greek:
istorein], _inspicere_, to inquire in person), is a record of events
that have come under the author's own observation, while annals are a
record of the events of earlier times arranged according to years. This
view of the distinction seems to be borne out by the division of the
work of Tacitus into the _Historiae_, relating the events of his own
time, and the _Annales_, containing the history of earlier periods. It
is more than questionable, however, whether Tacitus himself divided his
work under these titles. The probability is, either that he called the
whole _Annales_, or that he used neither designation. (See TACITUS,
CORNELIUS.)
In the middle ages, when the order of the liturgical feasts was partly
determined by the date of Easter, the custom was early established in
the Western Church of drawing up tables to indicate that date for a
certain number of years or even centuries. These Paschal tables were
thin books in which each annual date was separated from the next by a
more or less considerable blank space. In these spaces certain monks
briefly noted the important events of the year. It was at the end of the
7th century and among the Anglo-Saxons that the compiling of these
Annals was first begun. Introduced by missionaries on the continent,
they were re-copied, augmented and continued, especially in the kingdom
of Austrasia. In the 9th century, during the great movement termed the
Carolingian Renaissance, these Annals became the usual form of
contemporary history; it suffices to mention the _Annales Einhardi_, the
_Annales Laureshamenses_ (or "of Lorsch"), and the _Annales S. Bertini_,
officially compiled in order to preserve the memory of the more
interesting acts of Charlemagne, his ancestors and his successors.
Arrived at this stage of development, the Annals now began to lose their
primitive character, and henceforward became more and more
indistinguishable from the Chronicles.
In modern literature the title annals has been given to a large number
of standard works which adhere more or less strictly to the order of
years. The best known are the _Annales Ecclesiastici_, written by
Cardinal Baronius as a rejoinder to and refutation of the _Historia
eccesiastica_ or "Centuries" of the Protestant theologians of Magdeburg
(12 vols., published at Rome from 1788 to 1793; Baronius's work stops at
the year 1197). In the 19th century the annalistic form was once more
employed, either to preserve year by year the memory of passing events
(_Annual Register_, _Annuaire de la Revue des deux mondes_, &c.) or in
writing the history of obscure medieval periods (_Jahrbucher der
deutschen Geschichte_, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches_, Richter's
_Reichsannalen_, &c.). (C. B.*)
ANNAM, or ANAM, a country of south-eastern Asia, now forming a French
protectorate, part of the peninsula of Indo-China. (See INDO-CHINA,
FRENCH). It is bounded N. by Tongking, E. and S.E. by the China Sea,
S.W. by Cochin-China, and W. by Cambodia and Laos. It comprises a
sinuous strip of territory measuring between 750 and 800 m. in length,
with an approximate area of 52,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at
about 6,124,000.
The country consists chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded
mountains, running north and south and declining on the coast to a
narrow band of plain varying between 12 and 50 m. in breadth. The
mountains are cut transversely by short narrow valleys, through which
run rivers, most of which are dry in summer and torrential in winter.
The Song-Ma and the Song-Ca in the north, and the Song-Ba, Don-Nai and
Se-Bang-Khan in the south, are alone of any size. The chief harbour is
that afforded by the bay of Tourane at the centre of the coast-line.
South of this point the coast curves outwards and is broken by
peninsulas and indentations; to the north it is concave and bordered in
many places by dunes and lagoons.
_Climate._--In Annam the rainy season begins during September and lasts
for three or four months, corresponding with the north-east monsoon and
also with a period of typhoons. During the rains the temperature varies
from 59 degrees or even lower to 75 degrees F. June, July and August are
the hottest months, the thermometer often reaching 85 degrees or 90
degrees, though the heat of the day is to some degree compensated by the
freshness of the nights. The south-west monsoon which brings rain in
Cochin-China coincides with the dry season in Annam, the reason probably
being that the mountains and lofty plateaus separating the two countries
retain the precipitation.
_Ethnography_.--The Annamese, or, to use the native term, the
_Giao-chi_, are the predominant people not only in Annam but in the
lowland and cultivated parts of Tongking and in Cochin-China and
southern Cambodia. According to their own annals and traditions they
once inhabited southern China, a theory which is confirmed by many of
their habits and physical characteristics; the race has, however, been
modified by crossings with the Chams and other of the previous
inhabitants of Indo-China.
The Annamese is the worst-built and ugliest of all the Indo-Chinese who
belong to the Mongolian race. He is scarcely of middle height and is
shorter and less vigorous than his neighbours. His complexion is tawny,
darker than that of the Chinese, but clearer than that of the Cambodian;
his hair is black, coarse and long; his skin is thick; his forehead low;
his skull slightly depressed at the top, but well developed at the
sides. His face is flat, with highly protruding cheek-bones, and is
lozenge-shaped or eurygnathous to a degree that is nowhere exceeded. His
nose is not only the flattest, but also the smallest among the
Indo-Chinese; his eyes are rarely oblique; his mouth is large and his
lips thick; his teeth are blackened and his gums destroyed by the
constant use of the betel-nut, the areca-nut and lime. His neck is
short, his shoulders slope greatly, his body is thick-set and wanting in
suppleness. Another peculiarity is a separation of the big toe from the
rest, greater than is found in any other people, and sufficiently
general and well marked to serve as an ethnographic test. The Annamese
of Cochin-China are weaker and smaller than those of Tongking, probably
as a result of living amid marshy rice-fields. The Annamese of both
sexes wear wide trousers, a long, usually black tunic with narrow
sleeves and a dark-coloured turban, or in the case of the lower classes,
a wide straw hat; they either go bare-foot or wear sandals or Chinese
boots. The typical Annamese dwelling is open to the gaze of the
passer-by during the day; at night a sort of partition of bamboo is let
down. The roof is supported on wooden pillars and walls are provided
only at the sides. The house consists principally of one large room
opening on the front verandah and containing the altar of the family's
ancestors, a table in the centre and couches placed against the wall.
The chief elements of the native diet are rice, fish and poultry;
vegetables and pork are also eaten. The family is the base of the social
system in Annam and is ruled by its head, who is also priest and judge.
Polygamy is permitted but rarely practised, and the wife enjoys a
position of some freedom.
Though fond of ease the Annamese are more industrious than the
neighbouring peoples. Theatrical and musical entertainments are popular
among them. They show much outward respect for superiors and parents,
but they are insincere and incapable of deep emotion. They cherish great
love of their native soil and native village and cannot remain long from
home. A proneness to gambling and opium-smoking, and a tinge of vanity
and deceitfulness, are their less estimable traits. On the whole they
are mild and easy-going and even apathetic, but the facility with which
they learn is remarkable. Like their neighbours the Cambodians and the
Chinese, the Annamese have a great respect for the dead, and ancestor
worship constitutes the national religion. The learned hold the doctrine
of Confucius, and Buddhism, alloyed with much popular superstition, has
some influence. Like the Chinese the Annamese bury their dead.
Among the savage tribes of the interior there is scarcely any idea of
God and their superstitious practices can scarcely be considered as the
expression of a definite religious idea. Roman Catholics number about
420,000. In the midst of the Annamese live Cambodians and immigrant
Chinese, the latter associated together according to the districts from
which they come and carrying on nearly all the commerce of the country.
In the forests and mountains dwell tribes of savages, chiefly of
Indonesian origin, classed by the Annamese under the name _Mois_ or
"savages." Some of these tribes show traces of Malay ancestry. Of
greater historical interest are the Chams, who are to be found for the
most part in southern Annam and in Cambodia, and who, judging from the
numerous remains found there, appear to have been the masters of the
coast region of Cochin-China and Annam till they succumbed before the
pressure of the Khmers of Cambodia and the Annamese. They are taller,
more muscular, and more supple than the Annamese. Their language is
derived from Malay, and while some of the Chams are Mussulmans, the
dominant religion is Brahmanism, and more especially the worship of
Siva. Their women have a high reputation for virtue, which, combined
with the general bright and honest character of the whole people,
differentiates them from the surrounding nations.
Evidently derived from the Chinese, of which it appears to be a very
ancient dialect, the Annamese language is composed of monosyllables, of
slightly varied articulation, expressing different ideas according to
the tone in which they are pronounced. It is quite impossible to connect
with our musical system the utterance of the sounds of which the Chinese
and Annamese languages are composed. What is understood by a "tone" in
this language is distinguished in reality, not by the number of sonorous
vibrations which belong to it, but rather by a use of the vocal
apparatus special to each. Thus, the sense will to a native be
completely changed according as the sound is the result of an aspiration
or of a simple utterance of the voice. Thence the difficulty of
substituting our phonetic alphabet for the ideographic characters of the
Chinese, as well as for the ideophonetic writing partly borrowed by the
Annamese from the letters of the celestial empire. To the Jesuit
missionaries is due the introduction of an ingenious though very
complicated system, which has caused remarkable progress to be made in
the employment of phonetic characters. By means of six accents, one bar
and a crotchet it is possible to note with sufficient precision the
indications of tone without which the Annamese words have no sense for
the natives.
_Agriculture and other Industries._--The cultivation of rice, which is
grown mainly in the small deltas along the coast and in some districts
gives two crops annually, and fishing, together with fish-salting and
the preparation of nuoc-mam, a sauce made from decaying fish, constitute
the chief industries of Annam.
Silk spinning and weaving are carried on on antiquated lines, and
silkworms are reared in a desultory fashion. Besides rice, the products
of the country include tea, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon, precious woods
and rubber; coffee, pepper, sugar-canes and jute are cultivated to a
minor extent. The exports (total value in 1905 L237,010) comprise tea,
raw silk and small quantities of cotton, rice and sugar-cane. The
imports (L284,824 in 1905) include rice, iron goods, flour, wine, opium
and cotton goods. There are coal-mines at Nong-Son, near Tourane, and
gold, silver, lead, iron and other metals occur in the mountains. Trade,
which is in the hands of the Chinese, is for the most part carried on by
sea, the chief ports being Tourane and Qui-Nhon, which are open to
European commerce.
_Administration._--Annam is ruled in theory by its emperor, assisted by
the "_comat_" or secret council, composed of the heads of the six
ministerial departments of the interior, finance, war, ritual, justice
and public works, who are nominated by himself. The resident superior,
stationed at Hue, is the representative of France and the virtual ruler
of the country. He presides over a council (_Conseil de Protectorat_)
composed of the chiefs of the French services in Annam, together with
two members of the "_comat_"; this body deliberates on questions of
taxation affecting the budget of Annam and on local public works. A
native governor (_tong-doc_ or _tuan-phu_), assisted by a native staff,
administers each of the provinces into which the country is divided, and
native officials of lower rank govern the areas into which these
provinces are subdivided. The governors take their orders from the
imperial government, but they are under the eye of French residents.
Native officials are appointed by the court, but the resident superior
has power to annul an appointment. The mandarinate or official class is
recruited from all ranks of the people by competitive examination. In
the province of Tourane, a French tribunal alone exercises jurisdiction,
but it administers native law where natives are concerned. Outside this
territory the native tribunals survive. The Annamese village is
self-governing. It has its council of notables, forming a sort of
oligarchy which, through the medium of a mayor and two subordinates,
directs the interior affairs of the community--policing, recruiting, the
assignment and collection of taxes, &c.--and has judicial power in less
important suits and crimes. More serious cases come within the purview
of the _an-sat_, a judicial auxiliary of the governor. An assembly of
notables from villages grouped together in a canton chooses a cantonal
representative, who is the mouthpiece of the people and the intermediary
between the government and its subjects. The direct taxes, which go to
the local budget of Annam, consist primarily of a poll-tax levied on all
males over eighteen and below sixty years of age, and of a land-tax
levied according to the quality and the produce of the holding.
The following table summarizes the local budget of Annam for the years
1899 and 1904:--
+------+-----------------------------------+----------------+
| -- | _Receipts._ | _Expenditure._ |
+------+-----------------------------------+----------------+
| 1899 | L203,082 (direct taxes, L171,160) | L175,117 |
| 1904 | L247,435 ( " " L219,841) | L232,480 |
+------+-----------------------------------+----------------+
In 1904 the sum allocated to the expenses of the court, the royal family
and the native administration, the members of which are paid by the
crown, was L85,000, the chief remaining heads of expenditure being the
government house and residencies (L39,709), the native guard (L32,609)
and public works (L24,898).
Education is available to every person in the community. The primary
school, in which the pupils learn only Chinese writing and the precepts
of Confucius, stands at the base of this system. Next above this is the
school of the district capital, where a half-yearly examination takes
place, by means of which are selected those eligible for the course of
higher education given at the capital of the province in a school under
the direction of a _doc-hoc_, or inspector of studies. Finally a great
triennial competition decides the elections. The candidate whose work is
notified as _tres bien_ is admitted to the examinations at Hue, which
qualify for the title of doctor and the holding of administrative
offices. The education of a mandarin includes local history, cognizance
of the administrative rites, customs, laws and prescriptions of the
country, the ethics of Confucius, the rules of good breeding, the
ceremonial of official and social life, and the practical acquirements
necessary to the conduct of public or private business. Annamese
learning goes no farther. It includes no scientific idea, no knowledge
of the natural sciences, and neglects even the most rudimentary
instruction conveyed in a European education. The complications of
Chinese writing greatly hamper education. The Annamese mandarin must be
acquainted with Chinese, since he writes in Chinese characters. But the
character being ideographic, the words which express them are dissimilar
in the two languages, and official text is read in Chinese by a Chinese,
in Annamese by an Annamese.
The chief towns of Annam are Hue (pop. about 42,000), seat both of the
French and native governments, Tourane (pop. about 4000), Phan-Thiet
(pop. about 20,000) in the extreme south, Qui-Nhon, and Fai-Fo, a
commercial centre to the south of Tourane. A road following the coast
from Cochin-China to Tongking, and known as the "Mandarin road," passes
through or near the chief towns of the provinces and forms the chief
artery of communication in the country apart from the railways (see
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH).
