Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Camorra" to "Cape Colony"
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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Camorra" to "Cape Colony"
Author: Various
Release date: July 3, 2010 [eBook #33052]
Language: English
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Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.
(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
Article CANAAN, CANAANITES: "If (Egyptian) troops come this year,
lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops
come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my
lord." quotes added after 'lord'.
Article CANTATA: "... though at the same time not excludeing the
possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light order of
fugue." 'excludeing' amended from 'exclude ing'.
Article CAPE COLONY: "In the western part of the colony the winter
is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in
summer." 'in' amended from 'is'.
Article CAPE COLONY: "Agriculture and Allied Industries."
'Industries' amended from 'Industires'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME V, SLICE II
Camorra to Cape Colony
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
CAMORRA CANDYTUFT
CAMP CANE
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA CANEA
CAMPAIGN CANE-FENCING
CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE CANEPHORAE
CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO CANES VENATICI
CAMPANIA CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSE
CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO CANGAS DE ONIS
CAMPANILE CANGAS DE TINEO
CAMPANULA CANGUE
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER CANINA, LUIGI
CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO
CAMPBELL, GEORGE CANIS MAJOR
CAMPBELL, JOHN CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG
CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL CANIZARES, JOSE DE
CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS CANNAE
CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD CANNANORE
CAMPBELL, LEWIS CANNES
CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN CANNIBALISM
CAMPBELL, THOMAS CANNING, CHARLES JOHN
CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY CANNING, GEORGE
CAMPBELTOWN CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO
CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH CANNOCK
CAMPECHE (state of Mexico) CANNON
CAMPECHE (city of Mexico) CANNON-BALL TREE
CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO CANNSTATT
CAMPER, PETER CANO, ALONZO
CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON CANO, MELCHIOR
CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM CANOE
CAMPHORS CANON
CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ CANONESS
CAMPI, GIULIO CANONIZATION
CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL CANON LAW
CAMPINAS CANOPUS
CAMPING OUT CANOPY
CAMPION, EDMUND CANOSA
CAMPION, THOMAS CANOSSA
CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE CANOVA, ANTONIO
CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO
CAMPOBASSO CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN
CAMPODEA CANT, ANDREW
CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ CANT
CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE CANTABRI
CAMPOS CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS
CAMPULUNG CANTACUZINO
CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO CANTAGALLO
CAMULODUNUM CANTAL
CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON CANTARINI, SIMONE
CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS CANTATA
CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES CANTEEN
CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE CANTEMIR
CANA CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON
CANAAN, CANAANITES CANTERBURY
CANACHUS CANTHARIDES
CANADA CANTICLES
CANAL CANTILEVER
CANAL DOVER CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE
CANALE ANTONIO CANTILUPE, WALTER DE
CANALIS CANTO
CANANDAIGUA CANTON, JOHN
CANARD CANTON (city of China)
CANARY CANTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
CANARY ISLANDS CANTON (New York, U.S.A.)
CANCALE CANTON (Ohio, U.S.A.)
CANCEL CANTON (country division)
CANCELLI CANTONMENT
CANCER, LUIS CANTU, CESARE
CANCER (astronomy) CANUSIUM
CANCER (disease) CANUTE
CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON CANUTE VI.
CANDELABRUM CANVAS
CANDIA CANVASS
CANDIDATE CANYNGES, WILLIAM
CANDLE CANYON
CANDLEMAS CANZONE
CANDLESTICK CAPE BRETON
CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH CAPE COAST
CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE CAPE COLONY
CANDON
CAMORRA, a secret society of Naples associated with robbery, blackmail
and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful. Probably both the word
and the association were introduced into Naples by Spaniards. There is a
Spanish word _camorra_ (a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have
existed in Spain long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It
was in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was
primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan
prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and oppression,
its first purpose being the protection of prisoners. In or about 1830
the Camorra was carried into the city by prisoners who had served their
terms. The members worked the streets in gangs. They had special methods
of communicating with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach
of the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached. A
long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze meant he
was not "worth powder and shot," and so on. The society rapidly extended
its power, and its operations included smuggling and blackmail of all
kinds in addition to ordinary road-robberies. Its influence grew to be
considerable. Princes were in league with and shared the profits of the
smugglers: statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact,
were involved in the society's misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra drew
huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The general
disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly organized that
merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to superintend the loading and
unloading of merchandise. Being non-political, the government did not
interfere with the society; indeed its members were taken into the
police service and the Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled
the authorities. After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when
the constitution was granted by Francis II., the _camorristi_ then in
gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became
all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862.
Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its power.
In September 1877 there was a determined effort to exterminate it:
fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi being simultaneously
arrested in the market-place. Though much of its power has gone, the
Camorra has remained vigorous. It has grown upwards, and highly-placed
and well-known camorristi have entered municipal administrations and
political life. In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra's power were made
in the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the
Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner. A
government inquiry also took place. As the result of this investigation
the Honest Government League was formed, which succeeded in 1901 in
entirely defeating the Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.
The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the "swell mobsmen,"
the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed with and levied fines
on people of highest rank. Most of these were well connected. There were
the lower order of blackmailers who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c.;
and there were political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the
society were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve
for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted
camorrista when he was sometimes called _picciotto d' honore_, and after
giving proof of courage and zeal became a _picciotto di sgarro_, one,
that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some localities he was then
called _tamurro_. The initiatory ceremony for full membership is now a
mock duel in which the arm alone is wounded. In early times initiation
was more severe. The camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground,
and at a signal all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the
novice had at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that
his hand was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate
as _picciotto di sgarro_ lasted three years, during which the lad had to
work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as master. After
initiation there was a ceremony of reception. The camorristi stood round
a table on which were a dagger, a loaded pistol, a glass of water or
wine supposed to be poisoned and a lancet. The _picciotto_ was brought
in and one of his veins opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he
held it out to the camorristi and swore to keep the society's secrets
and obey orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock
the pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to die
for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the dagger, placed
his right hand on the lad's head while with the left he fired off the
pistol into the air and smashed the poison-glass. He then drew the
dagger from the table and presented it to the new comrade and embraced
him, as did all the others. The Camorra was divided into centres, each
under a chief. There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one
time to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was Aniello
Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested. The chief of
every centre was elected by the members of it. All the earnings of the
centre were paid to and then distributed by him. The camorristi employ a
whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their chief is _masto_ or _si masto_,
"sir master." When a member meets him he salutes with the phrase _Masto,
volite niente?_ ("Master, do you want anything?"). The members are
addressed simply as _si_.
See Monnier, _La Camorra_ (Florence, 1863); Umilta, _Camorra et Mafia_
(Neuchatel, 1878); Alongi, _La Camorra_ (1890); C.W. Heckethorn
_Secret Societies of All Ages_ (London, 1897); Blasio, _Usi e costumi
dei Camorriste_ (Naples, 1897).
CAMP (from Lat. _campus_, field), a term used more particularly in a
military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized place of
food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary housing (see
CAMPING-OUT). The shelter of troops in the field has always been of the
greatest importance to their well-being, and from the earliest times
tents and other temporary shelters have been employed as much as
possible when it is not feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in
barracks or in houses. The applied sense of the word "camp" as a
military post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the
Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern warfare the word is
used in two ways. In the wider sense, "camp" is opposed to "billets,"
"cantonments" or "quarters," in which the troops are scattered amongst
the houses of towns or villages for food and shelter. In a purely
military camp the soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground
allotted for their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of
concentration and readiness for immediate action, and are under better
disciplinary control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from
the weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the restricted
sense "camp" implies tents for all ranks, and is thus opposed to
"bivouac," in which the only shelter is that afforded by improvised
screens, &c., or at most small _tentes d'abri_ carried in sections by
the men themselves. The weight of large regulation tents and the
consequent increase in the number of horses and vehicles in the
transport service are, however, disadvantages so grave that the
employment of canvas camps in European warfare is almost a thing of the
past. If the military situation permits, all troops are put into
quarters, only the outpost troops bivouacking. This course was pursued
by the German field armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter
campaign.
Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole army to
bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are not to be depended
upon, tents must be provided, for no troops can endure many successive
nights in bivouac, except in summer, without serious detriment to their
efficiency. In a war on the Russo-German frontier, for instance,
especially if operations were carried out in the autumn and winter,
tents would be absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In
this connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates many
of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For training purposes
in peace time, _standing camps_ are formed. These may be considered
simply as temporary barracks. An _entrenched camp_ is an area of ground
occupied by, or suitable for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and
protected by fortifications.
_Ancient Camps._--English writers use "camp" as a generic term for any
remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of their special age,
size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it various dissimilar things.
We may distinguish (1) Roman "camps" (_castra_) of three kinds, large
permanent fortresses, small permanent forts (both usually built of
stone) and temporary earthen encampments (see ROMAN ARMY); (2)
Pre-Roman; and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English
hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to their
special periods. Often we can say no more than that the "camp" is not
Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified with earthen walls were
thrown up as early as the Bronze Age and probably earlier still, and
that they continued to be built down to Norman times. These consisted of
hilltops or cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified
with one or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining
huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have come in
first with the Normans. Their _mottes_ or earthen mounds crowned with
wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by an enclosure on the
flat constituted a new element in fortification and greatly aided the
conquest of England. (See CASTLE.)
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, the low country surrounding the city of Rome, bounded
on the N.W. by the hills surrounding the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E.
by the Sabine mountains, on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W.
by the sea. (See LATIUM, and ROME (province).)
CAMPAIGN, a military term for the continuous operations of an army
during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the time when armies
went into quarters during the winter and literally "took the field" at
the opening of summer. The word is also used figuratively, especially in
politics, of any continuous operations aimed at a definite object, as
the "Plan of Campaign" in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived
from the Latin _Campania_, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f.
Italian, _la Campagna di Roma_, from which came two French forms: (1)
_Champagne_, the name given to the level province of that name, and
hence the English "champaign," a level tract of country free from woods
and hills; and (2) _Campagne_, and the English "campaign" with the
restricted military meaning.
CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822), French educator, the
companion of Marie Antoinette, was born at Paris in 1752. Her father,
whose name was Genest, was first clerk in the foreign office, and,
although without fortune, placed her in the most cultivated society. At
the age of fifteen she could speak English and Italian, and had gained
so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader
to the three daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general
favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the
Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of 5000
_livres_ as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first lady of the
bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued to be her faithful
attendant till she was forcibly separated from her at the sacking of the
Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792. Madame Campan survived the dangers
of the Terror, but after the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost
penniless, and being thrown on her own resources by the illness of her
husband, she bravely determined to support herself by establishing a
school at St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by
Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment of
Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded by Napoleon at
Ecouen for the education of the daughters and sisters of members of the
Legion of Honour. This post she held till it was abolished at the
restoration of the Bourbons, when she retired to Mantes, where she spent
the rest of her life amid the kind attentions of affectionate friends,
but saddened by the loss of her only son, and by the calumnies
circulated on account of her connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in
1822, leaving valuable _Memoires sur la vie privee de Marie Antoinette,
suivis de souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les regnes de Louis
XIV.-XV._ (Paris, 1823); a treatise _De l'Education des Femmes_; and one
or two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style. The
most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that which
especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place given to domestic
economy in the education of girls. At Ecouen the pupils underwent a
complete training in all branches of housework.
See Jules Flammermont, _Les Memoires de Madame de Campan_ (Paris,
1886), and histories of the time.
CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance philosopher, was
born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen years of age he had
mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth
year he entered the order of the Dominicans, attracted partly by reading
the lives of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of
learning. He took a course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in
Abruzzo, and in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow
course of study, he happened to read the _De Rerum Natura_ of Bernardino
Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its appeal to
nature rather than to authority. His first work in philosophy (he was
already the author of numerous poems) was a defence of Telesio,
_Philosophia sensibus demonstrata_ (1591). His attacks upon established
authority having brought him into disfavour with the clergy, he left
Naples, where he had been residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven
years he led an unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his
talents and the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox,
and was an uncompromising advocate of the pope's temporal power. He
returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was committed to
prison because he had joined those who desired to free Naples from
Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudee, however, declares that the
expressions used by Campanella were wrongly interpreted as
revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven years in prison. Yet his
spirit was unbroken; he composed sonnets, and prepared a series of
works, forming a complete system of philosophy. During the latter years
of his confinement he was kept in the castle of Sant' Elmo, and allowed
considerable liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been
regarded as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was
thought better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set
at liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of the
Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at Rome by the
pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy headed by his pupil,
Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go to Paris (1634), where he was
received with marked favour by Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of
his life he spent in preparing a complete edition of his works; but only
the first volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of
May 1639.
In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (q.v.), a follower of
Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore, in the uncertain
half-light which preceded the dawn of modern philosophy. The sterility
of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he understood it, drove him to the
study of man and nature, though he was never entirely free from the
medieval spirit. Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region
of theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception. The prime
fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and Descartes, the
certainty of individual consciousness. To this consciousness he assigned
a threefold content, power, will and knowledge. It is of the present
only, of things not as they are, but merely as they seem. The fact that
it contains the idea of God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the
divine existence, since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from
the Infinite. God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect
degree, those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity
possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action
presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its parts
have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate are in
everything. The more remote from God, the greater the degree of
imperfection (i.e. _Not-being_) in things. Of imperfect things, the
highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue of the possession of
reason are akin to the Divine and superior to the lower creation. Next
comes the mathematical world of space, then the corporeal world, and
finally the empirical world with its limitations of space and time. The
impulse of self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion;
above this comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the
perfection of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and
love, and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in
origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is superior to
the state, and, therefore, all temporal government should be in
subjection to the pope as the representative of God.
In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio, advocates
the experimental method and lays down heat and cold as the fundamental
principles by the strife of which all life is explained. In political
philosophy (the _Civitas Solis_) he sketches an ideal communism,
obviously derived from the Platonic, based on community of wives and
property with state-control of population and universal military
training. In every detail of life the citizen is to be under authority,
and the authority of the administrators is to be based on the degree of
knowledge possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial
organism for the promotion of individual and collective good. In
contrast to More's _Utopia_, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking
in practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity in
the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to whether this
system was a philosophic dream, or a serious attempt to sketch a
constitution for Naples in the event of her becoming a free city. The
_De Monarchia Hispanica_ contains an able account of contemporary
politics especially Spanish.
Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic thinker, is
among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern empirical science, and
on the other of Descartes and Spinoza. Yet his fondness for the
antithesis of Being and Not-being (_Ens_ and _Non-ens_) shows that he
had not shaken off the spirit of scholastic thought.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For his works see Quetif-Echard, appendix to E.S.
Cypriano, _Vita Campanellae_ (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722); Al.
d'Ancona's edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). The most
important are _De sensu rerum_ (1620); _Realis philosophiae
epilogisticae partes IV._ (with _Civitas Solis_) (1623); _Atheismus
triumphatus_ (1631); _Philos. rationalis_ (1637); _Philos. universalis
seu metaph._ (1637); _De Monarchia Hispanica_ (1640). For his life,
see Cypriano (above); M. Baldachini, _Vita e filos. di Tommaso
Campanella_ (Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, _Lettere
inedite di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti_ (1878); and
_Nuovi documenti di T.C._ (1881); and especially L. Amabile, _Fra T.
Campanella_ (3 vols., Naples, 1882). For his philosophy H. Ritter,
_History of Philos._; M. Carriere, _Philos. Weltanschauung d.
Reformationszeit_, pp. 542-608; C. Dareste, _Th. Morus et Campanella_
(Paris, 1843); Chr. Sigwart, _Kleine Schriften_, i. 125 seq.; and
histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda,
_Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica di fronte
al socialismo moderno_ (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). His poems, first
published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered and printed again
(1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered into English verse by
J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography see _Dict. de theol.
cath._, col. 1446 (1904).
CAMPANIA, a territorial division of Italy. The modern district (II.
below) is of much greater extent than that known by the name in ancient
times.
I. _Campani_ was the name used by the Romans to denote the inhabitants
first of the town of Capua and the district subject to it, and then
after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 B.C.), to describe the
inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally. The name, however, is
pre-Roman and appears with Oscan terminations on coins of the early 4th
(or late 5th) century B.C. (R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, p. 143),
which were certainly struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of
Campania, whom the name properly denotes, a branch of the great
Sabelline stock (see SABINI); but in what precise spot the coins were
minted is uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the
Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in the last
quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded appearance being at
the conquest of their chief town Capua, probably in 438 B.C. (or 445,
according to the method adopted in interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on
this see under CUMAE), or 424 according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was
taken by them in 428 or 421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite
language they spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all
Campania except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans
remained here and there for at least another century (Conway, op. cit.
p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took over not merely the
wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their customs; the haughtiness and
luxury of the men of Capua was proverbial at Rome. This town became the
ally of Rome in 338 B.C. (Livy viii. 14) and received the _civitas sine
suffragio_, the highest status that could be granted to a community
which did not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was
completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories
(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent in alliance
with Rome. These towns were faithful to Rome throughout the Hannibalic
war. But Capua and the towns dependent on it revolted (Livy
xxiii.-xxvi.); after its capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and
the jealousy and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both
finally appeased (cf. Cicero. _Leg. Agrar._ ii. 88). We have between
thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating,
probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway, _Italic
Dialects_, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to the curious
cult described under JOVILAE, while two or three are curses written on
lead; see OSCA LINGUA.
See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd
ed.), c. "Capua"; Th. Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 365. (R. S. C.)
The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from Campani (see
above), and did not come into common use until the middle of the 1st
century A.D. Polybius and Diodorus avoid it entirely. Varro and Livy use
it sparingly, preferring _Campanus ager_. Polybius (2nd century B.C.)
uses the phrase [Greek: ta pedia ta kata Kapuen] to express the district
bounded on the north by the mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the
Apennines of Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which
ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by the sea,
and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy. But the
geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division of Italy
Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried the north
boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and even the river
Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village of San Pietro in Fine
preserves the memory of the north-east boundary which ran between
Venafrum and Casinum. On the east the valley of the Volturnus and the
foot-hills of the Apennines as far as Abellinum formed the boundary;
this town is sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to
Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the time of
Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended much farther north,
and included the whole of Latium. This district was governed by a
_corrector_, who about A.D. 333 received the title of _consularis_. It
is for this reason that the district round Rome still bears the name of
Campagna di Roma, being no doubt popularly connected with Ital. _campo_,
Lat. _campus_. This district (to take its earlier extent), consisting
mainly of a very fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south,
and the sea on the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the
Liris and Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right
down to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is
comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is the main
plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the central Apennines,
and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus, Sebethus, Savo, belong
entirely to Campania.
The road system of Campania was extremely well developed and touched all
the important towns. The main lines are followed (though less
completely) by the modern railways. The most important road centre of
Campania was Capua, at the east edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to
the north-west, was the only bridge over the Volturnus until the
construction of the Via Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing
through Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the
Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum and Cales.
At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia began to turn east
and to approach the mountains on its way to Beneventum, while the Via
Popillia went straight on to Nola (whence a road ran to Abella and
Abellinum) and thence to Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating
at Regium. From Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia
and Telesia, while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up
ancient warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae,
Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae, Puteoli and
Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella and Neapolis. Neapolis
could also be reached by a branch from the Via Popillia at Suessula,
which passed through Acerrae. From Suessula, too, there was a short cut
to the Via Appia before it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian
further improved the communications of this district with Rome, by the
construction of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at
Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river
Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must have
been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along the shore,
past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here it fell into the
existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana over the hills, at
the back, and the newer, dating from the time of Agrippa, through the
tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast. The mileage in both cases was
reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond Naples a road led along the coast through
Herculaneum to Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and
Surrentum, and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From
Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran to
Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but outside the
limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to Abellinum and thence
to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum was another important centre: it lay
at the point where the Via Latina was crossed at right angles by a road
leaving the Via Appia at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca,
while east of Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road
from Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched off
to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and rejoined it
near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed, probable that the
original road made the detour by Venafrum, in order to give a direct
communication between Rome and the interior of Samnium (inasmuch as
roads ran from Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae),
and Th. Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies
the antiquity of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo),
though it is shown in Kiepert's map at the end of the volume, with a
milestone numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing
and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the road to
Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short cut was
not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century coins of Telesia,
Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian type.
Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most important from
the commercial point of view. Its period of greatest comparative
importance was the 2nd-1st century B.C. The harbours constructed by
Augustus by connecting the Lacus Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the
sea, and that at Misenum (the latter the station of one of the chief
divisions of the Roman navy, the other fleet being stationed at
Ravenna), were mainly naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but
was less important than Puteoli.
The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as in modern
times;[1] the best portion was the Campi Laborini or Leborini (called
Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in modern times, though the
name has now extended to the whole province of Caserta) between the
roads from Capua to Puteoli and Cumae (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xviii. III).
The loose black volcanic earth (_terra pulla_) was easier to work than
the stiffer Roman soil, and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt,
wheat and millet are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables;
and the roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the
Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the east and
south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other districts
also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited to the slopes
than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.
The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania (Pompeii,
Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but at some date soon
after that Latin became general, except in Neapolis, where Greek was the
official language during the whole of the imperial period.
See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway, _Italic
Dialects_, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie_,
iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.
II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably larger area
than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the _compartimento_ of Campania
belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento, Naples, Avellino and
Salerno.
It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila (Abruzzi)
and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of Foggia (Apulia),
on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the south and west by
the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289 sq. m. It thus includes the whole
of the ancient Campania, a considerable portion of Samnium (with a part
of the main chain of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of _Latium
adjectum_, consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part
of which lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the
extraordinarily fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro,
with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains and the
sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc. Liris), which
rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno (94 m. in length),
with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which rises near Sarno and
waters the fertile plain south-east of Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose
main tributary is the Tanagro, which is in turn largely fed by another
Calore. The headwaters of the Sele have been tapped for the great
aqueduct for the Apulian provinces.
The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of Fondi
with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient _Ager Caecubus_),
renowned for its wine (see FONDI). The mountains (of the ancient
Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the east side of the extreme
promontory to the south-east is the port of Gaeta, a strongly fortified
naval station. The east side of the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the
marshes at the mouth of the Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its
unhealthy lagoons, continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico,
which reaches the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as
far as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct
craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of Naples,
which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of Naples. Here the
scenery completely changes: the Bay of Naples, indeed, is one of the
most beautiful in the world. The island of Procida lies 2-1/2 m.
south-west of the Capo Miseno, and 3 m. south-west of Procida is that of
Ischia. In consequence of the volcanic character of the district there
are several important mineral springs which are used medicinally,
especially at Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of
Ischia.
Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy in the 1st
century B.C., is now mainly noticeable for the large armour-plate and
gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the volcanic earth (_pozzolana_)
which forms so important an element in concrete and cement, and is
largely quarried near Rome also. Naples, on the other hand, is one of
the most important harbours of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco
and Torre Annunziata at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports
for smaller vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is
manufactured extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare
di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval shipbuilding
yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare the promontory of
Sorrento, ending in the Punta della Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m.
south-west) forms the south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest
point of this mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine
chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east as
Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the low marshy
ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno, malaria is very
prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf of Salerno is formed by
another mountain group, culminating in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.);
and on the east side of this is the Gulf of Policastro, where the
province of Salerno, and with it Campania, borders, on the province of
Potenza.
The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of the province
of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes, the chief towns
being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni
(20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844); that of the province of Benevento was
256,504, with 73 communes, the only important town being Benevento
itself (24,647); that of the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69
communes, the most important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del
Greco (33,299), Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata
(28,143), Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino
(Principato Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425,
with 128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and Ariano di
Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno (Principato Citeriore)
564,328, with 158 communes, the chief towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava
dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief
railway centre: a main line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence
there is a branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to
Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on the line
between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento), Sparanise (branch to
Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples. From Caserta, indeed, there are
two independent lines to Naples, while a main line runs to Benevento and
Foggia across the Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to
Vinchiaturo (for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From
Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples,
branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato, San
Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to Caserta (and
thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local lines to Pozzuoli and
Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the
other via Pompeii, which together make up the circum-Vesuvian electric
line, and were in connexion with the railway to the top of Vesuvius
until its destruction in April 1906. The main line for southern Italy
passes through Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and
Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for Mercato San
Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one line going
east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro), Potenza and
Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line along the east coast of
Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east along the west
coast of Calabria to Reggio.
Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli and the
towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia (including the latter)
on the north-east shores of the Bay of Naples. The native peasant
industries are (besides agriculture, for which see ITALY) the
manufacture of pottery and weaving with small hand-looms, both of which
are being swept away by the introduction of machinery; but a government
school of textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement
of the trade. (T. As.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] The name Osci--earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. [Greek:
Opikoi])--presumably meant "tillers of the soil."
CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO, Italian mechanician and natural philosopher of
the 17th century, was born at Spoleto. He held a curacy at Rome in 1661,
but devoted himself principally to scientific pursuits. As an optician
he is chiefly celebrated for the manufacture of the large object-glasses
with which G.D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn's satellites, and for
an attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-glass;
and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated dial-plate,
and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt to correct the
irregularities of the pendulum which arise from variations of
temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work on horology, and on the
manufacture of lenses for telescopes. His younger brother Giuseppe was
also an ingenious optician (indeed the attempt to correct chromatic
aberration has been ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is,
besides, noteworthy as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by
the aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter,
the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio Divini.
CAMPANILE, the bell tower attached to the churches and town-halls in
Italy (from _campana_, a bell). Bells are supposed to have been first
used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope Sabinian (604), the
immediate successor to St Gregory; and their use by the municipalities
came with the rights granted by kings and emperors to the citizens to
enclose their towns with fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a
great bell. It is to the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that
we are indebted for the introduction and development of the campanile,
which, when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature
peculiar to Christian architecture--Christians alone making use of the
bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The campanile of Italy
serves the same purpose as the tower or steeple of the churches in the
north and west of Europe, but differs from it in design and position
with regard to the body of the church. It is almost always detached from
the church, or at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a
rule also there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few
exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara; S.
Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the churches in south
Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely from the northern type; it
never has buttresses, is very tall and thin in proportion to its height,
and as a rule rises abruptly from the ground without base or plinth
mouldings undiminished to the summit; it is usually divided by
string-courses into storeys of nearly equal height, and in north and
central Italy the wall surface is decorated with pilaster strips and
arcaded corbel strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an
octagonal turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and
Modena cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and
dimensions as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a lightness
to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits only,
impart solidity to the whole composition.
The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S. Apollinare in
Classe (see BASILICA, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna, dating
from the 6th century. They are circular, of considerable height, and
probably were erected as watch towers or depositories for the treasures
of the church. The next in order are those in Rome, of which there are a
very large number in existence, dating from the 8th to the 11th century.
These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part quite
plain till well above the church to which they are attached. Above this
they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried on stone
corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the lower storeys with
blind arcades and the upper storeys with open arcades. The earliest on
record was one connected with St Peter's, to the atrium of which, in the
middle of the 8th century, a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added.
One of the finest is that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th
or 9th century. In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient
columns of the Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The
tower is 120 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the
four upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second
from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number, are
recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their length
equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a mid-wall shaft.
This type of arcade or window is found in early German work, except
that, as a rule, there is a capital under the impost block. Rome is
probably the source from which the Saxon windows were derived, the
example in Worth church being identically the same as those in the Roman
campanili. In the campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each
storey, each divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS.
Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana, S. Croce in
Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia, S. Pudenziana,
S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in Capite, are
characteristic examples. On some of the towers are encrusted plaques of
marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed in a tile or moulded brick
border; sometimes these plaques are in majolica with Byzantine patterns.
[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
FIG. 1.--Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.]
The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another type, the
north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being decorated with
vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and horizontal arcaded
corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the campanile of S. Satiro at
Milan is in perfect preservation; it is divided into four storeys by
arched corbel tables, the upper storey having a similar arcade with
mid-wall shaft to those in Rome. One of the most notable examples in
north Italy is the campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense
height and has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall
face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally with
arcaded corbel tables,--this campanile, the two towers of S. Antonio,
Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal plan, being among
the few which are thus terminated. In the campanile at Torcello we find
an entirely different treatment: doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide
each face into two lofty blind arcades rising from the ground to the
belfry storey, over 100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the
upper or belfry storey having an arcade of four arches on each front.
