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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton"

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton"

Author: Various


        
Release date: February 20, 2010 [eBook #31329]
                Most recently updated: January 6, 2021

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF" TO "CHITON" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net







Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like a2 or were originally
      printed in subscript.

(2) Side-notes were moved as titles to their respective paragraphs.

(3) Chinese characters were denoted as [Ch].

(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].

(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x].

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    Page 159: "a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the
      same author's," 'Santiago' amended from 'Sanitago'.

    Page 183: "The more important are those that follow:--," amended
      from 'folllow'.

    Page 183: "The three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province
      of Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over
      them," 'Ho-nan' amended from 'Hon-an'.

    Page 242: "The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in
      genera (to say nothing of species) that only some of the more
      important types can be mentioned).)," superfluous parenthesis
      removed.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


             VOLUME VI, SLICE II

       Chicago, University of to Chiton




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF                      CHILPERIC
  CHICANE                                     CHILTERN HILLS
  CHICHELEY, HENRY                            CHILTERN HUNDREDS
  CHICHEN-ITZA                                CHILWA
  CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER    CHIMAERA
  CHICHESTER                                  CHIMAY
  CHICKAMAUGA CREEK                           CHIME
  CHICKASAWS                                  CHIMERE
  CHICKASHA                                   CHIMESYAN
  CHICKEN-POX                                 CHIMKENT
  CHICLANA                                    CHIMNEY
  CHICOPEE                                    CHIMNEYPIECE
  CHICORY                                     CHIMPANZEE
  CHIDAMBARAM                                 CHINA (country)
  CHIEF                                       CHINA (porcelain)
  CHIEMSEE                                    CHINANDEGA
  CHIENG MAI                                  CHI-NAN FU
  CHIERI                                      CHINCHA ISLANDS
  CHIETI                                      CHINCHEW
  CHI-FU                                      CHINCHILLA
  CHIGI-ALBANI                                CHINDE
  CHIGWELL                                    CHINDWIN
  CHIH-LI                                     CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER
  CHIHUAHUA (state of Mexico)                 CHINESE PAVILLON
  CHIHUAHUA (city of Mexico)                  CHINGFORD
  CHILAS                                      CHINGLEPUT
  CHILBLAINS                                  CHIN HILLS
  CHILD, SIR FRANCIS                          CHINKIANG
  CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES                        CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
  CHILD, SIR JOHN                             CHINON
  CHILD, SIR JOSIAH                           CHINOOK
  CHILD, LYDIA MARIA                          CHINSURA
  CHILD                                       CHINTZ
  CHILDEBERT                                  CHIOGGIA
  CHILDERIC                                   CHIOS
  CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY              CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS
  CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR                     CHIPPENHAM
  CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO                   CHIPPEWA
  CHILDRENITE                                 CHIPPING CAMPDEN
  CHILDREN'S COURTS                           CHIPPING NORTON
  CHILDREN'S GAMES                            CHIQUITOS
  CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM                      CHIROMANCY
  CHILE                                       CHIRON
  CHILEAN CIVIL WAR                           CHIROPODIST
  CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR                          CHIROPTERA
  CHILIASM                                    CHIRU
  CHILLÁN                                     CHIRURGEON
  CHILLIANWALLA                               CHISEL
  CHILLICOTHE (city in Missouri, U.S.A.)      CHISLEHURST
  CHILLICOTHE (city in Ohio, U.S.A.)          CHISWICK
  CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM                      CHITA
  CHILOÉ                                      CHITALDRUG
  CHILON                                      CHITON




CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the great educational institutions of the
United States, established under Baptist auspices in the city of
Chicago, and opened in 1892.[1] Though the president and two-thirds of
the trustees are always Baptists, the university is non-sectarian except
as regards its divinity school. An immense ambition and the
extraordinary organizing ability shown by its first president, William
R. Harper, determined and characterized the remarkable growth of the
university's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
acres. Of these about 60 acres--given in part by Marshall Field and laid
out by Frederick Law Olmsted--border the Midway Plaisance, connecting
Washington and Jackson parks. On these grounds the main part of the
university stands. The buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic
style, and grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University Commons,
Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall, Oxford.
Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students. The quadrangles
include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gymnasiums, assembly halls,
recitation halls, laboratories and libraries. In the first college year,
1892-1893, there were 698 students; in that of 1907-1908 there were
5038,[2] of whom 2186 were women. There are faculties of arts,
literature, science, divinity,[3] medicine (organized in 1901), law
(1902), education, and commerce and administration. The astronomical
department, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay, Lake
Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the largest
refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in., focal length
about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and endowed by Mrs Anita
McCormick Blaine as an independent normal school, became a part of the
university in 1901. The school of education, as a whole, brings under
university influence hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards
to young manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes
proper. Chicago was the second university of the country to give its
pedagogical department such scope in the union of theory and practice.
The nucleus of the library (450,000 volumes in 1908) was purchased in
Berlin soon after the university's organization, in one great collection
of 175,000 volumes. Scholarly research has been fostered in every
possible way, and the university press has been active in the
publication of various departmental series and the following
periodicals:--_Biblical World_, _American Journal of Theology, American
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of
Sociology, Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical
Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical Journal,
Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and School Review._ The
courses in the College of Commerce and Administration link the
university closely with practical life. In extension work the university
has been active from the beginning, instruction being given not only by
lectures but by correspondence (a novel and unique feature among
American universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university (11.6%
of the total number of matriculants in the decade). Extension lectures
were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago the work of the university
is continuous throughout the year: the "summer quarter" is not as in
other American schools a supplement to the teaching year, but an
integral part; and it attracts the teachers of the middle western states
and of the south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-education
prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-government in small
groups ("the house system"). Relations with "affiliated" (private)
colleges and academies and "co-operating" (public) high-schools also
present interesting features.

The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from gifts
actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given by John D.
Rockefeller.[4] The value of buildings in 1908 was $4,508,202, of
grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds $14,186,235. Upon the death
of President Harper, Harry Pratt Judson (b. 1849), then head professor
of political science and dean of the faculties of arts, became acting
president, and on the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president.

  See the _Decennial Publications_ of the University (since 1903),
  especially vol. i. for details of history and administration.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] A small Baptist college of the same name---established in 1855
    on land given by S.A. Douglas--went out of existence in 1886.

  [2] If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months
    of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.

  [3] The Divinity School has a graduate department and three
    under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and
    Norwegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the
    University is the "Disciples' Divinity House" (1894), a theological
    school of the Disciples of Christ.

  [4] The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title of
    the university on all its letterheads and official documents. Mr
    Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title, nor
    has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
    President Harper was selected by him to organize the university, and
    it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
    should be "always" Baptists. President Harper more than once stated
    most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor of
    funds to the university "has ever (1902) by a single word or act
    indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
    in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
    any officer of the university"; and certainly so far as the public
    press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
    professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
    radical views in public.




CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair advantage
by petty tricks. A more common English form of the word is "chicanery."
"Chicane" is technically used also as a term in the game of bridge for
the points a player may score if he holds no trumps. The word is French,
derived either from _chaug[=a]n_, Persian for the stick used in the game
of "polo," still played on foot and called _chicane_ in Languedoc (the
military use of _chicaner_, to take advantage of slight variations in
ground, suits this derivation), or from _chic_, meaning little or petty,
from the Spanish _chico_, small, which appears in the phrase "_chic à
chic_," little by little.




CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop, founder of All Souls
College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire, in 1363
or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in 1443, in asking leave to retire from
the archbishopric, that he was in his eightieth year. He was the third
and youngest son of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still
extant town records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court,
and in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham Ferrers grammar
school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the mayoralty in turns. His
occupation does not appear; but his eldest son, William, is on the
earliest extant list (1373) of the Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th
of June 1405 Chicheley was admitted, in succession to his father, to a
burgage in Higham Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have
been of gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
silly story (copied into the _Diet. Nat. Biog._ from a local historian,
J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked up by
William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy "eating his scanty meal
off his mother's lap," whatever that means. The story was unknown to
Arthur Duck, fellow of All Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It
is only the usual attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and
Gresham, to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford, as
Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July 1387, in the
earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly lists of those dining
in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position in the list, with eleven
fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows, below him, that this
entry does not mark his first appearance in the college, which had been
going on since 1375 at least, and was chartered in 1379. He must have
come from Winchester College in one of the earliest batches of scholars
from that college, the sole feeder of New College, not from St John
Baptist College, Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the _Dict.
Nat. Biog._ (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's _History of All Souls
College_) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's College was
not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in fact formally founded in
1382, and the school had been going on since 1373 (A.F. Leach, _History
of Winchester College_), while no such college as St John's College at
Winchester ever existed.

Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the year
1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks from about the
6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably for the purpose of his
ordination as a sub-deacon, which was performed by the bishop of Derry,
acting as suffragan to the bishop of London. He was then already
beneficed, receiving a royal ratification of his estate as parson of
Llanvarchell in the diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92
(_Cal. Pat. Rolls_). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for
1394/95, Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford and
gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal
ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was rapid. Already
on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a commission with several
knights and clerks to hear an appeal in a case of _John Molton, Esquire
v. John Shawe, citizen of London_, from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting
for the constable of England in a court of chivalry. Like other
ecclesiastical lawyers and civil servants of the day; he was paid with
ecclesiastical preferments. On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained
ratification of the parsonage of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on
the 30th of March by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his
brother Robert, who restored the church and increased its endowment. In
1397 he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop of
Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal court
till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the suit,
imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of the rolls, his
opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley was parson of
Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly in the college of
Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February 1401/2, now called
doctor of laws, he was pardoned for bringing in, and allowed to use, a
bull of the pope "providing" him to the chancellorship of Salisbury
cathedral, and canonries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton
in that diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon of
Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of London. On
the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided him to a prebend at
Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held prebends at Salisbury,
Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and Abergwyly, and the living of
Brington. On the 9th of January 1405 he found time to attend a court at
Higham Ferrers and be admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405
Chicheley began a diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope
Innocent VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do likewise.
Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent with Sir John Cheyne
to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and the marriage of Prince Henry
with the French princess Marie, which was frustrated by her becoming a
nun at Poissy next year. In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the
schism, and Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August 1407 Guy
Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was probably from one of
the Hampshire Meons; there was a John Mone of Havant admitted a
Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop of St David's, died, and on the 12th
of October 1407 Chicheley was by the pope provided to the bishopric of
St David's. Another bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his
benefices with the bishopric.

At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English envoys, were
received by Gregory XII. with special honour, and Bishop Repingdon of
Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the new batch of cardinals created on
the 18th of September 1408, most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted
him. These, together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a
general council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop of Bordeaux
and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa against both popes. In
January 1409 Chicheley was named with Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the
prior of Canterbury to represent the Southern Convocation at the
council, which opened on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of
April. Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and on the
26th of June a new pope elected instead of them. Chicheley and the other
envoys were received on their return as saviours of the world; though
the result was summed up by a contemporary as trischism instead of
schism, and the Church as giving three husbands instead of two.
Chicheley now became the subject of a leading case, the court of king's
bench deciding, after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that
he could not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that,
spite of the maxim _Papa potest omnia_, a papal bull could not supersede
the law of the land (_Year-book_ ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly he
had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410). As,
however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling him to
appoint his successors to the vacated preferments, including his nephew
William, though still an undergraduate and not in orders, to the
chancellorship of Salisbury, and a prebend at Lichfield, he did not go
empty away. In May 1410 he went again on an embassy to France; on the
11th of September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s
marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was again there
in November. In the interval Chicheley found time to visit his diocese
for the first time and be enthroned at St David's on the 11th of May
1411. He was with the English force under the earl of Arundel which
accompanied the duke of Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there
defeated the Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the
weakness of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with two
other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt to the king
to receive public thanks for their administration. That he was in high
favour with Henry V. is shown by his being sent with the earl of Warwick
to France in July 1413 to conclude peace. Immediately after the death of
archbishop Arundel he was nominated by the king to the archbishopric,
elected on the 4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of
April, and received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th of
July.

These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from the
charge, versified by Shakespeare (_Henry V._ act i. sc. 2) from Hall's
_Chronicle_, of having tempted Henry V. into the conquest of France for
the sake of diverting parliament from the disendowment of the Church.
There is no contemporary authority for the charge, which seems to appear
first in Redman's rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with
an eye to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed to have
been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before Chicheley was
archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he was not present in the
parliament at all. Moreover parliament was so far from pressing
disendowment that on the petition of the Commons it passed a savage act
against the heresies "commonly called Lollardry" which "aimed at the
destruction of the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards
felons and ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their
schools, conventicles, congregations and confederacies.

In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he had always
been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was present at the siege of
Rouen, and the king committed to him personally the negotiations for the
surrender of the city in January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine.
He crowned Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th
of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a persecutor
of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the position of
archbishop at the time without being so. So he presided at the trial of
John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of London, who after five years'
imprisonment at various times had made public abjuration before the late
archbishop, Arundel, but now was found in possession of a book in
English called _The Lanterne of Light_, which contained the heinous
heresy that the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist. As a
relapsed heretic, he was "left to the secular arm" by Chicheley. On the
1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly inquisition by
archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the 12th of February 1420
proceedings were begun before him against William Taylor, priest, who
had been for fourteen years excommunicated for heresy, and was now
degraded and burnt for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to
saints, but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October
1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached that any
religious _potest concumbere cum muliere_ and not mortally sin, was
sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions of a whole
batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records of convocation in
Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of persecutions for heresy, which
largely consisted in attacks on clerical endowments, with negotiations
with the ministers of the crown for the object of cutting down to the
lowest level the clerical contributions to the public revenues in
respect of their endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges
of his see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V. was alive, he
successfully protested against Beaufort's being made a cardinal and
legate _a latere_ to supersede the legatine jurisdiction of Canterbury.
But during the regency, after Henry VI.'s accession, Beaufort was
successful, and in 1426 became cardinal and legate. This brought
Chicheley into collision with Martin V. The struggle between them has
been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the
encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact
it was almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the rivalry
between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother, Cardinal Beaufort,
than one involving any principle. Chicheley, by appointing a jubilee to
be held at Canterbury in 1420, "after the manner of the Jubilee ordained
by the Popes," threatened to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome
to Canterbury. A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on
the 19th of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated "to
ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward, thereby
setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff,
to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted by God" (_Cal. Pap.
Reg._ vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the papal wrath by opposing the
system of papal provision which diverted patronage from English to
Italian hands, but the immediate occasion was to prevent the
introduction of the bulls making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been
careful enough to obtain "Papal provisions" for himself, his
pluralities, his bishopric and archbishopric.

But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but for his
educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or loan-fund for
poor scholars at New College, and another for the university of Oxford
at large. He founded no less than three colleges, two at Oxford, one at
Higham Ferrers, while there is reason to believe that he suggested and
inspired the foundation of Eton and of King's College. His first college
at Oxford, in perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now
holds its site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley
under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the model of
Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern and northern
Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and building was required by way
of endowment, as the young monks, who were sent there to study under a
provisor, were supported by the houses of the order to which they
belonged. The site was five acres, and the building is described in the
letters patent "as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour of the
most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates Street outside
the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed with the Cistercian abbeys
in 1539, and granted on the 11th of December 1546 to Christ Church,
Oxford, who sold it to Sir Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College.