_History._--The ancient tribe of the Giao-chi, who dwelt on the confines
of S. China, and in what is now Tongking and northern Annam, are
regarded by the Annamese as their ancestors, and tradition ascribes to
their first rulers descent from the Chinese imperial family. These
sovereigns were succeeded by another dynasty, under which, at the end of
the 3rd century B.C., the Chinese invaded the country, and eventually
established there a supremacy destined to last, with little
intermission, till the 10th century A.D. In 968 Dinh-Bo-Lanh succeeded
in ousting the Chinese and founded an independent dynasty of Dinh. Till
this period the greater part of Annam had been occupied by the Chams, a
nation of Hindu civilization, which has left many monuments to testify
to its greatness, but the encroachment of the Annamese during the next
six centuries at last left to it only a small territory in the south of
the country. Three lines of sovereigns followed that of Dinh, under the
last of which, about 1407, Annam again fell under the Chinese yoke. In
1428 an Annamese general Le-Loi succeeded in freeing the country once
more, and founded a dynasty which lasted till the end of the 18th
century. During the greater part of this period, however, the titular
sovereigns were mere puppets, the reality of power being in the hands of
the family of Trinh in Tongking and that of Nguyen in southern Annam,
which in 1568 became a separate principality under the name of
Cochin-China. Towards the end of the 18th century a rebellion overthrew
the Nguyen, but one of its members, Gia-long, by the aid of a French
force, in 1801 acquired sway over the whole of Annam, Tongking and
Cochin-China. This force was procured for him by Pigneau de Behaine,
bishop of Adran, who saw in the political condition of Annam a means of
establishing French influence in Indo-China and counterbalancing the
English power in India. Before this, in 1787, Gia-long had concluded a
treaty with Louis XVI., whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded
Tourane and Pulo-Condore to the French. That treaty marks the beginning
of French influence in Indo-China.
See also Legrand de la Liraye, _Notes historiques sur la nation
annamite_ (Paris, 1866?); C. Gosselin, _L'Empire d'Annam_ (Paris,
1904); E. Sombsthay, _Cours de legislation et d'administration
annamites_ (Paris, 1898).
ANNAN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland,
on the Annan, nearly 2 m. from its mouth, 15 m. from Dumfries by the
Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has a station also on the Caledonian
railway company's branch line from Kirtlebridge to Brayton (Cumberland),
which crosses the Solway Firth at Seafield by a viaduct, 1-1/3 m. long,
constructed of iron pillars girded together by poles, driven through the
sand and gravel into the underlying bed of sandstone. Annan is a
well-built town, red sandstone being the material mainly used. Among its
public buildings is the excellent academy of which Thomas Carlyle was a
pupil. The river Annan is crossed by a stone bridge of three arches
dating from 1824, and by a railway bridge. The Harbour Trust,
constituted in 1897, improved the shipping accommodation, and vessels of
300 tons approach close to the town. The principal industries include
cotton and rope manufactures, bacon-curing, distilling, tanning,
shipbuilding, sandstone quarrying, nursery-gardening and salmon-fishing.
Large marine engineering works are in the vicinity. Annan is a burgh of
considerable antiquity. Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood, and
the Bruces, lords of Annandale, the Baliols, and the Douglases were more
or less closely associated with it. During the period of the Border
lawlessness the inhabitants suffered repeatedly at the hands of
moss-troopers and through the feuds of rival families, in addition to
the losses caused by the English and Scots wars. Edward Irving was a
native of the town. With Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and
Sanquhar, Annan unites in sending one meniber to parliament. Annan Hill
commands a beautiful prospect. Population (1901) 5805.
ANNA PERENNA, an old Roman deity of the circle or "ring" of the year, as
the name (_per annum_) clearly indicates. Her festival fell on the full
moon of the first month (March 15), and was held at the grove of the
goddess at the first milestone on the Via Flaminia. It was much
frequented by the city _plebs_, and Ovid describes vividly the revelry
and licentiousness of the occasion (_Fasti_. iii. 523 foll.). From
Macrobius we learn (_Sat_. i. 12. 6) that sacrifice was made to her "ut
annare perannareque commode liccat," i.e. that the circle of the year
may be completed happily. This is all we know for certain about the
goddess and her cult; but the name naturally suggested myth-making, and
Anna became a figure in stories which may be read in Ovid (_l.c._) and
in Silius Italicus (8.50 foll.). The coarse myth told by Ovid, in which
Anna plays a trick on Mars when in love with Minerva, is probably an old
Italian folk-tale, poetically applied to the persons of these deities
when they became partially anthropomorphized under Greek influence.
(W. W. F.*)
ANNAPOLIS, a city and seaport of Maryland, U.S.A., the capital of the
state, the county seat of Anne Arundel county, and the seat of the
United States Naval Academy; situated on the Severn river about 2 m.
from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, 26 m. S. by E. from Baltimore and
about the same distance E. by N. from Washington. Pop. (1890) 7604;
(1900) 8525, of whom 3002 were negroes; (1910 census) 8609. Annapolis is
served by the Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis (electric) and the
Maryland Electric railways, and by the Baltimore & Annapolis steamship
line. On an elevation near the centre of the city stands the state house
(the corner stone of which was laid in 1772), with its lofty white dome
(200 ft.) and pillared portico. Close by are the state treasury
building, erected late in the 17th century for the House of Delegates;
Saint Anne's Protestant Episcopal church, in later colonial days a state
church, a statue of Roger B. Taney (by W.H. Rinehart), and a statue of
Baron Johann de Kalb. There are a number of residences of 18th century
architecture, and the names of several of the streets--such as King
George's, Prince George's, Hanover, and Duke of Gloucester--recall the
colonial days. The United States Naval Academy was founded here in 1845.
Annapolis is the seat of Saint John's College, a non-sectarian
institution supported in part by the state; it was opened in 1789 as the
successor of King William's School, which was founded by an act of the
Maryland legislature in 1696 and was opened in 1701. Its principal
building, McDowell Hall, was originally intended for a governor's
mansion; although L4000 current money was appropriated for its erection
in 1742, it was not completed until after the War of Independence. In
1907 the college became the school of arts and sciences of the
university of Maryland.
Annapolis, at first called Providence, was settled in 1649 by Puritan
exiles from Virginia. Later it bore in succession the names of Town at
Proctor's, Town at the Severn, Anne Arundel Town, and finally in 1694,
Annapolis, in honour of Princess Anne, who at the time was heir to the
throne of Great Britain. In 1694 also, soon after the overthrow of the
Catholic government of the lord proprietor, it was made the seat of the
new government as well as a port of entry, and it has since remained the
capital of Maryland; but it was not until 1708 that it was incorporated
as a city. From the middle of the 18th century until the War of
Independence, Annapolis was noted for its wealthy and cultivated
society. The _Maryland Gazette_, which became an important weekly
journal, was founded by Jonas Green in 1745; in 1769 a theatre was
opened; during this period also the commerce was considerable, but
declined rapidly after Baltimore, in 1780, was made a port of entry, and
now oyster-packing is the city's only important industry. Congress was
in session in the state house here from the 26th of November 1783 to the
3rd of June 1784, and it was here on the 23rd of December 1783 that
General Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the
Continental Army. In 1786 a convention, to which delegates from all the
states of the Union were invited, was called to meet in Annapolis to
consider measures for the better regulation of commerce (see ALEXANDRIA,
Va.); but delegates came from only five states (New York, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, New Jersey, and Delaware), and the convention--known afterward
as the "Annapolis Convention,"--without proceeding to the business for
which it had met, passed a resolution calling for another convention to
meet at Philadelphia in the following year to amend the articles of
confederation; by this Philadelphia convention the present Constitution
of the United States was framed.
See D. Ridgely, _Annals of Annapolis from 1649 until the War of 1812_
(Baltimore, 1841); S.A. Shafer, "Annapolis, Ye Ancient City," in L.P.
Powell's _Historic Towns of the Southern States_ (New York, 1900); and
W. Eddis, _Letters from America_ (London, 1792).
ANNAPOLIS, a town of Nova Scotia, capital of Annapolis county and up to
1750 of the entire peninsula of Nova Scotia; situated on an arm of the
Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of the Annapolis river, 95 m. W. of Halifax;
and the terminus of the Windsor & Annapolis railway. Pop. (1901) 1019.
It is one of the oldest settlements in North America, having been
founded in 1604 by the French, who called it Port Royal. It was captured
by the British in 1710, and ceded to them by the treaty of Utrecht in
1713, when the name was changed in honour of Queen Anne. It possesses a
good harbour, and the beauty of the surrounding country makes it a
favourite summer resort. The town is surrounded by apple orchards and in
May miles of blossoming trees make a beautiful sight. The fruit, which
is excellent in quality, is the principal export of the region.
ANN ARBOR, a city and the county-seat of Washtenaw county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on the Huron river, about 38 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9431;
(1900) 14,509, of whom 2329 were foreign-born; (1910) 14,817. It is
served by the Michigan Central and the Ann Arbor railways, and by an
electric line running from Detroit to Jackson and connecting with
various other lines. Ann Arbor is best known as the seat of the
university of Michigan, opened in 1837. The city has many attractive
residences, and the residential districts, especially in the east and
south-east parts of the city, command picturesque views of the Huron
valley. Ann Arbor is situated in a productive agricultural and
fruit-growing region. The river provides good water-power, and among the
manufactures are agricultural implements, carriages, furniture
(including sectional book-cases), pianos and organs, pottery and flour.
In 1824 Ann Arbor was settled, laid out as a town, chosen for the
county-seat, and named in honour of Mrs Ann Allen and Mrs Ann Rumsey,
the wives of two of the founders. It was incorporated as a village in
1833, and was first chartered as a city in 1851.
ANNATES (Lat. _annatae_, from _annus_, "year"), also known as
"first-fruits" (Lat. _primitiae_). in the strictest sense of the word,
the whole of the first year's profits of a spiritual benefice which, in
all countries of the Roman obedience, were formerly paid into the papal
treasury. This custom was only of gradual growth. The _jus deportuum,
annalia_ or _annatae_, was originally the right of the bishop to claim
the first year's profits of the living from a newly inducted incumbent,
of which the first mention is found under Pope Honorius (d. 1227), but
which had its origin in a custom, dating from the 6th century, by which
those ordained to ecclesiastical offices paid a fee or tax to the
ordaining bishop. The earliest records show the _annata_ to have been,
sometimes a privilege conceded to the bishop for a term of years,
sometimes a right based on immemorial precedent. In course of time the
popes, under stress of financial crises, claimed the privilege for
themselves, though at first only temporarily. Thus, in 1305, Clement V.
claimed the first-fruits of all vacant benefices in England, and in 1319
John XXII. those of all Christendom vacated within the next two years.
In those cases the rights of the bishops were frankly usurped by the
Holy See, now regarded as the ultimate source of the episcopal
jurisdiction; the more usual custom was for the pope to claim the
first-fruits only of those benefices of which he had reserved the
patronage to himself. It was from these claims that the papal annates,
in the strict sense, in course of time developed.
These annates may be divided broadly into three classes, though the
chief features are common to all: (1) the _servitia communia_ or
_servitia Camerae Papae_, i.e. the payment into the papal treasury by
every abbot and bishop, on his induction, of one year's revenue of his
new benefice. The _servitia communia_ are traceable to the _oblatio_
paid to the pope when consecrating bishops as metropolitan or patriarch.
When, in the middle of the 13th century, the consecration of bishops
became established as the sole right of the pope, the oblations of all
bishops of the West were received by him and, by the close of the 14th
century, these became fixed at one year's revenue.[1] A small additional
payment, as a kind of notarial fee was added (_servitia minuta_). (2)
The _jus deportuum, fructus medii temporis_, or _annalia_, i.e. the
annates due to the bishop, but in the case of "reserved" benefices paid
by him to the Holy See. (3) The _quindennia, i.e._ annates payable,
under a bull of Paul II. (1469), by benefices attached to a corporation,
every fifteen years and not at every presentation.
The system of annates was at no time worked with absolute uniformity and
completeness throughout the various parts of the church owning obedience
to the Holy See, and it was never willingly submitted to by the clergy.
Disagreements and disputes were continual, and the easy expedient of
rewarding the officials of the Curia and increasing the papal revenue by
"reserving" more and more benefices was met by repeated protests, such
as that of the bishops and barons of England (the chief sufferers),
headed by Robert Grosseteste of Lincoln, at the council of Lyons in
1245.[2] The subject, indeed, frequently became one of national
interest, on account of the alarming amount of specie which was thus
drained away, and hence numerous enactments exist in regard to it by the
various national governments. In England the collection and payment of
annates to the pope was prohibited in 1531 by statute. At that time the
sum amounted to about 3000 pounds a year. In 1534 the annates were,
along with the supremacy over the church in England, bestowed on the
crown; but in February 1704 they were appropriated by Queen Anne to the
assistance of the poorer clergy, and thus form what has since been known
as "Queen Anne's Bounty" (q.v.). The amount to be paid was originally
regulated by a valuation made under the direction of Pope Innocent IV.
by Walter, bishop of Norwich, in 1254, later by one instituted under
commission from Nicholas III. in 1292, which in turn was superseded in
1535 by the valuation, made by commissioners appointed by Henry VIII.,
known as the _King's Books_, which was confirmed on the accession of
Elizabeth and is still that by which the clergy are rated. In France, in
spite of royal edicts--like those of Charles VI., Charles VII., Louis
XI, and Henry II.--and even denunciations of the Sorbonne, at least the
custom of paying the _servitia communia_ held its ground till the famous
decree of the 4th of August during the Revolution of 1789. In Germany it
was decided by the concordat of Constance, in 1418, that bishoprics and
abbacies should pay the _servitia_ according to the valuation of the
Roman chancery in two half-yearly instalments. Those reserved benefices
only were to pay the _annalia_ which were rated above twenty-four gold
florins; and as none were so rated, whatever their annual value may have
been, the annalia fell into disuse. A similar convenient fiction also
led to their practical abrogation in France, Spain and Belgium. The
council of Basel (1431-1443) wished to abolish the _servitia_, but the
concordat of Vienna (1448) confirmed the Constance decision, which, in
spite of the efforts of the congress of Ems (1786) to alter it, still
remains nominally in force. As a matter of fact, however, the revolution
caused by the secularization of the ecclesiastical states in 1803
practically put an end to the system, and the _servitia_ have either
been commuted _via gratiae_ to a moderate fixed sum under particular
concordats, or are the subject of separate negotiation with each bishop
on his appointment. In Prussia, where the bishops receive salaries as
state officials, the payment is made by the government.
In Scotland _annat_ or _ann_ is half a year's stipend allowed by the Act
1672, c. 13, to the executors of a minister of the Church of Scotland
above what was due to him at the time of his death. This is neither
assignable by the clergyman during his life, nor can it be seized by his
creditors.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] For cases see du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. _Servitium Camerae
Papae_; J.C.L. Gieseler, _Eccles. Hist._, vol. iii. div. iii., notes
to p. 181, &c. (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853).
[2] Durandus (Guillaume Durand), in his _de modo generalis concilii
celebrandi_, represents contemporary clerical hostile opinion and
attacks the corruptions of the officials of the Curia.
