Architecture: Gothic and Renaissance
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Title: Architecture: Gothic and Renaissance
Author: T. Roger Smith
Editor: Edward John Poynter
Release date: October 3, 2010 [eBook #33837]
Language: English
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Transcriber's Note
Illustration captions in {curly brackets} have been added by the
transcriber for the convenience of the reader.
A considerable number of the page references in the index are
incorrect; however, they have been preserved as printed.
_ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART
EDUCATION_
_EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
ARCHITECTURE
GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
[Illustration: P. 114
THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS.
BEGUN BY MARCO DI CAMPIONE, A.D. 1393.]
_TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY
EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
ARCHITECTURE
GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
_Occasional Lecturer on Architecture
at University College, London_
[Illustration: {SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB
OF CARDINAL AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL.}]
NEW YORK
SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.
LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
1880
(_All rights reserved._)
LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,
BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.
[Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
PREFACE.
The history, the features, and the most famous examples of European
architecture, during a period extending from the rise of the Gothic,
or pointed, style in the twelfth century to the general depression
which overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth,
form the subject of this little volume. I have endeavoured to adopt as
free and simple a mode of treatment as is compatible with the accurate
statement of at least the outlines of so very technical a subject.
Though it is to be hoped that many professional students of
architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to them in their
elementary studies, it has been my principal endeavour to adapt it to
the requirements of those who are preparing for the professional
pursuit of the sister arts, and of that large and happily increasing
number of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part of a
complete liberal education, and who know that a solid and
comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially if joined to some
skill in the use of the pencil, the brush, the modelling tool, or the
etching needle, will open sources of pleasure and interest of the most
refined description.
The broad facts of all art history; the principles which underlie each
of the fine arts; and the most precious or most noteworthy examples of
each, ought to be familiar to every art student, whatever special
branch he may follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to
carry this account of Gothic and Renaissance architecture; within them
I have endeavoured to make the work as complete as the space at my
disposal permitted.
Some portions of the text formed part of two courses of lectures
delivered before the students of the School of Military Engineering at
Chatham, and are introduced here by the kind permission of Sir John
Stokes. Many of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts
of notes made by myself, almost under the shadow of the buildings to
which they refer. It would, however, have been impossible to give a
condensed view of so extended a subject had not every part of it been
treated at much greater length by previous writers. The number and
variety of the books consulted renders it impossible to make any other
acknowledgment here than this general recognition of my indebtedness
to their authors.
T. R. S.
[Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
CONTENTS.
PAGE
ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS. xv to xxxix
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION. 1
CHAPTER II.
THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 6
CHAPTER III.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 21
CHAPTER IV.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.
Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls. Towers and
Spires. Gables. Piers and Columns 28
CHAPTER V.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND (_continued_).
Analysis (_continued_). Openings. Roofs. Spires.
Ornaments. Stained Glass. Sculpture 45
CHAPTER VI.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
Columns and Piers. Roofs and Vaults. Openings.
Mouldings and Ornaments. Construction and Design 69
2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS 87
3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and IRELAND 91
CHAPTER VII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
1. GERMANY. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
Roofs and Vaults. Openings. Ornaments.
Construction and Design 93
2. NORTHERN EUROPE 111
CHAPTER VIII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
1. ITALY and SICILY. Topographical Sketch.
NORTHERN ITALY. CENTRAL ITALY. SOUTHERN
ITALY. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls,
Towers, and Columns. Openings and Arches.
Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings and Ornaments.
Construction and Design 112
2. SPAIN. Chronological Sketch 137
3. PORTUGAL 142
CHAPTER IX.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
Principles of Construction and Design. Materials
and Construction 143
CHAPTER X.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
GENERAL VIEW. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls
and Columns. Openings. Construction and Design 154
CHAPTER XI.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
FLORENCE. ROME. VENICE, VICENZA, VERONA. MILAN,
PAVIA. GENOA, TURIN, NAPLES. Country Villas 165
CHAPTER XII.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch 193
2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS 206
3. GERMANY 210
CHAPTER XIII.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN,
AND PORTUGAL.
1. ENGLAND. Chronological Sketch 214
2. SCOTLAND 227
3. SPAIN and PORTUGAL 229
[Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
CERTOSA, THE, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS Frontispiece
SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB OF CARDINAL
AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL Title Page
GLOSSARY. FORTY ENGRAVINGS OF DETAILS xv to xxxix
1. WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. (1275.) 5
2. GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118 to 1193.) 6
3. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL 7
4. CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.) 9
5. NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 to 1242.) 9
6. GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY 11
7. HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES. (BEGUN 1443.) 15
8. PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES.) 16
9. PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH CENTURY.) 18
10. WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.) 20
11. GOTHIC ORNAMENT. FROM SENS CATHEDRAL (HEADPIECE) 21
12. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.) 35
13. ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE, 1302.) 37
14. HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.) 38
15. HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.) 41
16. LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.) 46
17. TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.) 47
18. GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.) 48
19. TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1269.) 49
20. ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN CATHEDRAL 50
21. PERPENDICULAR WINDOW 51
22. ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH CENTURY.) 53
23. HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.) 57
24. SPIRE OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE 59
25. DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM 60
26. EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES 62
27. ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED 62
28. DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE. (15TH CENT.) 63
29. STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL 65
30. SCULPTURE FROM CHAPTER HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY 67
31. CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.) 70
32. DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.) 72
33. NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.) 74
34. PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.) 76
35. AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.) 78
36. PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. (1211-1240.) 80
37. CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE. (13TH CENTURY.) 84
38. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.) 86
39. THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.) 89
40. TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.) 90
41. ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES.) 94
42. CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.) 96
43. CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST END.
(1358-1548.) 99
44. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. SECTION. (1158.) 101
45. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. (1158.) 102
46. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN 1248.) 104
47. WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH CENTURY.) 106
48. CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262 TO 1439.) 107
49. ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE BRIDE'S DOORWAY 109
50. PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT CREMONA 117
51. CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE 121
52. CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE 123
53. CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290; FACADE, 1310.) 125
54. OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD 129
55. TRACERY IN WINDOW-HEAD, FROM VENICE 130
56. WINDOW FROM TIVOLI 134
57. ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY IN HEAD 136
58. CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR. (BEGUN 1227.) 139
59. THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196; FINISHED
IN 1568.) 141
60. DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA. (BEGUN 1385.) 151
61. STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.) 169
62. PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA 171
63. THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE. DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL 173
64. ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.) 177
65. MONUMENT BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME 179
66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.) 180
67. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT 183
68. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.) 185
69. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.) 188
70. VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY
ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Academie Francaise_).
(A.D. 1540.) 191
70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL 192
71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.) 195
72. CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I., ORLEANS. (1540.) 197
73. PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS 199
74. PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.) 201
75. CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE 202
76. HOTEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS 204
77. WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.) 208
78. ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.) 209
79. COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.) 211
80. QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG 213
81. HOLLAND HOUSE, KENSINGTON. (1607.) 216
82. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.) 220
83. HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.) 225
84. THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.) 231
[Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.
ABACUS.--The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon
which the weight to be carried rests.
AISLE (Lat. _ala_).--The side subdivision in a church;
occasionally all the subdivisions, including the nave, are
called aisles.
APSE.--A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or
projection from, a church or other public building.
ARCADE.--A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.
ARCH.--A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of
bricks, of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The
principal forms of arch in use are Semicircular;
Acutely-pointed, or Lancet; Equilateral, or Less
Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or Depressed Tudor;
Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental; and Stilted.
(Figs. _A_ to _F_.)
ARCHITRAVE.--(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance
architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the
next. (2) The moulding which in the same styles is used to
ornament the margin of a door or window opening or arch.
ASHLAR.--Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of
a wall of coarser masonry or brick.
ATTIC (In Renaissance Architecture).--A low upper story,
distinctly marked in the architecture of the building,
usually surmounting an order; (2) in ordinary building, any
story in a roof.
BAILEY (from _vallum_).--The enclosure of the courtyard of a
castle.
BALL-FLOWER.--An ornament representing a globular bud,
placed usually in a hollow moulding.
BALUSTER.--A species of small column, generally of curved
outline.
BALUSTRADE.--A parapet or rail formed of balusters.
[Illustration: FIG. _A_.--SEMICIRCULAR ARCH.]
[Illustration: FIG. _B_.--STILTED ARCH.]
The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch were the
only arches in use till the introduction of the Pointed
Arch. Throughout the Early English, Decorated, and
Perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional features,
but they were practically superseded after the close of the
12th cent.
[Illustration: FIG. _C_.--EQUILATERAL ARCH.]
[Illustration: FIG. _D_.--LANCET ARCH.]
The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early English
period, is never found earlier, and but rarely occurs later.
The Equilateral Arch was the favourite arch of the
architects of the geometrical Decorated, but is not
unfrequently met with in the early part of the Perpendicular
period.
[Illustration: FIG. _E_.--OGIVAL ARCH.]
[Illustration: FIG. _F_.--DEPRESSED TUDOR ARCH.]
The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is characteristic
of the Perpendicular period, and was then constantly
employed. The Ogival Arch is occasionally employed late in
that period, but was more used by French and Italian
architects than by those of Great Britain.
BAND.--A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.
BARREL-VAULTING.--See Waggon-head vaulting.
BARGE-BOARD (OR VERGE-BOARD).--An inclined and pierced or
ornamented board placed along the edge of a roof when it
overhangs a gable wall.
BASE.--(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a
buttress or wall.
[Illustration: FIG. _G_.--BASE OF EARLY ENGLISH SHAFT.]
[Illustration: FIG. _H_.--BASE OF PERPENDICULAR SHAFT.]
[Illustration: FIG. _I_.--BASE OF DECORATED SHAFT.]
BASILICA.--(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian
church, similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.
BASTION (in Fortification).--A bold projecting mass of
building, or earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of
a wall.
BATTLEMENT.--A notched or indented parapet.
BAY.--One of the compartments in a building which is made up
of several repetitions of the same group of features;
_e.g._, in a church the space from one column of the nave
arcade to the next is a bay.
BAY-WINDOW.--A window projecting outward from the wall. It
may be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from
the ground. If thrown out above the ground level, a
projecting window is called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)
BEAD.--A small moulding of circular profile.
BELFRY.--A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.
BELFRY STAGE.--The story of a tower where the belfry occurs.
Usually marked by large open arches or windows, to let the
sound escape.
BELL (of a capital).--The body between the necking and the
abacus (which see).
BILLET MOULDING.--A moulding consisting of a group of small
blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.
BLIND STORY.--Triforium (which see).
BOSS.--A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the
intersection of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a
string course which it is desired to stop, or in an
analogous situation.
BOW WINDOW.--Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but
circular or segmental.
BROACH-SPIRE.--A spire springing from a tower without a
parapet and with pyramidal features at the feet of its four
oblique sides (see Fig. 22) to connect them to the four
angles of the tower.
BROACHEAD (SPIRE).--Formed as above described.
BUTTRESS.--A projection built up against a wall to create
additional strength or furnish support (see Flying
Buttress).
BYZANTINE.--The round-arched Christian architecture of the
Eastern Church, which had its origin in Byzantium
(Constantinople).
CANOPY.--(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows,
&c.; (2) a covering over niches, tombs, &c.
CAMPANILE.--The Italian name for a bell-tower.
[Illustration: FIG. _J_.--BUTTRESS.]
CAPITAL.--The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. _L_ to
_P_).
CATHEDRAL.--A church which contains the seat of a bishop;
usually a building of the first class.
CERTOSA.--A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.
CHAMFER.--A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.
CHANCEL.--The choir or eastern part of a church.
CHANTRY CHAPEL.--A chapel connected with a monument or tomb
in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of
small size and very rich.
CHAPEL.--(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out
of it, or formed within it, and in which an altar was
placed; (2) a small detached church.
CHAPTER HOUSE.--The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean
and canons) of a cathedral.
[Illustration: FIG. _L_.--EARLY NORMAN CAPITAL.]
[Illustration: FIG. _M_.--EARLY ENGLISH CAPITAL.]
[Illustration: FIG. _N_.--LATER NORMAN CAPITAL.]
[Illustration: FIG. _O_.--PERPENDICULAR CAPITAL.]
[Illustration: FIG. _P_.--EARLY FRENCH CAPITAL.]
CHATEAU.--The French name for a country mansion.
CHEVRON.--A zig-zag ornament.
CHEVET.--The French name for an apse when surrounded by
chapels; see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 6).
CHOIR.--The part of a church in which the services are
celebrated; usually, but not always, the east end or
chancel. In a Spanish church the choir is often at the
crossing.
CLERESTORY.--The upper story or row of windows lighting the
nave of a Gothic church.
CLOISTER.--A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic
building.
CLUSTERED (SHAFTS).--Grouped so as to form a pier of some
mass out of several small shafts.
CORBEL.--A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or
seeming to support, a weight (Fig. _K_).
[Illustration: FIG. _K_.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL.]
CORBELLING.--A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a
corbel; a row of corbels.
CORBEL TABLE.--A row of corbels supporting an overhanging
parapet or cornice.
CORTILE (Italian).--The internal arcaded quadrangle of a
palace, mansion, or public building.
COLUMN.--A stone or marble post, divided usually into base,
shaft, and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft
being cylindrical or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in
few pieces.
CORNICE.--The projecting and crowning portion of an order
(which see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a
building.
COURSE.--A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a
building.
CROCKET.--A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used
to decorate ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &c.
[Illustration: FIG. _Q_.--DECORATED CROCKET.]
[Illustration: FIG. _R_.--PERPENDICULAR CROCKET.]
CROSSING.--The intersection (which see) in a church or
cathedral.
CROSS VAULT.--A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect
one another, forming a groin (which see).
CRYPT.--The basement under a church or other building
(almost invariably vaulted).
CUSP.--The projecting point thrown out to form the
leaf-shaped forms or foliations in the heads of Gothic
windows, and in tracery and panels.
DEC. } The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century
DECORATED. } in England. _Abbreviated_ Dec.
DETAIL.--The minuter features of a design or building,
especially its mouldings and carving.
DIAPER (Gothic).--An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers
carved or painted on the surface of a wall.
[Illustration: FIG. _S_.--DIAPER IN SPANDREL, FROM
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
DOGTOOTH.--A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding
which is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat
resembles a blunt tooth.
DORMER WINDOW.--A window pierced through a sloping roof and
placed under a small gable or roof of its own.
DOME.--A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily
circular on plan.
DOMICAL VAULTING.--Vaulting in which a series of small domes
are employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault,
or an intersecting vault.
DOUBLE TRACERY.--Two layers of tracery one behind the other
and with a clear space between.
E. E. } The Gothic architecture of England in the
EARLY ENGLISH. } thirteenth century. _Abbreviated_ E. E.
EAVES.--The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.
EAVES-COURSE.--A moulding carrying the eaves.
ELEVATION.--(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the
exterior or interior walls of a building; (2) the
architectural treatment of the exterior or interior walls of
a building.
ELIZABETHAN.--The architecture of England in, and for some
time after, the reign of Elizabeth.
EMBATTLED.--Finished with battlements, or in imitation of
battlements.
ENRICHMENTS.--The carved (or coloured) decorations applied
to the mouldings or other features of an architectural
design. (See Mouldings.)
ENTABLATURE (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).--The
superstructure above the columns where an order is employed.
It is divided into the architrave, which rests on the
columns, the frieze and the cornice.
FACADE.--The front of a building or of a principal part of a
building.
FAN VAULT.--The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth
century, in which a series of conoids bearing some
resemblance to an open fan are employed.
FILLET.--A small moulding of square flat section.
[Illustration: FIG. _T_.--PERPENDICULAR FINIAL.]
FINIAL.--A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other
similar ornament forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or
other ornamented feature of Gothic architecture.
FLAMBOYANT STYLE.--The late Gothic architecture of France
at the end of the fifteenth century, so called from the
occurrence of flame-shaped forms in the tracery.
FLECHE.--A name adapted from the French. A slender spire,
mostly placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.
FLYING BUTTRESS.--A buttress used to steady the upper and
inner walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance
from the wall which it supports, and connected with it by an
arch.
