Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dodwell, Edward" to "Drama"
by Various · English · Gutenberg #32758 · 1,120,722 chars · public domain (US)
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dodwell, Edward" to "Drama"
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Dodwell, Edward" to "Drama"
Author: Various
Release date: June 9, 2010 [eBook #32758]
Most recently updated: January 6, 2021
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32758
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "DODWELL, EDWARD" TO "DRAMA" ***
Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subsctipts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.
(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
Article DOLOMITES, THE: "On the north it is limited by the railway
line from Innichen to Franzensfeste, and on the south by the
railway and road from Trent to Feltre." 'Franzensfeste' amended
from 'Franzenfeste'.
Article DOMICILE: "As the result of the most recent English and
Scottish cases it may be laid down that the necessary intention is
incompatible with the contemplation by the person in question of
any event on the occurrence of which his residence in the territory
in question would cease ..." 'occurrence' from 'occurence'.
Article DORSETSHIRE: "It contains the following municipal
boroughs-Blandford Forum (pop. 3649), Bridport (5710), Dorchester,
the county town (9458)," 'It' from 'In'.
Article DORT, SYNOD OF: "During the interval between the citation
and the appearance of the accused, the professorial members of the
synod were instructed to prepare themselves to be able to confute
the Arminian errors, and the synod occupied itself with
deliberations as to a new translation of the Bible ..." 'were'
amended from 'was'.
Article DOWN: "There are several popular watering-places on the
coast, notably Newcastle, Donaghadee, Ardglass and Rosstrevor."
'watering-places' amended from 'watering-place'.
Article DRACO: "hoplite census, nobody to hold office a second time
until all duly qualified persons had been exhausted, fine of one
drachma for non-attendance in Boule ..." 'been' amended from
'beeen'.
Article DRAMA: "Though in some respects Sicilian comedy seems to
have resembled the Middle rather than the Old Attic comedy, its
subjects sometimes, like those of the latter, coincided with the
myths of tragedy, of which they were doubtless parodies." 'rather'
amended from 'rathet'.
Article DRAMA: "and the wily sharper (dorsenus) became accepted
comic types, and, with others of a similar kind, were handed down,
to reappear in the modern Italian drama." 'similar' amended from
'smiliar'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME VIII, SLICE VI
Dodwell to Drama
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
DODWELL, EDWARD DORLÉANS, LOUIS
DODWELL, HENRY DORMER
DOG DORMITORY
DOGE DORMOUSE
DOG-FISH DORNBIRN
DOGGER BANK DORNBURG
DOGGETT THOMAS DORNER, ISAAC AUGUST
DOGMA DORNOCH
DOGMATIC THEOLOGY DOROHOI
DOGRA DOROTHEUS
DOGS, ISLE OF D'ORSAY, ALFRED GUILLAUME GABRIEL
DOG-TOOTH DORSET, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
DOGWOOD DORSETSHIRE
DOL DORSIVENTRAL
DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS DORT, SYNOD OF
DOLBEN, JOHN DORTMUND
DOLCE, LUDOVICO DORY
DOLCI, CARLO DOSITHEUS MAGISTER
DOLDRUMS DOSSAL
DÔLE DOSSERET
DOLE DOST MAHOMMED KHAN
DOLERITE DOSTOIEVSKY, FEODOR MIKHAILOVICH
DOLET, ÉTIENNE DOUAI
DOLGELLEY DOUARNENEZ
DOLGORUKI, VASILY LUKICH DOUBLE
DOLHAIN DOUBLE BASS
DOLICHOCEPHALIC DOUBLEDAY, ABNER
DOLL DOUBLEDAY, THOMAS
DOLLAR (town of Scotland) DOUBLET
DOLLAR (money) DOUBS (river of France)
DOLLING, ROBERT RADCLYFFE DOUBS (department of France)
DÖLLINGER, JOHANN IGNAZ VON DOUCE, FRANCIS
DOLLOND, JOHN DOUGLAS
DOLMAN DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
DOLNJA TUZLA DOUGLAS, GAVIN
DOLOMIEU, TANCRÈDE GRATET DE DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
DOLOMITE DOUGLAS, JOHN
DOLOMITES, THE DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD
DOLPHIN DOUGLAS (capital of the Isle of Man)
DOMAT JEAN DOUGLAS (village of Scotland)
DOMBES DOUGLASS, FREDERICK
DOMBROWSKI, JAN HENRYK DOUKHOBORS
DOME DOULLENS
DOMENICHINO ZAMPIERI DOULTON, SIR HENRY
DOMESDAY BOOK DOUMER, PAUL
DOMESTIC RELATIONS DOUMIC, RENÉ
DOMETT, ALFRED DOUNE
DOMFRONT DOURO
DOMICILE DOUROUCOULI
DOMINIC, SAINT DOUSA, JANUS
DOMINICA DOUVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE
DOMINICANS DOUW GERHARD
DOMINIS, MARCO ANTONIO DE DOVE (river of England)
DOMINOES DOVE (bird)
DOMINUS DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE AGAR-ELLIS
DOMITIAN DOVER, HENRY JERMYN
DOMRÉMY-LA-PUCELLE DOVER, ROBERT
DON (river of Russia) DOVER (capital of Delaware, U.S.A.)
DON (river of Scotland) DOVER (borough of Kent, England)
DONAGHADEE DOVER (city of New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
DONALDSON, SIR JAMES DOVER (town of New Jersey, U.S.A.)
DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM DOVERCOURT
DONATELLO DOW, LORENZO
DONATI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA DOW, NEAL
DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA DOWAGER
DONATION OF CONSTANTINE DOWDEN, EDWARD
DONATISTS DOWDESWELL, WILLIAM
DONATUS, AELIUS DOWER
DONAUWÖRTH DOWIE, JOHN ALEXANDER
DON BENÍTO DOWLAS
DONCASTER DOWN (county of Ireland)
DON COSSACKS, TERRITORY OF THE DOWN (smooth rounded hill)
DONEGAL (county of Ireland) DOWNES ANDREW
DONEGAL (town of Ireland) DOWNING, SIR GEORGE
DONELSON, FORT DOWNMAN, JOHN
DONGA DOWNPATRICK
DONGOLA (province of Sudan) DOWNS
DONGOLA (town of Sudan) DOWNSHIRE, WILLS HILL
DONIZETTI, GAETANO DOWRY
DONJON DOWSER and DOWSING
DON JUAN DOXOLOGY
DONKIN, SIR RUFANE SHAW DOYEN, GABRIEL FRANÇOIS
DONNAY, CHARLES MAURICE DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN
DONNE, JOHN DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS CHARLES
DONNYBROOK DOYLE, JOHN ANDREW
DONOSO CORTÉS, JUAN DOYLE, RICHARD
DONOVAN, EDWARD DOZSA, GYÖRGY
DOOM DOZY, REINHART PIETER ANNE
DOON DE MAYENCE DRACAENA
DOOR DRACHMANN, HOLGER HENRIK HERBOLDT
DOORWAY DRACO (Athenian statesman)
DOPPLERITE DRACO (constellation)
DORAN, JOHN DRACONTIUS, BLOSSIUS AEMILIUS
DORAT, CLAUDE JOSEPH DRAFTED MASONRY
DORCHESTER, DUDLEY CARLETON DRAG
DORCHESTER, GUY CARLETON DRAGASHANI
DORCHESTER (town of England) DRAGOMAN
DORCHESTER (village of England) DRAGOMIROV, MICHAEL IVANOVICH
DORCHESTER (Boston, U.S.A.) DRAGON
DORDOGNE (river of France) DRAGONETTI, DOMENICO
DORDOGNE (department of France) DRAGON-FLY
DORDRECHT DRAGON'S BLOOD
DORÉ, LOUIS AUGUSTE GUSTAVE DRAGOON
DORIA, ANDREA DRAGUIGNAN
DORIANS DRAINAGE OF LAND
DORIA-PAMPHILII-LANDI DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS
DORION, SIR ANTOINE AIMÉ DRAKE, NATHAN
DORIS DRAKENBORCH, ARNOLD
DORISLAUS, ISAAC DRAKENSBERG
DORKING DRAMA (part)
DODWELL, EDWARD (1767-1832), English traveller and writer on
archaeology. He belonged to the same family as Henry Dodwell the
theologian, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He travelled
from 1801 to 1806 in Greece, and spent the rest of his life for the most
part in Italy, at Naples and Rome. He died at Rome on the 13th of May
1832, from the effects of an illness contracted in 1830 during a visit
of exploration to the Sabine Mountains. His widow, a daughter of Count
Giraud, thirty years his junior, subsequently became famous as the
"beautiful" countess of Spaur, and played a considerable rôle in the
political life of the papal city. He published _A Classical and
Topographical Tour through Greece_ (1819), of which a German translation
appeared in 1821; _Views in Greece_, thirty coloured plates (1821); and
_Views and Descriptions of Cyclopian or Pelasgic Remains in Italy and
Greece_ (London and Paris, with French text, 1834).
DODWELL, HENRY (1641-1711), scholar, theologian and controversial
writer, was born at Dublin in October, 1641. His father, having lost his
property in Connaught during the rebellion, settled at York in 1648.
Here Henry received his preliminary education at the free school. In
1654 he was sent by his uncle to Trinity College, Dublin, of which he
subsequently became scholar and fellow. Having conscientious objections
to taking orders he relinquished his fellowship in 1666, but in 1688 he
was elected Camden professor of history at Oxford. In 1691 he was
deprived of his professorship for refusing to take the oath of
allegiance to William and Mary. Retiring to Shottesbrooke in Berkshire,
and living on the produce of a small estate in Ireland, he devoted
himself to the study of chronology and ecclesiastical polity. Gibbon
speaks of his learning as "immense," and says that his "skill in
employing facts is equal to his learning," although he severely
criticizes his method and style. Dodwell's works on ecclesiastical
polity are more numerous and of much less value than those on
chronology, his judgment being far inferior to his power of research. In
his earlier writings he was regarded as one of the greatest champions of
the non-jurors; but the doctrine which he afterwards promulgated, that
the soul is naturally mortal, and that immortality could be enjoyed only
by those who had received baptism from the hands of one set of regularly
ordained clergy, and was therefore a privilege from which dissenters
were hopelessly excluded, did not strengthen his reputation. Dodwell
died at Shottesbrooke on the 7th of June 1711. His chief works on
classical chronology are: _A Discourse concerning Sanchoniathon's
Phoenician History_ (1681); _Annales Thucydidei et Xenophontei_ (1702);
_Chronologia Graeco-Romana pro hypothesibus Dion. Halicarnassei_ (1692);
_Annales Velleiani, Quintilianei, Statiani_ (1698); and a larger
treatise entitled _De veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cyclis_ (1701).
His eldest son Henry (d. 1784) is known as the author of a pamphlet
entitled _Christianity not founded on Argument_, to which a reply was
published by his brother William (1709-1785), who was besides engaged in
a controversy with Dr Conyers Middleton on the subject of miracles.
See _The Works of H. D. ... abridg'd with an account of his life_, by
F. Brokesby (2nd ed., 1723) and Thomas Hearne's _Diaries_.
DOG, the English generic term for the quadruped of the domesticated
variety of _Canis_ (Fr. _chien_). The etymology of the word is unknown;
"hound" represents the common Teutonic term (Ger. _Hund_), and it is
suggested that the "English _dog_"--for this was a regular phrase in
continental European countries--represented a special breed. Most canine
experts believe that the dog is descended from the wolf, although
zoologists are less certain (see CARNIVORA); the osteology of one does
not differ materially from that of the other: the dog and the wolf breed
with each other, and the progeny thus obtained will again breed with the
dog. There is one circumstance, however, which seems to mark a
difference between the two animals: the eye of the dog of every country
and species has a circular pupil, but the position or form of the pupil
is oblique in the wolf. W. Youatt says there is also a marked difference
in the temper and habits of the two. The dog is generally easily
managed, and although H. C. Brooke of Welling, Kent, succeeded in making
a wolf fairly tractable, the experience of others has been the reverse
of encouraging. G. Cuvier gives an interesting account of a young wolf
which, having been trained to follow his master, showed affection and
submission scarcely inferior to the domesticated dog. During the absence
from home of his owner the wolf was sent to a menagerie, but pined for
his master and would scarcely take any food for a considerable time. At
length, however, he became attached to his keepers and appeared to have
forgotten his former associate. At the end of eighteen months his master
returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recognized him
and lavished on him the most affectionate caresses. A still longer
separation followed, but the wolf again remembered his old associate and
showed great affection upon his return. Such an association proves that
there is very little difference between the dog and the wolf in
recognition of man as an object of affection and veneration. H. C.
Brooke succeeded in training his wolf so well that it was no uncommon
sight to see the latter following his master like a dog. The wolf did
not like strangers, however, and was very shy in their presence.
In the Old and New Testaments the dog is spoken of almost with
abhorrence; it ranked amongst the unclean beasts: traffic in it was
considered as an abomination, and it was forbidden to be offered in the
sanctuary in the discharge of any vow. Part of the Jewish ritual was the
preservation of the Israelites from the idolatry which at that time
prevailed among every other people. Dogs were held in considerable
veneration by the Egyptians, from whose tyranny the Israelites had just
escaped; figures of them appeared on the friezes of most of the temples,
and they were regarded as emblems of the divine being. Herodotus,
speaking of the sanctity in which some animals were held by the
Egyptians, says that the people of every family in which a dog died
shaved themselves--their expression of mourning--adding that this was a
custom of his own time.
The cause of this attachment to and veneration for the dog is, however,
explained in a far more probable and pleasing way than by many of the
fables of ancient mythology. The prosperity of Lower Egypt, and almost
the very subsistence of its inhabitants, depended upon the annual
overflowing of the Nile; and they looked for it with the utmost anxiety.
Its approach was announced by the appearance of a certain star, Sirius,
and as soon as that star was seen above the horizon the people hastened
to remove their flocks to the higher ground and abandoned the lower
pastures to the fertilizing influence of the stream. They hailed it as
their guard and protector; and, associating with its apparent
watchfulness the well-known fidelity of the dog, they called it the
"dog-star" and worshipped it. It was in far later periods and in other
countries that the appearance of the dog-star was regarded as the signal
of insufferable heat or prevalent disease. In Ethiopia, not only was
great veneration paid to the dog, but the inhabitants used to elect a
dog as their king. It was kept in great state, and surrounded by a
numerous train of officers and guards: when it fawned upon them it was
supposed to be pleased with their proceedings; when it growled, it
disapproved of the manner in which their government was conducted. Such
indications of will were implicitly obeyed, or were translated by the
worshippers as their own caprice or interest indicated.
Even 1000 years after this period, the dog was highly esteemed in Egypt
for its sagacity and other excellent qualities; for when Pythagoras,
after his return from Egypt, founded a new sect in Greece, and at Croton
in southern Italy, he taught, with the Egyptian philosophers, that at
the death of the body the soul entered into that of various animals.
After the death of any of his favourite disciples he would hold a dog to
the mouth of the man in order to receive the departing spirit, saying
that there was no animal which could perpetuate his virtues better than
that quadruped. It was in order to preserve the Israelites from errors
and follies of this kind, and to prevent the possibility of such
idolatry being established, that the dog was afterwards regarded with
utter abhorrence amongst the Jews, and this feeling prevailed during the
continuance of the Israelites in Palestine.
Plate I. TYPICAL NON-SPORTING DOGS.
(_From Photos by Bowden Bros._)
[Illustration: GREAT DANE.]
[Illustration: SAINT BERNARD.]
[Illustration: DALMATIAN.]
[Illustration: MASTIFF.]
[Illustration: OLD ENGLISH SHEEP DOG.]
[Illustration: COLLIE.]
[Illustration: CHOW.]
[Illustration: NEWFOUNDLAND.]
[Illustration: POODLE.]
[Illustration: BULL DOG.]
[Illustration: FRENCH BULL DOG.]
[Illustration: _From "Country Life in America."_
BOSTON TERRIER.]
Plate II. TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS.
(_From Photos by Bowden Bros._)
[Illustration: ENGLISH SETTER.]
[Illustration: POINTER.]
[Illustration: IRISH SETTER.]
[Illustration: LABRADOR RETRIEVER.]
[Illustration: FLAT-COATED RETRIEVER.]
[Illustration: IRISH WOLF-HOUND.]
[Illustration: IRISH TERRIER.]
[Illustration: DACHSHUND.]
[Illustration: ROUGH-COATED FOX TERRIER.]
[Illustration: FIELD SPANIEL.]
The Hindus also regard the dog as unclean, and submit to various
purifications if they accidentally come in contact with it, believing
that every dog is animated by a wicked and malignant spirit condemned to
do penance in that form for crimes committed in a previous state of
existence. In every Mahommedan and Hindu country the most scurrilous
epithet bestowed on a European or a Christian is "a dog," and that
accounts for the fact that in the whole of the Jewish history there is
not a single allusion to hunting with dogs. Mention is made of nets and
snares, but the dog does not seem to have been used in the pursuit of
game.
In the early periods of the history of other countries this seems to
have been the case even where the dog was esteemed and valued, and had
become the companion, the friend and the defender of man and his home;
and in the 2nd century of the Christian era Arrian wrote that "there is
as much difference between a fair trial of speed in a good run, and
ensnaring a poor animal without an effort, as between the secret
piratical assaults of robbers at sea and the victorious naval
engagements of the Athenians at Artemisium and at Salamis." The first
hint of the employment of the dog in the pursuit of other animals is
given by Oppian in his _Cynegetica_, who attributes it to Pollux about
200 years after the promulgation of the Levitical law. The precise
species of dog that was cultivated in Greece at that early period cannot
be affirmed, although a beautiful piece of sculpture in the possession
of Lord Feversham at Duncombe Hall, representing the favourite dog of
Alcibiades, differs but little from the Newfoundland dog of the present
day. In the British Museum is another piece of early sculpture from the
ruins of the villa of Antoninus, near Rome. The greyhound puppies which
it represents are identical with a brace of saplings of the present day.
In the early periods of their history the Greeks depended too much on
their nets to capture game, and it was not until later times that they
pursued their prey with dogs, and then not with greyhounds, which run by
sight, but with beagles, the dwarf hound which is still very popular.
Later, mention is made of large and ferocious dogs which were employed
to guard sheep and cattle, or to watch at the door of the house, or even
to act as a companion, and G. Cuvier expresses the opinion that the dog
exhibits the most complete and the most useful conquest that man has
made. Each individual is entirely devoted to his master, adopts his
manners, distinguishes and defends his property, and remains attached to
him even unto death; and all this springs not from mere necessity nor
from constraint, but simply from gratitude and true friendship.
The swiftness, the strength and the highly developed power of scent in
the dog, have made it a powerful ally of man against the other animals;
and perhaps these qualities in the dog were necessary to the
establishment of society. Instances of dogs having saved the lives of
their owners by that strange intuition of approaching danger which they
appear to possess, or by their protection, are innumerable: their
attachment to man has inspired the poet and formed the subject of many
notable books, while in Daniel's _Rural Sports_ is related a story of a
dog dying in the fulness of joy caused by the return of his master after
a two years' absence from home.
It is not improbable that all dogs sprang from one common source, but
climate, food and cross-breeding caused variations of form which
suggested particular uses, and these being either designedly or
accidentally perpetuated, the various breeds of dogs arose, and became
numerous in proportion to the progress of civilization. Among the ruder
or savage tribes they possess but one form; but the ingenuity of man has
devised many inventions to increase his comforts; he has varied and
multiplied the characters and kinds of domestic animals for the same
purpose, and hence the various breeds of horses, cattle and dogs. The
parent stock it is now impossible to trace; but the wild dog, wherever
found on the continent of Asia, or northern Europe, has nearly the same
character, and bears no inconsiderable resemblance to the British dog of
the ordinary type; while many of those from the southern hemisphere can
scarcely be distinguished from the cross-bred poaching dog, the lurcher.
Dogs were first classified into three groups:--(1) Those having the head
more or less elongated, and the parietal bones of the skull widest at
the base and gradually approaching towards each other as they ascend,
the condyles of the lower jaw being on the same line with the upper
molar teeth. The greyhound and all its varieties belong to this class.
(2) The head moderately elongated and the parietals diverging from each
other for a certain space as they rise upon the side of the head,
enlarging the cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus. To this class
belong most of the useful dogs, such as the spaniel, the setter, the
pointer and the sheepdog. (3) The muzzle more or less shortened, the
frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated and diminished in
capacity. To this class belong some of the terriers and most of the toy
dogs.
Later, however, "Stonehenge" (J.H. Walsh), in _British Rural Sports_,
classified dogs as follows:--(a) Dogs that find game for man, leaving
him to kill it himself--the pointer, setters, spaniels and water
spaniels. (b) Dogs which kill game when found for them--the English
greyhound. (c) Dogs which find and also kill their game--the bloodhound,
the foxhound, the harrier, the beagle, the otterhound, the fox terrier
and the truffle dog. (d) Dogs which retrieve game that has been wounded
by man--the retriever, the deerhound. (e) Useful companions of man--the
mastiff, the Newfoundland, the St Bernard dog, the bulldog, the bull
terrier, terriers, sheepdogs, Pomeranian or Spitz, and Dalmatian dogs.