ANNE (1665-1714), queen of Great Britain and Ireland, second daughter of
James, duke of York, afterwards James II., and of Anne Hyde, daughter of
the ist earl of Clarendon, was born on the 6th of February 1665. She
suffered as a child from an affection of the eyes, and was sent to
France for medical treatment, residing with her grandmother, Henrietta
Maria, and on the latter's death with her aunt, the duchess of Orleans,
and returning to England in 1670. She was brought up, together with her
sister Mary, by the direction of Charles II., as a strict Protestant,
and as a child she made the friendship of Sarah Jennings (afterwards
duchess of Marlborough), thus beginning life under the two influences
which were to prove the most powerful in her future career. In 1678 she
accompanied Mary of Modena to Holland, and in 1679 joined her parents
abroad and afterwards in Scotland. On the 28th of July 1683 she married
Prince George of Denmark, brother of King Christian V., an unpopular
union because of the French proclivities of the bridegroom's country,
but one of great domestic happiness, the prince and princess being
conformable in temper and both preferring retirement and quiet to life
in the great world. Sarah Churchill became Anne's lady of the
bedchamber, and, by the latter's desire to mark their mutual intimacy
and affection, all deference due to her rank was abandoned and the two
ladies called each other Mrs Morley and Mrs Freeman.
On the 6th of February 1685 James became king of England. In 1687 a
project of settling the crown on the princess, to the exclusion of Mary,
on the condition of Anne's embracing Roman Catholicism, was rendered
futile by her pronounced attachment to the Church of England, and beyond
sending her books and papers James appears to have made no attempt to
coerce his daughter into a change of faith,[1] and to have treated her
with kindness, while the birth of his son on the 20th of June 1688 made
the religion of his daughters a matter of less political importance.
Anne was not present on the occasion, having gone to Bath, and this gave
rise to a belief that the child was spurious; but it is most probable
that James's desire to exclude all Protestants from affairs of state was
the real cause. "I shall never now be satisfied," Anne wrote to Mary,
"whether the child be true or false. It may be it is our brother, but
God only knows ... one cannot help having a thousand fears and
melancholy thoughts, but whatever changes may happen you shall ever find
me firm to my religion and faithfully yours."[2] In later years,
however, she had no doubt that the Old Pretender was her brother. During
the events immediately preceding the Revolution Anne kept in seclusion.
Her ultimate conduct was probably influenced by the Churchills; and
though forbidden by James, to pay Mary a projected visit in the spring
of 1688, she corresponded with her, and was no doubt aware of William's
plans. Her position was now a very critical and painful one. She refused
to show any sympathy with the king after William had landed in November,
and wrote, with the advice of the Churchills, to the prince, declaring
her approval of his action.[3] Churchill abandoned the king on the 24th,
Prince George on the 25th, and when James returned to London on the 26th
he found that Anne and her lady-in-waiting had during the previous night
followed their husbands' examples. Escaping from Whitehall by a back
staircase they put themselves under the care of the bishop of London,
spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived on the 1st of
December at Nottingham, where the princess first made herself known and
appointed a council. Thence she passed through Leicester, Coventry and
Warwick, finally entering Oxford, where she met Prince George, in
triumph, escorted by a large company. Like Mary, she was reproached for
showing no concern at the news of the king's flight, but her
justification was that "she never loved to do anything that looked like
an affected constraint." She returned to London on the 19th of December,
when she was at once visited by William. Subsequently the Declaration of
Rights settled the succession of the crown upon her after William and
Mary and their children.
Meanwhile Anne had suffered a series of maternal disappointments.
Between 1684 and 1688 she had miscarried four times and given birth to
two children who died infants. On the 24th of July 1689, however, the
birth, of a son, William, created duke of Gloucester, who survived his
infancy, gave hopes that heirs to the throne under the Bill of Rights
might be forthcoming. But Anne's happiness was soon troubled by quarrels
with the king and queen. According to the duchess of Marlborough the two
sisters, who had lived hitherto while apart on extremely affectionate
terms, found no enjoyment in each other's society. Mary talked too much
for Anne's comfort, and Anne too little for Mary's satisfaction. But
money appears to have been the first and real cause of ill-feeling. The
granting away by William of the private estate of James, amounting to
22,000 pounds a year, to which Anne had some claim, was made a
grievance, and a factious motion brought forward in the House to
increase her civil list pension of 30,000 pounds, which she enjoyed in
addition to 20,000 pounds under her marriage settlement, greatly
displeased William and Mary, who regarded it as a plot to make Anne
independent and the chief of a separate interest in the state, while
their resentment was increased by the refusal of Anne to restrain the
action of her friends, and by its success. The Marlboroughs had been
active in the affair and had benefited by it, the countess (as she then
was) receiving a pension of 1000 pounds, and their conduct was noticed
at court. The promised Garter was withheld from Marlborough, and the
incensed "Mrs Morley" in her letters to "Mrs Freeman" styled the king
"Caliban" or the "Dutch Monster." At the close of 1691 Anne had declared
her approval of the naval expedition in favour of her father, and
expressed grief at its failure.[4] According to the doubtful _Life of
James_, she wrote to him on the 1st of December a "most penitential and
dutiful" letter, and henceforward kept up with him a "fair
correspondence."[5] The same year the breach between the royal sisters
was made final by the dismissal of Marlborough, justly suspected of
Jacobite intrigues, from all his appointments. Anne took the part of her
favourites with great zeal against the court, though in all probability
unaware of Marlborough's treason; and on the dismissal of the countess
from her household by the king and queen she refused to part with her,
and retired with Lady Marlborough to the duke of Somerset's residence at
Sion House. Anne was now in disgrace. She was deprived of her guard of
honour, and Prince George, on entering Kensington Palace, received no
salute, though the drums beat loudly on his departure.[6] Instructions
were given that the court expected no one to pay his respects, and no
attention in the provinces was to be shown to their rank. In May,
Marlborough was arrested on a charge of high treason which subsequently
broke down, and Anne persisted in regarding his disgrace as a personal
injury to herself. In August 1693, however, the two sisters were
temporarily reconciled, and on the occasion of Mary's last illness and
death Anne showed an affectionate consideration.
The death of Mary weakened William's position and made it necessary to
cultivate good relations with the princess. She was now treated with
every honour and civility, and finally established with her own court at
St James's Palace. At the same time William kept her in the background
and refrained from appointing her regent during his absence. In March
1695 Marlborough was allowed to kiss the king's hands, and subsequently
was made the duke of Gloucester's governor and restored to his
employments. In return Anne gave her support to William's government,
though about this time, in 1696--according to James, in consequence of
the near prospect of the throne--she wrote to her father asking for his
leave to wear the crown at William's death, and promising its
restoration at a convenient opportunity.[7] The unfounded rumour that
William contemplated settling the succession after his death on James's
son, provided he were educated a Protestant in England, may possibly
have alarmed her.[8] Meanwhile, since the birth of the duke of
Gloucester, the princess had experienced six more miscarriages, and had
given birth to two children who only survived a few hours, and the last
maternal hope flickered out on the death of the young prince on the 29th
of July 1700. Henceforth Anne signs herself in her letters to Lady
Marlborough as "your poor unfortunate" as well as "faithful Morley." In
default of her own issue, Anne's personal choice would probably have
inclined at this time to her own family at St Germains, but the
necessity of maintaining the Protestant succession caused the enactment
of the Act of Settlement in 1701, and the substitution of the Hanoverian
branch. She wore mourning for her father in 1701, and before his death
James is said to have written to his daughter asking for her protection
for his family; but the recognition of his son by Louis XIV. as king of
England effectually prevented any good offices to which her feelings
might have inclined her.
On the 8th of March 1702 Anne became, by King William's death, queen of
Great Britain, being crowned on the 23rd of April. Her reign was
destined to be one of the most brilliant in the annals of England.
Splendid military triumphs crushed the hereditary national foe. The Act
of Union with Scotland constituted one of the strongest foundations of
the future empire. Art and literature found a fresh renascence.
In her first speech to parliament, like George III. afterwards, Anne
declared her "heart to be entirely English," words which were resented
by some as a reflection on the late king. A ministry, mostly Tory, with
Godolphin at its head, was established. She obtained a grant of 700,000
pounds a year, and hastened to bestow a pension of 100,000 pounds on her
husband, whom she created generalissimo of her forces and lord high
admiral, while Marlborough obtained the Garter, with the
captain-generalship and other prizes, including a dukedom, and the
duchess was made mistress of the robes with the control of the privy
purse. The queen showed from the first a strong interest in church
matters, and declared her intention to keep church appointments in her
own hands. She detested equally Roman Catholics and dissenters, showed a
strong leaning towards the high-church party, and gave zealous support
to the bill forbidding occasional conformity. In 1704 she announced to
the Commons her intention of granting to the church the crown revenues,
amounting to about 16,000 pounds or 17,000 pounds a year, from tenths
and first-fruits (paid originally by the clergy to the pope, but
appropriated by the crown in 1534), for the increase of poor livings;
her gift, under the name of "Queen Anne's Bounty," still remaining as a
testimony of her piety. This devotion to the church, the strongest of
all motives in Anne's conduct, dictated her hesitating attitude towards
the two great parties in the state. The Tories had for this reason her
personal preference, while the Whigs, who included her powerful
favourites the Marlboroughs, identified their interests with the war and
its glorious successes, the queen slowly and unwillingly, but
inevitably, gravitating towards the latter.
In December, the archduke Charles visited Anne at Windsor and was
welcomed as the king of Spain. In 1704 Anne acquiesced in the
resignation of Lord Nottingham, the leader of the high Tory party. In
the same year the great victory of Blenheim further consolidated the
power of the Whigs and increased the influence of Marlborough, upon whom
Anne now conferred the manor of Woodstock. Nevertheless, she declared in
November to the duchess that whenever things leaned towards the Whigs,
"I shall think the church is beginning to be in danger." Next year she
supported the election of the Whig speaker, John Smith, but long
resisted the influence and claims of the _Junto_, as the Whig leaders,
Somers, Halifax, Orford, Wharton and Sunderland, were named. In October
she was obliged to appoint Cowper, a Whig, lord chancellor, with all the
ecclesiastical patronage belonging to the office. Marlborough's
successive victories, and especially the factious conduct of the Tories,
who in November 1705 moved in parliament that the electress Sophia
should be invited to England, drove Anne farther to the side of the
Whigs. But she opposed for some time the inclusion in the government of
Sunderland, whom she especially disliked, only consenting at
Marlborough's intercession in December 1706, when various other offices
and rewards were bestowed upon Whigs, and Nottingham with other Tories
was removed from the council. She yielded, after a struggle, also to the
appointment of Whigs to bishoprics, the most mortifying submission of
all. In 1708 she was forced to dismiss Harley, who, with the aid of Mrs
Masham, had been intriguing against the government and projecting the
creation of a third party. Abigail Hill, Mrs Masham, a cousin of the
duchess of Marlborough, had been introduced by the latter as a poor
relation into Anne's service, while still princess of Denmark. The queen
found relief in the quiet and respectful demeanour of her attendant, and
gradually came to prefer her society to that of the termagant and
tempestuous duchess. Abigail, however, soon ventured to talk "business,"
and in the summer of 1707 the duchess discovered to her indignation that
her protegee had already undermined her influence with the queen and had
become the medium of Harley's intrigue. The strength of the Whigs at
this time and the necessities of the war caused the retirement of
Harley, but he remained Anne's secret adviser and supporter against the
faction, urging upon her "the dangers to the crown as well as to the
church and monarchy itself from their counsels and actions,"[9] while
the duchess never regained her former influence. The inclusion in the
cabinet of Somers, whom she especially disliked as the hostile critic of
Prince George's admiralty administration, was the subject of another
prolonged struggle, ending again in the queen's submission after a
futile appeal to Marlborough in October 1708, to which she brought
herself only to avoid a motion from the Whigs for the removal of the
prince, then actually on his deathbed. His death on the 28th of October
was felt deeply by the queen, and opened the way for the inclusion of
more Whigs. But no reconciliation with the duchess took place, and in
1709 a further dispute led to an angry correspondence, the queen finally
informing the duchess of the termination of their friendship, and the
latter drawing up a long narrative of her services, which she forwarded
to Anne together with suitable passages on the subject of friendship and
charity transcribed from the Prayer Book, the _Whole Duty of Man_ and
from Jeremy Taylor.[10] Next year Anne's desire to give a regiment to
Hill, Mrs Masham's brother, led to another ineffectual attempt in
retaliation to displace the new favourite, and the queen showed her
antagonism to the Whig administration on the occasion of the prosecution
of Sacheverell. She was present at his trial and was publicly acclaimed
by the mob as his supporter, while the Tory divine was consoled
immediately on the expiration of his sentence with the living of St
Andrew's, Holborn. Subsequently the duchess, in a final interview which
she had forced upon the queen, found her tears and reproaches
unavailing. In her anger she had told the queen she wished for no
answer, and she was now met by a stony and exasperating silence, broken
only by the words constantly repeated, "You desired no answer and you
shall have none."
The fall of the Whigs, now no longer necessary on account of the
successful issue of the war, to accomplish which Harley had long been
preparing and intriguing, followed; and their attempt to prolong
hostilities from party motives failed. A friend of Harley, the duke of
Shrewsbury, was first appointed to office, and subsequently the great
body of the Whigs were displaced by Tories, Harley being made chancellor
of the exchequer and Henry St John secretary of state. The queen was
rejoiced at being freed from what she called a long captivity, and the
new parliament was returned with a Tory majority. On the 17th of January
1711, in spite of Marlborough's efforts to ward off the blow, the
duchess was compelled to give up her key of office. The queen was now
able once more to indulge in her favourite patronage of the church, and
by her influence an act was passed in 1712 for building fifty new
churches in London. Later, in 1714, she approved of the Schism Bill. She
gave strong support to Harley, now earl of Oxford and lord treasurer, in
the intrigues and negotiations for peace. Owing to the alliance between
the Tory Lord Nottingham and the Whigs, on the condition of the support
by the latter of the bill against occasional conformity passed in
December 1711, the defeated Whigs maintained a majority in the Lords,
who declared against any peace which left Spain to the Bourbons. To
break down this opposition Marlborough was dismissed on the 31st from
all his employments, while the House of Lords was "swamped" by Anne's
creation of twelve peers,[11] including Mrs Masham's husband. The
queen's conduct was generally approved, for the nation was now violently
adverse to the Whigs and war party; and the peace of Utrecht was finally
signed on the 31st of March 1713, and proclaimed on the 5th of May in
London.