[Illustration: FIG. _U_.--FLYING BUTTRESS.]
FOIL.--A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the
curved outline of a window head or piece of tracery.
FOLIATION.--The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by
means of foils and cusps.
FOSSE.--The ditch of a fortress.
FRANCOIS I. STYLE.--The early Renaissance architecture of
France during part of the sixteenth century.
FRIEZE.--(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance
entablature; this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any
band of sculptured ornament.
GABLE.--The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a
roof.
GABLET.--A small gable (usually ornamental only).
GALLERY.--(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to
its width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.
GARGOYLE.--A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone,
more rarely formed of metal.
GEOMETRICAL.--The architecture of the earlier part of the
decorated period in England.
GRILLE.--A grating or ornamental railing of metal.
GROIN.--The curved line which is made by the meeting of the
surfaces of two vaults or portions of vaults which
intersect.
GROUP.--An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small
features intended to produce a combined effect.
GROUPING.--Combining architectural features as above.
HALL.--(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion,
or a college, &c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.
HALF TIMBERED CONSTRUCTION.--A mode of building in which a
framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between
them are filled in with plaster or tiles.
HAMMER BEAM ROOF.--A roof peculiar to English architecture
of the fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of
a hammer beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to
partly support the rafters.
HEAD (of an arch or other opening).--The portion within the
curve; whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes
called a tympanum.
HIP.--The external angle formed by the meeting of two
sloping sides of a roof where there is no gable.
HOTEL (French).--A town mansion.
IMPOST.--A moulding or other line marking the top of the
jambs of an arched opening, and the starting point, or
apparent starting point, of the arch.
INLAY.--A mode of decoration in which coloured materials
are laid into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the
surface to be decorated.
INTERSECTION (OR CROSSING).--The point in a church where the
transepts cross the nave.
INTERSECTING VAULTS.--Vaults of which the surfaces cut one
another.
INTERPENETRATION.--A German mode of treating mouldings, as
though two or more sets of them existed in the same stone
and they could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.
JAMB.--The side of a door or window or arch, or other
opening.
[Illustration: FIG. _V_.--PLAN OF A JAMB AND CENTRAL
PIER OF A GOTHIC DOORWAY.]
KEEP.--The tower which formed the stronghold of a mediaeval
castle.
KING POST.--The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.
LANCET ARCH.--The sharply-pointed window-head and arch,
characteristic of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.
LANTERN.--A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or
crowning a dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but
often introduced simply as an architectural finish to the
whole building.
LIERNE (rib).--A rib intermediate between the main ribs in
Gothic vaulting.
LIGHT.--One of the divisions of a window of which the entire
width is divided by one or more mullions.
LINTEL.--The stone or beam covering a doorway or other
opening not spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the
architrave of an order.
LOGGIA (Italian).--An open arcade with a gallery behind.
LOOP.--Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of
a fortress, serving as a window, or to shoot through.
LUCARNE.--A spire-light. A small window like a slender
dormer window.
MOAT (or Fosse).--The ditch round a fortress or
semi-fortified house.
MOSAIC.--An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces
of vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of
coloured material (stone, marble, tile, &c.) so as to
produce a pattern or picture.
MOULDING.--A term applied to all varieties of contour or
outline given to the angles, projections, or recesses of the
various parts of a building. The object being either to
produce an outline satisfactory to the eye; or, more
frequently, to obtain a play of light and shade, and to
produce the appearance of a line or a series of lines, broad
or narrow, and of varying intensity of lightness or shade in
the building or some of its features.
The contour which a moulding would present when cut across
in a direction at right angles to its length is called its
profile.
The profile of mouldings varied with each style of
architecture and at each period (Figs. _W_ to _Z_). When
ornaments are carved out of some of the moulded surfaces the
latter are technically termed enriched mouldings. The
enrichments in use varied with each style and each period,
as the mouldings themselves did.
MULLION.--The upright bars of stone frequently employed
(especially in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window
into two or more lights.
NAVE.--(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2)
the western part of a church as distinguished from the
chancel or choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the
interior of a building which is divided by one or more rows
of columns running lengthways is called a nave.
NECKING (of a column).--The point (usually marked by a
fillet or other small projecting moulding) where the shaft
ends and the capital begins.
NEWEL POST.--The stout post at the foot of a staircase from
which the balustrade or the handrail starts.
[Illustration: FIG. _W_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 12th
Century.)]
[Illustration: FIG. _Y_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Decorated, 14th
Century.)]
[Illustration: FIG. _Z_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 13th
Century.)]
NICHE.--A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other
upright ornament.
NORMAN.--The architecture of England from the Norman
Conquest till the latter part of the twelfth century.
OGEE.--A moulding or line of part concave and part convex
curvature (see Fig. _E_, showing an ogee-shaped arch).
OGIVAL.--Ogee-shaped (see Fig. 54).
OPEN TRACERY.--Tracery in which the spaces between the bars
are neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.
ORDER.--(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a
single column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or
superstructure; (2) a series of columns or pilasters with
their entablature; (3) an entire decorative system
appropriate to the kind of column chosen. In Renaissance
architecture there are five orders--the Tuscan, Doric,
Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Each has its own proper
column, and its proper base, shaft, and capital; and its own
entablature. The proportions and the degree of enrichment
appropriate to each vary. The Tuscan being the sturdiest and
plainest, the Composite the most slender and most small, and
the others taking place in the succession in which they
stand enumerated above. Where more than one order occurs in
a building, as constantly happens in Classic and Renaissance
buildings, the orders which are the plainest and most sturdy
(and have been named first) if employed, are invariably
placed below the more slender orders; _e.g._ the Doric is
never placed _over_ the Corinthian or the Ionic, but if
employed in combination with either of those orders it is
always the lowest in position.
ORIEL.--A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not
resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level
and resting on a corbel.
PALLADIAN.--A phase of fully developed Renaissance
architecture introduced by the architect Palladio, and
largely followed in England as well as in Italy.
PANEL.--(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of
doors and other such joiner's work; (2) all sunk
compartments in masonry, ceilings, &c.
PANELLING.--(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing
panels; (2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk
compartments.
PARAPET.--A breastwork or low wall used to protect the
gutters and screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps
primarily, to protect the ramparts of fortifications.
[Illustration: FIG. _A A_.--OPEN PARAPET, LATE DECORATED.]
[Illustration: FIG. _B B_.--BATTLEMENTED PARAPET,
PERPENDICULAR.]
PAVILION.--A strongly marked single block of building; most
frequently applied to those blocks in French and other
Renaissance buildings that are marked out by high roofs.
PEDESTAL.--(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a
column in Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar
substructure intended to carry a statue, vase, or other
ornament.
PEDIMENT.--(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance
buildings; (2) an ornamental gable sometimes placed over
windows, doors, and other features in Gothic buildings.
PERP. } The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth century
PERPENDICULAR. } in England. _Abbreviated_ Perp.
PIER.--(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of
a wall or a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place
of a column in the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a
group or cluster of shafts substituted for a column.
[Illustration: FIG. _C C_.--EARLY ENGLISH PIERS.]
[Illustration: FIG. _D D_.--LATE DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR
PIERS.]
PILASTER.--A square column, usually attached to a wall;
frequently used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in
combination with columns.
PINNACLE (in Gothic architecture).--A small turret, or
ornament, usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the
summit of gables, buttresses, and other tall features.
PITCH.--The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or
pediment.
PLAN.--(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the
piers, if any, and the walls which inclose and divide it,
with the openings in them; (2) the actual arrangement and
disposition of the floors, piers, and walls of the building
itself.
PLANE.--The imaginary surface within which a series of
mouldings lies, and which coincides with the salient and
important points of that series. Mouldings are said to be on
an oblique plane when their plane forms an angle less than a
right angle with the face of the wall; and in receding
planes, when they can be divided into a series of groups of
more or less stepped outline, each within and behind the
other, and each partly bounded by a plane parallel with the
face of the wall.
PLASTER.--The plastic material, of which the groundwork is
lime and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form
ceilings. Sometimes employed as a covering to walls
externally.
PLINTH.--The base of a wall or of a column or range of
columns.
PORTAL.--A dignified and important entrance doorway.
PORTICO.--A range of columns with their entablature (and
usually covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a
Renaissance or Classic building.
PRISMATIC RUSTICATION.--In Elizabethan architecture
rusticated masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on
the face of each stone.
PROFILE.--The contour or outline of mouldings as they would
appear if sawn across at right angles to their length.
PORCH.--A small external structure to protect and ornament
the doorway to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).
QUATREFOIL.--A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in
tracery or a panel.
RAFTERS.--The sloping beams of a roof upon which the
covering of the roof rests.
RAGSTONE.--A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and
elsewhere, and used for walling.
RECEDING PLANES.--(See Plane.)
RECESS.--A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.
RECESSING.--Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back some
part of a building behind the general face.
RENAISSANCE.--The art of the period of the Classic revival
which began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used
chiefly to denote the architecture of Europe in that and the
succeeding centuries.
RIB (in Gothic vaulting).--A bar of masonry or moulding
projecting beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark
its intersections or subdivide its surface, and to add
strength.
RIDGE.--(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the
summit of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved,
which marks the summit of a vault.
ROLL.--A round moulding.
ROSE WINDOW.--A wheel window (which see).
RUBBLE.--Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry
wall; sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes
shown.
RUSTICATION (or RUSTICATED MASONRY).--The sort of ornamental
ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which
each stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it,
marking the joints.
RUSTICS.--The individual blocks of stone used in rustication
(as described above).
SCREEN.--An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part
of a building. At the entrance to the choir of a church
screens of beautiful workmanship were used.
SCROLL MOULDING.--A round roll moulding showing a line along
its face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).
SCROLL WORK.--Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the
edge of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).
SECTION.--(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if
cut through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the
construction of a building which would be displayed by such
a drawing as described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.
SET-OFF.--A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness
of a wall or pier.
SEXPARTITE VAULTING.--Where each bay or compartment is
divided by its main ribs into six portions.
SGRAFFITO (Italian).--An ornament produced by scratching
lines on the plastered face of a building so as to show a
different colour filling up the lines or surfaces scratched
away.
SHAFT.--(1) The middle part of a column between its base and
capital. (2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for
ornamental purposes, singly or in clusters.
SHELL ORNAMENT.--A decoration frequently employed in Italian
and French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a
shell.
SKY-LINE.--The outline which a building will show against
the sky.
SPANDREL.--The triangular (or other shaped) space between
the outside of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces
inclosing it or in contact with it. (See Fig. _S_, under
Diaper.)
SPIRE.--The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a
church tower).
SPIRE-LIGHT (or LUCARNE).--A dormer window (which see) in a
spire.
SPLAY.--A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less
than a right angle.
STAGE.--One division in the height of any building or
portion of a building where horizontal divisions are
distinctly marked, _e.g._, the belfry stage of a tower, the
division in which the bells are hung.
STEEPLE.--A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes
applied to a tower or spire separately.
STEPPED GABLE.--A gable in which, instead of a sloping line,
the outline is formed by a series of steps.
STILTED ARCH.--An arch of which the curve does not commence
till above the level of the impost (which see).
STORY.--(1) The portion of a building between one floor and
the next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal
compartment of a building, even if not corresponding to an
actual story marked by a floor.
STRAP-WORK (Elizabethan).--An ornament representing
strap-like fillets interlaced.
STRING-COURSE.--A projecting horizontal (or occasionally
sloping) band or line of mouldings.
TABERNACLE WORK.--The richly ornamented and carved work with
which the smaller and more precious features of a church,
_e.g._, the fittings of a choir, were adorned and made
conspicuous.
TERMINAL (or Finial).--The ornamental top of a pinnacle,
gable, &c.
TERRA-COTTA.--A fine kind of brick capable of being highly
ornamented, and formed into blocks of some size.
THRUST.--The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or
vault, or by the timbers of a roof on the abutments or
supports.
TIE.--A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient
employed to hold together the feet or sides of an arch,
vault, or roof, and so counteract the thrust.
TORUS.--A large convex moulding.
TOWER.--A portion of a building rising conspicuously above
the general mass, and obviously distinguished by its height
from that mass. A detached building of which the height is
great, relative to the width and breadth.
TRACERY (Gothic).--The ornamental stonework formed by the
curving and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the
heads of windows, panels, and other situations where
decoration and lightness have to be combined. The simplest
and earliest tracery might be described as a combination of
openings pierced through the stone head of an arch. Cusping
and foliation (which see) are features of tracery. (See
Figs. 18, 19, 55, and 57 in the text.)
[Illustration: FIG. _E E_.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
[Illustration: FIG. _F F_.--LATE PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
TRANSEPT.--The arms of a church or cathedral which cross
the line of the nave.
TRANSITION.--The architecture of a period coming between and
sharing the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles
or phases of architecture, one of which succeeded the other.
TRANSOM.--A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a
window or panel.
TREFOIL.--A three-leaved or three-lobed form found
constantly in the heads of windows and in other situations
where tracery is employed.
TRIFORIUM (or THOROUGH-FARE).--The story in a large church
or cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the
nave and aisles, and the clerestory.
TUDOR.--The architecture of England during the reigns of the
Tudor kings. The use of the term is usually, however,
restricted to a period which closes with the end of Henry
VIII.'s reign, 1547.
TURRET.--A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground,
but often carried on corbels and commencing near the upper
part of the building to which it is an appendage.
TYMPANUM.--The filling in of the head of an arch, or
occasionally of an ornamental gable.
UNDERCUTTING.--A moulding or ornament of which the greater
part stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it
adjoins, as though almost or quite detached from them, is
said to be undercut.
VAULT.--An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a
building, executed in masonry or in some substitute for
masonry.
The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel- or
waggon-headed vaults, and semicircular arches only were used
in their construction. With the Gothic period the use of
intersecting, and as a result of pointed arches, was
introduced into vaulting, and vaults went on increasing in
complexity and elaboration till the Tudor period, when
fan-vaulting was employed. Our illustrations show some of
the steps in the development of Gothic vaults referred to in
Chapter V. of the text. No. 1 represents a waggon-head vault
with an intersecting vault occupying part of its length. No.
2 represents one of the expedients adopted for vaulting an
oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced.
The narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin is
not true. No. 3 represents a similar compartment vaulted
without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the
pointed arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a sexpartite
Gothic vault. No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs
making a star-shaped pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat
more intricate example of the same class of vault.
[Illustration: FIG. _G G_.--VAULTS.]
Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a
less distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in
the Gothic period; and in many cases where a vault or a
series of vaults would have been employed by a Gothic
architect, a Renaissance architect has preferred to make use
of a dome or a series of domes. This is called domical
vaulting. Examples of it occur occasionally in Gothic work.
WAGGON-HEAD VAULTING, OR BARREL-VAULTING.--A simple form of
tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its
resemblance to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to
the half of a barrel.
WAINSCOT.--(1) The panelling often employed to line the
walls of a room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of
oak imported chiefly from Holland; probably so called
because wainscot oak was at one time largely employed for
such panelling.
WEATHERING.--A sloping surface of stone employed to cover
the set-off (which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it
from the effects of weather.
WHEEL WINDOW.--A circular window, and usually one in which
mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference
like the spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.
WINDOW-HEAD.--For illustrations of the various forms and
filling-in of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and
Tracery.
[Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL DOLPHIN PATTERN.}]
HEAD AND TAILPIECES.
PAGE
HEADPIECE.--CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS 1
" SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL 6
" " " SENS CATHEDRAL 21
" " " WESTMINSTER ABBEY 28
TAILPIECE.--NORMAN CAPITALS 44
HEADPIECE.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY 45
TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL 68
HEADPIECE.--STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL 69
TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL 92
" ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL 153
HEADPIECE.--RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE 154
" FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI 165
TAILPIECE.--FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA, VENICE 192
HEADPIECE.--ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO 193
" FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE 235
THE END-PAPERS ARE FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL.
[Illustration: _The Lily of Florence._]
[Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
The architecture generally known as Gothic, but often described as
Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout Europe to the exclusion of
every rival for upwards of three centuries; and it is to be met with,
more or less, during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said that
its origin took place in the twelfth century, that the thirteenth was
the period of its development, the fourteenth that of its perfection,
and the fifteenth that of its decline; while many examples of its
employment occur in the sixteenth.
