Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Carnegie Andrew" to "Casus Belli"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Carnegie Andrew" to "Casus Belli"
Author: Various
Release date: July 17, 2010 [eBook #33189]
Most recently updated: January 6, 2021
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33189
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "CARNEGIE ANDREW" TO "CASUS BELLI" ***
Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
Article CARTESIANISM: "Admitting that intelligence is under a law
of necessity, he claimed for the Will a certain latitude or liberty
of indifference ..." 'Admitting' amended from 'Admiting'.
Article CASTE: "The great Sanskrit scholar, Rudolf von Roth
(1821-1895), in his Brahma und die Brahmanan[13] held that the
Vedic people advanced from their home in the Punjab ..."
'Sanskrit' amended from 'Sanscrit'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME V, SLICE IV
Carnegie to Casus Belli
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
CARNEGIE, ANDREW CASAMARI
CARNEGIE CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, GIOVANNI JACOPO
CARNELIAN CASAS GRANDES
CARNESECCHI, PIETRO CASAUBON, FLORENCE ESTIENNE MERIC
CARNIOLA CASAUBON, ISAAC
CARNIVAL CASCADE MOUNTAINS
CARNIVORA CASE, JOHN
CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE CASE
CARNOT, LAZARE MARGUERITE CASEMATE
CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI CASEMENT
CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD CASERTA
CARNOUSTIE CASE-SHOT
CARNUNTUM CASH
CARNUTES CASHEL
CARO, ANNIBALE CASHEW NUT
CARO, ELME MARIE CASHIBO
CAROL CASHIER
CAROLINE CASH REGISTER
CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA CASILINUM
CAROLINE ISLANDS CASIMIR III
CAROLINGIANS CASIMIR IV
CAROLUS-DURAN CASIMIR-PERIER, JEAN PAUL PIERRE
CARORA CASINO
CARP CASINUM
CARPACCIO, VITTORIO CASIRI, MIGUEL
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS CASKET
CARPATHUS CASKET LETTERS
CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE CASLON
CARPENTARIA, GULF OF CASPARI, KARL PAUL
CARPENTER, LANT CASPIAN SEA
CARPENTER, MARY CASS, LEWIS
CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN CASSABA
CARPENTRAS CASSAGNAC, BERNARD ADOLPHE GRANIER DE
CARPENTRY CASSANA, NICCOLO
CARPET CASSANDER
CARPET-BAGGER CASSANDER, GEORGE
CARPET-KNIGHT CASSANDRA
CARPI, GIROLAMO DA CASSANO ALL' IONIO
CARPI, UGO DA CASSAVA
CARPI (Dacian tribe) CASSEL (town of France)
CARPI (town of Italy) CASSEL (city of Germany)
CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO CASSELL, JOHN
CARPOCRATES CASSIA
CARPZOV CASSIA, VIA
CARRANZA, BARTOLOME CASSIANUS, JOANNES EREMITA
CARRARA (family of Longobard) CASSINI
CARRARA (town of Tuscany, Italy) CASSIODORUS
CARREL, JEAN BAPTISTE ARMAND CASSIOPEIA
CARRERA, JOSE MIGUEL CASSITERIDES
CARRIAGE CASSITERITE
CARRICKFERGUS CASSIUS (ancient Roman family)
CARRICKMACROSS CASSIUS, AVIDIUS
CARRICK-ON-SHANNON CASSIUS, GAIUS
CARRICK-ON-SUIR CASSIVELAUNUS
CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE CASSOCK
CARRIER CASSONE
CARRIERE, MORITZ CASSOWARY
CARRINGTON, WYNN-CARINGTON CAST
CARRINGTON, RICHARD CHRISTOPHER CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL
CARROCCIO CASTALIA
CARRODUS, JOHN TIPLADY CASTANETS
CARROLL, CHARLES CASTE
CARROLL, JOHN CASTEL, LOUIS BERTRAND
CARRONADE CASTELAR Y RIPOLL, EMILIO
CARROT CASTELFRANCO NELL' EMILIA
CARRYING OVER CASTELFRANCO VENETO
CARSIOLI CASTELL, EDMUND
CARSON, CHRISTOPHER CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA
CARSON CITY CASTELLESI, ADRIANO
CARSTARES, WILLIAM CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRANZ
CARSTENS, ARMUS JACOB CASTELLO, BERNARDO
CARSULAE CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
CART CASTELLO, VALERIO
CARTAGENA (city of Colombia) CASTELLO BRANCO, CAMILLO
CARTAGENA (seaport of Spain) CASTELLO BRANCO
CARTAGO CASTELLON DE LA PLANA
CARTE, THOMAS CASTELLON DE LA PLANA
CARTER, ELIZABETH CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE
CARTERET, SIR GEORGE CASTELNAUDARY
CARTESIANISM CASTELSARRASIN
CARTHAGE (ancient city) CASTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA
CARTHAGE (city of U.S.A.) CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO
CARTHUSIANS CASTIGLIONE, GIOVANNI BENEDETTO
CARTIER, SIR GEORGES ETIENNE CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE
CARTIER, JACQUES CASTIGLIONE OLONA
CARTILAGE CASTILE
CARTOON CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE
CARTOUCHE CASTILLEJO, CRISTOBAL DE
CARTRIDGE CASTILLO SOLORZANO, ALONSO DE
CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND CASTLE
CARTWRIGHT, JOHN CASTLEBAR
CARTWRIGHT, PETER CASTLECONNELL
CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN CASTLE DONINGTON
CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS CASTLE DOUGLAS
CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM CASTLEFORD
CARUCATE CASTLE-GUARD
CARUPANO CASTLEMAINE
CARUS, KARL GUSTAV CASTLE RISING
CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS CASTLETON
CARVACROL CASTLETOWN
CARVAJAL, ANTONIO FERNANDEZ CASTOR and POLLUX
CARVAJAL, LUISA DE CASTOR OIL
CARVER, JOHN CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER
CARVER, JONATHAN CASTRENSIS, PAULUS
CARVING CASTRES
CARVING AND GILDING CASTRO, INEZ DE
CARY, ALICE, and PHOEBE CASTRO, JOAO DE
CARY, ANNIE LOUISE CASTROGIOVANNI
CARY, HENRY FRANCIS CASTRO URDIALES
CARYATIDES CASTRO Y BELLVIS, GUILLEN DE
CARYL, JOSEPH CASTRUCCIO DEGLI ANTELMINELLI
CARYOPHYLLACEAE CASTRUM MINERVAE
CASABIANCA, RAPHAEL CASUARINA
CASABLANCA CASUISTRY
CASALE MONFERRATO CASUS BELLI
CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1837- ), American "captain of industry" and
benefactor, was born in humble circumstances in Dunfermline, Scotland,
on the 25th of November 1837. In 1848 his father, who had been a
Chartist, emigrated to America, settling in Allegheny City,
Pennsylvania. The raw Scots lad started work at an early age as a
bobbin-boy in a cotton factory, and a few years later was engaged as a
telegraph clerk and operator. His capacity was perceived by Mr T.A.
Scott of the Pennsylvania railway, who employed him as a secretary; and
in 1859, when Scott became vice-president of the company, he made
Carnegie superintendent of the western division of the line. In this
post he was responsible for several improvements in the service; and
when the Civil War opened he accompanied Scott, then assistant secretary
of war, to the front. The first sources of the enormous wealth he
subsequently attained were his introduction of sleeping-cars for
railways, and his purchase (1864) of Storey Farm on Oil Creek, where a
large profit was secured from the oil-wells. But this was only a
preliminary to the success attending his development of the iron and
steel industries at Pittsburg. Foreseeing the extent to which the demand
would grow in America for iron and steel, he started the Keystone Bridge
works, built the Edgar Thomson steel-rail mill, bought out the rival
Homestead steel works, and by 1888 had under his control an extensive
plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425 m. long,
and a line of lake steamships. As years went by, the various Carnegie
companies represented in this industry prospered to such an extent that
in 1901, when they were incorporated in the United States Steel
Corporation, a trust organized by Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, and Mr Carnegie
himself retired from business, he was bought out at a figure equivalent
to a capital of approximately L100,000,000.
From this time forward public attention was turned from the shrewd
business capacity which had enabled him to accumulate such a fortune to
the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on
philanthropic objects. His views on social subjects, and the
responsibilities which great wealth involved, were already known in a
book entitled _Triumphant Democracy_, published in 1886, and in his
_Gospel of Wealth_ (1900). He acquired Skibo Castle, in Sutherlandshire,
Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in New York; and he
devoted his life to the work of providing the capital for purposes of
public interest, and social and educational advancement. Among these the
provision of public libraries in the United States and United Kingdom
(and similarly in other English-speaking countries) was especially
prominent, and "Carnegie libraries" gradually sprang up on all sides,
his method being to build and equip, but only on condition that the
local authority provided site and maintenance, and thus to secure local
interest and responsibility. By the end of 1908 he had distributed over
L10,000,000 for founding libraries alone. He gave L2,000,000 in 1901 to
start the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg, and the same amount (1902) to
found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, and in both of these, and
other, cases he added later to the original endowment. In Scotland he
gave L2,000,000 in 1901 to establish a trust for providing funds for
assisting education at the Scottish universities, a benefaction which
resulted in his being elected lord rector of St Andrews University. He
was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute under Booker Washington
for negro education. He also established large pension funds--in 1901
for his former employes at Homestead, and in 1905 for American college
professors. His benefactions in the shape of buildings and endowments
for education and research are too numerous for detailed enumeration,
and are noted in this work under the headings of the various localities.
But mention must also be made of his founding of Carnegie Hero Fund
commissions, in America (1904) and in the United Kingdom (1908), for the
recognition of deeds of heroism; his contribution of L500,000 in 1903
for the erection of a Temple of Peace at The Hague, and of L150,000 for
a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International
Bureau of American republics. In all his ideas he was dominated by an
intense belief in the future and influence of the English-speaking
people, in their democratic government and alliance for the purpose of
peace and the abolition of war, and in the progress of education on
unsectarian lines. He was a powerful supporter of the movement for
spelling reform, as a means of promoting the spread of the English
language. Mr Carnegie married in 1887 and had one daughter. Among other
publications by him were _An American Four-in-hand in Britain_ (1883),
_Round the World_ (1884), _The Empire of Business_ (1902), a _Life of
James Watt_ (1905) and _Problems of To-day_ (1908).
CARNEGIE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 6 m. S.W.
of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 7330 (1816 being foreign-born); (1910) 10,009.
It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
Pittsburg, Chartiers & Youghiogheny, and the Wabash Pittsburg Terminal
railways, and the Pittsburg street railway. Carnegie is situated in the
beautiful valley of Chartiers Creek, and is in one of the coal and
natural gas districts of the state. In the borough are a Carnegie
library and St Paul's orphan asylum. Among the borough's manufactures
are steel, lead, glass, ploughs and enamel- and tin-ware. There are
alkaline and lithia mineral springs here. In 1894 Carnegie, named in
honour of Andrew Carnegie, was formed by the union of the boroughs
Chartiers and Mansfield.
CARNELIAN, a red variety of chalcedony, much used as an ornamental
stone, especially for seals. The old name was cornelian, said to have
been given in reference either to the horny appearance of the stone
(Lat. _cornu_, "horn") or to its resemblance in colour to the berry of
the cornel; but the original word was corrupted to carnelian, probably
in allusion to its reddish colour (_carneus_, "flesh-coloured"). Some
carnelian, however, is brown, yellow or even white. Certain kinds of
brown and bright red chalcedony, much resembling carnelian, pass under
the name of sard (q.v.). The Hebrew _odem_ was probably a red stone,
either carnelian, sard or jasper. All carnelian is translucent and is
thus distinguished from jasper of similar colour, which is always
opaque. The red colour of typical carnelian is due to the presence of
ferric oxide. This is often developed artificially by exposure to
sunshine, or to artificial heat, whereby any ferric hydrate in the stone
becomes more or less dehydrated; or the stone is treated with a solution
of an iron salt, like ferrous sulphate, and then heated, when ferric
oxide is formed in the pores of the stone. An opaque white surface is
sometimes produced artificially on a red carnelian: this is said to be
done by coating the stone with carbonate of soda and then placing it on
a red-hot iron; or by using a mixture of potash, white lead and certain
vegetable juices, and heating it on charcoal. Inscriptions and figures
in white on red carnelian ("burnt carnelian") are well known from the
East. Much carnelian comes from India, being mostly derived from
agate-gravels, resulting from the disintegration of the Deccan traps, in
the neighbourhood of Ratanpur, near Broach. A good deal of the carnelian
now sold, however, is Brazilian agate, artificially stained. (See
AGATE.)
CARNESECCHI, PIETRO (1508-1567), Italian humanist, was the son of a
Florentine merchant, who under the patronage of the Medici, and
especially of Giovanni de' Medici as Pope Clement VII., rapidly rose to
high office at the papal court. He came into touch with the new learning
at the house of his maternal uncle, Cardinal Bernardo Dovizzi, in Rome.
At the age of twenty-five he held several rich livings, had been notary
and protonotary to the Curia, and was first secretary to the pope, in
which capacity he conducted the correspondence with the nuncios (among
them Pier Paolo Bergerio in Germany) and a host of other duties. By his
conduct at the conference with Francis I. at Marseilles he won the
favour of Catherine de' Medici and other influential personages at the
French court, who in later days befriended him. He made the acquaintance
of the Spanish reformer Juan de Valdes at Rome, and got to know him as a
theologian at Naples, being especially drawn to him through the
appreciation expressed by Bernardino Ochino, and through their mutual
friendship with the Lady Julia Gonzaga, whose spiritual adviser he
became after the death of Valdes. He became a leading spirit in the
literary and religious circle that gathered round Valdes in Naples, and
that aimed at effecting from within the spiritual reformation of the
church. Under Valdes' influence he whole-heartedly accepted Luther's
doctrine of justification by faith, though he repudiated a policy of
schism. When the movement of suppression began, Carnesecchi was
implicated. For a time he found shelter with his friends in Paris, and
from 1552 he was in Venice leading the party of reform in that city. In
1557 he was cited (for the second time) before the tribunal in Rome, but
refused to appear. The death of Paul IV. and the accession of Pius IV.
in 1559 made his position easier, and he came to live in Rome. With the
accession of Pius V. (Michael Ghislieri) in 1565 the Inquisition renewed
its activities with fiercer zeal than ever. Carnesecchi was in Venice
when the news reached him, and betook himself to Florence, where,
thinking himself safe, he was betrayed by Cosimo, the duke, who wished
to curry favour with the pope. From July 1566 he lay in prison over a
year. On the 21st of September 1567 sentence of degradation and death
was passed on him and sixteen others, ambassadors from Florence vainly
kneeling to the pope for some mitigation, and on the 1st of October he
was publicly beheaded and then burned.
CARNIOLA (Ger. _Krain_), a duchy and crown-land of Austria, bounded N.
by Carinthia, N.E. by Styria, S.E. and S. by Croatia, and W. by Gorz and
Gradisca, Trieste and Istria. It has an area of 3856 sq. m. Carniola is
for the most part a mountainous region, occupied in the N. by the Alps,
and in the S. by the Karst (q.v.) or Carso Mountains. It is traversed by
the Julian Alps, the Karawankas and the Steiner Alps, which belong all
to the southern zone of the Eastern Alps. The highest point in the
Julian Alps is formed by the three sugar-loaf peaks of the Triglav or
Terglou (9394 ft.), which offers one of the finest views in the whole of
the Alps, and which bears on its northern declivity the only glacier in
the province. The Triglav is the dividing range between the Alps and the
Karst Mountains, and its huge mass also forms the barrier between three
races: the German, the Slavonic and the Italian. Other high peaks are
the Mangart (8784 ft.) and the Jaluz (8708 ft.). The Karawankas, which
form the boundary between Carinthia and Carniola, have as their highest
peak the Stou or Stuhlberg (7344 ft.), and are traversed by the Loibl
Pass (4492 ft.). They are continued by the Steiner or Santhaler Alps,
which have as their highest peak the Grintouz or Grintovc (8393 ft.).
This peak is situated on the threefold boundary of Carinthia, Carniola
and Styria, and affords a magnificent view of the whole Alpine
neighbouring region. The southern part of Carniola is occupied by the
following divisions of the northern ramifications of the Karst
Mountains: the Birnbaumer Wald with the highest peak, the Nanos (4275
ft.), and the Krainer Schneeberg (5890 ft.); the Hornwald with the
highest peak, the Hornbuchl (3608 ft.), and the Uskokengebirge (3874
ft.). The portion of Carniola belonging to the Karst region presents a
great number of caves, subterranean streams, funnels and similar
phenomena. Amongst the best-known are the grottos of Adelsberg, the
larger ones of Planina and the Kreuzberghohle near Laas.
With the exception of the Idria and the Wippach, which as tributaries of
the Isonzo belong to the basin of the Adriatic, Carniola belongs to the
watershed of the Save. The Save or Sau rises within the duchy, and is
formed by the junction at Radmannsdorf of its two head-streams the
Wurzener Save and the Wocheiner Save. Its principal affluents are the
Kanker and the Steiner Feistritz on the left, and the Zeyer or Sora, the
Laibach and the Gurk on the right. The most remarkable of these rivers
is the Laibach, which rises in the Karst region under the name of Poik,
takes afterwards a subterranean course and traverses the Adelsberg
grotto, and appears again on the surface near Planina under the name of
Unz. Shortly after this it takes for the second time a subterranean
course, to appear finally on the surface near Oberlaibach. The small
torrent of Rothwein, which flows into the Wurzener Save, forms near
Veldes the splendid series of cascades known as the Rothwein Fall.
Amongst the principal lakes are the Wochein, the Weissenfels, the
Veldes, and the seven small lakes of the Triglav; while in the Karst
region lies the famous periodical lake of Zirknitz, known to the Romans
as _Lacus Lugens_ or _Lugea Palus._
The climate is rather severe, and the southern part is exposed to the
cold north-eastern wind, known as the Bora. The mean annual temperature
at Laibach is 48.4 deg. F., and the rainfall amounts to 72 ins. Of the
total area only 14.8% is under cultivation, and the crops do not suffice
for the needs of the province; forests occupy 44.4%, 17.2% are meadows,
15.7% are pastures, and 1.17% of the soil is covered by vineyards. Large
quantities of flax are grown, while the timber trade is of considerable
importance. Fish and game are plentiful, and the silkworm is bred in the
warmer districts. The principal mining product is mercury, extracted at
Idria, while iron and copper ore, zinc and coal are also found. The
industry is not well developed, but the weaving of linen and lace is
pursued as a household industry.
Carniola had in 1900 a population of 508,348, which corresponds to 132
inhabitants per sq. m. Nearly 95% were Slovenes and 5% Germans, while
99% of the population belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. The local
diet, of which the bishop of Laibach is a member _ex officio_, is
composed of thirty-seven members, and Carniola sends eleven deputies to
the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the province is
divided into eleven districts and one autonomous municipality, Laibach
(pop. 36,547), the capital. Other important places are Oberlaibach
(5882), Idria (5772), Gurkfeld (5294), Zirknitz (5266), Adelsberg
(3636), Neumarktl (2626), Krainburg (2484) and Gottschee (2421).
Carniola derives its modern name from the Slavonic word _Krajina_
(frontier). During the Roman Empire it formed part of Noricum and
Pannonia. The Slavonic population settled here during the end of the 6th
and the beginning of the 7th century. Conquered by Charlemagne, the most
of the district was bestowed on the duke of Friuli; but in the 10th
century the title of margrave of Carniola began to be borne by a family
resident in the castle of Kieselberg near Krainburg. Various parts of
the present territory were, however, held by other lords, such as the
duke of Carinthia and the bishop of Freising. Towards the close of the
14th century all the separate portions had come by inheritance or
bequest into the hands of Rudolph IV. of Austria, who took the title of
duke of Carniola; and since then the duchy has remained a part of the
Austrian possessions, except during the short period from 1809 to 1813,
when it was incorporated with the French Illyrian Provinces. In 1849 it
became a separate crown-land.
See Dimitz, _Geschichte Krains von der altesten Zeit his 1813_ (4
vols., Laibach, 1874-1876).
CARNIVAL (Med. Lat. _carnelevarium_, from _caro, carnis_, flesh, and
_levare_, to lighten or put aside; the derivation from _valere_, to say
farewell, is unsupported), the last three days preceding Lent, which in
Roman Catholic countries are given up to feasting and merry-making.
Anciently the carnival was held to begin on twelfth night (6th January)
and last till midnight of Shrove Tuesday. There is little doubt that
this period of licence represents a compromise which the church always
inclined to make with the pagan festivals and that the carnival really
represents the Roman Saturnalia. Rome has ever been the headquarters of
carnival, and though some popes, notably Clement IX. and XI. and
Benedict XIII., made efforts to stem the tide of Bacchanalian revelry,
many of the popes were great patrons and promoters of carnival keeping.