This is the type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where
there are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark's was of similar
design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower portion,
built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but not completed
till the middle of the 12th century. In 1510 a belfry storey was added
with an open arcade of four arches on each face, and slightly set back
from the face of the tower above was a mass of masonry with pyramidal
roof, the total height being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole
structure collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in
1510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part, would seem
to have been the principal contributors to this disaster, as the pile
foundations were found to be in excellent condition.
In central Italy the two early campanili at Lucca return to the Lombard
type of the north, with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel strings, and
the same is found in S. Francesco (Assisi), S. Frediano (Lucca), S.
Pietro-in-Grado and S. Michele-in-Orticaia (Pisa), and S. Maria-Novella
(Florence). The campanile of S. Niccola, Pisa, is octagonal on plan,
with a lofty blind arcade on each face like those in Venice, but with a
single string-course halfway up. The gallery above is an open eaves
gallery like those in north Italy.
[Illustration: From a photograph by Brogi.
FIG. 2.--Campanile of St Mark's, Venice.]
In southern Italy the design of the campanile varies again. In the two
more important examples at Bari and Molfetta, there are two towers in
each case attached to the east end of the cathedrals. The campanili are
in plain masonry, the storeys being suggested only by blind arches or
windows, there being neither pilaster strips nor string-courses. The
same treatment is found at Barletta and Caserta Vecchia; in the latter
the upper storey has been made octagonal with circular turrets at each
angle, and this type of design is followed at Amalfi, the centre portion
being circular instead of octagonal and raised much higher. In Palermo
the campanile of the Martorana, of which the two lower storeys,
decorated with three concentric blind pointed arches on each face,
probably date from the Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the
two upper storeys. The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral
have similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group
well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two towers of
the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble those of Bari and
Molfetta as regards their treatment.
The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of Siena and
Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that they owe their
decoration to the alternating courses of black and white marble. Of this
type by far the most remarkable so far as its marble decoration is
concerned is Giotto's campanile at Florence, built in 1334. It measures
275 ft. high, 45 ft. square, and is encased in black, white and red
marble, with occasional sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized
by octagonal projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled
that of the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three
upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side in the
two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the belfry stage.
A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure, above which a spire was
projected by Giotto, but never carried out.
[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
FIG. 3.--Giotto's Campanile, Florence.]
The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft. high. Though
built in the second half of the 13th century, and showing therefore
Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the belfry and two storeys
below, and the substitution of the pointed for the semicircular arch of
the arcaded corbel string-courses, it follows the Lombard type in its
general design, and the same is found in the campanile of S. Andrea,
Mantua. In the 16th century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned
with a conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some of
the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these leaning
towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at Bologna form
conspicuous objects in the town; the two more remarkable examples are
the campanile of S. Martino at Este, of early Lombard type, and the
leaning tower at Pisa, which was built by the citizens in 1174 to rival
that of Venice. The Pisa tower is circular on plan, about 51 ft. in
diameter and 172 ft. high. Not including the belfry storey, which is set
back on the inner wall, it is divided into seven storeys all surrounded
with an open gallery or arcade. (See ARCHITECTURE, Plate I. fig. 62.)
Owing to the sinking of the piles on the south side, the inclination was
already noticed when the tower was about 30 ft. high, and slight
additions in the height of the masonry on that side were introduced to
correct the level, but without result, so that the works were stopped
for many years and taken up again in 1234 under the direction of William
of Innsbruck; he also attempted to rectify the levels by increasing the
height of the masonry on the south side. At a later period the belfry
storey was added. The inclination now approaches 14 ft. out of the
perpendicular. The outside is built entirely in white marble and is of
admirable workmanship, but it is a question whether the equal
subdivision of the several storeys is not rather monotonous. The
campanili of the churches of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both
in Pisa, are also inclined to a slight extent.
[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari.
FIG. 4.--Campanile of the Palazzo del Signore, Verona.]
The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches, but there
are others belonging to civic buildings some of which are of great
importance. The campanile of the town hall of Siena rises to an enormous
height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft. wide; it is built in brick and
crowned with a battlemented parapet carried on machicolation corbels,
16 ft. high, all in stone, and a belfry storey above set back behind the
face of the tower. The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is
similarly crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced
in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example is the
fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4, the lower
portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone and above entirely
in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft., and pierced with putlog
holes only. The belfry window on each face is divided into three lights
with coupled shafts. An octagonal tower of two storeys rises above the
corbelled eaves.
In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general
proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself
easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were adhered
to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei Greci. In that
of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio returned to the simple
brickwork of Verona, crowned with a belfry storey in stone, with angle
pilasters and columns of the Corinthian order in antis, and central
turret with spire above. In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins
are either decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters,
with or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a belfry
storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of their greater
projection present a fine effect. (R. P. S.)
CAMPANULA (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants containing about
230 species, found in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere,
chiefly in the Mediterranean region. The name is taken from the
bell-shaped flower. The plants are perennial, rarely annual or biennial,
herbs with spikes or racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several
are native in Britain; _Campanula rotundifolia_ is the harebell (q.v.)
or Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,--the delicate
slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers; _C.
Rapunculus_, rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a panicle of
broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and occurs on gravelly
roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It is cultivated, but not
extensively, for its fleshy roots, which are used, either boiled or raw,
as salad. Many of the species are grown in gardens for their elegant
flowers; the dwarf forms are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or
fronts of borders. _C. Medium_, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple
and white flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there
are numerous varieties. _C. persicifolia_, a perennial with more open
flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous forms,
including white and blue-flowered and single and double. _C. glomerata_,
which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on the stems and branches,
found native in Britain in chalky and dry pastures, is known in numerous
varieties as a border plant. _C. pyramidalis_, with numerous flowers
forming a tall pyramidal inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are
also a number of alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as _C.
alpina, caucasica, caespitosa_ and others. The plants are easily
cultivated. The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by
young cuttings in spring, or by seeds.
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788-1866), American religious leader, was born
near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the 12th of September 1788, and
was the son of Thomas Campbell (1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman
of the Presbyterian "Seceders." Alexander in 1809, after a year at
Glasgow University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania, where
the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association of
Washington, "for the sole purpose of promoting simple evangelical
Christianity." With his father's desire for Church unity the son agreed.
He began to preach in 1810, refusing any salary; in 1811 he settled in
what is now Bethany, West Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run
Church, as the Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging
baptism by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his
father's place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (q.v., popularly
called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed momentarily to
approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists, but by his statement,
"I will be baptized only into the primitive Christian faith," by his
iconoclastic preaching and his editorial conduct of _The Christian
Baptist_ (1823-1830), and by the tone of his able debates with
Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the disfavour of the Redstone
Association of Baptist churches in western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his
followers transferred their membership to the Mahoning Association of
Baptist churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the
Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to the
Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery neighbours,
now established _The Millennial Harbinger_ (1830-1865), in which, on
Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation, but which he used principally
to preach the imminent Second Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in
which year he died, on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia,
having been for twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He
travelled, lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in
England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian champions, with
Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert Owen; and edited a revision
of the New Testament.
See Thomas W. Grafton's _Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great
Reformation of the Nineteenth Century_ (St Louis, 1897).
CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865- ), English
actress, was born in London, her maiden name being Tanner, and in 1884
married Captain Patrick Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the
provincial stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre,
London, in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero's
_Second Mrs Tanqueray_ at the St James's, her remarkable impersonation
at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For some
years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London, playing
notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson's _For the Crown_, and in
_Macbeth_; and her _Magda_ (Royalty, 1900) could hold its own with
either Bernhardt or Duse. In later years she paid successful visits to
America, but in England played chiefly on provincial tours.
CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was born at Aberdeen
on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, one
of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of George Campbell of Westhall,
who claimed to belong to the Argyll branch of the family, died in 1728,
leaving a widow and six children in somewhat straitened circumstances.
George, the youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and
after attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes at
Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an apprentice to
a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he attended the theological
lectures, and when the term of his apprenticeship expired, he was
enrolled as a regular student in the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a
distinguished career he was, in 1746, licensed to preach by the
presbytery of Aberdeen. From 1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory
Ternan, a parish on the Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then
transferred to Aberdeen, which was at the time a centre of considerable
intellectual activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King's
College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid's predecessor, held the chair of
medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor of divinity at
Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie (1735-1803) became
professor of moral philosophy in the same college. These men, with
others of less note, formed themselves in 1758 into a society for the
discussions of questions in philosophy. Reid was its first secretary,
and Campbell one of its founders. It lasted till about 1773, and during
this period numerous papers were read, particularly those by Reid and
Campbell, which were afterwards expanded and published.
In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In 1763 he
published his celebrated _Dissertation on Miracles_, in which he seeks
to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are capable of proof by
testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity are sufficiently
attested. There is no contradiction, he argues, as Hume said there was,
between what we know by testimony and the evidence upon which a law of
nature is based; they are of a different description indeed, but we can
without inconsistency believe that both are true. The _Dissertation_ is
not a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was
and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In 1771
Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal College, and
resigned his city charge, although he still preached as minister of
Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His _Philosophy of
Rhetoric_, planned at Banchory Ternan years before, appeared in 1776,
and at once took a high place among books on the subject. In 1778 his
last and in some respects his greatest work appeared, _A New Translation
of the Gospels_. The critical and explanatory notes which accompanied it
gave the book a high value.
In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the offices he
held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he received a pension
of L300 from the king. He died on the 31st of March 1796.
His _Lectures on Ecclesiastical History_ were published after his
death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform
edition of his works in 6 vols.
CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at Edinburgh on
the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the legal profession, he was
sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an attorney; but his tastes soon led
him to abandon the study of law and to devote himself entirely to
literature. In 1736 he published the _Military History of Prince Eugene
and the Duke of Marlborough_, and soon after contributed several
important articles to the _Ancient Universal History_. In 1742 and 1744
appeared the _Lives of the British Admirals_, in 4 vols., a popular work
which has been continued by other authors. Besides contributing to the
_Biographia Britannica_ and Dodsley's _Preceptor_, he published a work
on _The Present State of Europe_, onsisting of a series of papers which
had appeared in the _Museum_. He also wrote the histories of the
Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend
settlements in the East Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal,
Algarve, Navarre and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the
_Modern Universal History_. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a
vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying in it a
descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar Islands in the West
Indies. By the king he was appointed agent for the provinces of Georgia
in 1755. His last and most elaborate work, _Political Survey of
Britain_, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1744, and greatly increased the
author's reputation. Campbell died on the 28th of December 1775. He
received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in
1745.
CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861), lord chancellor of England,
the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, D.D., was born on the 17th
of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife, where his father was for fifty years
parish minister. For a few years Campbell studied at the United College,
St Andrews. In 1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and,
after a short connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, was called to the
bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at _nisi prius_
(i.e. on jury trial). Of these _Reports_ he published altogether four
volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas 1807 to Hilary
1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal to criminal business,
but in spite of his unceasing industry he failed to attract much
attention behind the bar; he had changed his circuit from the home to
the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly, and it was not till 1827 that he
obtained a silk gown and found himself in that "front rank" who are
permitted to have political aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the
borough of Stafford in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in
1831. In the House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive
zeal for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense,
but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however, like
that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by the abolition
of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of new and striking
principles.
Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries Abolition Act
1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act 1833; the Real Property
Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act 1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts
1841; and the Judgments Act 1838. All these measures were important and
were carefully drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a
biographical notice. The second was called for by the preference which
the common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the
half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an indefeasible
title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term shortened by Lord
Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth reduced the number of
witnesses required by law to attest wills, and removed the vexatious
distinction which existed in this respect between freeholds and
copyholds; the last freed an innocent debtor from imprisonment only
before final judgment (or on what was termed _mesne_ process), but the
principle stated by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be
imprisoned was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in
1869.[1] In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land
Registration (q.v.), which formed the theme of his maiden speech in
parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His most important
appearance as member for Stafford was in defence of Lord John Russell's
first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate and learned speech, based on
Fox's declaration against constitution-mongering, he supported both the
enfranchising and the disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the
cries of "corporation robbery," "nabob representation," "opening for
young men of talent," &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell
solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he represented
till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general and was returned by
Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.[2]
His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that of a
moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church and state, and
opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot. In parliament he continued
to lend the most effective help to the Liberal party. His speech in 1835
in support of the motion for inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities
with a view to their partial appropriation for national purposes (for
disestablishment was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much
terse argument, and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the
formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell had a fierce
encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which followed the motion of
T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) on the repair and maintenance
of parochial churches and chapels. The legal point in the dispute (which
Campbell afterwards made the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether
the church-wardens of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any
means of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or
ecclesiastical censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but
on the broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported
the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh
annuity-tax.
In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action (thought by
some to be a political conspiracy[3]) which the Hon. G.C. Norton brought
against the Whig premier for criminal conversation with his wife. At
this time also he exerted himself for the reform of justice in the
ecclesiastical courts, for the uniformity of the law of marriage (which
he held should be a purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners
charged with felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of _The Times_
newspaper, which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the duchess of
Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly remarkable for the
Confession--"I despair of any definition of libel which shall exclude no
publications which ought to be suppressed, and include none which ought
to be permitted." His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced
in the prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the
bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular
ground that "the vast bulk of the population believe that morality
depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be raised among
them that the ten commandments were given by God from Mount Sinai, men
would think they were at liberty to steal, and women would consider
themselves absolved from the restraints of chastity." But his most
distinguished effort at the bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House
of Commons in the famous case of _Stockdale v. Hansard_, 1837, 7 C. and
P. 731. The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers, a
report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated that an
obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the prisoners to
read. Stockdale sued the Commons' publisher, and was met by the plea of
parliamentary privilege, to which, however, the judges did not give
effect, on the ground that they were entitled to define the privileges
of the Commons, and that publication of papers was not essential to the
functions of parliament. The matter was settled by an act of 1840.