(f) Ladies' toy dogs--King Charles spaniel, the Blenheim spaniel, the
Italian greyhound, the pug dog, the Maltese dog, toy terriers, toy
poodles, the lion dog, Chinese and Japanese spaniels. In 1894 _Modern
Dogs_ (Rawdon B. Lee) was issued, the simple classification of sporting
and non-sporting dog--terriers and toy dogs, being adopted; but although
there had been an understanding since 1874, when the first volume of the
_Kennel Club Stud Book_ (Frank C. S. Pearce) was issued, as to the
identity of the two great divisions of dogs, an incident at Altrincham
Show in September 1900--an exhibitor entering a Russian wolfhound in
both the sporting and non-sporting competitions--made it necessary for
authoritative information to be given as to how the breeds should be
separated. Following petitions to the Kennel Club from exhibitors at the
club's own show at the Crystal Palace, and also at the show of the
Scottish Kennel Club in Edinburgh during the autumn of 1900, the
divisions were decided upon as follows:--
_Sporting._--Bloodhound, otterhound, foxhound, harrier, beagle, basset
hound (smooth and rough), dachshund, greyhound, deerhound, Borzoi, Irish
wolfhound, whippet, pointer, setter (English, Irish and black and tan),
retriever (flat-coated, curly-coated and Labrador), spaniel (Irish
water, water other than Irish, Clumber, Sussex, field, English springer,
other than Clumber, Sussex and field: Welsh springer, red and white and
Cocker); fox terriers (smooth- and wire-coated); Irish terrier, Scotch
terrier, Welsh terrier, Dandie Dinmont terrier, Skye terrier
(prick-eared and drop-eared), Airedale terrier and Bedlington terrier.
_Non-Sporting._--Bulldog, bulldog (miniature), mastiff, Great Dane,
Newfoundland (black, white and black, or other than black), St Bernard
(rough and smooth), Old English sheepdog, collie (rough and smooth),
Dalmatian, poodle, bull terrier, white English terrier, black and tan
terrier, toy spaniel (King Charles or black and tan, Blenheim, ruby or
red and tricolour), Japanese, Pekingese, Yorkshire terrier, Maltese,
Italian greyhound, chow-chow, black and tan terrier (miniature),
Pomeranian, pug (fawn and black), Schipperke, Griffon Bruxellois,
foreign dogs (bouledogues français, elk-hounds, Eskimos, Lhasa terriers,
Samoyedes and any other varieties not mentioned under this heading).
On the 4th of May 1898 a sub-committee of the Kennel Club decided that
the following breeds should be classified as "toy dogs":--Black and tan
terriers (under 7 lb.), bull terriers (under 8 lb.), griffons, Italian
greyhounds, Japanese, Maltese, Pekingese, poodles (under 15 in.), pugs,
toy spaniels, Yorkshire terriers and Pomeranians.
All these varieties were represented at the annual show of the Kennel
Club in the autumn of 1905, and at the representative exhibition of
America held under the management of the Westminster Kennel Club in the
following spring the classification was substantially the same,
additional breeds, however, being Boston terriers--practically unknown
in England,--Chesapeake Bay dogs, Chihuahuas, Papillons and Roseneath
terriers. The latter were only recently introduced into the United
States, though well known in Great Britain as the West Highland or
Poltalloch terrier; an application which was made (1900) by some of
their admirers for separate classification was refused by the Kennel
Club, but afterwards it was granted, the breed being classified as the
West Highland white terrier.
The establishment of shows at Newcastle-on-Tyne in June 1859 secured for
dogs attention which had been denied them up to that time, although
sportsmen had appreciated their value for centuries and there had been
public coursing meetings since the reign of Charles I. Lord Orford,
however, established the first club at Marham Smeeth near Swaffham, where
coursing is still carried on, in 1776. The members were in number
confined to that of the letters in the alphabet; and when any vacancy
happened it was filled up by ballot. On the decease of the founder of the
club, the members agreed to purchase a silver cup to be run for annually,
and it was intended to pass from one to the other, like the whip at
Newmarket, but before starting for it, in the year 1792, it was decided
that the winner of the cup should keep it and that one should be annually
purchased to be run for in November. At the formation of the club each
member assumed a colour, and also a letter, which he used as the initial
of his dog's name. The Newcastle dog show of 1859 was promoted by Mr
Pape--a local sporting gunmaker--and Mr Shorthose, and although only
pointers and setters were entered for in two classes immense interest was
taken in the show. But neither the promoters nor the sportsmen who
supported it could have had the faintest idea as to how popular dog shows
would become. The judges at that historic gathering were: Messrs J.
Jobling (Morpeth), T. Robson (Newcastle-on-Tyne) and J. H. Walsh (London)
for pointers, and E. Foulger (Alnwick), R. Brailsford (Knowsley) and J.
H. Walsh for the setters. Sixty dogs were shown, and it was said that
such a collection had not been seen together before; while so even was
the quality that the judges had great difficulty in making their awards.
The prizes were sporting guns made by Mr Pape and presented by him to the
promoters of the show. So great a success was scored that other shows
were held in the same year at Birmingham and Edinburgh; while the
Cleveland Agricultural Society also established a show of foxhounds at
Redcar, the latter being the forerunner of that very fine show of hounds
which is now held at Peterborough every summer and is looked upon as the
out-of-season society gathering of hunting men and women.
Mr Brailsford was the secretary of the show at Birmingham, and he had
classes for pointers, English and Irish setters, retrievers and Clumber
spaniels. Another big success was scored, and the National Dog Show
Society was established for the purpose of holding a show of sporting
dogs in Birmingham every winter. Three years later proposals were made
in _The Field_ to promote public trials of pointers and setters over
game, but it was not until the 18th of April 1865 that a further step
was taken in the recognition of the value of the dog by the promotion of
working trials. They were held at Southill, near Bedford, on the estate
of S. Whitbread, M.P., and they attracted great interest. The order of
procedure at the early field trials was similar to what it is to-day,
only the awards were given in accordance with a scale of points as
follows: nose, 40; pace and range, 30; temperament, 10; staunchness
before, 10; behind, 10. Style of working was also taken into
consideration. In 1865 a show was held in Paris, and after the National
Dog Club--not the Birmingham society--had failed, as the result of a
disastrous show at the Crystal Palace, a further exhibition was arranged
to be held in June 1870 under the management of G. Nutt and a very
strong committee, among whom were many of the most noted owners of
sporting dogs of that time. The details of the show were arranged by S.
E. Shirley and J. H. Murchison, but the exhibition, although a most
interesting one, was a failure, and the guarantors had to face a heavy
loss. A second venture proved to be a little more encouraging, although
again there was a loss; but in April 1873, the Kennel Club, which is now
the governing body of the canine world, was founded by S. E. Shirley,
who, after acting as its chairman for many years, was elected the
president, and occupied that position until his death in March 1904. His
successor was the duke of Connaught and Strathearn; the vice-presidents
including the duke of Portland, Lord Algernon Gordon Lennox, J. H.
Salter and H. Richards. The progress of the club has been remarkable,
and that its formation did much to improve the conditions of the various
breeds of dogs, to encourage their use in the field by the promotion of
working trials, and to check abuses which were common with regard to the
registration of pedigrees, &c., cannot be denied. The abolition of the
cropping of the ears of Great Danes, bull terriers, black and tan
terriers, white English terriers, Irish terriers and toy terriers, in
1889 gained the approval of all humane lovers of dogs, and although
attempts have been made to induce the club to modify the rule which
prohibits the exhibition of cropped dogs, the practice has not been
revived; it is declared, however, that the toy terriers and white
English terriers have lost such smartness by the retention of the ears
that they are becoming extinct. The club has control over all the shows
held in the United Kingdom, no fewer than 519 being held in 1905, the
actual number of dogs which were entered at the leading fixtures being:
Kennel Club show 1789, Cruft's 1768, Ladies' Kennel Association 1306,
Manchester 1190, Edinburgh 896 and Birmingham 892. In 1906, however, no
fewer than 1956 dogs were entered at the show of the Westminster Kennel
Club, held in Madison Square Garden, New York; a fact proving that the
show is as popular in America as it is in the United Kingdom, the home
of the movement. The enormous sum of £1500 has been paid for a collie,
and 1000 guineas for a bulldog, both show dogs pure and simple; while
£500 is no uncommon price for a fox terrier. Excepting for greyhounds,
however, high prices are rarely offered for sporting dogs, 300 guineas
for the pointer "Coronation" and 200 guineas for the retriever "High
Legh Blarney" being the best reported prices for gun dogs during the
last few years.
The foreign and colonial clubs which are affiliated to the Kennel Club
are: the Guernsey Dog Club, the Italian Kennel Club, the Jersey Dog
Club, La Société Centrale (Paris), Moscow Gun Club of the Emperor
Alexander II., New South Wales Kennel Club, Nimrod Club (Amsterdam),
Northern Indian Kennel Association, Royal St Hubert's Society (Brussels)
and the South African Kennel Club (Cape Town). Its ramifications
therefore extend to all parts of the world; while its rules are the
basis of those adopted by the American Kennel Club, the governing body
of the "fancy" in the United States. A joint conference between
representatives of the two bodies, held in London in 1900, did much
towards securing the uniformity of ideas which is so essential between
associations having interests in common.
Most of the leading breeds have clubs or societies, which have been
founded by admirers with a view to furthering the interests of their
favourites; and such combinations as the Bulldog Club (incorporated),
the London Bulldog Society, the British Bulldog Club, the Fox Terrier
Club, the Association of Bloodhound Breeders--under whose management the
first man-hunting trials were held,--the Bloodhound Hunt Club, the
Collie Club, the Dachshund Club, the Dandie Dinmont Terrier Club, the
English Setter Club, the Gamekeepers' Association of the United Kingdom,
the International Gun Dog League, the Irish Terrier Club, the Irish
Wolfhound Club, the St Bernard Club, the National Terrier Club, the
Pomeranian Club, the Spaniel Club, the Scottish Terrier Club and the Toy
Bulldog Club have done good work in keeping the claims of the breeds
they represent before the dog-owning public and encouraging the breeding
of dogs to type. Each club has a standard of points; some hold their own
shows; while others issue club gazettes. All this has been brought about
by the establishment of a show for sporting dogs at Newcastle-on-Tyne in
the summer of 1859.
America can claim a list of over twenty specialist clubs, and in both
countries women exhibitors have their independent associations, Queen
Alexandra having become one of the chief supporters of the Ladies'
Kennel Association (England). There is a ladies' branch of the Kennel
Club, and the corresponding clubs in America are the Ladies' Kennel
Association of America and the Ladies' Kennel Association of
Massachusetts.
_The Gazette_ is the official organ of the Kennel Club. _The Field_,
however, retains its position as the leading canine journal, the
influence of J. H. Walsh ("Stonehenge"), who did so much towards
establishing the first dog shows and field trials, having never forsaken
it: the work he began was carried on by its kennel editor, Rawdon B. Lee
(d. 1908), whose volumes on _Modern Dogs_ (sporting, non-sporting and
terriers) are the standard works on dogs. _Our Dogs_, _The Kennel
Magazine_, and _The Illustrated Kennel News_ are the remaining canine
journals in England. Several weekly papers published on the continent of
Europe devote a considerable portion of their space to dogs, and canine
journals have been started in America, South Africa and even India:
while apart from Lee's volumes and other carefully compiled works
treating on the dog in general, the various breeds have been written
about, and the books or monographs have large sales. At the end of 1905
E. W. Jaquet wrote _The Kennel Club: a History and Record of its Work_,
and an _edition de luxe_ of _Dogs_ is edited by Mr Harding Cox; Mr
Sidney Turner, the chairman of the Kennel Club committee, edited _The
Kennel Encyclopaedia_, the first number of which was issued in 1907. Dog
lovers are now numbered by their tens of thousands, and in addition to
shows of their favourites, owners are also liberally catered for in the
shape of working trials, for during the season competitions for
bloodhounds, pointers, setters, retrievers, spaniels and sheepdogs are
held.
_Breeds of Dog._
Nothing is known with certainty as to the origin of the vast majority of
breeds of dogs, and it is an unfortunate fact that the progressive
changes which have been made within comparatively recent times by
fanciers have not been accurately recorded by the preservation, in
museums or collections, of the actual specimens considered typical at
different dates. No scientific classification of the breeds of dogs is
at present possible, but whilst the division already given into
"sporting" and "non-sporting" is of some practical value, for
descriptive purposes it is convenient to make a division into the six
groups:--wolfdogs, greyhounds, spaniels, hounds, mastiffs and terriers.
It is to be remembered, however, that all these types interbreed freely,
and that many intermediate, and forms of wholly doubtful position,
occur.
_Wolfhounds._--Throughout the northern regions of both hemispheres there
are several breeds of semi-domesticated dogs which are wolf-like, with
erect ears and long woolly hair. The Eskimo dog has been regarded as
nothing more than a reclaimed wolf, and the Eskimo are stated to
maintain the size and strength of their dogs by crossing them with
wolves. The domestic dogs of some North American Indian tribes closely
resemble the coyote; the black wolfdog of Florida resembles the black
wolf of the same region; the sheepdogs of Europe and Asia resemble the
wolves of those countries, whilst the pariah dog of India is closely
similar to the Indian wolf. The Eskimo dog has small, upright ears, a
straight bushy tail, moderately sharp muzzle and rough coat. Like a
wolf, it howls but does not bark. It occurs throughout the greater part
of the Arctic regions, the varieties in the old and new world differing
slightly in colour. They are fed on fish, game and meat. They are good
hunters and wonderfully cunning and enduring. Their services to their
owners and to Arctic explorers are well known, but Eskimo dogs are so
rapacious that it is impossible to train them to refrain from attacking
sheep, goats or any small domesticated animals. The Hare Indian dog of
the Great Bear Lake and the Mackenzie river is more slender, gentle and
affectionate than the Eskimo dog, but is impatient of restraint, and
preserves many of the characters of its wild ally, the coyote, and is
practically unable to bark.
The Pomeranian dog is a close ally of the Eskimo breed and was formerly
used as a wolfdog, but has been much modified. The larger variety of the
race has a sharp muzzle, upright pointed ears, and a bushy tail
generally carried over the back. It varies in colour from black through
grey to reddish brown and white. The smaller variety, sometimes known as
the Spitz, was formerly in some repute as a fancy dog, a white variety
with a black tip to the nose and a pure black variety being specially
prized. Pomeranians have been given most attention in Germany and
Belgium, while the so-called Spitz has been popular in England and
America.
The sheepdogs and collies are still further removed from the wolf type,
and have the tip of the ear pendent. The tail is thick and bushy, the
feet and legs particularly strong, and there is usually a double
dew-claw on each hind limb. The many varieties found in different
countries have the same general characters. The bark is completely
dog-like, and the primitive hunting instincts have been cultivated into
a marvellous aptitude for herding sheep and cattle. The training takes
place during the first year, and the work is learned with extreme
facility. The Scotch collie is lighter and more elegant, and has a
sharper muzzle. Since it became popular as a pet dog, its appearance has
been greatly improved, and whilst it has lost its old sullen
concentration, it has retained unusual intelligence and has become
playful and affectionate. The wolfdogs all hunt chiefly by scent.
_Greyhounds._--These are characterized by slight build, small ears
falling at the tips, elongated limbs and tails and long narrow muzzles.
They hunt entirely by sight, the sense of smell being defective. The
English greyhound is the most conspicuous and best-known member of the
group, and has been supposed to be the parent of most of the others. The
animal is thoroughly adapted for extreme speed, the long, rat-like tail
being used in balancing the body in quick turns. The favourite colour is
a uniform sandy, or pale grey tone, but characters directly related to
capacity for speed have received most attention. The Italian greyhound
is a miniature greyhound, still capable of considerable speed but so
delicate that it is almost unable to pull down even a rabbit, and is
kept simply as a pet. The eyes are large and soft, and a golden fawn is
the colour most prized. The Scotch deerhound is a larger and heavier
variety of the English greyhound, with rough and shaggy hair. It has
been used both for deer stalking and for coursing, and several varieties
exist. The Irish wolfhound is now extinct, but appears to have been a
powerful race heavier than the deerhound but similar to it in general
characters. Greyhounds have been bred from time immemorial in Eastern
Europe and Western Asia, while unmistakable representatives are figured
on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The existing Oriental varieties are
in most cases characterized by silky hair. The hairless dogs of Central
Africa are greyhounds employed chiefly in hunting antelopes, and there
are somewhat similar varieties in China, Central and South America.
The whippet is a local English dog, used chiefly in rabbit coursing and
racing, and is almost certainly a cross between greyhounds and terriers.
The lurcher is a dog with the general shape of a greyhound, but with a
heavier body, larger ears and rougher coat. Lurchers are cross-bred
dogs, greyhounds and sheepdogs, or deerhounds and collies, being the
parents.
_Spaniels_ are heavily built dogs with short and very wide skulls rising
suddenly at the eyes. The brain is relatively large and the intelligence
high. The muzzle is short, the ears large and pendent, the limbs
relatively short and heavy, and the coat thick and frequently long. It
is supposed, from their name, that they are of Spanish origin. They may
be divided into field spaniels, water spaniels and the smaller breeds
kept as pets. Field spaniels are excellent shooting dogs, and are
readily trained to give notice of the proximity of game. The Clumber,
Sussex, Norfolk and Cocker breeds are the best established. The Clumber
is long, low and heavy. It is silent when hunting, and has long ears
shaped like vine leaves. The ground colour of the coat is white with
yellow spots. The Sussex is a lighter, more noisy animal, with a wavy,
golden coat. The Cockers are smaller spaniels, brown, or brown-and-white
in the Welsh variety, black in the more common modern English form. The
head is short, and the coat silky and wavy. Of the water spaniels the
Irish breeds are best known. They are relatively large dogs, with broad
splay feet, and silky oily coats.
The poodle is probably derived from spaniels, but is of slighter, more
graceful build, and is pre-eminent even among spaniels for intelligence.
The best known pet spaniels are the King Charles and the Blenheim, small
dogs with fine coats, probably descended from Cockers.
Setters owe their name to their having been trained originally to crouch
when marking game, so as to admit of the net with which the quarry was
taken being drawn over their heads. Since the general adoption of
shooting in place of netting or bagging game, setters have been trained
to act as pointers. They are pre-eminently dogs for sporting purposes,
and special strains or breeds adapted to the peculiarities of different
kinds of sporting have been produced. Great Britain is probably the
country where setters were first produced, and as early as the 17th
century spaniels were used in England as setting dogs. It is probable
that pointer blood was introduced in the course of shaping the various
breeds of setter. The English setter should have a silky coat with the
hair waved but not curly; the legs and toes should be hairy, and the
tail should have a bushy fringe of hairs hanging down from the dorsal
border. The colour varies much, ranging according to the strains, from
black-and-white through orange-and-white and liver-and-white to pure
white, whilst black, white, liver, and red or yellow self-coloured
setters are common. The Irish setter is red without trace of black, but
occasionally flecked with white. The Gordon setter, the chief Scottish
variety, is a heavier animal with coarser hair, black-and-tan in colour.
The Russian setter has a woolly and matted coat.
The retriever is a large dog used for retrieving game on land, as a
water spaniel is used for the same purpose in water. The breed is almost
certainly derived from water-spaniels, with a strong admixture of
Newfoundland blood. The colour is black or tan, and the hair of the
face, body and tail is close and curly, although wavy-coated strains
exist.
The Newfoundland is simply an enormous spaniel, and shows its origin by
the facility with which it takes to water and the readiness with which
it mates with spaniels and setters. It has developed a definite instinct
to save human beings from drowning, this probably being an evolution of
the retrieving instinct of the original spaniels. The true Newfoundland
is a very large dog and may reach 31 in. in height at the shoulder. The
coat is shaggy and oily, and is preferred with as little white as
possible, but the general black coloration may have rusty shades. The
eyes and ears are relatively small, and the forehead white and
dome-shaped, giving the face the well-known appearance of benignity and
intelligence. Although these dogs were originally brought to Great
Britain from Newfoundland and are still bred in the latter country,
greater size, perfection and intelligence have been attained in England,
where Newfoundlands for many years have been the most popular large
dogs. They are easily taught to retrieve on land or water, and their
strength, intelligence and fidelity make them specially suitable as
watchdogs or guardians. The Landseer Newfoundland is a black and white
variety brought into notice by Sir Edwin Landseer, but the exact
ancestry of which is unknown. The Labrador Newfoundland is a smaller
black variety with a less massive head. It occurs both in Newfoundland
and England, and has been used largely in producing crosses, being
almost certainly one parent of the retriever.
The St Bernard is a large breed taking its name from the monastery of
Mount St Bernard in the Alps, and remarkable for high intelligence and
use in rescuing travellers from the snow. The origin of the breed is
unknown, but undoubtedly it is closely related to spaniels. The St
Bernard attains as great a size as that of any other breed, a fine
specimen being between 60 and 70 in. from the tip of the nose to the
root of the tail. The colour varies, but shades of tawny-red and white
are more frequent than in Newfoundlands. In the rough-haired breed the
coat is long and wavy, but there exists a smooth breed with a nearly
smooth coat.
_Hounds._--These are large dogs, hunting by smell, with massive
structure, large drooping ears, and usually smooth coats, without
fringes of hair on the ears, limbs or tail. The bloodhound is probably
the stock from which all the English races of hounds have been derived.
The chief character is the magnificent head, narrow and dome-like
between the huge pendulous ears, and with transverse puckers on the
forehead and between the eyes. The prevailing colour is tan with large
black spots. Bloodhounds, or, as they are sometimes termed,
sleuthhounds, have been employed since the time of the Romans in
pursuing and hunting down human beings, and a small variety, known as
the Cuban bloodhound, probably of Spanish origin, was used to track
fugitive negroes in slaveholding times. Bloodhounds quest slowly and
carefully, and when they lose the scent cast backwards until they
recover the original trail and make a fresh attempt to follow it.