Paul II. was notable in this respect. In his time the Jews of Rome were
compelled to pay yearly a sum of 1130 golden florins (the thirty being
added as a special memorial of Judas and the thirty pieces of silver),
which was expended on the carnival. A decree of Paul II., minutely
providing for the diversions, orders that four rings of silver gilt
should be provided, two in the Piazza Navona and two at the Monte
Testaccio--one at each place for the burghers and the other for the
retainers of the nobles to practise riding at the ring. The pope also
orders a great variety of races, the expenses of which are to be paid
from the papal exchequer--one to be run by the Jews, another for
Christian children, another for Christian young men, another for
sexagenarians, a fifth for asses, and a sixth for buffaloes. Under
Julius III. we have long accounts of bull-hunts--or rather
bull-baits--in the Forum, with gorgeous descriptions of the magnificence
of the dresses, and enormous suppers in the palace of the Conservatori
in the capitol, where seven cardinals, together with the duke Orazio
Farnese, supped at one table, and all the ladies by themselves at
another. After the supper the whole party went into the courtyard of the
palace, which was turned into the semblance of a theatre, "to see a most
charming comedy which was admirably played, and lasted so long that it
was not over till ten o'clock!" Even the austere and rigid Paul IV.
(_ob_. 1559) used to keep carnival by inviting all the Sacred College to
dine with him. Sixtus V., who was elected in 1585, set himself to the
keeping of carnival after a different fashion. Determined to repress the
lawlessness and crime incident to the period, he set up gibbets in
conspicuous places, as well as whipping-posts, the former as a hint to
robbers and cut-throats, the latter in store for minor offenders. We
find, further, from the provisions made at the time, that Sixtus
reformed the evil custom of throwing dirt and dust and flour at
passengers, permitting only flowers or sweetmeats to be thrown.
The later popes for the most part restricted the public festivities of
the carnival to the last six or seven days immediately preceding Ash
Wednesday. The municipal authorities of the city, on whom the regulation
of such matters now depends, allow ten days. The carnival sports at Rome
anciently consisted of three divisions: (1) the races in the Corso
(formerly called the Via Lata, and taking its present name from them),
which appear to have been from time immemorial a part of the festivity;
(2) the spectacular pageant of the Agona; (3) that of the Testaccio.
Of other Italian cities, Venice used in old times to be the principal
home, after Rome, of carnival. To-day Turin, Milan, Florence, Naples,
all put forth competing programmes. In old times Florence was
conspicuous for the licentiousness of its carnival; and the _Canti
Carnascialeschi_, or carnival songs, of Lorenzo de' Medici show to what
extent the licence was carried. The carnival in Spain lasts four days,
including Ash Wednesday. In France the merry-making is restricted almost
entirely to Shrove Tuesday, or _mardi gras_. In Russia, where no Ash
Wednesday is observed, carnival gaieties last a week from Sunday to
Sunday.
CARNIVORA, the zoological order typified by the larger carnivorous
placental land mammals of the present day, such as lions, tigers and
wolves, but also including species like bears whose diet is largely
vegetable, as well as a number of smaller flesh-eating species, together
with the seals and their relatives, and an extinct Tertiary group. Apart
from this distinct group (see CREODONTA), the Carnivora are
characterized by the following features. They are unguiculate, or clawed
mammals, with never less than four toes to each foot, of which the first
is never opposable to the rest; the claws, or nails, being more or less
pointed although occasionally rudimentary. The teeth comprise a
deciduous and a permanent series, all being rooted, and the latter
divisible into the usual four series. In front there is a series of
small pointed incisors, usually three in number, on each side of both
jaws, of which the first is always the smallest and the third the
largest, the difference being most marked in the upper jaw; these are
followed by strong conical, pointed, recurved canines; the premolars and
molars are variable, but generally, especially in the anterior part of
the series, more or less compressed, pointed and trenchant; if the
crowns are flat and tuberculated, they are never complex or divided into
lobes by deep inflexions of enamel. The condyle of the lower jaw is a
transversely placed half-cylinder working in a deep glenoid fossa of
corresponding form. The brain varies much in size and form, but the
hemispheres are never destitute of convolutions. The stomach is always
simple and pyriform; the caecum is either absent or short and simple;
and the colon is not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine.
Vesiculae seminales are never developed, but Cowper's glands may be
present or absent. The uterus is two-horned, and the teats are abdominal
and variable in number; while the placenta is deciduate, and almost
always zonary. The clavicle is often absent, and when present never
complete. The radius and ulna are distinct; the scaphoid and lunar of
the tarsus are united; there is never an os centrale in the adult; and
the fibula is distinct.
The large majority of the species subsist chiefly on animal food, though
many are omnivorous, and a few chiefly vegetable-eaters. The more
typical forms live altogether on recently-killed warm-blooded animals,
and their whole organization is thoroughly adapted to a predaceous mode
of life. In conformity with this manner of obtaining their subsistence,
they are generally bold and savage in disposition, though some are
capable of being domesticated, and when placed under favourable
circumstances exhibit a high degree of intelligence.
I. FISSIPEDIA
[Illustration: FIG. I.--Left upper sectorial or carnassial teeth of
Carnivora. I, _Felis_; II, _Canis_; III, _Ursus_. 1, anterior, 2,
middle, and 3, posterior cusp of blade; 4, inner cusp supported on
distinct root; 5, inner cusp, posterior in position, and without
distinct root, characteristic of the _Ursidae_.]
The typical section of the group, the Carnivora Vera, Fissipedia or
Carnassidentia, includes all the existing terrestrial members of the
order, together with the otters and sea-otters. In this section the
fore-limbs never have the first digit, or the hind-limbs the first and
fifth digits, longer than the others; and the incisors are 3/3 on each
side, with very rare exceptions. The cerebral hemispheres are more or
less elongated; always with three or four convolutions on the outer
surface forming arches above each other, the lowest surrounding the
Sylvian fissure. In the cheek-series there is one specially modified
tooth in each jaw, to which the name of "sectorial" or "carnassial" is
applied. The teeth in front of this are more or less sharp-pointed and
compressed; the teeth behind broad and tuberculated. The characters of
the sectorial teeth deserve special attention, as, though fundamentally
the same throughout the group, they are greatly modified in different
genera. The upper sectorial is the most posterior of the teeth which
have predecessors, and is therefore reckoned as the last premolar (p. 4
of the typical dentition). It consists of a more or less compressed
blade supported on two roots and an inner lobe supported by a distinct
root (see fig. 1). The blade when fully developed has three cusps (i, 2
and 3), but the anterior is always small, and often absent. The middle
cusp is conical, high and pointed; and the posterior cusp has a
compressed, straight, knife-like edge. The inner cusp. (4) varies in
extent, but is generally placed near the anterior end of the blade,
though sometimes median in position. In the _Ursidae_ alone both the
inner cusp and its root are wanting, and there is often a small internal
and posterior cusp (5) without root. In this family also the sectorial
is relatively to the other teeth much smaller than in other Carnivora.
The lower sectorial (fig. 2) is the most anterior of the teeth without
predecessors in the milk-series, and is therefore reckoned the first
molar. It has two roots supporting a crown, consisting when fully
developed of a compressed bilobed blade (1 and 2), a heel (4), and an
inner tubercle (3). The cusps of the blade, of which the hinder (2) is
the larger, are separated by a notch, generally prolonged into a linear
fissure. In the specialized _Felidae_ (I) the blade alone is developed,
both heel and inner tubercle being absent or rudimentary. In _Meles_
(V) and _Ursus_ (VI) the heel is greatly developed, broad and
tuberculated. The blade in these cases is generally placed obliquely,
its flat or convex (outer) side looking forwards, so that the two lobes
or cusps are almost side by side, instead of anterior and posterior. The
inner tubercle (3) is generally a conical pointed cusp, placed to the
inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade. The special characters of
these teeth are more disguised in the sea-otter than in any other
species, but even here they can be traced.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Left lower sectorial or carnassial teeth of
Carnivora, I, _Felis_; II, _Canis_; III, _Herpestes_; IV, _Lutra_; V,
_Meles_; VI, _Ursus_. 1, Anterior cusp of blade; 2, posterior cusp of
blade; 3, inner tubercle; 4, heel. It will be seen that the relative
size of the two roots varies according to the development of the portion
of the crown they respectively support.]
The toes are nearly always armed with large, strong, curved and sharp
claws, ensheathing the terminal phalanges and held firmly in place by
broad plates of bone reflected over their attached ends from the bases
of the phalanges. In the _Felidae_ these claws are "retractile"; the
terminal phalange with the claw attached, folding back in the fore-foot
into a sheath by the outer or ulnar side of the middle phalange of the
digit, and retained in this position when at rest by a strong elastic
ligament. In the hind-foot the terminal joint or phalange is retracted
on to the top, and not the side of the middle phalange. By the action of
the deep flexor muscles the terminal phalanges are straightened, the
claws protruded from their sheath, and the soft "velvety" paw becomes
suddenly converted into a formidable weapon of offence. The habitual
retraction of the claws preserves their points from wear.
The land Carnivora are best divided into two subgroups or sections--(A)
the Aeluroidea, or Herpestoidea, and (B) the Arctoidea; the recognition
of a third section, Cynoidea, being rendered untenable by the evidence
of extinct forms.
(A) _Aeluroidea_.--In this section, which comprises the cats
(_Felidae_), civets (_Viverridae_), and hyenas (_Hyaenidae_), the
tympanic bone is more or less ring-like, and forms only a part of the
outer wall of the tympanic cavity; an inflated alisphenoid bulla is
developed; and the external auditory meatus is short. In the nasal
chamber the maxillo-turbinal is small and doubly folded, and does not
cut off the naso-turbinal and adjacent bones from the nasal aperture.
The carotid canal in the skull is short or absent. Cowper's glands are
present, as is a prostate gland and a caecum, as well as a
duodenal-jejunal flexure in the intestine, but an os penis is either
wanting or small.
Cat tribe.
The members of the cat tribe, or _Felidae_, are collectively
characterized by the following features. An alisphenoid is lacking on
the lower aspect of the skull. In existing forms the usual dental
formula is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/2, m. 1/1; the upper molar being
rudimentary and placed on the inner side of the carnassial, but the
first premolar may be absent, while, as an abnormality, there may be a
small second lower molar, which is constantly present in some of the
extinct forms. The auditory bulla and the tympanic are divided by an
internal partition. The paroccipital process is separate from, or only
extends to a slight degree upon the auditory bulla. The thoracic
vertebrae number 13; the feet are digitigrade, with five front and
four hind toes, of which the claws are retractile; and the metatarsus
is haired all round. Anal glands are present.
As regards the teeth, when considered in more detail, the incisors are
small, and the canines large, strong, slightly recurved, with
trenchant edges and sharp points, and placed wide apart. The premolars
are compressed and sharp-pointed; the most posterior in the upper jaw
(the sectorial) being a large tooth, consisting of a compressed blade,
divided into three unequal cusps supported by two roots, with a small
inner lobe placed near the front and supported by a distinct root
(fig. 1, I). The upper molar is a small tubercular tooth placed more
or less transversely at the inner side of the hinder end of the last.
In the lower jaw the molar (sectorial) is reduced to the blade, which
is large, trenchant, compressed and divided into two subequal lobes
(fig. 2, I). Occasionally it has a rudimentary heel, but never an
inner tubercle. The skull generally is short and rounded, though
proportionally more elongated in the larger forms; with the facial
portion short and broad, and the zygomatic arches wide and strong. The
auditory bullae are large, rounded and smooth. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13,
L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 13-29. Clavicles better developed than in other
Carnivora, but not articulating with either the shoulder-bones or
sternum. Of the five front toes, the third and fourth are nearly equal
and longest, the second slightly, and the fifth considerably shorter.
The first is still shorter, not reaching the metacarpophalangeal
articulation of the second. In the hind-feet the third and fourth toes
are the longest, the second and fifth somewhat shorter and nearly
equal, while the first is represented only by the rudimentary
metatarsal bone. The claws are large, strongly curved, compressed,
very sharp, and exhibit the retractile condition in the highest
degree. The tail varies greatly in length, being in some species a
mere stump, in others nearly as long as the body. The ears are of
moderate size, more or less triangular and pointed; and the eyes
rather large, with the iris mobile, and with a pupillary aperture
which contracts under the influence of light in some species to a
narrow vertical slit, in others to an oval, and in some to a circular
aperture. The tongue is thickly covered with sharp, pointed, recurved
horny papillae; and the caecum is small and simple.
As in structure so in habits, the cat may be considered the most
specialized of all Carnivora, although they exhibit many features
connecting them with extinct types. All the members of the group feed
almost exclusively on warm-blooded animals which they have themselves
killed, but one Indian species, _Felis viverrina_, is said to prey on
fish, and even fresh-water molluscs. Unlike dogs, they never associate
in packs, and rarely hunt their prey on open ground, but from some
place of concealment wait until the unsuspecting victim comes within
reach, or with noiseless and stealthy tread, crouching close to the
ground for concealment, approach near enough to make the fatal spring.
In this manner they frequently attack and kill animals considerably
exceeding their own size. They are mostly nocturnal, and the greater
number, especially the smaller species, more or less arboreal. None
are aquatic, and all take to the water with reluctance, though some
may habitually haunt the banks of rivers or pools, because they more
easily obtain their prey in such situations. The numerous species are
widely diffused over the greater part of the habitable world, though
most abundant in the warm latitudes of both hemispheres. None are,
however, found in the Australian region, or in Madagascar. Although
the Old World and New World cats (except perhaps the northern lynx)
are all specifically distinct, no common structural character has been
pointed out by which the former can be separated from the latter. On
the contrary, most of the groups into which the family may be divided
have representatives in both hemispheres.
Notwithstanding the considerable diversity in external appearance and
size between different members of this extensive family, the
structural differences are but slight. The principal differences are
to be found in the form of the cranium, especially of the nasal and
adjoining bones, the completeness of the bony orbit posteriorly, the
development of the first upper premolar and of the inner lobe of the
upper sectorial, the length of the tail, the form of the pupil, and
the condition and coloration of the fur, especially the presence or
absence of tufts or pencils of hair on the external ears.
In the typical genus _Felis_, which includes the great majority of the
species, and has a distribution coextensive with that of the family,
the upper sectorial tooth has a distinct inner cusp, the claws are
completely contractile, the tail is long or moderate, and the ears do
not carry distinct tufts of hair. As regards the larger species, the
lion (_F. leo_), tiger (_F. tigris_), leopard (_F. pardus_), ounce or
snow-leopard (_F. uncia_) and clouded leopard (_F. nebulosa_) are
described in separate articles. Of other Old World species it must
suffice to mention that the Tibetan Fontanier's cat (_F. tristis_),
and the Indian marbled cat (_F. marmorata_), an ally of the
above-mentioned clouded leopard, appear to be the Asiatic
representatives of the American ocelots. The Tibetan Pallas's cat (_F.
manul_) has been made the type of a distinct genus, _Trichaelurus_, in
allusion to its long coat. One of the largest of the smaller species
is the African serval, q.v. (_F. serval_), which is yellow with solid
black spots, has long limbs, and a relatively short tail. Numerous
"tiger-cats" and "leopard-cats," such as the spotted _F. bengalensis_
and the uniformly chestnut _F. badia_, inhabit tropical Asia; while
representative species occur in Africa. The jungle-cat (_F. chaus_),
which in its slightly tufted ears and shorter tail foreshadows the
lynxes, is common to both continents. Another African species (_F.
ocreata_) appears to have been the chief progenitor of the European
domestic cat, which has, however, apparently been crossed to some
extent with the ordinary wild cat (_F. catus_). Of the New World
species, _F. concolor_, the puma or couguar, commonly called "panther"
in the United States, is about the size of a leopard, but of a uniform
brown colour, spotted only when young, and is extensively distributed
in both North and South America, ranging between the parallels of 60
deg. N. and 50 deg. S., where it is represented by numerous local
races, varying in size and colour. _F. onca_, the jaguar, is a larger
and more powerful animal than the last, and more resembles the leopard
in its colours; it is also found in both North and South America,
although with a less extensive range, reaching northwards only as far
as Texas, and southwards nearly to Patagonia (see JAGUAR). _F.
pardalis_ and several allied smaller, elegantly-spotted species
inhabiting the intratropical regions of America, are commonly
confounded under the name of ocelot or tiger-cat. _F. yaguarondi_,
rather larger than the domestic cat, with an elongated head and body,
and of a uniform brownish-grey colour, ranges from northern Mexico to
Paraguay; while the allied _F. eyra_ is a small cat, weasel-like in
form, having an elongated head, body and tail, and short limbs, and is
of a uniform light reddish-brown colour. It is a native of South
America and Mexico. _F. pajeros_ is the Pampas cat.
The typical lynxes, as represented by _Lynx borealis_ (_L. lynx_), the
southern _L. pardina_, and the American _L. rufa_, are a northern
group common to both hemispheres, and characterized by their tufted
ears, short tail, and the presence of a rudimentary heel to the lower
carnassial tooth. As a rule, they are more or less spotted in winter,
but tend to become uniformly-coloured in summer. They are connected
with the more typical cats by the long-tailed and uniformly red
caracal, _Lynx (Caracal) caracal_, of India, Persia and Africa, and
the propriety of separating them from _Felis_ may be open to doubt
(see LYNX and CARACAL).
However this may be, there can be no doubt of the right of the
hunting-leopard or chita (cheeta), as, in common with the leopard, it
is called in India, to distinction from all the other cats as a
distinct genus, under the name of _Cynaelurus jubatus_. From all the
other _Felidae_ this animal, which is common to Asia and Africa, is
distinguished by the inner lobe of the upper sectorial tooth, though
supported by a distinct root, having no salient cusp upon it, by the
tubercular molar being more in a line with the other teeth, and by the
claws being smaller, less curved and less completely retractile, owing
to the feebler development of the elastic ligaments. The skull is
short and high, with the frontal region broad and elevated in
consequence of the large development of air-sinuses. The head is small
and round, the body light, the limbs and tail long, and the colour
pale yellowish-brown with small solid black spots (see CHEETA).
Civet tribe.
The family _Viverridae_, which includes the civet-cats, genets and
mongooses, is nearly allied to the _Felidae_, but its members have a
fuller dentition, and exhibit certain other structural differences
from the cats, to the largest of which they make no approach in the
matter of bodily size. As a rule, there is an alisphenoid canal; the
cheek-dentition is p. (3 or 4)/(3 or 4), m. (1 or 2)/(1 or 2). The
bulla is small and the tympanic large, with a low division between
them; and the paroccipital process is leaf-like and spread over the
bulla. The number of dorsal vertebrae, except in the aberrant
_Proteles_, is 13 or 14; the claws may be either completely or
partially retractile or non-retractile; generally each foot has five
toes, but there may be four in front and five behind, the reverse of
this, or only four on each foot; the gait may be either digitigrade or
partially plantigrade; and the metatarsus may be either hairy or naked
inferiorly. Anal, and in some cases also perineal, glands are
developed. The family is limited to the warmer parts of the Old World.
Considerable difference of opinion prevails with regard to the serial
position of the fossa, or foussa (_Cryptoprocta ferox_), of
Madagascar, some writers considering that its affinities are so close
to the _Felidae_ that it ought not to be included in the present
family at all. Others, on the contrary, see no reason to separate it
from the _Viverrinae_ or more typical representatives of the
civet-tribe. As a medium course, it may be regarded as the sole
representative of a special subfamily--_Cryptoproctinae_--of the
_Viverridae_. The subfamily and genus are characterized by possessing
a total of 36 teeth, arranged as i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 1/1. The
teeth generally closely resemble those of the _Felidae_, the first
premolar of both jaws being very minute and early deciduous; the upper
sectorial has a small inner lobe, quite at the anterior part; the
molar is small and placed transversely; and the lower sectorial has a
large trenchant bilobed blade, and a minute heel, but no inner
tubercle. The skull is generally like that of _Felis_, but
proportionally longer and narrower, with the orbit widely open behind.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 29. Body elongated. Limbs
moderate in size. Feet subplantigrade, with five well-developed toes
on each, carrying sharp, compressed, retractile claws. Ears moderate.
Tail long and cylindrical. The foussa is a sandy-coloured animal with
an exceedingly long tail (see FOUSSA).
The more typical members of the group, constituting the subfamily
_Viverrinae_, are characterized by their sharp, curved and largely
retractile claws, the presence of five toes to each foot, and of
perineal and one pair of anal glands, and a tympanic bone which
retains to a great extent the primitive ring-like form, so that the
external auditory meatus has scarcely any inferior lip, its orifice
being close to the tympanic ring. The first representatives of the
subfamily are the civet-cats, or civets (_Viverra_ and _Viverricula_),
and the genets (_Genetta_), in all of which the dentition is _i. 3/3,
c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 2/2_; total 40. The skull is elongated, with the
facial portion small and compressed, and the orbits well-defined but
incomplete behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7 (or D. 14, L. 6), S.
3, Ca. 22-30. Body elongated and compressed. Head pointed in front;
ears rather small. Extremities short. Feet small and rounded. Toes
short, the first on fore and hind feet much shorter than the others.
Palms and soles covered with hair, except the pads of the feet and
toes, and in some species a narrow central line on the under side of
the sole, extending backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or
long. The pair of large glands situated on the perineum (in both
sexes) secretes an oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour.
