Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Coquelin, Benoît Constant" to "Costume"

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Coquelin, Benoît Constant" to "Costume"

Author: Various

Release date: April 29, 2010 [eBook #32182]
Most recently updated: January 6, 2021

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32182

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "COQUELIN, BENOÎT CONSTANT" TO "COSTUME" ***

Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are
preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in
superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].

(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

Article CORDUROY: "From the ribbed appearance of the cloth the name
corduroy is applied, particularly in America, to a rough road of
logs laid transversely side by side, usually across swampy ground."
'America' from 'Amercia'.

Article CORNEILLE, PIERRE: "the only contemporary whose genius
entitled him to criticise Corneille." 'entitled' amended from
'entiled'.

Article CORNET: "while in France the instruments with detachable
mouthpiece were distinguished by the addition of à bouquin."
'addition' amended from 'adition'.

Article CORNET: "but from the explanation now given, it will be
readily understood." Omitted the word 'but' after 'explanation'.

Article CORN LAWS: "and the permission accorded by the statute of
1773 to import foreign corn at any price, to be reexported duty
free, was modified by a warehouse duty of 2s. 6d. in addition to
the duties on import payable at the time of sale." 'statute'
amended from 'statue'.

Article CORONATION: "In connexion with the English coronation a
number of claims to do certain services have sprung up, and before
each coronation a court of claims is constituted, which
investigates and adjudicates on the claims that are made." 'is'
amended from 'in'.

Article CORTES, HERNAN: "But although his power was thus confirmed
by royal authority, and although he exerted himself to consolidate
Spanish domination throughout all Mexico." 'himself' amended from
'himelf'.

Article CORVÉE: "The system of turnpikes, dating from 1663, which
gradually extended over the whole of England, lessened the burden
of this system of taxation, so far as main roads were concerned."
'The' amended from 'Ths'.

Article COSTUME: "But the garment as explained by Josephus (Ant.
iii. 7. 1) was properly a loin-cloth (cf. the examples from Punt),
and the reason given for its use (Ex. xxviii. 42) points to a later
date than the law which enforced the same regard for decency by
forbidding the priests to ascend altars with steps (ib. xx. 26)."
'loin-cloth' amended from 'lion-cloth'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VII, SLICE IV

Coquelin to Costume

Articles in This Slice:

COQUELIN, BENOÎT CONSTANT CORNWALL (city of England)
COQUEREL, ATHANASE JOSUÉ CORNWALLIS, CHARLES CORNWALLIS
COQUEREL, ATHANASE LAURENT CORNWALLIS, SIR WILLIAM
COQUES, GONZALEZ CORO
COQUET (river of Northumberland) COROMANDEL COAST
COQUET (simulate love-making) CORONA
COQUIMBO CORONACH
CORACLE CORONADO, FRANCISCO VASQUEZ DE
CORAËS, ADAMANTIOS CORONATION
CORAL CORONER
CORALLIAN CORONIUM
CORAL-REEFS COROT, JEAN-BAPTISTE CAMILLE
CORAM, THOMAS CORPORAL
COR ANGLAIS CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
CORATO CORPORATION
CORBAN CORPS
CORBEIL, WILLIAM OF CORPSE
CORBEIL (town of northern France) CORPULENCE
CORBEL CORPUS CHRISTI
CORBET, RICHARD CORPUS CHRISTI, FEAST OF
CORBIE CORRAL
CORBRIDGE CORREA
CORBULO, GNAEUS DOMITIUS CORREA DA SERRA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO
CORD CORREGGIO
CORDAY D'ARMONT CORRENTI, CESARE
CORDELIERS, CLUB OF THE CORRESPONDENCE
CORDERIUS CORRÈZE
CORDES CORRIB, LOUGH
CORDILLERA CORRIDOR
CORDITE CORRIE
CÓRDOBA, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE CORRIENTES (province of Argentine)
CÓRDOBA (province of Argentine) CORRIENTES (city of Argentine)
CÓRDOBA (city of Argentine) CORRIGAN, MICHAEL AUGUSTINE
CÓRDOBA (town of Mexico) CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE
CORDON CORRUPT PRACTICES
CORDOVA (province of Spain) CORRY
CORDOVA (city of Spain) CORSAIR
CORDUROY CORSICA
CORDUS, AULUS CREMUTIUS CORSICANA
CORELLI, ARCANGELO CORSINI
CORELLI, MARIE CORSON, HIRAM
CORENZIO, BELISARIO CORSSEN, WILHELM PAUL
CO-RESPONDENT CORT, CORNELIS
CORFE CASTLE CORTE
CORFINIUM CORTE-REAL, JERONYMO
CORFU CORTES, HERNAN
CORI CORTES
CORIANDER CORTI, LODOVICO
CORINGA CORTLAND
CORINNA CORTONA
CORINTH (city of Greece) CORUMBÁ
CORINTH (city of Mississippi) CORUNDUM
CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF CORUNNA (province of Spain)
CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE CORUNNA (city of Spain)
CORINTO CORVÉE
CORIOLANUS, GAIUS MARCIUS CORVEY
CORIOLI CORVINUS, JÁNOS
CORIPPUS, FLAVIUS CRESCONIUS CORVUS, MARCUS VALERIUS
CORISCO CORWEN
CORK, RICHARD BOYLE CORWIN, THOMAS
CORK (county of Ireland) CORY, WILLIAM JOHNSON
CORK (city of Ireland) CORYATE, THOMAS
CORK (bark) CORYBANTES
CORK AND ORRERY, MARY CORYDON
CORLEONE CORYPHAEUS
CORMENIN, LOUIS MARIE DE LA HAYE COS
CORMON, FERNAND COSA
CORMONTAINGNE, LOUIS DE COSEL
CORMORANT COSENZ, ENRICO
CORN (grain) COSENZA
CORN (outgrowth of the skin) COSHOCTON
CORNARO, CATERINA COSIN, JOHN
CORNARO, LUIGI COSMAS (of Alexandria)
CORNBRASH COSMAS (of Prague)
CORNEILLE, PIERRE COSMATI
CORNEILLE, THOMAS COSMIC
CORNELIA COSMOGONY
CORNELIUS COSMOPOLITAN
CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER COSNE
CORNELIUS, PETER VON COSSA, LUIGI
CORNELL UNIVERSITY COSSA, PIETRO
CORNET COSSACKS
CORNETO TARQUINIA COSSIMBAZAR
CORNICE COSTA, GIOVANNI
CORNIFICIUS COSTA, LORENZO
CORNING, ERASTUS COSTA, SIR MICHAEL ANDREW AGNUS
CORNING COSTAKI, ANTHOPOULOS
CORN LAWS COSTANZO, ANGELO DI
CORN-SALAD COSTA RICA
CORNU, MARIE ALFRED COSTELLO, DUDLEY
CORNU COPIAE COSTER-MONGER
CORNUS COSTS
CORNUTUS, LUCIUS ANNAEUS COSTUME
CORNWALL (city of Canada)

COQUELIN, BENOÎT CONSTANT (1841-1909), French actor, known as Coquelin
_aîné_, was born at Boulogne on the 23rd of January 1841. He was
originally intended to follow his father's trade of baker (he was once
called _un boulanger manqué_ by a hostile critic), but his love of
acting led him to the Conservatoire, where he entered Regnier's class in
1859. He won the first prize for comedy within a year, and made his
début on the 7th of December 1860 at the Comédie Française as the comic
valet, Gros-René, in Molière's _Dépit amoureux_, but his first great
success was as Figaro, in the following year. He was made _sociétaire_
in 1864, and during the next twenty-two years he created at the Français
the leading parts in forty-four new plays, including Théodore de
Banville's _Gringoire_ (1867), Paul Ferrier's _Tabarin_ (1871), Émile
Augier's _Paul Forestier_ (1871), _L'Étrangère_ (1876) by the younger
Dumas, Charles Lomon's _Jean Dacier_ (1877), Edward Pailleron's _Le
Monde où l'on s'ennuie_ (1881), Erckmann and Chatrian's _Les Rantzau_
(1884). In consequence of a dispute with the authorities over the
question of his right to make provincial tours in France he resigned in
1886. Three years later, however, the breach was healed; and after a
successful series of tours in Europe and the United States he rejoined
the Comédie Française as _pensionnaire_ in 1890. It was during this
period that he took the part of Labussière, in the production of
Sardou's' _Thermidor_, which was interdicted by the government after
three performances. In 1892 he broke definitely with the Comédie
Française, and toured for some time through the capitals of Europe with
a company of his own. In 1895 he joined the Renaissance theatre in
Paris, and played there until he became director of the Porte Saint
Martin in 1897. Here he won successes in Edmond Rostand's _Cyrano de
Bergerac_ (1897), Émile Bergerat's _Plus que reine_ (1899), Catulle
Mendès' _Scarron_ (1905), and Alfred Capus and Lucien Descaves'
_L'Attentat_ (1906). In 1900 he toured in America with Sarah Bernhardt,
and on their return continued with his old colleague to appear in
_L'Aiglon_, at the Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt. He was rehearsing for the
creation of the leading part in Rostand's _Chantecler_, which he was to
produce, when he died suddenly in Paris, on the 27th of January 1909.
Coquelin was an Officier de l'Instruction Publique and of the Legion of
Honour. He published _L'Art et le comédien_ (1880), _Molière et le
misanthrope_ (1881), essays on _Eugène Manuel_ (1881) and
_Sully-Prudhomme_ (1882), _L'Arnolphe de Molière_ (1882), _Les
Comédiens_ (1882), _L'Art de dire le monologue_ (with his brother,
1884), _Tartuffe_ (1884), _L'Art du comédien_ (1894).

His brother, ERNEST ALEXANDRE HONORÉ COQUELIN (1848-1909), called
Coquelin _cadet_, was born on the 16th of May 1848 at Boulogne, and
entered the Conservatoire in 1864. He graduated with the first prize in
comedy and made his début in 1867 at the Odéon. The next year he
appeared with his brother at the Théâtre Francais and became a
_sociétaire_ in 1879. He played a great many parts, in both the classic
and the modern répertoire, and also had much success in reciting
monologues of his own composition. He wrote _Le Livre des convalescents_
(1880), _Le Monologue moderne_ (1881), _Fairiboles_ (1882), _Le Rire_
(1887), _Pirouettes_ (1888). He died on the 8th of February 1909.

JEAN COQUELIN (1865- ), son of Coquelin _aîné_, was also an actor,
first at the Théâtre Francais (début, 1890), later at the Renaissance,
and then at the Porte Saint Martin, where he created the part of Raigoné
in _Cyrano de Bergerac_.

COQUEREL, ATHANASE JOSUÉ (1820-1875), French Protestant divine, son of
A. L. C. Coquerel (q.v.), was born at Amsterdam on the 16th of June
1820. He studied theology at Geneva and at Strassburg, and at an early
age succeeded his uncle, C. A. Coquerel, as editor of _Le Lien_, a post
which he held till 1870. In 1852 he took part in establishing the
_Nouvelle Revue de théologie_, the first periodical of scientific
theology published in France, and in the same year helped to found the
"Historical Society of French Protestantism." Meanwhile he had gained a
high reputation as a preacher, and especially as the advocate of
religious freedom; but his teaching became more and more offensive to
the orthodox party, and on the appearance (1864) of his article on
Renan's _Vie de Jésus_ in the _Nouvelle Revue de théologie_ he was
forbidden by the Paris consistory to continue his ministerial functions.
He received an address of sympathy from the consistory of Anduze, and a
provision was voted for him by the Union Protestante Libérale, to enable
him to continue his preaching. He received the cross of the Legion of
Honour in 1862. He died at Fismes (Marne), on the 24th of July 1875. His
chief works were _Jean Calas et sa famille_ (1858); _Des Beaux-Arts en
Italie_ (Eng. trans. 1859); _La Saint Barthélemy_ (1860); _Précis de
l'église réformée_ (1862); _Le Catholicisme et le protestantisme
considérés dans leur origine et leur développement_ (1864); _Libres
études, and La Conscience et la foi_ (1867).

COQUEREL, ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLES (1795-1868), French Protestant
divine, was born in Paris on the 17th of August 1795. He received his
early education from his aunt, Helen Maria Williams, an Englishwoman,
who at the close of the 18th century gained a reputation by various
translations and by her _Letters from France_. He completed his
theological studies at the Protestant seminary of Montauban, and in 1816
was ordained minister. In 1817 he was invited to become pastor of the
chapel of St Paul at Jersey, but he declined, being unwilling to
subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. During
the following twelve years he resided in Holland, and preached before
Calvinistic congregations at Amsterdam, Leiden and Utrecht. In 1830, at
the suggestion of Baron Georges de Cuvier, then minister of Protestant
worship, Coquerel was called to Paris as pastor of the Reformed Church.
In the course of 1833 he was chosen a member of the consistory, and
rapidly acquired the reputation of a great pulpit orator, but his
liberal views brought him into antagonism with the rigid Calvinists. He
took a warm interest in all matters of education, and distinguished
himself so much by his defence of the university of Paris against a
sharp attack, that in 1835 he was chosen a member of the consistory of
the Legion of Honour. In 1841 appeared his _Réponse_ to the _Leben Jesu_
of Strauss. After the revolution of February 1848, Coquerel was elected
a member of the National Assembly, where he sat as a moderate
republican, subsequently becoming a member of the Legislative Assembly.
He supported the first ministry of Louis Napoleon, and gave his vote in
favour of the expedition to Rome and the restoration of the temporal
power of the pope. After the _coup d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851,
he confined himself to the duties of his pastorate. He was a prolific
writer, as well as a popular and eloquent speaker. He died at Paris on
the 10th of January 1868. A large collection of his sermons was
published in 8 vols. between 1819 and 1852. Other works were _Biographie
sacrée_ (1825-1826); _Histoire sainte et analyse de la Bible_ (1839);
_Orthodoxie moderne_ (1842); _Christologie_ (1858), &c.

His brother, CHARLES AUGUSTIN COQUEREL (1797-1851), was the author of a
work on English literature (1828), an _Essai sur l'histoire générale du
christianisme_ (1828) and a _Histoire des églises du désert, depuis la
revocation de l'édit de Nantes_ (1841). A liberal in his views, he was
the founder and editor of the _Annales protestantes_, _Le Lien_, and the
_Revue protestante_.

COQUES (or COCX), GONZALEZ (1614-1684), Flemish painter, son of Pieter
Willemsen Cocx, a respectable Flemish citizen, and not, as his name
might imply, a Spaniard, was born at Antwerp. At the age of twelve he
entered the house of Pieter, the son of "Hell" Breughel, an obscure
portrait painter, and at the expiration of his time as an apprentice
became a journeyman in the workshop of David Ryckaert the second, under
whom he made accurate studies of still life. At twenty-six he
matriculated in the gild of St Luke; he then married Ryckaert's
daughter, and in 1653 joined the literary and dramatic club known as the
"Retorijkerkamer." After having been made president of his gild in 1665,
and in 1671 painter in ordinary to Count Monterey, governor-general of
the Low Countries, he married again in 1674, and died full of honours in
his native place. One of his canvases in the gallery at the Hague
represents a suite of rooms hung with pictures, in which the artist
himself may be seen at a table with his wife and two children,
surrounded by masterpieces composed and signed by several
contemporaries. Partnership in painting was common amongst the small
masters of the Antwerp school; and it has been truly said of Coques that
he employed Jacob von Arthois for landscapes, Ghering and van Ehrenberg
for architectural backgrounds, Steenwijck the younger for rooms, and
Pieter Gysels for still life and flowers; but the model upon which
Coques formed himself was Van Dyck, whose sparkling touch and refined
manner he imitated with great success. He never ventured beyond the
"cabinet," but in this limited field the family groups of his middle
time are full of life, brilliant from the sheen of costly dress and
sparkling play of light and shade, combined with finished execution and
enamelled surface.

COQUET (pronounced Cócket), a river of Northumberland, draining a
beautiful valley about 40 m. in length. It rises in the Cheviot Hills.
Following a course generally easterly, but greatly winding, it passes
Harbottle, near which relics of the Stone Age are seen, and Holystone,
where it is recorded that Bishop Paulinus baptized a great body of
Northumbrians in the year 627. Several earthworks crown hills above this
part of the valley, and at Cartington, Fosson and Whitton are relics of
medieval border fortifications. The small town of Rothbury is
beautifully situated beneath the ragged Simonside Hills. The river
dashes through a narrow gully called the Thrum, and then passes
Brinkburn priory, of which the fine Transitional Norman church was
restored to use in 1858, while there are fragments of the monastic
buildings. This was an Augustinian foundation of the time of Henry I.
The dale continues well wooded and very beautiful until Warkworth is
reached, with its fine castle and remarkable hermitage. A short distance
below this the Coquet has its mouth in Alnwick Bay (North Sea), with the
small port of Amble on the south bank, and Coquet Island a mile out to
sea. The river is frequented by sportsmen for salmon and trout fishing.
No important tributary is received, and the drainage area does not
exceed 240 sq. m.

COQUET (pronounced co-kétte), to simulate the arts of love-making,
generally from motives of personal vanity, to flirt; in a figurative
sense, to trifle or dilly-dally with anything. The word is derived from
the French _coqueter_, which originally means, "to strut about like a
cock-bird," i.e. when it desires to attract the hens. The French
substantive _coquet_, in the sense of "beau" or "lady-killer," was
formerly commonly used in English; but the feminine form, _coquette_,
now practically alone survives, in the sense of a woman who gratifies
her vanity by using her powers of attraction in a frivolous or
inconstant fashion. Hence "to coquet," the original and more correct
form, has come frequently to be written "to coquette." Coquetry (Fr.
_coquetterie_), primarily the art of the coquette, is used figuratively
of any dilly-dallying or "coquetting" and, by transference of idea, of
any superficial qualities of attraction in persons or things. "Coquet"
is still also occasionally used adjectivally, but the more usual form is
"coquettish"; e.g. we speak of a "coquettish manner," or a "coquettish
hat." The crested humming-birds of the genus _Lophornis_ are known as
coquettes (Fr. _coquets_).

COQUIMBO, an important city and port of the province and department of
Coquimbo, Chile, in 29° 57' 4" S., 71° 21' 12" W. Pop. (1895) 7322. The
railway connexions are with Ovalle to the S., and Vicuña (or Elqui) to
the E., but the proposed extension northward of Chile's longitudinal
system would bring Coquimbo into direct communication with Santiago. The
city has a good well-sheltered harbour, reputed the best in northern
Chile, and is the port of La Serena, the provincial capital, 9 m.
distant, with which it is connected by rail. There are large
copper-smelting establishments in the city, which exports a very large
amount of copper, some gold and silver, and cattle and hay to the more
northern provinces.

The province of Coquimbo, which lies between those of Aconcagua and
Atacama and extends from the Pacific inland to the Argentine frontier,
has an area of 13,461 sq. m. (official estimate) and a population (1895)
of 160,898. It is less arid than the province of Atacama, the surface
near the coast being broken by well-watered river valleys, which produce
alfalfa, and pasture cattle for export. Near the mountains grapes are
grown, from which wine of a good quality is made. The mineral resources
include extensive deposits of copper, and some less important mines of
gold and silver. The climate is dry and healthy, and there are
occasional rains. Several rivers, the largest of which is the Coquimbo
(or Elqui) with a length of 125 m., cross the province from the
mountains. The capital is La Serena, and the principal cities are
Coquimbo, Ovalle (pop. 5565), and Illapel (3170).

CORACLE (Welsh _corwg-l_, from _corwg_, cf. Irish and mod. Gaelic
_curach_, boat), a species of ancient British fishing-boat which is
still extensively used on the Severn and other rivers of Wales, notably
on the Towy and Teifi. It is a light boat, oval in shape, and formed of
canvas stretched on a framework of split and interwoven rods, and
well-coated with tar and pitch to render it water-tight. According to
early writers the framework was covered with horse or bullock hide
(_corium_). So light and portable are these boats that they can easily
be carried on the fisherman's shoulders when proceeding to and from his
work. Coracle-fishing is performed by two men, each seated in his
coracle and with one hand holding the net while with the other he plies
his paddle. When a fish is caught, each hauls up his end of the net
until the two coracles are brought to touch and the fish is then
secured. The coracle forms a unique link between the modern life of
Wales and its remote past; for this primitive type of boat was in
existence amongst the Britons at the time of the invasion of Julius
Caesar, who has left a description of it, and even employed it in his
Spanish campaign.

CORAËS (KORAÏS), ADAMANTIOS [in French, DIAMANT CORAY] (1748-1833),
Greek scholar and patriot, was born at Smyrna, the son of a merchant. As
a schoolboy he distinguished himself in the study of ancient Greek, but
from 1772 to 1779 he was occupied with the management of his father's
business affairs in Amsterdam. In 1782, on the collapse of his father's
business, he went to Montpellier, where for six years he studied
medicine, supporting himself by translating German and English medical
works into French. He then settled in Paris, where he lived until his
death on the 10th of April 1833. Inspired by the ideals of the French
Revolution, he devoted himself to furthering the cause of Greek
independence both among the Greeks themselves and by awakening the
interest of the chief European Powers against the Turkish rule. His
great object was to rouse the enthusiasm of the Greeks for the idea that
they were the true descendants of the ancient Hellenes by teaching them
to regard as their own inheritance the great works of antiquity. He
sought to purify the ordinary written language by eliminating the more
obvious barbarisms, and by enriching it with classical words and others
invented in strict accordance with classical tradition (see further
GREEK LANGUAGE: modern). Under his influence, though the common patois
was practically untouched, the language of literature and intellectual
intercourse was made to approximate to the pure Attic of the 5th and 4th
centuries B.C. His chief works are his editions of Greek authors
contained in his [Greek: Hellênikê Bibliothêkê] and his [Greek:
Parerga]; his editions of the _Characters_ of Theophrastus, of the _De
aëre, aquis, et locis_ of Hippocrates, and of the _Aethiopica_ of
Heliodorus, elaborately annotated.