As the queen's reign drew to its close, rumours were rife on the great
subject of the succession to the throne. Various Jacobite appointments
excited suspicion. Both Oxford and Bolingbroke were in communication
with the Pretender's party, and on the 27th of July Oxford, who had
gradually lost influence and quarrelled with Bolingbroke, resigned,
leaving the supreme power in the hands of the latter. Anne herself had a
natural feeling for her brother, and had shown great solicitude
concerning his treatment when a price had been set on his head at the
time of the Scottish expedition in 1708. On the 3rd of March 1714 James
wrote to Anne, Oxford and Bolingbroke, urging the necessity of taking
steps to secure his succession, and promising, on the condition of his
recognition, to make no further attempts against the queen's government;
and in April a report was circulated in Holland that Anne had secretly
determined to associate James with her in the government. The wish
expressed by the Whigs, that a member of the electoral family should be
invited to England, had already aroused the queen's indignation in 1708;
and now, in 1714, a writ of summons for the electoral prince as duke of
Cambridge having been obtained, Anne forbade the Hanoverian envoy, Baron
Schutz, her presence, and declared all who supported the project her
enemies; while to a memorial on the same subject from the electress
Sophia and her grandson in May, Anne replied in an angry letter, which
is said to have caused the death of the electress on the 5th of June,
requesting them not to trouble the peace of her realm or diminish her
authority.
These demonstrations, however, were the outcome not of any returning
partiality for her own family, but of her intense dislike, in which she
resembled Queen Elizabeth, of any "successor," "it being a thing I
cannot bear to have any successor here though but for a week"; and in
spite of some appearances to the contrary, it is certain that religion
and political wisdom kept Anne firm to the Protestant succession.[12]
She had maintained a friendly correspondence with the court of Hanover
since 1705, and in 1706 had bestowed the Garter on the electoral prince
and created him duke of Cambridge; while the Regency Act provided for
the declaration of the legal heir to the crown by the council
immediately on the queen's death, and a further enactment naturalized
the electress and her issue. In 1708, on the occasion of the Scottish
expedition, notwithstanding her solicitude for his safety, she had
styled James in her speech closing the session of parliament as "a
popish pretender bred up in the principles of the most arbitrary
government." The duchess of Marlborough stated in 1713 that all the time
she had known "that thing" (as she now called the queen), "she had never
heard her speak a favourable word of him."[13] No answer appears to have
been sent to James's letter in 1714; on the contrary, a proclamation was
issued (June 23) for his apprehension in case of his arrival in England.
On the 27th of April Anne gave a solemn assurance of her fidelity to the
Hanoverian succession to Sir William Dawes, archbishop of York; in June
she sent Lord Clarendon to Hanover to satisfy the elector.
The sudden illness and death of the queen now frustrated any schemes
which Bolingbroke, or others might have been contemplating. On the 27th,
the day of Oxford's resignation, the discussions concerning his
successor detained the council sitting in the queen's presence till two
o'clock in the morning, and on retiring Anne was instantly seized with
fatal illness. Her adherence to William in 1688 had been a principal
cause of the success of the Revolution, and now the final act of her
life was to secure the Revolution settlement and the Protestant
succession. During a last moment of returning consciousness, and by the
advice of the whole council, who had been joined on their own initiative
by the Whig dukes Argyll and Somerset, she placed the lord treasurer's
staff in the hands of the Whig duke of Shrewsbury, and measures were
immediately taken for assuring the succession of the elector. Her death
took place on the 1st of August, and the security felt by the public,
and perhaps the sense of perils escaped by the termination of the
queen's life, were shown by a considerable rise in the national stocks.
She was buried on the south side of Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster
Abbey, in the same tomb as her husband and children. The elector of
Hanover, George Louis, son of the electress Sophia (daughter of
Elizabeth, daughter of James I.), peacefully succeeded to the throne as
George I. (q.v.).
According to her physician Arbuthnot, Anne's life was shortened by the
"scene of contention among her servants. I believe sleep was never more
welcome to a weary traveller than death was to her." By character and
temperament unfitted to stand alone, her life had been unhappy and
tragical from its isolation. Separated in early years from her parents
and sister, her one great friendship had proved only baneful and
ensnaring. Marriage had only brought a mournful series of infant
funerals. Constant ill-health and suffering had darkened her career. The
claims of family attachment, of religion, of duty, of patriotism and of
interest, had dragged her in opposite directions, and her whole life had
been a prey to jealousies and factions which closed around her at her
accession to the throne, and surged to their height when she lay on her
deathbed. The modern theory of the relations between the sovereign and
the parties, by which the former identifies himself with the faction for
the time in power while maintaining his detachment from all, had not
then been invented; and Anne, like her Hanoverian successors, maintained
the struggle, though without success, to rule independently finding
support in Harley. During the first year of her reign she made known
that she was "resolved not to follow the example of her predecessor in
making use of a few of her subjects to oppress the rest. She will be
queen of all her subjects, and would have all the parties and
distinctions of former reigns ended and buried in hers."[14] Her motive
for getting rid of the Whigs was not any real dislike of their
administration, but the wish to escape from the domination of the
party,[15] and on the advent to power of the Tories she carefully left
some Whigs in their employments, with the aim of breaking up the party
system and acting upon what was called "a moderate scheme." She attended
debates in the Lords and endeavoured to influence votes. Her struggles
to free herself from the influence of factions only involved her deeper;
she was always under the domination of some person or some party, and
she could not rise above them and show herself the leader of the nation
like Elizabeth.
Anne was a women of small ability, of dull mind, and of that kind of
obstinacy which accompanies weakness of character. According to the
duchess she had "a certain knack of sticking to what had been dictated
to her to a degree often very disagreeable, and without the least sign
of understanding or judgment."[16] "I desire you would not have so ill
an opinion of me," Anne writes to Oxford, "as to think when I have
determined anything in my mind I will alter it."[17] Burnet considered
that "she laid down the splendour of a court too much," which was "as it
were abandoned." She dined alone after her husband's death, but it was
reported by no means abstemiously, the royal family being characterized
in the lines:--
"King William thinks all.
Queen Mary talks all,
Prince George drinks all,
And Princess Anne eats all."[18]
She took no interest in the art, the drama or the literature of her day.
But she possessed the homely virtues; she was deeply religious, attached
to the Church of England and concerned for the efficiency of the
ministry. One of the first acts of her reign was a proclamation against
vice, and Lord Chesterfield regretted the strict morality of her court.
Instances abound of her kindness and consideration for others. Her
moderation towards the Jacobites in Scotland, after the Pretender's
expedition in 1708, was much praised by Saint Simon. She showed great
forbearance and generosity towards the duchess of Marlborough in the
face of unexampled provocation, and her character was unduly disparaged
by the latter, who with her violent and coarse nature could not
understand the queen's self-restraint in sorrow, and describes her as
"very hard" and as "not apt to cry." According to her small ability she
served the state well, and was zealous and conscientious in the
fulfilment of public duties, in which may be included touching for the
king's evil, which she revived. Marlborough testifies to her energy in
finding money for the war. She surrendered 10,000 pounds a year for
public purposes, and in 1706 she presented 30,000 pounds to the officers
and soldiers who had lost their horses. Her contemporaries almost
unanimously record her excellence and womanly virtues; and by Dean
Swift, no mild critic, she is invariably spoken of with respect, and
named in his will as of "ever glorious, immortal and truly pious memory,
the real nursing-mother of her kingdoms." She deserves her appellation
of "Good Queen Anne," and notwithstanding her failings must be included
among the chief authors and upholders of the great Revolution
settlement. Her person was described by Spanheim, the Prussian
ambassador, as handsome though inclining to stoutness, with black hair,
blue eyes and good features, and of grave aspect.
Anne's husband, Prince George (1653-1708), was the second son of
Frederick III., king of Denmark. Before marrying Anne he had been a
candidate for the throne of Poland. He was created earl of Kendal and
duke of Cumberland in 1689. Some censure, which was directed against the
prince in his capacity as lord high admiral, was terminated by his
death. In religion George remained a Lutheran, and in general his
qualities tended to make him a good husband rather than a soldier or a
statesman.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (Dr A.W. Ward); A.
Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_ (1852), somewhat
uncritical; an excellent account written by Spanheim for the king of
Prussia, printed in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._ ii. 757; histories of
Stanhope, Lecky, Ranke, Macaulay, Boyes, Burnet, Wyon, and Somerville;
F.E. Morris, _The Age of Anne_ (London, 1877); _Correspondence and
Diary of Lord Clarendon_ (1828); _Hatton Correspondence_ (Camden Soc.,
1878); Evelyn's _Diary_; Sir J. Dalrymple's _Memoirs_ (1790); N.
Luttrell's _Brief Hist. Relation_ (1857); _Wentworth Papers_ (1883);
W. Coxe, _Mem. of the Duke of Marlborough_ (1847); Conduct of the
Dowager Duchess of Marlborough (1742); Ralph, _The other Side of the
Question_ (1742); _Private Correspondence of Sarah Duchess of
Marlborough_ (1838); A. T, Thomson, _Mem. of the Duchess and the Court
of Queen Anne_ (1839); J.S. Clarke's _Life of James II._ (1816); J.
Macpherson's _Original Papers_ (1775); Swift's _Some Considerations
upon the Consequences from the Death of the Queen, An Inquiry into the
Behaviour of the Queen's last Ministry, Hist. of the Four Last Years
of Queen Anne_, and _Journals and Letters; The Lockhart Papers_
(1817), i.; F. Salomon, _Geschichte des letzten Ministeriums Konigin
Annas_ (1894); _Marchmont Papers_, iii. (1831); W. Sichel _Life of
Bolingbroke_ (1901-1902); _Mem. of Thomas Earl of Ailesbury_
(Roxburghe Club, 1890); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ i. 470, 756, viii. 740;
_Royal Hut. Soc. Trans._ N.S. xiv. 69; _Col. of State Papers;
Treasury; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of Duke of Portland_,
including _the Harley Papers, Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House, Lord
Kenyan, Marq. of Bath at Longleat; Various Collections_, ii. 146,
_Duke Of Rutland at Belvoir, 7th Rep. app._, and _H.M. the King_
(_Stuart Papers_, i.); _Stowe MSS._ in Brit. Museum; Sir J.
Mackintosh's Transcripts, _Add. MSS._ in Brit. Museum, 34, 487-526;
_Edinburgh Rev._, October 1835, p. 1; _Notes and Queries_, vii. ser.
iii. 178, viii. ser. i. 72, xii. 368, ix, ser. iv. 282, xi, 254; C.
Hodgson, _An Account of the Augmentation of Small Livings by the
Bounty of Queen Anne_ (1845); _Observations of the Governors of Queen
Anne's Bounty_ (1867); _Somers Tracts_, xii. xiii. (1814-1815); H.
Paul, _Queen Anne_ (London, 1907). (P. C. Y.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] See also _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Duke of Rutland at Belvoir_,
ii. 109.
[2] Dalrymple's _Memoirs_, ii. 175.
[3] Dalrymple's _Memoirs_, ii. 249.
[4] Lord Ailesbury's _Memoirs_, 293.
[5] Macpherson i. 241; Clarke's _Life of James II_., ii. 476. The
letter, which is only printed in fragments, is not in Anne's style,
and if genuine was probably dictated by the Churchills.
[6] Luttrell ii. 366, 376.
[7] Macpherson i. 257; Clarke's _James II_., ii. 559. See also
Shrewsbury's anonymous correbpondent in _Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser.; MSS.
Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House_, ii. 169.
[8] Macaulay iv. 799 _note_
[9] Swift's _Mem. on the Change of the Ministry._
[10] _Conduct of the Duchess of Marlborough_, p. 225.
[11] For their names see Hume and Smollett's _Hist_. (Hughes, 1854)
viil. 110.
[12] See also _Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser._ Rep. vii. App. 246b.
[13] _Ibid. Portland MSS_. v. 338.
[14] Sir J. Leveson-Gower to Lord Rutland, _Hist. MSS. Comm., Duke of
Rutland's MSS_. ii. 173.
[15] See Bolingbroke's _Letter to Sir W. Wyndham_.
[16] _Private Correspondence_, ii. 120.
[17] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Bath at Longleat_, i. 237.
[18] _Notes and Queries_, xi. 254.
ANNE (1693-1740), empress of Russia, second daughter of Tsar Ivan V.,
Peter the Great's imbecile brother, and Praskovia Saltuikova. Her
girlhood was passed at Ismailovo near Moscow, with her mother, an
ignorant, bigoted tsaritsa of the old school, who neglected and even
hated her daughters. Peter acted as a second father to the Ivanovs, as
Praskovia and her family were called. In 1710 he married Anne to
Frederick William, duke of Courland, who died of surfeit on his journey
home from St Petersburg. The reluctant young widow was ordered to
proceed on her way to Mittau to take over the government of Courland,
with the Russian resident, Count Peter Bestuzhev, as her adviser. He was
subsequently her lover, till supplanted by Biren (q.v.). Anne's
residence at Mittau was embittered by the utter inadequacy of her
revenue, which she keenly felt. It was therefore with joy that she at
once accepted the Russian crown, as the next heir, after the death of
Peter II. (January 30, 1730), when it was offered to her by the members
of the supreme privy council, even going so far as to subscribe
previously nine articles which would have reduced her from an absolute
to a very limited monarch. On the 26th of February she made her public
entry into Moscow under strict surveillance. On the 8th of March a _coup
d'etat_, engineered by a party of her personal friends, overthrew the
supreme privy council and she was hailed as autocrat. Her government, on
the whole, was prudent, beneficial and even glorious; but it was
undoubtedly severe and became at last universally unpopular. This was
due in the main to the outrageous insolence of her all-powerful
favourite Biren, who hated the Russian nobility and trampled upon them
mercilessly. Fortunately, Biren was sufficiently prudent not to meddle
with foreign affairs or with the army, and these departments in the able
hands of two other foreigners, who thoroughly identified themselves with
Russia, Andrei Osterman (q.v.) and Burkhardt Munnich (q.v.) did great
things in the reign of Anne. The chief political events of the period
were the War of the Polish Succession and the second[1] Crimean War. The
former was caused by the reappearance of Stanislaus Leszczynski as a
candidate for the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II.