In the true civets, which include the largest members of the group,
the teeth are stouter and less compressed than in the other genera;
the second upper molar being especially large, and the auditory bulla
smaller and more pointed in front; the body is shorter and stouter;
the limbs are longer; the tail shorter and tapering. The under side of
the tarsus is completely covered with hair, and the claws are longer
and less retractile. Fur rather long and loose, and in the middle line
of the neck and back especially elongated so as to form a sort of
crest or mane. Pupil circular when contracted. Perineal glands greatly
developed. These characters apply especially to _V. civetta_, the
African civet, or civet-cat, as it is commonly called, an animal
rather larger than a fox, and an inhabitant of intratropical Africa.
_V. zibetta_, the Indian civet, of about equal size, approaches in
many respects, especially in the characters of the teeth and feet and
absence of the crest of elongated hair on the back, to the next
section. It inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula and adjoining
islands. _V. tangalunga_ is a smaller but nearly allied animal from
the same part of the world. From these three species and the next the
civet of commerce, once so much admired as a perfume in England, and
still largely used in the East, is obtained. The animals are kept in
cages, and the odoriferous secretion collected by scraping the
interior of the perineal follicles with a spoon or spatula. The single
representative of the genus _Viverricula_ resembles in many respects
the genets, but agrees with the civets in having the whole of the
under side of the tarsus hairy; the alisphenoid canal is generally
absent. _V. malaccensis_, the rasse, inhabiting India, China, Java and
Sumatra, is an elegant little animal which affords a favourite perfume
to the Javanese. The genets (_Genetta_) are smaller animals, with more
elongated and slender bodies, and shorter limbs than the civets. The
skull is elongated and narrow; and the auditory bulla large, elongated
and rounded at both ends. The teeth are compressed and sharp-pointed,
with a lobe on the inner side of the third, upper premolar not present
in the previous genera. Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail
long, slender, ringed. Fur short and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under
side of the metatarsus with a narrow longitudinal bald streak.
_Genetta vulgaris_, or _G. genetta_, the common genet, is found in
France south of the river Loire, Spain, south-western Asia and North
Africa. _G. felina, senegalensis, tigrina, victoriae_ and _pardalis_
are other named species, all African in habitat.
The Malagasy fossane (_Fossa daubentoni_), which has but little
markings on the fur of the adult, differs by the absence of a
scent-pouch and the presence of a couple of bare spots on the under
surface of the metatarsus. The beautiful linsangs (_Linsanga_ or
_Prionodon_), ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Java and Borneo,
are represented by two or three species, easily recognizable by the
broad transverse bands of blackish brown and yellow with which the
body and tail are marked. They are specially distinguished by having
only one pair of upper molars, thereby resembling the cats, with
which, in correlation with their arboreal habits, they agree in their
highly retractile claws, and the hairy surface of the under side of
the metatarsus. About 15 in. is the length of the type species. In
West Africa the linsangs are represented by _Poiana richardsoni_, a
small species with a spotted genet-like coat, and also with a narrow
naked stripe on the under surface of the metatarsus, as in genets.
Here may be placed the two African spotted palm-civets of the genus
_Nandinia_, namely _N. binotata_ from the west and _N. gerrardi_ from
the east forest-region. In common with the true palm-civets, they have
a dentition numerically identical with that of _Viverra_ and
_Genetta_, but the cusps of the hinder premolars and molars are much
less sharp and pointed. They are peculiar in that the wall of the
inner chamber of the auditory bulla never ossifies, while the
paroccipital process is not flattened out and spread over the bulla.
In this respect they resemble the Miocene European genus _Amphictis_,
as they do in the form of their teeth, so that they may be regarded as
nearly related to the ancestral _Viverridae_, and forming in some
degree a connecting link between the present and the next subfamily.
_Nandinia_ is also peculiar in possessing a kind of rudimentary
marsupial pouch. Apparently _Eupleres goudoti_, of Madagascar, which
has been generally classed in the _Herpestinae_, is a nearly related
animal, characterized by the reduction of its dentition, due to
insectivorous habits (fig. 3); the canines being small, the anterior
premolars canine-like, and the hinder premolars molariform. It is a
uniformly-coloured creature of medium size.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skull of _Eupleres goudoti_.]
The palm-civets, or paradoxures, constituting the Asiatic genus
_Paradoxurus_, have, as already stated, the following dental formula,
viz. i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 2/2, total 40; the cusps of the molars
being low and blunted, and these teeth in the upper jaw much broader
than in the civets. The head is pointed in front, with small rounded
ears; the limbs are of medium length, with the soles of the feet
almost completely naked, and fully retractile claws; while the long
tail is not prehensile and clothed with hair of moderate length. Spots
are the chief type of marking. The vertebrae number C. 7, D. 13, L. 7,
S. 3, Ca. 29-36. Numerous relatively large species ranging from India
to Borneo, Sumatra and Celebes, with one in Tibet, represent the
genus. Nearly allied are _Arctogale leucotis_, with a wide
distribution, and _A. trivirgata_, of Java, both longitudinally
striped species, with small and slightly separated molars, and a
prolonged bony palate (see PALM-CIVET).
The binturong (_Arctictis binturong_) has typically the same dental
formula as the last, but the posterior upper molar and the first lower
premolar are often absent. Molars small and rounded, with a distinct
interval between every two, but formed generally on the same pattern
as _Paradoxurus_. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 5, S. 3, Ca. 34. Body
elongated; head broad behind, with a small pointed face, long and
numerous whiskers, and small ears, rounded, but clothed with a pencil
of long hairs. Eyes small. Limbs short, with the soles of the feet
broad and entirely naked. Tail very long and prehensile. Fur long and
harsh. Caecum extremely small. The binturong inhabits southern Asia
from Nepal through the Malay Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra and
Java. Although structurally agreeing closely with the paradoxures, its
tufted ears, long, coarse and dark hair, and prehensile tail give it a
very different external appearance. It is slow and cautious in its
movements, chiefly if not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on
vegetables as well as animal substances (see BINTURONG).
_Hemigale_ is another modification of the paradoxure type, represented
by _H. hardwickei_ of Borneo, an elegant-looking animal, smaller and
more slender than the paradoxures, of light grey colour, with
transverse broad dark bands across the back and loins.
_Cynogale_ also contains one Bornean species, _C. bennetti_, a curious
otter-like modification of the viverrine type, having semi-aquatic
habits, both swimming in the water and climbing trees, living upon
fish, crustaceans, small mammals, birds and fruits. The number and
general arrangement of the teeth are as in _Paradoxurus_, but the
premolars are peculiarly elongated, compressed, pointed and recurved,
though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated, with the
muzzle broad and depressed, the whiskers are very long and abundant,
and the ears small and rounded. Toes short and slightly webbed at the
base. Tail short, cylindrical, covered with short hair. Fur very dense
and soft, of a dark-brown colour, mixed with black and grey.
In the mongoose group, or _Herpestinae_, the tympanic or anterior
portion of the auditory bulla is produced into an ossified external
auditory meatus of considerable length; while the paroccipital process
never projects below the bulla, on the hinder surface of which, in
adult animals, it is spread out and completely lost. The toes are
straight, with long, unsheathed, non-retractile claws.
In the typical mongooses or ichneumons, _Herpestes_, the dental
formula is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. (4 or 3)/(4 or 3), m. 2/2; total 40 or
36; the molars having generally strongly-developed, sharply-pointed
cusps. The skull is elongated and constricted behind the orbits. The
face is short and compressed, with the frontal region broad and
arched. Post-orbital processes of frontal and jugal bones well
developed, generally meeting so as to complete the circle of the orbit
behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 21-26. Head pointed in
front. Ears short and rounded. Body long and slender. Extremities
short. Five toes on each foot, the first, especially that on the
hind-foot, very short. Toes free, or but slightly palmated. Soles of
fore-feet and terminal portion of those of hind-pair naked; under
surface of metatarsus clothed with hair. Tail long or moderate,
generally thick at the base, and sometimes covered with more or less
elongated hair. The longer hairs covering the body and tail almost
always ringed. The genus is common to the warmer parts of Asia and
Africa, and while many of the species, like the Egyptian _H.
ichneumon_ and the ordinary Indian mongoose, _H. mungo_, are
pepper-and-salt coloured, the large African _H. albicauda_ has the
terminal two-thirds of the tail clothed with long white hairs (see
ICHNEUMON).
The following distinct African and Malagasy generic representatives of
the subfamily are recognized, viz. _Helogale_, with 3/3 premolars, and
containing the small South African _H. parvula _and a variety of the
same. _Bdeogale crassicauda_ and two allied tropical African species
differ from _Herpestes_ in having only four toes on each foot. The
orbit is nearly complete, and the tail of moderate length and rather
bushy. In _Cynictis_, which has the orbit completely closed, there are
five front and four hind toes; and the skull is shorter and broader
than in _Herpestes_, rather contracted behind the orbits, the face
short, and the anterior chamber of the auditory bulla very large. The
front claws are elongated. Includes only _C. penicillata_ from South
Africa.
All the foregoing herpestines have the nose short, with its under
surface flat, bald, and with a median longitudinal groove. The
remaining forms have the nose more or less produced, with its under
side convex, and a space between the nostrils and the upper lip
covered with closely pressed hairs, and without any median groove. The
South African _Rhynchogale muelleri_, a reddish animal with five toes
to each foot and 4/4 (abnormally 5/5) premolars, alone represents the
first genus. The cusimanses (_Crossarchus_), which differ by having
only 3/3 premolars, and thus a total of 36 teeth, include, on the
other hand, several species. The muzzle is elongated, the claws on the
fore-feet are long and curved, the first front toe is very short; the
under surface of the metatarsus naked; and the tail shorter than the
body, tapering. Fur harsh. Includes _C. obscurus_, the cusimanse, a
small burrowing animal from West Africa, of uniform dark-brown colour,
_C. fasciatus, C. zebra, C. gambianus_ and others. Lastly, we have
_Suricata_, a more distinct genus than any of the above. The dental
formula is as in the last, but the teeth of the molar series are
remarkably short in the antero-posterior direction, corresponding with
the shortness of the skull generally. Orbits complete behind.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 20. Though the head is short
and broad, the nose is pointed and rather produced and movable, while
the ears are very short. Body shorter and limbs longer than in
_Herpestes_. Toes 4-4. Claws on fore-feet very long and narrow,
arched, pointed and subequal. Hind-feet with shorter claws, soles
hairy. Tail rather shorter than the body. One species only is known,
the meerkat or suricate, _S. tetradactyla_, a small grey-brown animal,
with dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of the back, from
South Africa.
The names _Galidictis, Galidia_ and _Hemigalidia_ indicate three
generic modifications of the _Herpestinae_, all inhabitants of
Madagascar. The best-known, _Galidia elegans, is _a lively
squirrel-like little animal with soft fur and a long bushy tail, which
climbs and jumps with agility. It is of a chestnut-brown colour, the
tail being ringed with darker brown. _Galidictis vittata_ and _G.
striata_ chiefly differ from the ichneumons in their coloration, being
grey with parallel longitudinal stripes of dark brown.
Considerable diversity of opinion prevails with regard to the serial
position of the aard-wolf, or maned jackal (_Proteles cristatus_), of
southern and eastern Africa, some authorities making it the
representative of a family by itself, others referring it to the
_Hyaenidae_, while others again regard it as a modified member of the
_Viverridae_. After all, the distinction either way cannot be very
great, since the two families just named are intimately connected by
marks of the extinct _Ictitherium_, With the _Viverridae_ it agrees in
having the auditory bulla divided, while in the number of dorsal
vertebrae it is hyena-like. The cheek-teeth are small, far apart, and
almost rudimentary in character (see fig. 4), and the canines long and
rather slender. The dental formula is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. m. 4/(3 or 4);
total 30 or 32. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 2, Ca. 24. The
fore-feet with five toes; the first, though short, with a distinct
claw. The hind-feet with four subequal toes; all, like those of the
fore-foot, furnished with strong, blunt, non-retractile claws (see
AARD-WOLF).
Hyena tribe.
The hyenas or hyaenas (_Hyaenidae_) differ from the preceding family
(_Viverridae_) in the absence of a distinct vertical partition between
the two halves of the auditory bulla; and are further characterized by
the absence of an alisphenoid canal, the reduction of the molars to
1/1, and the presence of 15 dorsal vertebrae. The dental formula in
the existing forms (to which alone all these remarks apply) is i. 3/3,
c. 1/1. p. 4/3 m. 1/1; total 34; the teeth, especially the canines and
premolars, being very large, strong and conical. Upper sectorial with
a large, distinctly trilobed blade and a moderately developed inner
lobe placed at the anterior extremity of the blade. Molar very small,
and placed transversely close to the hinder edge of the last, as in
the _Felidae_. Lower sectorial consisting of little more than the
bilobed blade. Zygomatic arches of skull very wide and strong; and
sagittal crest high, giving attachment to very powerful biting
muscles. Orbits incomplete behind. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 4,
Ca. 19. Limbs rather long, especially the anterior pair, digitigrade,
four subequal toes on each, with stout non-retractile claws, the first
toes being represented by rudimentary metacarpal and metatarsal bones.
Tail rather short. A large post-anal median glandular pouch, into
which the largely developed anal scent glands pour their secretion.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Skull and Dentition of Aard-Wolf (_Proteles
cristatus_.)]
The three well-characterized species of _Hyaena_ are divisible into
two sections, to which some zoologists assign generic rank. In the
typical species the upper molar is moderately developed and
three-rooted; and an inner tubercle and heel more or less developed on
the lower molar. Ears large and pointed. Hair long, forming a mane on
the back and shoulders. Represented firstly by _H. striata_, the
striped hyena of northern and eastern Africa and southern Asia; and
_H. brunnea_ of South Africa, in some respects intermediate between
this and the next section. In the second section, forming the subgenus
_Crocuta_, the upper molar is extremely small, two- or one-rooted,
often deciduous; the lower molar without trace of inner tubercle, and
with an extremely small heel. Ears moderate, rounded. Hair not
elongated to form a mane. The spotted hyena, _Hyaena (Crocuta)
crocuta_, of which, like the striped species, there are several local
races, represents this group, and ranges all over Africa south of the
Sahara. In dental characters the first section inclines more to the
_Viverridae_, the second to the _Felidae_; or the second may be
considered as the more specialized form, as it certainly is in its
visceral anatomy, especially in that of the reproductive organs of the
female. (See HYENA.)
(B) _Arctoidea_.--So far as the auditory region of the skull is
concerned, the existing representatives of the dog tribe or _Canidae_
are to a great extent intermediate between the cat and civet group
(_Aeluroidea_) on the one hand, and the typical representatives of the
bear and weasel group on the other. They were consequently at one time
classed in an intermediate group--the Cynoidea; but fossil forms show
such a complete transition from dogs to bears as to demonstrate the
artificial character of such a division. Consequently, the dogs are
included in the bear-group. In this wider sense the Arctoidea will be
characterized by the tympanic bone being disk-shaped and forming the
whole of the outer wall of the tympanic cavity; the large size of the
external auditory meatus or tube; and the large and branching
maxillo-turbinal bone, which cuts off the naso-turbinal and two adjacent
bones from the anterior nasal chamber. The tympanic bulla has no
internal partition. There is a large carotid canal. Cowper's glands are
lacking; and there is a large penial bone.
Dog tribe.
From all the other members of the group the _Canidae_ are broadly
distinguished (in the case of existing forms) by the large and
well-developed tympanic bulla, with which the paroccipital process is
in contact. An alisphenoid canal is present. The feet are digitigrade,
usually with five (in one instance four) front and always four
hind-toes. The molars--generally 2/3--have tall cusps, and the
sectorials are large and powerful (figs. 1 and 2). The intestine has
both a duodeno-jejunal flexure and a caecum. A prostate gland is
present; but there are no glands in the vasa deferentia; the penial
bone is grooved; and anal glands are generally developed. The
distribution of the family is cosmopolitan. The normal dentition is i.
3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 2/3; total 42; thus differing from the typical
series only by the loss of the last pair of upper molars (present in
certain extinct forms). In the characters of the teeth the group is
the most primitive of all Carnivora. Typically the upper secterial
(fig. 1, II) consists of a stout blade, of which the anterior cusp is
almost obsolete, the middle cusp large, conical and pointed backwards,
and the posterior cusp in the form of a compressed ridge; the inner
lobe is very small, and placed at the fore part of the tooth. The
first molar is more than half the antero-posterior length of the
sectorial, and considerably wider than long; its crown consists of two
prominent conical cusps, of which the anterior is the larger, and a
low, broad inward prolongation, supporting two more or less distinct
cusps and a raised inner border. The second molar resembles the first
in general form, but is considerably smaller. The lower sectorial
(fig. 2, II) is a large tooth, with a strong compressed bilobed blade,
the hinder lobe being considerably the larger and more pointed, a
small but distinct inner tubercle placed at the hinder margin of the
posterior lobe of the blade, and a broad, low, tuberculated heel,
occupying about one-third of the whole length of the tooth. The second
molar is less than half the length of the first, with a pair of cusps
placed side by side anteriorly, and a less distinct posterior pair.
The third is an extremely small and simple tooth with a subcircular
tuberculated crown and single root.
Views differ in regard to the best classification of the _Canidae_,
some writers adopting a number of generic groups, while others
consider that very few meet the needs of the case. In retaining the
old genus _Canis_ in the wide sense, that is to say, inclusive of the
foxes, Professor Max Weber is followed. The best cranial character by
which the different members of the family may be distinguished is that
in dogs, wolves and jackals the post-orbital process of the frontal
bone is regularly smooth and convex above, with its extremity bent
downwards, whereas in foxes the process is hollowed above, with its
outer margin (particularly of the anterior border) somewhat raised.
This modification coincides in the main with the division of the group
into two parallel series, the Thooids or Lupine forms and Alopecoids
or Vulpine forms, characterized by the presence of frontal air-sinuses
in the former, which not only affects the external form but to a still
greater degree the shape of the anterior part of the cranial cavity,
and the absence of such sinuses in the latter. The pupil of the eye
when contracted is round in most members of the first group, and
vertically elliptical in the others, but more observations are
required before this character can be absolutely relied upon. The form
and length of the tail is often used for the purposes of
classification, but its characters do not coincide with those of the
cranium, as many of the South American _Canidae_ have the long bushy
tails of foxes and the skulls of wolves.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The African Hunting-Dog (_Lycaon pictus_).]
The most aberrant representative of the thooid series is the African
hunting-dog (_Lycaon pictus_, fig. 5), which differs from the other
members of this series by the teeth being rather more massive and
rounded, the skull shorter and broader, and the presence of but four
toes on each limb, as in _Hyena_. The hunting-dog, from south and east
Africa, is very distinct externally from all other _Canidae_; being
nearly as large as a mastiff, with large, broadly ovate erect ears and
a singular colouring, often consisting of unsymmetrical large spots of
white, yellow and black. It presents some curious superficial
resemblances to _Hyena crocuta_, perhaps a case of mimetic analogy,
and hunts its prey in large packs. Several local races, one of which
comes from Somaliland, differing in size and colour, are recognized
(see HUNTING-DOG). Nearly related to the hunting-dog are the dholes or
wild dogs of Asia, as represented by the Central Asian _Cyan
primaevus_ and the Indo-Malay _C. javanicus_. They have, however, five
front-toes, but lack the last lower molar; while they agree with
_Lycaon_ and _Speothos_ in that the heel of the lower sectorial tooth
has only a single compressed cutting cusp, in place of a large outer
and a smaller inner cusp as in _Canis_. Dholes are whole-coloured
animals, with short heads; and hunt in packs. The bush-dog
(_Speothos_, or _Icticyon venaticus_) of Guiana is a small,
short-legged, short-tailed and short-haired species characterized by
the molars being only (2 or 1)/2; the carnassial having no inner cusp.
The long-haired raccoon-dog (_Nyctereutes procyonoides_) of Japan and
China agrees essentially in everything but general appearance (which
is strangely raccoon-like) with _Canis_. The typical group of the
latter includes some of the largest members of the family, such as the
true wolves of the northern parts of both Old and New Worlds (_C.
lupus, &c._), and the various breeds of the domestic dog (_C.
familiaris_), the origin of which is still involved in obscurity.
Some naturalists believe it to be a distinct species, descended from
one that no longer exists in a wild state; others have sought to find
its progenitors in some one of the wild or half-wild races, either of
true dogs, wolves or jackals; while others again believe that it is
derived from the mingling of two or more wild species or races. It is
probably the earliest animal domesticated by man, and few if any other
species have undergone such an extraordinary amount of variation in
size, form and proportion of limbs, ears and tail, variations which
have been perpetuated and increased by careful selective breeding (see
DOG). The dingo or Australian dog is met with wild, and also as the
domestic companion of the aboriginal race of the country, by whom it
appears to have been originally introduced. It is nearly related to a
half-wild dog inhabiting Java, and also to the pariah dogs of India
and other eastern countries. Dogs were also in the possession of the
natives of New Zealand and other islands of the Pacific, where no
placental mammals exist naturally, on their discovery by Europeans in
the 18th century. The slender-jawed _C. simensis_ of Abyssinia and the
South American _C. jubatus_ and _C. antarcticus_ are also generally
placed in this group. On the other hand, the North American coyote
(_C. latrans_), with its numerous subspecies, and the Old World
jackals, such as the Indo-European _C. aureus_ the Indian _C.
pallipes_, and the African _C. lupaster, C. anthus, C. adustus, C.
variegatus_ and _C. mesomelas_ (the black-backed jackal), although
closely related to the wolves, have been placed in a separate group
under the name of _Lupulus_. Again, _Thous_ (or _Lycalopex_), is a
group proposed for certain South American _Canidae_, locally known as
foxes, and distinguished from all the foregoing by their fox-like
aspect and longer tails, although with skulls of the thooid type.