His literary remains have been edited by Mamoukas and Damalas
(1881-1887); collections of letters written from Paris at the time of
the French Revolution have been published (in English, by P. Ralli,
1898; in French, by the Marquis de Queux de Saint-Hilaire, 1880). His
autobiography appeared at Paris (1829; Athens, 1891), and his life has
been written by D. Thereianos (1889-1890); see also A. R. Rhangabé,
_Histoire littéraire de la Grèce moderne_ (1877).

CORAL, the hard skeletons of various marine organisms. It is chiefly
carbonate of lime, and is secreted from sea-water and deposited in the
tissues of Anthozoan polyps, the principal source of the coral-reefs of
the world (see ANTHOZOA), of Hydroids (see HYDROMEDUSAE), less important
in modern reef-building, but extremely abundant in Palaeozoic times, and
of certain Algae. The skeletons of many other organisms, such as Polyzoa
and Mollusca, contribute to coral masses but cannot be included in the
term "coral." The structure of coral animals (sometimes erroneously
termed "coral insects") is dealt within the articles cited above; for
the distribution and formation of reefs see CORAL-REEFS.

Beyond their general utility and value as sources of lime, few of the
corals present any special feature of industrial importance, excepting
the red or precious coral (_Corallium rubrum_) of the Mediterranean Sea.
It, however, is and has been from remote times very highly prized for
jewelry, personal ornamentation and decorative purposes generally. About
the beginning of the Christian era a great trade was carried on in
coral between the Mediterranean and India, where it was highly esteemed
as a substance endowed with mysterious sacred properties. It is remarked
by Pliny that, previous to the existence of the Indian demand, the Gauls
were in the habit of using it for the ornamentation of their weapons of
war and helmets; but in his day, so great was the Eastern demand, that
it was very rarely seen even in the regions which produced it. Among the
Romans branches of coral were hung around children's necks to preserve
them from danger, and the substance had many medicinal virtues
attributed to it. A belief in its potency as a charm continued to be
entertained throughout medieval times; and even to the present day in
Italy it is worn as a preservative from the evil eye, and by females as
a cure for sterility.

The precious coral is found widespread on the borders and around the
islands of the Mediterranean Sea. It ranges in depth from shallow water
(25 to 50 ft.) to water over 1000 ft., but the most abundant beds are in
the shallower areas. The most important fisheries extend along the
coasts of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco; but red coral is also obtained
in the vicinity of Naples, near Leghorn and Genoa, and on the coasts of
Sardinia, Corsica, Catalonia and Provence. It occurs also in the
Atlantic off the north-west of Africa, and recently it has been dredged
in deep water off the west of Ireland. Allied species of small
commercial value have been obtained off Mauritius and near Japan. The
black coral (_Antipathes abies_), formerly abundant in the Persian Gulf,
and for which India is the chief market, has a wide distribution and
grows to a considerable height and thickness in the tropical waters of
the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.

From the middle ages downwards the securing of the right to the coral
fisheries on the African coasts was an object of considerable rivalry
among the Mediterranean communities of Europe. Previous to the 16th
century they were controlled by the Italian republics. For a short
period the Tunisian fisheries were secured by Charles V. to Spain; but
the monopoly soon fell into the hands of the French, who held the right
till the Revolutionary government in 1793 threw the trade open. For a
short period (about 1806) the British government controlled the
fisheries, and now they are again in the hands of the French
authorities. Previous to the French Revolution much of the coral trade
centred in Marseilles; but since that period, both the procuring of the
raw material and the working of it up into the various forms in which it
is used have become peculiarly Italian industries, centring largely in
Naples, Rome and Genoa. On the Algerian coast, however, boats not flying
the French flag have to pay heavy dues for the right to fish, and in the
early years of the 20th century the once flourishing fisheries at La
Calle were almost entirely neglected. Two classes of boats engage in the
pursuit--a large size of from 12 to 14 tons, manned by ten or twelve
hands, and a small size of 3 or 4 tons, with a crew of five or six. The
large boats, dredging from March to October, collect from 650 to 850
[lb] of coral, and the small, working throughout the year, collect from
390 to 500 [lb]. The Algerian reefs are divided into ten portions, of
which only one is fished annually--ten years being considered sufficient
for the proper growth of the coral.

The range of value of the various qualities of coral, according to
colour and size, is exceedingly wide, and notwithstanding the steady
Oriental demand its price is considerably affected by the fluctuations
of fashion. While the price of the finest tints of rose pink may range
from £80 to £120 per oz., ordinary red-coloured small pieces sell for
about £2 per oz., and the small fragments called _collette_, used for
children's necklaces, cost about 5s. per oz. In China large spheres of
good coloured coral command high prices, being in great requisition for
the button of office worn by the mandarins. It also finds a ready market
throughout India and in Central Asia; and with the negroes of Central
Africa and of America it is a favourite ornamental substance.

CORALLIAN (Fr. _Corallien_), in geology, the name of one of the
divisions of the Jurassic rocks. The rocks forming this division are
mainly calcareous grits with oolites, and rubbly coral rock--often
called "Coral Rag"; ferruginous beds are fairly common, and occasionally
there are beds of clay. In England the Corallian strata are usually
divided into an upper series, characterized by the ammonite
_Perisphinctes plicatilis_, and a lower series with _Aspidoceras
perarmatus_ as the zonal fossil. When well developed these beds are seen
to lie above the Oxford Clay and below the Kimeridge Clay; but it will
save a good deal of confusion if it is recognized that the Corallian
rocks of England are nothing more than a variable, local lithological
phase of the two clays which come respectively above and below them.
This caution is particularly necessary when any attempt is being made to
co-ordinate the English with the continental Corallian.

The Corallian rocks are nowhere better displayed than in the cliffs at
Weymouth. Here Messrs Blake and Huddleston recognized the following
beds:--

/ Upper Coral Rag and Abbotsbury Iron Ore.
| Sandsfoot Grits.
Upper | Sandsfoot Clay.
Corallian < Sandsfoot Clay.
| Trigonia Beds.
\ Osmington Oolite (quarried at Marnhull and Todbere).

/ Bencliff Grits.
Lower | Nothe Clay.
Corallian < Nothe Clay.
\ Nothe Grit.

In Dorsetshire the Corallian rocks are 200 ft. thick, in Wiltshire 100
ft., but N.E. of Oxford they are represented mainly by clays, and the
series is much thinner. (At Upware, the "Upware limestone" is the only
known occurrence of beds that correspond in character with the Coralline
oolite between Wiltshire and Yorkshire). In Yorkshire, however, the hard
rocky beds come on again in full force. They appear once more at Brora
in Sutherlandshire. Corallian strata have been proved by boring in
Sussex (241 ft.). In Huntingdon, Bedfordshire, parts of Buckinghamshire,
Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire the Corallian series is represented by
the "Ampthill Clay," which has also been called "Bluntesham" or
"Tetworth" Clay. Here and there in this district hard calcareous
inconstant beds appear, such as the Elsworth rock, St Ives rock and
Boxworth rock.

In Yorkshire the Corallian rocks differ in many respects from their
southern equivalents. They are subdivided as follows:--

These rocks play an important part in the formation of the Vale of
Pickering, and the Hambleton and Howardian Hills; they are well exposed
in Gristhorpe Bay.

The passage beds, highly siliceous, flaggy limestones, are known locally
as "Greystone" or "Wall stones"; some portions of these beds have
resisted the weathering agencies and stand up prominently on the
moors--such are the "Bridestones." Cement stone beds occur in the upper
calcareous grit at North Grimstone; and in the middle and lower
calcareous grits good building stones are found.

Among the fossils in the English Corallian rocks corals play an
important part, frequently forming large calcareous masses or "doggers";
_Thamnastrea_, _Thecosmilia_ and _Isastrea_ are prominent genera.
Ammonites and belemnites are abundant and gasteropods are very common
(_Nerinea_, _Chemnitzia_, _Bourgetia_, &c.). _Trigonias_ are very
numerous in certain beds (_T. perlata_ and _T. mariani_). _Astarte
ovata_, _Lucina aliena_ and other pelecypods are also abundant. The
echinoderms _Echinobrissus scutatus_ and _Cidaris florigemma_ are
characteristic of these beds.

Rocks of the same age as the English Corallian are widely spread over
Europe, but owing to the absence of clearly-marked stratigraphical and
palaeontological boundaries, the nomenclature has become greatly
involved, and there is now a tendency amongst continental geologists to
omit the term Corallian altogether. According to A. de Lapparent's
classification the English Corallian rocks are represented by the
_Séquanien_ stage, with two substages, an upper _Astartien_ and lower
_Rauracien_; but this does not include the whole Corallian stage as
defined above, the lower part being placed by the French author in his
_Oxfordien_ stage. For the table showing the relative position of these
stages see the article JURASSIC.

See also "The Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain," vol. i. (1892) and
vol. v. (1895) (_Memoirs of the Geological Survey_); Blake and
Huddleston, "On the Corallian Rocks of England," _Q.J.G.S._ vol.
xxxiii. (1877). (J. A. H.)

CORAL-REEFS. Many species of coral (q.v.) are widely distributed, and
are found at all depths both in warmer and colder seas. _Lophohelia
prolifera_ and _Dendrophyllia ramea_ form dense beds at a depth of from
100 to 200 fathoms off the coasts of Norway, Scotland and Portugal, and
the "Challenger" and other deep-sea dredging expeditions have brought up
corals from great depths in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. But the
larger number of species, particularly the more massive kinds, occur
only in tropical seas in shallow waters, whose mean temperature does not
fall below 68° Fahr., and they do not flourish unless the temperature is
considerably higher. These conditions of temperature are found in a belt
of ocean which may roughly be indicated as lying between the 28th N. and
S. parallels. Within these limits there are numerous reefs and islands
formed of coral intermixed with the calcareous skeletons of other
animals, and their formation has long been a matter of dispute among
naturalists and geologists.

Coral formations may be classed as fringing or shore reefs, barrier
reefs and atolls. _Fringing reefs_ are platforms of coral rock extending
no great distance from the shores of a continent or island. The seaward
edge of the platform is usually somewhat higher than the inner part, and
is often awash at low water. It is intersected by numerous creeks and
channels, especially opposite those places where streams of fresh water
flow down from the land, and there is usually a channel deep enough to
be navigable by small boats between the edge of the reef and the land.
The outer wall of the reef is rather steep, but descends into a
comparatively shallow sea. Since corals are killed by fresh water or by
deposition of mud or sand, it is obvious that the outer edge of the reef
is the region of most active coral growth, and the boat channel and the
passages leading into it from the open sea have been formed by the
suppression of coral growth by one of the above-mentioned causes,
assisted by the scour of the tides and the solvent action of sea-water.
_Barrier reefs_ may be regarded as fringing reefs on a large scale. The
great Australian barrier reef extends for no less a distance than 1250
m. from Torres Strait in 9.5° S. lat. to Lady Elliot island in 24° S.
lat. The outer edge of a barrier reef is much farther from the shore
than that of a fringing reef, and the channel between it and the land is
much deeper. Opposite Cape York the seaward edge of the great Australian
barrier reef is nearly 90 m. distant from the coast, and the maximum
depth of the channel at this point is nearly 20 fathoms. As is the case
in a fringing reef, the outer edge of a barrier reef is in many places
awash at low tides, and masses of dead coral and sand may be piled up on
it by the action of the waves, so that islets are formed which in time
are covered with vegetation. These islets may coalesce and form a strip
of dry land lying some hundred yards or less from the extreme outer edge
of the reef, and separated by a wide channel from the mainland. Where
the barrier reef is not far from the land there are always gaps in it
opposite the mouths of rivers or considerable streams. The outer wall of
a barrier reef is steep, and frequently, though not always, descends
abruptly into great depths. In many cases in the Pacific Ocean a barrier
reef surrounds one or more island peaks, and the strips of land on the
edge of the reef may encircle the peaks with a nearly complete ring. An
_atoll_ is a ring-shaped reef, either awash at low tide or surmounted by
several islets, or more rarely by a complete strip of dry land
surrounding a central lagoon. The outer wall of an atoll generally
descends with a very steep but irregular slope to a depth of 500 fathoms
or more, but the lagoon is seldom more than 20 fathoms deep, and may be
much less. Frequently, especially to the leeward side of an atoll,
there may be one or more navigable passages leading from the lagoon to
the open sea.

Though corals flourish everywhere under suitable conditions in tropical
seas, coral reefs and atolls are by no means universal in the torrid
zone. The Atlantic Ocean is remarkably free from coral formations,
though there are numerous reefs in the West Indian islands, off the
south coast of Florida, and on the coast of Brazil. The Bermudas also
are coral formations, their high land being formed by sand accumulated
by the wind and cemented into rock, and are remarkable for being the
farthest removed from the equator of any recent reefs, being situated in
32° N. lat. In the Pacific Ocean there is a vast area thickly dotted
with coral formations, extending from 5° N. lat. to 25° S. lat., and
from 130° E. long, to 145° W. long. There are also extensive reefs in
the westernmost islands of the Hawaiian group in about 25° N. lat. In
the Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands are large groups of
atolls off the west and south-west of India. Still farther south is the
Chagos group of atolls, and there are numerous reefs off the north coast
of Madagascar, at Mauritius, Bourbon and the Seychelles. The
Cocos-Keeling Islands, in 12° S. lat. and 96° E. long., are typical
atolls in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean.

[Illustration: Diagram showing the formation of an atoll during
subsidence. (After C. Darwin.) The lower part of the figure represents
a barrier reef surrounding a central peak.

A, A, outer edges of the barrier reef at the sea-level; the coco-nut
trees indicate dry land formed on the edges of the reef.

L, L, lagoon channel.

A', A', outer edges of the atoll formed by upgrowth of the coral
during the subsidence of the peak.

L', lagoon of the atoll.

The vertical scale is considerably exaggerated as compared with the
horizontal scale.]

The remarkable characters of barrier reefs and atolls, their isolated
position in the midst of the great oceans the seemingly unfathomable
depths from which they rise their peaceful and shallow lagoons and inner
channels, their narrow strips of land covered with coco-nut palms and
other vegetation, and rising but a few feet above the level of the
ocean, naturally attracted the attention of the earlier navigators, who
formed sundry speculations as to their origin. The poet-naturalist, A.
von Chamisso, was the first to propound a definite theory of the origin
of atolls and encircling reefs, attributing their peculiar features to
the natural growth of corals and the action of the waves. He pointed out
that the larger and more massive species of corals flourish best on the
outer sides of a reef, whilst the more interior corals are killed or
stunted in growth by the accumulation of coral and other debris. Thus
the outer edge of a submerged reef is the first to reach the surface,
and a ring of land being formed by materials piled up by the waves, an
atoll with a central lagoon is produced. Chamisso's theory necessarily
assumed the existence of a great number of submerged banks reaching
nearly, but not quite, to the surface of the sea in the Pacific and
Indian oceans, and the difficulty of accounting for the existence of so
many of these led C. Darwin to reject his views and bring forward an
explanation which may be called the theory of _subsidence_. Starting
from the well-known premise that reef-building species of corals do not
flourish in a greater depth of water than 20 fathoms, Darwin argued that
all coral islands must have a rocky base, and that it was inconceivable
that, in such large tracts of sea as occur in the Pacific and Indian
oceans, there should be a vast number of submarine peaks or banks all
rising to within 20 or 30 fathoms of the surface and none emerging above
it. But on the supposition that the atolls and encircling reefs were
formed round land which was undergoing a slow movement of subsidence,
their structure could easily be explained. Take the case of an island
consisting of a single high peak. At first the coral growth would form a
fringing reef clinging to its shores. As the island slowly subsided into
the ocean the upward growth of coral would keep the outer rim of the
reef level with or within a few fathoms of the surface, so that, as
subsidence proceeded, the distance between the outer rim of the reef and
the sinking land would continually increase, with the result that a
barrier-reef would be formed separated by a wide channel from the
central peak. As corals and other organisms with calcareous skeletons
live in the channel, their remains, as well as the accumulation of coral
and other debris thrown over the outer edge of the reef, would maintain
the channel at a shallower depth than that of the ocean outside.
Finally, if the subsidence continued, the central peak would disappear
beneath the surface, and an atoll would be left consisting of a raised
margin of reef surrounding a central lagoon, and any pause during the
movement of subsidence would result in the formation of raised islets or
a strip of dry land along the margin of the reef. Darwin's theory was
published in 1842, and found almost universal acceptance, both because
of its simplicity and its applicability to every known type of
coral-reef formation, including such difficult cases as the Great Chagos
Bank, a huge submerged atoll in the Indian Ocean.

Darwin's theory was adopted and strengthened by J. D. Dana, who had made
extensive observations among the Pacific coral reefs between 1838 and
1842, but it was not long before it was attacked by other observers. In
1851 Louis Agassiz produced evidence to show that the reefs off the
south coast of Florida were not formed during subsidence, and in 1863
Karl Semper showed that in the Pelew islands there is abundant evidence
of recent upheaval in a region where both atolls and barrier-reefs
exist. Latterly, many instances of recently upraised coral formations
have been described by H. B. Guppy, J. S. Gardiner and others, and
Alexander Agassiz and Sir J. Murray have brought forward a mass of
evidence tending to shake the subsidence theory to its foundations.
Murray has pointed out that the deep-sea soundings of the "Tuscarora"
and "Challenger" have proved the existence of a large number of
submarine elevations rising out of a depth of 2000 fathoms or more to
within a few hundred fathoms of the surface. The existence of such banks
was unknown to Darwin, and removes his objections to Chamisso's theory.
For although they may at first be too far below the surface for
reef-building corals, they afford a habitat for numerous echinoderms,
molluscs, crustacea and deep-sea corals, whose skeletons accumulate on
their summits, and they further receive a constant rain of the
calcareous and silicious skeletons of minute organisms which teem in the
waters above. By these agencies the banks are gradually raised to the
lowest depth at which reef-building corals can flourish, and once these
establish themselves they will grow more rapidly on the periphery of the
bank, because they are more favourably situated as regards food-supply.
Thus the reef will rise to the surface as an atoll, and the nearer it
approaches the surface the more will the corals on the exterior faces be
favoured, and the more will those in the centre of the reef decrease,
for experiment has shown that the minute pelagic organisms on which
corals feed are far less abundant in a lagoon than in the sea outside.
Eventually, as the margin of the reef rises to the surface and material
is accumulated upon it to form islets or continuous land, the coral
growth in the lagoon will be feeble, and the solvent action of sea-water
and the scour of the tide will tend to deepen the lagoon. Thus the
considerable depth of some lagoons, amounting to 40 or 50 fathoms, may
be accounted for. The observations of Guppy in the Solomon islands have
gone far to confirm Murray's conclusions, since he found in the islands
of Ugi, Santa Anna and Treasury and Stirling islands unmistakable
evidences of a nucleus of volcanic rock, covered with soft earthy bedded
deposits several hundred feet thick. These deposits are highly
fossiliferous in parts, and contain the remains of pteropods,
lamellibranchs and echinoderms, embedded in a foraminiferous deposit
mixed with volcanic debris, like the deep-sea muds brought up by the
"Challenger." The flanks of these elevated beds are covered with
coralline limestone rocks varying from 100 to 16 ft. in thickness. One
of the islands, Santa Anna, has the form of an upraised atoll, with a
mass of coral limestone 80 ft. in vertical thickness, resting on a
friable and sparingly argillaceous rock resembling a deep-sea deposit.
A. Agassiz, in a number of important researches on the Florida reefs,
the Bahamas, the Bermudas, the Fiji islands and the Great Barrier Reef
of Australia, has further shown that many of the peculiar features of
these coral formations cannot be explained on the theory of subsidence,
but are rather attributable to the natural growth of corals on banks
formed by prevailing currents, or on extensive shore platforms or
submarine flats formed by the erosion of pre-existing land surfaces.