The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design. On the 2nd of
May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of Lancaster, "hearing that
Chicheley inflamed by the pious fervour of devotion intended to enlarge
divine service and other works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in
consideration of his fruitful services, often crossing the seas,
yielding to no toils, dangers or expenses ... especially in the
conclusion of the present final peace with our dearest father the king
of France," granted for 300 marks (£200) licence to found, on three
acres at Higham Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four
clerks, of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... "and six
choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV. and his wife
Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of Merseye in Essex late
belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endowment. A papal bull having also
been obtained, on the 28th of August 1425, the archbishop, in the course
of a visitation of Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding
the college, dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas à Becket and St
Edward the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the
vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden. He
further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and
Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave some houses
in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was closely modelled on
Winchester College, with its warden and fellows, its grammar and song
schoolmasters, but a step in advance was made by the masters being made
fellows and so members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede
or almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had existed
before, and this was merely an additional endowment. The whole endowment
was in 1535 worth some £200 a year, about a fifth of that of Winchester
College. Unfortunately, All Souls being a later foundation, the college
at Higham Ferrers was not affiliated to it, and so fell with other
colleges not part of the universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was
surrendered to Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres
on condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the master £10
a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester and Eton, and
maintaining the almshouse. Both still exist, but the school has been
deprived of its house, and the Fitzwilliam family, who now own the
lands, still continue to pay only £10 a year.

All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it, dated 20th
of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be called "the Warden
and College of the souls of all the faithful departed," to study and
pray "for the soul of King Henry VI. and the souls of Henry V., Thomas,
duke of Clarence, and all the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and
other nobles and subjects of our father who during the time and in the
service of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the
kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed." For
this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's Inn, which
Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to obtain a royal grant
and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews, the king's secretary, like
Chicheley himself a scholar of Winchester and fellow of New College, was
named as first warden. A papal bull for the college was obtained on the
21st of June 1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of
May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation
charter was obtained, for which £1000 (£30,000 at least of our money)
was paid. It is commonly represented that the endowment was wholly
derived from alien priories bought by Chicheley from the crown. In
truth, not so large a proportion of the endowment of All Souls was
derived from this source as was that of New College. The only alien
priories granted were Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in
Northamptonshire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales,
all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these did not
form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest, particularly the manor
of Edgware, which made the fortune of the college, was bought from
private owners. Early in 1443 the college was opened by Chicheley with
four bishops in state. The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April
1443, raised the number of the college to forty. Like the college
buildings, they are almost an exact copy of those of New College,
_mutatis mutandis_. The college is sometimes described as being
different from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray
for the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry than
the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and collegiate
churches, were to pray for their founders' and other specified souls.
Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation than its model. For while
at New College only twenty out of seventy fellows were to study law
instead of arts, philosophy and theology, at All Souls College sixteen
were to be "jurists" and only twenty-four "artists"; and while at New
College there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that there are
now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.

Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April 1443,
Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral on the north side
of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself erected in his lifetime.
There is what looks like an excellent contemporary portrait in one of
the windows of All Souls College, which is figured in the _Victoria
County History_ for Hampshire, ii. 262.      (A. F. L.)




CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICHEN, an ancient ruined city of Yucatan, Mexico,
situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name is derived from that of the
Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan stock, which formerly inhabited the
city, and _chichen_, having reference probably to two wells or pools
which doubtless originally supplied the inhabitants with water and are
still in existence. The history of the city is unknown, though it is
regarded as probable that it preserved its independence long after the
Spaniards had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area
covered by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are
found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA: _Archaeology_.)




CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER, BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy
of Ireland, second son of Sir John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by
Gertrude, daughter of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at
Raleigh in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He
commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and is said to have
served under Drake in his expedition of 1595. Having seen further
service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at the end of 1598, and was
appointed by the earl of Essex to the governorship of Carrickfergus.
When Essex returned to England, Chichester rendered valuable service
under Mountjoy in the war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in
1601 Mountjoy recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as
the fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster. On the
15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy of Ireland. He
announced his policy in a proclamation wherein he abolished the
semi-feudal rights of the native Irish chieftains, substituting for them
fixed dues, while their tenants were to become dependent "wholly and
immediately upon his majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains
resented this summary interference with their ancient social
organization, and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised
measures against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled to
take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was moderate and
enlightened in his views on this matter, and it was through his
influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic policy was relaxed in
1607. Meantime his difficulties with the Irish tribal leaders remained
unsolved. But in 1607, by "the flight of the Earls" (see O'NEILL), he
was relieved of the presence of the two formidable Ulster chieftains,
the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell. Chichester's policy for dealing with
the situation thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls
among Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of Ulster
as actually carried out was much less favourable and just to the native
population than the lord-deputy desired. In 1613 Chichester was raised
to the peerage as Baron Chichester of Belfast, and in the following year
he went to England to give an account of the state of Ireland. On his
return to Ireland he again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy
against the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and
although he was to some extent successful, it was probably owing to his
opposition to this policy that he was recalled in November 1614. The
king, however, told him "You may rest assured that you do leave that
place with our very good grace and acceptation of your services"; and he
was given the post of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in
retirement for some years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in
the following year he became a member of the privy council. He died on
the 19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.

Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot and widow
of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no children, and his title
became extinct at his death. The heir to his estates was his brother Sir
Edward Chichester (d. 1648), governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was
created Baron Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of
Carrickfergus. This nobleman's eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who
distinguished himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the
rebellion of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was
succeeded in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th
earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage of Great
Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of Ireland) in
1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall in the peerage of
Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of Donegall is his descendant.

  See S.R. Gardiner in _Dict. Nat. Biog_. and _History of England,
  1603-1642_ (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, _History of Ireland,
  1599-1603_ (Dublin, 1735).    (R. J. M.)




CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from London by the London,
Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain
at the foot of a spur of the South Downs, a mile from the head of
Chichester Harbour, an inlet of the English Channel. The cathedral
church of the Holy Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th
century, after the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in
1075. The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and
1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the 13th
century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first great builder, and
was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204). Norman work appears in the nave
(arcade and triforium), choir (arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much
very beautiful Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the
eastern part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century.
The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the possession of
a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful Perpendicular structure
with the top storey octagonal. The principal modern restorations are the
upper part of the north-west tower, which copies the Early English work
of that on the south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which
had been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but
collapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed with
scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady chapel at the
east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly restored; the
library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the cloisters are
Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's palace retains an
Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft. long within, 131 ft.
across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the nave with its double aisles.
The height of the spire is 277 ft.

At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands the market
cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate Perpendicular style,
built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the finest of its kind in the
United Kingdom. The hospital of St Mary was founded in the 12th century,
but the existing buildings are in a style transitional from Early
English to Decorated. Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other
ancient buildings are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of
which Roman materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the sculptor
Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly a Grey Friars'
chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate leading into the cathedral
close; and the Vicars College. The city retains a great part of its
ancient walls, which have a circuit of about a mile and a half, and, at
least in part, follow the line of Roman fortifications. The principal
modern buildings, besides churches and chapels, are the council house,
corn exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop Story. There
is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable agricultural
trade, with breweries and tanneries. A canal connects with Chichester
Harbour. The diocese includes the whole county of Sussex except a few
parishes, with very small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal
borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
1538 acres.

The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum or Regni. Many
inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been found, and part of the
medieval walls contain a Roman cave. An interesting inscription from
this site is preserved at Goodwood. Situated on one Roman road in direct
connexion with London and another leading from east to west, Chichester
(_Cissaceaster_, _Cicestre_) remained of considerable importance under
the South Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here. Though
Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two burgages in Chichester
and a charter of Henry I. mentions the borough, the earliest extant
charter is that granted by Stephen, confirming to the burgesses their
customs and rights of the borough and gild merchant as they had them in
the time of his grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
III. the fee farm rent was £38: 10s., but this was reduced by a charter
of 10 Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and skins being
reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that the Sussex county court
should be held at Chichester, and this was confirmed in the following
year. Confirmations of the previous charters were also granted by Edward
III., Richard II., Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the
mayor and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court of
record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters were
also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and Mary, and
Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under a mayor and aldermen.
Since 1295, when it first returned a member, Chichester has been
regularly represented in parliament. Throughout the middle ages
Chichester was a place of great commercial importance, Edward III.
establishing a wool staple here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I.
and Henry VII, Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest for fish
in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of October are still
held.

  See _Victoria County History, Sussex_; Alexander Hay, _History of
  Chichester_ (Chichester, 1804).




CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee river, which it
joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It gives its name to the great
battle of Chickamauga in the American Civil War, fought on the 19-20th
of September 1863, between the Federal army of the Cumberland under
Major-General W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army in 1863 see
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre had brought the army
of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army
lay on the Tennessee at and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by
the enemy to manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in
the upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan of
operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of Chattanooga,
and the main body secretly crossed the river about Stevenson and
Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was mountainous, the roads few
and poor, and the Federals had to take full supplies of food, forage and
ammunition with them, but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops
were in good hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were
intensified by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment
the army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A. McD.
McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine, another under
Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's Cove. The presence of Federal
masses in Lookout Valley caused Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once,
and the object of the manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to
the want of good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at Dug Gap, on the
11th, against the flank guard of Bragg's army, and at the time McCook
was far away to the south, and Crittenden's corps, which had occupied
Chattanooga on the 9th, was also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but
Rosecrans, like every other commander under whom he served, placed
unbounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far to
disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had at last
collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga. But Bragg
had now received heavy reinforcements, and lay, concentrated for battle,
on the other side of the Creek.

[Illustration: CHICKAMAUGA]

The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of September) had
little influence on its course. Both armies lay in the plain, the two
lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention was to force his attack home
on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting him off from Chattanooga and
throwing him back into the mountain country whence he had come. On the
19th a serious action took place between the Confederate right and
Rosecrans' left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The
Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard upon
Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One of the divisions
detached from the centre for this purpose was by inadvertence taken out
of the first line, and before the gap could be filled the Confederate
central attack, led by Longstreet and Hood, the fighting generals of
Lee's army, and carried out by veteran troops from the Virginian
battlefields, cut the Federal army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated
on the Federal right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its
fate. Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of
his army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing in a
semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville, resisted
for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army. Rosecrans in
the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the rear near Chattanooga
itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent itself uselessly on the heroic
divisions under Thomas, who remained on the field till night and then
withdrew in good order to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st,
imposing respect upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had
re-established order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga,
whither Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign
see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a severity in
the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War. Of 70,000
Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and wounded, and the
Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000. The battlefield has been
converted into a national park, and was used during the Spanish American
War (1898) as a place of mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.




CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock, now
settled in the western part of Oklahoma. Their former range was northern
Mississippi and portions of Tennessee. According to their own tradition
and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the
Creeks and Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that name.
Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the first they were
hostile to the French colonists. With the English, on the other hand,
their relations were more satisfactory. In 1786 they made a treaty with
the United States; and in 1793 they assisted the whites in their
operations against the Creeks. In the early years of the 19th century
part of their territory was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion
of the tribe migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the 6,442,400
acres of which they were still possessed, and entered into a treaty with
the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe. In 1855, however, they
effected a separation of this union, with which they had soon grown
dissatisfied, and by payment to the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a
complete right to their present territory. In the Civil War they joined
the Confederates and suffered in consequence; but their rights were
restored by the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000
acres; and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
independent government consisting of a governor, a senate, and a house
of representatives; but tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The
Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered 4826 in 1900, and with the
fully admitted "citizens," i.e. the freed slaves and adopted whites, the
whole nation amounted to some 10,000.

  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).




CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W. of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900)
3209; (1907) 7862, including 1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is
served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific and the Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a
very fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products are
Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock. The city has
various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed oil, lumber,
furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was founded in 1892 and was
chartered as a city in 1899.




CHICKEN-POX (Syn. _varicella_, a Low Latin diminutive of _variola_), a
specific contagious disease characterized by an eruption of vesicles in
the skin. The disease usually occurs in epidemics, and is one of
childhood, the patients being generally between two and six years old.
The incubation period is from ten to fifteen days; there are practically
no prodromal symptoms, the only indication being a slight amount of
fever for some twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its
appearance. A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either
on the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these develop
into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in another
thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the fourth day these
vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall off, leaving as a rule
no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first three days, so that at the
end of that time they can be seen in all stages of growth and decay. The
eruption is most marked on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and
limbs, and on the mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The
temperature begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a
certain slight amount may persist after the disappearance of all
symptoms. It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very
favourable course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare.
One attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one
individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light, and the
patient should be prevented from scratching the spots, which would lead
to ulceration and scarring. After the first few days there is no
necessity to confine the patient to bed. In the large majority of cases,
it is easy to distinguish the disease from smallpox, but in certain
patients it is very difficult. The chief points in the differential
diagnosis are as follows. (1) In chicken-pox the rash is distributed
chiefly on the trunk, and less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles
are oval, whereas in smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are
also more superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty
feeling of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules are usually
monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.




CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) 10,868.
Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered by the river Lirio, and
sheltered, on the north and south, by low hills covered with vines and
plantations. It faces the gulf of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild
climate and pleasant surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of
the richer Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many
visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana la Vieja,
the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S., the battlefield
of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas Graham (Lord Lynedoch)
defeated the French under Marshal Victor, on the 5th of March 1811.




CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on
the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Chicopee
river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167,
of whom 8139 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is
served by the Boston & Maine railway. The city, which has an area of
about 25 sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee
Falls, Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on
both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less than 3
m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The most important
products are cotton goods (two large factories having, together, about
200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially the Stevens rifles), tools,
rubber and elastic goods, sporting goods, swords, automobiles and
agricultural implements. Here, too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in
which some of the finest monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country
have been cast, including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The
bronze casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began the
manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value of the city's
factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase of 43.2% in five
years. There is a public library. The municipality owns and operates the
water-works system and the electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled
about 1638, was set off from Springfield as an independent township in
1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the home
of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian word meaning
"cedar-tree" or "birch-bark place."




CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, _Cichorium Intybus_ (natural
order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great Britain,
occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by road-sides. It has
a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy stem rising to a height
of 2 or 3 ft.--the leaves around the base being lobed and toothed, not
unlike those of the dandelion. The flower heads are of a bright blue
colour, few in number, and measure nearly an inch and a half across.
Chicory is cultivated much more extensively on the continent of
Europe--in Holland, Belgium, France and Germany--than in Great Britain;
and as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of, or
addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as salads; and
the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop which is greedily
consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is chiefly in its first
capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory is employed. A large
proportion of the chicory root used for this purpose is obtained from
Belgium and other neighbouring continental countries; but a considerable
quantity is cultivated in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the
preparation of chicory the older stout white roots are selected, and
after washing they are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In
this condition the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it
is roasted till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute of
its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory possess
any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their peculiar virtues to
coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for over a hundred years it has
been successfully used as a substitute for or recognized addition to
coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been
tried for the same purpose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable
and harmless. It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and
body. It is at least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium
especially its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.

The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a winter salad
known by the name of _Barbe de capucin_. When intended for winter use,
chicory is sown in May or June, commonly in drills, and the plants are
thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at first the leaves grow very strong,
they are cut off, perhaps in the middle of August, about an inch from
the ground, so as to promote the production of new leaves, and check the
formation of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants are
raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the roots are
also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely together in
boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when needful. When frost
comes on, the boxes are protected by any kind of litter and haulm. As
the salad is wanted, they are removed into some place having a
moderately increased temperature, and where there is no light. Each box
affords two crops of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for
cutting when about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young
leaves of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich
mould, or in boxes in a heat of from 55° to 60°, giving a gentle
watering as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight
after sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.

In Belgium a variety of chicory called _Witloef_ is much preferred as a
salad to the French _Barbe de capucin_. The seeds are sown and the
plants thinned out like those of the ordinary sort. They are eventually
planted in light soil, in succession, from the end of October to
February, at the bottom of trenches a foot or more in depth, and covered
over with from 2 to 3 ft. of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks,
according to the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be
cut before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced in
frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same way as
sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten with butter,
and throughout the Continent the roots are stored for use as salads
during winter.

  See also ENDIVE (_Cichorium endivia_).




CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India, in the South Arcot
district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and 151 m. S. of Madras by rail.
Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas at Chidambaram are the oldest in the
south of India, and portions of them are gems of art. Here is supposed
to have been the northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the
successive capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum and
Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is said to have
been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who came south on a
pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the temple tank; upwards of
60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every December. It contains a "hall of
a thousand pillars," one of numerous such halls in India, the exact
number of pillars in this case being 984; each is a block of solid
granite, and the roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three
hundred of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
the temple enclosure.