Staghounds are close derivatives of the bloodhound, and formerly
occurred in England in two strains, known respectively as the northern
and southern hounds. Both breeds were large and heavy, with pendulous
ears and thick throats with dewlaps. These strains seem to be now
extinct, having been replaced by foxhounds, a large variety of which is
employed in stag-hunting.
The modern English foxhound has been bred from the old northern and
southern hounds, and is more lightly built, having been bred for speed and
endurance. The favourite and most common colour is black-white-and-tan.
The ears are usually artificially clipped so as to present a rounded lower
margin. Their dash and vigour in the chase is much greater than that of
the bloodhound, foxhounds casting forwards when they have lost the trail.
Harriers are a smaller breed of foxhounds, distinguished by their
pointed ears, as it is not the custom to trim these. They are used in
the pursuit of hares, and, although they are capable of very fast runs,
have less endurance than foxhounds, and follow the trail with more care
and deliberation.
Otterhounds are thick, woolly harriers with oily underfur. They are
savage and quarrelsome, but are naturally excellent water-dogs.
Beagles are small foxhounds with long bodies and short limbs. They have
a full bell-like cry and great cunning and perseverance in the tracking
of hares and rabbits. They are relatively slow, and are followed on
foot.
Turnspits were a small, hound-like race of dogs with long bodies,
pendulous ears, out-turned feet and generally black-and-tan coloration.
They were employed as animated roasting jacks, turning round and round
the wire cage in which they were confined, but with the employment of
mechanical jacks their use ceased and the race appears to be extinct.
Basset hounds are long and crooked-legged dogs, with pendulous ears.
They appear to have been produced in Normandy and the Vendée, where they
were employed for sporting purposes, and originally were no very
definite breed. In comparatively recent times they have been adopted by
English fanciers, and a definite strain with special points has been
produced.
The dachshund, or badger hound, is of German origin, and like the basset
hound was originally an elongated distorted hound with crooked legs,
employed in baiting and hunting badgers, but now greatly improved and
made more definite by the arts of the breeder. The colour is generally
black-and-tan or brownish, the body is extremely long and cylindrical;
the ears are large and pendulous, the legs broad, thick and twisted,
with everted paws. The coat is short, thick and silky, and the tail is
long and tapering.
The pointers, of which there are breeds slightly differing in most
European countries, are descendants of the foxhound which have been
taught to follow game by general body scent, not by tracking, nose to
the ground, the traces left by the feet of the quarry, and, on
approaching within sight of the game, to stand rigid, "pointing" in its
direction. The general shape is like that of the foxhound, but the build
is lighter and better knit, and the coat is soft, whilst white and
spotted colorations are preferred. Pointers are employed to mark game
for guns, and are especially useful in low cover such as that afforded
by turnip fields.
Plate III. TYPICAL SPORTING DOGS.
(_From Photos by Bowden Bros._)
[Illustration: BORZOI.]
[Illustration: GREYHOUND.]
[Illustration: DEERHOUND.]
[Illustration: BLOODHOUND.]
[Illustration: FOX HOUND.]
[Illustration: HARRIER.]
[Illustration: OTTER HOUND.]
[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN TERRIER.]
[Illustration: SKYE TERRIER.]
[Illustration: SCOTCH TERRIER.]
[Illustration: BEDLINGTON TERRIER.]
Plate IV. TYPICAL TOY DOGS.
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
POMERANIAN.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Thos. Fall._
ITALIAN GREYHOUND.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
TOY BULL TERRIER.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
TOY SPANIEL.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Walker._
BLENHEIM.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Thos. Fall._
PAPILLON.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
SCHIPPERKE.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
MALTESE.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Thos. Fall._
TOY BLACK AND TAN.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
YORKSHIRE TERRIER.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
PUG.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
GRIFFON.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
JAPANESE.]
[Illustration: _Photo, Bowden Bros._
PEKINGESE.]
The Dalmatian or coach dog (sometimes called the plum-pudding dog) is a
lightly built pointer, distinguished by its spotted coloration,
consisting of evenly disposed circular black spots on a white ground.
The original breed is said to have been used as a pointer in the country
from which it takes its name, but has been much modified by the
fancier's art, and almost certainly the original strain has been crossed
with bull-terriers.
_Mastiffs_ are powerful, heavily built dogs, with short muzzles,
frequently protruding lower jaws, skulls raised above the eyes, ears
erect or pendulous, pendulous upper lips, short coats and thin tails.
The English mastiff is a huge and powerful dog with pendent ears but
short and silky coat. Fawn and brindle are the colours preferred. The
Tibetan mastiff is equally powerful, but has still larger pendent ears,
a shaggy coat and a long brush-like tail. Mastiffs are employed for
fighting or as watchdogs, and for the most part are of uncertain temper
and not high intelligence.
The bulldog is a small, compact but extremely heavily built animal of
great strength, vigour and tenacity. The lower jaw should be strongly
protruding, the ears should be small and erect, the forehead deeply
wrinkled with an indentation between the eyes, known as the "stop." The
coat should be thick, short and very silky, the favourite colours being
white and white marked with brindle. Bulldogs were formerly employed in
bull-baiting, and the tenacity of their grip is proverbial. Their
ferocious appearance, and not infrequently the habits of their owners,
have given this breed a reputation for ferocity and low intelligence. As
puppies, however, bulldogs are highly intelligent and unusually docile
and affectionate, and if well trained retain throughout life an unusual
sweetness of disposition, the universal friendliness of which makes them
of little use as guardians.
The German boarhound is one of the largest races of dogs, originally
used in Germany and Denmark for hunting boars or deer, but now employed
chiefly as watchdogs. The build is rather slighter than that of the
English mastiff, and the ears are small and carried erect.
The Great Dane is somewhat similar in general character, but is still
more gracefully built, with slender limbs and more pointed muzzle. The
ears, naturally pendent at the tips, are always cropped. It is probable
that the strain contains greyhound blood.
The bull-terrier, as its name implies, is a cross between the bulldog
and the smooth terrier. It is a clever, agile and powerful dog,
extremely pugnacious in disposition.
The pugdog is a dwarf race, probably of mastiff origin, and kept solely
as a pet. The Chinese pug is slender legged, with long hair and a bushy
tail.
_Terriers_ are small dogs of agile and light build, short muzzles, and
very highly arched skulls. The brains are large, and the intelligence
and educability extraordinarily high. The number of breeds is very
large, the two extreme types being the smooth fox-terrier with compact
shape, relatively long legs, and the long-bodied, short-legged Skye
terrier, with long hair and pendent ears.
All the well-known breeds of dogs are highly artificial and their
maintenance requires the constant care of the breeder in mating, and in
rejecting aberrant progeny. The frequency with which even the most
highly cultivated strains produce degenerate offspring is notorious, and
is probably the reason for the profound belief in telegonic action
asserted by most breeders. When amongst the litter of a properly mated,
highly bred fox-terrier, pups are found with long bodies and thick short
legs and feet, breeders are disposed to excuse the result by the
supposition that the bitch has been contaminated by some earlier mating.
There is ample evidence, however, that such departures from type are
equally frequent when there was no possibility of earlier mismating (see
TELEGONY).
_Glossary of Points of the Dog._
_Apple Head._ A rounded head, instead of flat on top.
_Blaze._ A white mark up the face.
_Brisket._ The part of body in front of the chest.
_Brush._ The tail, usually applied to sheepdogs.
_Butterfly Nose._ A spotted nose.
_Button Ear._ Where the tip falls over and covers the orifice.
_Cat Foot._ A short round foot, knuckles high and well developed.
_Cheeky._ When the cheek bumps are strongly defined.
_Chest._ Underneath a dog from brisket to belly.
_Chops._ The pendulous lip of the bulldog.
_Cobby._ Well ribbed up, short and compact in proportion.
_Couplings._ Space between tops of shoulder blades and tops of hip
joints.
_Cow Hocks._ Hocks that turn in.
_Dew Claw._ Extra claw, found occasionally on all breeds.
_Dewlap._ Pendulous skin under the throat.
_Dish Faced._ When nose is higher than muzzle at the stop.
_Dudley Nose._ A yellow or flesh-coloured nose.
_Elbow._ The joint at the top of the forearm.
_Feather._ The hair at the back of the legs and under the tail.
_Flag._ A term for the tail, applied to a setter.
_Flews._ The pendulous lips of the bloodhound and other breeds.
_Forearm._ Part of foreleg extending from elbow to pastern.
_Frill._ A mass of hair on the chest, especially on collies.
_Hare Foot._ A long narrow foot, carried forward.
_Haw._ Red inside eyelid, shown in bloodhounds and St Bernards.
_Height._ Measured at the shoulder, bending head gently down.
_Hocks._ The hock joints.
_Hucklebones._ Tops of the hip joints.
_Knee._ The joint attaching fore-pastern and forearm.
_Leather._ The skin of the ear.
_Occiput._ The projecting bone or bump at the back of the head.
_Overshot._ The upper teeth projecting beyond the under.
_Pastern._ Lowest section of leg, below the knee or hock.
_Pig Jaw._ Exaggeration of overshot.
_Pily._ A term applied to soft coat.
_Rose Ear._ Where the tip of ear turns back, showing interior.
_Septum._ The division between the nostrils.
_Smudge Nose._ A nose which is not wholly black, but not spotted.
_Stifles._ The top joints of the hind legs.
_Stop._ The indentation below the eyes, most prominent in bulldogs.
_Tulip Ear._ An erect or pricked ear.
_Undershot._ The lower teeth projecting in front of the upper ones.
(W. B.; P. C. M.)
DOGE (a modified form of the Ital. _duca_, Lat. _dux_, a leader, or
duke), the title of the chief magistrate in the extinct republics of
Venice and Genoa.
In Venice the office of doge was first instituted about 700. John the
Deacon, referring to this incident in his _Chronicon Venetum_, written
about 1000, says "all the Venetian cities (_omnes Venetiae_) determined
that it would be more honourable henceforth to be under dukes than under
tribunes." The result was that the several tribunes were replaced by a
single official who was called a doge and who became the head of the
whole state. The first doge was Paolo Lucio Anafesto, and some
authorities think that the early doges were subject to the authority of
the emperors of Constantinople, but in any case this subordination was
of short duration. The doge held office for life and was regarded as the
ecclesiastical, the civil and the military chief; his duties and
prerogatives were not defined with precision and the limits of his
ability and ambition were practically the limits of his power. About 800
his independence was slightly diminished by the appointment of two
assistants for judicial work, but these officers soon fell into the
background and the doge acquired a greater and more irresponsible
authority. Concurrently with this process the position was entrusted to
members of one or other of the powerful Venetian families, while several
doges associated a son with themselves in the ducal office. Matters
reached a climax after the fall of the Orseole family in 1026. In 1033,
during the dogeship of Dominico Flabianico, this tendency towards a
hereditary despotism was checked by a law which decreed that no doge had
the right to associate any member of his family with himself in his
office, or to name his successor. It was probably at this time also that
two councillors were appointed to advise the doge, who must, moreover,
invite the aid of prominent citizens when discussing important matters
of state. In 1172 a still more important change was introduced. The
ducal councillors were increased in number from two to six; universal
suffrage, which theoretically still existed, was replaced by a system
which entrusted the election of the doge to a committee of eleven, who
were chosen by a great council of 480 members, the great council being
nominated annually by twelve persons. When a new doge was chosen he was
presented to the people with the formula "this is your doge, if it
please you." Nominally the citizens confirmed the election, thus
maintaining as a constitutional fiction the right of the whole people to
choose their chief magistrate. Five years later this committee of
eleven gave way to a committee of forty who were chosen by four persons
selected by the great council. After the abdication of Doge Pietro Ziani
in 1229 two commissions were appointed which obtained a permanent place
in the constitution and which gave emphatic testimony to the fact that
the doge was merely the highest servant of the community. The first of
these commissions consisted of five _Correttori della promissione
ducale_, whose duty was to consider if any change ought to be made in
the terms of the oath of investiture (_promissione_) administered to
each incoming doge, this oath, which was prepared by three officials,
being a potent factor in limiting the powers of the doge. The second
commission consisted of three _inquisitori sopra il doge defunto_, their
business being to examine and pass judgment upon the acts of a deceased
doge, whose estate was liable to be mulcted in accordance with their
decision. In consequence of a tie at the election of 1229 the number of
electors was increased from forty to forty-one. The official income of
the doge was never large, and from early times many holders of the
office were engaged in trading ventures. One of the principal duties of
the doge was to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea.
This was done by casting a precious ring from the state ship, the
"Bucentaur," into the Adriatic. In its earlier form this ceremony was
instituted to commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro
Orseole II. in 1000, and was celebrated on Ascension day. It took its
later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander III.
and the emperor Frederick I. to Venice in 1177.
New regulations for the elections of the doge were introduced in 1268,
and, with some modifications, these remained in force until the end of
the republic. Their object was to minimize as far as possible the
influence of the individual families, and this was effected by a very
complex machinery. Thirty members of the great council, chosen by lot,
were reduced, again by lot, to nine; the nine chose forty and the forty
were reduced by lot to twelve, who chose twenty-five. The twenty-five
were reduced by lot to nine and the nine elected forty-five. Then the
forty-five were reduced by lot to eleven, and the eleven chose the
forty-one, who actually elected the doge. As the oligarchical element in
the constitution developed, the more important functions of the ducal
office were assigned to other officials, or to administrative boards,
and he who had once been the pilot of the ship became little more than
an animated figurehead, properly draped and garnished. On state
occasions he was surrounded by an increasing amount of ceremonial, and
in international relations he had the status of a sovereign prince of
the first rank. But he was under the strictest surveillance. He must
wait for the presence of other officials before opening despatches from
foreign powers; he was forbidden to leave the city and was not allowed
to possess any property in a foreign land. To quote H. F. Brown, "his
pomp was splendid, his power limited; he appears as a symbol rather than
as a factor in the constitution, the outward and visible sign of the
impersonal oligarchy." The office, however, was maintained until the
closing days of the republic, and from time to time it was held by men
who were able to make it something more than a sonorous title. The last
doge was Lodovico Manin, who abdicated in May 1797, when Venice passed
under the power of Napoleon.
In Genoa the institution of the doge dates from 1339. At first he was
elected without restriction and by popular suffrage, holding office for
life; but after the reform effected by Andrea Doria in 1528 the term of
his office was reduced to two years. At the same time plebeians were
declared ineligible, and the appointment of the doge was entrusted to
the members of the great and the little councils, who employed for this
purpose a machinery almost as complex as that of the later Venetians.
The Napoleonic Wars put an end to the office of doge at Genoa.
See Cecchetti, _Il Doge di Venezia_ (1864); Musatti, _Storia della
promissione ducale_ (Padua, 1888); and H. F. Brown, _Venice: a
Historical Sketch_ (1893).
DOG-FISH, a name applied to several species of the smaller sharks, and
given in common with such names as hound and beagle, owing to the habit
these fishes have of pursuing or hunting their prey in packs. The
small-spotted dog-fish or rough hound (_Scyllium canicula_) and the
large-spotted or nurse hound (_Scyllium catulus_) are also known as
ground-sharks. They keep near the sea bottom, feeding chiefly on the
smaller fishes and Crustacea, and causing great annoyance to the
fishermen by the readiness with which they take bait. They differ from
the majority of sharks, and resemble the rays in being oviparous. The
eggs are enclosed in semi-transparent horny cases, known on the British
coasts as "mermaids' purses," and these have tendril-like prolongations
from each of the four corners, by means of which they are moored to
sea-weed or some other fixed object near the shore, until the young
dog-fish is ready to make its exit. The larger of these species attains
a length of 4 to 5 ft., the smaller rarely more than 30 in. The picked
dog-fish (_Acanthias vulgaris_, formerly known as _Squalus acanthias_)
is pre-eminently _the_ dog-fish. It is the most abundant of the British
sharks, and occurs in the temperate seas of both northern, and southern
hemispheres. It attains a length of 4 ft., but the usual length is 2 to
3 ft., the female, as in most sharks, being larger than the male. The
body is round and tapering, the snout projects, and the mouth is placed
ventrally some distance from the end of the snout. There are two dorsal
fins, each of which is armed on its anterior edge with a sharp and
slightly curved spine, hence its name "picked." This species is
viviparous, the female producing five to nine young at a birth; the
young when born are 9 to 10 in. long and quite similar to the parents in
all respects except size. It is gregarious, and is abundant at all
seasons everywhere on the British coasts. In 1858 an enormous shoal of
dog-fish, many square miles in extent, appeared in the north of
Scotland, when, says J. Couch, "they were to be found floating in
myriads on the surface of every harbour." They are the special enemies
of the fisherman, injuring his nets, removing the hooks from his lines,
and spoiling his fish for the market by biting pieces out of them as
they hang on his lines. They are however eaten, both fresh and salted,
by fishermen, especially on the west coast of England, and they are sold
regularly in the French markets.
DOGGER BANK, an extensive shoal in the North Sea, about 60 m. E. of the
coast of Northumberland, England. Over its most elevated parts there is
a depth of only about six fathoms, but the depth is generally from ten
to twenty fathoms. It is well known as a fishing ground. The origin of
the name is obscure; but the middle Dutch _dogger_ signifies a trawling
vessel, and was formerly applied generally to the two-masted type of
vessel employed in the North Sea fisheries, and also to their crews
(doggermen) and the fish taken (dogger-fish). Off the south end of the
bank an engagement took place between English and Dutch fleets in 1781.
On the night of the 21st of October 1904 during the Russo-Japanese War,
some British trawlers of the Hull fishing fleet were fired upon by
vessels of the Russian Baltic fleet under Admiral Rozhdestvensky on its
voyage to the Far East, one trawler being sunk, other boats injured, two
men killed and six wounded. This incident created an acute crisis in the
relations between Russia and England for several days, the Russian
version being that they had seen Japanese torpedo-boats, but on the 28th
Mr Balfour, the English prime minister, announced that the tsar had
expressed regret and that an international commission would investigate
the facts with a view to the punishment of any responsible parties. The
terms were settled on 25th November, the commission being composed of
five officers (British, Russian, American and French, and one selected
by them), to meet in Paris. On the 22nd of December the four original
members, Vice-admiral Sir Lewis Beaumont, Vice-admiral Kaznakov
(afterwards replaced by Vice-admiral Dubassov), Rear-admiral Davis and
Vice-admiral Fournier, met and chose Admiral Baron von Spaun
(Austria-Hungary) as the fifth. Their report was issued on the 25th of
February 1905. While recognizing that the information received as to a
possible attack led the admiral to mistake the trawlers for the enemy,
the majority of the commissioners held Rozhdestvensky responsible for
the firing and its results, and "being of opinion that there were no
torpedo-boats either among the trawlers nor anywhere near" concluded
that "the opening of fire was not justifiable," though they absolved him
and his squadron from discredit either to their "military qualities" or
their "humanity." The affair ended in compensation being paid by the
Russian government.
DOGGETT (or DOGGET), THOMAS (d. 1721), English actor, was born in
Dublin, and made his first appearance in London in 1691 as Nincompoop in
D'Urfey's _Love for Money_. In this part, and as Solon in the same
author's _Marriage-hater matched_, he gained the favour of the public.
He followed Betterton to Lincoln's Inn Fields, creating the part of Ben,
especially written for him, in Congreve's _Love for Love_, with which
the theatre opened (1695); and next year played Young Hobb in his own
_The Country Wake_. He was associated with Cibber and others in the
management of the Haymarket and Drury Lane, and he continued to play
comedy parts at the former until his retirement in 1713. Doggett is
highly spoken of by his contemporaries, both as an actor and as a man,
and is frequently referred to in _The Tatler_ and _Spectator_. It was he
who in 1715 founded the prize of "Doggett's Coat and Badge" in honour of
the house of Hanover, "in commemoration of his Majesty King George's
happy Accession to the Brittish Throne." The prize was a red coat with a
large silver badge on the arm, bearing the white horse of Hanover, and
the race had to be rowed annually on the 1st of August on the Thames, by
six young watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their
apprenticeship by twelve months. Although the first contest took place
in 1715, the names of the winners have only been preserved since 1791.
The race is still rowed each year, but under modified conditions.
See _Thomas Doggett, Deceased_ (London, 1908).
DOGMA (Gr. [Greek: dogma], from [Greek: dokein], to seem; literally
"that which seems, sc. good or true or useful" to any one), a term which
has passed through many senses both general and technical, and is now
chiefly used in theology. In Greek constitutional history the decision
of--"that which seemed good to"--an assembly was called a [Greek: dogma]
(i.e. decree), and throughout its history the word has generally implied
a decision, or body of decisions or opinions, officially adopted and
regarded by those who make it as possessing authority. As a technical
term in theology, it has various shades of meaning according to the
degree of authority which is postulated and the nature of the evidence
on which it is based. Thus it has been used broadly of all theological
doctrines, and also in a narrower sense of fundamental beliefs only,
confession of which is insisted upon as a term of church communion. By
sceptics the word "dogma" is generally used contemptuously, for an
opinion grounded not upon evidence but upon assertion; and this attitude
is so far justified from the purely empirical standpoint that
theological dogmas deal with subjects which, by their very nature, are
not susceptible of demonstration by the methods of physical science.