(February 1, 1733). The interests of Russia would not permit her to
recognize a candidate dependent directly on France and indirectly upon
Sweden and Turkey, all three powers being at that time opposed to
Russia's "system." She accordingly united with Austria to support the
candidature of the late king's son, Augustus of Saxony. So far as Russia
was concerned, the War of the Polish Succession was quickly over. Much
more important was the Crimean War of 1736-39. This war marks the
beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to recover
her natural and legitimate southern boundaries. It lasted four years
and a half, and cost her a hundred thousand men and millions of roubles;
and though invariably successful, she had to be content with the
acquisition of a single city (Azov) with a small district at the mouth
of the Don. Yet more had been gained than was immediately apparent. In
the first place, this was the only war hitherto waged by Russia against
Turkey which had not ended in crushing disaster. Munnich had at least
dissipated the illusion of Ottoman invincibility, and taught the Russian
soldier that 100,000 janissaries and spahis were no match, in a fair
field, for half that number of grenadiers and hussars. In the second
place the Tatar hordes had been well nigh exterminated. In the third
place Russia's signal and unexpected successes in the Steppe had
immensely increased her prestige on the continent. "This court begins to
have a great deal to say in the affairs of Europe," remarked the English
minister, Sir Claudius Rondeau, a year later.
The last days of Anne were absorbed by the endeavour to strengthen the
position of the heir to the throne, the baby cesarevich Ivan, afterwards
Ivan VI., the son of the empress's niece, Anna Leopoldovna, against the
superior claims of her cousin the cesarevna Elizabeth. The empress
herself died three months later (28th of October 1740). Her last act was
to appoint Biren regent during the infancy of her great-nephew.
Anne was a grim, sullen woman, frankly sensual, but as well-meaning as
ignorance and vindictiveness would allow her to be. But she had much
natural good sense, was a true friend and, in her more cheerful moments,
an amiable companion. Lady Rondeau's portrait of the empress shows her
to the best advantage. She is described as a large woman, towering above
all the cavaliers of her court, but very well shaped for her size, easy
and graceful in her person, of a majestic bearing, but with an awfulness
in her countenance which revolted those who disliked her.
See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897);
_Letters from a lady who resided some years in Russia (i.e._ Lady
Rondeau) (London, 1775); Christoph Hermann Manstein, _Memoires sur la
Russie_ (Amsterdam, 1771; English edition, London, 1856); Gerhard
Anton von Haiem, _Lebensschreibung des Feldm. B.C. Grafen von Munnich_
(Oldenburg, 1803); Claudius Rondeau, _Diplomatic Despatches from
Russia, 1728-1739_ (St Petersburg, 1889-1892). (R. N. B.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Vasily Golitsuin's expedition under the regency of Sophia was the
first Crimean War (1687-89).
ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1514), daughter of Francis II., duke of Brittany,
and Marguerite de Foix. She was scarcely twelve years old when she
succeeded her father as duchess on the 9th of September 1488. Charles
VIII. aimed at establishing his authority over her; Alain d'Albret
wished to marry her; Jean de Rohan claimed the duchy; and her guardian,
the marshal de Rieux, was soon in open revolt against his sovereign. In
1489 the French army invaded Brittany. In order to protect her
independence, Anne concluded an alliance with Maximilian of Austria, and
soon married him by proxy (December 1489). But Maximilian was incapable
of defending her, and in 1491 the young duchess found herself compelled
to treat with Charles VIII. and to marry him. The two sovereigns made a
reciprocal arrangement as to their rights and pretensions to the crown
of Brittany, but in the event of Charles predeceasing her, Anne
undertook to marry the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, in 1492, after
the conspiracy of Jean de Rohan, who had endeavoured to hand over the
duchy to the king of England, Charles VIII. confirmed the privileges of
Brittany, and in particular guaranteed to the Bretons the right of
paying only those taxes to which the assembly of estates consented,
After the death of Charles VIII. in 1498, without any children, Anne
exercised the sovereignty in Brittany, and in January 1499 she married
Louis XII., who had just repudiated Joan of France. The marriage
contract was ostensibly directed in favour of the independence of
Brittany, for it declared that Brittany should revert to the second son
or to the eldest daughter of the two sovereigns, and, failing issue, to
the natural heirs of the duchess. Until her death Anne occupied herself
personally with the administration of the duchy. In 1504 she caused the
treaty of Blois to be concluded, which assured the hand of her daughter,
Claude of France, to Charles of Austria (the future emperor, Charles
V.), and promised him the possession of Brittany, Burgundy and the
county of Blois. But this unpopular treaty was broken, and the queen had
to consent to the betrothal of Claude to Francis of Angouleme, who in
1515 became king of France as Francis I. Thus the definitive reunion of
Brittany and France was prepared.
See A. de la Borderie, _Choix de documents inedits sur le regne de la
duchesse Anne en Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1866 and 1902)--extracts from the
_Memoires de la Societe Archeologique du departement
d'Ille-et-Vilaine_, vols. iv. and vi. (1866 and 1868); Leroux de
Lincy, _Vie de la reine Anne de Bretagne_ (1860-1861); A. Dupuy, _La
Reunion de la Bretagne a la France_ (1880); A. de la Borderie, _La
Bretagne aux derniers siecles du may en age_ (1893), and _La Bretagne
aux temps modernes_ (1894). (H. Se.)
ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1557), fourth wife of Henry VIII., king of England,
daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and Mary, only daughter of William,
duke of Juliers, was born on the 22nd of September 1515. Her father was
the leader of the German Protestants, and the princess, after the death
of Jane Seymour, was regarded by Cromwell as a suitable wife for Henry
VIII. She had been brought up in a narrow retirement, could speak no
language but her own, had no looks, no accomplishments and no dowry, her
only recommendations being her proficiency in needlework, and her meek
and gentle temper. Nevertheless her picture, painted by Holbein by the
king's command (now in the Louvre, a modern copy at Windsor), pleased
Henry and the marriage was arranged, the treaty being signed on the 24th
of September 1539. The princess landed at Deal on the 27th of December;
Henry met her at Rochester on the 1st of January 1540, and was so much
abashed at her appearance as to forget to present the gift he had
brought for her, but nevertheless controlled himself sufficiently to
treat her with courtesy. The next day he expressed openly his
dissatisfaction at her looks; "she was no better than a Flanders mare."
The attempt to prove a pre-contract with the son of the duke of Lorraine
broke down, and Henry was forced to resign himself to the sacrifice. On
the wedding morning, however, the 6th of January 1540, he declared that
no earthly thing would have induced him to marry her but the fear of
driving the duke of Cleves into the arms of the emperor. Shortly
afterwards Henry had reason to regret the policy which had identified
him so closely with the German Protestantism, and denied reconciliation
with the emperor. Cromwell's fall was the result, and the chief obstacle
to the repudiation of his wife being thus removed, Henry declared the
marriage had not been and could not be consummated; and did not scruple
to cast doubts on his wife's honour. On the 9th of July the marriage was
declared null and void by convocation, and an act of parliament to the
same effect was passed immediately. Henry soon afterwards married
Catherine Howard. On first hearing of the king's intentions, Anne
swooned away, but on recovering, while declaring her case a very hard
and sorrowful one from the great love which she bore to the king,
acquiesced quietly in the arrangements made for her by Henry, by which
she received lands to the value of L4000 a year, renounced the title of
queen for that of the king's sister, and undertook not to leave the
kingdom. In a letter to her brother, drawn up by Gardiner by the king's
direction, she acknowledged the unreality of the marriage and the king's
kindness and generosity. Anne spent the rest of her life happily in
England at Richmond or Bletchingley, occasionally visiting the court,
and being described as joyous as ever, and wearing new dresses every
day! An attempt to procure her reinstalment on the disgrace of Catherine
Howard failed, and there was no foundation for the report that she had
given birth to a child of which Henry was the reputed father. She was
present at the marriage of Henry with Catherine Parr and at the
coronation of Mary. She died on the 28th of July 1557 at Chelsea, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.
See _Lives of the Queens of England_, by A. Strickland, iii. (1851);
_The Wives of Henry VIII_., by M. Hume (1905); _Henry VIII_., by A.F.
Pollard (1905); _Four Original Documents relating to the Marriage of
Henry VIII. to Anne of Cleves_, ed. by E. and G. Goldsmid (1886); for
the pseudo Anne of Cleves see _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, i.
467. (P. C. Y.)
ANNE OF DENMARK (1574-1619), queen of James I. of England and VI. of
Scotland, daughter of King Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway and of
Sophia, daughter of Ulric III., duke of Mecklenburg, was born on the
12th of December 1574. On the 20th of August 1589, in spite of Queen
Elizabeth's opposition, she was married by proxy to King James, without
dower, the alliance, however, settling definitely the Scottish claims to
the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Her voyage to Scotland was interrupted
by a violent storm--for the raising of which several Danish and Scottish
witches were burned or executed--which drove her on the coast of Norway,
whither the impatient James came to meet her, the marriage taking place
at Opslo (now Christiania) on the 23rd of November. The royal couple,
after visiting Denmark, arrived in Scotland in May 1590. The position of
queen consort to a Scottish king was a difficult and perilous one, and
Anne was attacked in connexion with various scandals and deeds of
violence, her share in which, however, is supported by no evidence. The
birth of an heir to the throne (Prince Henry) in 1504 strengthened her
position and influence; but the young prince, much to her indignation,
was immediately withdrawn from her care and entrusted to the keeping of
the earl and countess of Mar at Stirling Castle; in 1595 James gave a
written command, forbidding them in case of his death to give up the
prince to the queen till he reached the age of eighteen. The king's
intention was, no doubt, to secure himself and the prince against the
unruly nobles, though the queen's Roman Catholic tendencies were
probably another reason for his decision. Brought up a Lutheran, and
fond of pleasure, she had shown no liking for Scottish Calvinism, and
soon incurred rebukes on account of her religion, "vanity," absence from
church, "night waking and balling." She had become secretly inclined to
Roman Catholicism, and attended mass with the king's connivance. On the
death of Queen Elizabeth, on the 24th of March 1603, James preceded her
to London. Anne took advantage of his absence to demand possession of
the prince, 'and, on the "flat refusal" of the countess of Mar, fell
into a passion, the violence of which occasioned a miscarriage and
endangered her life. In June she followed the king to England (after
distributing all her effects in Edinburgh among her ladies) with the
prince and the coffin containing the body of her dead infant, and
reached Windsor on the 2nd of July, where amidst other forms of good
fortune she entered into the possession of Queen Elizabeth's 6000
dresses.
On the 24th of July Anne was crowned with the king, when her refusal to
take the sacrament according to the Anglican use created some sensation.
She communicated on one occasion subsequently and attended Anglican
service occasionally; but she received consecrated objects from Pope
Clement VIII., continued to hear mass, and, according to Galluzzi,
supported the schemes for the conversion of the prince of Wales and of
England, and for the prince's marriage with a Roman Catholic princess,
which collapsed on his death in 1612. She was claimed as a convert by
the Jesuits.[1] Nevertheless on her deathbed, when she was attended by
the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, she used
expressions which were construed as a declaration of Protestantism.
Notwithstanding religious differences she lived in great harmony and
affection with the king, latterly, however, residing mostly apart. She
helped to raise Buckingham to power in the place of Somerset, maintained
friendly relations with him, and approved of his guidance and control of
the king. In spite of her birth and family she was at first favourably
inclined to Spain, disapproved of her daughter Elizabeth's marriage with
the elector palatine, and supported the Spanish marriages for her sons,
but subsequently veered round towards France. She used all her influence
in favour of the unfortunate Raleigh, answering his petition to her for
protection with a personal letter of appeal to Buckingham to save his
life. "She carrieth no sway in state matters," however, it was said of
her in 1605, "and, _praeter rem uxoriam_, hath no great reach in other
affairs." "She does not mix herself up in affairs, though the king tells
her anything she chooses to ask, and loves and esteems her."[2] Her
interest in state matters was only occasional, and secondary to the
pre-occupations of court festivities, masks, progresses, dresses,
jewels, which she much enjoyed; the court being, says Wilson--whose
severity cannot entirely suppress his admiration--"a continued
maskarado, where she and her ladies, like so many nymphs or Nereides,
appeared ... to the ravishment of the beholders," and "made the night
more glorious than the day." Occasionally she even joined in the king's
sports, though here her only recorded exploit was her accidental
shooting of James's "most principal and special hound," Jewel. Her
extravagant expenditure, returned by Salisbury in 1605 at more than
L50,000 and by Chamberlain at her death at more than L84,000, was
unfavourably contrasted with the economy of Queen Elizabeth; in spite of
large allowances and grants of estates which included Oatlands,
Greenwich House and Nonsuch, it greatly exceeded her income, her debts
in 1616 being reckoned at nearly L10,000, while her jewelry and her
plate were valued at her death at nearly half a million. Anne died after
a long illness on the 2nd of March 1619, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. She was generally regretted. The severe Wilson, while rebuking
her gaieties, allows that she was "a good woman," and that her character
would stand the most prying investigation. She was intelligent and
tactful, a faithful wife, a devoted mother and a staunch friend. Besides
several children who died in infancy she had Henry, prince of Wales, who
died in 1612, Charles, afterwards King Charles I., and Elizabeth,
electress palatine and queen of Bohemia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Dr A.W. Ward's article in the _Dict, of Nat.
Biography_, with authorities; _Lives of the Queens of England_, by A.
Strickland (1844), vii.; "Life and Reign of King James I.," by A.
Wilson, in _History of England_ (1706); _Istoria del Granducato di
Toscana_, by R. Galluzzi (1781), lib. vi. cap. ii.; _Cal. of State
Papers--Domestic and Venetian_; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS, of
Marq. of Salisbury_, iii. 420, 438, 454, ix. 54; _Harleian MSS._ 5176,
art. 22, 293, art. 106. Also see bibliography to the article on JAMES
I. (P. C. Y.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] _Fasti S. J._, by P. Joannis Drews (pub. 1723), p. 160.
[2] _Cal. of St. Pap.--Venetian_, x. 513.
ANNE OF FRANCE (1460-1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the eldest daughter of
Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XI. betrothed her at first to
Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards offered her hand successively to
Charles the Bold, to the duke of Brittany, and even to his own brother,
Charles of France. Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger
brother of the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XI. entrusted to
Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire charge of his son, Charles VIII.,
a lad of thirteen; and from 1483 to 1492 the Beaujeus exercised a
virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter of Louis XI. Energetic,
obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous, she inherited, too, her father's
avarice and rapacity. Although they made some concessions, the Beaujeus
succeeded in maintaining the results of the previous reign, and in
triumphing over the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from
the meeting of the estates general in 1484, and the results of the "Mad
War" (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488); and in spite of the
efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage of Charles
VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a short time afterwards
the king disengaged himself completely from their tutelage, to the great
detriment of the kingdom. In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the
Bourbonnais, the last great fief of France. He died in 1503, but Anne
survived him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and
Chantelle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously to
defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne's only daughter,
Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles of Bourbon, count of
Montpensier, the future constable; and the question of the succession of
Suzanne, who died in 1521, was the determining factor of the treason of
the constable de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on
the 14th of November 1522.