In face of this accumulated evidence, it must be admitted that the
subsidence theory of Darwin is inapplicable to a large number of coral
reefs and islands, but it is hardly possible to assert, as Murray does,
that no atolls or barrier reefs have ever been developed after the
manner indicated by Darwin. The most recent research on the structure of
coral reefs has also been the most thorough and most convincing. It is
obvious that, if Murray's theory were correct, a bore hole sunk deep
into an atoll would pass through some 100 ft. of coral rock, then
through a greater or less thickness of argillaceous rock, and finally
would penetrate the volcanic rock on which the other materials were
deposited. If Darwin's theory is correct, the boring would pass through
a great thickness of coral rock, and finally, if it went deep enough,
would pass into the original rock which subsided below the waters. An
expedition sent out by the Royal Society of London started in 1896 for
the island of Funafuti, a typical atoll of the Ellice group in the
Pacific Ocean, with the purpose of making a deep boring to test this
question. The first attempt was not successful, for at a depth of 105
ft. the refractory nature of the rock stopped further progress. But a
second attempt, under the management of Professor Edgeworth David of
Sydney, proved a complete success. With improved apparatus, the boring
was carried down to a depth of 697 ft. (116 fathoms), and a third
attempt carried it down to 1114 ft. (185 fathoms). The boring proves the
existence of a mass of pure limestone of organic origin to the depth of
1114 ft., and there is no trace of any other rock. The organic remains
found in the core brought up by the drill consist of corals,
foraminifera, calcareous algae and other organisms. A boring was also
made from the deck of a ship into the floor of the lagoon, which shows
that under 100 ft. of water there exists at the bottom of the lagoon a
deposit more than 100 ft. thick, consisting of the remains of a
calcareous alga, _Halimeda opuntia_, mixed with abundant foraminifera.
At greater depths, down to 245 ft., the same materials, mixed with the
remains of branching madrepores, were met with, and further progress was
stopped by the existence of solid masses of coral, fragments of porites,
madrepora and heliopora having been brought up in the core. These are
shallow-water corals, and their existence at a depth of nearly 46
fathoms, buried beneath a mass of _Halimeda_ and foraminifera, is clear
evidence of recent subsidence. _Halimeda_ grows abundantly over the
floor of the lagoon of Funafuti, and has been observed in many other
lagoons. The writer collected a quantity of it in the lagoon of Diego
Garcia in the Chagos group. The boring demonstrates that the lagoon of
Funafuti has been filled up to an extent of at least 245 ft. (nearly 41
fathoms), and this fact accords well with Darwin's theory, but is
incompatible with that of Murray. In the present state of our knowledge
it seems reasonable to conclude that coral reefs are formed wherever the
conditions suitable for growth exist, whether in areas of subsidence,
elevation or rest. A considerable number of reefs, at all events, have
not been formed in areas of subsidence, and of these the Florida reefs,
the Bermudas, the Solomon islands, and possibly the Great Barrier Reef
of Australia are examples. Funafuti would appear to have been formed in
an area of subsidence, and it is quite probable that the large groups of
low-lying islands in the Pacific and Indian oceans have been formed
under the same conditions. At the same time, it must be remembered that
the atoll or barrier reef shape is not necessarily evidence of
formation during subsidence, for the observations of Karl Semper, A.
Agassiz, and Guppy are sufficient to prove that these forms of reefs may
be produced by the natural growth of coral, modified by the action of
waves and currents in regions in which subsidence has certainly not
taken place.

See A. Agassiz, many publications in the _Mem. Amer. Acad._ (1883) and
_Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._ (Harvard, 1889-1899); J. D. Dana, _Corals and
Coral Islands_ (1853; 2nd ed., 1872; 3rd ed., 1890); C. Darwin, _The
Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs_ (3rd ed., 1889); H. B.
Guppy, "The Recent Calcareous Formations of the Solomon Group,"
_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb._ xxxii. (1885); R. Langenbeck, "Die neueren
Forschungen über die Korallenriffe," _Hettner geogr. Zeitsch._ iii.
(1897); J. Murray, "On the Structure and Origin of Coral Reefs and
Islands," _Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb._ x. (1879-1880); J. Murray and
Irvine, "On Coral Reefs and other Carbonate of Lime Formations in
Modern Seas," _Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb._ (1889); W. Savile Kent, _The
Great Barrier Reef of Australia_ (London, W. H. Allen & Co., 1893);
Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, "Internat. Sci. Series," vol. xxxi.
(1881); J. S. Gardiner, _Nature_, lxix. 371. (G. C. B.)

CORAM, THOMAS (1668-1751), English philanthropist, was born at Lyme
Regis, Dorset. He began life as a seaman, and rose to the position of
merchant captain. He settled at Taunton, Massachusetts, for several
years engaging there in farming and boat-building, and in 1703 returned
to England. His acquaintance with the destitute East End of London, and
the miserable condition of the children there, inspired him with the
idea of providing a refuge for such of them as had no legal protector;
and after seventeen years of unwearied exertion, he obtained in 1739 a
royal charter authorizing the establishment of his hospital for
foundling infants (see FOUNDLING HOSPITALS). It was opened in Hatton
Garden, on the 17th of October 1740, with twenty inmates. For fifteen
years it was supported by voluntary contributions; but in 1756 it was
endowed with a parliamentary grant of £10,000 for the support of all
that might be sent to it. Children were brought, however, in such
numbers, and so few (not one-third, it is said) survived infancy, that
the grant was stopped, and the charity, which had been removed to
Guilford Street, was from that time only administered under careful
restrictions. Coram's later years were spent in watching over the
interests of the hospital; he was also one of the promoters of the
settlement of Georgia and Nova Scotia; and his name is honourably
connected with various other charities. In carrying out his
philanthropic schemes he spent nearly all his private means; and an
annuity of £170 was raised for him by public subscription. He died on
the 29th of March 1751.

COR ANGLAIS, or ENGLISH HORN (Ger. _englisches Horn_ or _alt Hoboe_;
Ital. _corno inglese_), a wood-wind double-reed instrument of the oboe
family, of which it is the tenor. It is not a horn, but bears the same
relation to the oboe as the basset horn does to the clarinet. The cor
anglais differs slightly in construction from the oboe; the conical bore
of the wooden tube is wider and slightly longer, and there is a larger
globular bell and a bent metal crook to which the double reed mouthpiece
is attached. The fingering and method of producing the sound are so
similar in both instruments that the player of the one can in a short
time master the other, but as the cor anglais is pitched a fifth lower,
the music must be transposed for it into a key a fifth higher than the
real sounds produced. The compass of the cor anglais extends over two
octaves and a fifth:

[Illustration: Notation
Real sounds]

The true quality of the cor anglais is penetrating like that of the
oboe, but mellower and more melancholy.

The cor anglais is the alto Pommer (q.v.) or _haute-contre de hautbois_
(see OBOE), gradually developed, improved and provided with key-work. It
is not known exactly when the change took place, but it was probably
during the 17th century, after the Schalmey or Shawm had been
transformed into the oboe. In a 17th century MS. (Add. 30,342, f. 145)
in the British Museum, written in French, giving pen and ink sketches of
many instruments, is an "accord de hautbois" which comprises a _pédalle_
(bass oboe or Pommer), a _sacquebute_ (sackbut) as _basse-contre_, a
_taille_ (tenor) with a note that the _haute-contre_ (the cor anglais)
_est de mesme sinon plus petite_. The tubes of all the members of the
hautbois family are straight in this drawing. Before 1688 the French
hoboy, made in four parts and having two keys, was known in England.[1]
It is probable that in France, where the hautbois played such an
important part in court music, the cor anglais, under the name of
_haute-contre de hautbois_, was also provided with keys. At the end of
the 17th century there were two players of the _haute-contre de
hautbois_ among the musicians of the Grande Écurie du Roi.[2]

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Modern Cor anglais. (Besson & Co.)]

[Illustration: From Richard Hofmann's _Katechismus der
Musikinstrumente_.

FIG. 2.--Cor anglé, 18th century.]

The origin of the name of the instrument is also a matter of
conjecture. Two theories exist--one that cor anglais is a corruption
of _cor anglé_, a name given on account of the angular bend of the
early specimens. In that case the name, but not necessarily the
instrument, probably originated in France early in the 18th century,
for Gluck scored for two cors anglais in his Italian version of
_Alceste_ played in Vienna in 1767. When a French version of this
opera was given in Paris two years later, the cor anglais, not being
known or available there, was replaced by oboes. It was not until 1808
that the cor anglais was heard at the Paris Opera, when it was played
by the oboist Vogt in Catel's _Alexandre chez Apelle_. This, however,
proves only that the name was not familiar in France, where the oboe
of the same pitch was called _haute-contre de hautbois_. The bending
of the tube and the development of the cor anglais as solo instrument
originated in Germany, unless the _oboe da caccia_ was identical with
the cor anglais, in which case Italy would be the country of origin.
Thomas Stanesby, junior, made an oboe da caccia in 1740 of straight
pattern in four pieces, having a bent metal crook for the insertion of
the reed and two saddle keys; but the bell was like the bell of the
oboe, not globular like that of the cor anglais, a form to which the
veiled quality of its _timbre_ is due. It is interesting in this
connexion to recall some experiments in bending the cor anglais, which
do not appear to have led to any practical result. A French broadside
(c. 1650), "La Musique," preserved in the British Museum, contains
drawings of many musical instruments in use in the 17th century; among
them are an oboe with keys in a perforated case, and two other wood
wind instruments of the same family, which may be taken to represent
attempts to dispose of the inconvenient length of the _haute-contre_
(1) by bending the tube at right angles for about one quarter of its
length from the mouthpiece, which contains a large double reed, (2)
by bending the tube in the elongated "S" shape of the _corno torto_ or
bass Zinke, for which the drawing in question might be mistaken but
for the bent crook inserted in the end for the reception of the reed,
which, however, is missing. The other hypothesis is that when the cor
anglais was given a bend in order to facilitate the handling, the name
was adopted to mark its resemblance to a kind of hunting-horn said to
be in use in England at the time. This suggestion does not seem to be
a happy one; for if the reference be to the crescent-shaped horn, that
instrument was in use in all countries at various periods before the
17th century, while if it be to the angular form, then a reproduction
of such a horn should be forthcoming to support the statement.

The idea of bending the instrument is attributed to Giovanni or
Giuseppe Ferlendis of Bergamo,[3] brothers and virtuosi on the oboe.
One of these had settled in Salzburg, and both were equally renowned
as performers on the English horn. They visited Venice, Brescia,
Trieste, Vienna, London (in 1795) and Lisbon, where Giuseppe died. In
this case we might expect the name to have been given in Italian,
_corno inglese_; yet Gluck in his Italian edition used the French name
already in 1767, when Giuseppe was but twelve years old. We must await
some more conclusive explanation, but we may suppose that the new name
was bestowed when the instrument assumed a form entirely new to the
family of hautbois or oboes. The cor anglais was well known in England
before 1774, for in a quaint book of travels through England,
published in that year, we read that Signor Sougelder,[4] "an eminent
surgeon of Bristol," was a performer "on the English horn."

The experiment of bending the cor anglais did not prove satisfactory,
for the tube instead of being bored had to be cut out of two pieces of
wood which were then glued together and covered with leather. Even the
most skilful craftsman did not succeed in making the inside of the
tube quite smooth; the roughness of the wood was detrimental to the
tone and gave the cor anglais a veiled, somewhat hoarse quality, and
makers before long reverted to the direct or vertical form. (K. S.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Harleian MS. 2034, f. 207b, British Museum, in the third part
of Randle Holme's _Academy of Armoury_, written before 1688, where an
outline sketch in ink is also given.

[2] See J. Écorcheville, "Quelques documents sur la musique de la
Grande Écurie du Roi," _Sammelband intern. Musikges._ ii. 4, pp. 609
and 625. Deeds exist creating charges for four hautbois and musettes
de Poitou in the hand of King John, middle of 14th century, see p.
633.

[3] See Henri Lavoix, _Histoire de l'instrumentation_, p. 111;
Gerber, _Lexikon_, "Giuseppe Ferlendis"; Robert Eitner,
_Quellen-Lexikon der Tonkünstler_, "Gioseffo Ferlendis." Fétis and
Pohl also refer to him.

[4] See _Musical Travels thro' England_ (London, 1774), p. 56.

CORATO, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Bari, 26 m. W. of
Bari by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 41,573. It is situated in the centre
of an agricultural district. It contains no buildings of great interest,
but is a clean and well-kept town.

CORBAN ([Hebrew: KRBN]), an Aramaic word meaning "a consecrated gift."
Josephus uses the word of Nazirites and of the temple treasure of
Jerusalem. Such a votive offering lay under a curse if it were diverted
to ordinary purposes, like the spoil of Jericho which Achan appropriated
(Josh. vii.), or the temple treasure of Delphi which was seized by the
Phocians, 356 B.C. The word is found in Mark vii. 11, the usual
interpretation of which is that Jesus refers to an abuse--a man might
declare that any part of his property which came into his parents' hands
was _corban_, consecrated, i.e. that a curse rested on any benefit they
might get from it. The Jewish scribes thus fenced the law of vows with a
traditional interpretation which made men break the most binding
injunctions of the Mosaic Law, in this case the fifth commandment. A
totally different explanation of the passage is put forward by J. H. A.
Hart in _The Jewish Quarterly Review_ for July 1907, the gist of which
is that Jesus commends the Pharisees for insisting that when a man has
vowed a vow to God he should pay it even though his parents should
suffer.

CORBEIL, WILLIAM OF (d. 1136), archbishop of Canterbury, was born
probably at Corbeil on the Seine, and was educated at Laon. He was soon
in the service of Ranulf Flambard, bishop of Durham; then, having
entered the order of St Augustine, he became prior of the Augustinian
foundation at St Osyth in Essex. At the beginning of 1123 he was chosen
from among several candidates to be archbishop of Canterbury, and as he
refused to admit that Thurstan, archbishop of York, was independent of
the see of Canterbury, this prelate refused to consecrate him, and the
ceremony was performed by his own suffragan bishops. Proceeding to Rome
the new archbishop found that Thurstan had anticipated his arrival in
that city and had made out a strong case against him to Pope Calixtus
II.; however, the exertions of the English king Henry I. and of the
emperor Henry V. prevailed, and the pope gave William the pallium. The
archbishop's next dispute was with the papal legate. Cardinal John of
Crema, who had arrived in England and was acting in an autocratic
manner. Again travelling to Rome, William gained another victory, and
was himself appointed papal legate (_legatus natus_) in England and
Scotland, a precedent of considerable importance in the history of the
English Church. The archbishop had sworn to Henry I. that he would
support the claim of his daughter Matilda to the English crown, but
nevertheless he crowned Stephen in December 1135. He died at Canterbury
on the 21st of November 1136. William built the keep of Rochester
Castle, and finished the building of the cathedral at Canterbury, which
was dedicated with great pomp in May 1130.

See W. F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (1860-1884);
and W. R. W. Stephens, _History of the English Church_ (1901).

CORBEIL, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Seine-et-Oise, at the confluence of the Essonne with the
Seine, 21 m. S. by E. of Paris on the Orléans railway to Nevers. Pop.
(1906) 9756. A bridge across the Seine unites the main part of the town
on the left bank with a suburb on the other side; handsome boulevards
lead to the village of Essonnes (pop. 7255), about a mile to the
south-west. St Spire, the only survivor of the formerly numerous
churches of Corbeil, dates from the 12th to the 15th centuries. Behind
the church there is a Gothic gateway. A monument has been erected to the
brothers Galignani, publishers of Paris, who gave a hospital and
orphanage to the town. Corbeil is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has
tribunals of first instance and commerce and a chamber of commerce. It
has important flour-mills, tallow-works, printing-works, large
paper-works at Essonnes, and carries on boat and carriage-building, and
the manufacture of plaster. The Decauville engineering works are in the
vicinity. There is trade in grain and flour.

From the 10th to the 12th century Corbeil was the chief town of a
powerful countship, but it was united to the crown by Louis VI.; it
continued for a long time to be an important military post in connexion
with the commissariat of Paris. In 1258 St Louis concluded a treaty here
with James I. of Aragon. Of the numerous sieges to which it has been
exposed the most important were those by the Huguenots in 1562, and by
Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, in 1590.

CORBEL (Lat. _corbellus_, a diminutive of _corvus_, a raven, on account
of the beak-like appearance; Ital. _mensola_, Fr. _corbeau_,
_cul-de-lampe_, Ger. _Kragstein_), the name in medieval architecture for
a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any super-incumbent
weight. A piece of timber projecting in the same way was called a tassel
or a bragger. Thus the carved ornaments from which the vaulting shafts
spring at Lincoln are corbels. Norman corbels are generally plain. In
the Early English period they are sometimes elaborately carved, as at
Lincoln above cited, and sometimes more simply so, as at Stone. They
sometimes end with a point apparently growing into the wall, or forming
a knot, as at Winchester, and often are supported by angels and other
figures. In the later periods the foliage or ornaments resemble those in
the capitals. The corbels carrying the arches of the corbel tables in
Italy and France were often elaborately moulded, and sometimes in two or
three courses projecting over one another; those carrying the
machicolations of English and French castles had four courses. The
corbels carrying balconies in Italy and France were sometimes of great
size and richly carved, and some of the finest examples of the Italian
Cinquecento style are found in them. Throughout England, in half-timber
work, wood corbels abound, carrying window-sills or oriels in wood,
which also are often carved. A "corbel table" is a projecting moulded
string course supported by a range of corbels. Sometimes these corbels
carry a small arcade under the string course, the arches of which are
pointed and trefoiled. As a rule the corbel table carries the gutter,
but in Lombard work the arcaded corbel table was utilized as a
decoration to subdivide the storeys and break up the wall surface. In
Italy sometimes over the corbels will be a moulding, and above a plain
piece of projecting wall forming a parapet (see also MASONRY).

CORBET, RICHARD (1582-1635), English bishop and poet, was born in 1582,
the son of a nurseryman at Ewell, Surrey. At Oxford, to which he
proceeded from Westminster school in 1597, he was noted as a wit. On
taking orders he continued to display this talent from the pulpit, and
James I., in consideration of his "fine fancy and preaching," made him
one of the royal chaplains. In 1620 he became vicar of Stewkley,
Berkshire, and in the same year was made dean of Christchurch, Oxford.
In 1628 he was made bishop of Oxford, and in 1632 translated thence to
the see of Norwich. Corbet was the author of many poems, for the most
part of a lively, satirical order, his most serious production being the
_Fairies' Farewell_. His verses were first collected and published in
1647. His conviviality was famous, and many stories are told of his
youthful merrymaking in London taverns in company with Ben Jonson, who
always remained his close friend, and other dramatists. He died at
Norwich on the 28th of July 1635.

CORBIE (Lat. _corvus_), a crow or raven. In architecture, "corbie steps"
is a Scottish term (cf. CORBEL) for the steps formed up the sides of the
gable by breaking the coping into short horizontal beds.

CORBRIDGE, a small market town in the Hexham parliamentary division of
Northumberland, England; 3½ m. E. of Hexham, on the north bank of the
river Tyne, which is here crossed by a fine seven-arched bridge dating
from 1674. Pop. (1901) 1647. Corbridge was formerly of greater
importance than at present. Its name, derived from the small river Cor,
a tributary of the Tyne, is said to be associated with the Brigantian
tribe of Corionototai. About 760 it became the capital of Northumbria;
later it was a borough and was long represented in parliament. In 1138
David of Scotland made it a centre of military operations, and it was
ravaged by Wallace in 1296, by Bruce in 1312, and by David II. in 1346.
Its chief remains of antiquity are a square peel-tower and the cruciform
church of St Andrew, of which part of the fabric is of pre-Conquest
date, though the building is mainly Early English. Extensive use is made
of building materials from the Roman station of _Corstopitum_ (also
called Corchester), which lay half a mile west of Corbridge at the
junction of the Cor with the Tyne. This site has from time to time
yielded many valuable relics, notably a silver dish, discovered in 1734,
148 oz. in weight and ornamented with figures of deities; but the
first-rate importance of the station was only revealed by careful
excavations undertaken in 1907 seq. There were then unearthed remains of
several buildings fronting a broad thoroughfare, one of which is the
largest Roman building, except the baths at Bath, yet discovered in
England. Two of these buildings were granaries, and indicate the
importance of Corstopitum as a base of the northward operations of
Antoninus Pius. After his conquests had been lost, and Corstopitum
ceased to be a military centre, its military buildings passed into
civilian occupation, of which many evidences have been found. A fine
hoard of gold coins, wrapped in lead-foil and hidden in a wall, was
discovered in 1908. Corstopitum ceased to exist early in the 5th
century, and the site was never again occupied.

CORBULO, GNAEUS DOMITIUS (1st century A.D.), Roman general, was the
half-brother of Caesonia, one of the wives of the emperor Caligula. In
the reign of Tiberius he held the office of praetor, and was appointed
to the superintendence of the roads and bridges. Under Claudius he was
governor of lower Germany (A.D. 47). He punished the Frisii who refused
to pay the tribute, and was on the point of advancing against the
Chauci, but was recalled by the emperor and ordered to withdraw behind
the Rhine. In order to provide employment for his soldiers, Corbulo made
them cut a canal from the Mosa (Meuse) to the northern branch of the
Rhine, which still forms one of the chief drains between Leiden and
Sluys, and before the introduction of railways was the ordinary traffic
road between Leiden and Rotterdam. Soon after the accession of Nero,
Vologaeses (Vologasus), king of Parthia, overran Armenia, drove out
Rhadamistus, who was under the protection of the Romans, and set his own
brother Tiridates on the throne. Corbulo was thereupon sent out to the
East with full military powers. After some delay, he took the offensive
in 58, and, reinforced by troops from Germany, attacked Tiridates.
Artaxata and Tigranocerta were captured, and Tigranes, who had been
brought up in Rome and was the obedient servant of the government, was
installed king of Armenia. In 61 Tigranes invaded Adiabene, an integral
portion of the Parthian kingdom, and a conflict between Rome and Parthia
seemed unavoidable. Vologaeses, however, thought it better to come to
terms. It was agreed that both the Roman and Parthian troops should
evacuate Armenia, that Tigranes should be dethroned, and the position of
Tiridates recognized. The Roman government declined to accede to these
arrangements, and L. Caesennius Paetus, governor of Cappadocia, was
ordered to settle the question by bringing Armenia under direct Roman
administration. The protection of Syria in the meantime claimed all
Corbulo's attention. Paetus, a weak and incapable man, suffered a severe
defeat at Rhandea (62), where he was surrounded and forced to capitulate
and to evacuate Armenia. The command of the troops was again entrusted
to Corbulo. In 63, with a strong army, he crossed the Euphrates, but
Tiridates declined to give battle and concluded peace. At Rhandea he
laid down his diadem at the foot of the emperor's statue, promising not
to resume it until he received it from the hand of Nero himself in Rome.
In 67 disturbances broke out in Judaea, but Nero, jealous of Corbulo's
success and popularity, ordered Vespasian to take command of the forces
and summoned Corbulo to Greece. On his arrival at Cenchreae, the port of
Corinth, messengers from Nero met Corbulo, and ordered him to commit
suicide. Without hesitation he obeyed, exclaiming, "I have deserved it."
Whether he had really given any grounds for suspicion is unknown; but
there is no doubt, so great was his popularity with the soldiers and
such the hatred felt for Nero, that he could easily have seized the
throne. Corbulo wrote an account of his Asiatic experiences, which is
lost.