Again, popularly, an unproved _ex cathedra_ statement of any kind is
called "dogmatic," with perhaps an insinuation that it is being
obstinately adhered to without, or beyond, or in defiance of, obtainable
evidence. But again to "dogmatize" may mean simply to assert, instead of
hesitating or suspending judgment.
Three pre-Christian or extra-ecclesiastical usages are recorded by a
half-heretical churchman, Marcellus of Ancyra (in Eusebius of Caesarea,
_Contra Marcellum_, i. 4);--words which Adolf Harnack has placed on the
title-page of his larger _History of Dogma_. First there is a medical
usage--empirical versus dogmatic medicine. On this old-world technical
controversy we need not dwell. Secondly, there is a philosophical usage
(e.g. Cicero, Seneca and others). First principles--speculative or
practical--are [Greek: dogmata], Lat. _decreta_, _scita_ or _placita_.
The strongest statement regarding the inviolability of such dogmas is in
Cicero's _Academics_, ii. chap. 9. But we have to remember that this is
dialogue; that the speaker, Hortensius, represents a more dogmatic type
of opinion than Cicero's own; that it is the maxims of "wisdom," not of
any special school, which are described as unchangeable.[1] Marcellus's
third type of dogma is legal or political, the decree (says Marcellus)
of the legislative assembly; but it might also be of the emperor (Luke
ii. 1; Acts xvii. 7), or of a church gathering (Acts xvi. 4), or of Old
Testament law; so especially in Philo the Jew, and in Flavius Josephus
(even perhaps at _Contra Apionem_, i. 8).
Greek Fathers.
While the New Testament knows only the political usage of [Greek:
dogma], the Greek Fathers follow one which is more in keeping with
philosophical tradition. With few and early exceptions, such as we may
note in the Epistle of Barnabas, chap, i., they confine the word to
doctrine. Either dogma (sing.) or dogmas (plural) may be spoken of.
Actually, as J. B. Lightfoot points out, the best Greek commentators
among the Fathers are so dominated by this new usage, that they
misinterpret Col. ii. 14 (20) and Eph. ii. 15 of _Christian_ doctrines.
Along with this goes the fundamental Catholic view of "dogmatic
faith"--the expression is as old as Cyril of Jerusalem (died 386), if
not older--according to which it consists in obedient assent to the
voice of authority. All doctrines are "dogmas" to the Greek Fathers, not
simply the central teachings of their system, as with the philosophers.
Very noteworthy is Cyril of Jerusalem's fourth _Catechetical Discourse_
on the "Ten Dogmas" (we might render "Ten Great Doctrines"). The figure
ten may be taken from the commandments,[2] as in Gregory Nazianzen's
later, and more incidental, decalogue of belief. In any case, Cyril
marks out the way for the subsequent division of the creeds into twelve
or fourteen "articles" or heads of belief (see below). In saying that
all doctrines rank as "dogmas" during the Greek period, we ought to add
a qualification. They do so, in so far as they are held to be of
authority. Clement of Alexandria or Origen would not call his
speculations dogmas. Yet these audacious spirits start from a basis of
authority, and insist upon [Greek: orthotomia dogmatôn] (_Stromata_,
vii. 763). The "dogma" or "dogmas" of heretics are frequently mentioned
by orthodox writers. There can be no question of confining even orthodox
"dogma" to conciliar decisions in an age when definition is so
incomplete; still, we do meet with references to the Nicene "dogma"
(e.g. letter in Theodoret, _H.E._ ii. 15). But dogma is not yet
technical for what is Christian or churchly. The word which emerges in
Greek for that purpose is "orthodox," "orthodoxy," as in John of
Damascus (d. 760), or as in the official title still claimed by the Holy
Orthodox Church of the East.
Latin Fathers.
Medieval usages.
Latin Fathers borrow the word "dogma," though sparingly, and employ it
in all the Greek usages. Something novel is added by Jerome's phrase (in
the _De viris illustribus_, cc. xxxi., cix.) _ecclesiastica
dogmata_,--found again in the title of the treatise now generally
ascribed to Gennadius, and occurring once more in another writer of
southern Gaul.[3] The phrase is a serviceable one, contrasting _church_
teachings with _heretical_ "dogmas." But the main Latin use of dogma in
patristic times is found in Vincent of Lerins (d. c. 450) in his brief
but influential _Commonitorium_; again from southern Gaul. Thereafter
the usage gradually drops. In Thomas Aquinas[4] it does not once occur.
On the other hand Thomas has his own technical name--doctrine (sing.) or
rather _sacra doctrina_; and this expression holds its ground, though
the usage of Abelard, _Theologia_, was destined to an even more
important place (see THEOLOGY). Another medieval usage of importance is
the division of the creed into twelve articles corresponding to the
number of the apostles, who, according to a legend already found in
Rufinus (d. 410) _On the Apostles' Creed_, composed that formula by
contributing each a single sentence. The division is found applied also
to the "Nicene-Constantinopolitan" creed, both in East and West.
Sometimes fourteen articles are detected (in either creed), 7 + 7; the
sacred number twice over.[5]
The Reformation.
The Reformation set up a new idea of faith, or recurred to one of the
oldest of all. Faith was not belief in authoritative teachings; it was
trust in the promises of God and in Jesus Christ as their fulfilment.
But the Protestant view was apt to seem intangible, and the influence of
the learned tradition was strong--for a time, indeed, doctrine was more
cultivated among Protestants than in the Church of Rome. The result was
a structure which is well named the Protestant scholasticism. The new
view of faith is bracketed with the old, and practically neutralized by
it; as was already the case in Melanchthon's theological definitions in
the 1552-1553 edition of _Loci Communes_, also printed in other works by
him. This brings back again the Catholic view of "dogmatic faith."
Article.
The word "article" for a time holds the field. Pope Leo X. in 1520
condemns among other propositions of Martin Luther's the
twenty-seventh--_"Certum est in manu Papae, aut ecclesiae, prorsus non
esse statuere articulos fidei (imo nec leges morum seu bonorum
operum)."_ The Augsburg Confession (1530) is divided into numerous
"articles," while Luther's Lesser Catechism gathers Christianity under
three "articles"--Creation, Redemption, Sanctification. Where moderns
would speak of the "doctrine" of this or that, Lutherans especially, but
also churchmen of other communions, wrote upon this or that "article."
Nikolaus Hunnius ([Greek: diaskepsis], &c., 1626), A. Quenstedt (c.
1685) and others--in a controversial interest, to blacken the Calvinists
still more--distinguished which articles were "fundamental." Modern
Lutheranism (G. Thomasius, _Dogmengeschichte_, 1874-1876, influenced by
T. F. D. Kliefoth 1839) speaks rather of "central dogmas";[6] and the
Roman Catholic J. B. Heinrich[7] is willing to speak of "fundamental
dogmas," those which must be _known_ for salvation; those for which
"implicit" faith does not suffice. When Addis and Arnold's _Catholic
Dictionary_ denounces the conception of central dogmas, what they desire
to exclude as uncatholic is the belief that dogmas lying upon the
circumference may be questioned or perhaps denied.[8] This suggests the
great ambiguity both in Roman Catholic and Protestant writers of the
17th century as to the relation between "articles" and "dogmas." Many
writers in each communion felt that an "article" is a higher thing.
Others, in each communion, made the identification absolute. Perhaps the
Roman theologians of that age were more concerned than the Protestants
to draw a line round necessary truths. This attempt was made by Dr Henry
Holden (_Div. Fidei Analysis_, 1652) in connexion with the word
"articles.[9]"
Decreta.
Another term to be considered is _decretum_, the old Latin equivalent
for [Greek: dogma]. Another of Luther's assertions branded by the pope
in 1520--the twenty-ninth--claimed liberty _judicandi conciliorum
decreta_. On the other hand, the Augsburg Confession protests its
loyalty to the _decretum_ of Nice. What Protestantism saw in the distant
past, Trent naturally recognized in the present. Every one of its own
findings is a _decretum_--except five, among the sacramental chapters,
each of which is headed _doctrina_. Holden again quotes the (indefinite)
_decretum_ of the Council of Basel regarding the Immaculate Conception.
Dogmata in revived use.
The word "dogma" was however to revive, and, with more or less success,
to differentiate itself from "doctrine." Early writers of the modern
period, Protestant or Roman Catholic, use it frequently of heretics;
thus the Augsburg Confession protests that the Protestants have
carefully avoided _nova dogmata_. A Roman Catholic writer, Jan Driedo of
Louvain, revives the reference to _Ecclesiastica dogmata--De
ecclesiasticis scripturis et dogmatibus_ (1533)--using the word, though
not exclusively yet emphatically, of teachings _extra canonem scripturae
sacrae_. Philip Melanchthon's preface to his _Loci communes_ (ed. 1535)
protests that he has not expressed himself _de ullo dogmate_--on any
point of doctrine--without careful consideration of what has been said
before him. Richard Hooker (d. 1600) in bk. viii. of _Eccl. Polity_
(pub. 1648 or perhaps 1651) quotes Thomas Stapleton, the Roman Catholic
(_De principiis doctrinalibus fidei_, 1579), on the royal right or duty
to enforce "dogmas," and adds a gloss of his own--"very articles of the
faith,"--a surprising and probably isolated usage. Many identified
Dogmas and Articles by levelling down or broadening out; but Hooker
levels up. The statement of the Council of Trent (1545-1562) may be
quoted here. The Council will rely chiefly upon Scriptures[10] _in
reformandis dogmatibus et instaurandis in ecclesia moribus_; the Roman
reply to the two sets of _articuli_ of Augsburg, and the Roman
counterpart to the (later) Protestant assertion that the Bible[11] is
the "only rule of faith and practice." At Trent, therefore, once more,
dogma means doctrine. It still means "doctrine" when the collected
_decreta_ of Trent bear on their title-page (1564) reference to an
_Index dogmatum et reformationis_; but here "dogma" is already verging
towards the narrower and more precise sense--truth defined by church
authority. In other words, it is already edging away from its
identification with (all or any) doctrines. On the Protestant side the
identity is still clear in the Lutheran Formula of Concord (1577). This
creed formulates its relation to Scripture over and over, as the one
_regula_ by which all _dogmata_ are to be tried. That characteristic
Protestant assertion had been still earlier pushed to the front in
"Reformed" creeds, e.g. the First Helvetic Confession (1536), and more
notably in the Second (1566).
Definition in Protestant scholasticism.
Protestant creeds had clearly affirmed that _nothing possessed
authority_ which _was not in Scripture_: in a short time, Protestant
theologians--following an impulse common to all Christian
communions--define more sharply the identity of what is authoritative
with the letter of Scripture, _and call these entire contents dogmas_.
Here then, under Protestant scholasticism (Lutheran and Reformed), we
have the first perfectly definite conception of dogma, and the most
definite ever reached. Dogma is the whole text of the Bible, doctrinal,
historical, scientific, or what not. Thus dogma is _revealed_ and is
_infallibly_ true. Dogma is doctrine, viz. that body of doctrines and
related facts which God Himself has propounded for dogmatic faith. Every
true dogma, says Johann Gerhard[12]--the most representative figure of
Lutheran scholasticism--occurs in plain terms somewhere in Scripture.
Roman Catholic replies.
Over against these sweeping assumptions and deductions, the Roman
Catholic Church had to build up its own statement of the basis of
belief. Its early controversialists--like Driedo or Cardinal
Bellarmine--meet assertions such as Gerhard's with a flat denial. The
great dogmas are not, literally and verbally, in the Bible. Along with
the Bible we must accept unwritten traditions; the Council of Trent
makes this perfectly clear. But not any and every tradition; only such
as the church stamps with her approval. And that raises the question
whether the church has not a further part to play? A. M. Fairbairn holds
that D. Petavius's great work _De theologicis dogmatibus_ (especially
the 1st vol., 1644) made the word "dogma" current for _doctrines which
were authoritative as formulated by the church_. We must keep in mind,
however, that the question is not simply one as to the meaning of a
word. The equation holds, more firmly than ever; dogma=the contents of
faith. It has to be established on the Roman Catholic side that faith
(or dogma; the two are inseparable) deals with divine truths
historically revealed long ago but now administered with authority,
according to God's will, by the church. The Englishman Henry Holden (see
above), the Frenchman Veronius (François Veron, S.J., 1575-1649) in his
_Règle générale de la foy catholique_ (1652), the German Philipp Neri
Chrismann,[13] in his _Regula fidei catholicae et collectio dogmatum
credendorum_ (1792),[14] all work at this task. Dogmas or articles of
faith (taken as synonymous) depend upon revelation in Scripture or
tradition, as confirmed by the church whether acting in general councils
or through the pope (in some undefined way; Holden)--in general councils
or by universal consent (Chrismann; of bishops? the definite Gallican
theory?). Veronius is willing to waive the difficult point of church
infallibility as the Council of Trent did not define it. Holden insists
strongly upon infallibility. Church traditions are infallible; and
church dogmas reach us (from the original revelation) through an
infallible medium, the Catholic Church, which the Protestants sadly
lack. In Chrismann the word "dogma" has superseded the word "article";
Holden uses both, though "article" has the preponderance. All three
writers seek to draw a sharp line round what is "of faith." Hence in
Chrismann (who is in other respects the most definite of the three) we
have a view of dogma almost as clear-cut as that of the Protestant
schoolmen. Dogmas are _revealed_; dogmas are _infallible_; the church is
infallible on dogmas (for this statement he cites Muratori) _and on
nothing else_.
This whole period of theology, Protestant and Roman Catholic, is
statical. Men are defining and protecting the positions they have
inherited; they do not think of progress. And yet the Roman Catholic
Church had upon its hands one great unsettled question--the thesis of
the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. This became the standing type
of an assertion which, while favoured by the church and on the very
verge of dogma, was yet not a dogma[15]--till the definition came
through Pius IX. in 1854. Here then the frontier of dogma had
unquestionably moved forward. Its conception must become dynamic; there
was need of some theory of development like J. H. Newman's (1845). It
does not happen, however, that the papal definition of 1854 employs the
_word_ "dogma"; that honour was withheld from the word until the Vatican
decrees of 1870 affirmed the personal infallibility of the pope as
_divinitus revelatum dogma_. With this, one line of tendency in Roman
Catholic doctrine reached its climax; the pope and the council use
"dogma" in a distinctive sense for what is definitely formulated by
authority. But there is another line of tendency. The same council
defines not indeed dogma but faith--inseparable from dogma--as[16] (1)
revealed, (a) in Scripture or (b) in unwritten tradition, and (2) taught
by the church, (a) in formulated decrees, or (b) in her ordinary
_magisterium_. This is a correction of Chrismann. Not only does the
correction involve the substitution of papal authority for a universal
consent of "pastors" and "the faithful"; it also deliberately ranks the
unformulated teachings of the church on points of doctrine as no less
_de fide_ than those formulated. This amounts to a serious warning
against trying to draw a definite line round dogma. The modern Roman
Catholic temper must be eager to believe and eager to submit. New dogmas
have been precipitated more than once during the 19th century; there may
still be others held in solution in the church's teaching. If so, these
are likely one day to crystallize into full dogmas; and, even while not
yet "declared," they have the same claim upon faith.
Thus there seems to be a measure of uncertainty as to what the Church of
Rome now calls "dogma"--only in part relieved by the distinction
between "dogmas strictly" and mere "dogmatic truths." Again, the
assertion that the church is infallible upon some questions, not
belonging to the area of revelation (properly so-called in Roman
Catholic theology), destroys the identification of "dogmas" with
"infallible certainties" which we noted both in the Protestant schoolmen
and in Chrismann. The identification of dogma with revelation remains,
with another distinction in support of it, between "material dogmas"
(all scriptural or traditional truth) and "formal" or ecclesiastically
formulated dogmas.[17] On the other hand, there is absolute certainty on
a point long disputed. Questions about church authority are henceforth
questions about the pope's authority. What he calls heresy, under the
sanction of excommunication or that more formal excommunication known as
anathema, is heresy. What he finds it necessary to condemn even in
milder terms as bad doctrine is infallibily condemned; that is certain,
Roman Catholic theologians tell us, though not yet _de fide_.
Finally we have to glance at a new list of definitions which perhaps in
some cases seek more or less to formulate modern Protestant ideas, but
which in general represent rather the world of disinterested historical
scholarship. That world of the learned offers us non-dogmatic
definitions, drawn up from the outside; definitions which do not share
the root assumptions either of Catholicism or of post-Reformation
Protestant orthodoxy. It might have been best to surrender the term
"dogma" to the dogmatists; but few scholars have consented to do so.
1. We may brush aside the view[18] for which J. C. Döderlein, J. A. A.
Tittmann, and more recently C. F. A. Kahnis are quoted. According to
this definition, "dogma" means the opinion of some individual theologian
of distinction. That might be a conceivable development of usage. It has
been said that persons who dislike authority often show great devotion
to "authorities"; and the word dogma might make a similar transition.
But, in its case, such a usage would constitute a violent break with the
past.
2. Though there is no formal definition in the passage, it is worth
recording that, towards the end of his _Chief End of Revelation_ (1881),
A. B. Bruce sharply contrasts "dogmas of theology" with "doctrines of
faith."[19] While he manifests no wholesale dislike to doctrine, such as
is seen in the Broad Church school, Bruce inverts the Catholic estimate.
Dogma stands lowest, not highest. It seems hardly better than a _caput
mortuum_, out of relation to the original faith or the original facts
that are held to have given it birth. There is more than a touch of
Matthew Arnold in this; though, while Arnold held nothing in religious
experience beyond morality to be objectively genuine, Bruce believed in
God's "gracious" purpose.[20]
3. Much more like Chrismann's view is the "generally accepted position"
among Protestant scholars, as its leading representative to-day, F.
Loofs, has called it;[21] the doctrine enforced within any one church
community is dogma. This definition is significant. It means that
historians recognize the peculiar importance of those beliefs which are
constitutive of church agreement; and it finds some support from the
philosophical and political associations of ancient "dogma." Also Roman
Catholic writers could accept the definition in so far as their own
church's authoritative teachings are concerned. But can a _historian_
separate the opinions which rose to authority in the church from the
other opinions which succumbed? Or the accepted modifications of a
theory from those which were rejected? Again, can we substitute church
authority for that which is always the background of "dogma" as
interpreted from inside--divine authority?[22] Or, again, can we say
definitely which doctrines _are_ "enforced" in Protestant communions and
so _are_ "dogmas"? It has even been asserted by A. Schweizer
(_Christliche Glaubenslehre nach prot. Grundsätzen_, 1863-1872) that
Protestantism ought not to speak of dogmas at all, except as things of
its imperfect past.[23] And historically it seems plain that--since the
age of Protestant scholasticism--there has been nothing in Protestant
church life to which the name "dogma" can be assigned, without dropping
a good deal of its original connotation. Dogma is no longer[24] held to
be of immediate divine authority. Hence Catholic, and scientific or
historical, definitions of dogma are on different planes. They never
properly meet.[25]
4. A. Harnack varies in his usage. He is not prepared to exclude the
great medieval pronouncements, or the modern Roman Catholic definitions,
from the list of dogmas; but on the whole he prefers to keep in view
"one historical species"--Loofs suggests that he ought perhaps rather to
say one _individual_ type--that greatest group of Christian dogmas which
"was created by the Greek spirit upon the soil of the gospel" (_Hist. of
Dogma_, Eng. tr., vol. i. pp. 17, 21, 22). Thus Harnack agrees with
Catholic theologians in holding that, in the fullest sense, there is no
dogma except the Catholic. He differs, of course, in holding dogma to be
obsolete now. While Protestants, he thinks, have undermined it by a
deeper conception of faith,[26] Roman Catholics have come to attach more
value to obedience and "implicit belief" than to knowledge; and even the
Eastern Church lives to-day by the cultus more than by the vision of
supernatural truth. Again, Harnack gravely differs from Catholic
dogmatists in assigning a historical origin to what in their view is
essentially divine--supernatural in origin, supernatural even in its
declaration by the church. If they do not deny that Greek philosophy has
entered into Christian doctrine, they consider it a colourless medium
used in fixing the contents of revelation. In all this, Harnack speaks
from a point of view of his own. He is no friend of Catholicism or of
dogma. Perhaps his detachment makes for clearness of thought; Loofs's
friendliness towards dogma, but in a much humbler sense than the
Catholic, involves the risk of confusion.
Both Loofs and Harnack contrast with "dogma" the work of individual
thinkers, calling the latter "theology." Hence they and other
authorities wish to see "History of Dogma" supplemented by "Histories of
Theology." Our usual English phrase "History of Doctrine" ignores that
distinction.
5. A place must be made for the definition proposed by a philosopher, J.
M. E. McTaggart. In _Some Dogmas of Religion_ (1906), he uses "dogma" of
affirmations, whether supported by reasoning or merely asserted, if they
claim "metaphysical" value, metaphysics being defined as "the systematic
study of the ultimate nature of reality." Briefly, a dogma is what
claims ultimate, not relative, truth. This agrees with one feature in
ordinary literary usage--the contrast between "dogmatizing" and
suspending judgment, or taking refuge in conjecture. But it ignores
another quality marked out in common speech--that in respect of which
"dogmatism" is opposed to proof. Also it omits the political or social
reference so much insisted on by Loofs and others. There are materials
for misunderstanding here.