In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John Frost, one of
the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town of Newport, all of whom
were found guilty of high treason. We may also mention, as matter of
historical interest, the case before the high steward and the House of
Lords which arose out of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the
earl of Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was clear
that the "punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call honour" was no
excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment of everybody, Lord
Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of felony because the full name
of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett Phipps Tuckett) was not legally
proved. It is difficult to suppose that such a blunder was not
preconcerted. Campbell himself made the extraordinary declaration that
to engage in a duel which could not be declined without infamy (i.e.
social disgrace) was "an act free from moral turpitude," although the
law properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne
administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable chancellor of
Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to resign, and the Whig
attorney-general, who had never practised in equity, became chancellor
of Ireland, and was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
Campbell of St Andrews, in the county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth
Campbell, the eldest daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the
Campbells of Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in
1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the withdrawal
of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post of chancellor
Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then resigned it to his
successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards). The circumstances of his
appointment and the erroneous belief that he was receiving a pension of
L4000 per annum for his few days' court work brought Campbell much
unmerited obloquy.[4] It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no
legal duty, except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish
appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary fame
troubled Lord Campbell's leisure.[5]
Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her _Lives of the
Queens of England_, and by Lord Brougham's _Lives of Eminent Statesmen_,
he at last produced, in 1849, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and
Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the earliest times till the
reign of King George IV._, 7 vols. 8vo. The conception of this work is
magnificent; its execution wretched. Intended to evolve a history of
jurisprudence from the truthful portraits of England's greatest lawyers,
it merely exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning,
without a trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a
spark of that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and
spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present
becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A charming
style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be expected from
a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly be held responsible for
the frequent plagiarisms, the still more frequent inaccuracies of
detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes on almost every page, the
hasty insinuations against the memory of the great departed who were to
him as giants, and the petty sneers which he condescends to print
against his own contemporaries, with whom he was living from day to day
on terms of apparently sincere friendship.
These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke, Eldon,
Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed out by the
biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.[6] And yet the book is an
invaluable repertory of facts, and must endure until it is superseded by
something better. It was followed by the _Lives of the Chief Justices of
England, from the Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield_,
8vo, 2 vols., a book of similar construction but inferior merit.
It must not be supposed that during this period the literary lawyer was
silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently. The 3rd volume of the
_Protests of the Lords_, edited by Thorold Rogers (1875), contains no
less than ten protests by Campbell, entered in the years 1842-1845. He
protests against Peel's Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen
Act 1843, as conferring undue power on church courts; against the
perpetuation of diocesan courts for probate and administration; against
Lord Stanley's absurd bill providing compensation for the destruction of
fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and against the Parliamentary
Proceedings Bill, which proposed that all bills, except money bills,
having reached a certain stage or having passed one House, should be
continued to next session. The last he opposed because the proper remedy
lay in resolutions and orders of the House. He protests in favour of
Lord Monteagle's motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn
duties; of Lord Normanby's motion on the queen's speech in 1843, for
inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military
occupation); of Lord Radnor's bill to define the constitutional powers
of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened Mazzini's letters.
In 1844 he records a solitary protest against the judgment of the House
of Lords in _R._ v. _Millis_, 1844, 10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed
that a man regularly married according to the rites of the Irish
Presbyterian Church, and afterwards regularly married to another woman
by an episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of bigamy,
because the English law required for the validity of a marriage that it
should be performed by an ordained priest.
On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was appointed chief
justice of the queen's bench. For this post he was well fitted by his
knowledge of common law, his habitual attention to the pleadings in
court and his power of clear statement. On the other hand, at _nisi
prius_ and on the criminal circuit, he was accused of frequently
attempting unduly to influence juries in their estimate of the
credibility of evidence. It is also certain that he liked to excite
applause in the galleries by some platitude about the "glorious
Revolution" or the "Protestant succession." He assisted in the reforms
of special pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with
Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of Lords. But
he had neither the generous temperament nor the breadth of view which is
required in the composition of even a mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was
made lord chancellor of Great Britain, probably on the understanding
that Bethell should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House
of Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In the
same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier an
amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare's legal
acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural Drocess which runs
through the book: "If Shakespeare was really articled to a Stratford
attorney, in all probability, during the five years of his clerkship, he
visited London several times on his master's business, and he may then
have been introduced to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his
countrymen connected with that theatre." The only positive piece of
evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash's "Epistle to the
Gentlemen of the Two Universities," prefixed to Greene's _Arcadia_,
1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to be Shakespeare) with
having left the "trade of Noverint" and busied himself with "whole
Hamlets" and "handfuls of tragical speeches." The knowledge of law shown
in the plays is very much what a universal observer must have picked up.
Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent
layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has been well said of
him in explanation of his success, that he lived eighty years and
preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had a hard head, a splendid
constitution, tireless industry, a generally judicious temper. He was a
learned, though not a scientific lawyer, a faithful political adherent,
thoroughly honest as a judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there
was nothing admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did
his principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the
magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults of others.
His life was the triumph of steady determination unaided by a single
brilliant or attractive quality.
AUTHORITIES.--_Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his
Autobiography, Diary and Letters_, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881);
E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, _Select
Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter_ (1867); E.
Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian
Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908).
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for
libel to prove _veritas_, and giving a right of action to the
representatives of persons killed through negligence, also deserve
mention.
[2] Greville in his _Memoirs_ says that Campbell got this post on
condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the
bench; a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by
claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach.
Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both
promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell.
[3] "There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of it
all, and persuaded Lord Grantley to urge it on for mere political
purposes."--Greville, iii. 351.
[4] See thereon J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1908), vol.
ii. p. 174.
[5] In 1842 he published the _Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar
and in the Home of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as Lord
Chancellor of Ireland_ (Edin., Black).
[6] It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to
its author, "and then there is my noble and biographical friend who
has added a new terror to death." See _Misrepresentations in
Campbell's "Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham" corrected by St
Leonards_ (London, 1869).
CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic scholar, was born
on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the beautiful Isle of Islay, on
the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this inheritance he never became
possessed, as the estate had to be sold by his father, and he began life
under greatly changed conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh
University, he occupied at various times several minor government posts.
His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and editing
the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from the lips of the
natives. The results of his investigations were published in four
volumes under the title _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_
(1860-1862), and form a most important contribution to the subject, the
necessary precursor to the subsequent Gaelic revival in Great Britain.
Campbell was also devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and
he invented the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British
meteorological stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February
1885.
CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD (1800-1872), Scottish divine, son of the Rev.
Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyllshire, in 1800. Thanks to
his father he was already a good Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow
University in 1811. Finishing his course in 1817, he became a student at
the Divinity Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After
further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the
presbytery of Lorne in 1821. In 1825 he was appointed to the parish of
Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine of Assurance of Faith
powerfully influenced him. He began to give so much prominence to the
universality of the Atonement that his parishioners went so far as to
petition the presbytery in 1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a
subsequent appeal in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation
followed by an accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the
charge was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching
heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an
invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic Church, he
worked for two years as an evangelist in the Highlands. Returning to
Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for sixteen years in a large chapel
erected for him, but he never attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he
published his famous book on _The Nature of the Atonement_, which has
profoundly influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim
is to view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine
mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God and perfect
brotherhood towards men. By the light of this divine fact the
Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally and necessarily as an
atonement; the penal element in the sufferings of Christ is minimized.
Subsequent critics have pointed out that Campbell's position was not
self-consistent in the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element
in the sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the
principle that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all
righteousness and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health
gave way, and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church,
where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published _Thoughts on
Revelation_. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D. from Glasgow
University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and there began his
_Reminiscences and Reflections_, an unfinished work published after his
death by his son. Campbell was greatly loved and esteemed by a circle of
friends, which included Thomas Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander
Ewing, F.D. Maurice, D.J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and
honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried great
weight. In 1871 a testimonial and address were presented to him by
representatives of most of the religious bodies in Scotland. He died on
the 27th of February 1872, and was buried in Roseneath churchyard.
(D. Mn.)
CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908), British classical scholar, was born at
Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His father, Robert Campbell,
R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. He was educated
at Edinburgh Academy, and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow
and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford,
Hants (1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the
university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected an honorary
fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by his work on
Sophocles and Plato. His published works include: Sophocles (2nd ed.,
1879); Plato, _Sophistes_ and _Politicus_ (1867), _Theaetetus_ (2nd ed.,
1883), _Republic_ (with Jowett, 1894); _Life and Letters of Benjamin
Jowett_ (with E. Abbott, 1897), _Letters of B. Jowett_ (1899); _Life of
James Clerk Maxwell_ (with W. Garnett, new ed., 1884); _A Guide to Greek
Tragedy for English Readers_ (1891); _Religion in Greek Literature_
(1898); _On the Nationalisation of the Old English Universities_ (1901);
Verse translations of the plays of Aeschylus (1890); Sophocles (1896);
_Tragic Drama in Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (1904);
_Paralipomena Sophoclea_ (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908.
CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867- ), British Congregationalist divine,
son of a United Free Methodist minister of Scottish descent, was born in
London, and educated at schools in Bolton and Nottingham, where his
father successively removed, and in Belfast, the home of his
grandfather. At an early age he taught in the high school at Ashton,
Cheshire, and was already married when in 1891 he went to Christchurch,
Oxford, where he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern
history. He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a
clergyman in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of
Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget (afterwards
bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Nonconformist blood was too
strong, and he abandoned the idea in order to take up work in the
Congregational ministry. He accepted a call, on leaving Oxford, to the
small Congregational church in Union Street, Brighton, and quickly
became famous there as a preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker's
death he was chosen as his successor (1903) at the City Temple, London.
Here he notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one of
the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end of 1906 he
attracted widespread attention by his vigorous propagation of what was
called the "New Theology," a restatement of Christian beliefs to
harmonize with modern critical views and beliefs, and published a book
with this title which gave rise to considerable discussion.
CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son of Alexander
Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of July 1777. His father, who
was a cadet of the family of Campbell of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged
to a Glasgow firm trading in Virginia, and lost his money in consequence
of the American war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and
university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for
verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the western
Highlands. His poem "Glenara" and the ballad of "Lord Ullin's Daughter"
owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In May 1797 he went to Edinburgh to
attend lectures on law. He supported himself by private teaching and by
writing, towards which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor
of the _British Poets_. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were Sir
Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas Brown, John
Leyden and James Grahame. To these early days in Edinburgh may be
referred "The Wounded Hussar," "The Dirge of Wallace" and the "Epistle
to Three Ladies." In 1799, six months after the publication of the
_Lyrical Ballads_ of Wordsworth and Coleridge, _The Pleasures of Hope_
was published. It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his
time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to men's
hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland and with
negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but Campbell was deficient
in energy and perseverance and did not follow it up. He went abroad in
June 1800 without any very definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg,
and made his way to Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days
after his arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his
best lyrics, "Hohenlinden," "Ye Mariners of England" and "The Soldier's
Dream," belong to his German tour. He spent the winter in Altona, where
he met an Irish exile, Anthony McCann, whose history suggested "The
Exile of Erin."[1] He had at that time the intention of writing an epic
on Edinburgh to be entitled "The Queen of the North." On the outbreak of
war between Denmark and England he hurried home, the "Battle of the
Baltic" being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was introduced to the
first Lord Minto, who took him in the next year to London as occasional
secretary. In June 1803 appeared a new edition of the _Pleasures of
Hope_, which some lyrics were added.
In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair, and
settled in London. He was well received in Whig society, especially at
Holland House. His prospects, however, were slight when in 1805 he
received a government pension of L200. In that year the Campbells
removed to Sydenham. Campbell was at this time regularly employed on the
_Star_ newspaper, for which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he
published a narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, "Gertrude of
Wyoming," with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow
and fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from
over-elaboration. Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: "Your timidity or
fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will not let you give
your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful, as they present
themselves; but you must chasten, and refine, and soften them, forsooth,
till half their nature and grandeur is chiselled away from them. Believe
me, the world will never know how truly you are a great and original
poet till you venture to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your
fancy." In 1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at
the Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to become a
candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh University. In 1814
he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance of the elder Schlegel,
of Baron Cuvier and others. His pecuniary anxieties were relieved in
1815 by a legacy of L4000. He continued to occupy himself with his
_Specimens of the British Poets_, the design of which had been projected
years before. The work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole
an admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed to it
an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In 1820 he
accepted the editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_, and in the same
year made another tour in Germany. Four years later appeared his
"Theodric", a not very successful poem of domestic life. He took an
active share in the foundation of the university of London, visiting
Berlin to inquire into the German system of education, and making
recommendations which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord
rector of Glasgow University three times (1826-1829). In the last
election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell retired from the
editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_ in 1830, and a year later made
an unsuccessful venture with the _Metropolitan Magazine_. He had
championed the cause of the Poles in _The Pleasures of Hope_, and the
news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if
it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my
heart night and day," he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy
found a practical expression in the foundation in London of the
Association of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and
Algiers, where he wrote his _Letters from the South_ (printed 1837).
The small production of Campbell may be partly explained by his domestic
calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two sons, one died in infancy
and the other became insane. His own health suffered, and he gradually
withdrew from public life. He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Campbell's other works include a _Life of Mrs Siddons_ (1842), and a
narrative poem, "The Pilgrim of Glencoe" (1842). See _The Life and
Letters of Thomas Campbell_ (3 vols., 1849), edited by William
Beattie, M.D.; _Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell_
(1860), by Cyrus Redding; _The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell_
(1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev.
W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet's life by William Allingham;
and the "Oxford Edition" of the _Complete Works of Thomas Campbell_
(1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also _Thomas Campbell_ in
the Famous Scots Series, by J.C. Hadden, and a selection by Lewis
Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned
to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell's claim is established in _Literary
Remains of the United, Irishmen_, by R.R. Madden (1887).
CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY (1836-1908), English prime minister, was
born on the 7th of September 1836, being the second son of Sir James
Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire, lord provost of Glasgow.