In the following chapters the principal changes in the features of
buildings which occurred during the progress of the style in England
will be described. Subsequently, the manner in which the different
stages of development were reached in different countries will be
given; for architecture passed through very nearly the same phases in
all European nations, though not quite simultaneously.
It must be understood that through the whole Gothic period, growth or
at least change was going on; the transitions from one stage to
another were only periods of more rapid change than usual. The whole
process may be illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for
instance, we compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century
to the Anglo-Saxon form of speech of the time of Alfred the Great, and
the architecture of the twelfth century to the English of Chaucer,
that of the thirteenth will correspond to the richer language of
Shakespeare, that of the fourteenth to the highly polished language of
Addison and Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the English of our own
day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual change and
growth which went on in architecture; and we shall find that the
oneness of the language in the former case, and of the architecture in
the latter, was maintained throughout.
For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture which
preceded Gothic, the reader is referred to the companion volume in
this series. Here it will be only necessary briefly to review the
circumstances which went before the appearance of the pointed styles.
The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some thing like a
universal architecture, so that the buildings of any Roman colony bore
a strong resemblance to those of every other colony and of the
metropolis; varying, of course, in extent and magnificence, but not
much in design. The architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe
exhibited, so far as is known, the same general similarity. Down to
the eleventh century the buildings erected (almost exclusively
churches and monastic buildings) were not large or rich, and were
heavy in appearance and simple in construction. Their arches were all
semicircular.
The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark Ages seem to
have come from the energy and ability of Charlemagne in the eighth
century.
In the succeeding century, this activity received a check; an idea
became generally prevalent that the year one thousand was to see the
end of the world; men's minds were overshadowed with apprehension; and
buildings, in common with other undertakings of a permanent nature,
were but little attempted.
When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it had been, a
kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced; many important
undertakings were set on foot, such as during the preceding years it
had not been thought worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century
thus became a time of great religious activity; and if the First
Crusade, which took place 1095, may be taken as one outcome of that
pious zeal, another can certainly be found in the large and often
costly churches and monasteries which rose in every part of England,
France, Germany, Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry raged among
the builders of these churches; each one was built larger and finer
than the previous examples, and the details began to grow elaborate.
Construction and ornament were in fact advancing and improving, if not
from year to year, at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the
commencement of the twelfth century a remarkable development had taken
place. The ideas of the dimensions of churches then entertained were
really almost as liberal as during the best period of Gothic
architecture.
An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding of
Westminster Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He pulled down a small
church which he found standing on the site, in order to erect one
suitable in size and style to the ideas of the day. The style of his
cathedral (but not its dimensions) soon became so much out of date
that Henry III. pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of
the lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now see in
the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size remained nearly the
same, for there is evidence to show that the Confessor's buildings
must have occupied very nearly, if not quite, as much ground as those
which succeeded them.
At the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities, some
of them due to accident, some to the nature and quality of the
building materials obtainable, some to differences of race, climate,
and habits, and some to other causes, had begun to make their
appearance in the buildings of various parts of Europe; and through
the whole Gothic period such peculiarities were to be met with. Still
the points of similarity were greater and more numerous than the
differences; so much so, that by going through the course which Gothic
architecture ran in one of the countries in which it flourished, it
will readily be possible to furnish a general outline of the subject
as a whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the principal
variations in the practice of other countries. On some grounds France
would be the most suitable country to select for this purpose, for
Gothic appeared earlier and flourished more brilliantly in that
country than in any other; the balance of advantage lies however, when
writing for English students, in the selection of Great Britain. The
various phases through which the art passed are well marked in this
country, they have been fully studied and described, and, what is of
the greatest importance, English examples are easily accessible to the
majority of students, while those which cannot be visited may be very
readily studied from engravings and photographs. English Gothic will
therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a few words
remain to be said describing generally the buildings which have come
down to us from the Gothic period.
The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth century, and
probably earlier, was invented at a time when a Goth was synonymous
with everything that was barbarous; and its use then implied a
reproach. It denotes, according to Mr. Fergusson, "all the styles
invented and used by the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman
empire, and settled within its limits."
[Illustration: FIG 1.--WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, (1275.)
(_See Chapter V._)]
[Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
CHAPTER II.
THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
By far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture are the
cathedrals and large churches which were built during the prevalence
of the style. They were more numerous, larger, and more complete as
works of art than any other structures, and accordingly they are to be
considered on every account as the best examples of pointed
architecture.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118
to 1193.) A. Nave. B B. Transepts. C. Choir. D D. Aisles.
E. Principal Entrance.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY
CATHEDRAL. (A.D. 1217).]
The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral were
customarily as follows:--(See Fig. 2.) The main axis of the building
was always east and west, the principal entrance being at the west
end, usually under a grand porch or portal, and the high altar stood
at the east end. The plan (or main floor) of the building almost
always displays the form of a cross. The stem of the cross is the part
from the west entrance to the crossing, and is called the nave. The
arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively north
and south. Their crossing with the nave is often called the
intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs the stem eastwards, is
ordinarily called the choir, but sometimes the presbytery, and
sometimes the chancel. All these names really refer to the position of
the internal fittings of the church, and it is often more accurate
simply to employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church.
The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to it, narrower
and lower than itself, called aisles. They are separated from it by
rows of columns or piers, connected together by arches. Thus the nave
has an arcade on each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one
side, and a main external wall on the other. The aisle walls are
usually pierced by windows. The arches of the arcade carry walls which
rise above the roofs of the aisles, and light the nave. These walls
are usually subdivided internally into two heights or stories; the
lower story consists of a series of small arches, to which the name of
triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the dark space
above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is sometimes
called the blind story. The upper story is the range of windows
already alluded to as lighting the nave, and is called the clerestory.
Thus a spectator standing in the nave, and looking towards the side
(Figs. 4 and 5), will see opposite him the main arcade, and over that
the triforium, and over that the clerestory, crowned by the nave vault
or roof; and looking through the arches of the nave arcade, he will
see the side windows of the aisle. Above the clerestory of the nave,
and the side windows of the aisles, come the vaults or roofs. In some
instances double aisles (two on each side) have been employed.
The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs, divided like the
nave into a centre avenue and two side aisles, and these usually are
of the same width and height as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes
there are no transepts; sometimes they do not project beyond the line
of the walls, but still are marked by their rising above the lower
height of the nave aisles. Sometimes the transepts have no aisles, or
an aisle only on one side.[1] On the other hand, it is sometimes
customary, especially in English examples, to form two pairs of
transepts. This occurs in Lichfield Cathedral.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.)
A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 TO 1242.)
A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which most importance
was attached, and it is usual to mark that importance by greater
richness, and by a difference in the height of its roof or vault as
compared with the nave; its floor is always raised. It also has its
central passage and its aisles; and it has double aisles much more
frequently than the nave. The eastern termination of the cathedral is
sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when it takes this
form it is called an apse or an apsidal east end; sometimes it is
square, the apse being most in use on the Continent, and the square
east end in England. Attached to some of the side walls of the church
it is usual to have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily chambers
partly shut off from the main structure, but opening into it by arched
openings; each chapel contains an altar. The finest chapel is usually
one placed on the axis of the cathedral, and east of the east end of
the main building; this is called, where it exists, the Lady Chapel,
and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin. Henry VII.'s Chapel at
Westminster (Fig. 6) furnishes a familiar instance of the lady chapel
of a great church. Next in importance rank the side chapels which open
out of the aisles of the apse, when there is one. Westminster Abbey
furnishes good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the
transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are less frequently
added to the nave aisles.
The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has been pointed
out, is always raised, so as to be approached by steps; it is inclosed
by screen work which shuts off the choir, or inclosure for the
performance of divine service, from the nave. The fittings of this
part of the building generally include stalls for the clergy and
choristers and a bishop's throne, and are usually beautiful works of
art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called chantry
chapels, are constantly met with in various positions, but most
frequently in the eastern arm.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below other parts
of the building, there often exists a subterranean vaulted structure
known as the crypt.
Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal doorway is in
the western front:[2] usually supplemented by entrances at the ends of
the transepts, and one or more side entrances to the nave. A porch on
the north side of the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen
to be strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently
arches are thrown from these buttresses to the higher walls of the
building. The whole arrangement of pier and arch is called a flying
buttress,[3] and, as will be explained later, is used to steady the
upper part of the building when a stone vault is employed (see Chap.
V.). The lofty gables in which the nave and transepts, and the eastern
arm when square terminate, form prominent features, and are often
occupied by great windows.
In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is largely due to
the towers with which it was adorned. The most massive tower was
ordinarily one which stood, like the central one of Lichfield
Cathedral, at the crossing of the nave and transepts. Two towers were
usually intended at the western front of the building, and sometimes
one, or occasionally two, at the end of each transept. It is rare to
find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been even begun,
much less completed. In many cases only one, in others three, have
been built. In some instances they have been erected, and have fallen.
In others they have never been carried up at all. During a large
portion of the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a
lofty pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in some
instances, though many of them have disappeared. Occasionally a tower
was built quite detached from the church to which it belonged.
To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic buildings was
appended. It will not be necessary to describe these in much detail.
They were grouped round an open square, surrounded by a vaulted and
arcaded passage, which is known as the cloister. This was usually
fitted into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south side of
the nave and the south transept, though occasionally the cloister is
found on the north side of the nave. The most important building
opening out of the cloister is the chapter-house, frequently a lofty
and richly-ornamented room, often octagonal, and generally standing
south of the south transept. The usual arrangement of the monastic
buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details with the
requirements of the different monastic orders, and the circumstances
of each individual religious house, but, as in the case of churches,
the general principles of disposition were fixed early. They are
embodied in a manuscript plan, dating as far back as the ninth
century, and found at St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have
been widely departed from. The monks' dormitory here occupies the
whole east side of the great cloister, there being no chapter-house.
It is usually met with as nearly in this position as the transept and
the chapter-house will permit. The refectory is on the south side of
the cloister, and has a connected kitchen. The west side of the
cloister in this instance was occupied by a great cellar. Frequently a
hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here. The north
side of the cloister was formed by the church.
For the abbot a detached house was provided in the St. Gall plan to
stand on the north side of the church; and a second superior hospitum
for his guests. Eastward of the church are placed the infirmary with
its chapel, and an infirmarer's lodging. The infirmary was commonly
arranged with a nave and aisles, much like, a small parish church.
Other detached buildings gave a public school, a school for novices
with its chapel, and, more remotely placed, granaries, mills, a
bakehouse, and other offices. A garden and a cemetery formed part of
the scheme, which corresponds tolerably well with that of many
monastic buildings remaining in England, as _e.g._, those at
Fountains' Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as they
can be traced.
Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery were long
and not very wide apartments, with windows on both sides. Frequently
they were vaulted, and they often had a row of columns down the
middle. Many are two stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen,
which was often a vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the barn,
which was often of great size, were the most prominent. They are often
fine buildings. At Glastonbury very good examples of a monastic barn
and kitchen can be seen.
Second only in importance to the churches and religious buildings come
the military and domestic buildings of the Gothic period (Fig. 7).
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES.
(BEGUN 1413.)]
Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less fortified, at any
rate during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. A lofty
square tower, called a keep, built to stand a siege, and with a walled
inclosure at its feet, often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or
moat), formed the castle of the twelfth century, and in some cases
(_e.g._ the White Tower of London), this keep was of considerable
size. The first step in enlargement was to increase the number and
importance of the buildings which clustered round the keep, and to
form two inclosures for them, known as an inner and an outer bailey.
The outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much modernised,
will give a good idea of what a first class castle grew to be by
successive additions of this sort. In castles erected near the end of
the thirteenth century (_e.g._ Conway Castle in North Wales), and
later, the square form of the keep was abandoned, and many more
arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the occupants were
introduced; and the buildings and additions to buildings of the
fifteenth century took more the shape of a modern dwelling-house,
partly protected against violence, but by no means strong enough to
stand a siege. Penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class
of building.
It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings which early
received the form and disposition from which they did not depart
widely, mediaeval domestic buildings exhibit an amount of change in
which we can readily trace the effects of the gradual settlement of
this country, the abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate
cessation of civil wars, the introduction of gunpowder, the increase
in wealth and desire for comfort, and last, but not least, the
confiscation by Henry VIII. of the property of the monastic houses.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND FOLLOWING
CENTURIES.)]
Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. 8), maybe cited as a
good example of an English castellated mansion of the time of Richard
II. Below the principal story there is a vaulted basement containing
the kitchens and many of the offices. On the main floor we find the
hall, entered as usual at the lower or servants' end, from a porch.
The upper end gives access to a sitting-room, built immediately
behind it, and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms, while
across a passage are placed the private chapel and a large dining-room
(a modern addition). Bed-rooms occupy the upper floors of the
buildings at both ends of the hall.
Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick Castle is Haddon
Hall, the well-preserved residence of the Duke of Rutland, in
Derbyshire. The five or six successive enlargements and additions
which this building has received between the thirteenth and
seventeenth centuries show the growth of ideas of comfort and even
luxury in this country.
As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal quadrangles,
separated from one another by the great hall with its dais, its
minstrels' gallery, its vast open fire-place, and its traceried
windows, and by the kitchens, butteries, &c., belonging to it.
The most important apartments are reached from the upper end of the
hall, and consist of the magnificent ball-room, and a dining-room in
the usual position, _i.e._ adjoining the hall and opening out of it;
with, on the upper floor, a drawing-room, and a suite of state
bed-rooms, occupying the south side of both quadrangles and the east
end of one. A large range of apartments, added at a late period, and
many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry, occupies the
north side of this building and the northwestern tower. At the
south-western corner of the building stands a chapel of considerable
size, and which once seems to have served as a kind of parochial
church; and a very considerable number of rooms of small size, opening
out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable
lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The portions built in
the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are more or less
fortified. The ball-room, which is of Elizabethan architecture, opens
on to a terraced garden, accessible from without by no more violent
means than climbing over a not very formidable wall. Probably nowhere
in England, can the growth of domestic architecture be better studied,
whether we look to the alterations which took place in accommodation
and arrangement, or to the changes which occurred in the architectural
treatment of windows, battlements, doorways and other features, than
at Haddon Hall.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH
CENTURY.)]
In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture is to be
found in the ordinary dwelling-houses, _e.g._ houses from Chester and
Lisieux (Figs. 14 and 15); but many specimens have of course perished,
especially as timber was freely used in their construction.
Dwelling-houses of a high order of excellence, and of large size, were
also built during this period. The Gothic palaces of Venice, of which
many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. 9), are the best examples of
these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that city is perhaps the finest
secular building which exists of Gothic architecture.
Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be found in North
Italy and Germany, but chiefly in Belgium, where the various
town-halls of Louvain, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &c.,
vie with each other in magnificence and extent.
* * * * *
Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the architecture is
Gothic. Among these we find public halls and large buildings for
public purposes--as Westminster Hall, or the Palace of Justice at
Rouen; hospitals, as that at Milan; or colleges, as King's College,
Cambridge, with its unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works,
such as fountains, wells (Fig. 10), crosses, tombs, monuments, and the
fittings of the interior of churches, also remain to attest the
versatility, the power of design, and the cultivated taste of the
architects of the Gothic period.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.)]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. 2).
[2] At E on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. 2).
[3] See Glossary.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.{--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
CHAPTER III.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
English Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided into three
periods or stages of advancement, corresponding to those enumerated on
page 1; the early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as
Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something more; the
middle stage, known as Decorated, occupying most of the fourteenth
century; and the latest stage, known as Perpendicular, occupying the
fifteenth century and part of the sixteenth.
The duration of each of these coincides approximately with the
century, the transition from each phase to the next taking place
chiefly in the last quarter of the century. Adding the periods of the
English types of round arched Architecture, we obtain the following
table:--
Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century, SAXON.
A.D. 1066 to 1189 or up to end of 12th " NORMAN.
A.D. 1189 to 1307 or up to end of 13th " EARLY ENGLISH.
A.D. 1307 to 1377 or up to end of 14th " DECORATED.
A.D. 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th " PERPENDICULAR.
The term "Early English" (short for Early English Gothic) applied to
English thirteenth-century architecture explains itself.