6. A very different view is implied in the _symbolo-fidéisme_ of
Athanase Sabatier and some other French Protestants: religious dogma
consists of symbols in contrast to a scientific gnosis of reality. This
is a radical version of the early Protestant idea of faith, and yields a
theory of what in English we call "doctrine." More precisely, it is a
theory of what doctrine ought to be, or a deeper analysis of its nature;
it is not a statement of what doctrine has been held to be in the past.
And therefore the definition does not proceed from historical
scholarship. Nor yet does it throw light upon "dogma," if dogma is to be
distinguished--somehow--from doctrine.
LITERATURE.--Matthew Arnold's _Literature, and Dogma_ (1873) is
important for literary usage: cf. A. B. Bruce, op. cit. Classical and
early Christian usages, E. Hatch, _Hibbert Lect._ (1888), pp. 119,
120; J. B. Lightfoot on Colossians ii. 14 (20); W. Schmidt,
_Dogmatik_, vol. i. (1895)--many quotations _in extenso_; C. Stange,
_Das Dogma und seine Beurteilung in der neueren Dogmengeschichte_
(1898)--a pamphlet protesting against what Loofs terms the "generally
accepted view." Articles in the (Roman Catholic) _Kirchenlexikon_ of
Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed; (by Hergenröther and Kaulen), 1882-1901,
Arts. "Dogmatik" (J. Köstlin), "Dogmengeschichte" (F. Loofs) in
Herzog-Hauck's _Encykl. f. prot. Theol._ (vol. iv., 1898). Art.
"Glaubensartikel" in previous ed. (Herzog-Plitt, vol. v., 1879) by C.
F. Kling and L. F. Schoeberlein. For works on the history of dogma see
THEOLOGY. See also DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. (R. MA.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 240) denounces all forms of dogmatism,
even perhaps the scepticism of definite denial. Blaise Pascal and
Immanuel Kant, among others, have Sextus's grouping in mind when they
oppose themselves to "dogmatism" and "scepticism" alike. A new shade
of condemnation for dogmas as things merely assumed comes to be
noticeable here, especially in Kant.
[2] But there is a variant reading--eleven--supported by a different
arrangement.
[3] Quoted by C. H. Turner in _Journal of Theol. Studies_ (Oct. 1906,
and cf. Oct. 1905). G. Elmenhorst's statement, that Musanus and
Didymus in an earlier age wrote treatises with the name _De
ecclesiasticis dogmatibus_, seems a plain blunder, if we compare
Jerome's Latin with Eusebius's Greek.
[4] _"So viel uns bekannt"_--J. B. Heinrich, "Dogma," in Wetzer and
Welte's (Catholic) _Kirchenlexikon_.
[5] See G. Hoffmann, _Fides implicita_, vol. i. (1903), pp. 82, &c.;
and cf. the 17th-century creed of Bishop Mogilas adopted by the whole
Greek Church.
[6] A. Schweizer's _Protestant Central Dogmas_ (1854-1856) was an
historical study of Reformed, i.e. Calvinist-Zwinglian theology.
[7] "Dogma," &c., in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_.
[8] The distinction of pure and mixed articles--those of revelation
and those taught in common by revelation and natural
theology--reappears in modern Roman Catholic theology as a
distinction between pure and mixed _dogmas_.
[9] Luther's Schmalkalden Articles and the Thirty-Nine Articles of
the Church of England should also be mentioned.
[10] That seems to be what is meant.
[11] Early Protestantism lived too much in the thought of
justification to mark out the boundaries of creed with this
scholastic precision.
[12] _Loci communes_ (1610-1622), on Interpretation of Sacred
Scripture, ix. 149.
[13] Three writers mentioned in Wetzer's and Welte's
_Kirchenlexikon_.
[14] Also quoted as having appeared 1745, but that is an error; he
quotes F. A. Blau, _On the Rule of Faith_ (Mainz, 1780). See further
the sketch of Chrismann in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_,
supplement.
[15] G. Perrone, e.g. _De immaculato B. V. Mariae conceptu; an
dogmatico decreto definiri possit?_ (1847).
[16] These divisions and subdivisions are not numbered in the
Decrees, as for clearness they have been numbered above.
[17] Three zones apparently (1) the church's formal decrees, (2) the
church's general teaching, (3) points of revelation which the church
may not yet have overtaken. _Per contra_, much that was only
"implicit" in the deposit of faith has become "explicit" in dogma.
(The reader must note that "implicit" is used here in a different
sense from that referred to earlier in this article. Here, church
dogma has explicated what was implicit in revelation. There, the
unlearned accept by _implication_, i.e. by a general acceptance of
church belief and teaching, dogmas they perhaps have never heard of.
Both usages are current in Roman Catholic theology.)
[18] Or the view of D. Schenkel, that dogma is what is enforced by
civil and criminal law.
[19] Cf. also preface to 2nd ed. pp. ix., x.
[20] Cf. pp. 279, 280; the undogmatic words of religious emotion are
"thrown out," not at "a cloud mistaken for a mountain," but at a
"majestic" and "veritable mountain range."
[21] See art. "Dogmengeschichte" in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencykl. für
prot. Theol._ Cf. also Prof. Loofs's _Leitfaden zum Studium der
Dogmengeschichte_.
[22] It should be noted that Loofs does not speak merely as a
historian. He places himself in a sense within the dogmatic circle by
his declaration that guidance is to be expected from developments--in
a "free Protestant evangelical spirit"--out of the old confessions of
the Protestant churches. This belief may be called what Loofs has
called Harnack's definition of dogma--_individuell berechtigt_, and
perhaps _nur individuell_. Others, who hold no less strongly to
theological progress by evolution, not revolution, will hesitate to
grant that the line of advance passes through the symbolical books.
[23] Cf. DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, and the footnote above.
[24] Unless in certain confined circles.
[25] When Loofs declares (art. "Dogmengeschichte" in Herzog-Hauck's
_Realencykl._, 1898) that dogma is historically equivalent to _regula
fidei_, he is in flat contradiction to the "dogma" of his own church
as stated in the Formula of Concord. See above.
[26] Here perhaps Harnack speaks from inside his own type of
religious faith; but not from inside dogma.
DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, the name usually given in modern times to the
systematic study of Christian doctrine or of dogma in the widest sense
possible (see DOGMA). Among the many terms used in the early days of
Protestant theology to denote the great systems, three deserve special
notice--Thetic Theology, Positive Theology, Dogmatic Theology. "Thetic
theology" is connected with academic life. It recalls the literal and
original meaning of graduation "theses," also Martin Luther's memorable
theses and the replies made to him. "Thetic theology," a name now
obsolete, naturally included the whole of doctrine, i.e. whatever would
be argued for or against; and "dogmatic theology" came into use
absolutely as a synonymous expression. "Positive theology" is also a
term employed by Petau (_De theologicis dogmatibus_, 1644-1650), and
more or less current even to-day in Roman Catholic scholarship (e.g.
Joseph Turmel, _Histoire de la théologie positive_, 1906). "Dogmatic
theology" proved to have most vitality in it. After some partial
precedents of early date (e.g. F. Turrianus--one of the papal
theologians at the Council of Trent,--_Dogmaticus (liber?) de
Justificatione_, 1557), the title was used in 1659 by the Lutheran Lukas
Friedrich Reinhard (1623-1688), professor of theology at Altdorf
(_Synopsis theologiae dogmaticae_, eds. 1659, 1660, 1661), and his
influence is already seen on the Reformed theologian Andreas van Essen
(Essenius, 1618-1677), who, in 1659, published his _Systematis
theologiae pars prior_, the _tomus secundus_ in 1661, but _Systematis
dogmatici tomus tertius et ultimus_ in 1665. The same author published a
shorter _Compendium theologiae dogmaticum_ in 1669. A. M. Fairbairn
holds that it was the fame of Petau which gave currency to the new
coinage "dogmatic theology"; and though the same or kindred phrases had
been used repeatedly by writers of less influence since Reinhard and
Essenius, F. Buddeus (_Institutiones theol. dogmat._, 1723;
_Compendium_, 1728) is held to have given the expression its supremacy.
Noël Alexandre, the Gallican divine, possibly introduced it in the Roman
Catholic Church (1693; _Theologia dogmatica et moralis_). Both Roman
Catholic and Protestant authorities agree that the expression was
connected with the new habit of distinguishing dogmatics from Christian
ethics or moral theology, though A. Schweizer denies this of Reinhard.
In another direction dogmas and dogmatic theology were also contrasted
with truths of reason and natural theology.[1] F. E. D. Schleiermacher,
in his _Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums_, and again in his
great System, _Der christliche Glaube ... dargestellt_, ingeniously
proposed to treat dogmatic as an historical statement, or report, of
beliefs held in the writer's communion at the time of writing. He also
insisted, however, upon personal conviction in writers on dogmatic. The
expression _Glaubenslehre_--doctrine of faith--which he did much to
bring into a wider currency, and which Schweizer, the most loyal of all
his disciples, holds to be alone fitted for Protestant use, emphasizes
the latter requirement. But "dogmatic" has also continued in use among
Protestant theologians of the Left no less than among the orthodox. When
we consider the different attitude towards dogma of Roman Catholicism,
we feel constrained to question whether the expression "dogmatic
theology" can be equally suitable for both communions. Roman theologians
may properly define dogmatic as the scientific study of dogmas;
Protestant scholars have come to use "dogma" in ways which make that
impossible. Indeed, many of them bid us regard "dogmatic" as falling
under the history of _theology_ and not of dogma (see DOGMA). Still,
usage is decisive. It will be impossible to uproot the phrase "dogmatic
theology" among Protestants. When A. Harnack[2] praises Schleiermacher's
description of dogmatic as "historical," he rather strains the meaning
of the remark, and creates fresh confusion. Harnack's point is that
"dogmatic theology" ought to be used in a sense corresponding to what he
regards as the true meaning of "dogma"--Christian belief in its main
traditional outlines. This claim is an innovation, and finds no
precedent in Schleiermacher. The latter regarded dogmatic as stating in
scientific connexion "the doctrine prevailing in a (single) Christian
church at a given time"--as "not merely historical (_geschichtlich_),"
but containing an "apologetic element"--as "not confined to the
symbolical books, but" including all--even local expressions of the
common faith which produce no breach of harmony--and as having for its
"very business and task" to "purify and perfect" doctrine (_Der
christliche Glaube_, § 19). The one merit which "dogmatic" may claim as
a term in Protestant theology is that it contrasts positive statements
of belief with mere reports (e.g. Biblical theology; history of
doctrine) of what has been taught in the past. (See DOGMA; and
THEOLOGY.)
FOOTNOTES:
[1] For "mixed articles" see DOGMA.
[2] _Hist. of Dogma_; Eng. trans. i. p. 21, footnote.
DOGRA, a race of Hill Rajputs in India, inhabiting Kashmir and the
adjacent valleys of the Himalayas. They form the ruling race in Kashmir.
"Dogra" is the name given to the country round Jammu, and is said to be
derived from a word meaning the "two lakes," as the original home of the
Dogra people was situated between the lakes of Siroensar and Mansar.
There are numerous castes in the Dogra country, and the Hindu,
Mahommedan and Sikh religions are represented. All, whether Hindus or
Mahommedans, whether high-born Rajputs of the Maharaja's caste or
low-born menials, are known as Dogras. At the time of the first Sikh War
the Dogras had a great reputation as soldiers, which they have worthily
maintained in the ranks of the Indian native army. They are classed as
fighting men with the Sikh and Punjabi Mahommedan. They distinguished
themselves in the Hunza Nagar Expedition and the affair at Chilas in
1891, and in the Tirah campaign of 1897-98.
DOGS, ISLE OF, a district of London, England, on the north bank of the
Thames, which surrounds it on three sides. It falls within the
metropolitan borough of Poplar. It is occupied by docks, riverside works
and poor houses. The origin of the name is not known. The suggestion
that it is corrupted from the Isle of Docks falls to the ground on the
question of chronology; another, that there were royal kennels here, is
improbable, though they were situated at Deptford in the 17th century.
(See POPLAR.)
DOG-TOOTH (the French _dent-de-scie_), in architecture, an ornament
found in the mouldings of medieval work of the commencement of the 12th
century, which is thought to have been introduced by the Crusaders from
the East. The earliest example is found in the hall at Rabbath-Ammon in
Moab (c. A.D. 614) built by the Sassanians, where it decorates the arch
moulding of the blind arcades and the string courses. In the apse of the
church at Murano, near Venice, it is similarly employed. In the 12th and
13th centuries it was further elaborated with carving, losing therefore
its primitive form, but constituting a most beautiful decorative
feature. In Elgin cathedral the dog-tooth ornament in the archivolt
becomes a four-lobed leaf, and in Stone church, Kent, a much more
enriched type of flower. The term has been supposed to originate in a
resemblance to the dog-tooth violet, but the original idea of a
projecting tooth is a sufficient explanation.
DOGWOOD (i.e. wood of the dog-tree; referred by the _New English
Dictionary_ to "dog," apparently as indicating inferiority; but by
others connected with "dag," "dagger," and by Prior with A.S. _dolc_, a
brooch-pin), the name applied to plants of the genus _Cornus_, of the
natural order Cornaceae. The common dogwood, prick-wood, skewer-wood,
cornel or dogberry, _C. sanguinea_, is a shrub reaching a height of 8 or
9 ft., common in hedges, thickets and plantations in Great Britain. Its
branches are dark red; the leaves egg-shaped, pointed, about 2 in. long
by 1½ broad, and turning red in autumn; the flowers are dull white, in
terminal clusters. The berries are small, of a black-purple, bitter and
one-seeded, and contain a considerable percentage of oil, which in some
places is employed for lamps, and in the manufacture of soap. The wood
is white and very hard, and like that of other species of the genus is
used for making ladder-spokes, wheel-work, skewers, forks and other
implements, and gunpowder charcoal. The red berries of the dwarf
species, _C. suecica_, of the Scottish Highlands, are eaten, and are
reputed to be tonic in properties. _C. mas_, the Cornelian cherry, a
native of Europe and Northern Asia, bears a pulpy and edible fruit,
which when unripe contains much tannin. It is a good garden plant, as is
also the North American species _C. florida_, one of the commonest trees
of the deciduous forests of the middle and southern states. Professor C.
S. Sargent (_Silva of North America_) describes it as "one of the most
beautiful of the small trees of the American forests, which it enlivens
in early spring with the whiteness of its floral leaves and in autumn
with the splendour of its foliage and the brilliancy of its fruit. No
tree is more desirable in the garden or park in regions where the
summer's sun is sufficiently hot to ensure the production of its flowers
through the perfect development of the branchlets." The Jamaica dogwood,
the root-bark of which is poisonous, is the species _Piscidia
Erythrina_, of the natural order Leguminosae.
DOL, a town of north-western France, in the department of
Ille-et-Vilaine, 36 m. N. of Rennes on the Western railway. Pop. (1906)
3543. Dol is situated to the south-west of the rich agricultural
district known as the marsh of Dol, where market-gardening is especially
flourishing. The streets are still rendered picturesque by houses of the
14th and 15th centuries, which form deep arcades by the projection of
their upper storeys: and, high above all, rises the grey granite of the
cathedral, mainly of the 13th century, which in the middle ages ranked
as the metropolitan church of all Brittany, and still keeps fresh the
name of Bishop St Samson, who, having fled, as the legend tells, from
the Saxon invaders of England, selected this spot as the site of his
monastery. To the architect it is interesting for the English character
of its design, and to the antiquarian, for its stained-glass windows of
the 13th century, and for the finely sculptured tomb of Bishop Thomas
James (d. 1504). About 1½ m. from the town is the _pierre de Champ
Dolent_, a menhir some 30 ft. in height; not far off stands the great
granite rock of Mont Dol, over 200 ft. in height, surmounted by the
statue and chapel of Notre-Dame de l'Espérance. Dol has trade in grain,
vegetables and fruit, tobacco is cultivated in the neighbourhood and
there are salt-marshes. Tanning and leather-currying are carried on in
the town. The town was unsuccessfully besieged by William the Conqueror,
taken by Henry II. in 1164 and by Guy de Thouars in 1204. In 1793 it
witnessed the defeat of the republican forces by the Vendeans who had
taken refuge within its walls. The bishopric established in the 6th
century was suppressed in 1790.
DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Roman general and son-in-law of Cicero,
was born about 70 B.C. He was by far the most important of the
Dolabellae, a family of the patrician gens Cornelia. In the civil wars
he at first took the side of Pompey, but afterwards went over to Caesar,
and was present at the battle of Pharsalus. To escape the urgent demands
of his creditors, he introduced (as one of the tribunes) a bill
proposing that all debts should be cancelled. This was strongly resisted
by his colleagues, and led to serious disturbances in the city. Caesar,
on his return from Alexandria, seeing the expediency of removing
Dolabella from Rome, took him as one of his generals in the expedition
to Africa and Spain. On Caesar's death Dolabella seized the insignia of
the consulship (which had already been conditionally promised him), and,
by making friends with Brutus and the other assassins, was confirmed in
his office. When, however, M. Antonius offered him the command of the
expedition against the Parthians and the province of Syria he changed
sides at once. His journey to the province was marked by plundering,
extortion and the murder of C. Trebonius, proconsul of Asia, who refused
to allow him to enter Smyrna. He was thereupon declared a public enemy
and superseded by C. Cassius (the murderer of Caesar), who attacked him
in Laodicea. On the capture of the place, Dolabella ordered one of his
soldiers to kill him (43). Throughout his life he was a profligate and a
spendthrift.
See Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier, _Cicero
and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897); Orelli, _Onomasticon Tullianum_;
Dio Cassius xli. 40, xlii. 29, xliii. 51, xliv. 22, xlvi. 40, xlvii.
30; Appian, _Bell. civ._ iii. 7, iv. 60.
DOLBEN, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, was the son of William Dolben
(d. 1631), prebendary of Lincoln and bishop-designate of Gloucester. He
was educated at Westminster under Richard Busby and at Christ Church,
Oxford. He fought on the royalist side at Marston Moor, 1644.
Subsequently he took orders and maintained in private the proscribed
Anglican service. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church
(1660) and prebendary of St Paul's, London (1661). As dean of
Westminster (1662-1683) he opposed an attempt to bring the abbey under
diocesan rule. In 1666 he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1683
archbishop of York; he distinguished himself by reforming the discipline
of the cathedrals in these dioceses. His son John Dolben (1662-1710) was
a barrister and politician; he was M.P. for Liskeard from 1707 to 1710
and manager of Sacheverell's impeachment in 1709.
DOLCE, LUDOVICO, or LUIGI (1508-1568 or 1569), Italian writer, was a
native of Venice, and belonged to a family of honourable tradition but
decadent fortune. He received a good education, and early undertook the
task of maintaining himself by his pen. Translations from Greek and
Latin epics, satires, histories, plays and treatises on language and art
followed each other in rapid succession, till the whole number amounted
to upwards of seventy works. But he is now mainly memorable as the
author of _Marianna_, a tragedy from the life of Herod, which was recast
in French by Tristan and by Voltaire, and still keeps a place on the
stage. Four licentious comedies, _Il Ragazzo_ (1541), _Il Capitano_
(1545), _Il Marito_ (1560), _Il Ruffiano_ (1560), and seven of Seneca's
tragedies complete the list of his dramatic efforts. In one epic--to
translate the title-page--"he has marvellously reduced into _ottava
rima_ and united into one narrative the stories of the Iliad and the
Aeneid"; in another he devotes thirty-nine cantos to a certain
Primaleone, son of Palmerius; in a third he celebrates the first
exploits of Count Orlando; and in a fourth he sings of the Paladin
Sacripante. A life of the emperor Charles V. and a similar account of
Ferdinand I., published respectively in 1560 and 1566, are his chief
historical productions; and among his minor treatises it is enough to
mention the _Osservazioni sulla lingua volgare_ (1550); the _Dialogo
della pittura_ (1557); and the _Dialogo nel quale si ragiona del modo di
accrescar la memoria_ (1552).
DOLCI, CARLO, or CARLINO (1616-1686), Italian painter, was born in
Florence in May 1616. He was the grandson of a painter on the mother's
side, and became a disciple of Jacopo Vignali; and when only eleven
years of age he attempted a whole figure of St John, and a head of the
infant Christ, which received extraordinary approbation. He afterwards
painted a portrait of his mother, and displayed a new and delicate style
which brought him into notice, and procured him extensive employment at
Florence (from which city he hardly ever moved) and in other parts of
Italy. Dolci used his pencil chiefly in sacred subjects, and bestowed
much labour on his pictures. In his manner of working he was remarkably
slow. It is said that his brain was affected by seeing Luca Giordano, in
1682, despatch more business in four or five hours than he could have
executed in as many months, and that he hence fell into a state of
hypochondria, which compelled him to relinquish his art, and soon
brought him to the grave. His works are not very numerous. He generally
painted in a small size, although there are a few pictures by him as
large as life. He died in Florence in January 1686, leaving a daughter
(Agnese), who arrived at some degree of excellence in copying the works
of her father.