See Tacitus, _Annals_, xii.-xv.; Dio Cassius lix. 15, lx. 30, lxii.
19-23, lxiii. 6, 17, lxvi. 3; H. Schiller, _Geschichte des römischen
Kaiserreichs unter der Regierung des Nero_ (1872); E. Egli, "Feldzüge
in Armenien von 41-63," in M. Büdinger's _Untersuchungen zur römischen
Kaisergeschichte_, i. (1868); Mommsen, _Hist. of the Roman Provinces_,
ii. (1886); for the Armenian campaigns see B. W. Henderson in
_Classical Review_ (April, May, June, 1901); in general D. T.
Schoonover, _A Study of Cn. Domitius Corbulo_ (Chicago, 1909).

CORD (derived through the Fr. _corde_, from the Lat. _chorda_, Gr.
[Greek: chordê], the string of a musical instrument), a length of
twisted or woven strands, in thickness coming between a rope and a
string, a smaller kind of rope (q.v.). From the use of such a cord for
measuring, the word is applied to a quantity of cut wood, differing
according to locality. The variant "chord," which, in spelling, reverts
to the original Latin, is used in particular senses, as, in physiology,
for such cord-like structures as the vocal chords; in the case of the
"umbilical cord," the other spelling is usually retained. In mathematics
a "chord" is a straight line joining any two points on the same curve,
and, in music, the word is used of several musical notes sounded
simultaneously and in harmony (q.v.). In this last sense, "chord" is
properly a shortened form of "accord," agreement, from Late Lat.
_accordare_, and the spelling with _h_ is due to a confusion.

CORDAY D'ARMONT, MARIE ANNE CHARLOTTE (1768-1793), French revolutionary
heroine, the murderess of Marat, born at St Saturnin des Lignerets, near
Séez in Normandy, was descended from a noble but poor family, and
numbered among her ancestors the dramatist Corneille. Charlotte Corday
was educated in the convent of the Holy Trinity at Caen, and then sent
to live with an aunt. Here she saw hardly any one but her relative, and
passed her lonely hours in reading the works of the _philosophes_,
especially Voltaire and the Abbé Raynal. Another of her favourite
authors was Plutarch, from whose pages she doubtless imbibed the idea of
classic heroism and civic virtue which prompted the act that has made
her name famous. On the outbreak of the Revolution she began to study
current politics, chiefly in the papers issued by the party afterwards
known as the Girondins. On the downfall of this party, on May 31, 1793,
many of the leaders took refuge in Normandy, and proposed to make Caen
the headquarters of an army of volunteers, at the head of whom Félix de
Wimpffen, who commanded the army assembled for the defence of the coasts
at Cherbourg, was to have marched upon Paris. Charlotte attended their
meetings, and heard them speak; but we have no reason to believe that
she saw any of them privately, till the day when she went to ask for
introductions to friends of theirs in Paris. She saw that their efforts
in Normandy were doomed to fail. She had heard of Marat as a tyrant and
the chief agent in their overthrow, and she had conceived the idea of
going alone to Paris and assassinating him,--doubtless thinking that
this would break up the party of the Terrorists and be the signal of a
counter-revolution, and ignorant of the fact that Marat was ill almost
to the point of death, and that others were more influential than he.

Apparently she had thought of going to Paris in April, before the fall
of the Girondins, for she had then procured a passport which she used in
July. It contained the usual description of the bearer, and ran thus:
_Laissez passer la citoyenne Marie, &c., Corday, âgée de 24 ans, taille
de 5 pieds 1 pouce, cheveux et sourcils châtains, yeux gris, front
élevé, nez long, bouche moyenne, menton rond fourchu, visage ovale._
Arrived in Paris she first attended to some business for a friend at
Caen, and then she wrote to Marat: "Citizen, I have just arrived from
Caen. Your love for your native place doubtless makes you desirous of
learning the events which have occurred in that part of the republic. I
shall call at your residence in about an hour; have the goodness to
receive me and to give me a brief interview. I will put you in a
condition to render great service to France." On calling she was refused
admittance, and wrote again, promising to reveal important secrets, and
appealing to Marat's sympathy on the ground that she herself was
persecuted by the enemies of the republic. She was again refused an
audience, and it was only when she called a third time (July 13) that
Marat, hearing her voice in the antechamber, consented to see her. He
lay in a bathing tub, wrapped in towels, for he was suffering from a
horrible disease which had almost reduced him to a state of
putrefaction. Our only source of information as to what followed is
Charlotte's own confession. She spoke to Marat of what was passing at
Caen, and his only comment on her narrative was that all the men she had
mentioned should be guillotined in a few days. As he spoke she drew from
her bosom a dinner-knife (which she had bought the day before for two
francs) and plunged it into his left side. It pierced the lung and the
aorta. He cried out, "_À moi, ma chère amie!_" and expired. Two women
rushed in, and prevented Charlotte from escaping. A crowd collected
round the house, and it was with difficulty that she was escorted to the
prison of the Abbaye. On being brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal
she gloried in her act, and when the indictment against her was read,
and the president asked her what she had to say in reply, her answer
was, "Nothing, except that I have succeeded." Her advocate, Claude
François Chauveau Lagarde, put forward in vain the plea of insanity. She
was sentenced to death, and calmly thanked her counsel for his efforts
on her behalf, adding that the only defence worthy of her was an avowal
of the act. She was then conducted to the Conciergerie, where at her own
desire her portrait (now in the museum of Versailles) was painted by the
artist Jean Jacques Hauer. She preserved her perfect calmness to the
last. When she saw the guillotine, she placed herself in position under
the fatal blade without assistance from any one. The knife fell, and one
of the executioners held up her head by the hair, and had the brutality
to strike it with his fist. Many believed they saw the dead face
blush,--probably an effect of the red stormy sunset. It was the 17th of
July 1793. It is difficult to analyse the character of Charlotte Corday;
but there was in it much that was noble and exalted. Her mind had been
formed by her studies on a pagan type. To C. J. M. Barbaroux and the
Girondins of Caen she wrote from her prison, anticipating happiness
"with Brutus in the Elysian Fields" after her death, and with this
letter she sent a simple loving farewell to her father, revealing a
tender side to her character that otherwise we would hardly have looked
for in such a woman. Lamartine called her _l'ange de l'assassinat_, and
Vergniaud said, "_Elle nous perd, mais elle nous apprend à mourir._"

See _OEuvres politiques de Charlotte Corday_ (Caen, 1863; some letters
and an _Adresse aux Français amis des lois el de la paix_), with a
supplement printed in the same year; Louvet de Couvrai, _Mémoires_
(ed. Aulard, Paris, 1889); Alphonse Esquiros, _Charlotte Corday_ (2nd
ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1841); Cheron de Villiers, _Marie Anne Charlotte
Corday_ (Paris, 1865); Casimir Périer, "La Jeunesse de Charlotte
Corday" (_Revue des deux mondes_, 1862); C. Vatel, _Dossiers du procès
criminel de Charlotte de Corday ... extraits des archives impériales_
(Paris, 1861), and _Dossier historique de Charlotte Corday_ (Paris,
1872); Austin Dobson, _Four Frenchwomen_ (London, 1890); A. Ducos,
_Les Trois Girondines, Mme Roland, Charlotte Corday ..._ (Paris,
1896); Dr Cabanès, "La vraie Charlotte Corday," in _Le Cabinet secret
de l'histoire_ (4 vols., 1897-1900). Her tragic history was the
subject of two anonymous tragedies, _Charlotte Corday_ (1795), said to
be by the Conventional F. J. Gamon, and _Charlotte Corday_ (Caen,
1797), neither of which have any merit; another by J. B. Salles is
published by C. Vatel in _Charlotte de Corday et les Girondins_
(1864-1872). See further bibliographical articles in M. Tourneux,
_Bibl. de l'hist. de Paris ..._ (vol. iv., 1906), and in the
_Bibliographie des femmes célèbres_ (3 vols., Turin and Rome,
1892-1905); and also E. Defrance, _Charlotte Corday et la mort de
Marat_ (1909).

CORDELIERS, CLUB OF THE, or SOCIETY OF THE FRIENDS OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN
AND OF THE CITIZEN, a popular society of the French Revolution. It was
formed by the members of the district of the Cordeliers, when the
Constituent Assembly suppressed the 60 districts of Paris to replace
them with 48 sections (21st of May 1790). It held its meetings at first
in the church of the monastery of the Cordeliers,--the name given in
France to the Franciscan Observantists,--now the Dupuytren museum of
anatomy in connexion with the school of medicine. From 1791, however,
the Cordeliers met in a hall in the rue Dauphine. The aim of the society
was to keep an eye on the government; its emblem on its papers was
simply an open eye. It sought as well to encourage revolutionary
measures against the monarchy and the old régime, and it was it
especially which popularized the motto "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity."
It took an active part in the movement against the monarchy of the 20th
of June and the 10th of August 1792; but after that date the more
moderate leaders of the club, Danton, Fabre d'Eglantine, Camille
Desmoulins, seem to have ceased attending, and the "_enragés_" obtained
control, such as J. R. Hébert, F. N. Vincent, C. P. H. Ronsin and A. F.
Momoro. Its influence was especially seen in the creation of the
revolutionary army destined to assure provisions for Paris, and in the
establishment of the worship of Reason. The Cordeliers were combated by
those revolutionists who wished to end the Terror, especially by Danton,
and by Camille Desmoulins in his journal _Le Vieux Cordelier_. The club
disowned Danton and Desmoulins and attacked Robespierre for his
"moderation," but the new insurrection which it attempted failed, and
its leaders were guillotined on the 24th of March 1794, from which date
nothing is known of the club. We know little of its composition.

The papers emanating from the Cordeliers are enumerated in M.
Tourneux, _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution_
(1894), i. (on the trial of the Hebertists) Nos. 4204-4210, ii. Nos.
9795-9834 and 11,813. See also A. Bougeart, _Les Cordeliers, documents
pour servir à l'histoire de la Révolution_ (Caen, 1891); G. Lenotre,
_Paris révolutionnaire_ (Paris, 1895); G. Tridon, _Les Hébertists,
plainte contre une calomnie de l'histoire_ (Paris, 1864). The
last-named author was condemned to four months' prison; his work was
reprinted in 1871. The inventory of the pictures found in 1790 in the
monastery of the Cordeliers was published by J. Guiffrey in _Nouvelles
archives de l'art français_, viii., 2nd series, iii. (1880).
(R. A.*)

CORDERIUS, the Latinized form of name used by MATHURIN CORDIER (c.
1480-1564), French schoolmaster, a native of Normandy or Perche. He
possessed special tact and liking for teaching children, and taught
first at Paris, where Calvin was among his pupils, and, after a number
of changes, finally at Geneva, where he died on the 8th of September
1564. He wrote several books for children; the most famous is his
_Colloquia_ (_Colloquiorum scholasticorum libri quatuor_), which has
passed through innumerable editions, and was used in schools for three
centuries after his time. He also wrote: _Principia Latine loquendi
scribendique, sive selecta quaedam ex Epistolis Ciceronis_; _De corrupti
sermonis apud Gallos emendatione et Latine loquendi Ratione_; _De
syllabarum quantitate_; _Conciones sacrae viginti sex Galliae_; _Catonis
disticha de moribus_ (with Latin and French translation); _Remontrances
et exhortations au roi et aux grands de son royaume_.

See monograph by E. A. Berthault, _De M. Corderio et creatis apud
Protestantes litterarum studiis_ (1875).

CORDES, a town of southern France, in the department of Tarn, 15 m. N.W.
of Albi by road. Pop. (1906) 1619. Cordes, which covers the summit and
slopes of an isolated hill, was a bastide founded by Raymond VII., count
of Toulouse, in the first half of the 13th century. It preserves its
medieval aspect to a remarkable degree, a large number of houses of the
13th and 14th centuries, with decorated fronts, forming its chief
attraction. A church of the same periods and remains of the original
ramparts are also to be seen.

CORDILLERA, a Spanish term for a range or chain of mountains, derived
from the Old Spanish _cordilla_, the diminutive of _cuerda_, a cord or
rope. The name was first given to the Andes ranges of South America,
_Las Cordilleras de los Andes_, and applied to the extension of the
system into Mexico. In North America the parallel ranges of mountains
running between and including the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada
are known as the "Cordilleras," and that part of the western continent
crossed by them has been termed the "Cordilleran region." Although the
name has been applied to the eastern mountain system of Australia, the
word is not, outside America, used as a generic term for parallel ranges
of mountains.

CORDITE, the name given to the smokeless propellant in use in the
British army and navy. The material is produced in the form of
cylindrical rods or strings of varying thicknesses by pressing the
material, whilst in a soft and pasty state, through dies or perforations
in a steel plate by hydraulic or screw pressure, hence the name cordite.
The thickness or size of the rods varies from about 1 mm. diameter to 5
or more mm. according to the nature of the charge for which it is
intended. The smallest diameter is used for revolver cartridge and the
largest for heavy guns. When first devised by the Ordnance Committee,
presided over by Sir Frederick Abel, in 1891, this explosive consisted
of 58% of nitro-glycerin, 37% of gun-cotton, and 5% of mineral jelly.
This variety is now known as Cordite Mark 1. At the present time a
modification is made which contains gun-cotton 65%, nitro-glycerin 30%,
and mineral jelly 5%. This is known as Cordite M.D. The advantages of
Cordite M.D. over Mark 1 are slightly reduced rate of burning, higher
velocities and more regular pressure in the gun, and lower temperature.

Cordite of either mark is a perfectly waterproof substance, containing
only traces of water remaining from the manufacturing processes. It has
a density of about 1.56 at the ordinary temperature (15° C.), and, as
its coefficient of expansion is small, this density does not change to
any serious extent under climatic temperature variations. A rod may be
bent to a moderate extent without breaking, and Cordite M.D. especially
shows considerable elasticity. It can be impressed by the nail and cut
with a knife, but is not in the least sticky, nor does the
nitro-glycerin exude to any appreciable extent. It can be obtained in a
finely-divided state by scraping with a sharp knife, or on a new file,
or by grinding in a mill, such as a coffee-mill, but can scarcely be
pounded in a mortar. Cordite is of a brownish colour in mass, but is
much paler when finely ground or scraped. The rods easily become
electrified by gentle friction with a dry substance. Like all colloidal
substances it is an exceedingly bad conductor of heat. A piece ignited
in air burns with a yellowish flame. With the smaller sizes, about 2 mm.
diameter or less, this flame may be blown out, and the rod will continue
to burn in a suppressed manner without actual flame, fumes containing
oxides of nitrogen being emitted. Temperature appears to have an effect
on the rate of burning. When much cooled it certainly burns more slowly
than when at the ordinary air temperature, and is also more difficult to
ignite. Rods of moderate thickness, say from 5 mm. diameter, will
continue to burn under water if first ignited in air and the burning
portion slowly immersed. The end of a rod of cordite may be struck a
moderately heavy blow on an anvil without exploding or igniting. The rod
will first flatten out. A _sharp_ blow will then detonate or explode
the portion immediately under the hammer, the remainder of the rod
remaining quite intact. Bullets may be fired through a bundle or package
of cordite without detonating or inflaming it. This is of course a
valuable quality. The exact temperature at which substances ignite or
take fire is in all cases difficult to determine with any exactness.
Cordite is not _instantly_ ignited on contact with a flame such as that
of a candle, because, perhaps, of the condensation of some moisture from
the products of burning of the candle upon it. A blow-pipe flame or a
red-hot wire is more rapid in action. The ignition temperature may be
somewhere in the region of 180° C.

All the members of this class of explosive when kept for some time at
(for them) moderately high temperatures, such as the boiling-point of
water (100° C.), show signs of decomposition; oxides of nitrogen are
liberated, and some complex oxidation processes are started. Carefully
prepared gun-cotton and nitro-glycerin will, however, withstand this
temperature for a long time without serious detriment, excepting that
nitro-glycerin is slightly volatilized. When incorporated in cordite,
however, the nitro-glycerin appears to be much less volatile than when
free at this temperature. Under reduced pressure (3 or 4 in. only of
mercury instead of 30) it is possible to distil away a considerable
amount of nitro-glycerin from cordite at 100° C. It is very doubtful
whether at ordinary temperatures and pressures any nitro-glycerin
whatever evaporates.

Cordite may be kept in contact with clean, dry metals, wood, paper, and
a number of ordinary substances without deterioration. In contact with
damp and easily oxidizable metals all the substances of the gun-cotton
class are liable to a slight local action, but the colloid nature, and
probably also the contained mineral jelly, protect cordite considerably
in these circumstances. Ammonia has a deleterious action, but even this
proceeds but slowly. Cordite does not appear to change when kept under
water.

The manufacturing processes comprise: drying the gun-cotton and
nitro-glycerin; melting and filtering the mineral jelly; weighing and
mixing the nitro-glycerin with the gun-cotton; moistening this mixture
with acetone until it becomes a jelly; and then incorporating in a
special mixing mill for about three hours, after which the weighed
amount of mineral jelly is added and the incorporation continued for
about one hour or until judged complete. The incorporating or mixing
machine is covered as closely as possible to prevent too great
evaporation of the very volatile acetone. Before complete incorporation
the mixture is termed, in the works, "paste," and, when finally mixed,
"dough."

The right consistency having been produced, the material is placed in a
steel cylinder provided with an arrangement of dies or holes of
regulated size at one end, and a piston or plunger at the other. The
plunger is worked either by hydraulic power or by a screw (driven from
ordinary shafting). Before reaching and passing through the holes in the
die, the material is filtered through a disk of fine wire gauze to
retain any foreign substances, such as sand, bits of wood or metal, or
unchanged fibres of cellulose, &c., which might choke the dies or be
otherwise dangerous. The material issues from the cylinders in the form
of cord or string of the diameter of the holes of the die. The thicker
sizes are cut off, as they issue, into lengths (of about 3 ft.), it
being generally arranged that a certain number of these--say ten--should
have, within narrow limits, a definite weight. The small sizes, such as
those employed for rifle cartridges, are wound on reels or drums, as the
material issues from the press cylinders, in lengths of many yards.

Some of the solvent or gelatinizing material (acetone) is lost during
the incorporating, and more during the pressing process and the
necessary handling, but much still remains in the cordite at this stage.
It is now dried in heated rooms, where it is generally spread out on
shelves, a current of air passing through carrying the acetone vapour
with it. In the more modern works this air current is drawn, finally,
through a solution of a substance such as sodium bisulphite; a fixed
compound is thus formed with the acetone, which by suitable treatment
may be recovered. The time taken in the drying varies with the
thickness of the cordite from a few days to several weeks. For several
reasons it is desirable that this process should go on gradually and
slowly.

After drying, all the various batches of cordite of the same size are
carefully "blended," so that any slight differences in the manufacture
of one batch or one day's output may be equalized as much as possible.
Slight differences may arise from the raw materials, cotton waste or
glycerin, or in the making of these into gun-cotton or nitro-glycerin
respectively. To help in controlling the blending, each "make" of
gun-cotton and nitro-glycerin is "marked" or numbered, and carries its
mark to the cordite batch of which it is an ingredient. The history of
each box of large-sized or reel of small-sized cordite is therefore
known up to the operation of blending and packing. The final testing is
by firing proofs, as in the case of the old gunpowders.

The gun-cotton employed for cordite is made in the usual way (see
GUN-COTTON), with the exception of treating with alkali. It is also
after complete washing with water gently pressed into small cylinders
(about 3 in. diameter and 4 in. high) whilst wet, and these are
carefully dried before the nitro-glycerin is added. The pressure applied
is only sufficient to make the gun-cotton just hold together so that it
is easily mixed with the nitro-glycerin. The mineral jelly or vaseline
is obtained at a certain stage of distillation of petroleum, and is a
mixture of hydrocarbons, paraffins, olefines and some other unsaturated
hydrocarbons, possibly aromatic, which no doubt play a very important
part as preservatives in cordite.

The stability of cordite, that is, its capability of keeping without
chemical or ballistic changes, is judged of by certain "heat tests." The
Abel heat test consists in subjecting a weighed quantity, 2 grams, of
the finely divided cordite contained in a test tube, to a temperature of
70° C. maintained constant by a water bath. The test tube is about 6×¾
in., and dips into the water sufficiently to immerse about 2 in., viz.
the part containing the cordite. In the upper free portion a piece of
filter-paper impregnated with a mixture of potassium iodide and starch
paste is suspended by a platinum wire from the stopper of the tube. A
portion of the test paper is moistened with a solution of glycerin to
render it more sensitive than the dry part. A faint brown colour
appearing on the moistened portion indicates that some oxides of
nitrogen have been evolved from the cordite. This brown tint is compared
with a standard, and the time taken before the standard tint appears is
noted. The time fixed upon as a test of relative stability is an
arbitrary one determined by examination of well-known specimens. Should
the cordite or other explosive contain traces of mercury salts, such as
mercuric chloride, which is sometimes added as a preservative, this test
is rendered nugatory, and no coloration may appear (or only after a long
exposure), although the sample may be of indifferent stability. It is
now customary to examine specially for mercury, either by heating the
explosive in contact with gold leaf or silver foil, or by burning the
substance and examining the flame in the spectroscope.