Among these are the bright-coloured colpeo, _C. magellanicus_, the
darker _C. thous, C. azarae, C. griseus, C. cancrivorus_ and _C.
brasiliensis_. Some of these, such as _C. azarae_ and _C. griseus_,
show a further approximation to the fox in that the pupil of the eye
forms a vertical slit. More distinct from all the preceding are the
members of the alopecoid or vulpine section, which are unknown in
South America. The characteristic feature of the skull has been
already mentioned. In addition to this, reference may be made to the
elliptical (in place of circular) pupil of the eye, and the general
presence of ten (rarely eight) teats instead of a smaller number. The
typical groups constituting the subgenus (or genus) _Vulpes_, is
represented by numerous species and races spread over the Old World
and North America. Foremost among these is the European fox (_C.
vulpes_--otherwise _Vulpes alopex_, or _V. vulpes_), represented in
the Himalaya by the variety _C. v. montanus_ and in North Africa by
_C. v. niloticus_, while the North American _C. pennsylvanicus_ or
_fulvus_, can scarcely be regarded as more than a local race. On the
other hand, the Asiatic _C. bengalensis_ and _C. corsac_, and the
North American _C. velox_ (kit-fox) are smaller and perfectly distinct
species. From all these the North American _C. cinereo-argentatus_
(grey fox) and _C. littoralis_ are distinguished by having a fringe of
stiff hairs in the tail, whence they are separated as _Urocyon_.
Again, the Arctic fox (_C. lagopus_), of which there is a blue and a
white phase, has the tail very full and bushy and the soles of the
feet thickly haired, and has hence been distinguished as _Leucocyon_.
Lastly, we have the elegant little African foxes known as fennecs
(_Fennecus_), such as _C. zerda_ and _C. famelicus_ of the north, and
the southern _C. chama_, all pale-coloured animals, with enormously
long ears, and correspondingly inflated auditory bullae to the skull
(see WOLF, JACKAL, FOX).
Whatever differences of opinion may obtain among naturalists as to the
propriety of separating generically the foxes from the wolves and
dogs, there can be none as to the claim of the long-eared fox
(_Otocyon megalotis_) of south and east Africa to represent a genus by
itself. In this animal the dental formula is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m.
(3 or 4)/4; total 46 or 48. The molar teeth being in excess of almost
all other placental mammals with a differentiated series of teeth.
They have the same general characters as in _Canis_, with very pointed
cusps. The lower sectorial shows little of the typical character,
having five cusps on the crown-surface; these can, however, be
identified as the inner tubercle, the two greatly reduced and
obliquely placed lobes of the blade, and two cusps on the heel. The
skull generally resembles that of the smaller foxes, particularly the
fennecs. The auditory bullae are very large. The hinder edge of the
lower jaw has a peculiar form, owing to the great development of an
expanded, compressed and somewhat inverted subangular process.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 7, S. 3, Ca. 22. Ears very large. Limbs
rather long, with the normal number of toes. The two parietal ridges
on the skull remain widely separated, so that no sagittal crest is
formed. The animal is somewhat smaller than an ordinary fox. In the
year 1880 Professor Huxley suggested that in the long-eared fox we
have an animal nearly representing the stock from which have been
evolved all the other representatives of the dog and fox tribe. One of
the main grounds for arriving at this conclusion was the fact that
this animal has very generally four true molars in each jaw, and
always that number in the lower jaw; whereas three is the maximum
number of these teeth to be met with in nearly all placental mammals,
other than whales, manatis, armadillos and certain others. The
additional molars in _Otocyon_ were regarded as survivals from a
primitive type when a larger number was the rule. Palaeontology has,
however, made great strides since 1880, and the idea that the earlier
mammals had more teeth than their descendants has not only received no
confirmation, but has been practically disproved. Consequently Miss
Albertina Carlsson had a comparatively easy task (in a paper published
in the _Zoologisches Jahrbuch_ for 1905) in demonstrating that the
long-eared fox is a specialized, and to some extent degraded, form
rather than a primitive type. This, however, is not all, for the lady
points out that, as was suggested years previously by the present
writer, the creature is really the descendant of the fossil _Canis
curvipalatus_ of northern India. This is a circumstance of
considerable interest from a distributional point of view, as
affording one more instance of the intimate relationship between the
Tertiary mammalian fauna of India and the existing mammals of Africa.
In regard to the members of the dog-tribe as a whole, it may be stated
that they are generally sociable animals, hunting their prey in packs.
Many species burrow in the ground; none habitually climb trees. Though
mostly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on animals they have chased and
killed themselves, many, especially among the smaller species, eat
garbage, carrion, insects, and also fruit, berries and other vegetable
substances. The upper surface of the tail of the fox has a gland
covered with coarse straight hair. This gland, which emits an aromatic
odour, is found in all _Canidae_, with possibly the exception of
_Lycaon pictus_. Although the bases of the hair covering the gland are
usually almost white, the tips are always black; this colour being
generally extended to the surrounding hairs, and often forming dark
bars on the buttocks. The dark spot on the back of the tail is
particularly conspicuous, notably in such widely separated species as
the wolves, Azara's dog and the fennec.
Bear tribe.
Although its existing representatives are very different, the
bear-family or _Ursidae_, as will be more fully mentioned in the
sequel, was in past times intimately connected with the _Canidae_. In
common with the next two families, the modern _Ursidae_ are
characterized by the very small tympanic bulla, and the broad
paroccipital process, which is, however, independent of the bulla. The
feet are more or less completely plantigrade and five-toed. The
intestine has neither duodeno jejunal flexure nor a caecum; the
prostate gland is rudimentary; but glands occur in the vasa
deferentia; and the penial bone is cylindrical. As distinctive
characteristics of the _Ursidae_, may be mentioned the presence of an
alisphenoid canal on the base of the skull; the general absence of a
perforation on the inner side of the lower end of the humerus; the
presence of two pairs of upper and three of lower molars, which are
mostly elongated and low-cusped; and the non-cutting character and
fore-and-aft shortening of the upper sectorial, which has no inner
root and one inner cusp (fig. I, III.). Anal glands are apparently
wanting. The short tail, bulky build, completely plantigrade feet and
clumsy gait are features eminently characteristic of the bears.
The great majority of existing bears may be included in the typical
genus _Ursus_, of which, in this wide sense, the leading
characteristics will be as follows. The dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1,
p. 4/4, m. 2/3 = 42; but the three anterior premolars, above and
below, are one-rooted, rudimentary and frequently wanting. Usually the
first (placed close to the canine) is present, and after a
considerable interval the third, which is situated close to the other
teeth of the cheek-series. The fourth (upper sectorial) differs
essentially from the corresponding tooth of other Carnivora in that
the inner lobe is not supported by a distinct root; its sectorial
characters being very slightly marked. The crowns of both true molars
are longer than broad, with flattened, tuberculated, grinding
surfaces; the second having a large backward prolongation or heel. The
lower sectorial has a small and indistinct blade and greatly developed
tubercular heel; the second molar is of about the same length, but
with a broader and more flattened tubercular crown; while the third is
smaller. The milk-teeth are comparatively small, and shed at an early
age. The skull is more or less elongated, with the orbits small and
incomplete behind, and the palate prolonged considerably behind the
last molar. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 5, Ca. 8-10. Body heavy.
Feet broad, completely plantigrade; the five toes on each well
developed, and armed with long compressed and moderately curved,
non-retractile claws, the soles being generally naked. Tail very
short. Ears moderate, erect, rounded, hairy. Fur generally long, soft
and shaggy.
Bears are animals of considerable bulk, and include among them the
largest members of the order. Though the species are not numerous,
they are widely spread over the earth, although absent from Africa
south of the Sahara and Australasia. As a rule, they are omnivorous,
or vegetable feeders, even the polar bear, which subsists for most of
the year on flesh and fish, eating grass in summer. On the other hand,
many of the brown bears live largely on salmon in summer. Among the
various species the white polar bear of the Arctic regions, _Ursus
(Thalassarctus) maritimus_, differs from the rest by its small and low
head, small, narrow and simple molars, and the presence of a certain
amount of hair on the soles of the feet. The typical group of the
genus is represented by the brown bear (_U. arctus_) of Europe and
Asia, of which there are many local races, such as the Syrian _U. a.
syriacus_, the Himalayan _U. a. isabellinus_, the North Asiatic _U. a.
collaris_, and the nearly allied Kamchadale race, which is of great
size. In Alaska the group is represented by huge bears, which can
scarcely claim specific distinctness from _U. arctus_; and if these
are ranked only as races, it is practically impossible to regard the
Rocky Mountain grizzly bear (_U. horribilis_) as of higher rank,
although it naturally differs more from the Asiatic animal. On the
other hand, the small and light-coloured _U. pruinosus_ of Tibet may
be allowed specific rank. More distinct is the North American black
bear _U. americanus_, and its white relative _U. kermodei_ of British
Columbia; and perhaps we should affiliate to this group the Himalayan
and Japanese black bears (_U. torquatus_ and _U. japonicus_). Very
distinct is the small Malay sun-bear _U. (Helarctus) malayanus_,
characterized by its short, smooth fur, extensile tongue, short and
wide head, and broad molars. Finally, the spectacled bear of the
Andes, _U. (Tremarctus) ornatus_, which is also a broad-skulled black
species, differs from all the rest in having a perforation, or
foramen, on the inner side of the lower end of the humerus. A second
genus, _Melursus_, represented by the Indian sloth-bear (_M.
ursinus_), differs from the preceding in having only two pairs of
upper incisors, the small size of the cheek-teeth, and the extensile
lips. Ants, white-ants, fruits and honey form the chief food of this
shaggy black species,---a diet which accounts for its feeble dentition
(see BEAR).
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Parti-coloured Bear, or Giant Panda
(_Aeluropus melanoleucus_).]
The parti-coloured bear or giant panda (_Aeluropus melanoleucus_, fig.
6) of eastern Tibet and north-west China forms in some degree a
connecting link between the bears and the true panda, although placed
by Professor E.R. Lankester in the same family as the latter. In the
number of the teeth, and to some extent in the character of the
molars, as well as in the abbreviated tail, _Aeluropus_ resembles the
bears, but in the structure of the sectorial tooth, the presence of an
extra radial carpal bone, and the osteology generally, it is more like
the panda. In the absence of an alisphenoid canal to the skull it
differs both from the latter and the bears, and thereby resembles the
raccoons; while in having a perforation at the lower end of the
humerus, it agrees with the spectacled bear, the panda and raccoons.
The dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/3, m. 2/3; total 40; premolars
increasing in size from first to last, and two-rooted except the
first; the first upper molar with quadrate crown, broader than long;
and the second larger than the first. Skull with the zygomatic arches
and sagittal crest immensely developed, ascending branch of lower jaw
very high, giving great space for attachment of temporal muscle, and
facial portion short. Bony palate not extending behind the last molar.
No alisphenoid canal. Feet bear-like, but soles more hairy, and
perhaps less completely plantigrade. Fur long and thick; and tail
extremely short. Humerus with a perforation on the inner side of the
lower end; a very large extra radial carpal bone. The colour of this
strange animal is black and white (fig. 6).
With the panda (_Aelurus fulgens_) we reach an undoubted
representative of the _Procyonidae_, or raccoon tribe, differing,
however, from all the rest except the doubtful _Aeluropus_, in its
Asiatic habitat. If the latter be included, the family may be defined
as follows. Molars 3/2, except in _Aeluropus_, with blunt or sharp
cusps; no alisphenoid canal, except in _Aelurus_; humerus generally
with a foramen; feet plantigrade; tail, except in _Aeluropus_, long
and generally ringed.
In the panda the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/4, m. 2/2; total
38; the first lower molar being minute and deciduous, and the upper
molars broad with numerous and complicated cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 18. Skull high and compressed, with an
alisphenoid canal, a short facial portion, and the ascending branch of
the lower jaw, as in _Aeluropus_, very tall. Face cat-like, with
moderate, erect, pointed ears. Claws blunt. Tail cylindrical and
ringed. Fur long and thick. Extra radial carpal bone moderate. The
panda is a bright golden red animal, with black under-parts, ranging
from the eastern Himalaya to north-western China, where it is
represented by a distinct race. Fossil species occur in the later
Tertiary deposits of Europe (see PANDA).
The raccoons (_Procyon_) are the first and typical representatives of
the American section of the family, in which an alisphenoid canal is
always wanting. In this genus the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4,
m. 2/2; total 40; the upper molars being broad and tuberculated; the
upper sectorial (like that of _Aeluropus_ and _Aelurus_) having three
outer cusps and a broad bicuspid inner lobe, giving an almost quadrate
form to the crown. First upper molar with a large tuberculated crown,
rather broader than long; second considerably smaller, with
transversely oblong crown. Lower sectorial (first molar) with an
extremely small and ill-defined blade, placed transversely in front,
and a large inner tubercle and heel; second molar as long as the
first, but narrower behind, with five obtuse cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 16-20. Body stout. Head broad behind, but with
a pointed muzzle. In walking the entire sole not applied to the
ground, as it is when the animal is standing. Toes, especially of the
fore-foot, very free, and capable of being spread wide apart; claws
compressed, curved and pointed. Tail moderately long, cylindrical,
thickly covered with hair, ringed, non-prehensile. Fur long, thick and
soft. The common raccoon (_Procyon lotor_) of North America is the
type of this genus; it is replaced in South America by _P.
cancrivorus_ (see RACCOON). The cacomistles (_Bassariscus_) are nearly
allied to _Procyon_, but of more slender and elegant proportions, with
sharper nose, longer tail, and more digitigrade feet, and teeth
smaller and more sharply cusped. The typical _B. astuta_ is from the
southern parts of the United States and Mexico, while _B. (Wagneria)
annulata_ is Mexican and Central American.
The name _Bassaricyon_ has been given to a distinct modification of
the procyonine type of which at present two species are known, one
from Costa Rica and the other from Ecuador respectively, named _B.
gabbi_ and _B. alleni_. They much resemble the kinkajou in external
appearance, but the skull and teeth are more like those of _Procyon_
and _Nasua_. In the coatis, _Nasua_, the dentition is as in _Procyon_,
but the upper canines are larger and more strongly compressed, and the
molars smaller; while the facial portion of the skull is more
elongated and narrow. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 22-23.
Body elongated and rather compressed. Nose prolonged into a somewhat
upturned, obliquely-truncated, mobile snout. Tail long,
non-prehensile, tapering and ringed. Coatis, or coati-mundis, live in
small troops of eight to twenty, are chiefly arboreal, and feed on
fruits, young birds, eggs, insects, &c. The two best-known species are
_N. narica_ of Mexico and Central America, and _N. rufa_ of South
America from Surinam to Paraguay (see COATI).
In the kinkajou (q.v.), an animal long known as _Cercoleptes
caudivolvulus_, but whose designation it has been proposed to change
to the unclassical _Potos flavus_, the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p.
3/3, m. 2/2 = 36. Molars with low flat crowns, very obscurely
tuberculated. Skull short and rounded, with flat upper surface.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 26-28. Clavicles present, but
in a very rudimentary condition. Head broad and round. Ears short.
Body long and musteline. Limbs short. Tail long, tapering and
prehensile. Fur short and soft. Tongue long and very extensile.
Weasel tribe.
The last existing family of the land Carnivora is that typified by the
martens and weasels, and hence known as the _Mustelidae_. The group is
characterized by the absence of an alisphenoid canal in the skull, the
reduction of the molars to 1/2 or even 1/1, the medium size of the
sectorial tooth in each jaw, the absence or presence of a perforation
in the humerus, and the presence of anal glands. The family is
cosmopolitan in distribution, with the exception of Australasia and
Madagascar.
The first section of the family, forming the subfamily _Mustelinae_,
is typically characterized by the short and partially webbed toes,
furnished with short, compressed, sharp, curved and often partially
retractile claws. The upper molar is always of moderate size and
elongated in the transverse direction. In the martens and sables
(_Mustela_) the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/3, m. 1/2; total 38;
the upper sectorial having its inner lobe close to the anterior edge
of the tooth; and the upper molar being nearly as large as the
sectorial. Lower sectorial with small inner tubercle. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 14, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 18-23. Body long and slender. Limbs short,
partially digitigrade, with the feet rounded and the toes short, with
compressed, acute, semi-retractile claws. Tail moderate or long, more
or less bushy. One species, _M. martes_, the pine-marten, is British;
the remainder inhabit the northern regions of Europe, Asia and
America. Many of the species, as the sable (_M. zibellina_), yield fur
of great value (see MARTEN).
The dentition of _Putorius_ differs from that of _Mustela_ chiefly in
the absence of the anterior premolars of both jaws. The teeth are more
sharply cusped, and the lower sectorial wants the inner tubercle.
External characters generally similar to those of the martens, but the
body longer and more slender, and the limbs even shorter. All the
species are small animals, of active, bloodthirsty and courageous
disposition, living chiefly on birds and small mammals, and rather
terrestrial than arboreal, dwelling among rocks, stones and
out-buildings. Some of the species, as the stoat or ermine (_P.
ermineus_), inhabiting cold climates, undergo a seasonal change of
colour, being brown in summer and white in winter, though the change
does not affect the whole of the fur, the end of the tail remaining
black in all seasons. This is a large genus, having a very extensive
geographical range throughout the Old and New Worlds, and includes the
animals commonly known as weasels, polecats, ferrets and minks (q.v.).
In the glutton (_Gulo luscus_) the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p.
4/4, m. 1/2; total 38; the crowns of the teeth being stout, and the
upper molar much smaller than the sectorial. Lower sectorial large,
with small heel and no inner tubercle. The dentition, though really
but a modification of that of the weasels, presents a general
resemblance to that of hyena. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 3, Ca.
15. Body and limbs stoutly made; feet large and powerful,
subplantigrade, with large, compressed, much-curved and sharp-pointed
claws. Soles of the feet (except the pads of the toes) covered with
thick bristly hairs. Ears very small, nearly concealed by the fur.
Eyes small. Tail short, thick and bushy. Fur full, long and rather
coarse. The one species, the wolverine or glutton, is an inhabitant of
the forest regions of northern Europe, Asia and America, and much
resembles a small bear in appearance. It is a very powerful animal for
its size, climbs trees and lives on squirrels, hares, beavers,
reindeer, and is said to attack even horses and cows.
The South American grison and tayra represent the genus _Galictis_, in
which the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 1/2; total 34; the
molars being small but stout, and the upper sectorial with the inner
lobe near the middle of the inner border. Lower sectorial with heel
small, and inner tubercle small or absent. Body long; limbs short,
with non-retractile claws and naked soles. Head broad and depressed.
Tail of moderate length. The species include the grison (_G.
vittata_), _G. allamandi_, and the tayra (_G. barbara_); the last,
which extends northward into Central America, being sub-generically
separated as _Galera_. Nearly allied to these is the smaller and more
weasel-like _Lyncodon patagonicus_. All the foregoing South American
carnivores display a marked tendency to being darker on the lower than
on the upper surface. The same feature obtains in the African and
Indian ratels, or honey-badgers, constituting the genus _Mellivora_,
distinguished from all the other members of the family by having only
a single pair of lower molars, the dentition being i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p.
3/3, m. 1/1; total 32; the upper sectorial is large, with its inner
cusp at the anterior end of the blade, the molar much smaller and
transversely extended, having a small outer and a larger rounded inner
lobe. Heel of lower sectorial very small, scarcely one-fourth of the
whole length of the tooth, with but one cusp. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14,
L. 4, S. 4, Ca. 15. Body stout, depressed; limbs short, strong; head
depressed; nose rather pointed; ears rudimentary. Tail short. _M.
indica_, from India, and _M. ratel_, from south and west Africa, have
nearly the same general appearance and size, being rather larger than
a common badger, and may be only races of the same species. Their
coloration is peculiar, all the upper surface of the body, head and
tail being ash-grey, while the lower parts, separated by a distinct
longitudinal boundary line, are black. They live chiefly on the
ground, into which they burrow, but can also climb trees. They feed on
small mammals, birds, reptiles and insects, and are partial to honey.
In the Indo-Malay ferret-badger, _Helictis_, the dentition is i. 3/3,
c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 1/2; total 38. Upper sectorial with a large
bicusped inner lobe, molar smaller, wider transversely than in the
antero-posterior direction. Lower sectorial with heel about one-third
the length of the tooth. Skull elongated, rather narrow and depressed;
facial portion especially narrow; infraorbital foramen very large.
Head rather small and produced in front, with an elongated, obliquely
truncated, naked snout and small ears. Body elongated, limbs short.
Tail short or moderate, bushy. Several species are described, such as
_H. orientalis, moschata, nipalensis_, and _subaurantiaca_, from
eastern Asia, all small animals, climbing trees with agility and
living on fruits and berries as well as on small mammals and birds.
The African striped zorilles, or _Muis-honds_ (_Ictonyx_), have a
dental formula of i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 1/2; total 34; the teeth
much resembling those of the polecats, and the upper molar being
smaller than the sectorial, and narrow from before backwards. Lower
sectorial with a smalt narrow heel and distinct inner tubercle.