The term "Lancet" sometimes applied to the Early English style, is
derived from the shape of the ordinary window-heads, which resemble
the point of a lancet in outline (Fig. 16). Whatever term be adopted,
it is necessary to remark that a wide difference exists between the
earlier and the late examples of this period. It will suffice for our
purposes if, when speaking of the fully-developed style of the late
examples, we refer to it as Advanced Early English.
The architecture of the fourteenth century is called "Decorated," from
the great increase of ornament, especially in window tracery and
carved enrichments.
The architecture of the fifteenth century is called "Perpendicular,"
from the free use made of perpendicular lines, both in general
features and in ornaments, especially in the tracery of the windows
and the panelling with which walls are ornamented.[4]
The following condensed list, partly from Morant,[5] of the most
striking peculiarities of each period, may be found useful for
reference, and is on that account placed here, notwithstanding that it
contains many technical words, for the meaning of which the student
must consult the Glossary which forms part of this volume.
ANGLO-SAXON--(Prior to the Norman Conquest).--
Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or
ragstone with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses
alternately; openings with round or triangular heads,
sometimes divided by a rude baluster. Piers plain, square,
and narrow. Windows splayed externally and internally. Rude
square blocks of stone in place of capitals and bases.
Mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled.
Corners of buildings square without buttresses.
NORMAN. William I. A.D. 1066.
William II. " 1087.
Henry I. " 1100.
Stephen " 1135.
Henry II. " 1154 to 1189.
Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain,
afterwards enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and
frequent repetition of same ornament on each stone. Piers
low and massive, cylindrical, square, polygonal, or composed
of clustered shafts, often ornamented with spiral bands and
mouldings. Windows generally narrow and splayed internally
only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft. Walls
sometimes a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the
rest left blank. Doorways deeply recessed and richly
ornamented with bands of mouldings. Doors often square
headed, but under arches the head of the arch filled with
carving. Capitals carved in outline, often grotesquely
sculptured with devices of animals and leaves. Abacus
square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling the
classic orders. The mouldings at first imperfectly formed.
Pedestals of piers square. Buttresses plain, with broad
faces and small projections. Parapets plain with projecting
corbel table under.
Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls
at edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels.
Enriched mouldings--the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet
square or round, the cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail
heads, and others. Niches with figures over doorways. Roofs
of moderately high pitch, and open to the frame; timbers
chiefly king-post trusses. Towers square and massive--those
of late date richly adorned with arcades. Openings in towers
often beautifully grouped. Vaulting waggon-headed, and
simple intersecting vaults of semicircular outline.
Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II.,
details of transitional character begin to appear. Pointed
arch with Norman pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular
arches. Norman abacus blended with Early English foliage in
capitals.
EARLY ENGLISH. Richard I. A.D. 1189 _Transition._
John " 1199.
Henry III. " 1216.
Edward I. " 1272 to 1307.
General proportions more slender, and height of walls,
columns, &c., greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet;
often richly moulded. Triforium arches and arcades open with
trefoiled heads. Piers slender, composed of a central
circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones, almost or
quite detached; generally with horizontal bands. In small
buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used.
Capitals concave in outline, moulded, or carved with
conventional foliage delicately executed and arranged
vertically. The abacus always undercut. Detached shafts
often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow between two
rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply splayed
internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of
wall; later in the style less acute, divided by mullions,
enriched with cusped circles in the head, often of three or
more lights, the centre light being the highest. Doorways
often deeply recessed and enriched with slender shafts and
elaborate mouldings. Shafts detached. Buttresses about equal
in projection to width, with but one set-off, or without
any. Buttresses at angles always in pairs. Mouldings bold
and deeply undercut, consisting chiefly of round mouldings
sometimes pointed or with a fillett, separated by deep
hollows. Great depth of moulded surface generally arranged
on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular curve sometimes
filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage. Roofs of
high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault open.
Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves;
towards the close beautifully carved finials and crockets
with carved foliage of conventional character were
introduced. Flat surfaces often richly diapered. Spires
broached. Vaulting pointed with diagonal and main ribs only;
ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style; bosses at
intersection of ribs.
DECORATED. Edward II. A.D. 1307.
Edward III. " 1377 to 1379.
Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches
mostly inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often
continued down the pier. Windows large, and divided into two
or more lights by mullions. Tracery in the head, at first
composed geometrical forms, later of flowing character.
Clerestory windows generally small. Diamond shaped piers
with shafts engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on under
side of abacus, with elegant foliage arranged horizontally.
Doors frequently without shafts, the arch moulding running
down the jambs. Rich doorways and windows often surrounded
with triangular and ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in
stages variously ornamented. Parapet pierced with
quatrefoils and flowing tracery. Niches panelled and with
projecting canopies. Spires lofty; the broach rarely used,
parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it. Roofs of
moderate pitch open to the framing. Mouldings bold and
finely proportioned, generally in groups, the groups
separated from each other by hollows, composed of segments
of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined to inner
angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged on
diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented
with ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine
leaves; natural, also conventional. Rich crockets, finials,
and pinnacles. Vaulting with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs,
and late in the style lierne ribs, and bosses.
PERPENDICULAR. Richard II. A.D. 1377. (_Transition._)
Henry IV. " 1399.
Henry V. " 1413.
Henry VI. " 1422.
Edward IV. " 1461.
Edward V. " 1483.
Richard III. " 1483.
TUDOR. Henry VII. " 1485.
Henry VIII. " 1509 to 1546.
Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle,
afterwards obtusely pointed and struck from four centres.
Piers generally oblong; longitudinal direction north and
south. Mouldings continued from base through arch. Capitals
with mouldings large, angular, and few, with abacus and bell
imperfectly defined. Foliage of conventional character,
shallow, and square in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows
where lofty divided into stories by transoms. The mullions
often continued perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of
ogee character enriched with crockets. Doors generally with
square label over arch, the spandrels filled with ornament.
Buttresses with bold projection often ending in finials.
Flying buttresses pierced with tracery. Walls profusely
ornamented with panelling. Parapets embattled and panelled.
Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of elaborate
construction, often with hammer beams, richly ornamented
with moulded timbers, carved figures of angels and with
pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes of very flat
pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse, and with
wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in
appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail,
generally arranged on diagonal planes. Early in the style
the mouldings partake of decorated character.
In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails;
transoms of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose,
portcullis, and fleur-de-lis common ornaments. Crockets and
pinnacles much projected. Roofs of low pitch.
Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants
elaborately carved.
Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English Gothic have been
proposed by writers of authority. The division given above is that of
Rickman, and is generally adopted. A more minute subdivision and a
different set of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:--
ROMANESQUE. Saxon A.D. to 1066.
Norman " 1066 to 1145.
GOTHIC. Transitional " 1145 to 1190.
Lancet " 1190 to 1245.
Geometrical " 1245 to 1315.
Curvilinear " 1315 to 1360.
Rectilinear " 1360 to 1550.
Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe "transitional" explains
itself; and "geometrical, curvilinear, and rectilinear" refer to the
characters of the window tracery at the different periods which they
denote.[6]
* * * * *
The history of English Gothic proper may be said to begin with the
reign of Henry II., coinciding very nearly with the commencement of
the period named by Mr. Sharpe transitional (1145 to 1190), when
Norman architecture was changing into Gothic. This history we propose
now to consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the
simplest possible way, namely, into floors, walls, columns, roofs,
openings, and ornaments. After this we shall have to consider the mode
in which materials were used by the builders of the Gothic period,
_i.e._ the construction of the buildings; and the general artistic
principles which guided their architects, _i.e._ the design of the
buildings.
* * * * *
It may be useful to students in and near London to give Sir G. Gilbert
Scott's list of striking London examples[7] of Gothic architecture
(with the omission of such examples as are more antiquarian than
architectural in their interest):--
_Norman_ (temp. Conquest).--The Keep and Chapel of the Tower
of London.
_Advanced Norman._--Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster
Abbey; St. Bartholomew's Priory, Smithfield.
_Transitional._--The round part of the Temple Church.
_Early English._--Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir
and Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of
Lambeth Palace.
_Advanced Early English_ (passing to decorated).--Eastern
part of Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.
_Early Decorated._--Choir of Westminster, (but this has been
much influenced by the design of the earlier parts
adjacent); Chapel of St. Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.
_Late Decorated._--The three bays of the Cloister at
Westminster opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of
St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin
Friars.
_Early Perpendicular._--South and West walks of the
Cloister, Westminster; Westminster Hall.
_Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period)._--Henry VII.'s
Chapel; Double Cloister of St. Stephen's, Westminster.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] The abbreviations, E. E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to
denote these three periods.
[5] _Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &c._
_Privately printed._ Quoted here with the author's permission.
[6] See examples in Chapter V. and in Glossary.
[7] Address to Conference of Architects, _Builder_, June 24, 1876.
[Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
CHAPTER IV.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.--FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS, GABLES, COLUMNS.
_Floor, or Plan._
The excellences or defects of a building are more due to the shape and
size of its floor and, incidentally, of the walls and columns or piers
which inclose and subdivide its floor than to anything else whatever.
A map of the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the
doors and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable figure of
speech the plan of a building is often understood to mean the shape
and size and arrangement of its floor and walls themselves, instead of
simply the drawing representing them. It is in this sense that the
word plan will be used in this volume.
The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and it has been
already remarked that before the Gothic period had commenced the
dimensions of great churches had been very much increased. The
generally received disposition of the parts of a church had indeed
been already settled or nearly so. There were consequently few
radical alterations in church plans during the Gothic period. One,
however, took place in England in the abandonment of the apse.
At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times, was
retained. For example, it is found at Canterbury, where the choir and
transept are transitional, having been begun soon after 1174 and
completed about 1184; but the eastern end of Chichester, which belongs
to the same period (the transition), displays the square east end, and
this termination was almost invariably preferred in our country after
the twelfth century.
A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those great churches
which had vaulted roofs, as will be readily understood when it is
remembered that the vaults were divided into equal and similar
compartments, and that the points of support had to be placed with
corresponding regularity. Where, however, some controlling cause of
this nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed in
the planning of English Gothic buildings of all periods. The plans of
our Cathedrals are noted for their great length in proportion to their
width, for the considerable length given to the transepts, and for the
occurrence in many cases (_e.g._ Salisbury, thirteenth century) of a
second transept. The principal alterations which took place in plan as
time went on originated in the desire to concentrate material as much
as possible on points of support, leaving the walls between them thin
and the openings wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet
of which occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the
church. The plans of piers and columns also underwent the alterations
which will be presently described.[8]
Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but octagonal
ones are not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses attached to our
Cathedrals are octagons, with a central pier to carry the vaulting. On
the whole, play of shape on plan was less cultivated in England than
in some continental countries.
The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but grew more
elaborate and extensive as time went on. The cloister with
dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered from its walk, formed the
model on which colleges, hospitals, and alms-houses were planned. The
castle, already described, was the residence of the wealthy during the
earlier part of the Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, houses which were rather dwellings than
fortresses began to be erected, the hall, with a large bay window and
a raised floor or dais at one end and a mighty open fire-place, was
always the most conspicuous feature in the plan. Towards the close of
the Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as Warwick Castle
(Fig. 8), began to show many of the features which distinguish a
mansion of the present day.
In various parts of the country remains of magnificent Gothic
dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, and
long before the close of the perpendicular period we had such mansions
as Penshurst and Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such
castellated dwellings as Warwick and Haddon, differing in many
respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central hall.
Buildings for public purposes also often took the form of a great
hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as the finest example of such a
structure, not only in England but in Europe.
The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the most
superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour to obtain
enough familiarity with ground plans, to be able to sketch, measure,
and lay down a plan to scale and to _read_ one. The plan shows to the
experienced architect the nature, arrangement, and qualities of a
building better than any other drawing, and a better memorandum of a
building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch of its plan, or of
the plan of important parts of it, is preserved than if written notes
are alone relied upon.
_Walls._
The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone; brick being the
exception. They were in the transitional and Early English times
extremely thick, and became thinner afterwards. All sorts of
ornamental masonry were introduced into them, so that diapers,[9]
bands, arcades, mouldings, and inlaid patterns are all to be met with
occasionally, especially in districts where building materials of
varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In the perpendicular
period the walls were systematically covered with panelling closely
resembling the tracery of the windows (_e.g._, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
Westminster).
The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of base and some
kind of top. The base or plinth in English Gothic buildings was
usually well marked and bold, especially in the perpendicular period,
and it is seldom absent. The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang
the walls, resting on a simple stone band, called an eaves-course, and
constitute the crowning feature. In many instances, however, the
eaves are concealed behind a parapet[10] which is often carried on a
moulded cornice or on corbels. This, in the E. E. period, was usually
very simple. In the Dec. it was panelled with ornamental panels, and
often made very beautiful. In the Perp. it was frequently battlemented
as well as panelled.
A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress. It existed,
but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight projection in
Norman, as in almost all Romanesque buildings, but in the Gothic
period it became developed.
The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic architecture,
originated in the use of stone vaults and the need for strong piers at
these points, upon which the thrust and weight of those vaults were
concentrated. The use of very large openings, for wide windows full of
stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the Dec. and
Perp. periods to fortify the walls at regular points.
A buttress[10] is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the main wall,
usually projecting considerably at the base and diminished by
successive reductions of its mass as it approaches the top, and so
placed as to counteract the thrust of some arch or vault inside. It
had great artistic value; in the feeble and level light of our
Northern climate it casts bold shadows and catches bright lights, and
so adds greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the
E. E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected about its own
width. In the Dec. it obtained much more projection, was constructed
with several diminutions (technically called weatherings), and was
considerably ornamented. In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by
panelling. The buttresses in the Dec. period are often set diagonally
at the corner of a building or tower. In the E. E. period this was
never done.
The flying buttress[11] is one of the most conspicuous features of the
exterior of those Gothic buildings which possessed elaborate stone
vaults. It was a contrivance for providing an abutment to
counterbalance the outward pressure of the vault covering the highest
and central parts of the building in cases where that vault rested
upon and abutted against walls which themselves were carried by
arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that no buttress could
be carried up from the ground to steady them.
A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes thrown out from
the aisle wall opposite the point to be propped, formed the solid part
of this buttress; it was carried to the requisite height and a flying
arch spanning the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it
to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung. The pier itself was
in many cases loaded by an enormous pinnacle, so that its weight might
combine with the pressure transmitted along the slope of the flying
arch to give a resultant which should fall within the base of the
buttress. The back of such an arch was generally used as a water
channel.
The forest of flying buttresses round many French cathedrals produces
an almost bewildering effect, as, for instance, at the east end of
Notre Dame;--our English specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example,
are comparatively simple.
_Towers._
The gable and the tower are developments of the walls of the building.
Gothic is _par excellence_ the style of towers. Many towers were
built detached from all other buildings, but no great Gothic building
is complete without one main tower and some subordinate ones.
In the E. E. style church towers were often crowned by low spires,
becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In the Dec. style lofty
spires were almost universal. In the Perp. the tower rarely has a
visible roof.[12]
The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled with variety to a
group of buildings can hardly be exaggerated.
The positions which towers occupy are various. They produce the
greatest effect when central, _i.e._ placed over the crossing of the
nave and transepts. Lichfield, Chichester, and Salisbury may be
referred to as examples of cathedrals with towers in this position and
surmounted by spires. Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are
specimens of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but
without a spire (Fig. 12). At Wells a fine central octagon occupies
the crossing, and is remarkable for the skill with which it is fitted
to the nave and aisles internally. Next to central towers rank a pair
of towers at the western end of the building. These exist at Lichfield
with their spires; they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and (though
carried up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.[13] Many churches
have a single tower in this position (Fig. 13).
The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness as a
feature of the building and as a landmark, is to lift up a belfry high
into the air: accordingly, almost without exception, church and
cathedral towers are designed with a large upper story, pierced by
openings of great size and height called the belfry stage; and the
whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to this feature.
It is also very often the case that a turret to contain a spiral
staircase which may afford the means of access to the upper part of
the tower, forms a prominent feature of its whole height, especially
in the Dec. and Perp. periods.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.)]