The method of examination known as the vacuum silvered vessel process is
probably not interfered with by the presence of very small quantities of
mercury. It consists in heating 50 grams of the finely divided explosive
in a Dewar's silvered vacuum glass bulb to a rigidly constant
temperature of 80° C. for many hours. A sensitive thermometer having its
bulb immersed in the centre of the cordite shows when the temperature
rises above 80°. Such a rise indicates internal oxidation or
decomposition of the explosive; it is accompanied by an evolution of
nitrogen dioxide, NO2, the depth of colour of which is noted through a
side tube attached to the bulb. As all explosives of this class would in
time decompose sufficiently to give these indications, time periods or
limits have been fixed at which an appreciable and definite rise in
temperature and production of red fumes indicate relative stability or
instability. (W. R. E. H.)

CÓRDOBA, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE (1453-1515), Spanish general and
statesman, usually spoken of by the Italianized form of his Christian
name as GONSALVO DE CÓRDOBA, or as "the Great Captain," was the second
son of Don Pedro Fernandez de Córdoba, count of Aguilar, and of his wife
Elvira de Herrera, who belonged to the family of Enriquez, the
hereditary admirals of Castile, a branch of the royal house. Gonzalo was
born at Montilla near the city of Córdova (Cordoba) on the 16th of March
1453. The father died when he and his elder brother, Don Alonso, were
mere boys. The counts of Aguilar carried on an hereditary feud with the
rival house of Cabra, and the children were carried by their vassals
into the faction fights of the two families. As a younger son Gonzalo
had his fortune to make, but he was generously aided by the affection of
his elder brother, who was very wealthy. War and service in the king's
court offered the one acceptable career outside the church to a
gentleman of his birth.

He was first attached to the household of Don Alphonso, the king's
brother, and upon his death devoted himself to Isabella, afterwards the
queen. During the civil war, and the conflict with Portugal which
disturbed the first years of her reign, he fought under the grand master
of Santiago, Alonso de Cardenas. After the battle of Albuera, the grand
master gave him especial praise, saying that he could always see Gonzalo
to the front because he was conspicuous by the splendour of his armour.
Indeed the future Great Captain, who, as a general, was above all things
astute and patient, could, and habitually did, display the most reckless
personal daring, going into a fight as if he loved it, and having a
shrewd sense that a reputation for intrepidity, a free-handed profusion,
and the personal magnificence which strikes the eye, would secure him
the devotion of his soldiers. During the ten years' war for the conquest
of Granada he completed his apprenticeship under his brother, the count
of Aguilar, the grand master of Santiago, and the count of Tendilla, of
whom he always spoke as his masters. It was a war of surprises and
defences of castles or towns, of skirmishes, and of ambuscades in the
defiles of the mountains. The military engineer and the "guerrillero"
were about equally employed. Gonzalo's most distinguished single feat
was the defence of the advanced post of Illora, but he commanded the
queen's escort when she wished to take a closer view of Granada, and he
beat back a sortie of the Moors under her eyes. When Granada
surrendered, he was one of the officers chosen to arrange the
capitulation, and on the peace he was rewarded by a grant of land.

So far he was only known as an able subordinate, but his capacity could
not be hidden from such an excellent judge of character as Isabella, to
whom as a woman he appealed by a chivalrous union of devotion and
respect. When, therefore, the Catholic sovereigns decided to support the
Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII. of France, Gonzalo was
chosen by the influence of the queen, and in preference to older men, to
command the Spanish expedition. It was in Italy that he won the title of
the Great Captain; Guicciardini says that it was given him by the
customary arrogance of the Spaniards, but it was certainly accepted as
just by all the soldiers of the time of whatever nationality. A detailed
account of his campaigns cannot be given here. He held the command in
Italy twice. In 1495 he was sent with a small force of little more than
five thousand men to aid Ferdinand of Naples to recover his kingdom, and
he returned home after achieving success, in 1498. After a brief
interval of service against the conquered Moors who had risen in revolt,
he returned to Italy in 1501. Ferdinand of Spain had entered into his
iniquitous compact with Louis XII. of France for the spoliation and
division of the kingdom of Naples. The Great Captain was chosen to
command the Spanish part of this robber coalition. As general and as
viceroy of Naples he remained in Italy till 1507. During his first
command he was mostly employed in Calabria in mountain warfare which
bore much resemblance to his former experience in Granada. There was,
however, a material difference in the enemy. The French forces,
commanded by the Scotsman Stuart d'Aubigny, consisted largely of Swiss
pikemen, and of their own men-at-arms. With his veterans of the
Granadine war, foot soldiers armed with sword and buckler, or arquebuses
and crossbows, and light cavalry, trained to unsleeping vigilance,
capable of long marches, and of an endurance unparalleled among the
soldiers of the time, he could carry on a guerrillero warfare which wore
down his opponents, who suffered far more than the Spaniards from the
heat. But he saw clearly that this was not enough. His experience in
Seminara showed him that something more was wanted on the battlefield.
The action was lost mainly because King Ferdinand, disregarding the
advice of Gonzalo, persisted in fighting a pitched battle with inferior
numbers, some of whom were untrustworthy Neapolitans. The Spanish foot
behaved excellently, but the result showed that in the open field their
loose formation and their swords put them at a disadvantage as against a
charge of heavy cavalry or pikemen. Gonzalo therefore introduced a much
more strict formation, and adopted the pike as the weapon of a part of
his foot. The division of the Spanish infantry into the "battle" or main
central body of pikemen, and the wings (_alas_) of "shot" to be employed
in outflanking the enemy, was primarily due to the Great Captain.

The French were expelled by 1498 without another battle. When the Great
Captain reappeared in Italy he had first to perform the congenial task
of driving the Turk from Cephalonia, then to aid in robbing the king of
Naples, Frederick, brother of his old ally Ferdinand. When the king of
Naples had been despoiled, the French and Spaniards quarrelled over the
booty. The Great Captain now found himself with a much outnumbered army
in the presence of the French. The war was divided into two phases very
similar to one another. During the end of 1502 and the early part of
1503 the Spaniards stood at bay in the entrenched camp at Barletta near
the Ofanto on the shores of the Adriatic. He resolutely refused to be
tempted into battle either by the taunts of the French or the discontent
of his own soldiers. Meanwhile he employed the Aragonese partisans in
the country, and flying expeditions of his own men, to harass the
enemy's communications. When he was reinforced, and the French committed
the mistake of scattering their forces too much to secure supplies, he
took the offensive, pounced on the enemy's depot of provisions at
Cerignola, took a strong position, threw up hasty field works, and
strengthened them with a species of wire entanglements. The French made
a headlong front attack, were repulsed, assailed in flank, and routed.
The later operations on the Garigliano were very similar, and led to the
total expulsion of the French from Naples. Gonzalo remained as governor
of Naples till 1507. But he had become too great not to arouse the
jealousy of such a typical king of the Renaissance as Ferdinand the
Catholic. The death of the queen in 1504 had deprived him of a friend,
and it must be allowed that he was profuse in rewarding his captains and
his soldiers out of the public treasury. Ferdinand loaded him with
titles and fine words, but recalled him so soon as he could, and left
him unemployed till his death on the 2nd of December 1515.

The Great Captain is sometimes spoken of as the first of modern
generals. The expression is uncritical, for modern generalship arose
from many sides, but he was emphatically a general. There is much in his
methods which bears a curious likeness to those of the duke of
Wellington; Barletta, for instance, has a distinct resemblance to the
Torres Vedras campaign, and the battle on the Garigliano to Assaye. As
an organizer he founded the Spanish infantry of the 16th and 17th
centuries, and he gave the best proof of his influence by forming a
school of officers. The best generals of Charles V. were either the
pupils of the Great Captain or were trained by them.

There is no life of Gonzalo de Córdoba written by a scholar who was
also a good judge of war. The dull _Cronica del Gran Capitan_ gives
the bare events of his campaigns rather wearisomely but fully. Paulus
Govius, _Vitae illustrium virorum_, translated by Domenichi (Florence,
1550), is elegant and very readable. Don José Quintana includes him in
his _Españoles celebres_ (_Rivadeneyra Biblioteca de autores
españoles_, vol. xix., Madrid, 1846-1880); and Prescott collected the
authorities, and made good use of them in his _Ferdinand and
Isabella_. See also P. du Poncet, _Histoire de Gonsalve de Cordoue_
(Paris, 1714). The _Gonsalve de Cordoue, ou Grenade reconquise_ of
Florian (Paris, 1791) is a romance. (D. H.)

CÓRDOBA, a large central province of the Argentine Republic, bounded N.
by Santiago del Estero, E. by Santa Fé, S. by Buenos Aires and La Pampa,
W. by San Luis and Rioja, and N.W. by Catamarca. Pop. (1895) 351,223;
(1904, estimate) 465,464; area, 62,160 sq. m. The greater part of the
province belongs to the pampas, though less fertile and grassy than the
plains farther E. and S. It likewise includes large saline and swampy
areas. The N.W. part of the province is traversed by an isolated
mountain system made up of the Córdoba, Pocho and Ischilin sierras,
which extend for a distance of some 200 m. in a N. and S. direction.
These ranges intercept the moist winds from the Atlantic, and receive on
their eastern slopes an abundant rainfall, which gives them a strikingly
verdant appearance in comparison with the surrounding plains. West and
N.W. of the sierras are extensive saline basins called Las Salinas
Grandes, which extend into the neighbouring provinces and are absolutely
barren. In the N.E. the land is low and swampy; here are the large
saline lagoons of Mar Chiquita and Los Porongos. The principal rivers,
which have their sources in the sierras and flow eastward, are the
Primero and Segundo, which flow north-easterly into the lacustrine basin
of Mar Chiquita; the Tercero and Quarto, which unite near the Santa Fé
frontier to form the Carcaraña, a tributary of the Paraná; and the
Quinto, which flows south-easterly into the swamps of the Laguna Amarga
in the S. part of the province. Countless small streams also descend the
eastern slopes of the sierras and are lost in the great plains. The
eastern districts are moderately fertile, and are chiefly devoted to
cattle-breeding, though cereals are also produced. In the valleys and
well-watered foothills of the sierras, however, cereals, alfalfa and
fruit are the principal products. The rainfall is limited throughout the
province, and irrigation is employed in but few localities. The mineral
resources include gold, silver, copper, lead and iron, but mining is
carried on only to a very limited extent. Salt and marble are also
produced. Córdoba is traversed by several railway lines--those running
westward from Buenos Aires and Rosario to Mendoza and the Chilean
frontier, those connecting the city of Córdoba with the same cities, and
with Tucuman on the N. and Catamarca and Rioja on the N.W. The chief
towns are Córdoba, the capital, Rio Quarto, Villa Maria, an important
railway centre 82 m. S.E. of Córdoba, and Cruz del Eje on the W. slopes
of the sierras, 110 m. N.W. of Córdoba.

CÓRDOBA, a city in the central part of the Argentine Republic, capital
of the above province, on the Rio Primero, 435 m. by rail N.W. of Buenos
Aires by way of Rosario, 246 m. from the latter. Pop. (1895) 42,783--the
suburbs having 11,679 more--(1905, estimate) 60,000. The city is
connected by railway with Buenos Aires and Rosario, and with the
capitals of all the surrounding provinces. Córdoba stands on a high
eastward-sloping plain called the "Altos," 1240 ft. above sea-level, and
is built in a broad river bottom washed out by periodical inundations
and the action of the rains on the alluvial banks. The inundations have
been brought under control by the construction of barriers and dams, but
the banks are constantly broken down. The city is regularly laid out,
and contains many fine edifices and dwellings. Several suburban
settlements surround the city, the more important of which are served by
the urban tramway lines. The streets are lighted by gas and electricity,
and an excellent telephone service is maintained. The noteworthy public
buildings include the cathedral, a handsome edifice curiously oriental
in appearance, a massive old Jesuit church with a ceiling of richly
carved and gilded cedar, the old university, founded in 1613, which
still occupies the halls built by the Jesuits around a large quadrangle,
the fine old _cabildo_, or government house, of Moorish appearance, and
the national observatory on the _barranca_ overlooking the city. There
are, also, two national normal schools, a national college, an episcopal
seminary, an endowed Carmelite orphanage, a national meteorological
station, a national academy of sciences, and a good public library.
Among the attractive features of the city is an alameda of about six
acres, within which is a square artificial lake of 4 acres, surrounded
by shrubbery and shaded walks; the alameda dates from the time when the
Jesuits ruled the city, and to them also are due the tiled baths,
supplied with running water. A short avenue connects the alameda with
the principal _plaza_, a pretty garden and promenade. The water supply
of Córdoba is derived from the Rio Primero, 12 m. above the city, where
an immense dam (Dique San Roque), one of the largest of its kind in
South America, has been built across the river valley. This dam also
serves to irrigate the valley below, and to furnish power for the
electric plant which provides Córdoba with light and electric power. In
and about the city there are several industrial establishments which
have sprung into existence since the opening of the first railway in
1870. The surrounding country is irrigated and well cultivated, and
produces an abundance of fruit and vegetables.

The city was founded in 1573 by Luis Geronimo de Cabrera and was for a
long time distinguished for its learning and piety. It was the
headquarters of the Jesuits in this part of South America for two
centuries, and for a time the capital of the Spanish _intendencia_ of
Tucuman. The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 proved to be a serious
blow to the academic reputation of the city, from which it did not
recover until 1870, when President Sarmiento engaged some eminent
scientific men from Europe to teach modern science in the university.

CÓRDOBA, a town of the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 55 m. W.S.W. of the
port of Vera Cruz, in a highly fertile valley, near the volcano of
Orizaba, and 2880 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1895) 7974. The surrounding
district produces sugar, tobacco and coffee, Córdoba being one of the
principal coffee-producing centres of Mexico. It also manufactures
cotton and woollen fabrics. The town is regularly laid out and built of
stone, and contains several handsome edifices, chief of which is the old
cathedral. Córdoba was a town of considerable importance in colonial
times, but fell into decay after the revolution. The railway from Vera
Cruz to Mexico, which passes through it, and the development of coffee
production, have helped the city to recover a part of its lost trade.

CORDON (a French derivative of _corde_, cord), a word used in many
applications of its meaning of "line" or "cord," and particularly of a
cord of gold or silver lace worn in military and other uniforms. The
word is especially used of the sash or ribbon worn by members of an
order of knighthood, crossing from one shoulder to the opposite hip. The
_cordon bleu_, the sky-blue ribbon of the knight's grand cross of the
order of the Holy Spirit, the highest order of the Bourbon kings of
France, was, like the "blue ribbon" of the English Garter, taken as a
type of the highest reward or prize to which any one can attain (see
also COOKERY). In heraldry, "cordons" are the ornamental cords which,
with the hats to which they are attached, ensign the shields of arms of
certain ecclesiastical dignitaries; they are interlaced to form a mesh
or network and terminate in rows of tassels. A cardinal's cordon is
_gules_ with five rows of fifteen tassels, an archbishop's _vert_ with
four rows of ten, and a bishop's also _vert_, with three rows of six. In
architecture a "cordon" is a projecting band of stone along the outside
of a building, a string-course. The word is frequently used in a
transferred sense of a line of posts or stations to guard an enclosed
area from unauthorized passage, e.g. a military or police cordon, and
especially a sanitary cordon, a line of posts to prevent communication
from or with an area infected with disease.

CORDOVA (Span. _Córdoba_), an inland province of southern Spain, bounded
on the N.E. by Ciudad Real, E. by Jaén, S.E. by Granada, S. by Málaga,
S.W. and W. by Seville, and N.W. by Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 455,859; area,
5299 sq. m. The river Guadalquivir divides the province into two very
dissimilar portions. On the right bank is the mountainous region of the
Sierra Morena, less peopled and fertile than the left bank, with its
great plains (_La Campiña_) and slightly undulating country towards the
south and south-east, where the surface again becomes mountainous with
the outlying ridges of the Sierra Nevada. The Guadalquivir, flowing from
E.N.E. to W.S.W., waters the richest districts of Cordova, and has many
tributaries, notably the Bembezar, Guadiato and Guadamellato, on the
right, and the Genil and Guadajoz on the left. The northern districts
(_Los Pedroches_) are drained by several small tributaries of the
Guadiana. The climate is much varied. Snow is to be found for months on
the highest peaks of the mountains; mild temperature in the plains,
except in the few torrid summer months, when rain seldom falls. The
peasantry are chiefly occupied in various branches of husbandry;
sheep-farming and the culture of the olive employ large numbers. The
agricultural wealth of Cordova is, however, not fully exploited, owing
to the conservatism and backward education of the peasantry. There are
no great manufacturing towns, but mining is an industry of some
importance. In 1903 coal was obtained in considerable quantities in the
Belmez district; argentiferous lead and zinc near Pozoblanco and
elsewhere; iron ore at Luque, near Baena. A small amount of bismuth is
also obtained. Mining is facilitated by a fairly complete and well-kept
system of communication by road and railway. The main line
Madrid-Lináres-Seville follows the Guadalquivir valley throughout the
province, passing through the capital, Cordova. Here it meets the line
from Almorchón, on the north, to Málaga, on the south, which has three
important branches--Belmez-Fuente del Arco, Cordova-Utrera, and Puente
Genil-Jaén. After the capital, the principal towns are Aguilar de la
Frontera (13,236), Baena (14,539), Cabra (13,127), Fuente Ovejuna
(11,777), Lucena (21,179), Montilla (13,603), Montoro (14,581),
Pozoblanco (12,792), Priego de Cordoba (16,904) and Puente Genil
(12,956). These are described under separate headings. Other towns of
less importance are Adamuz (6974), Belalcázar (7682), Belmez (8978),
Bujalance (10,756), Castro del Río (11,821), Hinojosa del Duque
(10,673), Palma del Río (7914), Rute (10,740) and Villafranca de Córdoba
(9771).

CORDOVA (Span. _Córdoba_; Lat. _Corduba_), the capital of the Spanish
province of Cordova, on the southern slopes of the Sierra de Cordova,
and the right bank of the river Guadalquivir. Pop. (1900) 58,275. At
Cordova the Madrid-Seville railway meets the branch line from Almorchón
to Málaga. The city is an episcopal see. Few fragments remain of its
Moorish walls, which were erected on Roman foundations and enclosed a
very wide area, now largely occupied by garden-ground cleared from the
ruins of ancient buildings. On the outskirts are many modern factories
in striking contrast with the surrounding orange, lemon and olive
plantations, and with the pastures which belong to the celebrated
Cordovan school of bull-fighting. Nearer the centre the streets are for
the most part narrow and crooked. Almost every building, however, is
profusely covered with whitewash, and thus there is little difference on
the surface between the oldest and the most modern houses. The southern
suburb communicates with the town by means of a bridge of sixteen arches
across the river, exhibiting the usual combination of Roman and Moorish
masonry and dominated at the one end by an elevated statue of the patron
saint, St Raphael, whose effigy is to be seen in various other quarters
of the city. The most important of the public buildings are the
cathedral, the old monastic establishments, the churches, the bishop's
palace, the city hall, the hospitals and the schools and colleges,
including the academy for girls founded in 1590 by Bishop Pacheco of
Cordova, which is empowered to grant degrees. The Alcázar, or royal
palace, stands on the south-west amid the gardens laid out by its
builder, the caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III. (912-961). Its older parts are in
ruins, and even the so-called New Alcázar, erected by Alphonso XI. of
Castile in 1328, and long used as the offices of the Holy Inquisition,
has only one wing in good repair, which serves as a prison.

But the glory of Cordova, surpassing all its other Moorish or Christian
buildings, is the _mezquita_, or mosque, now a cathedral, but originally
founded on the site of a Roman temple and a Visigothic church by
Abd-ar-Rahman I. (756-788), who wished to confirm the power of his
caliphate by making its capital a great religious centre. Immigration
from all the lands of Islam soon rendered a larger mosque necessary,
owing to the greatly increased multitude of worshippers, and, by orders
of Abd-ar-Rahman II. (822-852) and Al-Hakim II. (961-976), the original
size was doubled. After various minor additions, Al-Mansur, the vizier
of the caliph Hisham II. (976-1009), again enlarged the _Zeca_, or House
of Purification, as the mosque was named, to twice its former size,
rendering it the largest sacred building of Islam, after the Kaaba at
Mecca. The ground plan of the completed mosque forms a rectangle,
measuring 570 ft. in length and 425 in breadth, or little less than St
Peter's in Rome. About one-third of this area is occupied by the
courtyard, and the cloisters which surround it on the north, west and
east. The exterior, with the straight lines of its square buttress
towers, has a heavy and somewhat ungainly appearance; but the interior
is one of the most beautiful specimens of Moorish architecture. Passing
through a grand courtyard about 500 ft. in length, shady with palm and
cypress and orange trees and watered by five fountains, the visitor
enters on the south a magnificent and bewildering labyrinth of pillars
in which porphyry, jasper and many-coloured marbles are boldly combined.
Part came from the spoils of Nîmes or Narbonne, part from Seville or
Tarragona, some from the older ruins of Carthage, and others as a
present to Abd-ar-Rahman I. from the East Roman emperor Leo IV., who
sent also from Constantinople his own skilled workmen, with 16 tons of
tesserae for the mosaics. Originally of different heights, the pillars
have been adjusted to their present standard of 12 ft. either by being
sunk into the soil or by the addition of Corinthian capitals. Twelve
hundred was the number of the columns in the original building, but many
have been destroyed. The pillars divide the area of the building from
north to south, longitudinally into nineteen and transversely into
twenty-nine aisles--each row supporting a tier of open Moorish arches of
the same height (12 ft.) with a third and similar tier superimposed upon
the second. The full height of the ceiling is thus about 35 ft. The
Moorish character of the building was unfortunately impaired in the 16th
century by the formation in the interior of a _crucero_, or high altar
and cruciform choir, by the addition of numerous chapels along the sides
of the vast quadrangle, and by the erection of a belfry 300 ft. high in
room of the old minaret. The _crucero_ in itself is no disgrace to the
architect Hernan Ruiz, but every lover of art must sympathize with the
rebuke administered by the emperor Charles V. (1500-1558) to the
cathedral authorities: "You have built here what could have been built
as well anywhere else; and you have destroyed what was unique in the
world." Magnificent, indeed, as the cathedral still is, it is almost
impossible to realize what the mosque must have been when the
worshippers thronged through its nineteen gateways of bronze, and its
4700 lamps, fed with perfumed oil, illuminated its brilliant aisles. Of
the exquisite elaboration bestowed on the more sacred portions abundant
proof is afforded by the third _Mihrab_, or prayer-recess, a small
10th-century chapel, heptagonal in shape, roofed with a single
shell-like block of snow-white marble, and inlaid with Byzantine mosaics
of glass and gold.