CHIEF (from Fr. _chef_, head, Lat. _caput_), the head or upper part of
anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the escutcheon,
occupying one-third of the whole. When applied to a leading personage, a
head man or one having the highest authority, the term chief or
chieftain (Med. Lat. _capitanus_, O. Fr. _chevetaine_) is principally
confined to the leader of a clan or tribe. The phrase "in chief" (Med.
Lat. _in capite_) is used in feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief
direct from the lord paramount (see FEUDALISM).




CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in Bavaria,
lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Inn
(to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach. With a length of 6 and
a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about 33 sq. m., and contains three
islands, Herrenwörth, Frauenwörth and Krautinsel. The first, which has a
circumference of 6½ m. and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the
romantic castle which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat
of a bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south sides,
but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which command
beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear and it is well
stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights are strictly
preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway from Rosenheim to
Salzburg skirts the southern shores.




CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name and of the
provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in 99° 0' E., 18° 46'
N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying walls, lies on the right
bank of the river Me Ping, one of the branches of the Me Nam, in a plain
800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has
streets intersecting at right angles, and an enceinte within which is
the palace of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of
the river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian
Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of converts and
has done much good educational work. Chieng Mai, which the Burmese have
corrupted into Zimmé, by which name it is known to many Europeans, has
long been an important trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants
from the north and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west
and south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms are engaged.
The total value of the import and export trade of the Bayap division
amounts to about £2,500,000 a year. The Siamese high commissioner of
Bayap division has his headquarters in Chieng Mai, and though the
hereditary chief continues as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in
the other Lao states of Nan, Prè, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which
make up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
official and his staff. The government forest department, founded in
1896, has done good work in the division, and the conservator of forests
has his headquarters in Chieng Mai. The headquarters of an army division
are also situated here. A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where,
in addition to the ordinary law courts, there is an international court
having jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.
The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many Shans,
a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty Europeans. Hill tribes
(Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains in large numbers.

Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom, which, at
one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma and then to Siam, and
later broken up into a number of states, has finally become a provincial
division of Siam. In 1902 a rising of discontented Shans took place in
Bayap which at one time seemed serious, several towns being attacked and
Chieng Mai itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the
malcontents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included
the commissioner of Prè and a European officer of gendarmerie.




CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the town of Turin. Pop.
(1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune). Its Gothic cathedral, founded in
1037 and reconstructed in 1405, is the largest in Piedmont, and has a
13th century octagonal baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of
Turin in the 9th and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th
century. In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy
to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came under
the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it was made into a
principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an early centre of trade and
manufacture; and in the middle of the 15th century produced about
100,000 pieces of cotton goods per annum.

  See L. Cibrario, _Delle storie di Chieri_ (Turin, 1855).




CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of
Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome by rail,
and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901) 26,368. It is
situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. from the railway
station, from which it is reached by an electric tramway. It commands a
splendid view of the Apennines on every side except the east, where the
Adriatic is seen. It is an active modern town, upon the site of the
ancient _Teate Marrucinorum_ (q.v.), with woollen and cotton
manufactories and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of
Chieti dates from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop.
The cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of the
exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is, however, fine.
The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals. Close by is the town
hall, which contains a small picture gallery, in which, in 1905, was
held an important exhibition of ancient Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis
family possesses a private collection of some importance. To the north
of Chieti is the octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in
1317, which is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple
of Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its name
from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part of the duchy of
Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801, but was soon rebuilt and
became the seat of a count. The Normans made it the capital of the
Abruzzi.




CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives), a seaport
of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Chih-li, in the
province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of
the city of Têng-chow-fu. It was formerly quite a small place, and had
only the rank of an unwalled village; but it was chosen as the port of
Têng-chow, opened to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin,
and it is now the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the
centre of a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though most of the
inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the lowest class, the
houses are for the most part well and solidly built of stone. The
foreign settlement occupies a position between the native town and the
sea, which neither affords a convenient access for shipping nor allows
space for any great extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto
been steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large
hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the place
as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the community are
supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church. Though the harbour
is deep and extensive, and possessed of excellent anchorage, large
vessels have to be moored at a considerable distance from the shore.
Chi-fu has continued to show fair progress as a place of trade, but the
total volume is inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies.
In 1880 the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in 1899
they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1904 to £4,909,908. In 1895 there
entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage of 835,248 tons,
while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to 1842, representing a
tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports are mainly woollen and cotton
goods, iron and opium, and the exports include bean cake, bean oil,
peas, raw silk, straw-braid, walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli,
vegetables and dried fruits. Communication with the interior is only by
roads, which are extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by
pack animals. From its healthy situation and the convenience of its
anchorage, Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of
the European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has at times
been an important coaling station. It lies in close proximity to Korea,
Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it shared to some extent in the
excitement to which the military and naval operations in these quarters
gave rise. The Chi-fu convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas
Wade and Li-Hung-Chang.




CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of Sienese extraction
descended from the counts of Ardenghesca. The earliest authentic mention
of them is in the 13th century, and they first became famous in the
person of Agostino Chigi (d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built
the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments; Pope
Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and gave him the
privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) arms with those of the
Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope (Alexander VII.) in 1655,
conferred the Roman patriciate on his family, and created his nephew
Agostino prince of Farnese and duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold
I. created the latter _Reichsfürst_ (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in
1659. In 1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a very great
importance on the death of every pope. On the marriage in 1735 of
another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with Giulia Albani, heiress of the
Albani, a Venetian patrician family, said to be of Albanian origin, her
name was added to that of Chigi. The family owns large estates at Siena.

  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. (Berlin,
  1868); _Almanach de Gotha_.




CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping parliamentary
division of Essex, England; with stations (Chigwell Lane and Chigwell)
on two branches of the Great Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London.
Pop. (1901) 2508. The old village church of St Mary, principally
Perpendicular, has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of
the Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south and
east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of Chigwell
appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery of the
neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of visitors and of
residents from London, is described in Dickens's novel, _Barnaby Rudge_,
and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's "Maypole," still stands. The old
grammar school, founded by Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d.
1631), whose fine memorial brass is in St Mary's church, has become one
of the minor modern institutions of the English public school type.
William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead.




CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of China, in which is
situated Peking, the capital of the empire. It contains eleven
prefectural cities, and occupies an area of 58,950 sq. m. The population
is 29,400,000, the vast majority of whom are resident in the plain
country. This province forms part of the great delta plain of China
proper, 20,000 sq. m. of which are within the provincial boundaries; the
remainder of the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define
its northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary the
Hun-ho ("muddy river"), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko, and other
streams having their sources in mountains of Shan-si and other ranges.
It is bounded E. by the Gulf of Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by
Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The proportion of Mahommedans among the population
is very large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000
Mahommedan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of heat and
cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of December, January
and February the rivers are frozen up, and even the Gulf of Chih-li is
fringed with a broad border of ice. There are four rivers of some
importance in the province: the Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in
the mountains in Mongolia and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a
junction with the Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in
the mountains on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a
south-easterly course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which
point it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m.
above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after running
a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties itself in the
same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which rises in Mongolia,
enters the province on the north-east after passing to the west of
Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p'ing Fu in its course (which is
south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from thence winds its way to the
north-eastern boundary of the Gulf of Chih-li. The province contains
three lakes of considerable size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu,
which lies in 37° 40' N. and 115° 20' E.; the second in importance is
one which is situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the
Tu-lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high roads
radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of Süan-hwa Fu, which
passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu K'ow; another, which enters
Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow to the north-east, and after continuing
that course as far as Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to
Dolonnor; a third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing
Fu to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates on the
coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly direction to
Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. The mountain ranges to
the north of the province abound with coal, notably at Chai-tang,
T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western
Hills. "At Chai-tang," wrote Baron von Richthofen, "I was surprised to
walk over a regular succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of
which, estimating it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the
lowest to the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is
anthracite, as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of
greater value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Süan-hwa Fu
coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places above
named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in different parts
of the province, and hot and warm springs are very common at the foot of
the hills along the northern and western edges of the province. The
principal agricultural products are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet,
maize, pulse and potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples, plums,
apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is the Treaty Port of
the province.




CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded N. and N.E. by
the United States (New Mexico and Texas), E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango,
and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora. Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area,
87,802 sq. m. The surface of the state is in great part an elevated
plateau, sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side,
however, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which form
elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain extending from
the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite destitute of vegetation
where irrigation is not used. There is little rainfall in this region
and the climate is hot and dry. The more elevated plateaus and valleys
have the heavier rainfall, but the average for the state is barely 39
in.; an impermeable clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil,
and the bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolsón de
Mapimí depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once considered to
be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with irrigation have shown
its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion of the narrow valleys
of the sierras on the west into irrigation reservoirs promises to
reclaim a considerable part of its area. The only river of consequence
is the Conchos, which flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande
across the whole length of the state. In the north there are several
small streams flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always be a
serious obstacle to its development outside the districts where
irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable to the
production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo, cotton and grapes, from
which wine and brandy are made. The principal grape-producing district
is in the vicinity of Ciudad Juárez. Stock-raising is an important
industry in the mountainous districts of the west, where there is
excellent pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal
industry of the state, however, is mining--its mineral resources
including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The silver mines
of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and include the famous
mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla, Cosihuiriachic, Jesús
María, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more
than one hundred of these mines, and the total annual yield at the end
of the 19th century was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed
from north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are short
branches to some of the mining districts.

Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva Viscaya, with
Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern provinces, known as the
Provincias Internas, were separated from the viceroyalty, and in 1786
the provinces were reorganized as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not
separated from Durango until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow
Spanish authority in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his
lieutenants were captured and executed, after which the province
remained passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks in
Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to Juárez. The
principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of
the state capital, in a rich mining district (pop. 14,748 in 1900),
Ciudad Juárez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E. of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).




CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state, on the
Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City and 225 m. S. by E.
of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900) 30,405. The city stands in a
beautiful valley opening northward and hemmed in on all other sides by
spurs of the Sierra Madre. It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its
climate is mild and healthy. The city is laid out regularly, with broad
streets, and a handsome plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his
companions of the revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most
noteworthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of San
Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the best
specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was built, it is
said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of the Santa
Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the government palace, the
Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit College (now occupied by a modern
institution of the same character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in
the 18th century. Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway,
and has tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation of
the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo
mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance is
agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing is making good
progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics by modern methods.
The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods are old industries in
Chihuahua, but the introduction of American skill and capital toward the
end of the 19th century placed them on an entirely new footing. The
manufacture of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.

Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining town, and was
made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua.
Because of the rich mines in its vicinity it soon became one of the most
prosperous towns in northern Mexico, although the state was constantly
raided by hostile Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000.
The war of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency of
General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the United States,
Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March 1847, by Colonel A.W.
Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March by General Price. In 1864
President Juárez made the city his provisional capital for a short time.




CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province of India. It
is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the Indus, about 50 m. below
Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It was occupied by a British force
early in 1893, when a determined attack was made on the place by the
Kohistanis from the Indus valley districts to the south-west, aided by
contingents from Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus.
Its importance consists in its position with reference to the
Kashmir-Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected
with Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its command
of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit from the Punjab
frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil pass. By the Kashmir route
Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would
bring it 100 m. nearer, but the unsettled condition of the country
through which the road passes has been a bar to its general use.




CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; _Erythema pernio_), a mild form of frostbite,
affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing a painful
inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of the affected part.
The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology are (1) that the lesions
occur in the extremities of the circulation, and (2) that they are
usually started by rapid changes from heat to cold or vice versa. The
treatment is both general and local. In the general treatment, if a
history of blanching fingers (fingers or hands going "dead") can be
obtained, the chilblains may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's
disease, and these improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac
tonics are often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, _e.g._ calcium lactate
or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer in most cases.
The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and avoid extremes of heat
and cold. In the local treatment, two drugs are of great value in the
early congestive stage--ichthyol and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in
lanoline spread on linen and worn at night, often dispels an attack at
the beginning. Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill
in its use. It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins,
stronger for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by
lanoline. If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
changed, soon cures:--Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol [minim]x,
pulveris zinci oxidi [drachm]iv, vaseline [ounce]ss.




CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a Wiltshire man,
who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith, became himself a London
goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of
another goldsmith named William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's
stepfather, Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time
the business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers. This was
the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up the business of a
goldsmith and confined himself to that of a banker. He inherited some
wealth and was very successful in business; he was jeweller to the
king, and lent considerable sums of money to the government. Being a
freeman of the city of London, Child was elected a member of the court
of common council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691 and as lord
mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began about this time. In 1698
he was chosen member of parliament for Devizes and in 1702 for the city
of London, and was again returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died
on the 4th of October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought Osterley
Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant the earl of
Jersey.

Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died in 1721.
Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor of London in 1732,
and a director of the East India Company. He was chosen member of
parliament for the city of London in 1722, and was member for Middlesex
from 1727 until his death. After the death of the younger Sir Francis at
Fulham on the 20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his
brother Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was at first
conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet Street, London; and
the present bank occupies the site formerly covered by the Marygold and
the adjacent Devil tavern.




CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and educationist, was
born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825. He graduated at Harvard in
1846, taking the highest rank in his class in all subjects; was tutor in
mathematics in 1846-1848; and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in
history, political economy and English. After two years of study in
Europe, in 1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor of
rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English drama (having
edited _Four Old Plays_ in 1848) and Germanic philology, the latter at
Berlin and Göttingen during a leave of absence, 1849-1853; and he took
general editorial supervision of a large collection of the British
poets, published in Boston in 1853 and following years. He edited
Spenser (5 vols., Boston, 1855), and at one time planned an edition of
Chaucer, but contented himself with a treatise, in the _Memoirs of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences_ for 1863, entitled "Observations
on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did much to
establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and scansion as now
generally understood. His largest undertaking, however, grew out of an
original collection, in his British Poets series, of _English and
Scottish Ballads_, selected and edited by himself, in eight small
volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward the leisure of his life--much
increased by his transfer, in 1876, to the new professorship of
English--was devoted to the comparative study of British vernacular
ballads. He accumulated, in the university library, one of the largest
folklore collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than
printed sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative hearing to
popular versions still surviving. At last his final collection was
published as _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, at first in ten
parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto volumes, which remain the
authoritative treasury of their subject. Professor Child worked--and
overworked--to the last, dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896,
having completed his task save for a general introduction and
bibliography. A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work
by his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge.




CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact if not in
name the first governor-general of the British settlements in India, was
born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his uncle, the chief of
the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was appointed chief of the East
India Company's affairs at Surat and Bombay, while at the same time his
brother, Sir Josiah Child (q.v.), was governor of the company at home.
The two brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs of
the company through the period of struggle between the Moguls and
Mahrattas. They have been credited by history with the change from
unarmed to armed trade on the part of the company; but as a matter of
fact both of them were loth to quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out
with Aurangzeb in 1689, but in the following year Child had to sue for
peace, one of the conditions being that he should be expelled from
India. He escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.




CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant, economist and governor
of the East India Company, was born in London in 1630, the second son of
Richard Child, a London merchant of old family. After serving his
apprenticeship in the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his
own account at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the
Commonwealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable fortune,
and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India Company, his
interest in India being accentuated by the fact that his brother John
(q.v.) was making his career there. He was returned to parliament in
1659 for Petersfield; and in later years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678)
and for Ludlow (1685-1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy,
both by speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to the right
of restricting competition with its trade, brought him to the notice of
the shareholders, and he became a director in 1677, and, subsequently,
deputy-governor and governor. In this latter capacity he was for a
considerable time virtually the sole ruler of the company, and directed
its policy as if it were his own private business. He and his brother
have been credited with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but
the actual renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor Sir Joseph
Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He died on the 22nd of
June 1699. Child made several important contributions to the literature
of economics; especially _Brief Observations concerning Trade and the
Interest of Money_ (1668), and _A New Discourse of Trade_ (1668 and
1690). He was a moderate in those days of the "mercantile system," and
has sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development of
the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various proposals
for improving British trade by following Dutch example, and advocated a
low rate of interest as the "_causa causans_ of all the other causes of
the riches of the Dutch people." This low rate of interest he thought
should be created and maintained by public authority. Child, whilst
adhering to the doctrine of the balance of trade, observed that a people
cannot always sell to foreigners without ever buying from them, and
denied that the export of the precious metals was necessarily
detrimental. He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous
population, and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated the
reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade with her
colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was created Viscount
Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.