In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were frequently
employed with excellent effect. Many castles retained the Norman keep,
or square strong tower, which had served as the nucleus round which
other buildings had afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic
period a castle was built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or
more towers, often of great beauty, were always added. Examples
abound; good ones will be found in the Edwardian castles in Wales (end
of thirteenth century), as for example at Conway and Caernarvon.
_Gables._
The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables crowned those
parts of a great church in which the skill of the architect was
directed to producing a regular composition, often called a front, or
a facade. The west fronts of Cathedrals were the most important
architectural designs of this sort, and with them we may include the
ends of the transepts and the east fronts.
The same parts of parish churches are often excellent compositions.
The gable of the nave always formed the central feature of the main
front. This was flanked by the gables, or half-gables, of the aisles
where there were no towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As
a rule the centre and sides of the facade are separated by buttresses,
or some other mode of marking a vertical division, and the composition
is also divided by bands of mouldings or otherwise, horizontally into
storeys. Some of the horizontal divisions are often strongly marked,
especially in the lower part of the building, where in early examples
there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the wall, an
arcade or a band of sculpture running across the entire front (_e.g._
east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The central gable is always occupied
by a large window--or in early buildings a group of windows--sometimes
two storeys in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end
of each aisle. Below these great windows are introduced, at any rate
in west fronts, the doorways, which, even in the finest English
examples, are comparatively small. The gable also contains as a rule
one or more windows often circular which light the space above the
vaults.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE,
1302.)]
Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine and yet
contrast its horizontal and vertical elements. The horizontal lines,
or features, are those which serve to bind the whole together, and the
vertical ones are those which give that upward tendency which is the
great charm and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is
essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings to be
properly contrasted and proportioned to each other, and here, as in
every part of a building, such ornaments and ornamental features as
are introduced must be designed to contribute to the enrichment of the
building as a whole, so that no part shall be conspicuous either by
inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or excessive enrichment.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch than the
comparatively moderate slope of Norman times. In the E. E. it was
acutely pointed, in the Dec. the usual slope was that of the two sides
of an equilateral triangle: in the Perp. it became extremely flat and
ceased to be so marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic
buildings the gable was employed in the most effective manner, and
town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built their gable ends to
the street (Fig. 14).
* * * * *
A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of in
dwelling-houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework of stout timbers
exposed to view, with the spaces between them filled in with plaster.
Of this work, which is known as half-timbered work, many beautiful
specimens remain dating from the fifteenth and following centuries
(Figs. 14 and 15), and a few of earlier date. In those parts of
England where tiles are manufactured such framework was often covered
by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering. In half-timbered
houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and sometimes also the basement
storeys, are usually of brickwork or masonry; so are the side walls in
the case of houses in streets. It was usual in such buildings to cause
the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.
_Columns and Piers._
The columns and piers of a building virtually form portions of its
walls, so far as aiding to support the weight of the roof is
concerned, and are appropriately considered in connection with them.
In Gothic architecture very little use is made of columns on the
outside of a building, and the porticoes and external rows of columns
proper to the classic styles are quite unknown. On the other hand the
series of piers, or columns, from which spring the arches which
separate the central avenues of nave, transepts and choir from the
aisles, are among the most prominent features in every church. These
piers varied in each century.[14]
The Norman piers had been frequently circular or polygonal, but
sometimes nearly square, and usually of enormous mass. Thus, at Durham
(Norman), oblong piers of about eleven feet in diameter occur
alternately with round ones of about seven feet. In transitional
examples columns of more slender proportions were employed either (as
in the choir of Canterbury) as single shafts or collected into groups.
Where grouping took place it was intended that each shaft of the group
should be seen to support some definite feature of the superincumbent
structure, as where a separate group of mouldings springs from each
shaft in a doorway, and this principle was very steadily adhered to
during the greater part of the Gothic period.[14]
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.)]
Through the E. E. period groups of shafts are generally employed; they
are often formed of detached shafts clustering round a central one,
and held together at intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and
generally the entire group is nearly circular on plan. In the
succeeding century (Dec. period) the piers also take the form of
groups of shafts, but they are generally carved out of one block of
stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier is on a lozenge-shaped
plan. In the Perp., the piers retain the same general character, but
are slenderer, and the shafts have often shrunk to nothing more than
reedy mouldings.
The column is often employed in Transitional and E. E. churches as a
substitute for piers carrying arches. In every period small columns
are freely used as ornamental features. They are constantly met with,
for example, in the jambs of doorways and of windows.
Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its base, or foot;
its shaft, which forms the main body; and its capital, or head. Each
of these went through a series of modifications. Part of the base
usually consisted of a flat stone larger than the diameter of the
column, sometimes called a plinth, and upon this stood the moulded
base which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft. This plain
stone was in E. E. often square, and in that case the corner spaces
which were not covered by the mouldings of the base were often
occupied by an elegantly carved leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the
lower part of the base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so
as to make it into a pedestal.[15]
The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they were, as a
rule, extremely slender when their purpose was purely decorative, and
comparatively sturdy when they really served to carry a weight.
The capital of the column has been perhaps the most conspicuous
feature in the architecture of every age and every country, and it is
one of the features which a student may make use of as an indication
of date and style of buildings, very much as the botanist employs the
flower as an index to the genus and species of plants. The capital
almost invariably starts from a ring, called the neck of the column.
This serves to mark the end of the shaft and the commencement of the
capital. Above this follows what is commonly called the bell,--the
main portion of the capital, which is that part upon which the skill
of the carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely
expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus, a flat
block of stone upon the upper surface of which is built the
superstructure or is laid the beam or block which the column has to
support. The shape and ornaments given to the abacus are often of
considerable importance as indications of the position in
architectural history which the building in which it occurs should
occupy.
The Norman capital differed to some extent from the Romanesque
capitals of other parts of Europe. It was commonly of a heavy,
strong-looking shape, and is often appropriately called the cushion
capital. In its simpler forms the cushion capital is nothing but a
cubical block of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it
fit the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a slab by way
of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and transitional work the
faces of this block and the edges of the abacus are often richly
moulded. By degrees, however, as the transition to E. E. approached, a
new sort of capital[16] was introduced, having the outline of the bell
hollow instead of convex. The square faces of the Norman capital of
course disappeared, and the square abacus soon (at least in this
country) became circular, involving no small loss of vigour in the
appearance of the work. The bell of this capital was often decorated
with rich mouldings, and had finely-designed and characteristic
foliage, which almost always seemed to grow up the capital, and
represented a conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once
seen.
In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and less
elaborate mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully carved in
imitation of natural leaves, and wreathed round the capital instead of
growing up it. In the Perp. this feature is in every way less ornate,
the mouldings are plainer, and the foliage, often absent, is, when it
occurs, conventional and stiff. Polygonal capitals are common in this
period.
[Illustration: _Later Norman Capital._]
FOOTNOTES:
[8] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
[9] For illustration consult the Glossary.
[10] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
[11] For illustration consult the Glossary under _Flying buttress_.
[12] For remarks on Spires, see Chap. V.
[13] York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by
the possession of three towers.
[14] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
[15] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Base_.
[16] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
[Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
CHAPTER V.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (_continued_)--OPENINGS, ROOFS, SPIRES,
ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS, SCULPTURE.
_Openings and Arches._
The openings (_i.e._ doors and windows) in the walls of English Gothic
buildings are occasionally covered by flat heads or lintels, but this
is exceptional; ordinarily they have arched heads. The shape of the
arch varies at all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to
adopt any shape which best met the requirements of any special case;
but at each period there was one shape of arch which it was customary
to use.
In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century) semicircular
and pointed arches are both met with, and are often both employed in
the same part of the same building. The mouldings and enrichments
which are common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the E. E.
period the doorways are almost invariably rather acutely pointed, the
arched heads are enriched by a large mass of rich mouldings, and the
jambs[17] have usually a series of small columns, each of which is
intended to carry a portion of the entire group of mouldings. Large
doorways are often subdivided into two, and frequently approached by
porches. A most beautiful example occurs in the splendid west entrance
to Ely Cathedral. Other examples will be found at Lichfield (Fig. 1)
and Salisbury. It was not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel,
the whole being under an archway; this left a space above the head of
the door which was occupied by carving often of great beauty.
Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances of churches, and
are richly sculptured; but though beautiful, these features rarely
attained magnificence. The most remarkable entrance to an English
cathedral is the west portal of Peterborough--a composition of lofty
and richly moulded arches built in front of the original west wall. A
portal on a smaller scale, but added in the same manner adorns the
west front of Wells. As a less exceptional example we may refer to the
entrance to Westminster Abbey at the end of the north transept (now
under restoration), which must have been a noble example of an E. E.
portal when in its perfect state.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.)]
The windows in this style were almost always long, narrow, and with a
pointed head resembling the blade of a lancet (Fig. 16). The glass is
generally near the outside face of the wall, and the sides of the
opening are splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to place
these lancet windows in groups. The best known group is the celebrated
one of "the five sisters," five lofty single lights, occupying the
eastern end of one of the transepts of York Minster. A common
arrangement in designing such a group was to make the central light
the highest, and to graduate the height of the others. It after a time
became customary to render the opening more ornamental by adding
pointed projections called cusps. By these the shape of the head of
the opening was turned into a form resembling a trefoil leaf.
Sometimes two cusps were added on each side. The head is, in the
former case, said to be trefoiled--in the latter, cinqfoiled.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.)]
When two windows were placed close together it began to be customary
to include them under one outer arch, and after a time to pierce the
solid head between them with a circle, which frequently was cusped,
forming often a quatrefoil (Fig. 17). This completed the idea of a
group, and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment. Three, four,
five, or more windows (which in such a position are often termed
lights) were often placed under one arch, the head of which was filled
by a more or less rich group of circles; mouldings were added, and
thus rose the system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery.
So long as the tracery preserves the simple character of piercings
through a flat stone, filling the space between the window heads, it
is known as plate tracery. The thinning down of the blank space to a
comparatively narrow surface went on, and by and by the use of
mouldings caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent
into a circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is in this
form that tracery is chiefly employed in England (Fig. 18).
Westminster Abbey is full of exquisite examples of E. E.
window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as, for example, in the windows of
the choir, the great circular windows (technically termed
rose-windows) at the ends of the transepts, the windows of the
chapter-house. Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which forms
the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every respect to the
best window tracery of the period (Fig. 19).
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
(1269.)]
In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery was developed
till it reached a great pitch of perfection and intricacy. In the
earlier half of the century none save regular geometrical forms, made
up of circles and segments of circles, occur; in other words, the
whole design of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the
compasses, and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred. In the
latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced into the
tracery, and very much alter its character (Fig. 20). The cusping
throughout is bolder than in the E. E. period.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN
CATHEDRAL. (1342-1347.)]
In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size are occupied by the
mullions and tracery. Horizontal bars, called transoms, are now for
the first time introduced, and the upright bars or mullions form with
them a kind of stone grating; but below each transom a series of small
stone arches forms heads to the lights below that transom, and a minor
mullion often springs from the head of each of these arches, so that
as the window increases in height, the number of its lights increases.
The character of the cusping changed again, the cusps becoming
club-headed in their form (Fig. 21).
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW.]
Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the smaller arcades of
cloisters, or used as decorations to the surface of the walls, were
made acute, obtuse, or segmental, to suit the duty they had to
perform; but when there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the
arch of the E. E. period was by preference acute[18] and of lofty
proportions, and that of the Dec. less lofty, and its head equilateral
(_i.e._ described so that if the ends of the base of an equilateral
triangle touch the two points from which it springs, the apex of the
angle shall touch the point of the arch). In the Perp. period the four
centred depressed arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was
introduced, and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral
arch, yet its employment became at last all but universal, and it is
one of the especially characteristic features of the Tudor period.
_Roofs and Vaults._
The external and the internal covering of a building are very often
not the same; the outer covering is then usually called a roof--the
other, a vault or ceiling. In not a few Gothic buildings, however,
they were the same; such buildings had what are known as open
roofs--_i.e._ roofs in which the whole of the timber framing of which
they are constructed is open to view from the interior right up to the
tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E. E. character are now
remaining, but a good many parish churches retain roofs of the Dec.,
and more of the Perp. period. The roof of Westminster Hall (Perp.,
erected 1397) shows how fine an architectural object such a roof may
become. The roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. 22) is another
good example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon,
especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but greater
interest attaches to the stone vaults with which the majority of
Gothic buildings were erected, than to any other description of
covering to the interiors of buildings.
The vault was a feature rarely absent from important churches, and the
structural requirements of the Gothic vault were among the most
influential of the elements which determined both the plan and the
section of a mediaeval church. There was a regular growth in Gothic
vaults. Those of the thirteenth century are comparatively simple;
those of the fourteenth are much richer and more elaborate, and often
involve very great structural difficulties. Those of the fifteenth are
more systematic, and consequently more simple in principle than the
ones which preceded them, but are such marvels of workmanship, and so
enriched by an infinity of parts, that they astonish the beholder,
and it appears, till the secret is known, impossible to imagine how
they can be made to stand.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH
CENTURY.)]
It has been held by some very good authorities that the pointed arch
was first introduced into Gothic architecture to solve difficulties
which presented themselves in the vaulting. In all probability the
desire to give to everything, arches included, a more lofty appearance
and more slender proportions may have had as much to do with the
adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations, but
there can be no doubt that it was used for structural arches from the
very first, even when window heads and wall arcades were semicircular,
and that the introduction of it cleared the way for the use of stone
vaults of large span to a wonderful extent. It is not easy to explain
this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable in the
present volume, but the subject is one of too much importance for it
to be possible to avoid making the attempt.
Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built with a wide nave
and narrower aisles, and it was in the Norman period customary to
vault the aisles and cover the nave with a ceiling. There was no
difficulty in so spacing the distances apart of the piers of the main
arcade that the compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should
be square on plan; and it was quite possible, without doing more than
the Romans had done, to vault each bay of the aisles with a
semicircular intersecting vault (_i.e._ one which has the appearance
of a semicircular or waggon-head vault, intersected by another vault
of the same outline and height). This produced a simple series of what
are called groined or cross vaults, which allowed height to be given
to the window heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles
and nave.
After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and to adopt for
it an intersecting vault, so that the heads of the windows of the
clerestory might be raised above the springing line of the vault, but
so long as the arches remained semicircular, this was very difficult
to accomplish.
The Romans would probably have contented themselves with employing a
barrel vault and piercing it to the extent required by short lateral
vaults, but the result would have been an irregular, weak, curved line
at each intersection with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having
made the pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar,
this expedient does not seem to have found favour, at any rate in
England.
Other expedients were however tried, and with curious results. It was
for example attempted to vault the nave with a cross vault, embracing
two bays of the arcade to one of the vault, but the wall space so
gained was particularly ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may
be seen by examining the nave of St. Stephen's at Caen. In short, if
the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one way, but only as
wide as the aisle the other way, and semicircular arches alone were
employed, a satisfactory result seemed to be unattainable.
In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of oblong plan that
the arches should spring all at one level, and the groins or lines of
intersection should cross one another in the centre of the ceiling,
the idea either arose or was suggested that the curve of the smaller
span should be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch.
The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and groined (_i.e._
intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of any proportions became
easy to design and simple to construct, for if the vault which spanned
the narrow way of the compartment were acutely pointed, and that
which spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or
flatly-pointed, it became easy to arrange that the startings of both
vaults should be at the same level, and that they should rise to the
same height, which is the condition essential to the production of a
satisfactory intersection.
Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of mediaeval
vaults[19] and points out that specimens of thirteen are to be found
at Westminster. Without such minute detail we may select some
well-known varieties:--(1) The plain waggon-head vault, as at the
Chapel of the Tower; (2) in advanced Norman works, cross-vaults formed
by two intersecting semicircular vaults, the diagonal line being
called a groin. (3) The earliest transitional and E. E. vaults,
pointed and with transverse and diagonal ribs, and bosses at the
intersection of ribs, _e.g._, in the aisles and the early part of the
cloisters at Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E. E.
period, the addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the presbytery
and transepts at Westminster. (5) At the time of the transition to
Dec. (_temp._ Ed. 1.) additional ribs began to be introduced between
the diagonal and the transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced
other ribs, called _liernes_, were introduced, running in various
directions over the surface of the vault, making star-like figures on
the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp., which is similar to the
last, but more complicated and approaching No. 8, _e.g._, Abbot
Islip's chapel. (8) Lastly, the distinctive vault of the advanced or
Tudor Perp., is the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.'s Chapel
roof is the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions of
hollow conoids, and are covered by a net-work of fine ribs, connected
together by bands of cusping (Fig. 23).