His elder brother James, who just outlived him, was Conservative M.P.
for Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father
and his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an important
drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable fortunes; and he
assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in compliance with the provisions
of the will of his maternal uncle, Henry Bannerman, from whom he
inherited a large property in Kent. He was educated at Glasgow
University and at Trinity College, Cambridge (senior optime, and
classical honours); was returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal
in 1868 (after an unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became
financial secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary
to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland
(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause of Home Rule
for Ireland, he "found salvation", to use his own phrase, and followed
his leader. In Mr Gladstone's 1886 ministry he was secretary for war,
and filled the same office in the Liberal ministry of 1892-1895. In the
latter year he was knighted (G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister
to obtain the duke of Cambridge's resignation of the office of
commander-in-chief; but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff
in substitution for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the
ministry. It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and
therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of
small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June 1895 led to
the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy, popular and possessed of
a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T. Healy had said that he tried to
govern Ireland with Scottish jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the
general respect of all parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel
retired, his claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but
his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active politics and
Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent member of the inner Liberal
circle and a stanch party man, it was not supposed by the public at this
time that any ambition for the highest place could be associated with
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman; but the divisions among the Liberals, and
the rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made the
political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he was
apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined with his
honourable record and experience to make him a safe man; and in December
1898, on Sir W. Harcourt's formal resignation of the leadership of the
Opposition, he was elected to fill the position in the House of Commons
with the general assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary
impotence, and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir Henry
had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted his duty
as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the Radical party together
in the midst of its pronounced differences. In this he was successful,
although the advent of the Boer War of 1899-1902 created new
difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists. The leader of the Opposition
from the first denounced the diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and
Mr Chamberlain, and objected to all armed intervention or even
preparation for hostilities. Sir Henry's own tendency to favour the
anti-war section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and
his allusion to "methods of barbarism" in connexion with the conduct of
the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the crisis within the
party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists, who looked to Lord Rosebery
(q.v.) and Mr Asquith (q.v.) for their political inspiration, showed
pronounced signs of restiveness. But a party meeting was called on the
9th of July, and Sir Henry was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.
The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency
throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The political
conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the first time
since 1892. The blunders of the government were open to a united attack,
and Mr Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement in 1903 provided a new
rallying point in defence of the existing fiscal system. In the Liberal
campaign on behalf of free trade the real leader, however, was Mr
Asquith. Sir Henry's own principal contribution to the discussion was
rather unfortunate, for while insisting on the blessings derived by
England from its free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical
admission (at Bolton in 1903) that "12,000,000 British citizens were
underfed and on the verge of hunger." But Lord Salisbury's retirement,
Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the accumulating
opposition in the country to the Education Act of 1902 and to the
continued weight of taxation, together with the growth of the Labour
movement, and the antagonism to the introduction of Chinese coolies
(1904) into South Africa under conditions represented by Radical
spokesmen as those of "slavery," made the political pendulum swing back.
A Liberal majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at
by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only a question
of time (see the articles on BALFOUR, A.J., and CHAMBERLAIN, J.). On the
4th of December 1905 the Unionist government resigned, and the king sent
for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who in a few days formed his cabinet.
Lord Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to
co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd of
November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately flouted his
well-known susceptibilities by once more writing Home Rule in large
letters on the party programme, and he declared at Bodmin that he would
"never serve under that banner." Sir Henry's actual words, which
undoubtedly influenced the Irish vote, were that he "desired to see the
effective management of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative
Irish assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered
to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise the
Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led up to
their larger policy." But if Lord Rosebery once more separated himself
from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen in the Liberal League
were included in the cabinet, Mr Asquith becoming chancellor of the
exchequer, Sir Edward Grey foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war
minister. Other sections of the party were strongly represented by Mr
John Morley as secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at
Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord
Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education minister
(afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as president of the Board
of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home secretary, and Mr John Burns--a
notable rise for a Labour leader--as president of the Local Government
Board. Lord Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin
(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen (lord
lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L.V. Harcourt
(first commissioner of works), and Captain John Sinclair (secretary for
Scotland) completed the ministry, a place of prominence outside the
cabinet being found for Mr Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the
colonies. In 1907 Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as
education minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there was a
decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to keep his seat
in the Commons.
At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming Liberal majority
was returned, irrespective of the Labour and Nationalist vote, and Sir
Henry himself was again elected for Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379,
the Labour members 51, the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157.
His premiership was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his
party; it may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime
ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather than
that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or his commanding
personality, nor any positive programme, that brought the Liberals back
to power, but the country's weariness of their predecessors and the
successful employment at the elections of a number of miscellaneous
issues. But as the man who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the
gap in the days of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously
criticized by the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly
marked out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance;
and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the
demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all sections.
Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved to be a powerful
unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous party; and though the
illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his wife (daughter of General Sir
Charles Bruce), whom he had married in 1860, made his constant
attendance in the House of Commons impossible, his domestic sorrow
excited widespread sympathy and appealed afresh to the affection of his
political followers. This became all the more apparent as his own health
failed during 1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the
leadership in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the
premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November, when it
became clear that his health was not equal to active work, four or five
months elapsed before the necessary change became a _fait accompli_.
Personal affection and political devotion had in these two years made
him appear indispensable to the party, although nobody ever regarded him
as in the front line of English statesmen so far as originality of ideas
or brilliance of debating power were concerned. It is not the fortune of
many more brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character.
From the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that
Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would before long
succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of April Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman's resignation was formally announced. He died on the
22nd of the same month. He had spoken in the House of Commons on the
13th of February, but since then had been prostrated and unable to
transact business, his illness dating really from a serious heart attack
in the night of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the
Colston banquet.
From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman's premiership was chiefly marked by the continued
controversies remaining from the general election of 1906,--tariff
reform and free trade, the South African question and the allied
Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the administration of
Ireland, and the amendment of the Education Act of 1902 so as to remove
its supposed denominational character. In his speech at the Albert Hall
on the 21st of December 1905 it was noticeable that, before the
elections, the prime minister laid stress on only one subject which
could be regarded as part of a constructive programme--the necessity of
doing something for canals, which was soon shelved to a royal
commission. But in spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill
(1907), the struggles over education (Mr Birrell's bill of 1906 being
dropped on account of the Lords' amendments), the rejection by the peers
of the Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due
to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation Bill
(1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be a period of
bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming measures of some
moment were carried. A new Small Holdings Act (1907) for England was
passed; the Trades Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades
unions from the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr
Lloyd-George's Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906) were
welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own policy; a
long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the Deceased Wife's
Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a public trustee, a court
of criminal appeal, a system of probation for juvenile offenders, and a
census of production, were passed in 1907. Meanwhile, though the
Colonial Conference (re-named Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a
wide difference of opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade
government and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the
ministry took a decided step--in the establishment of a self-governing
constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies--which, for
good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane's new army
scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain. In foreign affairs,
the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for delimiting the British and
Russian spheres of influence in the Middle East laid the foundations of
entirely new relations between the British and Russian governments. On
the other hand, so far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal
party, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership can only be regarded
as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a conciliator
of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator, ready to
sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his following, that
he kept the party together, while his colleagues went their own ways in
their own departments. His own special "leads" were few, owing to the
personal reasons given above; his declaration at the Queen's Hall,
London, early in 1907, in favour of drastic land reform, served only to
encourage a number of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the
House of Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education
Bill and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when his
method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons was disclosed
in 1907. The House passed by an enormous majority a resolution
(introduced on June 25) "that in order to give effect to the will of the
people, as expressed by their representatives, it is necessary that the
power of the other House to alter or reject bills passed by this House
should be so restricted by law as to secure that within the limits of a
single parliament the final decision of the Commons shall prevail"; but
the prime minister's explanation that statutory provision should be made
for two or three successive private conferences between the two Houses
as to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that,
only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by the
Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form it would
become law over their heads, was obviously not what was wanted by
enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The problem still
remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a "law" to restrict
their own powers. After the passing of this resolution the cry against
the House of Lords rapidly weakened, since it became clear at the
by-elections (culminating at Peckham in March 1908) that the "will of
the people" was by no means unanimously on the side of the bills which
had failed to pass.
The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the confidence of
the Opposition, who found that they had outlived the criticisms of the
general election, and both on the question of tariff reform and on
matters of general politics were again holding their own. The failure of
the government in Ireland (where the only success was Mr Birrell's
introduction of the Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal
divisions as regards socialistic legislation, their variance from the
views of the self-governing colonies on Imperial administration, the
admission after the general election that the alleged "slavery" of the
Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill's phrase, a
"terminological inexactitude," and the introduction of extreme measures
such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent opportunities of
electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal promises of economy had
been largely falsified, the reductions in the navy estimates being
dangerous in themselves, while the income tax still remained at
practically the war level. For much of all this the prime minister's
colleagues were primarily responsible; but he himself had given a lead
to the anti-militarist section by prominently advocating international
disarmament, and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague
conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical ideal and
the general inadequacy of the prime minister's policy of pacificism. Sir
Henry's rather petulant intolerance of Unionist opposition, shown at the
opening of the 1906 session in his dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour
with the words "Enough of this foolery!" gradually gave way before the
signs of Unionist reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment
when the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive under
their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration
against an Opposition no longer divided and making marked headway in the
country, and the ministry had to be reconstituted under a successor, Mr
Asquith, towards whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal
devotion as had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
leadership. (H. Ch.)
CAMPBELTOWN, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is situated on a fine bay,
towards the S.E. extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of
the Mull and 83 m. S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad
monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined when the
capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial of its antiquity has
survived, but the finely sculptured granite cross standing on a pedestal
in the market-place belongs to the 12th century, and there are ruins of
some venerable chapels and churches. Through the interest of the
Campbells, who are still the overlords and from whom it takes its name,
it became a royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr
Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the churches (one
of which occupies the site of a castle of the Macdonalds), the town
house, the Academy and the Athenaeum. The staple industry is whisky
distilling, of which the annual output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than
half for export. The port is the head of a fishery district and does a
thriving trade. Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen
manufacturing are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity.
There are three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called
Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth. At its
entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar. On the Atlantic
shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish, 5 m. distant.
Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown by a light railway. Near the
village of Southend is Machrireoch, the duke of Argyll's shooting-lodge,
an old structure modernized, commanding superb views of the Firth of
Clyde and its islands, and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood
the castle of Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the
Campbells in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647
General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the Macdonalds to be
slain after their surrender. Of the ancient church founded here by
Columba, only the walls remain. Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray,
Irvine and Oban in sending one member (for the "Ayr Burghs") to
parliament.
CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH (1746-1818), German educationist, was born at
Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied theology at the university of
Halle, and after acting for some time as chaplain at Potsdam, he
accepted a post as director of studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau
(see BASEDOW). He soon after set up an educational establishment of his
own at Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one of
his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble health. In
1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of education, and purchased
the _Schulbuchhandlung_, which under his direction became a most
prosperous business. He died in 1818. His numerous educational works
were widely used throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the
_Kleine Kinderbibliothek_ (11th ed., 1815); _Robinson der Jungere_ (59th
ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every European
language; and _Sammtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften_, 37 vols.
CAMPECHE (CAMPEACHY), a southern state of Mexico, comprising the western
part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by
Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico
designated on English maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264;
(1900) 86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m. The name
of the state is derived from its principal forest product, _palo de
campeche_ (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan, consists of a
vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations in the north,
heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts in the north adapted
to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently watered, the rains
filtering quickly through the soil. In the south, however, there are
some large rivers, and the forest region is very humid. The climate is
hot and unhealthy. In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de
Terminos, a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the
southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood, fustic,
lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell and _chicle_, the
last extracted from the _zapote chico_ trees (_Achras sapota_, L.).
Stock-raising engages some attention. One railway crosses the state from
the capital, Campeche, to Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means
of transportation except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen
(pop. in 1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Terminos
and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest products,
and owing to its inland water communications with the forest areas of
the interior is the principal port of the state and of Tabasco.
CAMPECHE, or CAMPECHE DE BARANDA, a fortified city and port of Mexico,
and capital of a state of the same name, situated on the Bay of
Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and 90 m. S.W. of Merida, in
lat. 20 deg. 5' N., long. 90 deg. 16' W. Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche
was one of the three open ports of this coast under the Spanish regime,
and its walls, general plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and
comfortable stone residences are evidence of the wealth it once
possessed. It is still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf
coast of Mexico. It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed
large profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely
lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a part of
Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to Laguna de Terminos is
now the chief shipping port for logwood and other forest products, and a
considerable part of the trade of Campeche has been transferred to
Progreso, the port of Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow
roadstead defended by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf
160 ft. long, but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie
outside and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood,
cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture. The
principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old churches, the
town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and market. The streets are
traversed by tramways, and a railway runs north-eastward to Merida.
Campeche stands on the site of an old native town, of which there are
interesting remains in the vicinity, and which was first visited by
Hernandez de Cordoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and
was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678 and 1685.
During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the scene of many engagements
between the Mexicans and people of Yucatan.
CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was born at Milan of a
noble Bolognese family. At first he followed a legal career at Pavia and
Bologna, and when in 1499 he took his doctorate he was esteemed the most
learned canonist in Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de'
Gualtavillani, by whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro,
born in 1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista, became
bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went into the church; on
account of his services during the rebellion of Bologna, he was made by
Julius II. auditor of the Rota in 1511, and sent to Maximilian and to
Vienna as nuncio. Raised to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on
another embassy to Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest
of San Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a subsidy
from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England on the ostensible
business of arranging a crusade against the Turks. Wolsey, then engaged
in beginning his reform of the English church, procured that he himself
should be joined to the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who
arrived in England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position
and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio's mission
failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome, where he was
received in Consistory on the 28th of November 1519, with the gift from
the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano Castellesi (q.v.), who had
been deposed, and large gifts of money and furniture. He was made
protector of England in the Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave
him the rich see of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of
Bologna. After attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity
of Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to restore
peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England as co-legate
with Wolsey in the matter of Henry's divorce. He brought with him a
secret document, the Decretal, which defined the law and left the
legates to decide the question of fact; but this important letter was to
be shown only to Henry and Wolsey. "Owing to recent events," that is,
the loss of the temporal power, Clement was in no way inclined to offend
the victorious Charles V., Catherine's nephew, and Campeggio had already
received (16th of September 1528) distinct instructions "not to proceed
to sentence under any pretext without express commission, but protract
the matter as long as possible." After using all means of persuasion to
restore peace between the king and queen, Campeggio had to resist the
pressure brought upon him to give sentence. The legatine court opened at
Blackfriars on the 18th of June 1529, but the final result was certain.