See P. Pelicier, _Essai sur le gouvernement de la Dame de Beaujeu_
(Chartres, 1882). (J. I.)
ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing (from the prefix _an_, and
the old English _aelan_, to burn or bake; the meaning has probably also
been modified from the French _nieler_, to enamel black on gold or
silver, from the med. Lat. _nigellare_, to make black; cf. _niello_) is
a process of treating a metal or alloy by heat with the object of
imparting to it a certain condition of ductility, extensibility, or a
certain grade of softness or hardness, with all that is involved in and
follows from those conditions. The effect may be mechanical only, or a
chemical change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious,
in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual facts,
and the immense importance of this operation as well as of the related
ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes, there is no question.
When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there can be no
reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct, namely, that the
metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular rearrangement of some
kind. When it is of a chemical character, the process is one of
cementation, due to the occlusion of gases in the molecules of the
metals.
Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrangement might be
selected from the extensive range of workshop operations. The following
are a few only:--when a boiler-maker bends the edges of a plate of steel
or iron by hammer blows (flanging), he does so in successive stages
(heats), at each of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable
cooling down during the time work is being done upon it. The result is
that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have been subjected
to this treatment; and this brittleness is not uniformly distributed,
but is localized, and is a source of weakness, inducing a liability to
crack. If, however, the plate when finished is raised to a full red
heat, and allowed to cool down away from access of cool air, as in a
furnace, or underneath wood ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The
plate has been annealed, and is as safe as it was before it was flanged.
Again, when a sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very
widely different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by
drawing out in a press--a cartridge case being a familiar example--it is
necessary to anneal it several times during the progress of the
operation. Without such annealing it would never arrive at the final
stage desired, but would become torn asunder by the extension of its
metallic fibres. Cutting tools are made of steel having sufficient
carbon to afford capacity for hardening. Before the process is
performed, the condition in which the carbon is present renders the
steel so hard and tough as to render the preliminary turning or shaping
necessary in many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation.
To lessen this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is
brought to a low red heat, and allowed to cool away from the air. It can
then be machined with comparative ease and be subsequently hardened or
tempered. When a metallic structure has endured long service a state of
fatigue results. Annealing is, where practicable, resorted to in order
to restore the original strength. A familiar illustration is that of
chains which are specially liable to succumb to constant overstrain if
continued for only a year or two. This is so well known that the
practice is regularly adopted of annealing the chains at regular
intervals. They are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red
heat, continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the
furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the annealing
the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than afterwards.
In these examples, and others of which these are typical, two conditions
are essential, one being the grade of temperature, the other the
cooling. The temperature must never be so high as to cause the metal to
become overheated, with risk of burning, nor so low as to prevent the
penetration of the substance with a good volume of heat. It must also be
continued for sufficient time. More than this cannot be said. Each
particular piece of work requires its own treatment and period, and
nothing but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The
cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results from removing
the source of heat, as by drawing a furnace fire, or covering with
non-conducting substances.
The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed in the
manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process, castings are made
of white iron,--a brittle quality which has its carbon wholly in the
combined state. These castings, when subjected to heat for a period of
ten days or a fortnight, in closed boxes, in the presence of substances
containing oxygen, become highly ductile. This change is due to the
absorption of the carbon by the oxygen in the cementing material, a
comparatively pure soft iron being left behind. The result is that the
originally hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a
knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without fracturing.
The distinction between _hardening_ and _tempering_ is one of degree
only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing. Hardening, in
the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece of steel about as hard
as it can be made--"glass hard"--while tempering indicates some stage in
an infinite range between the fully hardened and the annealed or
softened condition. As a matter of convenience only, hardening is
usually a stage in the work of tempering. It is easier to harden first,
and "let down" to the temper required, than to secure the exact heat for
tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due to the long
established practice of estimating temperature by colour tints; but this
is being rapidly invaded by new methods in which the temper heat is
obtained in furnaces provided with pyrometers, by means of which exact
heat regulation is readily secured, and in which the heating up is done
gradually. Such furnaces are used for hardening balls for bearings,
cams, small toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering
springs, milling cutters and other kinds of cutting tools. But for the
cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers' shops, the
colour test is still generally retained.
In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour, experience
is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees of light; steels
of different brands require different treatment in regard to temperature
and quenching; and steels even of identical chemical composition do not
always behave alike when tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has,
therefore, to be treated at first in a tentative and experimental
fashion in order to secure the best possible results. The larger the
masses of steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent
parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Excessive
length and the presence of keen angles increase the difficulties of
hardening. The following points have to be observed in the work of
hardening and tempering.
A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the purpose
for which it has to be used. There are a number of such grades, ranging
from about 1-1/2 to 1/2% content of carbon, and each having its special
utility. Overheating must be avoided, as that burns the steel and
injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never to heat any grade of steel to
a temperature higher than that at which experience proves it will take
the temper required. Heating must be regular and thorough throughout,
and must therefore be slowly done when dealing with thick masses.
Contact with sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of
lead and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required, and
when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the gas furnaces
have the same advantages in a more handy form. Quenching is done in
water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures, and sometimes in solids.
Rain water is the principal hardening agent, but various saline
compounds are often added to intensify its action. Water that has been
long in use is preferred to fresh. Water is generally used cold, but in
many cases it is warmed to about 80 deg. F., as for milling cutters and
taps, warmed water being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil
is preferred to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters.
Mercury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and so
does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates, and in the
spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the steel. This is the
reason why long and large objects are moved vertically about in the
water during quenching, to bring them into contact with fresh cold
water.
There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the hardeners, who
are very particular about the composition of their baths, various oils
and salts being used in an infinity of combinations. Many of these are
the result of long and successful experience, some are of the nature of
"fads." A change of bath may involve injury to the steel. The most
difficult articles to harden are springs, milling cutters, taps,
reamers. It would be easy to give scores of hardening compositions.
Hardening is performed the more efficiently the more rapidly the
quenching is done. In the case of thick objects, however, especially
milling cutters, there is risk of cracking, due to the difference of
temperature on the outside and in the central body of metal. Rapid
hardening is impracticable in such objects. This is the cause of the
distortion of long taps and reamers, and of their cracking, and explains
why their teeth are often protected with soft soap and other substances.
The presence of the body of heat in a tool is taken advantage of in the
work of tempering. The tool, say a chisel, is dipped, a length of 2 in.
or more being thus hardened and blackened. It is then removed, and a
small area rubbed rapidly with a bit of grindstone, observations being
made of the changing tints which gradually appear as the heat is
communicated from the hot shank to the cooled end. The heat becomes
equalized, and at the same time the approximate temperature for
quenching for temper is estimated by the appearance of a certain tint;
at that instant the article is plunged and allowed to remain until quite
cold. For every different class of tool a different tint is required.
"Blazing off" is a particular method of hardening applied to small
springs. The springs are heated and plunged in oils, fats, or tallow,
which is burned off previous to cooling in air, or in the ashes of the
forge, or in oil, or water usually. They are hardened, reheated and
tempered, and the tempering by blazing off is repeated for heavy
springs. The practice varies almost infinitely with dimensions, quality
of steel, and purpose to which the springs have to be applied.
The range of temper for most cutting tools lies between a pale straw or
yellow, and a light purple or plum colour. The corresponding range of
temperatures is about 430 deg. F. to 530 deg. F., respectively. "Spring
temper" is higher, from dark purple to blue, or 550 deg. F. to 630 deg.
F. In many fine tools the range of temperature possible between good and
poor results lies within from 5 deg. to 10 deg. F.
There is another kind of hardening which is of a superficial character
only--"case hardening." It is employed in cases where toughness has to
be combined with durability of surface. It is a cementation process,
practised on wrought iron and mild steel, and applied to the link
motions of engines, to many pins and studs, eyes of levers, &c. The
articles are hermetically luted in an iron box, packed with nitrogenous
and saline substances such as potash, bone dust, leather cuttings, and
salt. The box is placed in a furnace, and allowed to remain for periods
of from twelve to thirty-six hours, during which period the surface of
the metal, to a depth of 1/32 to 1/16 in., is penetrated by the
cementing materials, and converted into steel. The work is then thrown
into water and quenched.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Automatic Oil Muffle Furnace.]
A muffle furnace, employed for annealing, hardening and tempering is
shown in fig. 1; the heat being obtained by means of petroleum, which is
contained in the tank A, and is kept under pressure by pumping at
intervals with the wooden handle, so that when the valve B is opened the
oil is vaporized by passing through a heating coil at the furnace
entrance, and when ignited burns fiercely as a gas flame. This passes
into the furnace through the two holes, C, C, and plays under and up
around the muffle D, standing on a fireclay slab. The doorway is closed
by two fireclay blocks at E. A temperature of over 2000 deg. F. can be
obtained in furnaces of this class, and the heat is of course under
perfect control.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Reverbatory Furnace.]
A reverberatory type of gas furnace, shown in fig. 2, differs from the
oil furnace in having the flames brought down through the roof, by pipes
A, A, A, playing on work laid on the fireclay slab B, thence passing
under this and out through the elbow-pipe C. The hinged doors, D, give a
full opening to the interior of the furnace. It will be noticed in both
these furnaces (by Messrs Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.) that the iron
casing is a mere shell, enclosing very thick firebrick linings, to
retain the heat effectively. (J. G. H.)
ANNECY, the chief town of the department of Haute Savoie in France. Pop.
(1906) 10,763. It is situated at a height of 1470 ft., at the northern
end of the lake of Annecy, and is 25 m. by rail N.E. of Aix les Bains.
The surrounding country presents many scenes of beauty. The town itself
is a pleasant residence, and contains a 16th century cathedral church,
an 18th century bishop's palace, a 14th-16th century castle (formerly
the residence of the counts of the Genevois), and the reconstructed
convent of the Visitation, wherein now reposes the body of St Francois
de Sales (born at the castle of Sales, close by, in 1567; died at Lyons
in 1622), who held the see from 1602 to 1622. There is also a public
library, with 20,000 volumes, and various scientific collections, and a
public garden, with a statue of the chemist Berthollet (1748-1822), who
was born not far off. The bishop's see of Geneva was transferred hither
in 1535, after the Reformation, but suppressed in 1801, though revived
in 1822. There are factories of linen and cotton goods, and of felt
hats, paper mills, and a celebrated bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux.
This last-named place existed in Roman times. Annecy itself was in the
10th century the capital of the counts of the Genevois, from whom it
passed in 1401 to the counts of Savoy, and became French in 1860 on the
annexation of Savoy.
The LAKE OF ANNECY is about 9 m. in length by 2 m. in breadth, its
surface being 1465 ft. above the level of the sea. It discharges its
waters, by means of the Thioux canal, into the Fier, a tributary of the
Rhone. (W. A. B. C.)
ANNELIDA, a name derived from J.B.P. Lamarck's term _Annelides_, now
used to denote a major phylum or division of coelomate invertebrate
animals. Annelids are segmented worms, and differ from the Arthropoda
(q.v.), which they closely resemble in many respects, by the possession
of a portion of the coelom traversed by the alimentary canal. In the
latter respect, and in the fact that they frequently develop by a
metamorphosis, they approach the Mollusca (q.v.), but they differ from
that group notably in the occurrence of metameric segmentation affecting
many of the systems of organs. The body-wall is highly muscular and,
except in a few probably specialized cases, possesses chitinous spines,
the setae, which are secreted by the ectoderm and are embedded in pits
of the skin. They possess a modified anterior end, frequently with
special sense organs, forming a head, a segmented nervous system,
consisting of a pair of anterior, dorsally-placed ganglia, a ring
surrounding the alimentary canal, and a double ventral ganglionated
chain, a definite vascular system, an excretory system consisting of
nephridia, and paired generative organs formed from the coelomic
epithelium. They are divided as follows: (1) Haplodrili (q.v.) or
Archiannelida; (2) Chaetopoda (q.v.); (3) Myzostomida (q.v.), probably
degenerate Polychaeta; (4) Hirudinea (see CHAETOPODA and LEECH); (5)
Echiuroidea (q.v.). (P. C. M.)
ANNET, PETER (1693-1769), English deist, is said to have been born at
Liverpool. A schoolmaster by profession, he became prominent owing to
his attacks on orthodox theologians, and his membership of a
semi-theological debating society, the Robin Hood Society, which met at
the "Robin Hood and Little John" in Butcher Row. To him has been
attributed a work called _A History of the Man after God's own Heart_
(1761), intended to show that George II. was insulted by a current
comparison with David. The book is said to have inspired Voltaire's
_Saul_. It is also attributed to one John Noorthouck (Noorthook). In
1763 he was condemned for blasphemous libel in his paper called the
_Free Enquirer_ (nine numbers only). After his release he kept a small
school in Lambeth, one of his pupils being James Stephen (1758-1832),
who became master in Chancery. Annet died on the 18th of January 1769.
He stands between the earlier philosophic deists and the later
propagandists of Paine's school, and "seems to have been the first
freethought lecturer" (J.M. Robertson); his essays (_A Collection of the
Tracts of a certain Free Enquirer_, 1739-1745) are forcible but lack
refinement. He invented a system of shorthand (2nd ed., with a copy of
verses by Joseph Priestley).
ANNEXATION (Lat. _ad_, to, and _nexus_, joining), in international law,
the act by which a state adds territory to its dominions; the term is
also used generally as a synonym for acquisition. The assumption of a
protectorate over another state, or of a sphere of influence, is not
strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in
the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was
previously ruled. Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary
cession from one state to another, or of conversion from a protectorate
or sphere of influence, or of mere occupation in uncivilized regions, or
of conquest. The cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany by France,
although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of
international law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of the 17th of
December 1885, between the French republic and the queen of Madagascar,
a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this
protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar
then became "French territory." The formal annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (Oct. 5, 1908) was an unauthorized
conversion of an "occupation" authorized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878),
which had, however, for years operated as a _de facto_ annexation. A
recent case of conquest was that effected by the South African War of
1899-1902, in which the Transvaal republic and the Orange Free State
were extinguished, first _de facto_ by occupation of the whole of their
territory, and then _de jure_ by terms of surrender entered into by the
Boer generals acting as a government.