General form of body musteline. Limbs short, fore-feet large and
broad, with five stout, nearly straight, blunt and non-retractile
claws, of which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the
others. Tail moderate, with longer hairs towards the end, giving it a
bushy appearance. Hair generally long and loose. The best-known
species of this genus, the Cape polecat, _Ictonyx capensis_ (or
_Zorilla zorilla_), is about the size of a polecat, but conspicuous by
its broad, longitudinal bands of dark-brown, alternating with white.
Its odour is said to be as offensive as that of the American skunks.
From the Cape of Good Hope it ranges as far north as Senegal. Another
species, _I. lybicus_, from Sennaar, has been described. The small
striped polecat of southern Africa, _Poecilogale albinucha_,
represents a genus by itself, and is a shorter-haired animal.
The skunks of America are very similar to the two genera last
mentioned in their colouring, and with the latter serve to form a
connecting link with the more typical _Mustelinae_, and the badger
group, or _Melinae_, in which the feet are elongated, with straight
toes and non-retractile, slightly curved, subcompressed, blunt claws,
especially large on the fore-foot. In all cases the upper molar is
larger than the sectorial, and in the more typical genera is much
longer than broad.
In the North American skunks of the genus _Mephitis_ the dentition is
i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 1/2; total 34. Upper molar larger than the
sectorial, subquadrate, rather broader than long; lower sectorial with
heel less than half the length of the whole tooth. Bony palate
terminating posteriorly opposite the hinder border of the last molar.
Facial portion of skull short and somewhat truncated in front.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 16, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 21. Head small. Body
elongated. Limbs moderate, subplantigrade. Ears short and rounded.
Tail long, abundantly clothed with long fine hair. Anal glands largely
developed; their secretion, which can be discharged at the will of the
animal, has an intolerably offensive odour and has rendered skunks
proverbial. The South American species, which have only two upper
premolars, and differ in some other characters, are generically
separated under the name of _Conepatus_; while the small North
American arboreal skunks are distinguished as _Spilogale_ (see SKUNK).
Badger tribe.
Passing on to the more typical members of the badger group, we have
first the genus _Arctonyx_, with the dentition i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4,
m. 1/2; total 38. The incisor line is curved, the outer teeth being
placed posteriorly to the others: lower incisors inclined forwards.
First premolars often rudimentary or absent; upper molar much larger
than the sectorial, longer in the antero-posterior direction than
broad; lower sectorial with a very large, low, tuberculated heel.
Skull elongated and depressed; face long, narrow and concave above;
bony palate extending as far backwards as the level of the glenoid
fossa; and palatal bones dilated. Suborbital foramina very large.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 16, L. 4, S. 4, Ca. 20. Snout long, naked, mobile
and truncated, with large terminal nostrils, much like those of a pig.
Eyes small; ears very small and rounded. Body compressed, rather than
depressed. Limbs of moderate length, and partially digitigrade in
walking. Tail moderate, tapering. A full soft under-fur, with longer
bristly hairs interspersed. The longest-known species is _A.
collaris_, the _bhalu-soor_ (bear-pig) or _bali-soor_ (sand-pig) of
the natives of the mountains of north-eastern India, Burma and Borneo.
It is rather larger than the badger, higher on its legs, and very
pig-like in general aspect, of a light grey colour, with
flesh-coloured snout and feet; nocturnal and omnivorous. Other species
or local varieties have been described from north China and Burma.
In the genus _Mydaus_ the dentition is as the last, but the cusps of
the teeth are more acutely pointed. Skull elongated, face narrow and
produced. Suborbital foramen small, and the palate, as in all the
succeeding genera of this group, produced backwards about midway
between the last molar and the glenoid fossa. Vertebrae: C. 7, D.
14-15, L. 6-5, S. 3, Ca. 12. Head pointed in front; snout produced,
mobile, obliquely truncated, the nostrils being inferior. Limbs rather
short and stout. Tail extremely short, but clothed with rather long
bushy hair. Anal glands largely developed, and emitting an odour like
that of the skunks. One species, _M. meliceps_, the teledu, a small
burrowing animal from the mountains of Java, at an elevation of 7000
or more ft. above the sea-level; and a second (_M. marchei_) from the
Philippines.
In the true badger of the genus _Meles_ the dentition is i. 3/3, c.
1/1, p. 4/4, m. 1/2; total 38. The first premolar in both jaws is
extremely minute and often deciduous; while the upper molar is much
larger than the sectorial, subquadrate, and as broad as long. Lower
sectorial with a broad, low, tuberculated heel, more than half the
length of the whole tooth. The postglenoid process of the skull so
strongly developed, and the glenoid fossa so deep, that the condyle of
the lower jaw is firmly held in place after the soft parts are
removed. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S, 3, Ca. 18. Muzzle pointed.
Ears very short. Body stout, broad. Limbs short, strong,
subplantigrade. Tail short. Typified by the common badger (_M. taxus_
or _M. meles_) of Europe and northern Asia, still found in many parts
of England, where it lives in woods, is nocturnal, burrowing and very
omnivorous, feeding on mice, reptiles, insects, fruit, acorns and
roots. Other nearly allied species, _M. leucurus_ and _M. chinensis_,
are found in continental Asia, and _M. anakuma_ in Japan.
In the nearly-allied genus _Taxidea_ the dental formula is as in
_Meles_, except that the rudimentary anterior premolars appear to be
always wanting in the upper jaw. The upper sectorial is much larger in
proportion to the other teeth; and the upper molar about the same size
as the sectorial, triangular, with the apex turned backwards. Heel of
lower sectorial less than half the length of the tooth. Skull very
wide in the occipital region; the lambdoidal crest greatly developed,
and the sagittal but slightly, contrary to what obtains in _Meles._
Vertebrae: C. 7. D. 15. L. 5, S. 3, Ca. (?). Body stoutly built and
depressed. Tail short. The animals of this genus are peculiar to North
America, where they represent the badgers of the Old World, resembling
them much in appearance and habits. _T. americana_ is the common
American badger of the United States, _T. berlandieri_, the Mexican
badger, being a local variety.
Otter tribe.
The third and last subfamily is that of the otters, or _Lutrinae_, in
which the feet (with the exception of the hind pair in the sea-otter)
are short and rounded, with the toes webbed, and the claws small,
curved and blunt. The head is broad and much depressed. The upper
posterior cheek-teeth are large and quadrate. The kidneys are
conglomerate. Habits aquatic.
In the true otter of the genus _Lutra_ the dentition is i. 3/3, c.
1/1, p. 4/3, m. 1/2; total 36. Upper sectorial with a trenchant
tricusped blade, and a very large inner lobe, hollowed on the free
surface, with a raised sharp edge, extending along two-thirds or more
of the length of the blade. Upper molar large, with a quadricuspidate
crown, broader than long. Skull broad and depressed, contracted
immediately behind the orbits; with the facial portion very short and
the brain-case large. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14-15, L. 6-5, S. 3, Ca.
20-26. Body very long. Ears short and rounded. Limbs short. Feet
completely webbed, with well-developed claws on all the toes. Tail
long, thick at the base and tapering, rather depressed. Fur short and
close.
Otters are more or less aquatic, living on the margins of rivers,
lakes, and in some cases the sea; are expert divers and swimmers, and
feed chiefly on fish. They have an extensive geographical range, and
so much resemble each other in outward appearance, especially in the
nearly uniform brown colouring, that in some cases the species are by
no means well-defined. The Brazilian otter (_L. brasiliensis_) is a
very large species from Brazil, Demerara and Surinam, with a prominent
ridge along each lateral margin of the tail. In two small species the
feet are only slightly webbed; claws exceedingly small or altogether
wanting on some of the toes; the first upper premolar very small,
sometimes wanting; and the molars very broad and massive. The species
in question are _L. inunguis_ of South Africa, and _L. leptonyx_ or
_cinerea_ of India, Java and Sumatra, and have been separated as a
distinct genus, Aonyx.
The sea-otter, _Latax_ (or _Enhydra_) _lutra_, with a dentition of i.
3/2, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 1/2, total 32, differs from other Carnivora in
having but two incisors on each side of the lower jaw, the one
corresponding to the first (very small in the true otters) being
absent. Though the molar teeth generally resemble those of _Lutra_ in
their proportions, they differ in the exceeding roundness and
massiveness of their crowns and bluntness of their cusps. Feet webbed;
fore-feet short, with five subequal toes, with short compressed claws;
hind-feet very large, depressed and fin-like, their phalanges
flattened as in seals. The fifth toe the longest and stoutest, the
rest gradually diminishing in size to the first, all with moderate
claws. Tail moderate, cylindrical (see OTTER).
II. PINNIPEDIA
The second suborder is formed by the seals, walruses and eared seals,
which differ from the rest of the Carnivora mainly in the limbs being
modified for aquatic progression; the two upper segments being very
short and partially enveloped in the general integument of the body,
while the third, especially in the hind extremities, is elongated,
expanded and webbed. There are always five well-developed digits on each
limb. In the hind-limb the two marginal digits (first and fifth) are
stouter and generally larger than the others. The teeth also differ from
those of the more typical Carnivora. The incisors are always fewer than
3/3. The chsek series consists generally of four premolars and one molar
of uniform characters, with never more than two roots, and with conical,
more or less compressed, pointed crowns, which may have accessory cusps,
placed before or behind the principal one, but are never broad and
tuberculated. The milk-teeth are small, simple and shed or absorbed at
an early age, usually either before or within a few days after birth.
The brain is relatively large, the cerebral hemispheres broad in
proportion to their length, and with numerous and complex convolutions.
There is a very short caecum; the kidneys are divided into numerous
distinct lobules. There are no Cowper's glands. Teats two or four,
abdominal. No clavicles. Tail always short. Eyes large and exposed, with
flat cornea. The nostrils close by the elasticity of their walls, and
are opened at will by muscular action.
The members of this group are aquatic, spending the greater part of
their time in the water, swimming and diving with great facility,
feeding mainly on fish, crustaceans and other marine animals, and
progressing on land with difficulty, but always coming on shore for the
purpose of bringing forth their young. They are generally marine, but
occasionally ascend large rivers, and some inhabit inland seas and
lakes, as the Caspian and Baikal. Though not numerous in species, they
are widely distributed over the world, but occur most abundantly on the
coasts of lands situated in cold and temperate zones.
As mentioned in the article CREODONTA, the true seals (_Phocidae_),
together with the walruses, may be directly descended from the primitive
Creodont Carnivora. The eared seals, on the other hand, show signs of
affinity with the bears; but as they are of earlier geological age than
the latter, they cannot be derived from that group.
Seals.
The true seals (family _Phocidae_) are the most completely adapted for
aquatic life of all the Pinnipedia. When on land the hind-limbs are
extended backwards and take no part in progression, which is effected
by a series of jumping movements produced by the muscles of the trunk,
in some species aided by the fore-limbs. The soles of the feet are
hairy. There is no pinna to the ear, and no scrotum, the testes being
abdominal. The upper incisors have simple, pointed crowns, and vary in
number in the different groups. All have well developed canines and
5/5 teeth of the cheek series. In those species of which the
milk-dentition is known, there are three milk molars, which precede
the second, third, and fourth permanent molars; the dentition is
therefore p. 4/4, m. 1/1, the first premolar having as usual no milk
predecessor. The skull has no post-orbital process and no alisphenoid
canal. The fur is stiff and adpressed, without woolly under-fur.
In the typical group, or subfamily _Phocinae_, the incisors are 3/2.
All the feet have five well-developed claws with the toes on the
hind-feet subequal, the first and fifth not greatly exceeding the
others in length, the interdigital membrane not extending beyond them.
In the genus _Halichoerus_ the dentition is i. 3/2, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m.
1/1; total 34. Molars with large, simple, conical, recurved, slightly
compressed crowns, having sharp anterior and posterior edges, but
without accessory cusps, except sometimes the two hinder ones of the
lower jaw. With the exception of the last one or two in the upper jaw
and the last in the lower jaw, all are single-rooted. Vertebrae: C. 7,
D. 15, L. 5, S. 4, Ca. 14. Includes only one species _H. grypus_, the
grey seal of the coasts or Scandinavia and the British Isles.
In _Phoca_ the dental formula is as in the last, but the teeth are
smaller and more pointed. Molars with two roots (except the first in
each jaw). Crowns with accessory cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14-15, L.
5, S. 4, Ca. 11-14. Head round and short. Fore-feet short with five
strong, subcompressed, slightly curved, subequal, rather sharp claws.
On the hind-feet the claws much narrower and less curved. The species
of this genus are widely distributed throughout the northern
hemisphere, and include _P. barbata_, the bearded seal; _P.
groenlandica_, the Greenland seal; _P. vitulina_, the common seal; _P.
hispida_, the ringed seal of the north Atlantic; _P. caspica_, from
the Caspian and Aral Seas; and _P. sibirica_, from Lake Baikal. (See
SEAL).
The members of the second subfamily, _Monachinae_, have incisors 2/2;
and the molars two-rooted, except the first. On the hind-feet the
first and fifth toes greatly exceeding the others in length, with
nails rudimentary or absent. In the genus _Monachus_, the dentition is
i. 2/2, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 1/1; total 32. Crowns of molars strong,
conical, compressed, hollowed on the inner side, with a
strongly-marked lobed cingulum, especially on the inner side, and
slightly developed accessory cusps before and behind. The first and
last upper and the first lower molar smaller than the others.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 2, Ca. 11. All the nails of both fore
and hind feet very small and rudimentary. Represented by _M.
albiventer_, the monk-seal of the Mediterranean and adjacent parts of
the Atlantic, and the West Indian _M. tropicalis._
The other genera of this section have the same dental formula, but are
distinguished by the characters, of the cheek-teeth and the feet. They
are all inhabitants of the shores of the southern hemisphere.
In _Ogmorhinus_ all the teeth of the cheek-series have three distinct
pointed cusps, deeply separated from each other, of which the middle
or principal cusp is largest and slightly recurved; the other two are
nearly equal in size, and have their tips directed towards the middle
one. Skull much elongated. One species, _O. leptonyx_, the
sea-leopard, widely distributed in the Antarctic and southern
temperate seas. In _Lobodon_ the molars have compressed elongated
crowns, with a principal recurved cusp, rounded and somewhat bulbous
at the apex, and one anterior, and one, two or three posterior
distinct accessory cusps. One species, _L. carcinophagus_, the
crab-eating seal. In the third genus, _Leptonychotes_, represented by
_L. weddelli_, the molars are small, with simple, subcompressed,
conical crowns, and a broad cingulum, but no distinct accessory cusps.
Finally in the white seal (_Ommatophoca rossi_) all the teeth are very
small, those of the cheek-series with pointed, recurved crowns, and
small posterior and still less developed anterior accessory cusps.
Orbits very large. Nails rudimentary on front and absent on hind-feet.
The skull bears a considerable resemblance to that of the next
subfamily.
The presence of two pairs of upper and one pair of lower incisors is
characteristic of the members of the subfamily _Cystophorinae_, in
which the teeth of the cheek-series are generally one-rooted. The nose
of the males has an appendage capable of being inflated. First and
fifth toes of hind-feet greatly exceeding the others in length, with
prolonged cutaneous lobes, and rudimentary or no nails. In the typical
genus _Cystophora_ the dentition is i. 2/1, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 1/1;
total 30; the last molar having generally two distinct roots. Beneath
the skin over the face of the male, and connected with the nostrils,
is a sac capable of inflation, when it forms a kind of hood covering
the upper part of the head. Nails present, though small on the
hind-feet. Represented by _C. cristata_, the hooded or bladder-nosed
seal of the Polar Seas. In _Macrorhinus_ the dentition is numerically
the same as in the last, but the molars are of simpler character and
all one-rooted. All the teeth, except the canines, very small
relatively to the size of the animal. Hind-feet without nails.
Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 4, Ca. 11. Nose of adult male
produced into a short tubular proboscis, ordinarily flaccid, but
capable of dilatation and elongation under excitement. One species,
_M. leoninus_, the elephant-seal, or "sea elephant" of the whalers,
the largest of the whole family, attaining the length of nearly 20 ft.
Formerly abundant in the Antarctic Seas, and also found on the coast
of California.
Walrus
The next family is that of the walruses, or _Odobaenidae_, the single
generic representative of which is in some respects intermediate
between the _Phocidae_ and _Otariidae_, but has a completely aberrant
dentition. Walruses have no external ears, as in the _Phocidae_; but
when on land the hind-feet are turned forwards and used in
progression, though less completely than in the _Otariidae_. The upper
canines are developed into immense tusks, which descend a long
distance below the lower jaw. All the other teeth, including the lower
canines, are much alike, small, simple and one-rooted, the molars with
flat crowns. The skull is without post-orbital process, but has an
alisphenoid canal. In the young the dentition is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p.
and m. 5/4, but many of these teeth are, however, lost early or remain
through life in a rudimentary state, concealed by the gums. The teeth
which are usually developed functionally are i. 1/0, c. 1/1, p. 3/3,
m. 0/0; total 18. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 14, L. 6, S. 4, Ca. 9. Head
round. Eyes rather small. Muzzle short and broad, with a group of
long, very stiff, bristly whiskers on each side. The remainder of the
hair-covering very short and closely pressed. Tail rudimentary.
Fore-feet with subequal toes, carrying five minute flattened nails.
Hind-feet with subequal toes, the fifth slightly the largest, with
cutaneous lobes projecting beyond the ends as in _Otaria_; first and
fifth with minute flattened nails; second, third and fourth with
large, elongated, subcompressed pointed nails. The two species are
_Odobaenus rosmarus_, of the Atlantic, and the closely allied _O.
obesus_, of the Pacific. (See WALRUS.)
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Skull and dentition of Australian Sea-Bear
(_Otaria forsteri_).]
Sea-lions
The third and last family of the Pinnipedia, and thus of existing
Carnivora, is the _Otariidae_, which includes the eared seals, or
sea-lions and sea-bears. In all these animals, when on land, the
hind-feet are turned forwards under the body, and aid in supporting
and moving the trunk as in ordinary quadrupeds. There are small
external ears. Testes suspended in a distinct external scrotum. Skull
with post-orbital processes and alisphenoid canal. Soles of feet
naked. By many naturalists these seals are arranged in a number of
generic groups, but as the differences between them are not very
great, they may all be included in the typical genus _Otaria_. The
dental formula is i. 3/2, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. (1 or 2)/1; total 34 or
36. The first and second upper incisors are small, with the summits of
their crowns divided by deep transverse grooves into an anterior and a
posterior cusp of nearly equal height; the third large and
canine-like. Canines large, conical, pointed, recurved. Molars and
premolars usually 5/5, of which the second, third and fourth are
preceded by milk-teeth shed a few days after birth; sometimes (as in
fig. 7) a sixth upper molar (occasionally developed on one side and
not the other); all with similar characters, generally single-rooted;
crown moderate, compressed, pointed, with a single principal cusp, and
sometimes a cingulum, and more or less developed anterior and
posterior accessory cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 4, Ca.
9-10. Head rounded. Eyes large; ears small, narrow and pointed. Neck
long. Skin of the feet extended far beyond the nails and ends of the
digits, with a deeply-lobed margin. The nails small and often quite
rudimentary, especially those of the first and fifth toes of both
feet; the best-developed and most constant being the three middle
claws of the hind-foot, which are elongated, compressed and curved.
Sea-bears and sea-lions are widely distributed, especially in the
temperate regions of both hemispheres, though absent from the coasts
of the North Atlantic. They spend more of their time on shore, and
range inland to greater distances than the true seals, especially at
the breeding-time, though they are obliged to return to the water to
seek their food. They are gregarious and polygamous, and the males
usually much larger than the females. Some possess, in addition to the
stiff, close, hairy covering common to the group, a fine, dense,
woolly under-fur. The skins of these, when dressed and deprived of
the longer harsh outer hairs, constitute the "sealskin" of commerce.
The species include _O. stelleri_, the northern sea-lion, the largest
of the genus, from the North Pacific, about 10 ft. in length; _O.
jubata_, the southern sea-lion, from the Falkland Islands and
Patagonia; _O. californiana_, from California; _O. ursina_, the
sea-bear or fur-seal of the North Pacific, the skins of which are
imported in immense numbers from the Pribiloff Islands; _O.
antarctica_ or _pusilla_, from the Cape of Good Hope; and _O.
forsteri_, from Australia and various islands in the southern
hemisphere. (See SEAL-FISHERIES.)
Little is known as to the past history of the sea-lions and sea-bears,
but a skull has been obtained from the Miocene strata of Oregon, which
Mr F.W. True states to be considerably larger than any existing
sea-lion skull; its basal length when entire being probably about 20
in. The name _Pontoleon magnus_ has been proposed for this fossil
sea-lion, as the character of the skull and teeth do not agree
precisely with those of any living member of the group. If, however,
all the modern eared seals are included in the genus _Otaria_, there
is apparently no reason to exclude the fossil species.