Carlo Dolci holds somewhat the same rank in the Florentine that
Sassoferrato does in the Roman school. Without the possession of much
genius, invention or elevation of type, both these artists produced
highly wrought pictures, extremely attractive to some tastes. The works
of Dolci are easily distinguishable by the delicacy of the composition,
and by an agreeable tint of colour, improved by judicious management of
the chiaroscuro, which gives his figures a striking relief; he affected
the use of ultramarine, much loaded in tint. "His pencil," says
Pilkington, "was tender, his touch inexpressibly neat, and his colouring
transparent; though he has often been censured for the excessive labour
bestowed on his pictures, and also for giving his carnations more of the
appearance of ivory than the look of flesh." All his best productions
are of a devout description; they frequently represent the patient
suffering of Christ or the sorrows of the Mater Dolorosa. Dolci was, in
fact, from early youth, exceedingly pious; it is said that during
passion week every year he painted a half-figure of the Saviour. His
sacred heads are marked with pathetic or at least strongly sentimental
emotion. There is a want of character in his pictures, and his grouping
lacks harmonious unison, but the general tone accords with the idea of
the passion portrayed. Among the best works of this master are the "St
Sebastian"; the "Four Evangelists," at Florence; "Christ Breaking the
Bread," in the marquess of Exeter's collection at Burleigh; the "St
Cecilia" in Dresden; an "Adoration of the Magi"; and in especial "St
Andrew praying before his Crucifixion," in the Pitti gallery, his most
important composition, painted in 1646; also several smaller pictures,
which are highly valued, and occupy honourable places in the richest
galleries. (W. M. R.)
DOLDRUMS (a slang term, _dol_ = dull; cf. tantrum), the region of calms
near the equator where the trade-winds die away, a region of constant
precipitation in which the weather is close, hot, vaporous and extremely
dispiriting. In the old days of sailing vessels, a becalmed ship
sometimes lay helpless for weeks. A letter from this region saying "we
are in the doldrums" ("in the dumps") seems to have been regarded as
written from "The Doldrums," which thus became the name of this
undesirable locality.
DÔLE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Jura, 29 m. S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop.
(1906) 11,166. It occupies the slope of a hill overlooking the forest of
Chaux, on the right bank of the Doubs, and of the canal from the Rhone
to the Rhine which accompanies that river. The streets, which in general
are steep and narrow, contain many old houses recalling, in their
architecture, the Spanish occupation of the town. The principal
buildings are the church of Notre Dame, a Gothic structure of the 16th
century; the college, once a Jesuit establishment, which contains the
library and a museum of paintings and has a chapel of the Renaissance
period; the Hôtel-Dieu and hôtel de ville, both 17th-century buildings;
and the law court occupying an old convent of the Cordeliers. In the
courtyard of the hôtel de ville there stands an old tower dating from
the 15th century. The birth of Louis Pasteur (1822) in the town is
commemorated by a monument, and there is also a monument to Jules Grévy.
Dôle is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce and a communal college. Metal-founding and the
manufacture of fire-pumps, kitchen-ranges and other iron goods, chemical
products, machinery, leather, liqueurs and pastry, are among the
industries. There is a good trade in agricultural produce and live
stock, and in wood, iron, coal and the stone of the vicinity. Wine is
largely grown in the district.
Dôle, the ancient _Dola_, was in Roman times the meeting place of
several roads, and considerable remains have been found there; in the
later middle ages and till 1648 it was the capital of Franche Comté and
seat of a parlement and a university; but in the year 1479 the town was
taken by the forces of Louis XI., and so completely sacked that only the
house of Jean Vurry, as it is still called, and two other buildings were
left standing. It subsequently came into the hands of Maximilian of
Austria, and in 1530 was fortified by Charles V. In 1668 and 1674 it was
captured by the French and lost its parlement and its university, both
of which were transferred by Louis XIV. to Besançon.
DOLE (from Old Eng. _dal_, cf. mod. "deal"), a portion, a distribution
of gifts, especially of food and money given in charity. The derivation
from O. Fr. _doel_, Late Lat. _dolium_, "grief," suggested by the custom
of funeral doles, is wrong. In early Christian days, St Chrysostom says:
"doles were used at funerals to procure the rest of the soul of the
deceased, that he might find his judge propitious." The distribution of
alms to the local poor at funerals was a universal custom in the middle
ages. The amount of doles was usually stated in the will. Thus in 1399
Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, ordered that fifteen poor men should
carry torches at her funeral, "each having a gown and hood lined with
white, breeches of blue cloth, shoes and a shirt, and twenty pounds
amongst them." Later doles usually took the form of bequests of land or
money, the interest or rent of which was to be annually employed in
charity. Often the distribution took place at the grave of the donor.
Thus one William Robinson of Hull at his death in 1708 left money to buy
annually a dozen loaves, costing a shilling each, to be given to twelve
poor widows at his grave every Christmas. Lenten doles were also
formerly common. A will of 1537 bade a barrel of white herrings and a
case of red herrings be given yearly to the poor of Clavering, Essex, to
help them tide over the fast. One or two London doles are still
distributed, e.g. that of St Peter's, Walworth, where a Christmas dinner
is each year served to 300 parish poor in the crypt. No one under sixty
is eligible, and the dinner is unique in that it is cooked in the
church. A pilgrim's dole of bread and ale can be claimed by all
wayfarers at the Hospital of St Cross, Winchester. This is said to have
been founded by William of Wykeham. Emerson, when visiting Winchester,
claimed and received the dole. What were known as _Scrambling Doles_, so
called because the meat and bread distributed were thrown among the poor
to be scrambled for, were not uncommon in England. Such a dole existed
at St Briavel's, Gloucestershire, baskets of bread and cheese cut into
small squares being thrown by the churchwardens from the gallery into
the body of the church on Whit Sunday. At Wath near Ripon a testator in
1810 ordered that forty penny loaves should be thrown from the church
leads at midnight on every Christmas eve. The best known dole in the
United States is the "Leake Dole of Bread." John Leake, a millionaire
dying in 1792, left £1000 to Trinity Church, New York, the income to be
laid out in wheaten loaves and distributed every Sabbath morning after
service. The dole still survives, though the day has been altered to
Saturday, each week sixty-seven loaves being given away.
DOLERITE (from Gr. [Greek: doleros], deceptive), in petrology, the name
given by Haüy to those basaltic rocks which are comparatively coarse
grained and nearly, if not quite, holocrystalline. As may be inferred
from their highly crystalline state they are very often intrusive, and
occur as dikes and sills, but many of them form lava flows. Their
essential minerals are those of basalt, viz. olivine, augite and
plagioclase felspar, while hornblende, ilmenite, apatite and biotite are
their commonest accessory ingredients. The chemical and microscopic
features of these minerals agree generally with those presented in the
basalts, and only their exceptional peculiarities need be mentioned
here. Many dolerites are porphyritic and carry phenocrysts of olivine,
augite and plagioclase felspar (or of one or more of these). Others,
probably the majority, are non-porphyritic, and these are generally
coarser grained than the ground-mass of the former group, though
lacking their large conspicuous phenocrysts. The commonest type of
structure in dolerite is the ophitic, which results from the felspar of
the rock having crystallized before the augite; the latter mineral forms
shapeless masses in which the idiomorphic felspars lie. The augite
enclosing the felspars is well crystallized, though its continuity is
interrupted more or less completely by the numerous crystals of felspar
which it envelops, and in polarized light the former often behaves as a
single individual over a considerable area, while the latter mineral
consists of independent crystals. This structure may be so coarse as to
be easily detected by the unaided eye, or so fine that it cannot be seen
except in microscopic sections. Some of the porphyritic dolerites have
ophitic ground-masses; in others this structure is imperfect
(subophitic); while in many the augite, like the felspar, occurs as
small and distinct individuals, which react differently on polarized
light, and have the outlines of more or less perfectly shaped crystals.
Ophitic structure is commonest in olivine-dolerites, though the olivine
takes no part in it.
The quartz-dolerites are an important group, hardly less common than the
olivine-dolerites. They contain a small amount of quartz, and often
micropegmatite, as the last element to consolidate, filling up little
angular interspaces between the felspars and pyroxenes, which had
previously crystallized. They rarely contain olivine, but pleochroic
hypersthene is by no means rare in them (hypersthene-dolerites). Some
contain larger individuals of pale green, rather pleochroic augite (the
so-called sahlite), and a little brown mica, and brownish-green
hornblende may also be present.
Allied to these are olivine-free dolerites with more or less of
interstitial glassy base (tholeites, &c.). In the rocks of this group
ophitic structure is typically absent, and the presence of an
interstitial finely crystalline or amorphous material gives rise to the
structure which is known as "intersertal." Transitions to the
porphyritic dolerites and basalts arise by increase in the proportion of
this ground-mass. The edges of dolerite sills and dikes often contain
much dark brown glass, and pass into tachylytes, in which this material
preponderates.
Another interesting group of doleritic rocks contains analcite. They may
be ophitic, though often they are not, and they usually contain olivine,
while their augite has distinctly purple shades, and a feeble dichroism.
Their characteristic feature is the presence of a small amount of
analcite, which never shows crystalline outlines but fills up the
interspaces between the other minerals. Some writers held that this
mineral has resulted from the decomposition of nepheline; others regard
it as a primary mineral. Usually it can be clearly shown to be secondary
to some extent, but there is reason to suppose that it is really a
pneumatolytic deposit. These rocks are known as teschenites, and have a
wide distribution in England, Scotland, on the continent and in America.
Often they are comparatively rich in brown hornblende. This last-named
mineral is not usually abundant in dolerites, but in a special group,
the proterobases, it to a large extent replaces the customary augite. A
few dolerites contain much brown mica (mica-dolerites). Nepheline may
appear in these rocks, as in the basalts. Typical nepheline-dolerites
are scarce, and consist of idiomorphic augite, surrounded by nepheline.
Examples are known from the Tertiary volcanic districts of the Rhine.
Dolerites have a very wide distribution, as they are found wherever
basalts occur in any number. It is superfluous to cite localities for
them as they are among the commonest of igneous rocks. They are much
employed for road-mending and for kerbstones, though their dark colour
and the tendency they have to weather with a dingy brown crust make them
unsuitable for the better classes of architectural work. (J. S. F.)
DOLET, ÉTIENNE (1509-1546), French scholar and printer, was born at
Orleans on the 3rd of August 1509. A doubtful tradition makes him the
illegitimate son of Francis I.; but it is evident that he was at least
connected with some family of rank and wealth. From Orleans he was taken
to Paris about 1521; and after studying under Nicolas Bérauld, the
teacher of Coligny, he proceeded in 1526 to Padua. The death of his
friend and master, Simon de Villanova, led him, in 1530, to accept the
post of secretary to Jean de Langeac, bishop of Limoges and French
ambassador to the republic of Venice; he contrived, however, to attend
the lectures of the Venetian scholar Battista Egnazio, and found time to
write Latin love poems to some Venetian Elena. Returning to France soon
afterwards he proceeded to Toulouse to study law; but there he soon
became involved in the violent disputes between the different "nations"
of the university, was thrown into prison, and finally banished by a
decree of the parlement. In 1535 he entered the lists against Erasmus in
the famous Ciceronian controversy, by publishing through Sebastien
Gryphe (Gryphius) at Lyons a _Dialogus de imitatione Ciceroniana_; and
the following year saw the appearance of his two folio volumes
_Commentariorum linguae Latinae_. This work was dedicated to Francis I.,
who gave him the privilege of printing during ten years any works in
Latin, Greek, Italian or French, which were the product of his own pen
or had received his supervision; and accordingly, on his release from an
imprisonment occasioned by his justifiable homicide of a painter named
Compaing, he began at Lyons his typographical and editorial labours.
That he was not altogether unaware of the dangers to which he was
exposed from the bigotry of the time is shown not only by the tone of
his mottoes--_Préserve moi, Seigneur, des calomnies des hommes_, and
_Durior est spectatae virtutis quam incognitae conditio_--but also by
the fact that he endeavoured first of all to conciliate his opponents by
publishing a _Cato christianus_, or Christian moralist, in which he made
profession of his creed. The catholicity of his literary appreciation,
in spite of his ultra-Ciceronianism, was soon displayed by the works
which proceeded from his press--ancient and modern, sacred and secular,
from the New Testament in Latin to Rabelais in French. But before the
term of his privilege expired his labours were interrupted by his
enemies, who succeeded in imprisoning him (1542) on the charge of
atheism. From a first imprisonment of fifteen months Dolet was released
by the advocacy of Pierre Duchâtel, bishop of Tulle; from a second
(1544) he escaped by his own ingenuity; but, venturing back from
Piedmont, whither he had fled in order that he might print at Lyons the
letters by which he appealed for justice to the king of France, the
queen of Navarre and the parlement of Paris, he was again arrested,
branded as a relapsed atheist by the theological faculty of the
Sorbonne, and on the 3rd of August 1546 put to the torture, strangled
and burned in the Place Maubert. On his way thither he is said to have
composed the punning pentameter--_Non dolet ipse Dolet, sed pia turba
dolet_.
Whether Dolet is to be classed with the representatives of Protestantism
or with the advocates of anti-Christian rationalism has been frequently
disputed; by the principal Protestants of his own time he was not
recognized, and by Calvin he is formally condemned, along with Agrippa
and his master Villanova, as having uttered execrable blasphemies
against the Son of God; but, to judge by the religious character of a
large number of the books which he translated or published, such a
condemnation is altogether misplaced. His repeated advocacy of the
reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is especially noticeable.
A statue of Dolet was erected on the Place Maubert in 1889.
See J. F. Née de la Rochelle, _Vie d'Étienne Dolet_ (1779); Joseph
Boulmier, _E. Dolet, sa vie, ses oeuvres, son martyre_ (1857); A. F.
Didot, _Essai sur la typographie_ (1852) and article in the _Nouvelle
Biographie générale_; L. Michel. _Dolet: sa statue, place Maubert: ses
amis, ses ennemis_ (1889); R. C. Christie, _Étienne Dolet, the Martyr
of the Renaissance_ (2nd ed., 1889), containing a full bibliography of
works published by him as author or printer; O. Galtier, _Étienne
Dolet_ (Paris, 1908). The _procès_, or trial, of Dolet was published
(1836) by A. H. Taillandier from the registers of the parlement of
Paris.
DOLGELLEY (_Dolgellau_, dale of hazels), a market town and the county
town of Merionethshire, North Wales, situated on the streams Wnion and
Aran at the north base of Cader Idris, on the Cambrian and Great Western
railways, 232 m. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2437. It
consists of small squares and narrow streets, with a free grammar school
(1665), market hall, assize hall, county gaol, &c. The so-called
parliament house (1404) of Owen Glendower's members has been demolished.
There is some trade in coarse flannel and tweed. Glendower's treaty
with Charles of France (_Owinus D.G. princeps Walliae ... Datum apud
Dolguelli ..._) was dated here. The families of county rank in the
neighbourhood include those of Nannau, Hengwrt (the famous Hengwrt Welsh
MSS. are at Peniarth), Caerynwch, Fronwnion, Bron-y-gadair, Brynygwin,
Brynadda, Abergwynnant, Garthangharad. The county family, Vaughan,
claims descent from Rodric Fawr, king of North Wales, Glendower's
kinsman and enemy lived at Nannau. Scott (_Marmion_, vi. canto, note)
refers to the demon oak at Nannau in 1813. Among neighbouring hills are
Moel Offrwm (or _Orthrwm_--of sacrifice or of oppression) and Moel
Cynwch.
DOLGORUKI, VASILY LUKICH, COUNT (1672-1739), Russian diplomatist and
minister, was one of the first batch of young Russians whom Peter the
Great sent abroad to be educated. From 1687 to 1700 he resided at Paris,
where he learned thoroughly the principal European languages, acquired
the superficial elegance of the court of Versailles, and associated with
the Jesuits, whose moral system he is said to have appropriated. On his
return home he entered the diplomatic service. From 1706 to 1707 he
represented Russia in Poland; and from 1707 to 1720 he was her minister
at Copenhagen, where he succeeded in persuading King Frederick IV. to
join the second coalition against Charles XII. At the end of 1720 he was
transferred to Versailles, in order to seek the mediation of France in
the projected negotiations with Sweden and obtain the recognition of
Peter's imperial title by the French court. In 1724 he represented
Russia at Warsaw and in 1726 at Stockholm, the object of the latter
mission being to detach Sweden from the Hanoverian alliance, in which he
did not succeed. During the reign of Peter II. (1727-1730) Dolgoruki was
appointed a member of the supreme privy council, and after procuring the
banishment of Menshikov he appropriated the person of the young emperor,
whom he would have forced to marry his niece Catherine but for Peter's
untimely death. He then drew up a letter purporting to be the last will
of the emperor, appointing Catherine Dolgoruki his successor, but
shortly afterwards abandoned the nefarious scheme as impracticable, and
was one of the first to support the election of Anne of Courland to the
throne on condition that she first signed nine "articles of limitation,"
which left the supreme power in the hands of the Russian council. Anne,
who repudiated the "articles" on the first opportunity, never forgave
Dolgoruki for this. He was deprived of all his offices and dignities on
the 17th of April 1730, and banished first to his country seat and then
to the Solovetsky monastery. Nine years later the charge of forging the
will of Peter II. was revived against him, and he was tortured and then
beheaded at Novgorod on the 8th of November 1739.
See Robert Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London,
1895). (R. N. B.)
DOLHAIN, the most eastern town of Belgium, situated on the Vesdre, N. E.
of Verviers and close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1904) 4757. It is
quite a modern town, occupying the site of the lower town of the ancient
city of Limburg, which was destroyed by Louis XIV. in 1675. On a rocky
eminence above Dolhain are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old
castle of Limburg, the cradle of the ancient family of that name from
which sprang the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. The
Gothic church of St George of the 13th century has been restored. At a
short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe, the vast
reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free from lime for
its cloth manufactures. The aqueduct from Gileppe to Verviers is nearly
5½ m. in length.
DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed), a term invented by Andreas Retzius to
denote (as opposed to "brachycephalic") those skulls the diameter of
which from side to side, or the transverse diameter, is small in
comparison with the longitudinal diameter or that from front to back.
Retzius, though inventing the term, did not define it precisely. Paul
Broca applied it to skulls having a cephalic index of seventy-five and
under, and this limit is generally adopted. Dolichocephaly, according to
Retzius, was the distinctive cranial feature of the earliest inhabitants
of Europe. To-day it is characteristic of the negro races, of the
Papuans, the Polynesians and the Australians, though among the negritos
and some of the pigmy races of Africa brachycephalic skulls are the
rule. Of the yellow races the Eskimo is the most dolichocephalic. Of
white races the Arabs and Kabyles of Algeria, and the Guanchos of the
Canary Islands, are most notable for dolichocephalic tendency.
Dolichocephaly is sometimes frontal, as among adult whites, sometimes
occipital or confined to the back of the head, as among inferior
negro-races, Australians, Papuans and newly-born whites.
DOLL, a child's plaything in the shape of a human figure or taken as
representing one. The word "doll" was not in common use in the middle
ages, "children's babies" and other terms being substituted for it; the
commonly accepted view is that it is abbreviated from the name Dorothy
(cf. Scottish "Doroty"). "Idol" has also been connected with it; but the
accent is held to tell against this. Another derivation is from Norse
_daul_ (woman), with which may be compared O.H.G. _toccha_, M.H.G.
_docke_, a girl, doll, used also in the sense of butterfly, nightmare,
&c., thus connecting the doll with magic and superstition. The same
connexion is found in Asia Minor, South India, among the Pueblo peoples
and in South Africa; philology apart, therefore, the derivation from
"idol" has much to recommend it, and some side influence from this word
may well have caused the selection of the form "doll." Dolls proper
should be distinguished from (a) idols, (b) magical figurines, (c)
votive offerings, (d) costume figures. The festival figures of Japan,
like the bambino of Italy, given to the child only on certain saints'
days, hardly come within the category of dolls.
Dolls were known in ancient Egypt (XVIIIth Dynasty) and Asia Minor; they
were common both in Greece and Rome; Persius mentions that girls vowed
them to Venus when they got married; dolls found in the catacombs are
preserved in the Vatican and the Museum Carpegna. The [Greek:
neurospaston] (Lat. _crepundia_) of Greek finds of the 6th and later
centuries B.C. was a marionette. Dolls were in use among the Arabs at
the time of Mahomet, and the prophet's nine-year-old wife Ayesha is said
to have induced him to join her in her play with them. Although
Mahommedanism prohibits the making of figures in human shape, dolls do
not seem to have disappeared from Mahommedan countries, though
substitutes for them are perhaps more common there than elsewhere.
Dolls are extremely common in Africa. There seem to be forms peculiar to
different regions, such as the flat, spade-shaped figure on the Gold
Coast. Among the Wasaramo the girls carry from the age of puberty till
the birth of their first child an object indistinguishable from the
ordinary doll; it is called _mwana ya kiti_ (stool-child) because it is
placed on a stool at home; it probably has a magical significance. The
same may be said of the Australian figurines; others, made of cane, are
undoubtedly children's dolls; excellently moulded wax figures are also
found. In Asia dolls properly so-called are apparently rare; but there
are specimens in museums from the Malay peninsula, Persia and South
India, and in Asia Minor children use cushions, &c., as surrogates. They
are found in Alaska among the Eskimo. Most Red Indian tribes had them; a
mother who has lost her child carries its dolls and other playthings.
Cortes is said to have found Montezuma and his court playing with
elaborate dolls; they have been dug up from prehistoric Peruvian graves.
In the Gran Chaco metacarpal bones of the rhea are in use, wrapped in a
blanket when they represent male, in a petticoat when they are female.
But little attention has been paid to the psychological side of dolls.