By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes
over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to
the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained
in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between
the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of
the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated
situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding
states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties
against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having
no means owing to the _de facto_ British occupation, of raising money by
taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain
securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the South
African Railway Company, to neutral purchasers. The British government
repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the
British government had already displaced. The question of at what point,
in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of
great delicacy. As early as the 6th of January 1900, the high
commissioner at Cape Town issued a proclamation giving notice that H.M.
government would "not recognize as valid or effectual" any conveyance,
transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the
Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to the 10th of
October 1899, the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation
forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of
maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to
the authority of the state issuing it. Like paper blockades (see
BLOCKADE) and fictitious occupations of territory, such premature
proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being _jure
gentium_. The proclamation was succeeded, on the 9th of March 1900, by
another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice,
but confining it to "lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on
the 1st of September 1900 Lord Roberts proclaimed at Pretoria the
annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British
dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years after this
proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was. The
difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway
shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by
the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the
company from the different groups of shareholders (see on this case, Sir
Thomas Barclay, _Law Quarterly Review_, July 1905; and Professor
Westlake, in the same _Review_, October 1905).
In a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1899
(_Coote_ v. _Sprigg_, A.C. 572), Lord Chancellor Halsbury made an
important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession.
The case in question was a claim of title against the crown, represented
by the government of Cape Colony. It was made by persons holding a
concession of certain rights in eastern Pondoland from a native chief.
Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession,
Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to
recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that
the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and
therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in
itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on
the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state
and that "no municipal court had authority to enforce such an
obligation" as the duty of the new government to respect existing
titles. "It is no answer," said Lord Halsbury, "to say that by the
ordinary principles of international law private property is respected
by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and
legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private
property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a
proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of
international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect
private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce
such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a
well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government
to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected,
that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against
sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an
editorial note on this case the _Law Quarterly Review_ of Jan. 1900 (p.
1), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no
municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation," the
writer observes that "we can read this only as meant to lay down that,
on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a
total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is
expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is
commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or
presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take
notice." So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international
law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as
Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English common law.
An interesting point of American constitutional law has arisen out of
the cession of the Philippines to the United States, through the fact
that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the exercise by
the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the
British parliament. The sole authority for the powers of the federal
congress is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in
excess of those powers is null and void. The Supreme Court of the United
States, on the other hand, has declared that, by the constitution, a
government is ordained and established "for the United States of
America" and not for countries outside their limits (_Ross's Case_, 140
U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed
territories as that vested in the British crown in council is enjoyed by
the president of the United States (_Field_ v. _Clark_, 143 U.S. 649,
692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories
acquired from Spain under the treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) has
given rise to minute discussion.
See Carman F. Randolph, _Law and Policy of Annexation_ (New York and
London, 1901); Charles Henry Butler, _Treaty-making Power of the
United States_ (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 et seq. (T. Ba.)
ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaic school. There is no
certain information as to his date, but from the statement that he was a
disciple of Paraebates it seems likely that he was a contemporary of
Alexander the Great. A follower of Aristippus, he denied that pleasure
is the general end of human life. To each separate action there is a
particular end, namely the pleasure which actually results from it.
Secondly, pleasure is not merely the negation of pain, inasmuch as death
ends all pain and yet cannot be regarded as pleasure. There is, however,
an absolute pleasure in certain virtues such as belong to the love of
country, parents and friends. In these relations a man will have
pleasure, even though it may result in painful and even fatal
consequences. Friendship is not merely for the satisfaction of our
needs, but is in itself a source of pleasure. He maintains further, in
opposition to most of the Cyrenaic school, that wisdom or prudence alone
is an insufficient guarantee against error. The wise man is he who has
acquired a habit of wise action; human wisdom is liable to lapses at any
moment. Diogenes Laertius says that Anniceris ransomed Plato from
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, for twenty minas. If we are right in
placing Anniceris in the latter half of the 4th century, it is clear
that the reference here is to an earlier Anniceris, who, according to
Aelian, was a celebrated charioteer.
ANNING, MARY (1799-1847), English fossil-collector, the daughter of
Richard Anning, a cabinet-maker, was born at Lyme Regis in May 1799. Her
father was one of the earliest collectors and dealers in fossils,
obtained chiefly from the Lower Lias in that famous locality. When but a
child in 1811 she discovered the first specimen of _Ichthyosaurus_ which
was brought into scientific notice; in 1821 she found remains of a new
saurian, the _Plesiosaurus_ and in 1828 she procured, for the first time
in England, remains of a pterodactyl (_Dimorphodon_). She died on the
9th of March 1847.
ANNISTON, a city and the county seat of Calhoun county, Alabama, U.S.A.,
in the north-eastern part of the state, about 63 m. E. by N. of
Birmingham. Pop. (1890) 9998; (1900), 9695, of whom 3669 were of negro
descent; (1910 census) 12,794. Anniston is served by the Southern, the
Seaboard Air Line, and the Louisville & Nashville railways. The city is
situated on the slope of Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue Ridge, and
is a health resort. It is the seat of the Noble Institute (for girls),
established in 1886 by Samuel Noble (1834-1888), a wealthy iron-founder,
and of the Alabama Presbyterian College for Men (1905). There are vast
quantities of iron ore in the vicinity of the city, the Coosa
coal-fields being only 25 m. distant. Anniston is an important
manufacturing city, the principal industries being the manufacture of
iron, steel and cotton. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $2,525,455. An iron furnace was established on the site of Anniston
during the Civil War, but it was destroyed by the federal troops in
1865; and in 1872 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale. The city was
founded in 1872 as a private enterprise, by the Woodstock Iron Company,
organized by Samuel Noble and Gen. Daniel Tyler (1799-1882); but it was
not opened for general settlement until twelve years later. It was
chartered as a city in 1879.
ANNO, or HANNO, SAINT (c. 1010-1075), archbishop of Cologne, belonged to
a Swabian family, and was educated at Bamberg. He became confessor to
the emperor Henry III., who appointed him archbishop of Cologne in 1056.
He took a prominent part in the government of Germany during the
minority of King Henry IV., and was the leader of the party which in
1062 seized the person of Henry, and deprived his mother, the empress
Agnes, of power. For a short time Anno exercised the chief authority in
the kingdom, but he was soon obliged to share this with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, retaining for himself the supervision of Henry's
education and the title of _magister_. The office of chancellor of the
kingdom of Italy was at this period regarded as an appanage of the
archbishopric of Cologne, and this was probably the reason why Anno had
a considerable share in settling the papal dispute in 1064. He declared
Alexander II. to be the rightful pope at a synod held at Mantua in May
1064, and took other steps to secure his recognition. Returning to
Germany, he found the chief power in the hands of Adalbert, and as he
was disliked by the young king, he left the court but returned and
regained some of his former influence when Adalbert fell from power in
1066. He succeeded in putting down a rising against his authority in
Cologne in 1074, and it was reported he had allied himself with William
the Conqueror, king of England, against the emperor. Having cleared
himself of this charge, Anno took no further part in public business,
and died at Cologne on the 4th of December 1075. He was buried in the
monastery of Siegburg and was canonized in 1183 by Pope Lucius III. He
was a founder of monasteries and a builder of churches, advocated
clerical celibacy and was a strict disciplinarian. He was a man of great
energy and ability, whose action in recognizing Alexander II. was of the
utmost consequence for Henry IV. and for Germany.
There is a _Vita Annonis_, written about 1100, by a monk of Siegburg,
but this is of slight value. It appears in the _Monumenta Germaniae
historica: Scriptores_, Bd. xi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There
is an "Epistola ad monachos Malmundarienses" by Anno in the _Neues
Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_, Bd. xiv.
(Hanover, 1876 seq.). See also the _Annolied_, or _Incerti poetae
Teutonici rhythmus de S. Annone_, written about 1180, and edited by J.
Kehrein (Frankfort, 1865); Th. Lindner, _Anno II. der Heilige,
Erzbischof von Koln_ (Leipzig, 1869).
ANNOBON, or ANNO BOM, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, in 1 deg. 24' S.
and 5 deg. 35' E., belonging to Spain. It is 110 m. S.W. of St Thomas.
Its length is about 4 m., its breadth 2, and its area 6-3/4 sq. m.
Rising in some parts nearly 3000 ft. above the sea, it presents a
succession of beautiful valleys and steep mountains, covered with rich
woods and luxuriant vegetation. The inhabitants, some 3000 in number,
are negroes and profess belief in the Roman Catholic faith. The chief
town and residence of the governor is called St Antony (San Antonio de
Praia). The roadstead is tolerably safe, and passing vessels take
advantage of it in order to obtain water and fresh provisions, of which
Annobon contains an abundant supply. The island was discovered by the
Portuguese on the 1st of January 1473, from which circumstance it
received its name (= New Year). Annobon, together with Fernando Po, was
ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in 1778. The islanders revolted against
their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading, it is averred,
to an arrangement by which the island was administered by a body of five
natives, each of whom held the office of governor during the period that
elapsed till ten ships touched at the island. In the latter part of the
19th century the authority of Spain was re-established.
ANNONA (from Lat. _annus_, year), in Roman mythology, the
personification of the produce of the year. She is represented in works
of art, often together with Ceres, with a _cornucopia_ (horn of plenty)
in her arm, and a ship's prow in the background, indicating the
transport of grain over the sea. She frequently occurs on coins of the
empire, standing between a _modius_ (corn-measure) and the prow of a
galley, with ears of corn in one hand and a _cornucopia_ in the other;
sometimes she holds a rudder or an anchor. The Latin word itself has
various meanings: (1) the produce of the year's harvest; (2) all means
of subsistence, especially grain stored in the public granaries for
provisioning the city; (3) the market-price of commodities, especially
corn; (4) a direct tax in kind, levied in republican times in several
provinces, chiefly employed in imperial times for distribution amongst
officials and the support of the soldiery.
In order to ensure a supply of corn sufficient to enable it to be sold
at a very low price, it was procured in large quantities from Umbria,
Etruria and Sicily. Almost down to the times of the empire, the care of
the corn-supply formed part of the aedile's duties, although in 440 B.C.
(if the statement in Livy iv. 12, 13 is correct, which is doubtful) the
senate appointed a special officer, called _praefectus annonae_, with
greatly extended powers. As a consequence of the second Punic War, Roman
agriculture was at a standstill; accordingly, recourse was had to Sicily
and Sardinia (the first two Roman provinces) in order to keep up the
supply of corn; a tax of one-tenth was imposed on it, and its export to
any country except Italy forbidden. The price at which the corn was sold
was always moderate; the corn law of Gracchus (123 B.C.) made it
absurdly low, and Clodius (58 B.C.) bestowed it gratuitously. The number
of the recipients of this free gift grew so enormously, that both Caesar
and Augustus were obliged to reduce it. From the time of Augustus to the
end of the empire the number of those who were entitled to receive a
monthly allowance of corn on presenting a ticket was 200,000. In the 3rd
century, bread formed the dole. A _praefectus annonae_ was appointed by
Augustus to superintend the corn-supply; he was assisted by a large
staff in Rome and the provinces, and had jurisdiction in all matters
connected with the corn-market. The office lasted till the latest times
of the empire.
ANNONAY, a town of south-eastern France, in the north of the department
of Ardeche, 50 m. S. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906)
15,403. Annonay is built on the hill overlooking the meeting of the deep
gorges of the Deome and the Cance, the waters of which supply power to
the factories of the town. By means of a dam across the Ternay, an
affluent of the Deome, to the north-west of the town, a reservoir is
provided, in which an additional supply of water, for both industrial
and domestic purposes, is stored. At Annonay there is an obelisk in
honour of the brothers Montgolfier, inventors of the balloon, who were
natives of the place. A tribunal of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of France, and chambers of
commerce and of arts and manufactures are among the public institutions.
Annonay is the principal industrial centre of its department, the chief
manufactures being those of leather, especially for gloves, paper, silk
and silk goods, and flour. Chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes,
chocolate and candles are also produced.
ANNOY (like the French _ennui_, a word traced by etymologists to a Lat.
phrase, _in odio esse_, to be "in hatred" or hateful of someone), to vex
or affect with irritation. In the sense of "nuisance," the noun
"annoyance," apart from its obvious meaning, is found in the English
"Jury of Annoyance" appointed by an act of 1754 to report upon
obstructions in the highways.
ANNUITY (from Lat. _annus_, a year), a periodical payment, made
annually, or at more frequent intervals, either for a fixed term of
years, or during the continuance of a given life, or a combination of
lives. In technical language an annuity is said to be payable for an
assigned _status_, this being a general word chosen in preference to
such words as "time," "term" or "period," because it may include more
readily either a term of years certain, or a life or combination of
lives. The magnitude of the annuity is the sum to be paid (and received)
in the course of each year. Thus, if L100 is to be received each year by
a person, he is said to have "an annuity of L100." If the payments are
made half-yearly, it is sometimes said that he has "a half-yearly
annuity of L100"; but to avoid ambiguity, it is more commonly said he
has an annuity of L100, payable by half-yearly instalments. The former
expression, if clearly understood, is preferable on account of its
brevity. So we may have quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily annuities,
when the annuity is payable by quarterly, monthly, weekly or daily
instalments. An annuity is considered as accruing during each instant of
the status for which it is enjoyed, although it is only payable at fixed
intervals. If the enjoyment of an annuity is postponed until after the
lapse of a certain number of years, the annuity is said to be deferred.
If an annuity, instead of being payable at the end of each year,
half-year, &c., is payable in advance, it is called an annuity-due.
If an annuity is payable for a term of years independent of any
contingency, it is called an _annuity certain_; if it is to continue for
ever, it is called a _perpetuity_; and if in the latter case it is not
to commence until after a term of years, it is called a _deferred
perpetuity_. An annuity depending on the continuance of an assigned life
or lives, is sometimes called a life annuity; but more commonly the
simple term "annuity" is understood to mean a life annuity, unless the
contrary is stated. A life annuity, to cease in any event after a
certain term of years, is called a _temporary annuity_. The holder of an
annuity is called an annuitant, and the person on whose life the annuity
depends is called the nominee.
If not otherwise stated, it is always understood that an annuity is
payable yearly, and that the annual payment (or rent, as it is sometimes
called) is L1. It is, however, customary to consider the annual payment
to be, not L1, but simply 1, the reader supplying whatever monetary unit
he pleases, whether pound, dollar, franc, Thaler, &c.