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.)]
In Scott's enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular
compartments, and such varieties as the one called sexpartite, find a
place; here they have been intentionally excluded. Many of them are
works of the greatest skill and beauty, especially the vaults of
octagonal chapter houses springing from one centre pier (_e.g._,
Chapter Houses at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and Salisbury).
Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in the thirteenth
century; they were not quite so steep in the fourteenth, and in the
fifteenth they were frequently almost flat. They were always relied
upon to add to the effectiveness of a building, and were enriched
sometimes by variegated tiles or other covering, sometimes by the
introduction of small windows, known as dormer windows, each with its
own gablet and its little roof, and sometimes by the addition of a
steep sided roof in the shape of a lantern or a "fleche" on the ridge,
or a pyramidal covering to some projecting octagon or turret.
All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line of the
building, and adding interest and beauty to it. Still more striking,
however, in its effect on the sky-line was the spire, a feature to
which great attention was paid in English architecture.
_Spires._
The early square towers of Romanesque churches were sometimes
surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch. We have probably none now
remaining, but we have some examples of large pinnacles, crowned with
pyramids, which show what the shape must have been. They were square
in plan and somewhat steep in slope.
The spire was developed early in the E. E. period. It was octagonal
in plan, and the four sides which coincided with the faces of the
tower rose direct from the walls above a slightly masked eaves course.
The four oblique sides are connected to the tower by a feature called
a broach, which may be described as part of a blunt pyramid. The
broach-spire (Fig. 24) is to be met with in many parts of England, but
especially in Northamptonshire. The chief ornaments of an E. E. spire
consist in small windows (called spire-lights or lucarnes) each
surmounted by its gablet.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--EARLY ENGLISH SPIRE. CHURCH OF ST. MARY
MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE.]
In the Dec. period it was common to finish the tower by a parapet, and
to start the spire behind the parapet, sometimes with a broach, often
without. Pinnacles were frequently added at the corners of the tower,
and an arch, like that of a flying buttress, was sometimes thrown
across from the pinnacle to the spire. Spire-lights occur as before,
and the surface of the spire is often enriched by bands of ornament at
intervals. The general proportions of the spire were more slender than
before, and the rib, which generally ran up each angle, was often
enriched by crockets, _i.e._ tufts of leaves arranged in a formal
shape (Fig. 25).
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM,
RUTLANDSHIRE.]
Towers were frequently intended to stand without spires in the Perp.
period, and are often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and
a cornice with battlements. Where spires occur in this period they
resemble those of the Dec. period.
Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a weathercock.
Ordinary roofs were usually finished by ornamental cresting, and their
summits were marked by finials,[20] frequently of exquisite
workmanship.
_Ornaments._
We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving, and colour,
and here we are landed upon a mass of details which it would be
impossible to pursue far. Mouldings play a prominent part in Gothic
architecture, and from the first to the last they varied so constantly
that their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of as a
kind of architectural calendar, to point out the time, to within a few
years, when the building in which they occur was erected.
A moulding is the architect's means of drawing a line on his building.
If he desires to mark on the exterior the position of an internal
floor, or in any other way to suggest a division into storeys, a
moulded string-course is introduced. If he wishes to add richness and
play of light and shade to the sides of an important arch, he
introduces a series of mouldings, the profile of which has been
designed to form lights and shadows such as will answer his purpose.
If again he desires to throw out a projection and to give the idea of
its being properly supported, he places under his projection a corbel
of mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form, so as to
convey to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings, it can be
understood, differ in both size and profile, according to the purpose
which they are required to serve, the distance from the spectator at
which they are fixed, and the material out of which they are formed.
In the Gothic periods they also differed according to the date at
which they were executed.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES.]
[Illustration: FIG. 27.--ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED.]
The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings was taken by the
Romanesque architects when the idea of building arches in thick walls,
not only one within the others, but also in planes receding back from
the face of the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed
and carried out, and when a corresponding recessed arrangement of the
jamb of the arch was made (Fig. 26). The next step was the addition of
some simple moulding to the advancing angle of each rim of such a
series of arches either forming a bead (Fig. 27) or a chamfer.
In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the E. E. period
this process went on till at last, though the separate receding arches
still continued to exist, the mouldings[21] into which they were cut
became so numerous and elaborate as to render it often difficult to
detect the subordination or division into distinct planes which really
remained.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.--DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE.
(15TH CENTURY.)]
This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily undercut,
reached its climax in the thirteenth century, the E. E. period. In the
Dec. period, while almost everything else became more elaborate,
mouldings grew more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp.
period they were not only further simplified, but often impoverished,
being usually shallow, formal, and stiff.[22]
Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments in the shape of
carved foliage and figures, statuary, mosaics, and so forth, but
ornamental features, such as canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and
recesses (Fig. 28).
In each period these are distinct in design from all that went before
or came after, and thus to catch the spirit of any one Gothic period
aright, it is not enough to fix the general shapes of the arches and
proportions of the piers but every feature, every moulding, and every
ornament must be wrought in the true spirit of the work, or the result
will be marred.
_Stained Glass._
Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art, such as mosaic,
enamel, metal work and inlays, were freely employed to add beauty in
appropriate positions; but there was one ornament, the crowning
invention of the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design
of the finest buildings, and which reflected a glory on them such as
nothing else can approach: this was stained glass.
So much of the old glass has perished, and so little modern glass is
even passable, that this praise may seem overcharged to those who have
never seen any of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir
at Canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which England
possesses. Some good fragments remain at Westminster, though not very
many; but to judge of the effect of glass at its best, the student
should visit La Sainte Chapelle at Paris, or the Cathedrals of
Chartres, Le Mans, Bourges, or Rheims, and he will find in these
buildings effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in
their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.--STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES
CATHEDRAL.]
The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with every other
sort of decoration, is that it is luminous. To some extent
fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness; mosaic when executed
in polished materials possesses brilliancy; but in stained glass the
light which comes streaming in through the window itself gives
radiance, while the quality of the glass determines the colour, and
thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which can only be compared
to the beauty of gems. In order properly to fill their place as
decorations, stained-glass windows must be something quite different
from transparent pictures, and the scenes they represent must not
detach themselves too violently from the general ground. The most
perfect effect is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or
Chartres (Fig. 29), which recall a cluster of jewels rather than a
picture.
_Coloured Decoration._
Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment of coloured
materials where they were to be had, and by painting the interiors
with bright pigments. We meet with traces of rich colour on many parts
of ancient buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and
we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly made use of
with the happiest effect.
_Sculpture._
[Illustration: FIG. 30.--SCULPTURE FROM THE ENTRANCE TO THE CHAPTER
HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1250.)]
The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The Gothic
architects were alive to its value, and in all their best works
statues abounded; often conventional to the last degree; sometimes to
our eyes uncouth, but always the best which those who carved them
could do at the time; always sure to contribute to architectural
effect; never without a picturesque power, sometimes rising to grace
and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to grotesque ugliness.
Whatever the quality of the sculpture was, it was always there, and
added life to the whole. Monsters gaped and grinned from the
water-spouts, little figures or strange animals twisted in and out of
the foliage at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies
occupied dignified niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings
and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was often carved a whole
host of figures representing heaven, earth, and hell, with a rude
force and a native eloquence that have not lost their power to the
present day.
In the positions where modest ornamentation was required, as for
example the capitals of shafts, the hollows of groups of mouldings,
and the bosses of vaulting, carving of the most finished execution and
masterly design constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly
conventional in the E. E. period, chiefly natural in the Dec. and
mixed, but with perhaps a preference for the conventional in the Perp.
Examples abound, but both for beauty and accessibility we can refer to
no better example than the carving which enriches the entrance to the
Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 30).
[Illustration: _Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral._]
FOOTNOTES:
[17] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Jamb_.
[18] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Arch_.
[19] Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the
_Builder_ of 24th June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these
varieties of vault will be found in the Glossary under _Vault_.
[20] See Glossary.
[21] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
[22] For further illustrations see the Glossary.
[Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
CHAPTER VI.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
FRANCE.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
The architecture of France during the Middle Ages throws much light
upon the history of the country. The features in which it differs from
the work done in England at the same period can, many of them, be
directly traced to differences in the social, political, or religious
situation of the two nations at the time. For example, we find England
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the hands of the Normans, a
newly-conquered country under uniform administration; and accordingly
few local variations occur in the architecture of our Norman period.
The twelfth-century work, at Durham or Peterborough for instance,
differs but little from that at Gloucester or Winchester. In France
the case is different. That country was divided into a series of
semi-independent provinces, whose inhabitants differed, not only in
the leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race, and customs. As
might be expected, the buildings of each province presented an aspect
different in many respects from those of every other; and we may as
well add that these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the
round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into the pointed
period.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.)]
The south of France was occupied by people speaking what are now known
as the Romance dialects, and some writers have adopted the name as
descriptive of the peculiarities of the architecture of these
districts. The Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early
forms of art, so that pointed architecture was not established in the
south of France till half a century, and in some places nearly a whole
century, later than in the north.
On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country was the cradle of
Gothic. The transition from round to pointed architecture first took
place in the royal domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may
be assumed that the new style was already existing when in 1140 Abbot
Suger laid the foundations of the choir of the church of St. Denis,
about forty years before the commencement of the eastern arm of our
own Canterbury.
De Caumont, who in his "Abecedaire" did for French architecture
somewhat the same work of analysis and scientific arrangement which
Rickman performed for English, has adopted the following
classification:--
{ Primitive. } 5th to 10th
{ _Primordiale._ } century.
{ }
{ Second. } End of 10th to
Romanesque Architecture. { _Secondaire._ } commencement of
_Architecture Romane._ { } 12th century.
{ }
{ Third or Transition }
{ _Tertiaire ou de_ } 12th century.
{ _Transition._ }
{ First. }
{ _Primitive._ } 13th century.
{ }
Pointed Architecture. { Second. }
_Architecture ogivale._ { _Secondaire._ } 14th century.
{ }
{ Third. }
{ _Tertiaire._ } 15th century.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.--DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.)]
The transitional architecture of France is no exception to the rule
that the art of a period of change is full of interest. Much of it has
disappeared, but examples remain in the eastern part of the cathedral
of St. Denis already referred to, in portions of the cathedrals of
Noyon and Sens, the west front of Chartres, the church of St.
Germain des Pres at Paris, and elsewhere. We here often find the
pointed arch employed for the most important parts of the structure,
while the round arch is still retained in the window and door-heads,
and in decorative arcades, as shown in our illustrations of a section
of the church at Fontevrault (Fig. 31), and of a doorway at Loches
(Fig. 32).
The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century in France
differs considerably from the early English of this country. The
arches are usually less acute, and the windows not so tall in
proportion to their width. The mouldings employed are few and simple
compared with the many and intricate English ones. Large round columns
are much used in place of our complicated groups of small shafts for
the piers of the nave; and the abacus of the capital remains square.
An air of breadth and dignity prevails in the buildings of this date
to which the simple details, noble proportions, and great size largely
contribute. The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig. 33), dates
from the early years of this century, the interior being much of it a
little earlier. The well-known cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon,
and later in the style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand
examples of French first pointed. To these may be added the very
graceful Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the choir and part of the nave of
the cathedral at Rouen, the church of St. Etienne at Caen, and the
cathedrals of Coutances, Lisieux, Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of
churches could be almost indefinitely extended, and many monastic
buildings, and not a few domestic and military ones, might be added.
Among the most conspicuous of these may be named the monastic fortress
at Mont St. Michel, probably the most picturesque structure in
France, the remarkable fortifications of Carcassonne, and the lordly
castle of Coucy.
[Illustration: FIG. 33.--NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.)]
The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of France, bears more
resemblance to contemporary English Gothic than the work of the
centuries preceding or following. Large windows for stained glass,
with rich geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of
ornamental treatment as in England was adopted in richly decorated
buildings. Specimens of the work of this century occur everywhere in
the shape of additions to the great churches and cathedrals which had
been left unfinished from the previous century, and also of side
chapels which it became customary to add to the aisles of churches.
The great and well-known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the few
first-class churches which can be named as begun and almost entirely
completed in this century. The tower and spire of the church of St.
Pierre at Caen (Fig. 13) are very well-known and beautiful specimens
of this period.
French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed, is far from
being so dignified or so scientific as English perpendicular, and
differs from it considerably. Exuberant richness in decoration was the
rage, and shows itself both in sculpture, tracery, and general design.
Much of the later work of this period has received the name of
flamboyant, because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of
the heads of windows was thrown. In flamboyant buildings we often meet
with art which, though certainly over-florid, is brilliant, rich, and
full of true feeling for decoration.
In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained more
prominence than at any previous periods. Some of them are among the
best works which this period produced. Familiar examples will be found
in the noble Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the Hotel de
Bourgtherould in the same city; in parts of the great chateau at
Blois, the splendid chateau of Pierrefonds, and the Hotels de Ville of
Oudenarde and Caen.
FRANCE.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
_Plan._
[Illustration: FIG. 34.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.)]
The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings conform in general
to the description of Gothic plans given in Chapter II., but they have
of course certain distinctive peculiarities (Fig. 34). The cathedrals
are as a rule much broader in proportion to their length than English
ones. Double aisles frequently occur, and not infrequently an added
range of side chapels fringes each of the main side walls, so that the
interior of one of these vast buildings presents, in addition to the
main vista along the nave, many delightful cross views of great
extent. The transepts are also much less strongly marked than our
English examples. There are even some great cathedrals (_e.g._,
Bourges) without transepts; and where they exist it is common to find
that, as in the case of Notre Dame de Paris, they do not project
beyond the line of the side walls, so that, although fairly
well-marked in the exterior and interior of the building, they add
nothing to its floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral (and
indeed of French churches generally, with very few exceptions) is
terminated in an apse. When, as is frequently the case, this apse is
encircled by a ring of chapels, with flying buttresses on several
stages rising from among them, the whole arrangement is called a
_chevet_, and very striking and busy is the appearance which it
presents.
_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
The walls are rarely built of any other material than stone, and much
splendid masonry is to be found in France. Low towers are often to be
met with, and so are projecting staircase turrets of polygonal or
circular forms. The facades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts
as well as west fronts, are most striking, and often magnificently
enriched. It is an interesting study to examine a series of these
fronts, each a little more advanced than the last, as for example
Notre Dame (Fig. 33), the transept at Rouen, Amiens (Fig. 35), and
Rheims, and to note how the horizontal bands and other level
features grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones are
more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing desire, not only
to make the buildings lofty, but to suppress everything which might
interfere with their looking as high as possible.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.)]
_Columns and Piers._
The column is a greater favourite than the pier in France, as has
already been said. Sometimes, where the supports of the main arcade
are really piers, they are built like circular shafts of large size;
and even when they have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed
examples), these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength
which belongs to the column, and which the French architects appear to
have valued highly. In cases where a series of mouldings has to be
carried--as for example when the main arcade of a building is richly
moulded--English architects would usually have provided a distinct
shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them order), into
which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at any rate during the
earlier periods, the whole series of mouldings would spring from the
square unbroken abacus of a single large column, to which perhaps one
shaft, or as in our illustration (Fig. 36) four shafts, would be
attached which would be carried up to the springing of the nave vault,
at which point the same treatment would be repeated, though on a
smaller scale, with the moulded ribs of that vault.
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.
(1211-1240.)
_i._ Springing of main ribs of the vault.
_h._ String-course below the clerestory.
_a b._ Triforium arcade.
_g._ String-course below the triform.
B. Main arcade separating the nave from the aisles.
A and N. Shafts attached to pier and supporting portions
of the superstructure.]
A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is the suppression
of the external buttress; the buttresses are in fact built within the
church walls instead of outside, and masonry enough is added to make
each into a separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large
churches, _e.g._, the cathedral at Alby, in Southern France, consist
of a wide nave buttressed in this way, and having side chapels between
the buttresses, but without side aisles.