Though many boys play with them, dolls are mainly confined to girls; and
female dolls predominate in the proportion of twelve to one. The
culmination of the doll instinct is between the age of eight and nine;
but they are not entirely dropped till much later; in fact unmarried and
childless women sometimes keep it up for years. In children it is said
by Hall to be by no means always a manifestation of the maternal
instinct; for dolls are not always regarded as children, and the
proportion of adults increases with the age of the children. But the
important point is whether the child regarded itself as older or younger
than the doll. There is, on the other hand, a tendency to neglect dolls
for babies and a reverse current of love of dolls which arises out of
love of babies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a list of works see A. MacDonald, _Man and Abnormal
Man_ (U. S. Senate Document, 1905, vol. ix. No. 187, p. 275); see
also Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen_ N. F.; Schlegel, _Indische
Bibliothek_. i. 139; _Brandenburgia_, xi. 28; _Delineator_, lviii.
927; _Globus_, lxxv. 354, lxxx. 205; _Internat. Archiv f. Ethnog._
vii. 45; _Ladies' Home Journ._ xvi.; _Westermann's Monatshefte_ (Feb.
1899, &c.); _Man_ (1903, No. 22). For the psychological side see
_Paedagogical Seminary_, iv. 129, discussed in _Contemporary Rev._
lxxv. 58; Mrs F. H. Burnett, "The One I know best of all"; Sully,
_Studies of Childhood_; G. Sand, _Histoire de ma vie_. (N. W. T.)
DOLLAR, a town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 6 m. N.E. of Alloa by the
North British railway, not far from the Devon. Pop. (1901) 1619. The
village, which is beautifully situated, contains several handsome stone
villas occupied by families attracted to the town by its educational
facilities. The academy, housed in a fine mass of buildings of the
Grecian order (opened about 1819), was founded by Captain John McNab
(1732-1802), a native who began life as a herdboy, and afterwards became
a rich shipowner. From the burn of Dollar (or Dolour), which runs
through the ravine of Dollar Glen, the town draws its water-supply. On
an isolated hill above the junction of the parent streams, named Sorrow
and Care, stands the ruin of Castle Campbell, known also as Gloom
Castle, an old stronghold of the Argyll family. The castle was burned by
the Macleans in 1644, in the interest of the marquess of Montrose, and
not again restored. Although a ruin it is carefully preserved. The Rev.
Dr James Aitken Wylie (1808-1890), the historian of Protestantism, was a
minister in Dollar for several years. Patrick Gibson, the etcher and
landscape-painter, was drawing-master at the academy from 1824 to 1829,
and William Tennant, the author of _Anster Fair_, was a teacher of
classics from 1819 till 1834, when he was appointed to the chair of
Hebrew in St Andrews University. Harviestoun Castle, about midway
between Dollar and Tillicoultry, once belonged to the Tait family, and
here Archibald Campbell Tait, archbishop of Canterbury, spent some of
his boyhood.
DOLLAR, a silver coin at one time current in many European countries,
and adopted under varying forms of the name elsewhere. The word "dollar"
is a modified form of _thaler_, which, with the variant forms (daler,
dalar, daalder, tallero, &c.), is said to be a shortened form of
_Joachimsthaler_. This _Joachimsthaler_ was the name given to a coin
intended to be the silver equivalent of the gold gulden, a coin current
in Germany from the 14th century. In 1516 a rich silver mine was
discovered in Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale), a mining district of
Bohemia, and the count of Schlitz, by whom it was appropriated, caused a
great number of silver coins to be struck (the first having the date
1518), bearing an effigy of St Joachim, hence the name. The
_Joachimsthaler_ was also sometimes known as the _Schlickenthaler_. The
first use of the word dollar in English was as applied to this silver
coin, the thaler, which was current in Germany at various values from
the 16th century onwards, as well as, more particularly, to the unit of
the German monetary union from 1857 to 1873, when the mark was
substituted for the thaler. The Spanish piece-of-eight (_reals_) was
also commonly referred to as a dollar. When the Bank of England
suspended cash payments in 1797, and the scarcity of coin was very
great, a large number of these Spanish coins, which were held by the
bank, were put into circulation, after having been countermarked at the
Mint with a small oval bust of George III., such as was used by the
Goldsmiths' Company for marking plate. Others were simply overstamped
with the initials G.R. enclosed in a shield. In 1804 the Maundy penny
head set in an octagonal compartment was employed. Several millions of
these coins were issued. These Spanish pieces-of-eight were also current
in the Spanish-American colonies, and were very largely used in the
British North American colonies. As the reckoning was by pounds,
shillings and pence in the British-American colonies, great
inconveniences naturally arose, but these were to some extent lessened
by the adoption of a tariff list, by which the various gold and silver
coins circulating were rated. In 1787 the dollar was introduced as the
unit in the United States, and it has remained as the standard of value
either in silver or gold in that country. For the history of the various
changes in the weights and value of the coin see NUMISMATICS. The
Spanish piece-of-eight was also the ancestor of the Mexican dollar, the
Newfoundland dollar, the British dollar circulating in Hong Kong and the
Straits Settlements, and the dollar of the South American republics,
although many of them are now dollars only in name.
DOLLING, ROBERT WILLIAM RADCLYFFE (1851-1902), English divine, known as
Father Dolling, was born at Magheralin, Co. Down, and educated at Harrow
and Cambridge. From 1878 to 1882 he was warden of one of the houses of
the Postmen's League, started by Father Stanton of St Alban's, Holborn.
He was ordained in 1883 to a curacy at Corscombe, Dorset, but resided in
London as head of St Martin's mission, Stepney. In 1885 a difficulty as
to the relation of his mission to Holy Trinity parish, Stepney, led to
his resignation, and he next accepted the charge of St Agatha's,
Landport, the Winchester College mission. The remarkable reforms he
accomplished there may be ascertained from his _Ten years in a
Portsmouth slum_ (London 1896). In 1885 he again resigned, owing to the
bishop of Winchester's refusal to sanction the extreme ritual used in
the service at St Agatha's. In 1897 he visited America, where his
preaching made a great impression. He returned to England in the
following year as vicar of St Saviour's, Poplar, and retained that
living until his death.
An account of Dolling's person and missionary work among the poor is
given in _The Life of Father Dolling_ (London, 1903), by the Rev. C.
E. Osborne.
DÖLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON (1799-1890), German theologian and
church historian, was born at Bamberg, Bavaria, on the 28th of February
1799. He came of an intellectual stock, his grandfather and father
having both been physicians of eminence and professors of one or other
of the branches of medical science; his mother too belonged to a family
not undistinguished in intellectual power. Young Döllinger was first
educated in the gymnasium at Wurzburg, and then began to study natural
philosophy at the university in that city, where his father now held a
professorship. In 1817 he began the study of mental philosophy and
philology, and in 1818 turned to the study of theology, which he
believed to lie beneath every other science. He particularly devoted
himself to an independent study of ecclesiastical history, a subject
very indifferently taught in Roman Catholic Germany at that time. In
1820 he became acquainted with Victor Aimé Huber (1800-1869), a fact
which largely influenced his life. On the 5th of April 1822 he was
ordained priest, after studying at Bamberg, and in 1823 he became
professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum at
Aschaffenburg. He then took his doctor's degree, and in 1826 became
professor of theology at Munich, where he spent the rest of his life.
About this time Döllinger brought upon himself the animadversion of
Heine, who was then editor of a Munich paper. The unsparing satirist
described the professor's face as the "gloomiest" in the whole
procession of ecclesiastics which took place on Good Friday.
It has been stated that in his earlier years Döllinger was a pronounced
Ultramontane. This does not appear to have been altogether the case;
for, very early in his professorial career at Munich, the Jesuits
attacked his teaching of ecclesiastical history, and the celebrated J.
A. Möhler (q.v.) who afterwards became his friend, on being appealed to,
pronounced on the whole in his favour. He also entered into relations
with the well-known French Liberal Catholic Lamennais, whose views on
the reconciliation of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of
modern society had aroused much suspicion in Ultramontane circles. In
1832 Lamennais, with his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert, visited
Germany, and obtained considerable sympathy in their attempts to bring
about a modification of the Roman Catholic attitude to modern problems.
Döllinger seems to have regarded favourably the removal, by the Bavarian
government, in 1841, of Professor Kaiser from his chair, because he had
taught the infallibility of the pope. On the other hand, he published a
treatise in 1838 against mixed marriages, and in 1843 wrote strongly in
favour of requiring Protestant soldiers to kneel at the consecration of
the Host when compelled officially to be present at Mass. Moreover, in
his works on _The Reformation_ (3 vols. Regensburg, 1846-1848) and on
_Luther_ (1851, Eng, tr., 1853) he is very severe on the Protestant
leaders, and he also accepts, in his earlier works, the Ultramontane
view then current on the practical condition of the Church of England, a
view which in later days he found reason to change. Meanwhile he had
visited England, where he was well received; and he afterwards travelled
in Holland, Belgium and France, acquainting himself with the condition
and prospects of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1842 he entered into
correspondence with the leaders of the Tractarian movement in England,
and some interesting letters have been preserved which were exchanged
between him and Pusey, Gladstone and Hope Scott. When the last-named
joined the Church of Rome he was warmly congratulated by Döllinger on
the step he had taken. He, however, much regretted the gradual and very
natural trend of his new English allies towards extreme Ultramontane
views, of which Archdeacon, afterwards Cardinal, Manning ultimately
became an enthusiastic advocate. In 1845 Döllinger was made
representative of his university in the second chamber of the Bavarian
legislature. In 1847, in consequence of the fall from power of the Abel
ministry in Bavaria, with which he had been in close relations, he was
removed from his professorship at Munich, but in 1849 he was invited to
occupy the chair of ecclesiastical history. In 1848, when nearly every
throne in Europe was shaken by the spread of revolutionary sentiments,
he was elected delegate to the national German assembly at Frankfort,--a
sufficient proof that at this time he was regarded as no mere narrow and
technical theologian, but as a man of wide and independent views.
It has been said that his change of relations to the Papacy dated from
the Italian war in 1859, but no sufficient reason has been given for
this statement. It is more probable that, like Grosseteste, he had
imbibed in early youth an enthusiastic sentiment of attachment to the
Papacy as the only centre of authority, and the only guarantee for
public order in the Church, but that his experience of the actual
working of the papal system (and especially a visit to Rome in 1857) had
to a certain extent convinced him how little correspondence there was
between his ideal and the reality. He may also have been unfavourably
impressed with the promulgation by Pius IX. in 1854 of the dogma of the
Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. But whatever may have been
his reasons, he ultimately became the leader of those who were
energetically opposed to any addition to, or more stringent definition
of, the powers which the Papacy had possessed for centuries. In some
speeches delivered at Munich in 1861 he outspokenly declared his view
that the maintenance of the Roman Catholic Church did not depend on the
temporal sovereignty of the pope. His book on _The Church and the
Churches_ (Munich, 1861) dealt to a certain extent with the same
question. In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to meet at Malines and
discuss the question which Lamennais and Lacordaire had prematurely
raised in France, namely, the attitude that should be assumed by the
Roman Catholic Church towards modern ideas. His address to the assembled
divines was "practically a declaration of war against the Ultramontane
party." He had spoken boldly in favour of freedom for the Church in the
Frankfort national assembly in 1848, but he had found the authorities of
his Church claiming a freedom of a very different kind from that for
which he had contended. The freedom he claimed for the Church was
freedom to manage her affairs without the interference of the state; the
champions of the papal monarchy, and notably the Jesuits, desired
freedom in order to put a stop to the dissemination of modern ideas. The
addresses delivered in the Catholic congress at Malines were a
declaration in the direction of a Liberal solution of the problem of the
relations of Church and State. The pope for a moment seemed to hesitate,
but there could be little doubt what course he would ultimately pursue,
and after four days' debate the assembly was closed at his command. On
the 8th of December 1864 Pius IX. issued the famous _Syllabus_, in
which he declared war against modern science and progress (see
SYLLABUS). It was in connexion with this question that Döllinger
published his _Past and Present of Catholic Theology_ (1863) and his
_Universities Past and Present_ (Munich, 1867).
We now approach the critical period of Döllinger's life. It was about
this time that some of the leading theologians of the Roman Catholic
Church, conceiving that the best way of meeting present perils was to
emphasize, as well as to define more clearly, the authority of the pope,
advised him to make his personal infallibility a dogma of the Church,
and urged strenuously on him the necessity of calling a council for that
purpose. There was considerable opposition in various quarters. Many
bishops and divines considered the proposed definition a false one.
Others, though accepting it as the truth, declared its promulgation to
be inopportune. But the headquarters of the opposition was Germany, and
its leader was Döllinger, whose high reputation and vast stores of
learning placed him far above any other member of the band of the
theological experts who now gathered around him. Among them were his
intimate friends Johann Friedrich (q.v.) and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria. In
the rest of Germany he found many supporters, chiefly professors in the
Catholic faculty of theology at Bonn: among these were the famous
canonist von Schulte, Franz Heinrich Reusch, the ecclesiastical
historian Joseph Langen, as well as J. H. Reinkens, afterwards bishop of
the Old Catholic Church in Germany, Knoodt, and other distinguished
scholars. In Switzerland, Professor Edward Herzog, who became Old (or,
as it is sometimes called, Christ-) Catholic bishop in Switzerland, and
other learned men supported the movement. Early in 1869 the famous
_Letters of Janus_ (which were at once translated into English; 2nd ed.
_Das Papsttum_, 1891) began to appear. They were written by Döllinger in
conjunction with Huber and Friedrich, afterwards professor at Munich. In
these the tendency of the _Syllabus_ towards obscurantism and papal
despotism, and its incompatibility with modern thought, were clearly
pointed out; and the evidence against papal infallibility, resting, as
the _Letters_ asserted, on the False Decretals, and accepted without
controversy in an age of ignorance, was ably marshalled for the guidance
of the council. When, on the 8th of December 1869, it had actually
assembled, the world was kept informed of what was going on in the
_Letters of Quirinus_, written by Döllinger and Huber while the debates
of the council were proceeding. Some of these letters appeared in the
German newspapers, and an English translation was published by
Rivington. Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then in
disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism, kept his German
friends well informed of the course of the discussions. The proceedings
of the council were frequently very stormy, and the opponents of the
dogma of infallibility complained that they were not unfrequently
interrupted, and that endeavours were made to put them down by clamour.
The dogma was at length carried by an overwhelming majority, and the
dissentient bishops, who--with the exception of two--had left the
council before the final division, one by one submitted (see VATICAN
COUNCIL). Döllinger, however, was not to be silenced. He headed a
protest by forty-four professors in the university of Munich, and
gathered together a congress at Nuremberg, which met in August 1870 and
issued a declaration adverse to the Vatican decrees. An immense ferment
took place. In Bavaria, where Döllinger's influence was greatest, the
strongest determination to resist the resolutions of the council
prevailed. But the authority of the council was held by the archbishop
of Munich to be paramount, and he called upon Döllinger to submit.
Instead of submitting, Döllinger, on the 28th of March 1871, addressed a
memorable letter to the archbishop, refusing to subscribe the decrees.
They were, he said, opposed to Holy Scripture, to the traditions of the
Church for the first 1000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees
of the general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman
Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. "As a
Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen," he
added, "I cannot accept this doctrine."
The archbishop replied by excommunicating the disobedient professor.
This aroused fresh opposition. Döllinger was almost unanimously elected
rector-magnificus of the university of Munich, and Oxford, Edinburgh and
Marburg universities conferred upon him the honorary degree of doctor of
laws and Vienna that of philosophy. The Bavarian clergy invited Bishop
Loos of the Jansenist Church in Holland, which for more than 150 years
had existed independent of the Papacy and had adopted the name of "Old
Catholic," to hold confirmations in Bavaria. The offer was accepted, and
the bishop was received with triumphal arches and other demonstrations
of joy. The three Dutch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready
to consecrate a bishop, if it were desired. The momentous question was
discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican decrees, and it
was resolved to elect a bishop and ask the Dutch bishops to consecrate
him. Döllinger, however, voted against the proposition, and withdrew
from any further steps towards the promotion of the movement. This was
the critical moment in the history of the resistance to the decrees. Had
Döllinger, with his immense reputation as a scholar, as a divine and as
a man, allowed himself to be consecrated bishop of the Old Catholic
Church, it is impossible to say how wide the schism would have been. But
he declined to initiate a schism. His refusal lost Bavaria to the
movement; and the number of Bavarian sympathizers was still further
reduced when the seceders, in 1878, allowed their priests to marry, a
decision which Döllinger, as was known, sincerely regretted. The Old
Catholic Communion, however, was formally constituted, with Reinkens at
its head as bishop, and it still continues to exist (see OLD CATHOLICS).
Döllinger's attitude to the new community was not very clearly defined.
It may be difficult to reconcile the two declarations made by him at
different times: "I do not wish to join a schismatic society; I am
isolated," and "As for myself, I consider that I belong by conviction to
the Old Catholic community." The latter declaration was made some years
after the former, in a letter to Pastor Widmann. The nearest approach to
a reconciliation of the two statements would appear to be that while, at
his advanced age, he did not wish to assume the responsibility of being
head of a new denomination, formed in circumstances of exceptional
difficulty, he was unwilling to condemn those who were ready to hazard
the new departure. "By conviction" he belonged to the Old Catholics, but
he never formally joined them. Yet at least he was ready to meet their
leaders, to address them, and to discuss difficult problems with them.
His addresses on the reunion of the Churches, delivered at the Bonn
Conference of 1872, show that he was by no means hostile to the newly
formed communion, in whose interests these conferences were held. In
1874 and again in 1875, he presided over the Reunion Conferences held at
Bonn and attended by leading ecclesiastics from the British Isles and
from the Oriental Church, among whom were Bishop Christopher Wordsworth
of Lincoln; Bishop Harold Browne of Ely; Lord Plunket, archbishop of
Dublin; Lycurgus, archbishop of Syros and Tenos; Canon Liddon; and
Professor Ossinine of St Petersburg. At the latter of these two
conferences, when Döllinger was seventy-six years of age, he delivered a
series of marvellous addresses in German and English, in which he
discussed the state of theology on the continent, the reunion question,
and the religious condition of the various countries of Europe in which
the Roman Catholic Church held sway. Not the least of his achievements
on this occasion was the successful attempt, made with extraordinary
tact, ability, knowledge and perseverance, to induce the Orientals,
Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept a formula of concord,
drawn from the writings of the leading theologians of the Greek Church,
on the long-vexed question of the Procession of the Holy Spirit. This
result having been attained, he passed the rest of his days in
retirement, emerging sometimes from his retreat to give addresses on
theological questions, and also writing, in conjunction with his friend
Reusch, his last book, _Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der
römisch-katholischen Kirche seit dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert mit
Beiträgen zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des Jesuitenordens_
(Nordlingen, 1889), in which he deals with the moral theology of St
Alfonso de' Liguori. He died in Munich, on the 14th of January 1890, at
the age of ninety-one. Even _in articulo mortis_ he refused to receive
the sacraments from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the
last offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich.
In addition to the works referred to in the foregoing sketch, we may
mention _The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries_ (Mainz, 1826); a
_Church History_ (1836, Eng. trans. 1840); _Hippolytus and Callistus_
(1854, Eng. trans., 1876); _First Age of Christianity_ (1860);
_Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches_; _The Vatican Decrees;
Studies in European History_ (tr. M. Warre, 1890); _Miscellaneous
Addresses_ (tr. M. Warre, 1894).
See _Life_ by J. Friedrich (3 vols. 1899-1901); obituary notice in
_The Times_, 11th January 1890; L. von Kobell, _Conversations of Dr
Döllinger_ (tr. by K. Gould, 1892). (J. J. L.*)
DOLLOND, JOHN (1706-1761), English optician, was the son of a Huguenot
refugee, a silk-weaver at Spitalfields, London, where he was born on the
10th of June 1706. He followed his father's trade, but found time to
acquire a knowledge of Latin, Greek, mathematics, physics, anatomy and
other subjects. In 1752 he abandoned silk-weaving and joined his eldest
son, Peter Dollond (1730-1820), who in 1750 had started in business as a
maker of optical instruments. His reputation grew rapidly, and in 1761
he was appointed optician to the king. In 1758 he published an "Account
of some experiments concerning the different refrangibility of light"
(_Phil. Trans._, 1758), describing the experiments that led him to the
achievement with which his name is specially associated, the discovery
of a means of constructing achromatic lenses by the combination of crown
and flint glasses. Leonhard Euler in 1747 had suggested that achromatism
might be obtained by the combination of glass and water lenses. Relying
on statements made by Sir Isaac Newton, Dollond disputed this
possibility (_Phil. Trans._, 1753), but subsequently, after the Swedish
physicist, Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698-1765), had pointed out that
Newton's law of dispersion did not harmonize with certain observed
facts, he began experiments to settle the question. Early in 1757 he
succeeded in producing refraction without colour by the aid of glass and
water lenses, and a few months later he made a successful attempt to get
the same result by a combination of glasses of different qualities (see
TELESCOPE). For this achievement the Royal Society awarded him the
Copley medal in 1758, and three years later elected him one of its
fellows. Dollond also published two papers on apparatus for measuring
small angles (_Phil. Trans._, 1753, 1754). He died in London, of
apoplexy, on the 30th of November 1761.
An account of his life, privately printed, was written by the Rev.
John Kelly (1750-1809), the Manx scholar, who married one of his
granddaughters.