  See also Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Grant, _Sketch
  of the History of the East India Company_ (1813); D. Macpherson,
  _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); B. Willson, _Ledger and Sword_ (1903).
      (T. A. I.)




CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was born at Medford,
Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802. She was educated at an
academy in her native town and by her brother Convers Francis
(1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and from 1842 to 1863 Parkman
professor in the Harvard Divinity School. Her first stories, _Hobomok_
(1824) and _The Rebels_ (1825), were popular successes. She was a
schoolmistress until 1828, when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874),
a brilliant but erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834
she edited _The Juvenile Miscellany_, the first children's monthly
periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her husband
began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery cause, and in 1833
she published _An Appeal for that Class of Americans called Africans_, a
stirring portrayal of the evils of slavery, and an argument for
immediate abolition, which had a powerful influence in winning recruits
to the anti-slavery cause. Henceforth her time was largely devoted to
the anti-slavery cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she
edited the _Anti-Slavery Standard_ in New York City. After the Civil War
she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights. She died
at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1880. In addition to
the books above mentioned, she wrote many pamphlets and short stories
and _The (American) Frugal Housewife_ (1829), one of the earliest
American books on domestic economy, _The Mother's Book_ (1831), a
pioneer cook-book republished in England and Germany, _The Girls' Own
Book_ (1831), _History of Women_ (2 vols., 1832), _Good Wives_ (1833),
_The Anti-Slavery Catechism_ (1836), _Philothea_ (1836), a romance of
the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, _Letters from New York_ (2
vols., 1843-1845), _Fact and Fiction_ (1847), _The Power of Kindness_
(1851), _Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life_ (1853), _The Progress of
Religious Ideas through Successive Ages_ (3 vols., 1855), _Autumnal
Leaves_ (1857), _Looking Toward Sunset_ (1864), _The Freedman's Book_
(1865), _A Romance of the Republic_ (1867), and _Aspirations of the
World_ (1878).

  See _The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical
  Introduction by J.G. Whittier_ (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W.
  Higginson's _Contemporaries_ (Boston, 1899).




CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings, generally
below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative of "parent," and
applies to either sex, though some early dialectical uses point to a
certain restriction to a girl. The word is derived from the A.S. _cild_,
an old Teutonic word found in English only, in other Teutonic languages
_kind_ and its variants being used, usually derived from the
Indo-European root _ken_, seen in Gr. [greek: genos], Lat. _genus_, and
Eng. "kin"; _cild_ has been held to be a modification of the same root,
but the true root is _kilth_, seen in Goth. _kilthei_, womb, an origin
which appears in the expressions "child-birth," "to be with child," and
the like; the plural in A.S. was _cild_, and later _cildru_, which in
northern M.E. became _childre or childer_, a form dialectically extant,
and in southern English _childeren_ or _children_ (with the plural
termination -en, as in "brethren"). There are several particular uses of
"child" in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the
"Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members of a race,
as in "children of Abraham," and also to express origin, giving a
description of character, as "children of darkness." During the 13th and
14th centuries "child" was used, in a sense almost amounting to a title
of dignity, of a young man of noble birth, probably preparing for
knighthood. In the _York Mysteries_ of about 1440 (quoted in the _New
English Dictionary_) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring
to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of Livy (ii.
124) "than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit Caius Mucius." The
spelling "childe" is frequent in modern usage to indicate its archaic
meaning. Familiar instances are in the line of an old ballad quoted in
_King Lear_, "childe Roland to the dark tower came," and in Byron's
_Childe Harold_. With this use may be compared the Spanish and
Portuguese _Infante_ and _Infanta_, and the early French use of _Valet_
(q.v.).

_Child-study._--The physical, psychological and educational development
of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided material in recent
years for what has come to be regarded as almost a distinct part of
comparative anthropological or sociological science, and the literature
of adolescence (q.v.) and of "child-study" in its various aspects has
attained considerable proportions. In England the British Child Study
Association was founded in 1894, its official organ being the
_Paidologist_, while similar work is done by the Childhood Society, and,
to a certain extent, by the Parents' National Educational Union (which
issues the _Parents' Review_). In America, where specially valuable work
has been done, several universities have encouraged the study (notably
Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John Dewey); and
Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has led to elaborate inquiries,
the principal periodical for the movement being the _Pedagogical
Seminary_. The impetus to this study of the child's mind and capacities
was given by the classic work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H.
Pestalozzi, and F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
much further, notably W.T. Preyer (_The Mind of the Child_, 1881), whose
psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief pioneers in new
methods of investigation. Other authorities of first-rate importance
(their chief works only being given here) are J. Sully (_Studies of
Childhood_, 1896), Earl Barnes (_Studies in Education_, 1896, 1902),
J.M. Baldwin (_Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, 1895),
Sigismund (_Kind und Welt_, 1897), A.F. Chamberlain (_The Child_, 1900),
G. Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader
in America of such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down
(_Practical Child Study_, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (_Fundamentals of
Child-study_, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (_Psychology of
Childhood_, 5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth
particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond's excellent summary,
_Introduction to Child Study_ (1907), which deals succinctly with
methods and results; Irving King's _Psychology of Child Development_
(1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof. David R. Major's _First Steps
in Mental Growth_ (1906); and Miss M. Shinn's _Notes an the Development
of a Child_ (1893) and Mrs Louise E. Hogan's _Study of a Child_ (1898),
which are noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of important
material has been collected and analysed, and a number of conclusions
suggested which bear both on psychology and the science of education;
but it must be borne in mind, as regards a great deal of the voluminous
literature of the subject, that it is often more pertinent to general
psychology and hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the
essential nature of a child--whatever "_a_ child" generically may be as
the special object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a
transition stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern
"child students" to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
child with a _parti pris_, or to exaggerate child-study--which is really
interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards full human
equipment--as though it involved the discovery of some distinct form of
animal, of separate value on its own account.

_Growth._--Into the psychical characteristics and development of the
child and all the interesting educational problems involved it is
impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the works cited
above. But a knowledge of the more important features of normal physical
development has a constant importance. Some of these, as matters of
comparative physiology or pathology, are dealt with in other articles in
this work. One of these chief matters of interest is weight and height,
and this is naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the British
average for healthy children may here be followed. At birth the average
weight of a baby is a little over 7 lb and the length about 20 in. The
following are the averages for weight and height, taking the age in
years of the child at the last birthday:--

  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
  |  Age.  | Height, in inches. | Weight, in pounds. |
  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
  |        |   Girls  |   Boys  |   Girls  |   Boys  |
  |        |          |         |          |         |
  |   1    |    28.7  |   29    |   19.8   |   20.5  |
  |   2    |    32.5  |   32.5  |   25.5   |   26.5  |
  |   3    |    35    |   35    |   30     |   31.2  |
  |   4    |    38    |   38    |   34     |   35    |
  |   5    |    40.5  |   41    |   39.2   |   41.2  |
  |   6    |    42.8  |   44    |   41.7   |   44.4  |
  |   7    |    44.5  |   46    |   47.5   |   49.7  |
  |   8    |    46.6  |   47    |   52.1   |   54.9  |
  |   9    |    48.7  |   49    |   55.5   |   60.4  |
  |  10    |    51    |   51.8  |   62     |   67.5  |
  |  11    |    53.1  |   53.5  |   68     |   72    |
  |  12    |    55.6  |   55    |   76.4   |   76.7  |
  |  13    |    57.7  |   57    |   87.2   |   82.6  |
  |  14    |    59.8  |   59.3  |   96.7   |   92    |
  |  15    |    60.9  |   62    |  102.7   |  106    |
  +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+

  See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS; CHILDREN'S
  GAMES; INFANT; &c.