The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings of France
also present many interesting peculiarities, but not such as it is
possible to review within the narrow limits of this chapter.
_Roofs and Vaults._
The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly ever met with
in any shape: yet though stone vaults are almost universal, they are
rarely equal in scientific skill to the best of those in our own
country. In transitional examples, many very singular instances of the
expedients employed before the pointed vault was fully developed can
be found. In some of the central and southern districts, domes, or at
least domical vaults, were employed. (See the section of Fontevrault,
Fig. 31). The dome came in from Byzantium. It was introduced in
Perigord, where the very curious and remarkable church of St. Front
(begun early in the eleventh century) was built. This is to all
intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact copy in plan and
construction of St. Mark's at Venice, a church designed and built by
Eastern architects, and it is roofed by a series of domes, a
peculiarity which is as distinctive of Byzantine (_i.e._, Eastern
early Christian), as the vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western
early Christian) architecture. Artists from Constantinople itself
probably visited France, and from this centre a not inconsiderable
influence extended itself in various directions, and led to the use of
many Byzantine features both of design and ornament.
As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs have been
in every period valued by the French architects; they are almost
always steep, striking, and ornamented. All appropriate modes of
giving prominence and adding ornament to a roof have been very fully
developed in French Gothic architecture, and the roofs of semicircular
and circular apses, staircase towers, &c., may be almost looked upon
as typical.[23]
_Openings._
The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the most strongly
marked points of contrast between French and English Gothic
architecture. With us the great windows are unquestionably the
prominent features, but with the French the doors are most elaborated.
This result is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality of
the treatment bestowed upon the windows, but by the greatly increased
importance given to doorways.
The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. 33), Rheims, or Amiens
(Fig. 35), and the grand porches of Chartres may be named as the
finest examples, and are probably the most magnificent single features
which Gothic Art produced in any age or any country; but in its degree
the western portal of every great church is usually an object upon
which the best resources of the architect have been freely lavished.
The wall is built very thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast
moulded arch, can be employed. The head of the door is filled with
sculpture, which is also lavishly used in the sides and arch, and over
the whole rises an ornamental gable, frequently profusely adorned with
tracery and sculpture, its sides being richly decorated by crockets
or similar ornaments, and crowned by a sculptured terminal or finial.
The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than in our E. E., as
well as of less slender proportions. In the second and third periods
they are full of rich tracery, and are made lofty and wide to receive
the magnificent stained glass with which it was intended to fill them,
and which many churches retain. Circular windows, sometimes called
wheel-windows, often occupy the gables, and are many of them very fine
compositions.
_Mouldings and Ornaments._
The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually larger than our
own. Compared with ours they are also fewer, simpler, and designed to
produce more breadth of effect. This may partly result from their
originating in a sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily
obtained. In the second and third periods they more nearly resemble
those in use in England at the corresponding times.
The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful. In the
transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending in a tuft of
foliage or flowers, is constantly employed, especially in capitals.
The use of this in England is rare; and, on the other hand, foliage
like E. E. conventional foliage is rare in France. In the second
pointed, natural foliage is admirably rendered (Fig. 37). In the third
a somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in its
apparent growth, is constantly met with.
This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture of the
finest character. Heads of animals, statues, groups of figures, and
has reliefs are freely employed, but always with the greatest
judgment, so that their introduction adds richness to the very point
in the whole composition where it is most needed. In every part of
France, and in every period of Gothic architecture, good specimens of
sculpture abound. Easily accessible illustrations will be found in the
west entrance and south transept front of Rouen Cathedral, the porches
and portals at Chartres, the choir inclosure of Notre Dame at Paris,
and the richly sculptured inclosure of the choir of Amiens Cathedral.
[Illustration: FIG. 37.--CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE.
(13TH CENTURY.)]
Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is to be found
in its greatest perfection in France, as for example in La Sainte
Chapelle at Paris, and the cathedrals of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres,
and Rheims. All that has been said in the introductory chapter on
this, the crowning ornament of Gothic architecture, and on its
influence upon window design, and through that, upon the whole
structure of the best churches, is to the full as applicable to French
examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently employed in the
interior of churches and other buildings, and is constantly to be met
with in French buildings, both secular and religious. In most cases,
however, it is less easy to appreciate this than the stained glass,
for, as it is now to be seen, the colours are either faded and
darkened by time and smoke, or else restored, not always with the
exactness that could be desired.
_Construction and Design._
The construction of the great buildings of the middle ages in France
is an interesting subject of study, but necessarily a thoroughly
technical one. Great sagacity in designing the masonry, carpentry,
joinery, and metal-work; and trained skill in the carrying out the
designs, have left their traces everywhere; and while the construction
of the earlier castles and of the simple churches shows a solidity but
little inferior to that of the Romans themselves, the most elaborate
works, such for example as the choir at Beauvais (Fig. 38), can hardly
be surpassed as specimens of skill and daring, careful forethought,
and bold execution.
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.)]
Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic
architecture to their logical conclusions with the most uncompromising
consistency. Perhaps the most distinctive peculiarity in French
cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty, and a strong preference for
breadth, regularity, dignity, and symmetry wherever they come into
competition with picturesqueness and irregular grouping. There is, it
is true, plenty of the picturesque element in French mediaeval art; but
if we take the finest buildings, and those in which the greatest
effort would be made to secure the qualities which were considered the
greatest and most desirable, we shall find very strong evidences of a
conviction that beauty was to be attained by regularity and order,
rather than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.
BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture. Its art
was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood to France, that it will
not be necessary to attempt anything like a chronological arrangement
of its buildings. Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but
they cannot be said to form a series differing widely from the
churches of France, with which they were contemporary, and where they
differ the advantage is generally on the side of the French originals.
The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at Antwerp, is a
building remarkable for its great width (having seven aisles), and for
the wonderful picturesqueness of its interior. The exterior, which is
unfinished, is also very effective, with its one lofty spire. The
other cathedrals of note include those of Tournay, Brussels, Mechlin,
Louvain, Liege, and Ghent. Belgium also possesses a great number of
large parochial churches.
When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian architecture of
the middle ages taking a leading position. The free cities of Belgium
acquired municipal privileges at an early date, and accumulated great
wealth. Accordingly we find town halls, trade halls, belfries,
warehouses, and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The
cloth hall at Ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and referred to as
an example of a grand and effective building for trade purposes; it
is of thirteenth-century architecture and of great size, its centre
marked by a massive lofty tower; and its angles carrying slight
turrets; but in other respects it depends for its effectiveness solely
on its repetition of similar features. Examples of the same kind of
architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.
The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin, Ghent,
Oudenarde, and Ypres, are all buildings claiming attention. They were
most of them in progress during the fifteenth century, and are fine,
but florid examples of late Gothic. Some one or two at least of the
town halls were begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth
century; on the other hand, the Hotel de Ville at Oudenarde, was begun
as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so were the Exchange at
Antwerp (destroyed by fire and rebuilt not long since) and some other
well-known structures: their architecture, though certainly Gothic, is
debased in style.
The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble and bold in
mass, and rich in ornament. Our illustration (Fig. 39) shows the Town
Hall of Middleburgh in Holland; one which is less famous and of
smaller dimensions than those enumerated above, but equally
characteristic.
The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken block
surmounted by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied one side of a
public place. The side of the building presents several storeys,
filled by rows of fine windows, though in some cases the lowest storey
is occupied by an open arcade. The steep roof, usually crowded with
dormer windows, carries up the eye to a lofty ridge, and from the
centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous a
feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall at Bruges the
tower is comparatively simple, though of a mass and height that are
truly imposing; but in Brussels, Ypres, and other examples, it is a
richly ornamented composition on which every resource of the mason and
the carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. 40) shows the
well-known tower at Ghent.
[Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 40.--TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.)]
The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by pinnacles and
other ornaments; but they rarely come prominently into view, as it is
invariably the long side of the building which is considered to be the
principal front.
SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.
In Scotland good but simple examples of early work (transition from
Romanesque to E. E.) occur, as for example, at Jedburgh and Kelso,
Dryburgh and Leuchars abbey churches. A very interesting and in many
respects unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later
additions, exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much beauty, with
good tracery, and the crypt offers a perfect study of various and
often graceful modes of forming groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin
(thirteenth century), an admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins,
and the Abbey at Melrose, also ruined, of fourteenth century
architecture (begun 1322), are both excellent specimens of the art of
the periods to which they belong, and bear a close resemblance to what
was being done in England at the same time. The famous tower of St.
Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh, and the Chapel at Roslyn, of the
fifteenth century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-English
character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch architecture
of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed by Mr. Fergusson to a
Spanish or Portuguese architect, with great probability.
Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work exist at
Dumblane, Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other localities; and
Holyrood Palace, still retains part of its elegant early
fourteenth-century chapel.
Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair specimen, but of
late date. Most of the castles and castellated mansions of Scotland
belong indeed to a later time than the Gothic period, though there is
a strong infusion of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in
which they are designed.
* * * * *
Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles to which
allusion has been made in a previous chapter. They were erected at the
best time of English Gothic architecture (Edward I.) under English
direction, and are finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also
boast the interesting Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David's,
and some smaller churches, but in every case there is little to
distinguish them from contemporary English work.
* * * * *
Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date anterior to the
beginning of the Gothic period than for works belonging to it. A
certain amount of graceful and simple domestic work, however, exists
there; and in addition to the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and
Dublin, numerous monastic buildings, not as a rule large or ambitious,
but often graceful and picturesque, are scattered about.
[Illustration: _Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral._]
FOOTNOTES:
[23] For an example of these see the house of Jaques Coeur (Fig. 7).
[Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
CHAPTER VII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
GERMANY.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
The architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the sixteenth
centuries, can be divided into an early, a middle, and a late period,
with tolerable distinctness. Of these, the early period possesses the
greatest interest, and the peculiarities of its buildings are the most
marked and most beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a
very close general resemblance to the Gothic of the same time in
France; and, as a rule, such points of difference as exist are not in
favour of the German work. Late Gothic work in Germany is very
fantastic and unattractive.
[Illustration: FIG. 41.--ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH
CENTURIES.)]
Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, the
architects of Germany pursued a course parallel with that followed in
France and in England, but without adopting the pointed arch. They
developed the simple and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed
throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and which they
learnt originally from Byzantine artists who fled from their own
country during the reign of the iconoclasts; and they not only carried
it to a point of elaboration which was abreast of the art of our best
Norman architecture, but went on further in the same course; for
while the French and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and
pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed window and
the semicircular arch in buildings which in their size, richness,
loftiness, and general style, correspond with early Gothic examples in
other countries. This early German architecture has been sometimes
called fully developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched Gothic,
and both terms may be applied to it without impropriety, for it
partakes of the qualities implied by each. The Church of the Holy
Apostles at Cologne, and those of St. Martin and St. Maria in
Capitolo, in the same city, may be referred to as among the best works
of this class. Each of these has an eastern apse, and also an apsidal
termination to each transept. The Apostles' church has a low octagon
at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken up by western and
eastern towers, the latter of comparatively small size and octagonal;
and under the eaves of the roof occurs an arcade of small arches.
A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. 41) illustrates some of
the features of these transitional churches. It will be noticed that
though there is no transept, there are no less than four towers, two
octagonal, and two square, and that the apse is a strongly developed
feature.
In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration (Fig.
42), the same arrangement, namely, that of four towers, two to the
west, and two to the east, may be noticed; but there is not the same
degree of difference between the towers, and the result is less happy.
This example, like the last, has no central feature, and in both the
arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only by its absence.
It does, however, occur on the western towers at Andernach.
[Illustration: FIG. 42.--CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.)]
The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all probability
borrowed from France, as the general aspect of German churches of
pointed architecture seems to prove. The greatest Gothic cathedral of
Germany, Cologne Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year
1275, and its choir was probably completed during the first quarter of
the fourteenth century. This cathedral, one of the largest in Europe,
is also one of the grandest efforts of mediaeval architecture, and it
closely resembles French examples of the same period, both in its
general treatment, and in the detail of its features. The plan of
Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) is one of the most regular and symmetrical
which has come down to us from the middle ages. The works were carried
on slowly after the choir was consecrated, but without any deviation
from the original plan, though some alteration in style and details
crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed and vigorously
pushed on towards completion; and, the original drawings having been
preserved, the two western towers, the front, and other portions have
been carried on in accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly,
presents the almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected
without deviation from its original plan, and completed in the style
in which it was begun. It is fair to add that though splendid in the
extreme, this cathedral has far less charm, and less of that peculiar
quality of mystery and vitality than many, we might say most, of the
great cathedrals of Europe.
The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which form a kind of
vestibule, and five avenues, _i.e._ two aisles on each side; transepts
of four bays each, with single aisles; and a choir of four bays and an
apse, the double aisle of the nave being continued and carried down
the choir. That part of the outer aisle which sweeps round the apse
has been formed into a series of seven polygonal chapels, thus gaining
a complete _chevet_.[24] Over the crossing there is a comparatively
slender spire, and at the west end stand two massive towers terminated
by a pair of lofty and elaborate spires, of open tracery, and enriched
by crockets, finials, and much ornamentation. The cathedral is built
of stone, without much variation in colour; it is vaulted throughout,
and a forest of flying buttresses surrounds it on all sides. The
beauty of the tracery, the magnificent boldness of the scale of the
whole building, and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and
give it a high rank among the greatest works of European architecture;
but it is almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat cold and
uninteresting from its uniform colour, and perhaps from its great
regularity.
Strasburg Cathedral--not so large as Cologne--has been built at
various times; the nave and west front are the work of the best Gothic
period. This building has a nave and single aisles, short transepts,
and a short apsidal choir. There is great richness in much of the
work; double tracery, _i.e._ a second layer, so to speak, of tracery,
is here employed in the windows, and extended beyond them, but the
effect is not happy. The front was designed to receive two open
tracery spires, but only one of them has been erected. It is amazingly
intricate and rich, the workmanship is very astonishing, but the
artistic effect is not half so good as that of many plain stone
spires.
Another important German church famous for an open spire is the
cathedral at Friburg. Here only one tower, standing at the middle of
the west front, was ever intended, and partly because the composition
is complete as proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery
in the spire itself is more telling, this building forms a more
effective object than Strasburg, though by no means so lofty or so
grandiose.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.--CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST
END. (1358-1548.)]
The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and exceedingly rich
church. In this building the side aisles are carried to almost the
same height as the centre avenue--an arrangement not infrequent in
German churches having little save novelty to recommend it, and by
which the triforium, and, as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and the
church is lighted solely by large side windows. The three avenues are
covered by one wide roof, which makes a vast and rather clumsy display
externally. A lofty tower, surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of
open tracery, stands on one side of the church--an unusual
position--and an unfinished companion tower is begun on the
corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals are to be found in
many of the cities of Germany, but their salient points are, as a
rule, similar to those of the examples which have been already
described.
The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in Bohemia, is one
of somewhat exceptional design. It has double aisles, but the side
walls for the greater part of the length of the church rest upon the
arcade dividing the two aisles, instead of that separating the centre
avenue from the side one; and a vault over the inner side aisle forms
in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave. The illustration
(Fig. 43) which we give of the exterior does not of course indicate
this peculiarity, but it shows a very good example of a German
adaptation of the French _chevet_, and may be considered as a specimen
of German pointed architecture at its ripest stage. The church is
vaulted, as might be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses;
and the vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting
in general idea.
German churches include some specimens of unusual disposition or form,
as for example the Church of St. Gereon at Cologne, with an oval
choir, and one or two double churches, one of the most curious being
the one at Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view.
(Figs. 44, 45.)
In their doorways and porches the German architects are often very
happy. Our illustration (Fig. 47) of one of the portals of the church
at Thann may be taken as giving a good idea of the amount of rich
ornament often concentrated here: it displays a wealth of decorative
sculpture, which was one of the great merits of the German architects.
[Illustration: FIG. 44.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
SECTION. (1158.)]
The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which the Church of
St. Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. 48) is a specimen, was marked (just
as late French was by flamboyant tracery, and late English by
fan-vaulting) by a peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which
they were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty, while the
execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle. Two or more groups
of mouldings were supposed to coexist in the same stone, and sometimes
a part of one group, sometimes a part of the other group, became
visible at the surface. The name given to this eccentric development
is interpenetration.