Campeggio could not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his
only escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea of
the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he left England
on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had been searched at
Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had been burnt. Returning to
Bologna, the cardinal assisted at the coronation of Charles V. on the
24th of February 1530, and went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was
deprived by Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was
finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the see of
Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament (11th of March
1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish dominions made ample
amends. In 1537 he became cardinal bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on
the 25th of July 1539. His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in
Trastevere. (E. Tn.)
CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist, was born at
Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was educated at the university there,
and in 1746 graduated in philosophy and medicine. After the death of his
father in 1748 he spent more than a year in England, and then visited
Paris, Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he had
been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine and
surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in 1755 he was
called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the Athenaeum in
Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six years, and retired to his
country house near Franeker, in order uninterruptedly to carry on his
studies. In 1763, however, he accepted the professorship of medicine,
surgery and anatomy at Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten
years. He then returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in
1776 spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned as one
of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland, and the
latter years of his life were much occupied with political affairs. In
1787 he was nominated to a seat in the council of state, and took up his
residence at the Hague, where he died on the 7th of April 1789.
Camper's works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very numerous;
the most important of those bearing on comparative anatomy were
published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title _Oeuvres de P.
Camper qui ont pour objet l'histoire naturelle, la physiologie, et
l'anatomie comparee_. His _Dissertation physique sur les differences
reelles que presentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de
differents pays et de differents ages; sur le beau qui caracterise les
statues antiques et les pieces gravees_, &c., which was published in
1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial
angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also ANATOMY.)
CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON (1812-1896), Prussian statesman, was born at
Hunshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of October 1812. Having
studied jurisprudence and political economy at the universities of Bonn,
Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne,
and immediately devoted his attention to financial and commercial
questions. Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this
capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor in the
ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of the second
chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate Liberal party. In
1869 he was appointed minister of finance. On taking office, he was
confronted with a deficit in the revenue, which he successfully cleared
off by effecting a conversion of a greater part of the state loans. The
French war indemnity enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the
state debt and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm
adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either of the
Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism to the tobacco
monopoly and the general economic policy of the latter brought about his
retirement. Camphausen's great services to Prussia were recognized by
his sovereign in the bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a
dignity carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the
18th of May 1896.
CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM (1818-1885), German painter, was born at Dusseldorf,
and studied under A. Rethel and F.W. von Schadow. As an historical and
battle painter he rapidly became popular, and in 1859 was made professor
of painting at the Dusseldorf academy, together with other later
distinctions. His "Flight of Tilly" (1841), "Prince Eugene at the Battle
of Belgrade" (1843; in the Cologne museum), "Flight of Charles II. after
the Battle of Worcester" (Berlin National Gallery), "Cromwell's Cavalry"
(Munich Pinakothek), are his principal earlier pictures; and his
"Frederick the Great at Potsdam," "Frederick II. and the Bayreuth
Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg," and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein
campaign and the war of 1866 (notably "Lines of Duppel after the
Battle," at the Berlin National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as
a representative of patriotic historical art. He also painted many
portraits of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He
died at Dusseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.
CAMPHORS, organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and ketones of the
hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring associated with volatile oils
in many plants. They are extracted together with volatile oils by
distilling certain plants with steam, the volatile oils being
subsequently separated by fractional distillation. The term "camphor" is
generally applied to the solid products so obtained, and hence includes
the "stearoptenes," or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are
mostly white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they
are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol and
ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two main groups,
according to the nature of the corresponding hydrocarbon or terpene. In
this article only the camphors of commercial importance will be treated;
details as to the chemical structure, syntheses and relations will be
found in the article TERPENES.
_Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor_, C10H19OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl
hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs in the volatile oils of
_Mentha piperita_ and _M. arvensis_ (var. _piperascens_ and _glabrata_),
from which it is obtained by cooling and subsequently pressing the
separated crystals; or by fractional distillation. It crystallizes in
prisms, having the odour and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42 deg.
and boils at 212 deg.. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily
dissolves in alcohol and ether. It is optically active, being
laevo-rotatory. Menthol is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in
rheumatism, neuralgia, throat affections and toothache. It acts also as
a local anaesthetic, vascular stimulant and disinfectant.
_Thymol, thyme camphor_, C10H13OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl phenol, an
oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan, _Carum ajowan_, garden
thyme, _Thymus vulgaris_, wild thyme, _T. Serpyllum_ and horse mint,
_Monarda punctata_. Thymol crystallizes in large colourless plates which
melt at 44 deg. and boil at 230 deg.. It has the odour of thyme, is
sparingly soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in
alkaline solutions. In medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more
active than phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol,
which has been introduced in surgery under the names _aristol_ and
_annidalin_, as a substitute for iodoform.
_Borneol, Borneo camphor_ or camphol, also known as Malayan, Barus or
Dryobalanops camphor, C10H17OH, occurs in fissures in the wood of
_Dryobalanops aromatica_, a majestic tree flourishing in the East
Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo and inactive
modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic camphor. Borneol melts
at 203 deg. and boils at 212 deg.. It is very similar to common or Japan
camphor, but has a somewhat peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce
common camphor to a mixture of d- and l-borneol.
_Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor_, C10H16O, which constitutes
the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product of the camphor
laurel, _Cinnamonum camphora_, a tree flourishing in Japan, Formosa and
central China. It also occurs in various volatile oils, e.g. lavender,
rosemary, sage and spike. To extract the camphor, chips of the tree are
steamed, and the mixed vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are
conducted to a condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates
out. This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total, which
is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation and
cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained is exported from
Japan in two grades--Samuel A and Samuel B. It is purified by mixing
with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings or quicklime and subliming,
by steam distillation or by crystallization. Common camphor forms a
translucent mass of hexagonal prisms, melting at 175 deg. and boiling at
204 deg. It sublimes very readily. In alcoholic solution it is
dextro-rotatory; the laevo form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil
of _Matricaria parthenium_ and closely resembles the d form. Camphor
is chiefly used in the celluloid industry. The so-called "artificial
camphor" is pinene hydrochloride (see TERPENES).
Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant, and, in
some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite antiseptic.
It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the relief of myalgia,
sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform, thymol or carbolic
acid, it is a valuable local application for neuralgia and for toothache
due to dental caries. Taken internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a
diaphoretic and a feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as
various substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg). In
large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration being
followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions, coma and
death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and in such conditions as
diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is a popular remedy for "cold in
the head," but it is not to be relied upon as a prophylactic against
infection either by an ordinary cold or true influenza.
CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586-1627), Dutch painter, poet and
theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. As he manifested great
artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death
of his parents, placed him under the painter Govaerts. But at that time
there was intense interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the
prevailing enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a
private tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616). As,
however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with fervour, he was
deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). His chief solace was
poetry; and he has left a translation of the Psalms, and a number of
short pieces, remarkable for their freshness and depth of poetic
feeling. He is also the author of several theological works of fair
merit, among which is a _Compendium Doctrinae Sociniorum_; but his fame
chiefly rests on his pictures, which, like his poems, are mostly small,
but of great beauty; the colouring, though thin, is pure; the
composition and pencilling are exquisite, and the perspective above
criticism. The best of his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and
his views of the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent
at Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered to have
been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; and his son
Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul Potter, is similarly
credited.
CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572), the founder of a school of Italian painters,
was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, Galeazzo Campi
(1475-1536), under whom he took his first lessons in art. He was then
taught by Giulio Romano; and he made a special study of Titian,
Correggio and Raphael. His works are remarkable for their correctness,
vigour and loftiness of style. They are very numerous, and the church of
St Margaret in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among
the earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the
latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as historian of
Cremona.
Giulio's pupil, BERNARDINO CAMPI (1522-1592), in some respects superior
to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After an education under
Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained such skill that when he
added another to the eleven Caesars of Titian, it was impossible to say
which was the master's and which the imitator's. He was also much
influenced by Correggio and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the
frescoes of the cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.
CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was of very obscure
origin. From his own account of his youth, written to Antonio de Mier in
1726, we only know that he was born in "a house equally poor and
honest," that he studied Latin by his own wish, that he entered the
service of Don Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Cordoba, who wished
apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take
orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then eighteen
years of age. In 1715 he became "page" to D. Francisco de Ocio,
superintendent general of customs, who doubtless employed him as a
clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable notice of Patino, the head of
the newly-organized navy, and was by him transferred to the naval
department. Under the protection of Patino, who became prime minister in
1726, Campillo was constantly employed on naval administrative work both
at home and in America. It was Patino's policy to build up a navy
quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much attention
abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo proved an industrious and
honest subordinate. Part of his experience was to be present at a
shipwreck in Central America in which he was credited with showing
spirit and practical ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he
was denounced to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden
books. The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the
incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the Holy
Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence in damping
all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, when Spain was
entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war with England, that
Campillo was summoned by the king to take the place of prime minister.
He had to find the means of carrying on a policy out of all proportion
to the resources of Spain, with an empty treasury. His short tenure of
power was chiefly notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the
system of farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of
contractors and financiers. Campillo's predecessors were constantly
compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the demands
of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A whole year's
revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo persuaded the king to allow
him to establish a system of direct collection, by which waste and
pilfering would be avoided. Some progress was made towards putting the
national finances on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent
the king from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money
needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of April
1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a _New System of
Government for America_ printed at Madrid 1789. He also left a MS.
treatise with the curious title, _What is superfluous and is wanting in
Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be, and not what it is._
See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, _Patino y Campillo_ (Madrid, 1882).
CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 65 m. by
rail N.W. of the city of Sao Paulo and 114 m. from the port of Santos,
with which it is connected by the Paulista & Sao Paulo railway. Pop.
(1890) of the city and municipality, 33,921. Campinas is the commercial
centre of one of the oldest coffee-producing districts of the state and
the outlet for a rich and extensive agricultural region lying farther
inland. The Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to
Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west into
new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple production, though
Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced largely for local
consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like depression of the great
central plateau, and the drainage from the surrounding hillsides has
produced a dangerously insanitary condition, from which one or two
virulent fever epidemics have resulted.
CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and living in
tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately developed in
modern times, and a considerable literature has been devoted to it, to
which the curious may be referred.
See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell's _Camping-out_ (1892) and _Voyages on
German Rivers_ (1890); G.R. Lowndes, _Gipsy Tents_ (1890).
For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp
Life_ (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the _Big Game Shooting_
volume of the "Badminton Library"; the articles on "Camping out" in
_The Encyclopaedia of Sport_; F.C. Selous, _A Hunter's Wanderings in
Africa_ (1881), and _Travel and Adventure in South Africa_ (1893);
A.W. Chanler, _Through Jungle and Desert_ (1896); A.B. Rathbone,
_Camping and Tramping in Malaya_ (1898).
For America, G.O. Shields, _Camping and Camp Outfits_ (1890); W.W.
Pascoe, _Canoe and Camp Cookery_ (1893); _Woodcraft_, by "Nessmuk"
(1895); W.S. Rainsford, _Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone_ (1896);
S.E. White, _The Forest_ (1903), and _The Mountains_ (1904);
_Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping_ (1904), published
by "The Appalachian Mountain Club," Boston. Valuable information will
be found in the sporting periodicals, and in the catalogues of
outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.
CAMPION, EDMUND (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in London,
received his early education at Christ's Hospital, and, as the best of
the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make the complimentary
speech when Queen Mary visited the city on the 3rd of August 1553. He
went to Oxford and became fellow of St John's College in 1557, taking
the oath of supremacy on the occasion of his degree in 1564, in which
year he was orator in the schools. He had already shown his talents as a
speaker at the funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas
White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration
fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen Elizabeth
to the university, and won a regard, which the queen preserved until
the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset him; but at the
persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of Gloucester, although holding
Catholic doctrines, he took deacon's orders in the English Church.
Inwardly "he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind."
Rumours of his opinions began to spread and, giving up the office of
proctor, he left Oxford in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a
proposed restoration of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry
followed him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three
months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying himself by
writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed's
_Chronicles_), a superficial work of no real value. At last he escaped
to Douai, where he joined William Allen (q.v.) and was reconciled to the
Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon, he went to Rome and became
a Jesuit in 1573, spending some years at Brunn, Vienna and Prague. In
1580 the Jesuit mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert
Parsons (q.v.) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance
Campion's fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in the
characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London on the 24th
of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His presence became known to
the authorities and an indiscreet declaration, "Campion Brag," made the
position more difficult. The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth
he led a hunted life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in
Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this
time he was writing his _Decem Rationes_, a rhetorical display of
reasons against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private
press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the benches
of St Mary's, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th of June 1581. The
sensation was immense, and the pursuit became keener. On his way to
Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th
of July and the following day, yielding to the foolish importunity of
some pious women. Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London,
bearing on his hat a paper with the inscription, "Campion, the Seditious
Jesuit." Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the presence of
Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to be really queen of
England, and on his replying straightly in the affirmative, she made him
offers, not only of life but of wealth and dignities, on conditions
which his conscience could not allow. He was kept a long time in prison,
twice racked by order of the council, and every effort was made to shake
his constancy. Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a
forged confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four
public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and although
still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for preparation, he
bore himself so easily and readily that he won the admiration of most of
the audience. Racked again on the 31st of October, he was indicted at
Westminster that he with others had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise
a sedition in the realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November
he was brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply to
him said: "If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to be
condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects as ever the
queen had." He received the sentence of the traitor's death with the _Te
Deum laudamus_, and, after spending his last days in pious exercises,
was led with two companions to Tyburn (1st of December 1581) and
suffered the barbarous penalty. Of all the Jesuit missionaries who
suffered for their allegiance to the ancient religion, Campion stands
the highest. His life and his aspirations were pure, his zeal true and
his loyalty unquestionable. He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.
An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson's _Edmund
Campion_ (1867); and a complete list of his works in De Backer's
_Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus_. (E. Tn.)
CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620), English poet and musician, was born in
London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened at St Andrew's,
Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of the Middle Temple, who was by
profession one of the cursitors of the chancery court, the clerks "of
course," whose duties were to draft the various writs and legal
instruments in correct form. His mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of
Laurence Searle, one of the queen's serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of
Campion's father in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died
herself soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the
orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his stepson
by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to Peterhouse,
Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied at Cambridge for four
years, and left the university, it would appear, without a degree, but
strongly imbued with those tastes for classical literature which
exercised such powerful influence upon his subsequent work. In April
1587 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, possibly with the intention of
adopting a legal profession, but he had little sympathy with legal
studies and does not appear to have been called to the bar. His
subsequent movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have
taken part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance
of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears with the
degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records does not
permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The rest of his life was
probably spent in London, where he practised as a physician until his
death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving behind him, it would appear,
neither wife nor issue. He was buried the same day at St
Dunstan's-in-the-West, Fleet Street.
The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being a group
of five anonymous poems included in the _Songs of Divers Noblemen and
Gentlemen_, appended to Newman's surreptitious edition of Sidney's
_Astrophel and Stella_, which appeared in 1591. In 1595 appeared under
his own name the _Poemata_, a collection of Latin panegyrics, elegies
and epigrams, which evince much skill in handling, and won him
considerable reputation. This was followed in 1601 by _A Booke of
Ayres_, one of the song-books so fashionable in his day, the music of
which was contributed in equal proportions by himself and Philip
Rosseter, while the words were almost certainly all written by him. The
following year he published his _Observations in the Art of English
Poesie_, "against the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming," in
favour of rhymeless verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry.
Its appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of the
crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped champions, but
the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by Daniel, who in his
_Defence of Ryme_, published the same year, finally demolished the
movement.
In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of the marriage
of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of _Songs of Mourning_
(set to music by Coperario or John Cooper) for the loss of Prince Henry,
which was sincerely lamented by the whole English nation. The same year
he wrote and arranged three masques, the _Lords' Masque_ for the
marriage of Princess Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of
Queen Anne at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl
of Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex. If,
moreover, as appears quite likely, his _Two Bookes of Ayres_ (both words
and music written by himself) belongs also to this year, it was indeed
his _annus mirabilis_.
Some time in or after 1617 appeared his _Third and Fourth Booke of
Ayres_; while to that year probably also belongs his _New Way of making
Foure Parts in Counter-point_, a technical treatise which was for many
years the standard text-book on the subject. It was included, with
annotations by Christopher Sympson, in Playfair's _Brief Introduction to
the Skill of Musick_, and two editions appear to have been bought up by
1660. In 1618 appeared _The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham
Castle_ on the occasion of the king's entertainment there, the music by
Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost certainly by Campion; and
in 1619 he published his _Epigrammatum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber
unus_, a reprint of his 1595 collection with considerable omissions,
additions (in the form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.
While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in his own day, in
the years that followed his death his works sank into complete oblivion.
No doubt this was due to the nature of the media in which he mainly
worked, the masque and the song-book. The masque was an amusement at
any time too costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was
practically extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more
ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan ascendancy,
with its distaste for all secular music, effectively put an end to the
madrigal. Its loss involved that of many hundreds of dainty lyrics,
including those of Campion, and it is due to the enthusiastic efforts of
Mr A.H. Bullen, who first published a collection of the poet's works in
1889, that his genius has been recognized and his place among the
foremost rank of Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.
Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to him "the
superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies," but we may thank the fates
that his precepts of rhymeless versification so little affected his
practice. His rhymeless experiments are certainly better conceived than
many others, but they lack the spontaneous grace and freshness of his
other poetry, while the whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must
have possessed a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is
unmusical; moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave
rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic
features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they frequently
shift from line to line. His range was very great both in feeling and
expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate epithalamium or a
simple country ditty, the result is always full of unstudied freshness
and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred pieces he is particularly
successful, combining real poetry with genuine religious fervour.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works_, &c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding _A New
Way_, &c.; _Songs and Masques_, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with an
introduction on Campion's music by Janet Dodge; _Poems_, &c. (in
English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); _Complete Works_, ed. P. Vivian
(Clarendon Press, 1908). The "Observations in the Art of English
Poesie" are also published in Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_
and Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. ii. (1903).
(P. Vn.)
CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656-1723), French dramatist, was born at
Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the age of seventeen he was wounded
in a duel and sent to Paris. Here he became an ardent disciple of
Racine. If he copied his master's methods of construction with some
success, in the execution of his plans he never advanced beyond
mediocrity, nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of
_Athalie_ and _Phedre_. He secured the patronage of the influential
duchesse de Bouillon by dedicating _Arminius_ to her, and in 1685 he
scored his first success with _Andronic_, which disguised under other
names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. The piece
made a great sensation, but Campistron's treatment is weak, and he
failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent in his subject.
Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendome, to write the book of
an opera to be performed at a fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He
handed on the commission to Campistron, who produced _Acis et Galathee_
for Lulli's music. Campistron had another success in _Tiridate_ (1691),
in which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story of
Amnon's passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other tragedies and
two comedies, one of which, _Le Jaloux desabuse_, has been considered by
some judges to be his best work. In 1686 he had been made intendant to
the duc de Vendome and followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him
on all his campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man
under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. Many honours
were conferred on him. The king of Spain bestowed on him the order of St
James of the Sword; the duke of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in
Montferrat; and in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty
years of service with Vendome he retired to his native place, where he
died on the 11th of May 1723.
CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE (1817-1901), Spanish poet, was born at
Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of September 1817. Abandoning his first
intention of entering the Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid,
found an opening in politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and,
after occupying several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellon
de la Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies
grew more pronounced with time, and his _Polemicas con la
Democracia_ (1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of his
political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from 1840, when
he published his _Ternezas y flores_, a collection of idyllic verses,
remarkable for their technical excellence. His _Ayes del Alma_ (1842) and
his _Fabulas morales y politicas_ (1842) sustained his reputation, but
showed no perceptible increase of power or skill. An epic poem in
sixteen cantos, _Colon_ (1853), is no more successful than modern epics
usually are. Campoamor's theatrical pieces, such as _El Palacio de la
Verdad_ (1871), _Dies Irae_ (1873), _El Honor_ (1874) and _Glorias
Humanas_ (1885), are interesting experiments; but they are totally
lacking in dramatic spirit. He always showed a keen interest in
metaphysical and philosophic questions, and defined his position in _La
Filosofia de las leyes_ (1846), _El Personalismo_ (1855), _Lo
Absoluto_ (1865) and _El Ideismo_ (1883). These studies are chiefly
valuable as embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to
the composition of those _doloras, humoradas_ and _pequenos poemas_,
which the poet's admirers consider as a new poetic species. The first
collection of _Doloras_ was printed in 1846, and from that date onwards
new specimens were added to each succeeding edition. It is difficult to
define a _dolora_. One critic has described it as a didactic, symbolic
stanza which combines the lightness and grace of the epigram, the
melancholy of the _endecha_, the concise narrative of the ballad, and
the philosophic intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared
that a _dolora_ is a dramatic _humorada_, and that a _pequeno poema_ is
a _dolora_ on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory. The
humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form to which
Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes no further. It cannot
be denied that in the _Doloras_ Campoamor's special gifts of irony,
grace and pathos find their best expression. Taking a commonplace theme,
he presents in four, eight or twelve lines a perfect miniature of
condensed emotion. By his choice of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal
facility and copiousness which have led many Spanish poets to
destruction. It pleased him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this
affectation has been reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the
impression of insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using
mysticism as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of
the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching morality by
satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism of a genial,
epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether for good. His
formula is too easily mastered, and to his example is due a plague of
_doloras_ and _humoradas_ by poetasters who have caricatured their
model. Campoamor, as he himself said, did not practise art for art's
sake; he used art as the medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are
poor. He died at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a
deep silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge him
with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming bulk of
his work will perish; we may even say that it is already dead. His
pretensions, or the pretensions put forward in his name, that he
discovered a new poetic _genre_ will be rejected later, as they are
rejected now by all competent judges. The title of a philosophic poet
will be denied to him. But he will certainly survive, at least in
extract, as a distinguished humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and
sententious aphorism, an artist of extremely finished execution.
(J. F. K.)
CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the province of
Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated 2132 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune 14,491. The town itself
contains no buildings of antiquarian interest, but it has some fine
modern edifices. Its chief industry is the manufacture of arms and
cutlery. Above the town are the picturesque ruins of a castle of the
15th century. The date of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The
town, with the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of
counts until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in
consideration of a payment of 108,000 ducats.
CAMPODEA, a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible antennae
and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known species
(_Campodea staphylinus_) has a wide distribution and is equally at home
in the warm valleys of south Europe, in the subarctic conditions of
mountain tops, in caves and in woods and gardens in England. It lives in
damp places under stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves.
Although blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into
the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with its
antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling that of
a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or thysanurous
insects of the order Aptera (q.v.).
CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (1723-1802), Spanish statesman and
writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st
of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793 he was president of the council of
Castile; but on the accession of Charles IV. he was removed from his
office, and retired from public life, regretted by the true friends of
his country. His first literary work was _Antiquidad maritima de la
republica de Cartago_, with an appendix containing a translation of the
_Voyage of Hanno_ the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared in
a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable essays,
_Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular_, 1774, and _Discurso
sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos y su fomento_, 1775. As a
supplement to the last, he published four appendices, each considerably
larger than the original essay. The first contains reflections on the
origin of the decay of arts and manufactures in Spain during the last
century. The second points out the steps necessary for improving or
re-establishing the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection
of royal ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts
and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials. The
third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with the results
of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances of towns. The fourth
contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez de Mata on national
commerce, with some observations adapted to present circumstances. These
were all printed at Madrid in 1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count
Campomanes died on the 3rd of February 1802.
Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes
as an introduction to the first edition of his _Cartas
politico-economicas_, published in 1878.
CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE (1831-1900), Spanish marshal, senator and
knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at Segovia on the 14th of December
1831. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was
attached to the staff college as an assistant professor. He took part in
the Morocco campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen
actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a
professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under Prim. In
1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to the rank of general
in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the Federal Republican
government in 1873 confided to General Campos several high commands, in
which he again distinguished himself against the Cantonal Republicans
and the Carlists. About that time he began to conspire with a view to
restore the son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his
designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command of a
division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of May of
that year, and in the operations around Estella in June. On both
occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the other commanders to
proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected to hold aloof, and would have
been arrested, had not the minister of war, Ceballos, answered for his
good behaviour, and quartered him in Avila under surveillance. He
managed to escape, and after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at
Sagunto on the 29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII.
king of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great
influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as a
sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso, and later
by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important political crisis,
and on every international or colonial question, especially when other
generals or the army itself became troublesome. He took an important
part in the military operations against the Carlists, and in the
negotiations with their leaders, which put an end to the civil war in
1876. In the same way he brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878.
On his return from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet
for a few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever afterwards
treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In 1881, with other
discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in obtaining office. After
the death of King Alphonso, Campos steadily supported the regency of
Queen Christina, and held high commands, though declining to take
office. In 1893 he was selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla,
and went to the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of
peace, which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed a
serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of Canovas
to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as well as in
his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he was not allowed
to give them local self-government, as he wished. Subsequently he
remained aloof from politics, and only spoke in the senate to defend his
Cuban administration and on army questions. After the war with America,
and the loss of the colonies in 1899, when Senor Silvela formed a new
Conservative party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency
of the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this post up
to the time of his death. This took place in the summer recess of 1900
at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa, where he was buried.
CAMPOS, an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the
Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m. N.E. of the city of
Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city, 22,518; of the municipality,
78,036. The river is navigable for small steamers above and below the
city, but is closed to coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at
its mouth. The shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahe), 60 m.
south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water
communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes united by
canals. Campos has indirect railway communication with Rio de Janeiro by
way of Macahe, and is the starting point for several small independent
lines. The elevation of the city is only 69 ft. above sea level, and it
stands near the western margin of a highly fertile alluvial plain
devoted to the production of sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and
many kinds of tropical fruit are produced in abundance.
CAMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung), the capital of the
department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat of a suffragan bishop;
situated among the outlying hills of the Carpathian Mountains, at the
head of a long well-wooded glen traversed by the river Tirgului, a
tributary of the Argesh. Pop. (1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine
scenery render Campulung a popular summer resort. In the town are more
than twenty churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both
claim to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first
prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for several
paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July and the 24th of
October; and there is a considerable traffic with Transylvania, over the
Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the south by a branch railway to
Ploesci. Near Campulung are the remains of a Roman camp; and, just
beyond the gates, vestiges of a Roman colony, variously identified with
Romula, Stepenium and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.
CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1773-1844), Italian historical painter, was born at
Rome. He was educated by his brother Pietro, a picture-restorer, and
Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to the age of thirty, attempted nothing
higher than copies of the great masters, his especial study being
Raphael. As an original painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the
French artist David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness
and patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was
essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both personally,
and as an artist, and received many honours and preferments from the
papal and other Italian courts. He was appointed director of the Academy
of San Luca and of the Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of
the pictures of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all
the orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief works
are the classical paintings of the "Assassination of Caesar," the "Death
of Virginia," the "Devotion of the Roman Women," "Young Romulus and
Remus," "Horatius Cocles," the "St Thomas," which was copied in mosaic
for St Peter's, the "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" and a number
of excellent portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection
of pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including
Raphael's "Madonna with the Pink") being bought by the duke of
Northumberland.
CAMULODUNUM, also written CAMALODUNUM (mod. Colchester, q.v.), a British
and Roman town. It was the capital of the British chief Cunobelin and is
named on his coins: after his death and the Roman conquest of south
Britain, the Romans established (about A.D. 48) a _colonia_ or
municipality peopled with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve
both as an informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It
was stormed and burnt A.D. 61 in the rising of Boadicea (q.v.), but soon
recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman Britain. Its walls
and some other buildings still stand and abundant Roman remains enrich
the local museum. The name denotes "the fortress of Camulos," the Celtic
Mars.
CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON (1740-1804), French revolutionist, was a successful
advocate before the Revolution. In 1789 he was elected by the third
estate of Paris to the states general, and attracted attention by his
speeches against social inequalities. Elected to the National Convention
by the department of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee
of general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged
with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered with his
colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he was exchanged
for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November 1795. He played an
inconspicuous role in the council of the Five Hundred. On the 14th of
August 1789 the Constituent Assembly made Camus its archivist, and in
that capacity he organized the national archives, classified the papers
of the different assemblies of the Revolution and drew up analytical
tables of the _proces-verbaux_. He was restored to the office in 1796
and became absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican,
refusing to take part in the Napoleonic regime.
CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS (1699-1768), French mathematician and
mechanician, was born at Crecy-en-Brie, near Meaux, on the 25th of
August 1699. He studied mathematics, civil and military architecture,
and astronomy, and became associate of the Academie des Sciences,
professor of geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and
fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied Pierre
Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the expedition to Lapland
for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. He died on the 2nd of
February 1768. He was the author of a _Cours de mathematiques_ (Paris,
1766), and a number of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects
(see Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch_).
CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES (1672-1732), French mechanician, was born
near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September 1672. After studying for the
church, he devoted himself to mechanical inventions, a number of which
he described in his _Traite des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des
arts et metiers_, Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.
CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE (1721-1789), French architect, was born at
Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died it the same city on the 27th
of July 1789. He published several works on architectural and related
subjects.
CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the home of
Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's "beginning of miracles" (John ii.
I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it is evident from the
biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood of, and higher than,
Capernaum. Opinion as to identification is fairly divided between Kefr
Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil. The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth,
contains a ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter is
an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no remains but a
few cisterns.
CANAAN, CANAANITES. These geographical and ethnic terms have a shifting
reference, which doubtless arises out of the migrations of the tribes to
which the term "Canaanites" belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems
to be applied to a population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in
Josh. xi. 3, Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these,
but to a people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be
used of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is
disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively to the
population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish
inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the writer called the
Yahwist (J); see _e.g. _Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18; Ex. xv. 15; Num.
xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38, and elsewhere. It
was also, as Augustine tells us,[1] a usage of the Phoenicians to call
their land "Canaan." This is confirmed by coins of the city of Laodicea
by the Lebanon, which bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in
Canaan"; these coins are dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and
his successors, Greek writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest,
viz. that the original name of Phoenicia was [Greek: Chna], i.e. Kena, a
short, collateral form of Kena'an or Kan'an The form Kan'an is favoured
by the Egyptian usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or
Arabian nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Shur?) to "the Ka-n-'-na,"
and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in "the
Ka-n-'-na." By this geographical name is probably meant all western
Syria and Palestine with Raphia--"the (first) city of the
Ka-n-'-na"--for the south-west boundary towards the desert.[2] In the
letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their Egyptian
overlord[3]--commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna tablets--we find the
two forms Kinahhi and Kinahna, corresponding to Kena' and Kena'an
respectively, and standing, as Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its
widest extent.
On the name "Canaan" Winckler remarks,[4] "There is at present no
prospect of an etymological explanation." From the fact that Egyptian
(though not Hebrew) scribes constantly prefix the article, we may
suppose that it originally meant "the country of the Canaanites," just
as the Hebrew phrase "the Lebanon" may originally have meant "the
highlands of the Libnites"; and we are thus permitted to group the term
"Canaan" with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan, Anak (generally
with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor are scholars more unanimous
with regard to the region where the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan"
arose. It may be true that the term Kinahhi in the Amarna letters
corresponds to Syria and Palestine in their entirety. But this does not
prove that the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan" arose in that region, for
they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let us refer at
this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps hardly estimated at
its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples in Gen. x. Here we find
"Canaan" included among the four sons of Ham. If Cush in v. 6 really
means Ethiopia, and M-s-r-i-m Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is
really a Hebraized form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t
(black),[5] the passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has
recently been suggested,[6] Cush, M-s-r-i-m, and Put are in north
Arabia, and Ham is the short for Yarham or Yerahme'el (see i Chr. ii.
25-27, 42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all
becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an Arabian name.
Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning from about 4000 B.C.[7] a
wave of Semitic migration poured out of Arabia, and flooded Babylonia
certainly, and possibly, more or less, Syria and Palestine also. Also
that between 2800 and 2600 B.C. a second wave from Arabia took the same
course, covering not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and
probably also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet
with the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213), the
first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the first part
of his name is identical with the name of the father of Canaan in
Genesis (Ham or Kham), indicating his Arabian origin.[8] It was he, too,
who restored the ancient supremacy of Babylonia over Syria and
Palestine, and so prevented the Babylonizing of these countries from
coming to an abrupt end.
We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors arrived in the
second Semitic migration, came to call their land "Canaan." They had in
fact the best right to do so. The first of the Canaanite immigrants were
driven seawards by the masses which followed them. They settled in
Phoenicia, and in after times became so great in commerce that
"Canaanite" became a common Hebrew term for "merchant" (e.g. Isa. xxiii.
8). It is a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their
inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious
phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and belonged properly to
the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.[9] For their own traditions
as to their origin see PHOENICIA; we cannot venture to reject these
altogether. The masses of immigrants which followed them may have borne
the name of Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be
given. Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.
First, as regards the Old Testament. We find "the Amorite" (a collective
term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x. 16-18a) among other
tribal names, the exact original reference of which had probably been
forgotten. No one in fact would gather from this and parallel passages
how important a part was played by the Amorites in the early history of
Palestine. In Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we
find them located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi.
13, 21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &c. we hear of two great
Amorite kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the
east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in Gen.
xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &c.,
where the name of Amorite is synonymous with "Canaanite," except that
"Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast. Next, as to the
extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian inscriptions and in the Amarna
tablets Amar and Amurru have a more limited meaning, being applied to
the mountain-region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later
on, Amurru became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as
north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term "the land of
Hatti" (conventionally = Hittites) displaced "Amurru" so far as north
Palestine is concerned (see HITTITES).
Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first stage of the
second great Arabian migration. In the interval preceding the second
stage Syria with Palestine became an Egyptian dependency, though the
links with the sovereign power were not so strong as to prevent frequent
local rebellions. Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of
a strong hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the
Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not quite so
tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs began to seek their
opportunities, though as a rule they did not find them because they
could not obtain the help of a neighbouring king.[10] The boldest of the
disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta, a prince of Amurru, who even
before the death, of Amen-hotep III. endeavoured to extend his power
into the plain of Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or
Hamath), reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the
attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused infinite
trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor of Gubla
(Gebal).
It was, first, the advance of the Hatti (Hittites) into Syria, which
began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more threatening in
that of his successor, and next, the resumption of the second Arabian
migration, which most seriously undermined the Egyptian power in Asia.
Of the former we cannot speak here (see HITTITES), except so far as to
remark the Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the
Hatti, was afterwards clever enough to make a treaty with their king,
and, with other external powers, to attack the districts which remained
loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals for aid to
the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in his religious
innovations to attend to such messages. What most interests us is the
mention of troublesome invaders called some times _sa-gas_ (a Babylonian
ideogram meaning "robber"), sometimes Habiri. Who are these Habiri? Not,
as was at first thought by some, specially the Israelites, but all those
tribes of land-hungry nomads ("Hebrews") who were attracted by the
wealth and luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it
for themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites or
tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites, Ammonites
and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north Syria. Itakkama writes
thus to the Pharaoh,[11] "Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the
cities of the king, my lord, to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in
Ubi. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will
bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show
myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS." Similarly Zimrida,
king of Sidon, declares, "All my cities which the king has given into my
hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri."[12] Nor had Palestine any
immunity from the Arabian invaders. The king of _Jerusalem_, Abd-Hiba,
the second part of whose name has been thought to represent the Hebrew
Yahweh,[13] reports thus to the Pharaoh, "If (Egyptian) troops come this
year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops
come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my
lord."[14] Abd-Hiba's chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and
the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable
league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death
at the siege of Gina.[15] All these princes, however, malign each other
in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest their own innocence of
traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see
above) accuses of disloyalty, writes thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, I and
my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS,
and my Suti[16] are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go
whithersoever the king, my lord, commands."[17] This petty prince,
therefore, sees no harm in having a band of Arabians for his garrison,
as indeed Hezekiah long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against
Sennacherib.
From the same period we have recently derived fresh and important
evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as the material
gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified and critically
examined, a true history of early Palestine will be within measurable
distance. At present, there are five places whence the new evidence has
been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy, generally identified with the Lachish of
the Old Testament. Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders
Petrie and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I
Kings ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902. 3.
Tell-es-Safy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from
Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made some
discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the site, however,
was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio).
Schumacher began working here in 1903 for the German Palestine Society.
5. Taannek, on the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst
Sellin of Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may
be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform tablet
belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer, a deed of sale;
at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian stele, three seals, and
three cylinders with Babylonian mythological representations; at
Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a Babylonian legend, and at Taannek,
twelve tablets and fragments of tablets were found near the fragments of
the terracotta box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact
that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used
Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence. But much
beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive sanctuaries, for
instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths at Gezer is described in
detail in _P.E.F. Quart. Statement_, January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903,
p. 219. There is reason, as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the
result of a gradual development, beginning with two small pillars, and
gradually enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at
Tell-es-Safy. The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved
to be of great antiquity; Sellin's discoveries at Taannek and those of
Bliss at Tell-es-Safy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars have also
been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx. 25, 26, and numerous
jars with the skeletons of infants. We cannot doubt that the sacrificing
of children was practised on a large scale among the Canaanites. Their
chief deity was Ashtart (Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous
images of her have been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of
the divine form vary in the different places. The other images which
have been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however, infer
that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish Pantheon.
What the images do prove is the large amount of intercourse between
Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of Egyptians in the subject country.
See the _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_, ed. by Winckler, with translation
(1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements
from 1903 onwards; Sellin's report of excavations at Tell Ta'annek;
also H.W. Hogg, "Recent Assyriology," &c., in _Inaugural Lectures_ ed.
by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical
questions, see Dillmann's commentaries and the Bible dictionaries. See
further articles PALESTINE; JEWS. (T. K. C.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] _Enarralio in Psalm civ._
[2] W.M. Muller, _Asien und Europa, _p. 205.
[3] The letters are written in the official and diplomatic
language--Babylonian, though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are not
wanting.
[4] _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, _p. 181.
[5] These explanations are endorsed by Driver _ (Genesis, on _Gen. x.).
[6] See the relevant articles in _Ency. Bib. _and Cheyne's _Genesis
and Exodus._
[7] For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, _Gesch. Isr._ i. 127
f.; Paton, _Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine_ (1902), pp. 6-8,
25-28.
[8] It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name
differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), _kimta rapashtum_, "wide family." That,
however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism
or Arabism.
[9] See Cheyne, _Genesis and Exodus_ (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A.
Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscriptions_ (e.g. pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar's
inscription).
[10] See _Amarna Letters_, Winckler's edition, No. 7.
[11] _Op. cit._ No. 146.
[12] _Op. cit._ No. 147.
[13] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. p. 16.
[14] _Amarna Letters_, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).
[15] _Ibid._ No. 164 (xi. 15-18).
[16] Nomads of the Syrian desert.
[17] _Amarna Letters_, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).
CANACHUS, a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part of the 6th
century B.C. He was especially noted as the author of two great statues
of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple at Miletus, and one in
cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins of Miletus furnish us with copies
of the former and show the god to have held a stag in, one hand and a
bow in the other. The rigidity of these works naturally impressed later
critics.
CANADA. The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern half of the
continent of North America and its adjacent islands, excepting Alaska,
which belongs to the United States, and Newfoundland, still a separate
colony of the British empire. Its boundary on the south is the parallel
of latitude 49 deg., between the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods,
then a chain of small lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon
river on the north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with
their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From this
eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial line nearly
corresponding to lat. 45 deg.; then an irregular line partly determined
by watersheds and rivers divides Canada from Maine, coming out on the
Bay of Fundy. The western boundary is the Pacific on the south, an
irregular line a few miles inland from the coast along the "pan handle"
of Alaska to Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141 deg. to the Arctic
Ocean. A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the Atlantic
on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging to
Newfoundland.
_Physical Geography._--In spite of these restrictions of its natural
coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada is admirably
provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf of St Lawrence with its
much indented shores and the coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
supply endless harbours, the northern ones closed by ice in the winter,
but the southern ones open all the year round; and on the Pacific
British Columbia is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with
well-sheltered harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken
shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of sheltered
navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of Newfoundland to
Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British Columbian coast, are of great
advantage for the coasting trade. The greatly varied Arctic coast line
of Canada with its large islands, inlets and channels is too much
clogged with ice to be of much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a
mediterranean sea 850 m. long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with
its outlet Hudson Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and
whalers, and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada,
though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of the nine
provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt water,
Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may soon be extended
to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only on Hudson Bay's southern
extension, James Bay, and there is no probability that the shallow
harbours of the latter bay will ever be of much importance for shipping,
though Churchill Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an
important grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation is,
however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great Lakes.
Geology.
The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple, and drawn on a
large scale, more than half of its surface sloping gently inwards
towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with higher margins to the
south-east and south-west. In the main it is a broad trough, wider
towards the north than towards the south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay
occupying much of its north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains
rise gradually to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern
member of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America. The
physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with its geology
that at least an outline of the geological factors involved in its
history is necessary to understand the present physiography. The
mountain structures originated in three great orogenic periods, the
earliest in the Archean, the second at the end of the Palaeozoic and the
third at the end of the Mesozoic. The Archean mountain chains, which
enclosed the present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that they had
already been worn down almost to a plain before the early Palaeozoic
sediments were laid down. This ruling geological and physical feature of
the North American continent has been named by E. Suess the "Canadian
Shield." Round it the Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from
its own waste, were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places
still almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east of
this "protaxis," or nucleus of the continent, were pushed against its
edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, which, however,
extends only a short distance into Canada. The Mesozoic sediments were
almost entirely laid down to the west and south-west of the protaxis,
upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic rocks, and in the prairie region they are
still almost horizontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up
into the series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast
region. The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest,
and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights deserving
the nam
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