EXTINCT CARNIVORA
Modern Carnivora are undoubtedly the descendants of the Creodonta
(q.v.), an extinct early Tertiary suborder. It has been observed that
as the Miocene is approached, some of these Carnivora Creodonta, or
Primitiva, begin to assume more and more of the characteristics of the
Carnivora Vera, till at last it is difficult to determine where the
one group ends and the other commences. The creodont genera
_Stypolophus_ and _Proviverra_ show some of these modern characters;
but it is not till we reach the European Oligocene genus _Amphictis_,
with the dental formula i. 3/3, c. 1/2, p. 4/4, m. 2/2, that we meet a
type in which the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar
assume the truly sectorial character of the Carnivora Vera, while the
teeth behind them are proportionally reduced in size. From the
_Amphictidae_ are probably descended the _Viverridae_, the connecting
genus being the African _Nandinia_, which, as already mentioned,
retains the imperfectly ossified bulla of the ancestral forms. In
another direction, _Amphictis_, through the Old World Lower Pliocene
genus _Ictitherium_, has given rise to the _Hyaenidae_. The _Felidae_
have apparently an ancestral type in the creodont _Palaeonictis_,
which has been regarded as the direct ancestor of the sabre-toothed
cats, or _Machaerodontinae_ (see MACHAERODUS); but it is possible that
_Palaeonictis_ may be off the direct line, and that the _Felidae_ are
sprung from _Amphictis_. Be this as it may, from another group of
creodonts, represented by _Vulpavus_ (_Miacis_), _Viverravus_
(_Didymictis_), and _Uintacyon_, is probably derived the Oligocene
_Cynodictis_, with a dental formula like that of _Canis_ or _Cyon_, a
perforation to the humerus, and an apparently undivided auditory
bulla; and from _Cynodictis_ the transition is easy to the _Canidae_.
It should be mentioned, however, that there is a group of North
American Oligocene dog-like animals, such as _Daphaenus_,
_Protemnocyon_, and _Temnocyon_, which agree with _Cyon_ in the
shortness of the jaws, and with that genus and _Speothos_ in the
cutting-heel of the lower sectorial. Possibly these genera may be
nearly related to _Cyon_. Other dog-like North American types are
_Oligohinis_, _Enhydrocyon_ and _Hyaenocyon_.
By means of the _Amphicyonidae_, as represented by the Middle Tertiary
genera _Proamphicyon, Pseudamphicyon_, and _Amphicyon_, in which there
were three upper molars, we have a transition from the
_Cynodictis_-type to the bear-group; one of the later intermediate
forms being the Lower Pliocene Old World _Hyaenarctus_, in which the
two upper molars are squared and foreshadow those of _Ursus_ itself.
In some unknown manner _Hyaenarctus_ appears to be related to
_Aeluropus_. An allied type is found in _Arctotherium_ of the South
American Pleistocene.
By the loss of the third lower molar and certain modifications of the
other teeth and skull, the Miocene genus _Plesictis_ may be derived
from _Cynodictis_, its dental formula being i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m.
(1 or 2)/2. Now _Plesictis_ is nothing more than a generalized
representative of the _Mustelidae_. We have thus traced three out of
the four modern arctoid families to the _Cynodictis_-type. The
_Procyonidae_, or fourth family (apart from the Asiatic _Aelurus_ and
_Aeluropus_) are connected with the last-named genus through the North
American Oligocene _Phlaeocyon_, which is stated to be in almost every
respect intermediate between _Procyon_ and _Cynodictis_ while the
living _Bassariscus_ is stated to show closer signs of affinity with
_Cynodictis_ than with _Phlaeocyon_.
To deal with fossil representatives of living genera, or extinct
genera nearly related to groups still existing, would here be
impracticable. It may be stated, however, that aberrant groups like
the otters are linked up with more normal types by means of extinct
forms (in this particular instance by the Miocene _Potamotherium_), so
that the gaps in the phylogeny of the Carnivora are comparatively few.
LITERATURE.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in
the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia. The principal works on
Carnivora are the following: W.H. Flower, "On the Value of the Base of
the Cranium in the Classification of the Carnivora," _Proc. Zool. Soc.
London_, 1869; T.H. Huxley, "Cranial and Dental Characters of the
Canidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1880; St G. Mivart, "On the
Classification and Distribution of the Aeluroidea ... and Arctoidea",
_Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1882 and 1885; E.R. Lankester, "On the
Affinities of Aeluropus," _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, vol. viii. part
iv., 1901; Miss A. Carlsson, "Uber die systematische Stellung von
Nandinia," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, vol. xiii., 1900, and "Ist Otocyon
die Ausgangsform des Hundegeschlechts oder nicht?" op. cit. vol.
xxii., 1905; J.L. Wortman and W.D. Matthew, "The Ancestry of Certain
Members of the Canidae, Viverridae, and Procyonidae," _Bull. Amer.
Mus._, vol. xii., 1899. (R. L.*)
CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE (1801-1888), French statesman, the second son
of L.N.M. Carnot (q.v.), was born at Saint-Omer on the 6th of October
1801. Hippolyte Carnot lived at first in exile with his father,
returning to France only in 1823. Unable then to enter active political
life, he turned to literature and philosophy, publishing in 1828 a
collection of _Chants helleniques_ translated from the German of W.
Muller, and in 1830 an _Expose de la doctrine Saint-Simonienne_, and
collaborating in the Saint-Simonian journal _Le Producteur._ He also
paid several visits to England and travelled in other countries of
Europe. In March 1839, after the dissolution of the chamber by Louis
Philippe, he was elected deputy for Paris (re-elected in 1842 and in
1846), and sat in the group of the Radical Left, being one of the
leaders of the party hostile to Louis Philippe. On the 24th of February
1848 he pronounced in favour of the republic. Lamartine chose him as
minister of education in the provisional government, Carnot set to work
to organize the primary school systems, proposing a law for obligatory
and free primary instruction, and another for the secondary education of
girls. But he declared himself against purely secular schools, holding
that "the minister and the schoolmaster are the two columns on which
rests the edifice of the republic." By this attitude he alienated both
the Right and the Republicans of the Extreme Left, and was forced to
resign on the 5th of July 1848. He was one of those who protested
against the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851, but was not
proscribed by Louis Napoleon. He refused to sit in the _Corps
Legislatif_ until 1864, in order not to have to take the oath to the
emperor. From 1864 to 1869 he was in the republican opposition, taking a
very active part. He was defeated at the election of 1869. On the 8th of
February 1871 he was named deputy for the Seine et Oise, and
participated in the drawing up of the Constitutional Laws of 1875. On
the 16th of December 1875, he was named by the National Assembly senator
for life. He died on the 16th of March 1888, three months after the
election of his elder son, M.F.S. Carnot (q.v.), to the presidency of
the republic. He had published _Le Ministere de l'instruction publique
et des cultes du 24e fevrier au 5e juillet 1848_, (1849), _Memoires sur
Lazare Carnot_ (2 vols., 1861-1864), _Memoires de Barere_ (with David
Angers, 4 vols., 1842-1843). His second son, Marie Adolphe Carnot (b.
1839), became a distinguished mining-engineer and director of the Ecole
des Mines (1899), his studies in analytical chemistry placing him in the
front rank of French scientists. He was made a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1895.
See Vermorel, _Les Hommes de 1848_, (3rd ed., 1869); E. Spuller,
_Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique_ (1891); P. de la
Gorce, _Histoire du Second Empire_ (1894 et seq.).
CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE(1753-1823), French general, was born
at Nolay in Burgundy in 1753. He received his training as an engineer at
Mezieres, becoming an officer of the Corps de Genie in 1773 and a
captain ten years later. He had then just published his first work, an
_Essai sur les machines en general_. In 1784 he wrote an essay on
balloons, and his. _Eloge_ of Vauban, read by him publicly, won him the
commendation of Prince Henry of Prussia. But as the result of a
controversy with Montalembert, Carnot abandoned the official, or Vauban,
theories of the art of fortification, and went over to the
"perpendicular" school of Montalembert. He was consequently imprisoned,
on the pretext of having fought a duel, and only released when selected
to accompany Prince Henry of Prussia in a visit to Vauban's
fortifications. In 1791 he married. The Revolution drew him into
political life, and he was elected a deputy for the Pas de Calais. In
the Assembly he took a prominent part in debates connected with the
army. Carnot was a stern and sincere republican, and voted for the
execution of the king. In the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 he was
continually employed as a commissioner in military matters, his greatest
service being in April 1793 on the north-eastern frontier, where the
disastrous battle of Neerwinden and the subsequent defection of
Dumouriez had thrown everything into confusion. After doing what was
possible to infuse energy into the operations of the French forces, he
returned to Paris and was made a member of the Committee of Public
Safety. He was charged with duties corresponding to those of the modern
chief of the general staff and adjutant-general. As a member of the
committee he signed its decrees and was thus at least technically
responsible for the acts of the Reign of Terror. His energies were,
however, directed to the organization, not yet of victory, but of
defence. His labours were incessant; practically every military document
in the archives of the committee was Carnot's own work, and he was
repeatedly in the field with the armies. His part in Jourdan's great
victory at Wattignies was so important that the credit of the day has
often been assigned to Carnot. The winter of 1793-1794 was spent in new
preparations, in instituting a severe discipline in the new and
ill-trained troops of the republic, and in improvising means and
material of war. He continued to visit the armies at the front, and to
inspire them with energy. He acquiesced in the fall of Robespierre in
1794, but later defended Barere and others among his colleagues,
declaring that he himself had constantly signed papers without reading
them, as it was physically impossible to do so in the press of business.
When Carnot's arrest was demanded in May 1795, a deputy cried "Will you
dare to lay hands on the man who has organized victory?" Carnot had just
accepted promotion to the rank of major in the engineers. Throughout
1793, when he had been the soul of the national defence, and 1794, in
which year he had "organized victory" in fourteen armies, he was a
simple captain.
Carnot was elected one of the five Directors in November 1795, and
continued to direct the war department during the campaign of 1796. Late
in 1796 he was made a member (1st class) of the Institute, which he had
helped to establish. He was for two periods president of the Directory,
but on the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor (1797) was forced to take
refuge abroad. He returned to France after the 18th Brumaire (1799) and
was re-elected to the Institute in 1800. Early in 1800 he became
minister of war, and he accompanied Moreau in the early part of the
Rhine campaign. His chief work was, however, in reducing the expenses of
the armies. Contrary to the usual custom he refused to receive presents
from contractors, and he effected much-needed reforms in every part of
the military administration. He tendered his resignation later in the
year, but it was long before the First Consul would accept it. From 1801
he lived in retirement with his family, employing himself chiefly in
scientific pursuits. As a senator he consistently opposed the increasing
monarchism of Napoleon, who, however, gave him in 1809 a pension and
commissioned him to write a work on fortification for the school of
Metz. In these years he had published _De la correlation des figures de
geometrie_ (1801), _Geometrie de position_ (1803), and _Principes
fondamentaux de l'equilibre et du mouvement_ (1803), all of which were
translated into German. His great work on fortification appeared at
Paris in 1810 (_De la defense de places fortes_) and was translated for
the use of almost every army in Europe. He took Montalembert as his
ground-work. Without sharing Montalembert's antipathy to the bastioned
trace, and his predilection for high masonry caponiers, he followed out
the principle of retarding the development of the attack, and provided
for the most active defence. To facilitate sorties in great force he did
away with a counterscarp wall, providing instead a long gentle slope
from the bottom of the ditch to the crest of the glacis. This, he
imagined, would compel an assailant to maintain large forces in the
advanced trenches, which he proposed to attack by vertical fire from
mortars. Along the front of his fortress was built a heavy detached
wall, loop-holed for fire, and sufficiently high to be a most
formidable obstacle. This "Carnot wall," and, in general, Carnot's
principle of active defence, played a great part in the rise of modern
fortification.
He did not seek employment in the field in the aggressive wars of
Napoleon, remaining a sincere republican, but in 1814, when France
itself was once more in danger, Carnot at once offered his services. He
was made a general of division, and Napoleon sent him to the important
fortress of Antwerp as governor. His defence of that place was one of
the most brilliant episodes of the campaign of 1814. On his return to
Paris he addressed a political memoir to the restored king of France,
which aroused much attention both in France and abroad. He joined
Napoleon during the Hundred Days and was made minister of the interior,
the office carrying with it the dignity of count, and on the 2nd of June
he was made a peer of France. On the second Restoration he was
proscribed. He lived thenceforward in Magdeburg, occupying himself still
with science. But his health rapidly declined, and he died at Magdeburg
on the 2nd of August 1823. His remains were solemnly removed to the
Pantheon in 1889. Long before this, in 1836, Antwerp had erected a
statue to its defender of 1814. In 1837 Arago pronounced his _eloge_
before the Academie des Sciences. The sincerity of his patriotism and
his political convictions was proved in 1801-1804 and in 1814. The
memory of his military career is preserved in the title, given to him in
the Assembly, of "The organizer of victory." His sons, Sadi and L.
Hippolyte, are separately noticed.
AUTHORITIES.--Baron de B..., _Vie privee, politique, et morale de
L.N.M. Carnot_ (Paris, 1816); Serieys, _Carnot, sa vie politique et
privee_ (Paris, 1816); Mandar, _Notice biographique sur le general
Carnot_, &c. (Paris, 1818); W. Korte, _Das Leben L.N.M. Carnots_
(Leipzig, 1820); P.F. Tissot, _Memoires historiques et militaires sur
Carnot_ (Paris, 1824); Arago, _Biographie de Carnot_ (Paris, 1850);
Hippolyte Carnot, _Memoires sur Carnot_ (Paris, 1863); C. Remond,
_Notice biographique sur le grand Carnot_ (Dijon 1880); A. Picaud,
_Carnot, l'organisateur de la victoire_ (Paris, 1885 and 1887); A.
Burdeau, _Une Famille de patriotes_ (Paris, 1888); L. Hennet, _Lazare
Carnot_ (Paris, 1888); G. Hubbard, _Une Famille republicaine_ (Paris,
1888); M. Dreyfous, _Les Trois Carnot_ (Paris, 1888); M. Bonnal,
_Carnot, d'apres les archives_, &c. (Paris, 1888); and memoir by E.
Charavaray in _La Grande Encyclopedie._
CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894), fourth president of the third
French Republic, son of L. Hippolyte Carnot, was born at Limoges on the
11th of August 1837. He was educated as a civil engineer, and after
having highly distinguished himself at the Ecole Polytechnique and the
Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, obtained an appointment in the public
service. His hereditary republicanism recommended him to the government
of national defence, by which he was entrusted in 1870 with the task of
organizing resistance in the departments of the Eure, Calvados and Seine
Inferieure, and made prefect of the last named in January 1871. In the
following month he was elected to the National Assembly by the
department Cote d'Or. In August 1878 he was appointed secretary to the
minister of public works. In September 1880 he became minister, and
again in April 1885, passing almost immediately to the ministry of
finance, which he held under both the Ferry and the Freycinet
administrations until December 1886. When the Wilson scandals occasioned
the downfall of Grevy in December 1887, Carnot's high character for
integrity marked him out as a candidate for the presidency, and he
obtained the support of Clemenceau and of all those who objected to the
candidatures of men who have been more active in the political arena, so
that he was elected by 616 votes out of 827. He assumed office at a
critical period, when the republic was all but openly attacked by
General Boulanger. President Carnot's ostensible part during this
agitation was mainly confined to augmenting his popularity by well-timed
appearances on public occasions, which gained credit for the presidency
and the republic. When early in 1889, Boulanger was finally driven into
exile, it fell to President Carnot's lot to appear at the head of the
state on two occasions of especial interest, the celebration of the
centenary of 1789 and the opening of the Paris Exhibition of that year.
The perfect success of both was regarded, not unreasonably, as a popular
ratification of the republic, and though continually harassed by the
formation and dissolution of ephemeral ministries, by socialist
outbreaks, and the beginnings of anti-Semitism, Carnot had but one
serious crisis to surmount, the Panama scandals of 1892, which, if they
greatly damaged the prestige of the state, increased the respect felt
for its head, against whose integrity none could breathe a word. Carnot
seemed to be arriving at the zenith of popularity, when on the 24th of
June 1894, after delivering at a public banquet at Lyons a speech in
which he appeared to imply that he nevertheless would not seek
re-election, he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Caserio and
expired almost immediately. The horror and grief excited by this tragedy
were boundless, and the president was honoured with a splendid funeral
in the Pantheon, Paris.
His son, FRANCOIS CARNOT, was first elected deputy for the Cote d'Or in
1902.
See E. Zevort, _Histoire de la Troisieme Republique_, tome iv., "La
Presidence de Carnot" (Paris, 1901).
CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD (1796-1832), French physicist, elder son
of L.N.M. Carnot, was born at Paris on the 1st of June 1796. He was
admitted to the Ecole Polytechnique in 1812, and late in 1814 he left
with a commission in the Engineers and with prospects of rapid
advancement in his profession. But Waterloo and the Restoration led to a
second and final proscription of his father; and though not himself
cashiered, Sadi was purposely told off for the merest drudgeries of his
service. Disgusted with an employment which afforded him neither leisure
for original work nor opportunities for acquiring scientific
instruction, he presented himself in 1819 at the examination for
admission to the staff corps (_etat-major_) and obtained a lieutenancy.
He then devoted himself with astonishing ardour to mathematics,
chemistry, natural history, technology and even political economy. He
was an enthusiast in music and other fine arts; and he habitually
practised as an amusement, while deeply studying in theory, all sorts of
athletic sports, including swimming and fencing. He became captain in
the Engineers in 1827, but left the service altogether in the following
year. His naturally feeble constitution, further weakened by excessive
study, broke down finally in 1832. An attack of scarlatina led to brain
fever, and he had scarcely recovered when he fell a victim to cholera,
of which he died in Paris on the 24th of August 1832. He was one of the
most original and profound thinkers who have ever devoted themselves to
science. The only work he published was his _Reflexions sur la puissance
motrice du feu et sur les machines propres a developper cette puissance_
(Paris, 1824). This contains but a fragment of his scientific
discoveries, but it is sufficient to put him in the very foremost rank,
though its full value was not recognized until pointed out by Lord
Kelvin in 1848 and 1849. Fortunately his manuscripts had been preserved,
and extracts were appended to a reprint of his _Puissance motrice_ by
his brother, L.H. Carnot, in 1878. These show that he had not only
realized for himself the true nature of heat, but had noted down for
trial many of the best modern methods of finding its mechanical
equivalent, such as those of J.P. Joule with the perforated piston and
with the friction of water and mercury. Lord Kelvin's experiment with a
current of gas forced through a porous plug is also given. "Carnot's
principle" is fundamental in the theory of thermodynamics (q.v.).
CARNOUSTIE, a police burgh and watering-place of Forfarshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 5204. It lies on the North Sea, 10-3/4 m. E.N.E. of Dundee by
the North British railway. Bathing and golfing are good. Barry Links, a
triangular sandy track occupying the south-eastern corner of the shire,
are used as a camping and manoeuvring ground for the artillery and
infantry forces of the district, and occasionally of Scotland. Its most
extreme point is called Buddon Ness, off which are the dangerous shoals
locally known as the Roaring Lion, in consequence of the deep boom of
the waves. On the Ness two lighthouses have been built at different
levels, the lights of which are visible at 13 and 16 m.
CARNUNTUM ([Greek: Karnous] in Ptolemy), an important Roman fortress,
originally belonging to Noricum, but after the 1st century A.D. to
Pannonia. It was a Celtic town, the name, which is nearly always found
with K on monuments, being derived from _Kar, Karn_ ("rock," "cairn").
Its extensive ruins may still be seen near Hainburg, between
Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell, in lower Austria. Its name first occurs
in history during the reign of Augustus (A.D. 6), when Tiberius made it
his base of operations in the campaigns against Maroboduus (Marbod). A
few years later it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along
the Danube from Vindobona (Vienna) to Brigetio (O-Szony), and (under
Trajan or Hadrian) the permanent quarters of the XIV legion. It was also
a very old mart for the amber brought to Italy from the north. It was
created a municipium by Hadrian (Aelium Carnuntum). Marcus Aurelius
resided there for three years (172-175) during the war against the
Marcomanni, and wrote part of his _Meditations_. Septimius Severus, at
the time governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there by the
soldiers (193). In the 4th century it was destroyed by the Germans, and,
although partly restored by Valentinian I., it never regained its former
importance, and Vindobona became the chief military centre. It was
finally destroyed by the Hungarians in the middle ages.
A special society (_Carnuntumverein_) exists for the exploration of
the numerous ruins, the results of which will be found in J.W.
Kubitschek and S. Frankfurter, _Fuhrer durch Carnuntum_ (3rd ed.,
1894); see also E. von Sacken, "Die romische Stadt Carnuntum," in
_Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, ix. (Vienna,
1852); article by Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopadie_,
iii. part ii. (1899); _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, iii., part i.
p. 550.
CARNUTES (Carnuti, Carnutae, [Greek: Karnoutinoi] in Plutarch), a Celtic
people of central Gaul, between the Sequana (Seine) and the Liger
(Loire). Their territory corresponded to the dioceses of Chartres,
Orleans and Blois, that is, the greater part of the modern departments
of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret, Loir-et-Cher. It was regarded as the political
and religious centre of the Gallic nation. The chief towns were Cenabum
(not Genabum; Orleans) and Autricum (Chartres). According to Livy (v.