[Illustration: FIG. 45.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
(A.D. 1158.)]
Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to such a pitch of
perfection as in Belgium, was by no means overlooked; but the examples
are not numerous. In some of the older cities, such as Prague,
Nuremberg, and Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture
abounds, most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and even
later, and all full of piquancy and beauty. In North Germany, where
there is a large tract of country in which building stone is scarce, a
style of brick architecture was developed, which was applied to all
sorts of purposes with great success. The most remarkable of these
brick buildings are the large dwelling-houses, with facades ornamented
by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in Eastern Prussia,
together with some town halls and similar buildings.
GERMANY.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
_Plan._
The points of difference between German and French Gothic are not so
numerous as to render a very minute analysis of the Gothic of Germany
requisite in order to make them clear.
The plans of German churches usually show internal piers; and columns
occur but rarely. The churches have nave and aisles, transepts and
apsidal choir; but they are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at
the ends of the transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few
instances, of an apse at the west end of the nave as well as at the
east end of the choir. They are almost invariably vaulted.
As the style advanced, large churches were constantly planned with
double aisles, and the western apse disappeared. Some German church
plans, notably those of Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) and the great
church of St. Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity
of disposition, though full of many parts.
[Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN
1248.)]
_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
The German architects delighted in towers with pointed roofs, and in a
multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic feature is a tower of
great mass, but often extremely low, covering the crossing. The
Cathedral at Mayence shows a fine example of this feature, which was
often not more than a low octagon. Western towers, square on plan, are
common, and small towers, frequently octagonal, are often employed to
flank the choir or in combination with the transepts. These in early
examples, are always surmounted by high roofs; in late ones, by stone
spires, often of rich open tracery. A very characteristic feature of
the round arched Gothic churches is an arcade of small arches
immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into the space
above the vaults (Fig. 45). This is rarely wanting in churches built
previous to the time when the French type was followed implicitly.
The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in France, or even in
Italy; but in domestic and secular buildings many striking gabled
fronts occur, the gable being often stepped in outline and full of
windows.
_Roofs and Vaults._
Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German vaulting has
some special peculiarities, but they are such as hardly come within
the scope of this hand-book. Roofs, however, are so conspicuous that
in any general account of German architecture attention must be paid
to them. They were from very early times steep in pitch and
picturesque in outline, and are evidently much relied upon as giving
play to the sky-line. Indeed, for variety of form and piquancy of
detail the German roofs are the most successful of the middle ages.
The spires, as will have been easily gathered from the descriptions of
those at Strasburg, Cologne, &c., became extremely elaborate, and were
constructed in many cases entirely of open tracery.
[Illustration: FIG. 47.--WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH
CENTURY.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 48.--CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262
TO 1439.)]
_Openings._
Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the French treated
them. A good example is the western doorway at Thann (Fig. 47); but
the use of double tracery in the windows in late examples is
characteristic. Sometimes a partial screen of outside tracery is
employed in other features besides windows, as may be seen by the very
elegant doorway of St. Sebald's Church at Nuremberg, which we have
illustrated (Fig. 49).
_Ornaments._
The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse, but rarely quite
happy. Sculpture, often of a high class, carving of every sort,
tracery, and panelling, are largely employed; but with a hardness and
a tendency to cover all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations
of tracery that disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery became
towards the latter part of the time intricate and unmeaning, and the
interpenetrating mouldings already described, though of course
intended to be ornamental, are more perplexing and confusing than
pleasing: the carving exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage
represented, and being thin, and very boldly undercut, resembles
leaves beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily and easily
imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving should be.
The use of coloured building materials and of inlays and mosaics does
not prevail to any great extent in Germany, though stained glass is
often to be found and coloured wall decoration occasionally.
[Illustration: FIG. 49.--ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE
BRIDE'S DOORWAY. (1303-1377.)]
_Construction and Design._
The marked peculiarities of construction by which the German Gothic
buildings are most distinguished, are the prevalent high-pitched
roofs, the vaulting with aisle vaults carried to the same height as in
the centre, and the employment in certain districts of brick to the
exclusion of stone, all of which have been already referred to. In a
great part of that large portion of Europe, which is included under
the name of Germany, the materials and modes of construction adopted
during the middle ages, bear a close resemblance to those in general
use in France and England.
Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design have been already
alluded to. The German architects display an exuberant fancy, a great
love of the picturesque, and even the grotesque, and a strong
predilection for creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy
the pleasure of surmounting them. Their work is full of unrest; they
attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth, and destroy the
value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as contrasts to the
openings, by cutting them up by mouldings and enrichments of various
sorts. The sculpture introduced is, as a rule, naturalistic rather
than conventional. The capitals of piers and columns are often fine
specimens of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental
details of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is
enriched, are unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare beauty.
The churches of Nuremberg are specially distinguished for the richness
and number of their sculptured fittings. There is, moreover, in some
of the best German buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the
sublime; and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and
thoroughly successful architecture.
In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect was often
employed the Germans were frequently happy. Public fountains, such for
example as the one illustrated in Chapter II. (Fig. 10), are to be met
within the streets of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their
simple, graceful, and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments, and
individual features in domestic buildings, such _e.g._ as bay windows,
frequently show a very skilful and picturesque treatment and happy
enrichment.
NORTHERN EUROPE.
Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may be found in
Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark; but there are few very
conspicuous buildings, and not enough variety to form a distinct
style. In Norway and Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist,
erected solely of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many of
the traditions of the Gothic period have been handed down to our own
day with comparatively little change, in the pleasing and often highly
enriched timber buildings which are to be met with in considerable
numbers in those countries.
FOOTNOTES:
[24] See p. 77 for an explanation of _chevet._
[Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
CHAPTER VIII.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
ITALY AND SICILY.--TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
Gothic architecture in Italy may be considered as a foreign
importation. The Italians, it is true, displayed their natural taste
and artistic instinct in their use of the style, and a large number of
their works possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics
and much charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling that the
architects were working in a style not thoroughly congenial to their
instincts nor to the traditions they had inherited from classical
times; and not entirely in harmony with the requirements of the
climate and the nature of their building materials.
Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically, dividing
the buildings into three groups, the first and most important
containing the architecture of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and
the neighbourhood), the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &c.),
the third that of the south and of Sicily--a classification which will
suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement which has
been our guide in examining the art of other countries; for the
variations occasioned by development as time went on are less strongly
marked in Italy than elsewhere.
_Northern Italy._
Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly under German
influence, and the buildings remaining to us from the eleventh and
twelfth centuries bear a close resemblance to those erected north of
the Alps at the same date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again
are specimens of round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the
banks of the Rhine. Many of them are also peculiar as being erected
chiefly in brickwork; the great alluvial plain of Lombardy being
deficient in building-stone. St. Michele at Pavia, a well-known church
of this date, may be cited as a good example. This is a vaulted
church, with an apsidal east end and transepts. The round arch is
employed in this building, but the general proportions and treatment
are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile (bell tower) belongs to
the church, and is a good specimen of a feature very frequently met
with in Lombardy; the tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by
successive stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments,
to a considerable height. There are no buttresses, no diminution of
bulk, no staircase turrets. At the summit is an open belfry-stage,
with large semicircular-headed arches, crowned by a cornice and a
low-pitched conical roof.[25]
In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic church, erected
after the pointed arch had been introduced, may be found in the church
of Sta. Maria del Carmine. The west front of this church is but
clumsy in general design. Its width is divided into five compartments
by flat buttresses. The gables are crowned by a deep and heavy cornice
of moulded brick and the openings are grouped with but little skill.
Individually, however, the features of this front are very beautiful,
and the great wheel-window, full of tracery, and the two-light windows
flanking it, may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental
elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork.
The campanile of this church, like the one just described, is a plain
square tower. It rises by successive stages, each taller than the
last, each stage being marked by a rich brick cornice. The
belfry-stage has on each face a three-light window, with a traceried
head, and above the cornice the square tower is finished by a tall
conical roof, circular on plan, an arrangement not unfrequently met
with.
The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery near Pavia,[26]
best known by the elaborate marble front added in a different style
about a century after the erection of the main building, is a good
example of a highly-enriched church, with dependencies, built in
brickwork, and possessing most of the distinctive peculiarities of a
great Gothic church, except the general use of the pointed arch. It
was begun in 1396, and is consistent in its exterior architecture, the
front excepted, though it took a long time to build. Attached to it
are two cloisters, of which the arches are semicircular, and the
enrichments, of wonderful beauty, are modelled in terra-cotta.
This church resembles the great German round-arched Gothic churches on
the Rhine in many of its features. Its plan includes a nave, with
aisles and side chapels, transepts and a choir. The eastern arm and
the transepts are each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than
would be met with in a German church; but as a compensation each of
these three arms has two side apses, as well as the one at the end.
The exterior possesses the German arcade of little arches immediately
under the eaves of the roof; it is marked by the same multiplicity of
small towers, each with its own steep roof; and it possesses the same
striking central feature, internally a small dome, externally a kind
of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades rising tier
above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.
The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions, general
effectiveness, and beauty of material be the test, is that of Milan.
This building is disfigured by a west front in a totally inappropriate
style, but apart from this it is virtually a German church of the
first class, erected entirely in white marble, and covered with a
profusion of decoration. Its dimensions show that, with the exception
of Seville, this was the largest of all the Gothic cathedrals of
Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a polygonal apse. At the
crossing of the nave and transepts a low dome rises, covered by a
conical roof, and surmounted by an elegant marble spire.
The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the great piers which
carry the nave arcade is surmounted by a mass of niches and tabernacle
work, occupied by statues--a splendid substitute for ordinary
capitals. The interior effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of
beauty. The exterior, though much of its power is destroyed by the
weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces of the walls are
covered, is endowed with a wonderful charm. This building was
commenced in the year 1385, and consecrated in the year 1418. The
details of the window-tracery, pinnacles, &c. (but not the statues
which are of Italian character), correspond very closely to those of
German buildings erected at the same period (close of the fourteenth
century).
Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture, one
secular building, the Great Hospital, well known for its Gothic
facade. This hospital was founded in 1456, and most of it is of later
date and of renaissance character; the street front of two storeys in
height, with pointed arches, is very rich. The church of Chiaravalle,
near Milan, which has been more than once illustrated and described,
ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account of the beauty of its
fully developed central dome. It was built in the early part of the
thirteenth century (1221).
Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking Gothic
buildings. Genoa, for instance, can boast of her cathedral, with a
front in alternate courses of black and white marble, dating from
about the year 1300, and full of beauty; the details bearing much
resemblance to the best Western Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona
possesses a wealth of Gothic work in the well-known tombs of the
Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia, San Zenone, and several
minor churches and campaniles; and at Como, Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua,
Treviso, Cremona, Bologna, and many other cities and towns, good
churches of pointed architecture are to be found.
Our illustration (Fig. 50) of the ancient Palace of the Jurisconsults
at Cremona, is a good specimen of the secular architecture of North
Italy. Originally the lower storey was a loggia, or open arcaded
storey, but the arches have been built up. Telling, simple, and
graceful, this building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed
openings and a characteristic brick cornice. It is entirely without
buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables, and no visible roof:
some of these features would have been present had it been designed
and erected north of the Alps.
[Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT
CREMONA.]
Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where Gothic
architecture has had freest scope and has achieved the greatest
success, not, however, in ecclesiastical, but in secular buildings.
The great Cathedral of St. Mark, perhaps the most wonderful church in
Europe, certainly the foremost in Italy, is a Byzantine building, and
though it has received some additions in Gothic times, does not fairly
come within the scope of this volume; and the Gothic churches of
Venice are not very numerous nor, with the exception of the fine brick
church of the Frari, extremely remarkable. On the banks of the Grand
Canal and its tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces of
noble design (see Fig. 9, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace itself alone
is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city which it adorns.
The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block of buildings
erected round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior two sides only are
visible from a distance, one being the sea front looking over the
lagoon, and the other the land front directed towards the piazzetta.
Rather less than one half the height of each front is occupied by two
storeys of arcades; the lower storey bold, simple, and vigorous; the
upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of bold tracery. Above this
open work, and resting upon it, rises the external wall of the palace,
faced with marble in alternate slabs of rose-colour and white, pierced
by a few large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet. Few
buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons, as this fine
work, which owes its great charm to the extent, beauty, and mingled
solidity and grace of its arcades, and to the fine sculpture by which
the capitals from which they spring are enriched.
The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for the skill with
which the openings in their fronts are arranged and designed. It was
not necessary to render any other part of the exterior specially
architectural, as the palaces stand side by side like houses in a
modern street, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. 9). In
almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are grouped
together in the centre of the front, and the sides are left
comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition presenting a
centre and two wings. By this simple expedient each portion of the
composition is made to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but
not inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the solid sides
is called into existence. The earliest Gothic buildings in point of
date are often the most delicate and graceful, and this rule holds
good in the Gothic palaces of Venice; yet one of the later palaces,
the Ca' d'Oro, must be at least named on account of the splendid
richness of its marble front--of which, however, only the centre and
one wing is built--and the beauty of the ornament lavishly employed
upon it.
The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features with which the
Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among the most graceful features
of the architecture of Italy.
_Central Italy._
Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany and the former
States of the Church), in which the best Gothic buildings are to be
found, are Pisa, Lucca, Florence, Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a
general rule the Gothic work in this district is more developed and
more lavishly enriched than that in Lombardy.
In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous leaning tower)
belong to the late Romanesque style, but the Baptistry, an elegant
circular building, has a good deal of Gothic ornament in its upper
storeys, and may be fairly classed as a transitional building. The
most charming and thoroughly characteristic work of Gothic
architecture in Pisa is, however, a small gem of a chapel, the church
of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite ornament, and,
notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty of its details, of
its sculpture, and of the marble of which it is built, invest it with
a great charm.
Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the name of a
family of highly gifted sculptors and architects, the Pisani, of whom
Nicola Pisano was the earliest and greatest artist; he was followed by
his descendants Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto
the series of the known names of architects of great buildings may be
said to begin.
Florence, the most important of the cities we have named, is
distinguished by a cathedral built in the early part of the fourteenth
century, and one of the grandest in Italy. It has very few columns,
and its walls and vaults are of great height. The walls are adorned
externally with inlays in coloured marble, and the windows have
stained glass--a rarity in Italy; but its lofty dome, added after the
completion of the rest of the building, is its chief feature. This was
always intended, but the pointed octagonal dome actually erected by
Brunelleschi, between the years 1420 and 1444, though it harmonises
fairly well with the general lines of the building, and forms, as can
be seen from our illustration (Fig. 51), a striking object in all
distant views of the city, is probably very different from what was
originally intended. Near the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous
for the possession of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile
of Giotto. This tower is built, or at least faced, entirely with
marble; and when it is stated that its height is not far short of that
of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of Parliament, though of slenderer
proportions, it will be seen that it is magnificently liberal in its
general scheme. The tower is covered with panels of variously coloured
marbles from base to summit, and enriched by fine sculpture. The
angles are strengthened by slightly projecting piers. The windows are
comparatively small till the highest or belfry stage is reached, and
here each face of the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light
window. A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but it was
originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or a spire as a
terminal.
[Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S
CAMPANILE. (BEGUN, 1298; DOME, 1420-1444; CAMPANILE BEGUN,
1324.)]
Our illustration (Fig. 52) shows the west front and campanile of the
Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good specimen of the beauties and
peculiarities of the style. This building was commenced in 1243. The
plan is simple but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided
dome, at the crossing of the nave and transepts; and some ingenuity
has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches of the main
avenues of the building. The interior is rich and effective; the
exterior, as can be seen by the illustration, is covered with
ornament, and the front is the richest and probably the best designed
of all the cathedral fronts of Central Italy. The strongly-marked
horizontal lines of cornices, arcades, &c., the moulded gables, the
great wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble of
various colours, are all points to note. So is the employment of the
semicircular arch for the doorways of this thoroughly Gothic building.
The campanile is a good example of that feature, except that instead
of the rich window which usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest
storey, two storeys of small lights have been formed. The
introduction of angle turrets is not very usual, and it here supplies
a defi
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