The annuity is the totality of the payments to be made (and received),
and is so understood by all writers on the subject; but some have also
used the word to denote an individual payment (or rent), speaking, for
instance, of the first or second year's annuity,--a practice which is
calculated to introduce confusion and should therefore be carefully
avoided.
Instances of perpetuities are the dividends upon the public stocks in
England, France and some other countries. Thus, although it is usual to
speak of L100 consols, the reality is the yearly dividend which the
government pays by quarterly instalments. The practice of the French in
this, as in many other matters, is more logical. In speaking of their
public funds (_rentes_) they do not mention the ideal capital sum, but
speak of the annuity or annual payment that is received by the public
creditor. Other instances of perpetuities are the incomes derived from
the debenture stocks of railway companies, also the feu-duties commonly
payable on house property in Scotland. The number of years' purchase
which the perpetual annuities granted by a government or a railway
company realize in the open market, forms a very simple test of the
credit of the various governments or railways.
_Terminable Annuities_ are employed in the system of British public
finance as a means of reducing the National Debt (q.v.). This result is
attained by substituting for a perpetual annual charge (or one lasting
until the capital which it represents can be paid off _en bloc_), an
annual charge of a larger amount, but lasting for a short term. The
latter is so calculated as to pay off, during its existence, the capital
which it replaces, with interest at an assumed or agreed rate, and under
specified conditions. The practical effect of the substitution of a
terminable annuity for an obligation of longer currency is to bind the
present generation of citizens to increase its own obligations in the
present and near future in order to diminish those of its successors.
This end might be attained in other ways; for instance, by setting aside
out of revenue a fixed annual sum for the purchase and cancellation of
debt (Pitt's method, in intention), or by fixing the annual debt charge
at a figure sufficient to provide a margin for reduction of the
principal of the debt beyond the amount required for interest (Sir
Stafford Northcote's method), or by providing an annual surplus of
revenue over expenditure (the "Old Sinking Fund"), available for the
same purpose. All these methods have been tried in the course of British
financial history, and the second and third of them are still employed;
but on the whole the method of terminable annuities has been the one
preferred by chancellors of the exchequer and by parliament.
Terminable annuities, as employed by the British government, fall under
two heads:--(a) Those issued to, or held by private persons; (b) those
held by government departments or by funds under government control. The
important difference between these two classes is that an annuity under
(a), once created, cannot be modified except with the holder's consent,
i.e. is practically unalterable without a breach of public faith;
whereas an annuity under (b) can, if necessary, be altered by
interdepartmental arrangement under the authority of parliament. Thus
annuities of class (a) fulfil most perfectly the object of the system as
explained above; while those of class (b) have the advantage that in
times of emergency their operation can be suspended without any
inconvenience or breach of faith, with the result that the resources of
government can on such occasions be materially increased, apart from any
additional taxation. For this purpose it is only necessary to retain as
a charge on the income of the year a sum equal to the (smaller)
perpetual charge which was originally replaced by the (larger)
terminable charge, whereupon the difference between the two amounts is
temporarily released, while ultimately the increased charge is extended
for a period equal to that for which it is suspended. Annuities of class
(a) were first instituted in 1808, but are at present mainly regulated
by an act of 1829. They may be granted either for a specified life, or
two lives, or for an arbitrary term of years; and the consideration for
them may take the form either of cash or of government stock, the latter
being cancelled when the annuity is set up. Annuities (b) held by
government departments date from 1863. They have been created in
exchange for permanent debt surrendered for cancellation, the principal
operations having been effected in 1863, 1867, 1870, 1874, 1883 and
1899. Annuities of this class do not affect the public at all, except of
course in their effect on the market for government securities. They are
merely financial operations between the government, in its capacity as
the banker of savings banks and other funds, and itself, in the capacity
of custodian of the national finances. Savings bank depositors are not
concerned with the manner in which government invests their money, their
rights being confined to the receipt of interest and the repayment of
deposits upon specified conditions. The case is, however, different as
regards forty millions of consols (included in the above figures),
belonging to suitors in chancery, which were cancelled and replaced by a
terminable annuity in 1883. As the liability to the suitors in that case
was for a specified amount of stock, special arrangements were made to
ensure the ultimate replacement of the precise amount of stock
cancelled.
_Annuity Calculations._--The mathematical theory of life annuities is
based upon a knowledge of the rate of mortality among mankind in
general, or among the particular class of persons on whose lives the
annuities depend. It involves a mathematical treatment too complicated
to be dealt with fully in this place, and in practice it has been
reduced to the form of tables, which vary in different places, but which
are easily accessible. The history of the subject may, however, be
sketched. Abraham Demoivre, in his _Annuities on Lives_, propounded a
very simple law of mortality which is to the effect that, out of 86
children born alive, 1 will die every year until the last dies between
the ages of 85 and 86. This law agreed sufficiently well at the middle
ages of life with the mortality deduced from the best observations of
his time; but, as observations became more exact, the approximation was
found to be not sufficiently close. This was particularly the case when
it was desired to obtain the value of joint life, contingent or other
complicated benefits. Therefore Demoivre's law is entirely devoid of
practical utility. No simple formula has yet been discovered that will
represent the rate of mortality with sufficient accuracy.
The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, in practice usually
determined by a series of figures deduced from observation; and the
value of an annuity at any age is found from these numbers by means of a
series of arithmetical calculations. The mortality table here given is
an example of modern use.
The first writer who is known to have attempted to obtain, on correct
mathematical principles, the value of a life annuity, was Jan De Witt,
grand pensionary of Holland and West Friesland. Our knowledge of his
writings on the subject is derived from two papers contributed by
Frederick Hendriks to the _Assurance Magazine_, vol. ii. p. 222, and
vol. in. p. 93. The former of these contains a translation of De Witt's
report upon the value of life annuities, which was prepared in
consequence of the resolution passed by the states-general, on the 25th
of April 1671, to negotiate funds by life annuities, and which was
distributed to the members on the 30th of July 1671. The latter contains
the translation of a number of letters addressed by De Witt to
Burgomaster Johan Hudde, bearing dates from September 1670 to October
1671. The existence of De Witt's report was well known among his
contemporaries, and Hendriks collected a number of extracts from various
authors referring to it; but the report is not contained in any
collection of his works extant, and had been entirely lost for 180
years, until Hendriks discovered it among the state archives of Holland
in company with the letters to Hudde. It is a document of extreme
interest, and (notwithstanding some inaccuracies in the reasoning) of
very great merit, more especially considering that it was the very first
document on the subject that was ever written.
TABLE OF MORTALITY--HM, HEALTHY LIVES--MALE.
_Number Living and Dying at each Age, out of 10,000 entering at Age 10._
+------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
| Age. | Living. | Dying. | Age. | Living. | Dying. |
+------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
| 10 | 10,000 | 79 | 54 | 6791 | 129 |
| 11 | 9,921 | 0 | 55 | 6662 | 153 |
| 12 | 9,921 | 40 | 56 | 6509 | 150 |
| 13 | 9,881 | 35 | 57 | 6359 | 152 |
| 14 | 9,846 | 40 | 58 | 6207 | 156 |
| 15 | 9,806 | 22 | 59 | 6051 | 153 |
| 16 | 9,784 | 0 | 60 | 5898 | 184 |
| 17 | 9,784 | 41 | 61 | 5714 | 186 |
| 18 | 9,743 | 59 | 62 | 5528 | 191 |
| 19 | 9,684 | 68 | 63 | 5337 | 200 |
| 20 | 9,616 | 56 | 64 | 5137 | 206 |
| 21 | 9,560 | 67 | 65 | 4931 | 215 |
| 22 | 9,493 | 59 | 66 | 4716 | 220 |
| 23 | 9,434 | 73 | 67 | 4496 | 220 |
| 24 | 9,361 | 64 | 68 | 4276 | 237 |
| 25 | 9,297 | 48 | 69 | 4039 | 246 |
| 26 | 9,249 | 64 | 70 | 3793 | 213 |
| 27 | 9,185 | 60 | 71 | 3580 | 222 |
| 28 | 9,125 | 71 | 72 | 3358 | 268 |
| 29 | 9,054 | 67 | 73 | 3090 | 243 |
| 30 | 8,987 | 74 | 74 | 2847 | 300 |
| 31 | 8,913 | 65 | 75 | 2547 | 241 |
| 32 | 8,848 | 74 | 76 | 2306 | 245 |
| 33 | 8,774 | 73 | 77 | 2061 | 224 |
| 34 | 8,701 | 76 | 78 | 1837 | 226 |
| 35 | 8,625 | 71 | 79 | 1611 | 219 |
| 36 | 8,554 | 75 | 80 | 1392 | 196 |
| 37 | 8,479 | 81 | 81 | 1196 | 191 |
| 38 | 8,398 | 87 | 82 | 1005 | 173 |
| 39 | 8,311 | 88 | 83 | 832 | 172 |
| 40 | 8,223 | 81 | 84 | 660 | 119 |
| 41 | 8,142 | 85 | 85 | 541 | 117 |
| 42 | 8,057 | 87 | 86 | 424 | 92 |
| 43 | 7,970 | 84 | 87 | 332 | 72 |
| 44 | 7,886 | 93 | 88 | 260 | 74 |
| 45 | 7,793 | 97 | 89 | 186 | 36 |
| 46 | 7,696 | 96 | 90 | 150 | 34 |
| 47 | 7,600 | 107 | 91 | 116 | 36 |
| 48 | 7,493 | 106 | 92 | 80 | 36 |
| 49 | 7,387 | 113 | 93 | 44 | 29 |
| 50 | 7,274 | 120 | 94 | 15 | 0 |
| 51 | 7,154 | 124 | 95 | 15 | 5 |
| 52 | 7,030 | 120 | 96 | 10 | 10 |
| 53 | 6,910 | 119 | | | |
+------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
It appears that it had long been the practice in Holland for life
annuities to be granted to nominees of any age, in the constant
proportion of double the rate of interest allowed on stock; that is to
say, if the towns were borrowing money at 6%, they would be willing to
grant a life annuity at 12%, and so on. De Witt states that "annuities
have been sold, even in the present century, first at six years'
purchase, then at seven and eight; and that the majority of all life
annuities now current at the country's expense were obtained at nine
years' purchase"; but that the price had been increased in the course of
a few years from eleven years' purchase to twelve, and from twelve to
fourteen. He also states that the rate of interest had been
successively reduced from 6-1/4 to 5%, and then to 4%. The principal
object of his report is to prove that, taking interest at 4%, a life
annuity was worth at least sixteen years' purchase; and, in fact, that
an annuitant purchasing an annuity for the life of a young and healthy
nominee at sixteen years' purchase, made an excellent bargain. It may be
mentioned that he argues that it is more to the advantage, both of the
country and of the private investor, that the public loans should be
raised by way of grant of life annuities rather than perpetual
annuities. It appears conclusively from De Witt's correspondence with
Hudde, that the rate of mortality assumed as the basis of his
calculations was deduced from careful examination of the mortality that
had actually prevailed among the nominees on whose lives annuities had
been granted in former years. De Witt appears to have come to the
conclusion that the probability of death is the same in any half-year
from the age of 3 to 53 inclusive; that in the next ten years, from 53
to 63, the probability is greater in the ratio of 3 to 2; that in the
next ten years, from 63 to 73, it is greater in the ratio of 2 to 1; and
in the next seven years, from 73 to 80, it is greater in the ratio of 3
to 1; and he places the limit of human life at 80. If a mortality table
of the usual form is deduced from these suppositions, out of 212 persons
alive at the age of 3, 2 will die every year up to 53, 3 in each of the
ten years from 53 to 63, 4 in each of the next ten years from 63 to 73,
and 6 in each of the next seven years from 73 to 80, when all will be
dead.
De Witt calculates the value of an annuity in the following way. Assume
that annuities on 10,000 lives each ten years of age, which satisfy the
Hm mortality table, have been purchased. Of these nominees 79 will die
before attaining the age of 11, and no annuity payment will be made in
respect of them; none will die between the ages of 11 and 12, so that
annuities will be paid for one year on 9921 lives; 40 attain the age of
12 and die before 13, so that two payments will be made with respect to
these lives. Reasoning in this way we see that the annuities on 35 of
the nominees will be payable for three years; on 40 for four years, and
so on. Proceeding thus to the end of the table, 15 nominees attain the
age of 95, 5 of whom die before the age of 96, so that 85 payments will
be paid in respect of these 5 lives. Of the survivors all die before
attaining the age of 97, so that the annuities on these lives will be
payable for 86 years. Having previously calculated a table of the values
of annuities certain for every number of years up to 86, the value of
all the annuities on the 10,000 nominees will be found by taking 40
times the value of an annuity for 2 years, 35 times the value of an
annuity for 3 years, and so on--the last term being the value of 10
annuities for 86 years--and adding them together; and the value of an
annuity on one of the nominees will then be found by dividing by 10,000.
Before leaving the subject of De Witt, we may mention that we find in
the correspondence a distinct suggestion of the law of mortality that
bears the name of Demoivre. In De Witt's letter, dated the 27th of
October 1671 (_Ass. Mag_. vol. iii. p. 107), he speaks of a "provisional
hypothesis" suggested by Hudde, that out of 80 young lives (who, from
the context, may be taken as of the age 6) about 1 dies annually. In
strictness, therefore, the law in question might be more correctly
termed Hudde's than Demoivre's.
De Witt's report being thus of the nature of an unpublished state paper,
although it contributed to its author's reputation, did not contribute
to advance the exact knowledge of the subject; and the author to whom
the credit must be given of first showing how to calculate the value of
an annuity on correct principles is Edmund Halley. He gave the first
approximately correct mortality table (deduced from the records of the
numbers of deaths and baptisms in the city of Breslau), and showed how
it might be employed to calculate the value of an annuity on the life of
a nominee of any age (see _Phil. Trans_. 1693; _Ass. Mag_. vol. xviii.).
Previously to Halley's time, and apparently for many years subsequently,
all dealings with life annuities were based upon mere conjectural
estimates. The earliest known reference to any estimate of the value of
life annuities rose out of the requirements of the Falcidian law, which
(40 B.C.) was adopted in the Roman empire, and which declared that a
testator should not give more than three-fourths of his property in
legacies, so that at least one-fourth must go to his legal
representatives. It is easy to see how it would occasionally become
necessary, while this law was in force, to value life annuities charged
upon a testator's estate. Aemilius Macer (A.D. 230) states that the
method which had been in common use at that time was as follows:--From
the earliest age until 30 take 30 years' purchase, and for each age
after 30 deduct 1 year. It is obvious that no consideration of compound
interest can have entered into this estimate; and it is easy to see that
it is equi
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/34018