34) the Carnutes were one of the tribes which accompanied Bellovesus in
his invasion of Italy during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. In the
time of Caesar they were dependents of the Remi, who on one occasion
interceded for them. In 52 they joined in the rebellion of
Vercingetorix. As a punishment for the treacherous murder of some Roman
merchants and one of Caesar's commissariat officers at Cenabum, the town
was burnt and the inhabitants put to the sword or sold as slaves. During
the war they sent 12,000 men to relieve Alesia, but shared in the defeat
of the Gallic army. Having attacked the Bituriges Cubi, who appealed to
Caesar for assistance, they were forced to submit. Under Augustus, the
Carnutes, as one of the peoples of Lugdunensis, were raised to the rank
of _civitas socia_ or _foederata_, retaining their own institutions, and
only bound to render military service to the emperor. Up to the 3rd
century Autricum (later Carnutes, whence Chartres) was the capital, but
in 275 Aurelian changed Cenabum from a _vicus_ into a _civitas_ and
named it Aurelianum or Aurelianensis urbs (whence Orleans).
See Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ v. 25, 29, vii. 8, 11, 75, viii. 5, 31;
Strabo iv. pp. 191-193; R. Boutrays, _Urbis gentisque Carnutum
historia_ (1624); A. Desjardins, _Geographie historique de la Gaule_,
ii. (1876-1893); article and bibliography in _La Grande Encyclopedie_,
T.R. Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899), p. 402, on Cenabum.
CARO, ANNIBALE (1507-1566), Italian poet, was born at Civita Nuova, in
Ancona, in 1507. He became tutor in the family of Lodovico Gaddi, a rich
Florentine, and then secretary to his brother Giovanni, by whom he was
presented to a valuable ecclesiastical preferment at Rome. At Gaddi's
death, he entered the service of the Farnese family, and became
confidential secretary in succession to Pietro Lodovico, duke of Parma,
and to his sons, duke Ottavio and cardinals Ranuccio and Alexander.
Caro's most important work was his translation of the _Aeneid_ (Venice,
1581; Paris, 1760). He is also the author of _Rime, Canzoni_, and
sonnets, a comedy named _Gli Straccioni_, and two clever _jeux
d'esprit_, one in praise of figs, _La Ficheide_, and another in eulogy
of the big nose of Leoni Ancona, president of the Academia della Vertu.
Caro's poetry is distinguished by very considerable ability, and
particularly by the freedom and grace of its versification; indeed he
may be said to have brought the _verso sciolto_ to the highest
development it has reached in Italy. His prose works consist of
translations from Aristotle, Cyprian and Gregory Nazianzen; and of
letters, written in his own name and in those of the cardinals Farnese,
which are remarkable both for the baseness they display and for their
euphemistic polish and elegance. His fame has been greatly damaged by
the virulence with which he attacked Lodovico Castelvetro in one of his
canzoni, and by his meanness in denouncing him to the Holy Office as
translator of some of the writings of Melanchthon. He died at Rome about
1566.
CARO, ELME MARIE (1826-1887), French philosopher, was born on the 4th of
March 1826 at Poitiers. His father, a professor of philosophy, gave him
an excellent education at the Stanislas College and the Ecole Normale,
where he graduated in 1848. After being professor of philosophy at
several provincial universities, he received the degree of doctor, and
came to Paris in 1858 as master of conferences at the Ecole Normale. In
1861 he became inspector of the Academy of Paris, in 1864 professor of
philosophy to the Faculty of Letters, and in 1874 a member of the French
Academy. He married Pauline Cassin, the authoress of the _Peche de
Madeleine_ and other well-known novels. He died in Paris on the 13th of
July 1887. In his philosophy he was mainly concerned to defend
Christianity against modern Positivism. The philosophy of Cousin
influenced him strongly, but his strength lay in exposition and
criticism rather than in original thought. Besides important
contributions to _La France_ and the _Revue des deux mondes_, he wrote
_Le Mysticisme au XVIII^e siecle_ (1852-1854), _L'Idee de Dieu_ (1864),
_Le Materialisme et la science_ (1868), _Le Pessimisme au XIX^e siecle_
(1878), _Jours d'epreuves_ (1872), _M. Littre et le positivisme_ (1883),
_George Sand_ (1887), _Melanges et portraits_ (1888), _La Philosophie de
Goethe_ (2nd ed., 1880).
CAROL (O. Fr. _carole_), a hymn of praise, especially such as is sung at
Christmas in the open air. The origin of the word is obscure. Diez
suggests that the word is derived from _chorus_. Others ally it with
_corolla_, a garland, circle or coronet,[1] the earliest sense of the
word being apparently "a ring" or "circle," "a ring dance." Stonehenge,
often called the Giants' Dance, was also frequently known as the Carol;
thus Harding, _Chron._ lxx. x., "Within (the) Giauntes Carole, that so
they hight, The (Stone hengles) that nowe so named been." The Celtic
forms, often cited as giving the origin of the word, are derivatives of
the English or French. The crib set up in the churches at Christmas was
the centre of a dance, and some of the most famous of Latin Christmas
hymns were written to dance tunes. These songs were called
_Wiegenlieder_ in German, _noels_ in French, and carols in English. They
were originally modelled on the songs written to accompany the choric
dance, which were probably the starting-point of the lyric poetry of the
Germanic peoples. Strictly speaking, therefore, the word should be
applied to lyrics written to dance measures; in common acceptation it is
applied to the songs written for the Christmas festival. Carolling, i.e.
the combined exercise of dance and song, found its way from pagan ritual
into the Christian church, and the clergy, however averse they might be
from heathen survivals, had to content themselves in this, as in many
other cases, with limiting the practice. The third council of Toledo
(589) forbade dancing in the churches on the vigils of saints' days, and
secular dances in church were forbidden by the council of Auxerre in the
next year. Even as late as 1209 it was necessary for the council of
Avignon to forbid theatrical dances and secular songs in churches.
Religious dances persisted longest on Shrove Tuesday, and a castanet
dance by the choristers round the lectern is permitted three times a
year in the cathedral of Seville. The Christmas festival, which
synchronized with and superseded the Latin and Teutonic feasts of the
winter solstice, lent itself especially to gaiety. The "crib" of the
Saviour was set up in the churches or in private houses, in the
traditional setting of the stable, with earthen figures of the Holy
Family, the ox and the ass; and carols were sung and danced around it.
The "rocking of the cradle" was the occasion of dialogue between Joseph
and Mary which was not without elements of comedy, and gave rise to
lullabies such as the well-known German _Dormi fili_. The adoration of
the shepherds and the visit of the Magi also provided matter for
dramatic and choral representation. The singing of the carol has
survived in places where the institution of the "crib," said to have
been originated by St Francis of Assisi to inculcate the doctrine of the
incarnation, has been long in disuse, but in the West Riding of
Yorkshire the children who go round carol-singing still carry
"milly-boxes" (My Lady boxes) containing figures which represent the
Virgin and Child.
That carol-singing early became a pretext for the asking of alms is
obvious from an Anglo-Norman carol preserved in the British Museum (MS.
Reg. 16 E. viii.), _Seigneurs ore entendey a nus_, which is little more
than a drinking song. Carols were an important element in the mystery
plays of the Nativity, and one of these, included in the _Marguerites de
la Marguerite des princesses, tres-illustre reine de Navarre_ (Lyons,
1547), incidentally gives evidence of the connexion of dancing and
carol-singing, for the shepherds and shepherdesses open their chorus at
the manger with "_Dansons, chantons, faisons rage_." There is a long
English carol relating the chief incidents of the life of Christ, which
is a curious example of the mixture of the sacred and profane common in
this species of composition. It begins "To-morrow shall be my dancing
day," and has for refrain--
"Sing, oh! my love, oh! my love, my love, my love;
This have I done for my true love."
There are extant numerous carols dating from the 15th century which have
the characteristic features of folksong. The famous Cherry-tree Carol,
"Joseph was an old man," is based on an old legend which is related in
the Coventry mystery plays. "I saw three ships come sailing in," and
"The Camel and the Crane," though of more modern date, preserve curious
legends. Numerous entries in the household accounts of the Tudor
sovereigns show that carol-singing was popular throughout the 16th
century, and the literature of Christmas was enriched in the next
century by poems which are often included in collections of carols,
though they were probably written to be read rather than sung. Milton,
Crashaw, Southwell, Ben Jonson, George Herbert and George Wither all
produced Christmas poems, but the richest collection by any one poet is
to be found in the poems of Herrick, whose "Come, bring with a noise" is
a typical carol of the jovial kind, and may well have been written to a
dance tune. Among 18th-century religious carols perhaps the most famous
is Charles Wesley's "Hark, how all the welkin rings," better known in
the variant, "Hark, the herald angels sing." The artificial modern
revival of carol-singing has produced a quantity of new carols, the best
of which are perhaps mostly derived from medieval Latin Christmas hymns.
Among the many modern Christmas poems one of the most striking is
Swinburne's "Three Damsels in the Queen's Chamber," which is, however, a
ballad rather than a carol.
The earliest printed collection of carols was issued by Wynkyn de Worde
in 1521. It contained the famous Boar's Head carol, _Caput apri defero,
Reddens laudes Domino_, which in a slightly altered form is sung at
Queen's College, Oxford, on the bringing in of the boar's head. Modern
collections of ancient carols are derived chiefly from three tracts
belonging to the collection of Anthony a Wood, preserved in the Bodleian
library, from a 15th-century MS. (Sloane 2593), a 16th-century MS. with
the music (Add. 5665), and other MSS. in the British Museum, and from
oral tradition. In the 15th century T. Bloomer of Birmingham published a
number of carols in the form of broad-sides. Among the numerous
collections of French carols is _Noei Borguignon de Gui Barozai_ (1720),
giving the words and the music of thirty-four _noels_, many of them very
free in character. The term _noel_ passed into the English carol as a
favourite refrain, "nowell," and seems to have been in common use in
France as an equivalent for _vivat_.
Among the more important modern collections of Christmas carols are:
_Songs and Carols_ (1847), edited by T. Wright for the Percy Society
from Sloane MS. 2593; W. Sandys, _Christmastide, its History,
Festivities and Carols_ (1852); _Christmas with the Poets_ (edited by
V.H., 4th ed., 1872); T. Helmore and J.M. Neale, _Carols for
Christmastide_ (1853-1854), with music; R.R. Chope, _Carols_ (new and
complete edition, 1894), a tune-book for church use, with an
introduction by S. Baring-Gould; H.R. Bramley, _Christmas Carols, New
and Old_, the music by Dr Stainer; A.H. Bullen, _Carols and Poems_
(1885); J.A. Fuller Maitland and W.S. Rockstro, _Thirteen Carols of
the Fifteenth Century_, from a Trinity Coll., Cambridge, MS. (1891).
See also Julian's _Dictionary of Hymnology_, s.v. "Carol"; E. Cortet,
_Essai sur les fetes religieuses_ (1867).
FOOTNOTE:
[1] In architecture, the term "carol" (also wrongly spelled "carrel"
or "carrol") is used, in the sense of an enclosure, of a small chapel
or oratory enclosed by screens, and also sometimes of the rails of
the screens themselves. It is more particularly applied to the
separate seats near the windows of a cloister (q.v.), used by the
monks for the purposes of study, &c. The term "carol" has, by a
mistake, been sometimes used of a scroll bearing an inscription of a
text, &c.
CAROLINE (1683-1737), wife of George II., king of Great Britain and
Ireland, was a daughter of John Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
(d. 1686). Born at Ansbach on the 1st of March 1683, the princess passed
her youth mainly at Dresden and Berlin, where she enjoyed the close
friendship of Sophie Charlotte, wife of Frederick I. of Prussia; she
married George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, in September 1705.
The early years of her married life were spent in Hanover. She took a
continual interest in the approaching accession of the Hanoverian dynasty
to the British throne, was on very friendly terms with the old electress
Sophia, and corresponded with Leibnitz, whose acquaintance she had made in
Berlin. In October 1714 Caroline followed her husband and her
father-in-law, now King George I., to London. As princess of Wales she was
accessible and popular, and took the first place at court, filling a
difficult position with tact and success. When the quarrel between the
prince of Wales and his father was attaining serious proportions, Caroline
naturally took the part of her husband, and matters reached a climax in
1717. Driven from court, ostracized by the king, deprived even of the
custody of their children, the prince and princess took up their residence
in London at Leicester House, and in the country at Richmond. They
managed, however, to surround themselves with a distinguished circle;
Caroline had a certain taste for literature, and among their attendants
and visitors were Lord Chesterfield, Pope, Gay, Lord Hervey and his wife,
the beautiful Mary Lepel. A formal reconciliation with George I. took
place in 1720. In October 1727 George II. and his queen were crowned.
During the rest of her life Queen Caroline's influence in English politics
was very chiefly exercised in support of Sir Robert Walpole; she kept this
minister in power, and in control of church patronage. She was exceedingly
tolerant, and the bishops appointed by her were remarkable rather for
learning than for orthodoxy. During the king's absences from England she
was regent of the kingdom on four occasions. On the whole, Caroline's
relations with her husband, to whom she bore eight children, were
satisfactory. A clever and patient woman, she was very complaisant towards
the king, flattering his vanity and acknowledging his mistresses, and she
retained her influence over him to the end. She died on the 20th of
November 1737.
Caroline appears in Scott's _Heart of Midlothian_; see also Lord
Hervey, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, ed. by J.W. Croker
(1884); W.H. Wilkins, _Caroline the Illustrious_ (1904); and A.D.
Greenwood, _Lives of the Hanoverian Queens of England_, vol. i.
(1909).
CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA (1768-1821), queen of George IV. of Great
Britain, second daughter of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of
Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was born on the 17th of May 1768. She was
brought up with great strictness, and her education did not fit her well
for her subsequent station in life. In 1795 she was married to the then
prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.), who disliked her and separated from
her after the birth of a daughter in January 1796. The princess resided
at Blackheath; and as she was thought to have been badly treated by her
profligate husband, the sympathies of the people were strongly in her
favour. About 1806 reports reflecting on her conduct were circulated so
openly that it was deemed necessary for a commission to inquire into the
circumstances. The princess was acquitted of any serious fault, but
various improprieties in her conduct were pointed out and censured. In
1814 she left England and travelled on the continent, residing
principally in Italy. On the accession of George in 1820, orders were
given that the English ambassadors should prevent the recognition of the
princess as queen at any foreign court. Her name also was formally
omitted from the liturgy. These acts stirred up a strong feeling in
favour of the princess among the English people generally, and she at
once made arrangements for returning to England and claiming her rights.
She rejected a proposal that she should receive an annuity of L50,000 a
year on condition of renouncing her title and remaining abroad. Further
efforts at compromise proved unavailing; Caroline arrived in England on
the 6th of June, and one month later a bill to dissolve her marriage
with the king on the ground of adultery was brought into the House of
Lords. The trial began on the 17th of August 1820, and on the 10th of
November the bill, after passing the third reading, was abandoned. The
public excitement had been intense, the boldness of the queen's counsel,
Brougham and Denman, unparalleled, and the ministers felt that the
smallness of their majority was virtual defeat. The queen was allowed to
assume her title, but she was refused admittance to Westminster Hall on
the coronation day, July 19, 1821. Mortification at this event seems to
have hastened her death, which took place on the 7th of August of the
same year.
See _A Queen of Indiscretions, the Tragedy of Caroline of Brunswick,
Queen of England_, translated by F. Chapman from the Italian of
Graziano Paolo Clerici (London, 1907), with numerous portraits, &c. Of
contemporary authorities the _Creevy Papers_ (1905) throw the most
interesting sidelights on the subject.
CAROLINE ISLANDS, a widely-scattered archipelago in the Pacific Ocean,
E. of the Philippines and N. of New Guinea, included in Micronesia,
between 5 deg. and 10 deg. N., and 135 deg. and 165 deg. E., belonging
to Germany. They fall into three main groups, the Western, Central and
Eastern Carolines, the central being the most numerous, while the
western include the Pelew group. The total land area is about 380 sq.
m., and out of this, 307 sq. m. is covered by the four main islands,
Ponape and Kusaie in the eastern group, Truk or Hogolu in the central,
and Yap in the western. These islands are of considerable elevation (the
highest point of Ponape approaches 3000 ft.), but the rest are generally
low coral islets. The climate is equable and moist, but healthy; but the
islands are subject to heavy storms. The total population is estimated
at 36,000. The natives, who are Micronesian hybrids of finer physique
than their kinsmen of the Pelew Islands, have a comparatively high
mental standard, being careful agriculturists, and peculiarly clever
boatbuilders and navigators. The Germans divide the whole archipelago
into two administrative districts, eastern and western, having the seats
of government at Ponape and Yap respectively. The principal article of
export is copra. The islands were discovered (at least in part) by the
Portuguese Diego da Rocha in 1527, and called by him the Sequeira
Islands. In 1686 Admiral Francesco Lazeano, who made further
explorations, renamed them the Carolines in honour of Charles II. of
Spain. The islands were subsequently visited by a few travellers; but
the natives have only in modern times been reconciled to the presence of
foreigners; an early visit of missionaries (1731) resulted in one of
several murderous attacks on white men which darken the history of the
islands; and it was only in 1875 that Spain, claiming the group, made
some attempt to assert her rights. These were contested by Germany,
whose flag was hoisted on Yap, and the matter was referred to the
arbitration of Pope Leo XIII. in 1885. He decided in favour of Spain,
but gave Germany free trading rights; and in 1899 Germany took over the
administration of the islands from Spain, paying 25,000,000 pesetas
(nearly L1,000,000 sterling).
_Ancient Stone Buildings._--In Ponape and Kusaie, massive stone
structures, similar to those which occur in several other parts of the
Pacific Ocean, have long been known to exist. They have been closely
explored by Herr Kubary, Mr F.J. Moss, and later Mr F.W. Christian. None
of the colossal structures hitherto described appears to have been
erected by the present Melanesian or Polynesian peoples, while their
wide diffusion, extending as far as Easter Island, within 400 m. of the
New World, points to the occupation of the Pacific lands by a
prehistoric race which had made some advance in general culture. The
Funafuti borings (1897) show almost beyond doubt that Polynesia is an
area of comparatively recent subsidence. Hence the land connexions must
have formerly been much easier and far more continuous than at present.
The dolmen-builders of the New Stone Age are now known to have long
occupied both Korea and Japan, from which advanced Asiatic lands they
may have found little difficulty in spreading over the Polynesian world,
just as in the extreme west they were able to range over Scandinavia,
Great Britain and Ireland. To Neolithic man, still perhaps represented
by some of the more light-coloured and more regular-featured Polynesian
groups, may therefore not unreasonably be attributed these astonishing
remains, which assume so many different forms according to the nature of
the locality, but seem generally so out of proportion with the present
restricted areas on which they stand. With the gradual subsidence of
these areas their culture would necessarily degenerate, although echoes
of sublime theogonies and philosophies are still heard in the oral
traditions and folklore of many Polynesian groups. In the islet of Lele,
close to Kusaie, at the eastern extremity of Micronesia, the ruins
present the appearance of a citadel with cyclopean ramparts built of
large basaltic blocks. There are also numerous canals, and what look
like artificial harbours constructed amid the shallow lagoons.
In Ponape the remains are of a somewhat similar character, but on a much
larger scale, and with this difference, that while those of Lele all
stand on the land, those of Ponape are built in the water. The whole
island is strewn with natural basaltic prisms, some of great size: and
of this material, brought by boats or rafts from a distance of 30 m. and
put together without any mortar, but sustained by their own weight, are
built all the massive walls and other structures on the east side of the
island. The walls of the main building near the entrance of Metalanim
harbour form a massive quadrangle 200 ft. on all sides, with inner
courts, vault and raised platform with walls 20 to 40 ft. high and from
8 to 18 ft. thick. Some of the blocks are 25 ft. long and 8 ft. in
circumference, and many of them weigh from 3 to 4 tons. There are also
numerous canals from 30 to 100 ft. wide, while a large number of islets,
mainly artificial, covering an area of 9 sq. m., have all been built up
out of the shallow waters of the lagoon round about the entrance of the
harbour, with high sea-walls composed of the same huge basaltic prisms.
In, some places the walls of this "Pacific Venice" are now submerged to
some depth, as if the land had subsided since the construction of these
extensive works. Elsewhere huge breakwaters had been constructed, the
fragments of which may still be seen stretching away for a distance of
from 2 to 3 m. Most observers, such as Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge and
Mr. Le Hunte, agree that these structures could not possibly be the work
of any of the present Polynesian peoples, and attribute them to a now
extinct prehistoric race, the men of the New Stone Age from the Asiatic
mainland.
_Stone Money._--The inhabitants of Yap are noted for possessing the most
extraordinary currency, if it can be so called, in the whole world.
Besides the ordinary shell money, there is a sort of stone coinage,
consisting of huge calcite or limestone discs or wheels from 6 in. to 12
ft. in diameter, and weighing up to nearly 5 tons. These are all
quarried in the Pelew Islands, 200 m. to the south, and are now brought
to Yap in European vessels. But some were in the island long before the
arrival of the whites, and must consequently have been brought by native
vessels or on rafts. The stones, which are rather tokens than money, do
not circulate, but are piled up round about the chief's treasure-house,
and appear to be regarded as public property, although it is hard to say
what particular use they can serve. They appear to be kept rather for
show and ornament than for use.