Cordova was celebrated in the time of the Moors for its silversmiths,
who are said to have come originally from Damascus; and it exported a
peculiar kind of leather which took its name from the city, whence is
derived the word _cordwainer_. Fine silver filigree ornaments are still
produced; and Moorish work in leather is often skilfully imitated,
although this handicraft almost disappeared in the 15th century. The
chief modern industries of Cordova are distillation of spirits and the
manufacture of woollen, linen and silken goods.

Corduba, probably of Carthaginian origin, was occupied by the Romans
under Marcus Marcellus in 152 B.C.. and shortly afterwards became the
first Roman _colonia_ in Spain. From the large number of men of noble
rank among the colonists, the city obtained the title of _Patricia_; and
to this day the Cordovese pride themselves on the purity and antiquity
of their descent. In the 1st century B.C. Cordova aided the sons of
Pompey against Caesar; but after the battle of Munda, in 45 B.C., it
fell into the hands of Caesar, who avenged the obstinacy of its
resistance by massacring 20,000 of the inhabitants. Under Augustus, if
not before, it became a municipality, and was the capital of the
thoroughly Romanized province of Baetica. In the lifetime of Strabo,
however (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 21), it still ranked as the largest city of
Spain. Its prosperity was due partly to its position on the Baetis, and
on the Via Augusta, the great commercial road from northern Spain built
by Augustus, and partly to its proximity to mines and rich grazing and
grain-producing districts. Hosius, its bishop, presided over the first
council of Nicaea in 345; and its importance was maintained by the
Visigothic kings, whose rule lasted from the 5th to the beginning of the
8th century. Under the Moors, Cordova was at first an appanage of the
caliphate of Damascus; but after 756 Abd-ar-Rahman I. made it the
capital of Moorish Spain, and the centre of an independent caliphate
(see ABD-AR-RAHMAN). It reached its zenith of prosperity in the middle
of the 10th century, under Abd-ar-Rahman III. At his death, it is
recorded by native chroniclers, probably with Arabic exaggeration, that
Cordova contained within its walls 200,000 houses, 600 mosques, 900
baths, a university, and numerous public libraries; whilst on the bank
of the Guadalquivir, under the power of its monarch, there were eight
cities, 300 towns and 12,000 populous villages. A period of decadence
began in 1016, owing to the claims of the rival dynasties which aimed at
succeeding to the line of Abd-ar-Rahman; the caliphate never won back
its position, and in 1236 Cordova was easily captured by Ferdinand III.
of Castile. The substitution of Spanish for Moorish supremacy rather
accelerated than arrested the decline of art, industry and population;
and in the 19th century Cordova never recovered from the disaster of
1808, when it was stormed and sacked by the French. Few cities of Spain,
however, can boast of so long a list of illustrious natives in the
Moorish and Roman periods, and even, to a less extent, in modern times.
It was the birthplace of the rhetorician Marcus Annaeus Seneca, and his
more famous son Lucius (c. 3 B.C.-A.D. 65); of the poet Lucan (A.D.
39-65); of the philosophers Averroes (1126-1198) and Maimonides
(1135-1204); of the Spanish men of letters Juan de Mena (c. 1411-1456),
Lorenzo de Sepúlveda (d. 1574) and Luis de Gongora y Argote (1561-1627);
and the painters Pablo de Céspedes (1538-1608) and Juan de Valdés Leal
(1630-1691). The celebrated captain Gonzalo Fernandez de Córdoba (q.v.),
the conqueror of Naples (1495-1498), was born in the neighbouring town
of Montilla.

See _Estudio descriptivo de los monumentos árabes de Granada y
Córdoba_, by R. Contreras (Madrid, 1885); _Córdoba_, a large
illustrated volume of the series _España_, by P. de Madrazo
(Barcelona, 1884); _Inscripciones árabes de Córdoba_, by R. Amador de
los Ríos y Villalta (Madrid, 1886).

CORDUROY, a cotton cloth of the fustian kind, made like a ribbed velvet.
It is generally a coarse heavy material and is used largely for
workmen's clothes, but some finer kinds are used for ladies' dresses,
&c. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the word is understood to
be of English invention, "either originally intended, or soon after
assumed, to represent a supposed French _corde du roi_." It is said that
a coarse woollen fabric called _duroy_, made in Somerset during the 18th
century, has no apparent connexion with it. From the ribbed appearance
of the cloth the name _corduroy_ is applied, particularly in America, to
a rough road of logs laid transversely side by side, usually across
swampy ground.

CORDUS, AULUS CREMUTIUS, Roman historian of the later Augustan age. He
was the author of a history (perhaps called _Annales_) of the events of
the civil wars and the reign of Augustus, embracing the period from at
least 43-18 B.C. In A.D. 25 he was brought to trial for having eulogized
Brutus and spoken of Cassius as the last of the Romans. His real offence
was a witticism at the expense of Sejanus, who put up two of his
creatures to accuse him in the senate. Seeing that nothing could save
him, Cordus starved himself to death. A decree of the senate ordered
that his works should be confiscated and burned by the aediles. Some
copies, however, were saved by the efforts of Cordus's daughter Marcia,
and after the death of Tiberius the work was published at the express
wish of Caligula. It is impossible to form an opinion of it from the
scanty fragments (H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_, 1883).
According to ancient authorities, the writer was very outspoken in his
denunciations, and his relatives considered it necessary to strike out
the most offensive passages of the work before it was widely circulated
(Quintilian, _Instit._ x. 1, 104). Two passages in Pliny (_Nat. Hist._
x. 74 [37], xvi. 108 [45]) seem to refer to a work of a different nature
from the history--perhaps a treatise on _Admiranda_ or remarkable
things.

See Tacitus, _Annals_, iv. 34, 35; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 61,
_Caligula_, 16; Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii., esp. the _Consolatio_ to
Cordus's daughter Marcia; Dio Cassius lvii. 24. There are monographs
by J. Held (1841) and C. Rathlef (1860). Also H. Peter, _Die
geschichtliche Literatur über die römische Kaiserzeit_ (1897);
Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Lit._, Eng. trans., 277, 1.

CORELLI, ARCANGELO (1653-1713), Italian violin-player and composer, was
born on the 12th or 13th of February 1653, at Fusignano near Imola, and
died in 1713. Of his life little is known. His master on the violin was
Bassani. Matteo Simonelli, the well-known singer of the pope's chapel,
taught him composition. His first decided success was gained in Paris at
the age of nineteen. To this he owed his European reputation. From Paris
Corelli went to Germany. In 1681 he was in the service of the electoral
prince of Bavaria; between 1680 and 1685 he spent a considerable time in
the house of his friend Farinelli. In 1685 he was certainly in Rome,
where he led the festival performances of music for Queen Christine of
Sweden and was also a favourite of Cardinal Ottoboni. From 1689 to 1690
he was in Modena, the duke of which city made him handsome presents. In
1708 he went once more to Rome, living in the palace of Cardinal
Ottoboni. His visit to Naples, at the invitation of the king, took place
in the same year. The style of execution introduced by Corelli and
preserved by his pupils, such as Geminiani, Locatelli, and many others,
has been of vital importance for the development of violin-playing, but
he employed only a limited portion of his instrument's compass, as may
be seen by his writings, wherein the parts for the violin never proceed
above D on the first string, the highest note in the third position; it
is even said that he refused to play, as impossible, a passage which
extended to A in altissimo in the overture to Handel's _Trionfo del
Tempo_, and took serious offence when the composer played the note in
evidence of its practicability. His compositions for the instrument mark
an epoch in the history of chamber music; for his influence was not
confined to his own country. Even Sebastian Bach submitted to it.
Musical society in Rome owed much to Corelli. He was received in the
highest circles of the aristocracy, and arranged and for a long time
presided at the celebrated Monday concerts in the palace of Cardinal
Ottoboni. Corelli died possessed of a sum of 120,000 marks and a
valuable collection of pictures, the only luxury in which he had
indulged. He left both to his benefactor and friend, who, however,
generously made over the money to Corelli's relations. Corelli's
compositions are distinguished by a beautiful flow of melody and by a
masterly treatment of the accompanying parts, which he is justly said to
have liberated from the strict rules of counterpoint. Six collections of
concerti, sonatas and minor pieces for violin, with accompaniment of
other instruments, besides several concerted pieces for strings, are
authentically ascribed to this composer. The most important of these is
the XII. _Suonati a violino e violone o cimbalo_ (Rome, 1700).

CORELLI, MARIE (1864- ), English novelist, was the daughter of an
Italian father and a Scottish mother, but in infancy was adopted by
Charles Mackay (q.v.), the song-writer and journalist, whose son Eric,
at his death, became her guardian. She was sent to be educated in a
French convent with the object of training her for the musical
profession, and while still a girl composed various pieces of music. But
her journalistic connexion proved a stronger stimulus to expression, and
editors who were friends of her adopted father printed some of her early
poetry. Then she produced what was at least a clever, if not a
remarkably well written, romantic story, on the theme of a
self-revelation connecting the Christian Deity with a world force in the
form of electricity, which was published in 1886 under the title of _A
Romance of Two Worlds_. It had an immediate and large sale, which
resulted, naturally, in her devoting her inventive faculty to satisfy
the public demand for similar work. Thus she wrote in succession a
series of melodramatic romantic novels, original in some aspects of
their treatment, daring in others, but all combining a readable plot
with enough _au fond_ of what the majority demanded in ethical and
religious correctness to suit a widespread contemporary taste; these
were _Vendetta_ (1886), _Thelma_ (1887), _Ardath_ (1889), _The Soul of
Lilith_ (1892), _Barabbas_ (1893), _The Sorrows of Satan_ (1895),--the
very titles were catching,--_The Mighty Atom_ (1896),--which appealed to
all who knew enough of modern science to wish to think it wicked,--and
others, down to _The Master Christian_ (1900), again satisfying the
socio-ethico-religious demand, and _Temporal Power_ (1902), with its
contemporary suggestion from the accession of Edward VII. Miss Corelli
had the advantage of writing quite sincerely and with conviction, amid
what superior critics sneered at as bad style and sensationalism, on
themes which conventional readers nevertheless enjoyed, and round plots
which were dramatic and vigorous. Her popular success was great and
advertised itself. It was helped by a well-spread belief that Queen
Victoria preferred her novels to any other. Reviewers wrote
sarcastically, and justly, of her obvious literary lapses and failings;
she retorted by pitying the poor reviewers and letting it be understood
that no books of hers were sent to the Press for criticism. When she
went to live at Stratford-on-Avon, her personality, and her importance
in the literary world, became further allied with the historic
associations of the place; and in the public life of women writers her
utterances had the _réclame_ which is emphasized by journalistic
publicity. Such success is not to be gauged by purely literary
standards; the popularity of Miss Corelli's novels is a phenomenon not
so much of literature as of literary energy--entirely creditable to the
journalistic resource of the writer, and characteristic of contemporary
pleasure in readable fiction.

CORENZIO, BELISARIO (c. 1558-1643), Italian painter, a Greek by birth,
studied at Venice under Tintoretto, and then settled at Naples, where he
became famous for unscrupulous conduct as a man and rapid execution as
an artist. Though careless in composition and a mannerist in style, he
possessed an acknowledged fertility of invention and readiness of hand;
and these qualities, allied to a certain breadth of conception, seem in
the eyes of his contemporaries to have atoned for many defects. When
Guido Reni came in 1621 to Naples to paint in the chapel of St
Januarius, Corenzio suborned an assassin to take his life. The hired
bravo killed Guido's assistant, and effectually frightened Reni, who
prudently withdrew to Rome. Corenzio, however, only suffered temporary
imprisonment, and lived long enough to supplant Ribera in the good
graces of Don Pedro di Toledo, viceroy of Naples, who made him his court
painter. Corenzio vainly endeavoured to fill Guido's place in the chapel
of St Januarius. His work was adjudged to have been under the mark, and
yet the numerous frescoes which he left in Neapolitan churches and
palaces, and the large wall paintings which still cover the cupola of
the church of Monte Casino are evidence of uncommon facility, and show
that Corenzio was not greatly inferior to the _fa prestos_ of his time.
His florid style, indeed, seems well in keeping with the overladen
architecture and full-blown decorative ornament peculiar to the Jesuit
builders of the 17th century. Corenzio died, it is said, at the age of
eighty-five by a fall from a scaffolding.

CO-RESPONDENT, in law, generally, a person made respondent to, or called
upon to answer, along with another or others, a petition or other
proceeding. More particularly, since the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857,
the term is applied to the person charged by a husband, when presenting
a petition praying for the dissolution of his marriage on the ground of
adultery, with misconduct with his wife, and made, jointly with her, a
respondent to the suit. (See also DIVORCE.)

CORFE CASTLE, a town in the eastern parliamentary division of
Dorsetshire, England, in the district called the Isle of Purbeck, 129½
m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 1440. The castle, through which the town is famous, guarded a gap
in the line of considerable hills which rise in the centre of Purbeck.
It is strongly placed on an eminence falling almost sheer on three
sides. Its ruins are extensive, and date for the most part from the
Norman period to the reign of Edward I. There is, however, a trace of
early masonry which may have belonged to the Saxon house where, in 978,
King Edward the Martyr was murdered. Corfe Castle was held for the
empress Maud against King Stephen in 1139, was frequently the residence
of King John, and was a stronghold of the barons against Henry III.
Edward II. was imprisoned here for a short period. The castle withstood
a protracted siege by the Parliamentarians in 1643, and fell to them by
treachery in 1646, after which it was dismantled and wrecked. The church
in the town, almost wholly rebuilt, is dedicated to St Edward the
Martyr. The quarrying of Purbeck stone and the raising of potters' clay
are the chief industries.

Probably Corfe Castle (_Corfes geat_, _Corf geat_, _Corve_, _Corph_) was
an early Anglo-Saxon settlement. According to William of Malmesbury the
church was founded by St Aldhelm in the 7th century. In 1086 the abbey
of Shaftesbury held the manor, which afterwards passed to the Norman
kings, who raised the castle. Its date is disputed, but the town
dependent on it seems to have grown up during the 13th century, being
first mentioned in 1290, when an inquisition states that the mayor has
pesage of wool and cheese. The rights of the burgesses seem to have been
undefined, for frequent commissions attest to encroachments on the
rights of warren, forest and wreckage belonging to the royal manor. In
1380-1381 at an inquisition into the liberties of Corfe Castle, the
jurors declared that from time immemorial the constable and his steward
had held all pleas and amerciaments except those of the mayor's court of
Pie Powder, but that the town had judgment by fire, water and combat.
The tenants, or "barons," elected themselves a mayor and coroners, but
the constable received the assize of ale. Elizabeth in 1577 gave
exclusive admiralty jurisdiction within the island of Purbeck to Sir
Christopher Hatton, and granted the mayor and "barons" of Corfe the
rights they enjoyed by prescription and charter and that of not being
placed on juries or assizes in matters beyond the island. Charles II.
incorporated Corfe Castle in 1663, the mayor being elected at a court
leet from three nominees of the lord of the manor. Corfe Castle first
returned two representatives to parliament in 1572, but was
disfranchised in 1832. A market for each Saturday was granted to Corfe
in 1214, and in 1248 the town obtained a fair and a market on each
Thursday, while Elizabeth granted fairs on the feasts of St Philip and
St James and of St Luke; both of these still survive. As early as the
14th century the quarrying and export of marble gave employment to the
men of Corfe, and during the 18th century the knitting of stockings was
a flourishing industry.

See T. Bond, _History and Description of Corfe Castle_ (London and
Bournemouth, 1883).

CORFINIUM, in ancient Italy, the chief city of the Paeligni, 7 m. N. of
Sulmona in the valley of the Aternus. The site of the original town is
occupied by the village of Pentima. It probably became subject to Rome
in the 4th century B.C., though it does not appear in Roman history
before the Social War (90 B.C.), in which it was at first adopted by the
allies as the capital and seat of government of their newly founded
state under the name Italia (this form, not Italica, is vouched for by
the coins). It appears also as a fortress of importance in the Civil
War, though it only resisted Caesar's attack for a week (49 B.C.).
Whether the Via Valeria ran as far as Corfinium before the time of
Claudius is uncertain: he, however, certainly extended it to the
Adriatic, and at the same time constructed a cross road, the Via Claudia
Nova, which diverged from the Via Claudia Valeria at a point 6 m.
farther north, and led past Peltuinum and Aveia to Foruli on the Via
Salaria. Another road ran S.S.E. past Sulmo to Aesernia. It was thus an
important road centre, and must have been, in the imperial period, a
town of some size, as may be gathered from the inscriptions that have
been discovered there, and from the extent rather than the importance of
the buildings visible on the site (among them may be noted the remains
of two aqueducts), which has, however, never been systematically
excavated. Short accounts of discoveries will be found in _Notizie degli
Scavi_, _passim_, and a museum, consisting chiefly of the contents of
tombs, has been formed at Pentima. In one corner of a large enclosed
space (possibly a _palaestra_) was constructed the church of S. Pelino.
The present building dates from the 13th century, though its origin may
be traced to the end of the 5th when it was the cathedral of the see of
Valva, which appears to have been the name of Corfinium at the close of
the Roman period. (T. AS.)

CORFU (anc. and mod. Gr. [Greek: Kerkyra] or [Greek: Korkyra], Lat.
_Corcyra_), an island of Greece, in the Ionian Sea, off the coast of
Albania or Epirus, from which it is separated by a strait varying in
breadth from less than 2 to about 15 m. The name Corfu is an Italian
corruption of the Byzantine [Greek: Koryphô], which is derived from the
Greek [Greek: Koryphai] (crests). In shape it is not unlike the sickle
(_drepan[=e]_), to which it was compared by the ancients,--the hollow
side, with the town and harbour of Corfu in the centre, being turned
towards the Albanian coast. Its extreme length is about 40 m. and its
greatest breadth about 20. The area is estimated at 227 sq. m., and the
population in 1907 was 99,571, of whom 28,254 were in the town and
suburbs of Corfu. Two high and well-defined ranges divide the island
into three districts, of which the northern is mountainous, the central
undulating and the southern low-lying. The most important of the two
ranges is that of San Salvador, probably the ancient Istone, which
stretches east and west from Cape St Angelo to Cape St Stefano, and
attains its greatest elevation of 3300 ft. in the summit from which it
takes its name. The second culminates in the mountain of Santi Deca, or
Santa Decca, as it is called by misinterpretation of the Greek
designation [Greek: hoi Hagioi Deka], or the Ten Saints. The whole
island, composed as it is of various limestone formations, presents
great diversity of surface, and the prospects from the more elevated
spots are magnificent.

Corfu is generally considered the most beautiful of all the Greek isles,
but the prevalence of the olive gives some monotony to its colouring. It
is worthy of remark that Homer names, as adorning the garden of
Alcinous, seven plants only--wild olive, oil olive, pear, pomegranate,
apple, fig and vine. Of these the apple and the pear are now very
inferior in Corfu; the others thrive well and are accompanied by all the
fruit trees known in southern Europe, with addition of the Japanese
medlar (or loquat), and, in some spots, of the banana. When undisturbed
by cultivation, the myrtle, arbutus, bay and ilex form a rich brushwood
and the minor _flora_ of the island is extensive.