DOLMAN (from Turk. _d[=o]l[=a]m[=a]n_), originally a long and loose
garment left unfastened in front, and with narrow sleeves. It is worn
generally by the Turks, and is not unlike a cassock in shape. The name
was given to the uniform jacket, worn by hussars, and slung from the
shoulders with the sleeves hanging loose; and it is also used for a
similar garment worn by ladies, with wide cape-like arrangements instead
of sleeves.
DOLNJA TUZLA, or DONJI SOLI, the capital of the Dolnja Tuzla district,
in Bosnia, beautifully situated on the Jala or Julla, a small stream
flowing into the Spreca, which joins the Bosna at Doboj, 39 m. W.N.W.;
and on a branch railway from Doboj. Pop. (1895) 10,227; almost all,
including a permanent colony of gipsies, being Moslems. Dolnja Tuzla is
the seat of a district court and an Orthodox bishop; with several
churches, many mosques, a hospital, gymnasium and commercial school.
Besides large alkali works, it has a vigorous trade in grain, livestock,
timber and coal, from the surrounding hills, where there is a colony of
Hungarian miners; while the salt springs, owned by the state both at
Dolnja, or Lower, and Gornja, or Upper Tuzla, 6 m. E., are without a
rival in the Balkan Peninsula.
Dolnja Tuzla was called by the Romans _Ad Salinas_. Constantine
Porphyrogenitus mentions it, in the 10th century, as _Salenes_; in other
medieval documents it appears as _Sou_, _Sow_ or _Soli_. Its modern name
is derived from the Turkish _tuz_, "salt." In 1690 the Austrians routed
the Turks at Gornja Tuzla, and removed the Franciscan friars, with about
3000 other Roman Catholics, into Slavonia.
DOLOMIEU, DÉODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCRÈDE GRATET DE (1750-1801), French
geologist and mineralogist, was born at Dolomieu, near Tour-du-Pin, in
the department of Isère in France, on the 24th of June 1750. He was
admitted in his infancy a member of the Order of Malta. In his
nineteenth year he quarrelled with a knight of the galley on which he
was serving, and in the duel that ensued killed him. He was condemned to
death for his crime, but in consideration of his youth the grand master
granted him a pardon, which, at the instance of Cardinal Torrigiani, was
confirmed by Pope Clement XIII., and after nine months' imprisonment he
was set at liberty. Throughout that period he had solaced himself with
the study of the physical sciences, and during his subsequent residence
at Metz he continued to devote himself to them. In 1775 he published his
_Recherches sur la pesanteur des corps à differentes distances du centre
de la terre_, and two Italian translations of mineralogical treatises by
A. F. Cronstedt (1702-1765) and T. O. Bergman (1735-1784). These works
gained for him the honour of election as a corresponding member of the
Académie des Sciences at Paris. To obtain leisure to follow his
favourite pursuits Dolomieu now threw up the commission which, since the
age of fifteen, he had held in the carabineers, and in 1777 he
accompanied the _bailli_ (afterwards Cardinal L. R. E.) de Rohan to
Portugal. In the following year he visited Spain, and in 1780 and 1781
Sicily and the adjacent islands. Two months of the year 1782 were spent
in examining the geological structure of the Pyrenees, and in 1783 the
earthquake of Calabria induced him to go to Italy. The scientific
results of these excursions are given in his _Voyage aux îles de Lipari_
(1783); _Mémoire sur le tremblement de terre de la Calabre_ (1784);
_Mémoire sur les îles Ponces, et catalogue raisonné des produits de
l'Etna_ (1788) and other works. In 1789 and 1790 he busied himself with
an examination of the Alps, his observations on which form the subject
of numerous memoirs published in the _Journal de physique_. The mineral
_dolomite_, which was named after him, was described by Dolomieu in
1791. He returned to France in that year, bringing with him rich
collections of minerals. On the 14th of September 1792 the duc de la
Rochefoucauld, with whom he had been for twenty years on terms of the
closest intimacy, was assassinated at Forges, and Dolomieu retired with
the widow and daughter of the duke to their estate of Roche Guyon, where
he wrote several important scientific papers. The events of the 9th
Thermidor (July 27, 1794) having restored the country to some
tranquillity, Dolomieu recommenced his geological tours, and visited
various parts of France with which he had been previously unacquainted.
He was in 1796 appointed engineer and professor at the school of mines,
and was chosen a member of the Institute at the time of its formation.
At the end of 1797 he joined the scientific staff which in 1798
accompanied Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. He had proceeded up the
Nile as far as Cairo when ill-health made his return to Europe
necessary, and on the 7th of March 1799 he set sail from Alexandria. His
ship proving unseaworthy put into Taranto, and as Naples was then at war
with France, all the French passengers were made prisoners. On the 22nd
of May they were carried by ship to Messina, whence, with the exception
of Dolomieu, they embarked for the coast of France. Dolomieu had been an
object of the hatred of the Neapolitan court since 1783, when he
revealed to the grand master of his order its designs against Malta, and
the calumnies of his enemies on that island served now as a pretext for
his detention. He was confined in a pestilential dungeon, where, clothed
in rags, and having nothing but a little straw for a bed, he languished
during twenty-one months. Dolomieu, however, did not abandon himself to
despair. Deprived of writing materials, he made a piece of wood his pen,
and with the smoke of his lamp for ink he wrote upon the margins of a
Bible, the only book he still possessed, his treatise _Sur la
philosophie minéralogique et sur l'espèce minérale_ (1801). Friends
entreated, but in vain, for his liberty; it was with difficulty that
they succeeded in furnishing him with a little assistance, and it was
only by virtue of a special clause in the treaty between France and
Naples that, on the 15th of March 1801, he was released. On his arrival
in France he commenced the duties of the chair of mineralogy at the
museum of natural history, to which, after the death of Daubenton, he
had been elected in January 1800. His course of lectures concluded, he
revisited Switzerland. Returning thence he reached the residence of his
brother-in-law at Château-Neuf, in the department of Saône-et-Loire,
where he was seized with a fever, to which in a few days he succumbed,
on the 26th of November 1801.
Dolomieu's geological theories are remarkable for originality and
boldness of conception. The materials constituting the primordial globe
he held to have arranged themselves according to their specific
gravities, so as to have constituted a fluid central sphere, a solid
crust external to this, next a stratum of water, and lastly the
atmosphere. Where water penetrated through the crust, solidification
took place in the underlying fluid mass, which enlarging in consequence
produced rifts in the superincumbent rocks. Water rushing down through
the rifts became decomposed, and the resulting effervescence occasioned
submarine volcanoes. The crust of the earth he believed to be
continually increasing in thickness, owing to the deposition of aqueous
rocks, and to the gradual solidification of the molten interior, so that
the volcanic eruptions and other geological phenomena of former must
have been of far greater magnitude and frequency than those of recent
times.
See Lacépède, "Éloge historique de Dolomieu," in _Mémoires de la
classe des sciences de l'Institut_ (1806); Thomson, in _Annals of
Philosophy_, vol. xii. p. 161 (1808).
DOLOMITE, a mineral species consisting of calcium and magnesium
carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2, and occurring as rhombohedral crystals or large
rock-masses. Analyses of most well-crystallized specimens correspond
closely with the above formula, the two carbonates being present in
equal molecular proportions (CaCO3, 54.35; MgCO3, 45.65%). Normal
dolomite is thus not an isomorphous mixture of calcium and magnesium
carbonates, but a double salt; and any variations in composition are to
be explained by the isomorphous mixing of this double salt with
carbonates of calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, and rarely of zinc
and cobalt.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
In crystalline form dolomite is very similar to calcite, belonging to
the same group of rhombohedral carbonates; the primitive rhombohedron,
_r_ (100), parallel to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages,
has interfacial angles of 73° 45', the angle of the cleavage
rhombohedron of calcite being 74° 55'. A specially characteristic
feature is that this rhombohedron is frequently the only form present on
the crystals (in calcite it is rare except in combination with other
forms); the faces are also usually curved (fig. 1), sometimes to an
extraordinary degree giving rise to saddle-shaped crystals (fig. 2).
Crystals with plane faces are usually twinned, there being an
interpenetration of two rhombohedra with the vertical axes parallel. The
secondary twin-lamination, parallel to the obtuse rhombohedron _e_
(110), so common in calcite, does not exist in dolomite. In the degree
of symmetry possessed by the crystals there is, however, an important
difference between calcite and dolomite; the former has the full number
of planes and axes of symmetry of a rhombohedral crystal, whilst the
latter is hemihedral with parallel faces, having only an axis of triad
symmetry and a centre of symmetry. This lower degree of symmetry, which
is the same as that of dioptase and phenacite, is occasionally shown by
the presence of an obliquely placed rhombohedron, and also by the want
of symmetry in the etching and elasticity figures on the faces of the
primitive rhombohedron.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
Dolomite is both harder (H. = 3½-4) and denser (sp. gr. 2.85) than
calcite. The two minerals may also be readily distinguished by the fact
that dolomite is not acted upon by cold, dilute acids (see below,
_Dolomite Rock_). Crystals of dolomite vary from transparent to
translucent, and often exhibit a pearly lustre, especially when the
faces are curved; the colour is usually white or yellowish.
The crystallized mineral was first examined chemically by P. Woulfe in
1779, and was named compound-spar by R. Kirwan in 1784; other early
names are bitter-spar, rhomb-spar and pearl-spar (but these included
other rhombohedral carbonates). The name dolomite (_dolomie_ of N. T. de
Saussure, 1792) is in honour of the French geologist, D. G. Dolomieu,
who in 1791 noted that certain Tyrolese calcareous rocks and Italian
marbles effervesce only slightly in contact with acid; this name was for
many years applied to the rock only, but was later extended to the
crystallized mineral, first in the form dolomite-spar.
In the white crystalline dolomite-rock of the Binnenthal near Brieg in
Switzerland beautiful water-clear crystals of dolomite are found; and
crystallized masses occur embedded in serpentine, talc-schist and other
magnesian silicate rocks. The best crystallized specimens are, however,
usually found in metalliferous deposits; for example, in the iron mines
of Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont (as large twinned rhombohedra) and
Cleator Moor in Cumberland; in the deposits of lead and zinc ores at
Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man, Joplin in Missouri; and
in the silver veins of Schemnitz in Hungary and Guanajuato in Mexico.
Several varieties of dolomite have been distinguished, depending on
differences in structure and chemical composition. Miemite is a
crystallized or columnar variety, of a pale asparagus-green colour, from
Miemo near Volterra in Tuscany; taraspite is a similar variety from
Tarasp in Switzerland. Gurhofite, from Gurhof near Aggsbach in Lower
Austria, is snow-white, compact and porcellanous. Brossite, from the
Brosso valley near Ivrea in Piedmont, and tharandite, from Tharand in
Saxony, are crystallized varieties containing iron. Closely related is
the species ankerite (q.v.). (L. J. S.)
_Dolomite Rock._--The rock dolomite, also known as dolomitic or
magnesian limestone, consists principally of the mineral of the same
name, but often contains admixture of other substances, such as calcite,
quartz, carbonate and oxides of iron, argillaceous material, and chert
or chalcedony. Dolomites when very pure and well crystallized may be
snowy white (e.g. some examples from the eastern Alps), but are commonly
yellow, creamy, brownish or grey from the presence of impurities. They
tend to be crystalline, though on a fine scale, and appear under the
microscope composed of small sharply angular rhombohedra, with a perfect
cleavage and very strong double refraction. They can be often recognized
by this, but are most certainly distinguished from similar limestones or
marbles by tests with weak acid. Dolomite dissolves only very slowly in
dilute hydrochloric acid in the cold, but readily when the acid is
warmed; limestones are freely attacked by the acid in either state.
Magnesian limestones, which contain both dolomite and calcite, may be
etched by exposing polished surfaces for a brief time to cold weak acid;
the calcite is removed, leaving small pits or depressions. The
distribution of the calcite may be rendered more clear by using ferric
chloride solution. This is decomposed, leaving a yellow stain of ferric
hydrate where the calcite occurred. Alternatively, a solution of
aluminium chloride will serve; this precipitates gelantinous alumina on
contact with calcite and the film can be stained with aniline dyes
(Lemberg's solution). The dolomite is not affected by these processes.
Dolomites of compact structure have a higher specific gravity than
limestones, but they very often have a cavernous or drusy character, the
walls of the hollows being lined with small crystals of dolomite with a
pearly lustre and rounded faces. They are also slightly harder, and for
these and other reasons they last better as building stones and wear
better when used for paving or road-mending. Dolomites are rarely
fossiliferous, as the process of dolomitization tends to destroy any
organic remains originally present. As compared with limestones they are
less frequently well bedded, but there are exceptions to this rule. Many
dolomites, particularly those of the north of England, show a very
remarkable concretionary structure. The beds look as if made up of
rounded balls of all sizes from a foot or two in diameter downwards.
Often they are stuck together like piles of shot or bunches of grapes.
They are composed of fibrous radiate calcite crystals, which by some
kind of concretionary action have segregated from the dolomitic material
and grouped themselves together in this way. Other concretions from
these beds resemble bunches of corals, tufts of plants, or present
various strange imitative forms.
Dolomite, unlike calcite, is not secreted by marine animals to build up
the hard parts of their skeletons, and it is generally agreed also that
dolomite is only very rarely and under exceptional conditions deposited
directly from solution in water. On the other hand, there is much
evidence to show that limestones may absorb or be partly replaced by
magnesium carbonate, and the double salt dolomite substituted for
calcite by one of those processes which are described as "metasomatic."
Thus the Carboniferous limestones of various parts of Britain pass into
dolomites along lines of joint, fissure or fault, or occasionally along
certain bedding planes. At the same time the rock becomes crystalline,
its minute structure is altered, its fossils are effaced, and as
dolomite has a higher specific gravity than limestone, contraction
results and cavities are formed. The prevalence of crystalline,
concretionary and drusy structures in dolomite can thus be simply
explained. The process may actually be studied in many "magnesian
limestones," in which by means of the microscope we may trace the
gradual growth of dolomite crystals taking place simultaneously with the
destruction of the original features of the limestone. Recent
investigations in coral reefs show that these changes are going on at
the present day at no considerable depths and in rocks which have not
long consolidated.
All this goes to prove that the double carbonate of calcium and
magnesium is under certain conditions a more stable salt than either of
the simple carbonates, and that these conditions recur in nature with
considerable frequency. Experiments have proved that at moderately high
temperatures (100° to 200° C.) solutions of magnesium salts will convert
calcite into dolomite in the laboratory, and that aragonite is even more
readily affected than calcite. The analogy with dolomitization of
limestones is strong but not complete, as the latter process must take
place at ordinary temperatures and approximately under atmospheric
pressures. No completely satisfactory explanation of the change, from
the standpoint of the geologist, has as yet been advanced, though much
light has been thrown upon the problem. Many limestones are rich in
aragonite, but this in course of time tends to recrystallize as calcite.
Magnesium salts are abundant in sea-water, and in the waters of
evaporating enclosed coral lagoons and of many bitter lakes. Calcite is
more soluble than dolomite in water saturated with carbonic acid and
would tend to be slowly removed from a limestone, while the dolomite
increased in relative proportion. Dolomite also being denser than
calcite may be supposed to replace it more readily when pressure is
increased. These and many other factors probably co-operate to effect
the transmutation of limestones into dolomites.
Examples of dolomitization may be obtained in practically every
geological formation in which limestones occur. The oldest rocks are
most generally affected, e.g. the Cambrian limestones of Scotland, but
the change occurs, as has already been stated, even in the upraised
coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific oceans which are very recent
formations. It is very interesting to note that dolomites are very
frequent among rocks which indicate that desert or salt-lake conditions
prevailed at the time of their deposit. The dolomite or magnesian
limestone of the English Permian is an instance of this. The explanation
may be found in the fact that the waters of bitter lakes are usually
rich in magnesium salts which, percolating through beds of limestone,
would convert them into dolomite. Among the most famous dolomites are
those of the Dolomite Alps of Tirol. They are of Triassic age and yield
remarkably picturesque mountain scenery; it is believed that some were
originally coral reefs; they are now highly crystalline and often
contain interesting minerals and ores. The galena limestone of the
North American Trenton rocks is mostly a dolomite.
Dolomites furnish excellent building stones, and those of the north-east
of England (Mansfield stone, &c.) have long been regarded with great
favour on account of their resistance to decomposition. They vary a good
deal in quality, and have not all proved equally satisfactory in
practice. Part of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster is built of
dolomite. (J. S. F.)
DOLOMITES, THE, a mountain district in the South Tirolese Alps, though
sometimes it is erroneously considered to form part of some other chain
than the Alps. The distinguishing feature of this district is that it is
composed of magnesian limestone, which rises in peaks of a most singular
degree of sharpness and streaked by veins of the most startling colours.
Nowadays it has become well known to tourists, who, however, keep mainly
to a few great centres, though most of the more striking peaks were
first ascended in the late sixties and early seventies of the 19th
century by English mountaineers. Roughly speaking the Dolomite region
lies between the Brenner railway from Franzensfeste to Trent (W.) and
the road over the Monte Croce Pass from Innichen in the Drave valley by
way of the Sexten glen and the Piave valley to Belluno and Feltre (E.).
On the north it is limited by the railway line from Innichen to
Franzensfeste, and on the south by the railway and road from Trent to
Feltre. The highest summit is the Marmolata (10,972 ft.), but far more
typical are the Sorapiss, the Cimon della Pala, the Langkofel, the
Pelmo, the Drei Zinnen, the Sass Maor and the Rosengarten (see ALPS).
Among the chief tourist resorts are St Ulrich (in the Gröden valley),
San Martino di Castrozza (near Primiero), Caprile and Cortina d'Ampezzo.
Besides the Dolomites included in the above region there are several
other Dolomite groups (though less extensive) in the Alps. N.W. of Trent
rises the Tosa group, while in Switzerland there are the Piz d'Aela
group, S.W. of Bergün on the Albula Pass route, and the curious little
group N. of the village of Splügen, besides other isolated peaks between
the St Gotthard and Lukmanier Passes. In Dauphiné itself (the home of
the geologist Dolomieu) the mountain districts of the Royannais, of the
Vercors, and of the Dévoluy (all S.W. of Grenoble) are more or less
Dolomitic in character.
See J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, _The Dolomite Mountains_ (London,
1864); Miss L. Tuckett, _Zigzagging among Dolomites_ (London, 1871);
P. Grohmann, _Wanderungen in den Dolomiten_ (Vienna, 1877); L.
Sinigaglia, _Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites_ (London, 1896);
_The Climbs of Norman-Neruda_ (London, 1899); V. Wolf von Glanvell,
_Dolomitenfuhrer_ (Vienna, 1898); J. Ball, _Western Alps_ (new ed.,
London, 1898, section 9, Rte. P. French Dolomites). (W. A. B. C.)
DOLPHIN, a name properly belonging to the common cetacean mammal known
as _Delphinus delphis_, but also applied to a number of more or less
nearly allied species. The dolphins, bottle-noses, or, as they are more
commonly called, "porpoises," are found in abundance in all seas, while
some species are inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are
among the smaller members of the cetacean order, none exceeding 10 ft.
in length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their
long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, are well
adapted, but some also devour crustaceans and molluscs. They are mostly
gregarious, and the agility and grace of their movements in the water
are themes of admiration to the spectators when a "school of porpoises"
is playing round the bows of a vessel at sea.
[Illustration: The Common Dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_).]
The type of the group is the common dolphin (_D. delphis_) of the
Mediterranean and Atlantic, which usually measures 6 to 8 ft. in length,
and is thickest near the centre, where the back fin rises to a height
of 9 or 10 in., and whence the body tapers towards both extremities. The
forehead descends abruptly to the base of the slightly flattened beak,
which is about 6 in. long, and is separated from the forehead by a
transverse depression. The mouth is armed with sharp, slightly curved
teeth, of uniform size, varying in number from forty to fifty on each
side of both jaws. The aperture of the ear is exceedingly minute; the
eyes are of moderate size and the blow-hole is crescent-shaped. The
colour of the upper surface is black, becoming lighter on the flanks,
and perfectly white below. Dolphins are gregarious, and large herds
often follow ships. They exhibit remarkable agility, individuals having
been known to leap to such a height out of the water as to fall upon the
deck. Their gambols and apparent relish for human society have attracted
the attention of mariners in all ages, and have probably given rise to
the many fabulous stories told of dolphins. Their appearance at sea was
regarded as a good omen, for although it presaged a tempest, yet it
enabled the sailors to steer for a place of safety. The dolphin is
exceedingly voracious, feeding on fish, cuttlefishes and crustaceans. On
the south coast of England it lives chiefly on pilchard and mackerel,
and when in pursuit of these is often taken in the nets. The female
brings forth a single young one, which she nurses most carefully. Her
milk is abundant and rich, and during the operation of suckling, the
mother floats in a slightly sidelong position, so as to allow of the
necessary respiration in herself and her young. The dolphin was formerly
supposed to be a fish, and allowed to be eaten by Roman Catholics when
the use of flesh was prohibited, and it seems to have been esteemed as a
delicacy by the French. Among the seafaring population of Britain the
name "dolphin" is most usually given to the beautifully coloured fish
_Coryphaena hippuris_--the dorado of the Portuguese, and it is to the
latter the poet is alluding when he speaks of "the dying dolphin's
changing hues."
Many other allied genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_,
_Lagenorhynchus_, &c., are also included in the family _Delphinidae_,
some of which live wholly in rivers.
Beside these there is another group of largely freshwater species,
constituting the family _Platanistidae_, and typified by the susu
(_Platanista gangetica_), exte
Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/32758