See F.W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899); G. Volkens,
"Uber die Karolinen Insel Yap," in _Verhandlungen Gesellschaft
Erdkunde Berlin_., xxviii. (1901); J.S. Kubary, _Ethnographische
Beitrage zur Kentniss des Karolinen-Archipel_ (Leiden, 1889-1892); De
Abrade, _Historia del conflicto de las Carolinas, &c._ (Madrid, 1886).
CAROLINGIANS, the name of a family (so called from Charlemagne, its most
illustrious member) which gained the throne of France A.D. 751. It
appeared in history in 613, its origin being traced to Arnulf (Arnoul),
bishop of Metz, and Pippin, long called Pippin of Landen, but more
correctly Pippin the Old or Pippin I. Albeit of illustrious descent, the
genealogies which represent Arnulf as an Aquitanian noble, and his
family as connected--by more or less complicated devices--with the
saints honoured in Aquitaine, are worthless, dating from the time of
Louis the Pious in the 9th century. Arnulf was one of the Austrasian
nobles who appealed to Clotaire II., king of Neustria, against
Brunhilda, and it was in reward for his services that he received from
Clotaire the bishopric of Metz (613). Pippin, also an Austrasian noble,
had taken a prominent part in the revolution of 613. These two men
Clotaire took as his counsellors; and when he decided in 623 to confer
the kingdom of Austrasia upon his son Dagobert, they were appointed
mentors to the Austrasian king, Pippin with the title of mayor of the
palace. Before receiving his bishopric, Arnulf had had a son
Adalgiselus, afterwards called Anchis; Pippin's daughter, called Begga
in later documents, was married to Arnulf's son, and of this union was
born Pippin II. Towards the end of the 7th century Pippin II., called
incorrectly Pippin of Heristal, secured a preponderant authority in
Austrasia, marched at the head of the Austrasians against Neustria, and
gained a decisive victory at Tertry, near St Quentin (687). From that
date he may be said to have been sole master of the Frankish kingdom,
which he governed till his death (714). In Neustria Pippin gave the
mayoralty of the palace to his son Grimoald, and afterwards to
Grimoald's son Theodebald; the mayoralty in Austrasia he gave to his son
Drogo, and subsequently to Drogo's children, Arnulf and Hugh. Charles
Martel, however, a son of Pippin by a concubine Chalpaida, seized the
mayoralty in both kingdoms, and he it was who continued the Carolingian
dynasty. Charles Martel governed from 714 to 741, and in 751 his son
Pippin III. took the title of king. The Carolingian dynasty reigned in
France from 751 to 987, when it was ousted by the Capetian dynasty. In
Germany descendants of Pippin reigned till the death of Louis the Child
in 911; in Italy the Carolingians maintained their position until the
deposition of Charles the Fat in 887. Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine,
who was thrown into prison by Hugh Capet in 991, left two sons, the last
male descendants of the Carolingians, Otto, who was also duke of Lower
Lorraine and died without issue, and Louis, who after the year 1000
vanishes from history.
See P.A.F. Gerard and L.A. Warnkonig, _Histoire des Carolingiens_
(Brussels, 1862); H.E. Bonnell, _Anfange des Karoling. Hauses_
(Berlin, 1866); J.F. Bohmer and E. Muhlbacher, _Regesten d.
Kaiserreichs unter d. Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1889 seq.); E.
Muhlbacher, _Deutsche Gesch. unter d. Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1896);
F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891). (C. Pf.)
CAROLUS-DURAN, the name adopted by the French painter Charles Auguste
Emile Durand (1837- ), who was born at Lille on the 4th of July 1837.
He studied at the Lille Academy and then went to Paris, and in 1861 to
Italy and Spain for further study, especially devoting himself to the
pictures of Velasquez. His subject picture "Murdered," or "The
Assassination" (1866), was one of his first successes, and is now in the
Lille museum, but he became best known afterwards as a portrait-painter,
and as the head of one of the principal ateliers in Paris, where some of
the most brilliant artists of a later generation were his pupils. His
"Lady with the Glove" (1869), a portrait of his own wife, was bought for
the Luxembourg. In 1889 he was made a commander of the Legion of Honour.
He became a member of the Academie des Beaux-arts in 1904, and in the
next year was appointed director of the French academy at Rome in
succession to Eugene Guillaume.
CARORA, an inland town of the state of Lara, Venezuela, on the Carora, a
branch of the Tocuyo river, about 54 m. W. by S. of the city of
Barquisimeto, and 1128 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1908 estimate) 6000.
The town is comparatively well-built and possesses a fine parish
church, and a Franciscan convent and hermitage. It was founded in 1754,
and its colonial history shows considerable prosperity, its population
at that time numbering 9000 to 10,000. The neighbouring country is
devoted principally to raising horses, mules and cattle; and in addition
to hides and leather, it exports rubber and other forest products.
CARP, the typical fish of a large family (_Cyprimdae_) of Ostariophysi,
as they have been called by M. Sagemehl, in which the air-bladder is
connected with the ear by a chain of small bones (so-called Weberian
ossicles). The mouth is usually more or less protractile and always
toothless; the lower pharyngeal bones, which are large and falciform,
subparallel to the branchial arches, are provided with teeth, often
large and highly specialized, in one, two or three series (pharyngeal
teeth), usually working against a horny plate attached to a vertical
process of the basioccipital bone produced under the anterior vertebrae,
mastication being performed in the gullet. These teeth, adapted to
various requirements, vary according to the genus, being conical,
hooked, spoon-shaped, molariform, &c.
The species are extremely numerous, about 1400 being known, nearly
entirely confined to fresh water, and feeding on vegetable substances or
small animals. They are dispersed over the whole world with the
exception of South America, Madagascar, Papuasia, and Australasia.
Remains of several of the existing genera have been found in Oligocene
and later beds of Europe, Sumatra and North America. One member of the
_Cyprinidae_ is at present known to be viviparous, but no observations
have as yet been made on its habits. It is a small barbel discovered in
Natal by Max Weber, and described by him under the name _Barbus
viviparus_.
The _Cyprinidae_[1] are divided into four subfamilies:--_Catostominae_
(mostly from North America, with a few species from China and eastern
Siberia), in which the maxillary bones take a share in the border of the
mouth, and the pharyngeal teeth are very numerous and form a single,
comb-like series; _Cyprininae_, the great bulk of the family, more or
less conforming to the type of the carp; _Cobitinae_, or loaches
(Europe, Asia, Abyssinia), which are dealt with in a separate article
(see LOACH); and the _Homalopterinae_ (China and south-eastern Asia),
mountain forms allied to the loaches, with a quite rudimentary
air-bladder.
For descriptions of other Cyprinids than the carp, see GOLDFISH, BARBEL,
GUDGEON, RUDD, ROACH, CHUB, DACE, MINNOW, TENCH, BREAM, BLEAK,
BITTERLING, MAHSEER.
[Illustration: The Common Carp.]
The carp itself, _Cyprinus carpio_, has a very wide distribution, having
spread, through the agency of man, over nearly the whole of Europe and a
part of North America, where it lives in lakes, ponds, canals, and
slow-running rivers with plenty of vegetation. The carp appears to be a
native of temperate Asia and perhaps also of south-eastern Europe, and
to have been introduced into other parts in the 12th and 13th century;
it was first mentioned in England in 1496. The acclimatization of the
carp in America has been a great success, especially in the northern
waters, where, the growth continuing throughout the entire year, the
fish soon attains a remarkable size. The presence of carp in Indo-China
and the Malay Archipelago is probably also to be ascribed to human
agency. In the British Isles the carp seldom reaches a length of 2-1/2
ft., and a weight of 20 lb., whilst examples of that size are quite
frequent on the continent, and others measuring 4-1/2 ft. and weighing 60
lb or more are on record. The fish is characterized by its large scales
(34 to 40 in the lateral line), its long dorsal fin, the first ray of
which is stiff and serrated, and the presence of two small barbels on
each side of the mouth. But it varies much in form and scaling, and some
most aberrant varieties have been fixed by artificial selection, the
principal being the king-carp or mirror-carp, in which the scales are
enlarged and reduced in number, forming more or less regular
longitudinal series on the sides, and the leather-carp, in which the
scales have all but disappeared, the fish being covered with a thick,
leathery skin. Deformed examples are not of rare occurrence.
Although partly feeding on worms and other small forms of animal life,
the carp is principally a vegetarian, and the great development of its
pharyngeal apparatus renders it particularly adapted to a graminivorous
regime. The longevity of the fish has probably been much exaggerated,
and the statements of carp of 200 years living in the ponds of
Pont-Chartrain and other places in France and elsewhere do not rest on
satisfactory evidence.
A close ally of the carp is the Crucian carp, _Cyprinus carassius_,
chiefly distinguished by the absence of barbels. It inhabits Europe and
northern and temperate Asia, and is doubtfully indigenous to Great
Britain. It is a small fish, rarely exceeding a length of 8 or 9 in. It
has many varieties. One of these, remarkable for its very short, thick
head and deep body, is the so-called Prussian carp, _C. gibelio_, often
imported into English ponds, whilst the best known is the goldfish
(q.v.), _C. auralus_, first produced in China. (G. A. B.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] The name of the fishes of the genus _Cyprinus_ is derived from
the island of Cyprus, the ancient sanctuary of Venus; this name is
supposed to have arisen from observations of the fecundity and
vivacity of carp during the spawning period.
CARPACCIO, VITTORIO, or VITTORE (c. 1465-c. 1522), Italian painter, was
born in Venice, cf an old Venetian family. The facts of his life are
obscure, but his principal works were executed between 1490 and 1519;
and he ranks as one of the finest precursors of the great Venetian
masters. The date of his birth is conjectural. He is first mentioned in
1472 in a will of his uncle Fra Ilario, and Dr Ludwig infers from this
that he was born c. 1455, on the ground that no one could enter into an
inheritance under the age of fifteen; but the inference ignores the
possibility of a testator making his will in prospect of the beneficiary
attaining his legal age. Consideration of the youthful style of his
earliest dated pictures ("St Ursula" series, Venice, 1490) makes it
improbable that at that time he had reached so mature an age as
thirty-five; and the date of his birth is more probably to be guessed
from his being about twenty-five in 1490. What is certain is that he was
a pupil (not, as sometimes thought, the master) of Lazzaro Bastiani,
who, like the Bellini and Vivarini, was the head of a large _atelier_ in
Venice, and whose own work is seen in such pictures as the "S.
Veneranda" at Vienna, and the "Doge Mocenigo kneeling before the Virgin"
and "Madonna and Child" (formerly attributed to Carpaccio) in the
National Gallery, London. In later years Carpaccio appears to have been
influenced by Cima da Conegliano (e.g. in the "Death of the Virgin,"
1508, at Ferrara). Apart from the "St Ursula" series, his scattered
series of the "Life of the Virgin" and "Life of St Stephen," and a "Dead
Christ" at Berlin, may be specially mentioned.
For an authoritative and detailed account, see the _Life and Works of
Vittorio Carpaccio_, by Pompeo Molmenti and Gustav Ludwig, Eng. trans,
by R.H. Cust (1907); and the criticism by Roger Fry, "A Genre Painter
and his Critics," in the _Quarterly Review_ (London, April 1908).
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS[1] (Lat. _Monies Sarmatici_; Med. Lat. _Montes
Nivium_), the eastern wing of the great central mountain system of
Europe. With the exception of the extreme southern and south-eastern
ramifications, which belong to Rumania, the Carpathians lie entirely
within Austrian and Hungarian territory. They begin on the Danube near
Pressburg, surround Hungary and Transylvania in a large semicircle, the
concavity of which is towards the south-west, and end on the Danube near
Orsova. The total length of the Carpathians is over 800 m., and their
width varies between 7 and 230 m., the greatest width of the Carpathians
corresponding with its highest altitude. Thus the system attains its
greatest breadth in the Transylvanian plateau, and in the meridian of
the Tatra group. It covers an area of 72,600 sq. m., and after the Alps
is the most extensive mountain system of Europe. The Carpathians do not
form an uninterrupted chain of mountains, but consist of several
orographically and geologically distinctive groups; in fact they present
as great a structural variety as the Alps; but as regards magnificence
of scenery they cannot compare with the Alps. The Carpathians, which
only in a few places attain an altitude of over 8000 ft., lack the bold
peaks, the extensive snow-fields, the large glaciers, the high
waterfalls and the numerous large lakes which are found in the Alps.
They are nowhere covered by perpetual snow, and glaciers do not exist,
so that the Carpathians, even in their highest altitude, recall the
middle region of the Alps, with which, however, they have many points in
common as regards appearance, structure and flora. The Danube separates
the Carpathians from the Alps, which they meet only in two points,
namely, the Leitha Mountains at Pressburg, and the Bakony Mountains at
Vacz (Waitzen), while the same river separates them from the Balkan
Mountains at Orsova. The valley of the March and Oder separates the
Carpathians from the Silesian and Moravian chains, which belong to the
middle wing of the great central mountain system of Europe. The
Carpathians separate Hungary and Transylvania from Lower Austria,
Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Bukovina and Rumania, while its ramifications
fill the whole northern part of Hungary, and form the quadrangular mass
of the Transylvanian plateau. Unlike the other wings of the great
central system of Europe, the Carpathians, which form the watershed
between the northern seas and the Black Sea, are surrounded on all sides
by plains, namely the great Hungarian plain on the south-west, the plain
of the Lower Danube (Rumania) on the south, and the Galician plain on
the north-east.
The Carpathian system can be divided into two groups: the Carpathians
proper, and the mountains of Transylvania. The Carpathians proper
consist of an outer wall, which forms the frontier between Hungary and
the adjacent provinces of Austria, and of an inner wall which fills the
whole of Upper Hungary, and forms the central group. The outer wall is a
complex, roughly circular mass of about 600 m. extending from Pressburg
to the valley of the Viso, and the Golden Bistritza, and is divided by
the Poprad into two parts, the western Carpathians and the eastern or
wooded Carpathians. Orographically, therefore, the proper Carpathians
are divided into: (a) the western Carpathians, (b) the eastern or wooded
Carpathians, and (c) the central groups.
Ranges.
(a) The western Carpathians, which begin at the _Porta Hungarica_ on
the Danube, just opposite the Leitha Mountains, and extend to the
Poprad river, are composed of four principal groups: the Little
Carpathians (also called the Pressburg group) with the highest peak
Bradlo (2670 ft.); the White Carpathians or Miava group, with the
highest peak Javornik (3325 ft.), and the Zemerka (3445 ft.); the
Beskid proper or western Beskid group, which extends from a little
west of the Jablunka pass to the river Poprad, with the highest peaks,
Beskid (3115 ft.), Smrk (4395 ft.), Lissa Hora (4350 ft.) and Ossus
(5106 ft.); and the Magura or Arva Magura group, which extends to the
south of Beskid Mountains, and contains the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the
highest peak in the whole western Carpathians.
(b) The eastern or wooded Carpathians extend from the river Poprad to
the sources of the river Viso and the Golden Bistritza, whence the
Transylvanian Mountains begin, and form the link between these
mountains and the central groups or High Carpathians. They are a
monotonous sandstone range, covered with extensive forests, which up
to the sources of the rivers Ung and San are also called the eastern
Beskids, and are formed of small parallel ranges. The northern
two-thirds of this range has a mean altitude of 3250 ft., and only in
its southern portion it attains a mean altitude of 5000 ft. The
principal peaks are Rusky Put (4264 ft.), Popadje (5690 ft.), Bistra
(5936 ft.), Pop Ivan (6214 ft.), Tomnatik (5035 ft.), Giumaleu (6077
ft.) and Cserna Gora (6505 ft.), the culminating peak of the whole
range. To the eastern Carpathians belongs also the range of mountains
extending between the Laborcza and the Upper Theiss, called Vihorlat,
which attains in the peak of the same name an altitude of 3495 ft. As
indicated by its name, which means "burnt," it is of volcanic origin,
and plays an important part in the folklore and in the superstitious
legends of the Hungarian people.
(c) The central groups or the High Carpathians extend from the
confluence of the rivers Arva and Waag to the river Poprad, and
include the highest group of the Carpathian system. They consist of
the High Tatra group (see TATRA MOUNTAINS), where is found the
Gerlsdorfer or Franz Josef peak (Hung. _Gerlachfalvi-Csucs_), with an
altitude of 8737 ft., the highest peak in the whole Carpathian
Mountains. On its west are the Liptauer Magura, with the highest peak
the Biela Szkala (6900 ft.), and on its east are the Zipser Magura,
which have a mean altitude of 3000 ft. South of the central groups
lies a widely extending mountain region, which fills the whole of
northern Hungary, and is known as the Hungarian highland. It is
composed of several groups, which are intersected by the valleys of
numerous rivers, and which descend in sloping terraces towards the
Danube and the Hungarian plain. The principal groups are: the Neutra
or Galgoc Mountains (4400 ft.), between the rivers Waag and Neutra;
the Low or Nizna Tatra, which extends to the south of the High Tatra,
and has its highest peaks, the Djumbir (6700 ft.) and the Kralova Hola
(6400 ft.); this group is continued towards the east up to the
confluence of the Gollnitz with the Hernad, by the so-called
Carpathian foot-hills, with the highest peak the Zelesznik (2675 ft.).
West of the Low Tatra extend the Fatra group, with the highest peak,
the Great Fatra (5825 ft.), to the south and east of which lie the
Schemnitz group, the Ostrowsky group, and several other groups, all of
which are also called the Hungarian Ore Mountains, on account of their
richness in valuable ores. South-east of the Low Tatra extend the
Zips--Gomor Ore Mountains, while the most eastern group is the
Hegyalja Mountains, between the Topla, Tarcza and Hernad rivers, which
run southward from Eperjes to Tokaj. In their northern portion, they
are also called Sovar Mountains, and reach in their highest peak,
Simonka, an altitude of 3350 ft., while their southern portion, which
ends with the renowned Tokaj Hill (1650 ft.), is also called Tokaj
Mountains. The smaller groups of the Hungarian highland are: on the
south-west the Neograd Mountains (2850), whose offshoots reach the
Danube; to the east of them extends the Matra group, with the highest
peak the Sasko (3285 ft.). The Matra group is of volcanic origin,
rising abruptly in the great Hungarian plain, and constitutes one of
the most beautiful groups of the Carpathians; lastly, to its east
extend the thickly-wooded Bukk Mountains (3100 ft.).
Lakes.
Throughout the whole of the Carpathian system there are numerous
mountain lakes, but they cannot compare with the Alpine lakes either
in extension or beauty. The largest and most numerous are found in the
Tatra Mountains. These lakes are called by the people "eyes of the
sea," through their belief that they are in subterranean communication
with the sea.
Passes.
The western and central Carpathians are much more accessible than the
eastern Carpathians and the Transylvanian Mountains. The principal
passes in the western Carpathians are: Strany, Hrozinkau, Wlara, Lissa
and the Jablunka pass (1970 ft.), the principal route between Silesia
and Hungary, crossed by the Breslau-Budapest railway; and the Jordanow
pass. In the central Carpathians are: the road from Neumarkt to
Kesmark through the High Tatra, the Telgart pass over the Kralova Hola
from the Poprad to the Gran, and the Tylicz pass from Bartfeld to
Tarnow. In the eastern Carpathians are: the Dukla pass, the
Mezo-Laborcz pass crossed by the railway from Tokaj to Przemysl; the
Uszok pass, crossed by the road from Ungvar to Sambor; the Vereczke
pass, crossed by the railway from Lemberg to Munkacs; the Delatyn or
Korosmezo pass (3300 ft.), also called the Magyar route, crossed by
the railway from Kolomea to Debreczen; and the Stiol pass in Bukovina.
Geology.
The Carpathians consist of an outer zone of newer beds and an inner
zone of older rocks. Between the two zones lies a row of _Klippen_,
while towards the Hungarian plain the inner zone is bordered by a
fringe of volcanic eruptions of Tertiary age. The _outer zone_ is
continuous throughout the whole extent of the chain, and is remarkably
uniform both in composition and structure. It is formed almost
entirely of a succession of sandstones and shales of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age--the so-called Carpathian Sandstone--and these are thrown
into a series of isoclinal folds dipping constantly to the south. The
folding of this zone took place during the Miocene period. The _inner
zone_ is not continuous, and is much more complex in structure. It is
visible only in the west and in the east, while in the central
Carpathians, between the Hernad and the headwaters of the Theiss, it
is lost beneath the modern deposits of the Hungarian plain. In the
western Carpathians the inner zone consists of a foundation of
Carboniferous and older rocks, which were folded and denuded before
the deposition of the succeeding strata. In the outer portion of the
zone the Permian and Mesozoic beds are crushed and folded against the
core of ancient rocks; in the inner portion of the zone they rest upon
the old foundation with but little subsequent disturbance. In the
eastern Carpathians also, the Permian and Mesozoic beds are not much
folded except near the outer margin of the zone. The _Klippen_ are
isolated hills, chiefly of Jurassic limestone, rising up in the midst
of the later and softer deposits on the inner border of the sandstone
zone. Their relations to the surrounding beds are still obscure. They
may be "rootless" masses brought upon the top of the later beds by
thrustplanes. They may be the pinched-up summits of sharp anticlinals,
which in the process of folding have been forced throug
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