The common form of laud tenure is the _colonia perpetua_, by which the
landlord grants a lease to the tenant and his heirs for ever, in return
for a rent, payable in kind, and fixed at a certain proportion of the
produce. Of old, a tenant thus obtaining half the produce to himself was
held to be co-owner of the soil to the extent of one-fourth; and if he
had three-fourths of the crop, his ownership came to one-half. Such a
tenant could not be expelled except for non-payment, bad culture or the
transfer of his lease without the landlord's consent. Attempts have been
made to prohibit so embarrassing a system; but as it is preferred by the
agriculturists, the existing laws permit it. The portion of the olive
crop due to the landlord, whether by _colonia_ or ordinary lease, is
paid, not according to the actual harvest, but in keeping with the
estimates of valuators mutually appointed, who, just before the fruit is
ripe, calculate how much each tree will probably yield. The large old
fiefs (_baronie_) in Corfu, as in the other islands, have left their
traces in the form of quit-rents (known in Scotland by the name of
feu-duties), generally equal to one-tenth of the produce. But they have
been much subdivided, and the vassals may by law redeem them. Single
olive trees of first quality yield sometimes as much as 2 gallons of
oil, and this with little trouble or expense beyond the collecting and
pressing of the fallen fruit. The trees grow unrestrained, and some are
not less than three hundred years old. The vineyards are laboured by the
broad heart-shaped hoe. The vintage begins on the festival of Santa
Croce, or the 26th of September (O.S.). None of the Corfu wines is much
exported. The capital is the only city or town of much extent in the
island; but there are a number of villages, such as Benizze, Gasturi,
Ipso, Glypho, with populations varying from 300 to 1000. Near Gasturi
stands the Achilleion, the palace built for the Empress Elizabeth of
Austria, and purchased in 1907 by the German emperor, William II.

The town of Corfu stands on the broad part of a peninsula, whose
termination in the citadel is cut from it by an artificial fosse formed
in a natural gully, with a salt-water ditch at the bottom. Having grown
up within fortifications, where every foot of ground was precious, it is
mostly, in spite of recent improvements, a labyrinth of narrow,
tortuous, up-and-down streets, accommodating themselves to the
irregularities of the ground, few of them fit for wheel carriages. There
is, however, a handsome esplanade between the town and the citadel, and
a promenade by the seashore towards Castrades. The palace, built by Sir
Thomas Maitland (?1759-1824; lord high commissioner of the Ionian
Islands, 1815), is a large structure of white Maltese stone. In several
parts of the town may be found houses of the Venetian time, with some
traces of past splendour, but they are few, and are giving place to
structures in the modern and more convenient French style. Of the
thirty-seven Greek churches the most important are the cathedral,
dedicated to Our Lady of the Cave ([Greek: hê Panagia Spêliôtissa]); St
Spiridion's, with the tomb of the patron saint of the island; and the
suburban church of St Jason and St Sosipater, reputed the oldest in the
island. The city is the seat of a Greek and a Roman Catholic archbishop;
and it possesses a gymnasium, a theatre, an agricultural and industrial
society, and a library and museum preserved in the buildings formerly
devoted to the university, which was founded by Frederick North, 5th
earl of Guilford (1766-1827, himself the first chancellor in 1824,) in
1823, but disestablished on the cessation of the English protectorate.
There are three suburbs of some importance--Castrades, Manduchio and San
Rocco. The old fortifications of the town, being so extensive as to
require a force of from 10,000 to 20,000 troops to man them, were in
great part thrown down by the English, and a simpler plan adopted,
limiting the defences to the island of Vido and the old citadel; these
are now dismantled.

_History._--According to the local tradition Corcyra was the Homeric
island of Scheria, and its earliest inhabitants the Phaeacians. At a
date no doubt previous to the foundation of Syracuse it was peopled by
settlers from Corinth, but it appears to have previously received a
stream of emigrants from Eretria. The splendid commercial position of
Corcyra on the highway between Greece and the West favoured its rapid
growth, and, influenced perhaps by the presence of non-Corinthian
settlers, its people, quite contrary to the usual practice of Corinthian
colonies, maintained an independent and even hostile attitude towards
the mother city. This opposition came to a head in the early part of the
7th century, when their fleets fought the first naval battle recorded in
Greek history (about 664 B.C.). These hostilities ended in the conquest
of Corcyra by the Corinthian tyrant Periander (c. 600), who induced his
new subjects to join in the colonization of Apollonia and Anactorium.
The island soon regained its independence and henceforth devoted itself
to a purely mercantile policy. During the Persian invasion of 480 it
manned the second largest Greek fleet (60 ships), but took no active
part in the war. In 435 it was again involved in a quarrel with Corinth
and sought assistance from Athens. This new alliance was one of the
chief immediate causes of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.), in which Corcyra
was of considerable use to the Athenians as a naval station, but did not
render much assistance with its fleet. The island was nearly lost to
Athens by two attempts of the oligarchic faction to effect a revolution;
on each occasion the popular party ultimately won the day and took a
most bloody revenge on its opponents (427 and 425). During the Sicilian
campaigns of Athens Corcyra served as a base for supplies; after a third
abortive rising of the oligarchs in 410 it practically withdrew from the
war. In 375 it again joined the Athenian alliance; two years later it
was besieged by a Lacedaemonian armament, but in spite of the
devastation of its flourishing countryside held out successfully until
relief was at hand. In the Hellenistic period Corcyra was exposed to
attack from several sides; after a vain siege by Cassander it was
occupied in turn by Agathocles and Pyrrhus. It subsequently fell into
the hands of Illyrian corsairs, until in 229 it was delivered by the
Romans, who retained it as a naval station and gave it the rank of a
free state. In 31 B.C. it served Octavian (Augustus) as a base against
Antony.

Eclipsed by the foundation of Nicopolis, Corcyra for a long time passed
out of notice. With the rise of the Norman kingdom in Sicily and the
Italian naval powers, it again became a frequent object of attack. In
1081-1085 it was held by Robert Guiscard, in 1147-1154 by Roger II. of
Sicily. During the break-up of the Later Roman Empire it was occupied by
Genoese privateers (1197-1207) who in turn were expelled by the
Venetians. In 1214-1259 it passed to the Greek despots of Epirus, and in
1267 became a possession of the Neapolitan house of Anjou. Under the
latter's weak rule the island suffered considerably from the inroads of
various adventurers; hence in 1386 it placed itself under the protection
of Venice, which in 1401 acquired formal sovereignty over it. Corcyra
remained in Venetian hands till 1797, though several times assailed by
Turkish armaments and subjected to two notable sieges in 1536 and
1716-1718, in which the great natural strength of the city again
asserted itself. The Venetian feudal families pursued a mild but
somewhat enervating policy towards the natives, who began to merge their
nationality in that of the Latins and adopted for the island the new
name of Corfu. The Corfiotes were encouraged to enrich themselves by the
cultivation of the olive, but were debarred from entering into
commercial competition with Venice. The island served as a refuge for
Greek scholars, and in 1732 became the home of the first academy of
modern Greece, but no serious impulse to Greek thought came from this
quarter.

By the treaty of Campo Formio Corfu was ceded to the French, who
occupied it for two years, until they were expelled by a Russo-Turkish
armament (1799). For a short time it became the capital of a
self-governing federation of the Hephtanesos ("Seven Islands"); in 1807
its faction-ridden government was again replaced by a French
administration, and in 1809 it was vainly besieged by a British fleet.
When, by the treaty of Paris of November 5, 1815, the Ionian Islands
were placed under the protectorate of Great Britain, Corfu became the
seat of the British high commissioner. The British commissioners, who
were practically autocrats in spite of the retention of the native
senate and assembly, introduced a strict method of government which
brought about a decided improvement in the material prosperity of the
island, but by its very strictness displeased the natives. In 1864 it
was, with the other Ionian Islands, ceded to the kingdom of Greece, in
accordance with the wishes of the inhabitants. The island has again
become an important point of call and has a considerable trade in olive
oil; under a more careful system of tillage the value of its
agricultural products might be largely increased.

Corfu contains very few and unimportant remains of antiquity. The site
of the ancient city of Corcyra ([Greek: Kerkyra]) is well ascertained,
about 1½ m. to the south-east of Corfu, upon the narrow piece of ground
between the sea-lake of Calichiopulo and the Bay of Castrades, in each
of which it had a port. The circular tomb of Menecrates, with its
well-known inscription, is on the Bay of Castrades. Under the hill of
Ascension are the remains of a temple, popularly called of Neptune, a
very simple Doric structure, which still in its mutilated state presents
some peculiarities of architecture. Of Cassiope, the only other city of
ancient importance, the name is still preserved by the village of
Cassopo, and there are some rude remains of building on the site; but
the temple of Zeus Cassius for which it was celebrated has totally
disappeared. Throughout the island there are numerous monasteries and
other buildings of Venetian erection, of which the best known are
Paleocastrizza, San Salvador and Pelleka.

AUTHORITIES.--Strabo vi. p. 269; vii. p. 329; Herodotus viii. 168;
Thucydides i.-iii.; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, vi. 2; Polybius ii. 9-11;
Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, ch. xi.; H. Jervis, _The Ionian
Islands during the Present Century_ (London, 1863); D. F. Ansted, _The
Ionian Islands in the Year 1863_ (London, 1863); Riemann, _Recherches
archéologiques sur les Îles ioniennes_ (Paris, 1879-1880); J. Partsch,
_Die Insel Korfu_ (Gotha, 1887); B. Schmidt, _Korkyräische Studien_
(Leipzig, 1890); B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp.
275-277; H. Lutz in _Philologus_, 56 (1897), pp. 71-77; also art.
NUMISMATICS: Greek, § "Epirus." (E. GR.; M. O. B. C.)

CORI (anc. _Cora_), a town and episcopal see of the province of Rome,
Italy, 36 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Rome, on the lower slopes of
the Volscian mountains, 1300 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 6463. It
occupies the site of the ancient Volscian town of Cora, the foundation
of which is by classical authors variously ascribed to Trojan settlers,
to the Volscians (with a later admixture of Latins), and to the Latins
themselves. The last is more probable (though in that case it was the
only town of the Prisci Latini in the Volscian hills), as it appears
among the members of the Latin league. Coins of Cora exist, belonging at
latest to 350-250 B.C. It was devastated by the partisans of Marius
during the struggle between him and Sulla. Before the end of the
Republic it had become a _municipium_. It lay just above the older road
from Velitrae to Terracina, which followed the foot of the Volscian
hills, but was 6 m. from the Via Appia, and it is therefore little
mentioned by classical writers. It is comparatively often spoken of in
the 4th century, but from that time to the 13th we hear hardly anything
of it, as though it had almost ceased to exist. The remains of the city
walls are considerable: three different _enceintes_, one within the
other, enclose the upper and lower town and the acropolis. They are
built in Cyclopean work, and different parts vary considerably in the
roughness or fineness of the jointing and hewing of the blocks; but
explorations at Norba (q.v.) have proved that inferences as to their
relative antiquity based upon such considerations are not to be trusted.
There is a fine single-arched bridge, now called the Ponte della Catena,
just outside the town on the way to Norba, to which an excessively early
date is often assigned.

At the summit of the town is a beautiful little Doric tetrastyle temple,
belonging probably to the 1st century B.C., built of limestone with an
inscription recording its erection by the _duumviri_. It is not known to
what deity it was dedicated; and there is no foundation for the
assertion that the porphyry statue of Minerva (or Roma) now in front of
the Palazzo del Senatore, at Rome, was found here in the 16th century.
Lower down are two columns of a Corinthian temple dedicated to Castor
and Pollux, as the inscription records. The church of Santa Oliva stands
upon the site of a Roman building. The cloister, constructed in
1466-1480, is in two storeys; the capitals of the columns are finely
sculptured by a Lombard artist (G. Giovannoni in _L'Arte_, 1906, p.
108). There are remains of several other ancient buildings in the modern
town, especially of a series of large cisterns probably belonging to the
imperial period. Some interesting frescoes of the Roman school of the
15th century are to be found in the chapel of the Annunziata outside the
town (F. Hermanin in _L'Arte_, 1906, p. 45).

See G. B. Piranesi, _Antichità di Cora_ (Rome, n.d., c. 1770); A.
Nibby, _Analisi della Carta dei Dintorni di Roma_ (Rome, 1848), i. 487
seq. (T. AS.)

CORIANDER, the fruit, improperly called seed, of an umbelliferous plant
(_Coriandrum sativum_), a native of the south of Europe and Asia Minor,
but cultivated in the south of England, where it is also found as an
escape, growing apparently wild. The name is derived from the Gr.
[Greek: koris] (a bug), and was given on account of its foetid, bug-like
smell. The plant produces a slender, erect, hollow stem rising 1 to 2
ft. in height, with bipinnate leaves and small flowers in pink or
whitish umbels. The fruit is globular and externally smooth, having five
indistinct ridges, and the mericarps, or half-fruits, do not readily
separate from each other. It is used in medicine as an aromatic and
carminative, the active principle being a volatile oil, obtained by
distillation, which is isomeric with Borneo camphor, and may be given in
doses of ½ to 3 minims. On account of its pleasant and pungent flavour
it is a favourite ingredient in hot curries and sauces. The fruit is
also used in confectionery, and as a flavouring ingredient in various
liqueurs. The essential oil on which its aroma depends is obtained from
it by distillation. The tender leaves and shoots of the young plant are
used in soups and salads.

CORINGA, a seaport of British India, in the district of Godavari and
presidency of Madras, on the estuary of a branch of the Godavari river.
The harbour is protected from the swell of the sea by the southward
projection of Point Godavari, and affords a shelter to vessels during
the south-west monsoon; but though formerly the most important on this
coast it has been silted up and lost its trade. The repairing and
building of small coasting ships is an industry at Tallarevu in the
vicinity. In 1787 a gale from the north-east occasioned an inundation
which swept away the greater part of Coringa with its inhabitants; and
in 1832 another storm desolated the place, carrying vessels into the
fields and leaving them aground. Of Europeans the Dutch were the first
to establish themselves at Coringa. In 1759 the English took possession
of the town, and erected a factory 5 m. to the south of it.

CORINNA, surnamed "the Fly," a Greek poetess, born at Tanagra in
Boeotia, flourished about 500 B.C. She is chiefly known as the
instructress and rival of Pindar, over whom she gained the victory in
five poetical contests. According to Pausanias (ix. 22. 3), her success
was chiefly due to her beauty and her use of the local Boeotian dialect.
The extant fragments of her poems, dealing chiefly with mythological
subjects, such as the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, will be
found in Bergk's _Poëtae Lyrici Graeci_.

Some considerable remains of two poems on a 2nd-century papyrus
(_Berliner Klassikertexte_, v., 1907) have also been attributed to
Corinna (W. H. D. Rouse's _Year's Work in Classical Studies_, 1907; J.
M. Edmonds, _New Frags. of ... and Corinna_, 1910).

CORINTH, a city of Greece, situated near the isthmus (see CORINTH,
ISTHMUS OF) which connects Peloponnesus and central Greece, and
separates the Saronic and the Corinthian gulfs on E. and W. The ancient
town stood 1½ m. from the latter, in a plain extending westward to
Sicyon. The citadel, or Acrocorinthus, rising precipitously on the S. to
a height of 1886 ft. was separated by a ravine from Oneium, a range of
hills which runs E. to the isthmus entrance. Between this ridge and the
offshoots of Geraneia opposite a narrow depression allowed of easy
transit across the Isthmus neck. The territory of Corinth was mostly
rocky and unfertile; but its position at the head of two navigable gulfs
clearly marked it out as a commercial centre. Its natural advantages
were enhanced by the "Diolcus" or tram-road, by which ships could be
hauled across the Isthmus. It was connected in historic times with its
western port of Lechaeum by two continuous walls, with Cenchreae and
Schoenus on the east by chains of fortifications. The city walls
attained a circuit of 10 m.

I. _History._--In mythology, Corinth (originally named Ephyre) appears
as the home of Medea, Sisyphus and Bellerophon, and already has over-sea
connexions which illustrate its primitive commercial activity. Similarly
the early presence of Phoenician traders is attested by the survival of
Sidonian cults (Aphrodite Urania, Athena Phoenicice, Melicertes, i.e.
Melkarth). In the Homeric poems Corinth is a mere dependency of Mycenae;
nor does it figure prominently in the tradition of the Dorian
migrations. Though ultimately conquered by the invaders it probably
retained much of its former "Ionian" population, whose god Poseidon
continued to be worshipped at the national Isthmian games throughout
historic times; of the eight communal tribes perhaps only three were
Dorian. Under the new dynasty of Aletes, which reigned according to
tradition from 1074 to 747, Corinthian history continues obscure. The
government subsequently passed into the hands of a small corporation of
nobles descended from a former king Bacchis, and known as the Bacchidae,
who nominated annually a Prytanis (president) from among their number.
The maritime expansion of Corinth at this time is proved by the
foundation of colonies at Syracuse and Corcyra, and the equipment of a
fleet of triremes (the newly invented Greek men-of-war) to quell a
revolt of the latter city.

But Corinth's real prosperity dates from the time of the tyranny
(657-581), established by a disqualified noble Cypselus (q.v.). and
continued under his son Periander (q.v.). Under these remarkable men,
whose government was apparently mild, the city rapidly developed. She
extended her sphere of influence throughout the coast-lands of the
western gulf; by the settlement of numerous colonies in N.W. Greece she
controlled the Italian and Adriatic trade-routes and secured a large
share of the commerce with the western Greeks. In Levantine waters
connexions grew up with the great marts of Chalcis and Miletus, with the
rulers of Lydia, Phrygia, Cyprus and Egypt. As an industrial centre
Corinth achieved pre-eminence in pottery, metal-work and decorative
handicraft, and was the reputed "inventor" of painting and tiling; her
bronze and her pottery, moulded from the soft white clay of Oneium, were
widely exported over the Mediterranean. The chief example of her early
art was the celebrated "chest of Cypselus" at Olympia, of carved cedar
and ivory inlaid with gold. The city was enriched with notable temples
and public works (see § ARCHAEOLOGY), and became the home of several
Cyclic poets and of Arion, the perfecter of the dithyramb.

The tyranny was succeeded by an oligarchy based upon a graduated money
qualification, which ruled with a consistency equalling that of the
Venetian Council, but pursued a policy too purely commercial to the
neglect of military efficiency. Late in the 6th century Corinth joined
the Peloponnesian league under Sparta, in which her financial resources
and strategic position secured her an unusual degree of independence.
Thus the city successfully befriended the Athenians against Cleomenes I.
(q.v.), and supported them against Aegina, their common commercial rival
in eastern waters. In the great Persian war of 480 Corinth served as the
Greek headquarters: her army took part at Thermopylae and Plataea and
her navy distinguished itself at Salamis and Mycale. Later in the
century the rapid development of Athenian trade and naval power became a
serious menace. In 459 the Corinthians, in common with their former
rivals the Aeginetans, made war upon Athens, but lost both by sea and
land. Henceforward their Levantine commerce dwindled, and in the west
the Athenians extended their rivalry even into the Corinthian Gulf.
Though Syracuse remained friendly, and the colonies in the N.W.
maintained a close commercial alliance with the mother-city, the
disaffection of Corcyra hampered the Italian trade. The alliance of this
latter power with Athens accentuated the rising jealousy of the
Corinthians, who, after deprecating a federal war in 440, virtually
forced Sparta's hand against Athens in 432. In the subsequent war
Corinth displayed great activity in the face of heavy losses, and the
support she gave to Syracuse had no little influence on the ultimate
issue of the war (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). In 395 the domineering
attitude of Sparta impelled the Corinthians to conclude an alliance with
Argos which they had previously contemplated on occasions of friction
with the former city, as well as with Thebes and with Athens, whose
commercial rivalry they no longer dreaded. In the ensuing "Corinthian
War" the city suffered severely, and the war-party only maintained
itself by the help of an Argive garrison and a formal annexation to
Argos. Since 387 the Spartan party was again supreme, and after Leuctra
Corinth took the field against the Theban invaders of Peloponnesus
(371-366). In 344 party struggles between oligarchs and democrats led to
a usurpation by the tyrant Timophanes, whose speedy assassination was
compassed by his brother Timoleon (q.v.).

After the campaign of Chaeronea, Philip II. of Macedon summoned a Greek
congress at Corinth and left a garrison on the citadel. This citadel,
one of the "fetters of Greece," was eagerly contended for by the
Macedonian pretenders after Alexander's death; ultimately it fell to
Antigonus Gonatas, who controlled it through a tyrant. In 243 Corinth
was freed by Aratus and incorporated into the Achaean league. After a
short Spartan occupation in 224 it was again surrendered to Macedonia.
T. Quinctius Flamininus, after proclaiming the liberty of Greece at the
Isthmus, restored Corinth to the league (196). With the revival of its
political and commercial importance the city became the centre of
resistance against Rome. In return for the foolish provocation of war in
146 B.C. the Roman conquerors despoiled Corinth of its art treasures and
destroyed the entire settlement: the land was partly made over to Sicyon
and partly became public domain.

In 46 Julius Caesar repeopled Corinth with Italian freedmen and
dispossessed Greeks. Under its new name _Laus Julii_ and an Italian
constitution it rapidly recovered its commercial prosperity. Augustus
made it the capital of Achaea; Hadrian enriched it with public works.
Its prosperity, as also its profligacy, is attested by the New
Testament, by Strabo and Pausanias. After the Gothic raids of 267 and
395 Corinth was secured by new fortifications at the Isthmus. Though
restricted to the citadel, the medieval town became the administrative
and ecclesiastical capital of Peloponnesus, and enjoyed a thriving trade
and silk industry until in 1147 it was sacked by the Normans. In 1210 it
was joined to the Latin duchy of the Morea, and subsequently was
contended for by various Italian pretenders. Since the Turkish conquest
(1459) the history of Corinth has been uneventful, save for a raid by
the Maltese in 1611 and a Venetian occupation from 1687 to 1715.

AUTHORITIES.--Strabo, pp. 378-382; Pausanias ii. 1-4; Curtius,
_Peloponnesos_ (Gotha, 1851), ii., 514-556; E. Wilisch, _Die
Altkorinthische Thonindustrie_ (Leipzig, 1892) and _Geschichte
Korinth's_ (1887, 1896, 1901); G. Gilbert, _Griechische
Staatsaltertümer_ (Leipzig, 1885), li. pp. 87-91. (M. O. B. C.)

II. _Archaeology and Modern Town._--The modern town of New Corinth, the
head of a district in the province of Corinth (pop. 71,229), is situated
on the Isthmus of Corinth near the south-eastern recess of the Gulf of
Corinth, 3½ m. N.E. from the site of the ancient city. It was founded in
1858, when Old Corinth was destroyed by an earthquake. It is connected
by railway with Athens (57 m.), with Patras (80 m.), and with Nauplia
(40 m.), the capital of Argolis. Communication by sea with Athens,
Patras, the Ionian Islands and the shores of the Ambracian Gulf, is
constant since the opening of the Corinthian ship canal, in 1893. It has
not, however, attained great prosperity. It has broad streets and low
houses, but is architecturally unattractive, like most of the creations
of the time of King Otto. Its chief exports are seedless grapes
("currants"), olive-oil, silk and cereals. Pop. (1905) about 4300.

Old Corinth passed through its various stages, Greek, Roman, Byzantine,
Turkish. After the War of Liberation it was again Greek, and, being a
considerable town, was suggested as the capital of the new kingdom of
Greece. The earthquake of 1858 levelled it to the ground with the
exception of about a dozen houses. A mere handful of the old inhabitants
remained on the site. But fertile fields and running water made it
attractive; and outsiders gradually came in. At present it is an untidy,
poverty-stricken village of about 1000 inhabitants, mostly of Albanian
blood. Like the ancient city, it spreads out over two terraces, one
about 100 ft. above the other. These were formed in different geological
ages by the gulf, which had in historical times receded to a distance of
1¼ m. from the city. At the nearest point to the city was laid out the
harbour, Lechaeum, a basin dug far into the shore and joined with the
city by long walls. At about the middle of the two terraces, 1½ m. long,
the edge of the upper one was worn back into a deep indentation,
probably by running water, possibly by quarrying. Here was the heart of
the ancient city. At the lower end of the indentation is the modern
public square, shaded by a gigantic and picturesque plane tree,
nourished by the surplus water of Pirene. As the visitor looks from the
square up the indentation he sees on a height to the right a venerable
temple ruin, and, directly in front, Acro-Corinth, rising over 1500 ft.
above the village. Even from the village, the view over the gulf,
including Parnassus with its giant neighbours on the N., Cyllene and its
neighbours on the W., and Geraneia on the N.E., is very fine. But from
Acro-Corinth the view is still finer, and is perhaps unsurpassed in
Greece.

The excavations begun in 1896 by the American school of Classical
Studies at Athens, under the direction of Rufus B. Richardson, have
brought to light important monuments of the ancient city, both Greek and
Roman.

The first object was the locating of the agora, or public square, first
because Pausanias says that most of the important monuments of the city
were either on or near the agora; and secondly because, beginning with
the agora, he mentions, sometimes with a brief description, the
principal monuments in order along three of the principal thoroughfares
radiating from it. In the first year's work twenty-one trial trenches
were dug in the hope of finding a clue to its position. Somewhat less
than a quarter of a mile to the N.W. of the temple, set back into the
edge of the upper terrace, there was found, under 20 ft. of soil, a
ruined Roman theatre built upon the ruins of a Greek theatre. This
theatre was, according to Pausanias, on the street leading from the
agora towards Sicyon, and so to the west of the agora. Another trench
dug across the deep indentation to the E. of the temple revealed a broad
limestone pavement leading from the very northern edge of the city up
through the indentation, in the direction of Acro-Corinth. It required
little sagacity to identify it with the street mentioned by Pausanias as
leading from the agora towards Lechaeum. It was practically certain that
by following up this pavement to its point of intersection with the road
from Sicyon the agora would be discovered.

[Illustration: CORINTH showing sites of excavations]

The limestone pavement, with long porches on either side, was found to
stop at the foot of a marble staircase of thirty-four steps of Byzantine
construction, underneath which appeared a Roman arrangement of the two
flights with a platform halfway up. The top flight led up to the
propylaea. The remains of the propylaea above ground are few; but the
foundations are massive and well laid, at the end of the upper terrace
where it is farthest worn back. These foundations are clearly those of a
Roman triumphal arch, which perhaps took the name "propylaea" from an
ancient Greek structure on the same spot. This arch appears on Roman
coins from Augustus to Commodus; according to Pausanias it bore two
four-horse chariots, one driven by Helios and the other by Phaethon, his
son, all in gilded bronze.

Although a considerable part of the agora has been excavated, none of
the statues which Pausanias saw in it have been discovered. On the upper
(S.) side are excellent foundations of a long porch. On the N. side,
stretching westward from the propylaea, are two porches of different
periods. The older one, which still existed in Roman times, was backed
up against the temple hill, which was cut away to make room for it. An
ancient staircase, 15 ft. broad, led down from the temple hill into the
lower area of the broad pavement, from which access to the agora and the
Pirene was easy.

To the E. of the paved road and close up against the agora itself, only
at a much lower level, was found, buried under 35 ft. of earth, the
famous fountain Pirene, tallying exactly with the description of
Pausanias, as "a series of chambers that are like caves, and bearing a
façade of white marble." This Pirene originally had a two-storey façade
of Roman fashion made of limestone, but, before the time of Pausanias,
it had received a covering of marble which has now fallen off, but has
left traces of itself in the holes drilled into the limestone, in the
rough hacking away of the half columns, and in the numerous marble
fragments which lay in front of the façade. This was not, however, the
earliest form of Pirene. It was built up in front of a more simple Greek
fountain-structure which consisted of seven cross-walls placed under the
edge of the stratum forming the upper terrace. Six chambers were thus
formed which showed the chaste beauty of Greek workmanship, while the
stratum of native rock which covered them gave a touch of nature and
made them caves. The walls ended at the front in the form of an _anta_
delicately carved. On a parapet at the rear of each chamber a single
slender Ionic column between two _antae_ supported an Ionic entablature.
The stuccoed walls were striped horizontally and vertically with red on
a blue field, on which appear fishes swimming. The chambers were really
reservoirs, filled by the water which flowed along their backs.

We know nothing further about the Greek system, but in the Roman
adjustment the water was led from this series of cisterns into a large
rectangular basin which formed the centre of a quadrangle 50 ft. square.
In the N.E. corner is a hole through which it was drained, and at the N.
end a flight of five steps led down into it. Besides the four orifices
through which water flowed into it there were two other holes about 4
in. lower down to keep the basin from overflowing. Two uses of water are
mentioned by Pausanias, "The water," he says, "was sweet to drink," and
also good for tempering bronze. It seems clear then, that the basin was
at stated times used for the latter purpose, and was converted into a
tank. The bronze was plunged into the water in a red hot condition, and
thus acquired its peculiar excellence.

In Byzantine times five columns, of various diameters, with no two bases
of the same size, bearing Corinthian capitals, were set up about 6 ft.
in front of the façade. Blocks of marble which had seen use elsewhere
ran from them back into the façade, which was hacked away in rough
fashion to receive them. Probably these blocks formed the floor of a
balcony, a tawdry marble addition.

Pirene was at all times the heart of the city. Here it was that Athena
helped Bellerophon to bridle Pegasus; and hence she received the epithet
of "the Bridler," Chalinitis. The importance of the fountain is attested
by the fact that the Greek poets and the Delphic oracle instead of
saying Corinth said, "the city of Pirene." That it was a place of common
resort is shown by Euripides (_Medea_, 68 f.), where it is said that the
elders were to be found "near the august waters of Pirene, playing
draughts ([Greek: pessoi])." The quadrangle, with its walls 20 ft. high,
and its three apses probably covered with half domes, provided
considerable shade. There is reason for supposing that the marble
coating of the façade, and perhaps the erection of the quadrangle, also
covered with marble, were the work of Herodes Atticus, and therefore
just completed when Pausanias saw them. A base on which stood a statue
of Herodes' wife, Regilla, was found close to the façade, inscribed with
fulsome praise, stating that the statue was "set up by order of the
Sisyphaean Senate at the outpouring of the streams." Two inscriptions of
Roman times make the identity of Pirene certain, if there could be any
doubt in the face of the exact agreement of Pausanias's description with
the structure.

Of the surviving monuments of the Greek city the most important is the
temple of Apollo. While it was probably badly wrecked by the Romans at
the sack of the city, its massive columns with the entablature survived.
That it was restored and was in use in Roman time is shown by the fact
that both the seven columns still standing and two fallen columns
discovered in the excavations, to say nothing of several fragments of
others, have a thick coating of Roman stucco laid over the finer Greek.
The style of the temple points to 600 B.C., when Periander was at the
height of his power. According to Herodotus he made his doubtful
adherents deposit pledges of faithfulness in the temple of Apollo. Quite
near the W. end of the temple is the fountain Glauc[=e] cut out of a
cube of rock, apparently left standing when the material for the temple
was quarried around it. In it were carved out four chambers or
reservoirs all connected and a porch consisting of three pillars between
two _antae_ in which the side walls ended. The water coming down from
Acro-Corinth was introduced from behind. Approached by a flight of steps
partly rock-cut, it had at the rear of the porch a balustrade with
marble lions' heads through which the water overflowed. Two of these
heads were found. The top of the system of reservoirs was too heavy for
the slender cross walls and pillars, only the stumps of which remain; a
collapse took place, by which the porch and the W. compartment were
carried away. From its location only about 50 yds. from the temple it
seems to have been the temple fountain. It was named after the second
wife of Jason, Glauc[=e], who plunged into it to quench the fire of the
poisoned bridal garments given her by Medea.

It is not surprising that monuments were found of which there is no
record in ancient writings. Such was a very ancient fountain W. of the
propylaea, 25 ft. below the surface. Under remains of the Roman city
appeared a triglyphon of porous stone with an extent from N. to S. of
about 30 ft. At the N. end it turned westward at an obtuse angle and
extended about 10 ft. in that direction. The system is about 4 ft. high.
While the colours on the metopes and triglyphs had faded somewhat, the
border above them, topped with a cornice projecting 6 in., retained a
most brilliant maeander pattern of red, blue and yellow, while below
these were two bands of godroons of blue and red. On the top of this
system as a foundation were set several statue bases, one bearing the
signature of Lysippus, which shows that the system stood there at least
as early as the 4th century B.C. Some parts of it may have been taken
from older buildings, but not the cornice nor the corner metope block
which formed an obtuse angle. Near the middle of the long side is an
opening; and from it a flight of seven steps led down to a trapezoidal
chamber, on the back wall of which are two lions' heads of bronze,
through which water, conducted in long semi-cylindrical channels of
bronze, from behind the wall, poured out into pitchers for which holes
are cut in the floor. Channels for the overflow were cut along the back
and sides of the chamber. All this was once approached from the front at
the level of the floor, long before the triglyphon was set up, 7 ft.
above it. Considering its depth this fountain must be dated back to the
5th century, probably near the beginning. The style of the lions' heads
would hardly admit a later date. This is the only case of an ancient
Greek fountain of such an early date, unaltered and intact. The pains
taken to preserve it suggest that it was invested with a sacred
character.

Sculptures in large numbers, both of the Greek city and the Roman, are
collected in the new museum erected by the Greek government near the
plane tree. The finest of the Greek sculptures is the head of a youth
found in the orchestra of the theatre at a depth of 23 ft. It lacks only
the lower part of the bridge of the nose, and has style and character,
resembling Myron's heads in shape and in the hair. A large fragment of a
relief also of early date, represents two dancing maenads half
life-size. Most impressive is a colossal female figure of grand style
and excellent drapery. If not an original of the 5th century it is one
of the finest of copies. Of the great amount of Roman sculpture the best
single piece is a head of Dionysus under the influence of wine, crowned
with a wreath of ivy, his right hand thrown carelessly over his head.
The fine execution is all that differentiates it from the numerous
copies in various museums. The most important sculptures of the Roman
period, however, are a group of colossal figures supporting an
entablature, a large part of which has been recovered. One of the
figures, a barbarian captive, effeminate like those which appear on
Roman triumphal arches, is practically intact. Another, its counterpart,
is preserved down to the hips. These differ from Caryatids, which bear
the architrave on their heads. Here a pilaster forming the back of the
figure receives a Corinthian capital, upon which the architrave rests;
and the figures merely brace up the pilaster. Two of these figures stood
at the end of a re-entrant curve, several pieces of which are preserved.
Two female heads of like proportions belong to the system, since the
backs of their heads are cut away in the same manner as the male heads.
The building to which the figures belonged, a porch, extended westward
from the propylaea; and may be traced for 45 ft. All that is left of it
is the core of _opus incertum_.

The excavations brought to light vases and fragments of vases, of nearly
every period except the Mycenaean. On the N. side of the hill on which
stands the village schoolhouse, from which one looks across the
indentation to the Apollo temple, several vertical shafts in the
limestone stratum were found, and underneath it in horizontal passages
were bodies surrounded with vases. These are pre-Mycenaean, and their
only ornament is scratches, into which white matter has been pressed.
There are over fifty of these vases, of multiform shapes. By the side of
the Lechaeum road, near the steps leading to the propylaea, were found
in deep diggings thirteen early Geometric vases. Proto-Corinthian vases
also were everywhere strongly represented. The best find of pottery,
however, was an Old Corinthian celeb[=e] ([Greek: kelebê], drinking
vessel), about a foot high, in forty-six fragments, found in a well, 30
ft. below the surface. On one side are a boar and a leopard confronting
each other, and on the other side two cocks in the same heraldic
arrangement. On the projecting plates supported by the handles are
palmettes.

Two inscriptions in the Old Corinthian alphabet came to light. But, on
the whole, inscriptions before the Roman times were almost entirely
lacking. One inscription, though of late date, deserves mention. On a
marble block broken away at both ends, which in a second use was a
lintel, we read [Greek: AGÔGÊEBR], which can only be [Greek: synagôgê
Hebraiôn] (synagogue of the Hebrews).

The excavations were confined to a small part of the city, but there is
little doubt that it was the most important part. By good fortune the
earth here was very deep. On the higher level of the agora and the
Apollo temple, where the depth of earth is comparatively slight, there
is little hope of important finds. There is no hope of finding the great
bronze Athena, which stood in the middle of the agora. To the west,
beyond the theatre, one might find the temple of Athena Chalinitis and
the fountain Lerna, and somewhere near Glauce, the Odeum and the tomb of
Medea's children; but it is more likely that they have disappeared. On
the Lechaeum road, on which a bewildering wealth of fountains and
statues is enumerated, only the Baths of Eurycles below the plane tree
were found; deep diggings were made into them, and the foundations of
the façade laid bare. This great complex was apparently supplied with
water from Hadrian's aqueduct from Lake Stymphalus. On the street going
eastward from the agora nothing is mentioned between it and the city
wall. This level eastern part was probably given up to fine houses, all
traces of which have perished. Outside the gate, apparently, was the
famous Craneion, shaded by cypress trees, and near it the tombs of Lais
and Diogenes, a precinct of Bellerophon and of Athena Melaenis. The
number of temples and shrines enumerated by Pausanias along the road
leading up to Acro-Corinth is bewildering. Here were represented Isis
and Serapis, Helios, the Mother of the Gods, the Fates, Demeter and
Persephone; but no trace of these temples remains. At the highest point
of the road, according to Pausanias, there stood the famous temple of
Aphrodite, but the remains excavated at this point seem to be those of
a late tower, and the few foundations below it do not resemble those of
a temple. We are equally unfortunate in regard to Strabo's splendid
marble Sisyphaeum just below the summit. The fountain Pirene, "behind
the temple," still exists, but so much earth has accumulated about it
that one now approaches it by going down a ladder. The water is so
crystal clear that one inadvertently steps into it. The identity of name
with that of Pirene in the city is justified by the fact that the upper
spring is the source of the Pirene below.

See, for details, the _American Journal of Archaeology_ (from 1896).
(R. B. R.)

CORINTH, a city and the county-seat of Alcorn county, Mississippi,
U.S.A., situated in the N.E. part of the state, about 90 m. E. by S. of
Memphis, Tennessee. Pop.(1890) 2111; (1900) 3661 (1174 negroes); (1910)
5020. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio and the Southern railways; and
by a branch of the Illinois Central connecting Jackson, Miss., and
Birmingham, Ala. It has woollen mills, cotton compresses, clothing,
furniture, and spoke and stave factories and machine shops, and is a
cotton market. Because of its situation and its importance as a railway
junction, Corinth played an important part in the western campaigns of
the Civil War. After the first Confederate line of defence had been
broken by the capture of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson (February 1862),
Corinth was fortified by General P. G. T. Beauregard, and was made the
centre of the new line along the Memphis & Charleston railway, "the
great East and West artery of the Confederacy." Grant's advance on this
centre, then defended by General A. S. Johnston, led to the battle of
Shiloh, fought on April 6/7 about 20 m. N.E. of Corinth; after this
engagement Beauregard withdrew to Corinth. General H. W. Halleck, with a
greatly superior force, cautiously and slowly advanced upon the
Confederate position, consuming more than a month in the operation.
During the night of the 29th of May Beauregard evacuated the place
(which was occupied by the Federals on the following day), and
re-established his line at Tupelo. Corinth then became the headquarters
of the Union forces under General W. S. Rosecrans, who on the 3/4 of
October 1862 was fiercely attacked here by General Earl von Dorn, whom
he repulsed, both sides suffering considerable losses in killed and
wounded, and the Confederates leaving many prisoners behind.

CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF, an isthmus of Greece, dividing the Gulf of Corinth
from the Saronic Gulf. Ships were sometimes dragged across it in ancient
times at a place called the Diolcus ([Greek: dielkein], to pull or cut
through). Nero, in A.D. 67, began cutting a canal through it; but the
project was abandoned. In 1893 a ship canal was opened, with its western
entrance about 1¼ m. N.E. of the little town of New Corinth. It was
begun in 1881 by a French company, which ceased operations in 1889, a
Greek company completing the undertaking. The canal is about 70 ft.
broad, nearly 4 m. long, and 26 ft. deep. It shortens the journey from
the Adriatic to the Peiraeus by 202 m., but foreign steamships seldom
use it, as the narrowness of the canal and the strength of the current
at times render the passage dangerous. About 1 m. from its western end
it is crossed by the iron bridge of the Athens and Corinth railway.
Traces of the Isthmian wall may still be seen parallel to the canal; it
was constructed, at an unknown date, for the fortification of the
Isthmus. Just to the S. of it, and about ½ m. from the sea are the
remains of the Isthmian precinct of Poseidon and its stadium, where the
Isthmian games were celebrated. This precinct served also as a fortress.
Within it have been found traces of the temple of Poseidon and other
buildings. (E. GR.)

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, two books of the Bible (New Testament).
The two letters addressed to the Christian church at Corinth are, with
Romans, the longest of the Pauline epistles. They possess a singular
interest and value, due to the apostle's close acquaintance with the
members of the church addressed and their circumstances. In consequence
of this intimate character the First Epistle to the Corinthians presents
a picture, unrivalled in fulness and colour, of the life of a Pauline
church, while the Second Epistle, written out of strong feeling, gives a
revelation of the innermost feelings and characteristic temperament of
Paul himself, such as is not elsewhere to be found. Dealing, as both
epistles do, with concrete problems of morals and with such tendencies
of thought and life as find their parallel in all times, they are full
of instruction to the modern Church; and this instruction increases in
effectiveness the better we come to understand ancient modes of thought
in their diversity from our own.

Lofty and vivid expression of the apostle's thought on the highest
themes is also to be found here--witness the "Hymn to Love" (1 Cor.
xiii.), the declaration of the resurrection (1 Cor. xv. 51-57), or the
list of signatures of the true servant of God (2 Cor. vi. 3-10). In
important historical statements, also, these epistles stand second to
none, not even to Galatians--as may be indicated by a reference to the
words about the institution of the Lord's supper (1 Cor. xi. 23-26) and
the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Cor. xv. 1-8); or to the
autobiographical utterances in which Paul explains that he was once a
persecutor of Christians (1 Cor. xv. 9), mentions his escape from
Damascus (2 Cor. xi. 32 f.), describes his coming to Corinth (1 Cor. ii.
1 ff.), enumerates his sufferings for the Gospel (2 Cor. xi. 16-31),
tells of his visions (2 Cor. xii. 1-9). In the Corinthian epistles we
come in contact, as nowhere else, with the man Paul and his daily life.

The history of Paul's relations with Corinth can be made out from the
Acts and the Epistles with considerable clearness. The chronology of
Paul's life is not at any point surely determinable within a range of
less than five years, but it must have been in the autumn of one of the
years A.D. 49-53 (the usual chronology has fixed on A.D. 52) that the
arrival of Paul in Corinth took place as described in Acts xviii. 1. In
his so-called second missionary journey Paul had been driven by
irresistible inner impulses to push on into Greece the missionary work
already begun in Asia Minor. First he preached in the province of
Macedonia, where the work opened auspiciously at Philippi, Thessalonica
and Beroea; then, apparently driven out by the violent opposition of the
Jews, he moved on to Achaea, and after rather unsuccessful attempts to
secure converts among the philosophers of Athens came to Corinth.

This ancient city, taken and destroyed by the Romans in 146 B.C., had
been refounded by Julius Caesar as a Roman colony in 46 B.C., settled
with Italian colonists, and made a residence of the Roman governor. Its
situation on the isthmus of Corinth made it a stage on the greatest of
the trade routes between Rome and the East, and it was at this time the
commercial capital of Greece. The traditions of licentiousness and
sensuality associated wit

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