CHILDEBERT, the name of three Frankish kings.


CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis. In the
partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his share the town
of Paris, and the country to the north as far as the river Somme, and to
the west as far as the English Channel, with the Armorican peninsula. In
524, after the murder of Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the
cities of Chartres and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions
against the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share of the
spoils of that kingdom the towns of Mâcon, Geneva and Lyons. When
Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the Franks in
535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was guaranteed to Childebert
by his brothers. Childebert also made a series of expeditions against
the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he took possession of Pampeluna with the
help of his brother Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced
to retreat. From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious
relic, the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
Germain-des-Prés. He died without issue in 558, and was buried in the
abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been discovered.

  See "Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert à
  Saint-Germain-des-Prés," in the _Bulletin de la Société des
  Antiquaires_ (1887).


CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of Sigebert. When
his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert was taken from Paris by
Gundobald, one of his faithful _leudes_, to Metz, where he was
recognized as sovereign. He was then only five years old, and during his
long minority the power was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and
the nobles. Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy,
sought alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn. But
after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers occasioned
to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of Gundobald in 585,
Childebert threw himself unreservedly into the arms of Gontran. By the
pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert was recognized as Gontran's heir, and
with his uncle's help he quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded
in seizing the castle of Woëwre. Many attempts were made on his life by
Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance for her son
Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert annexed the
kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated seizing Clotaire's estates
and becoming sole king of the Franks. He died, however, in 595.
Childebert II. had had relations with the Byzantine empire, and fought
in 585 in the name of the emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.


CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the Merovingians. A
son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded his brother Clovis III. in
695, and reigned until 711.

  See B. Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige," in
  _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490.    (C. PF.)




CHILDERIC, the name of three Frankish kings.


CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded his
father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe he was
established around the town of Tournai, on lands which he had received
as a _foederatus_ of the Romans, and for some time he kept the peace
with his allies. About 463, in conjunction with the Roman general
Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths, who hoped to extend their
dominion along the banks of the Loire; after the death of Egidius he
assisted Count Paul in attempting to check an invasion of the Saxons.
Paul having perished in the struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from
some Saxons, followed them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and
massacred them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who wished
to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him. The stories of
his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight years in Thuringia
with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his return when a faithful
servant advised him that he could safely do so by sending to him half of
a piece of gold which he had broken with him; and of the arrival at
Tournai of Queen Basine, whom he married, are entirely legendary. After
the fall of the Western Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric
regarded himself as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in
481 and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (q.v.), afterwards
king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when numerous
precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a figure of the
king, were found.


CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of the Frankish
king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was proclaimed king of
Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III., ruled over the rest of the
dominions of Clovis. After the death of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler
of the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but
soon quarrelled with some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated
whilst hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.


CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king of the
Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for seven years when the
mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin the Short, decided in 743 to
recognize Childeric as king. We cannot say whose son he was, or what
bonds bound him to the Merovingian family. He took no part in public
business, which was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace.
When in 747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751 after
having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias that it were
better to name king him who possessed the power than him who possessed
it not. Childeric was dethroned and placed in the monastery of St Omer;
his son, Theuderich, was imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.

  See W. Junghans, _Die Geschichte der fränkischen Könige Childerich und
  Clodovech_ (Göttingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, _Anastasis Childerici I.
  Francorum regis_ (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, _Le Tombeau de
  Childeric I, roi des Francs_ (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire
  de France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).




CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British statesman, was born
in London on the 25th of June 1827. On leaving Cambridge he went out to
Australia (1850), and became a member of the government of Victoria, but
in 1857 returned to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering
parliament in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he
continued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in
1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers occupied
a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone ministries. He
was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871, and as such
inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health compelled his
resignation of office in 1871, but next year he returned to the ministry
as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. From 1880 to 1882 he was
secretary for war, a post he accepted somewhat unwillingly; and in that
position he had to bear the responsibility for the reforms which were
introduced into the war office under the parsimonious conditions which
were then part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the
Egyptian War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to less
advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the exchequer, and the
beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter year was the occasion
of the government's fall. Defeated at the general election at
Pontefract, he was returned as a Home Ruler (one of the few Liberals who
adopted this policy before Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South
Edinburgh, and was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the
first Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of
resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and died on the 29th of
January 1896, his last piece of work being the drafting of a report for
the royal commission on Irish financial relations, of which he was
chairman. Childers was a capable and industrious administrator of the
old Liberal school, and he did his best, in the political conditions
then prevailing, to improve the naval and military administration while
he was at the admiralty and war office. His own bent was towards
finance, but no striking reform is associated with his name. His most
ambitious effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in
1884, but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
subsequent conversion in 1888.

  The _Life_ (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting
  side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet.




CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental scholar, son of
the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at Nice, was born in 1838.
In 1860 he received an appointment in the civil service of Ceylon, which
he retained until 1864, when he was compelled to return to England owing
to ill-health. He had studied P[=a]li during his residence in Ceylon,
under Yátrámullé Unnánsé, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished a
life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first P[=a]li
text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a P[=a]li dictionary,
the first volume of which was published in 1872, and the second and
concluding volume in 1875. In the following year it was awarded the
Volney prize by the Institute of France, as being the most important
philological work of the year. He was a frequent contributor to the
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which he published the
_Mah[=a]-parinibb[=a]na Sutta_, the P[=a]li text giving the account of
the last days of Buddha's life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian
at the India Office, and in the following year he became the first
professor of P[=a]li and Buddhist literature at University College,
London. He died in London on the 25th of July 1876.




CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always in theory given to
children the same remedies as to adults for ill-usage, whether by their
parents or by others, and has never recognized the _patria potestas_ as
known to the earlier Roman law; and while powers of discipline and
chastisement have been regarded as necessarily incident to paternal
authority, the father is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done
to them. The only points in which infancy created a defect in civil
status were that infants were subject to the restraints on complete
freedom of action involved in their being in the legal custody of the
father, and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in amount and
severity to the nature of the fault committed and the age and mental
capacity of the child punished. But the court of chancery, in delegated
exercise of the authority of the sovereign as _parens patriae_, always
asserted the right to take from parents, and if necessary itself to
assume the wardship of children where parental rights were abused or
serious cruelty was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court
of Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as giving a
cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if attended by fatal
results rendered the parent liable to indictment for murder or
manslaughter.

The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children undoubtedly
changed considerably with the relaxation of the accepted standard of
severity in domestic or scholastic discipline and with the growth of new
ideas as to the duties of parents to children, which in their latest
developments tend enormously to enlarge the parental duties without any
corresponding increase of filial obligations.

Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment
legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common law came to
recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, bound under duty or
contract to supply necessaries to a child, unable by reason of its
tender years to provide for itself, wilfully neglected to supply them,
and thereby caused the death of the child or injury to its health,
although no actual assault had been committed. Questions have from time
to time arisen as to what could be regarded as necessary within this
rule; and quite apart from legislation, popular opinion has influenced
courts of justice in requiring more from parents and employers than used
to be required. But parliament has also intervened to punish abandonment
or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby their lives are
endangered, or their health has been or is likely to be permanently
injured (Offences against the Person Act of 1861, s. 27), and the
neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or servants (same act, s. 26,
and Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor
Law Amendment Act 1868, parents were rendered _summarily_ punishable who
wilfully neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their custody,
whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be seriously
injured. This enactment (now superseded by later legislation) made no
express exception in favour of parents who had not sufficient means to
do their duty without resort to the poor law, and was construed as
imposing criminal liability on parents whose peculiar religious tenets
caused them advisedly to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick
child.

The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for children
prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the subject than
in the institution of an effective system of police, whereby it became
possible to discover and repress cruelty punishable under the ordinary
law. It is quite inaccurate to say that children had very few rights in
England, or that animals were better protected. But before the
constitution of the present police force, and in the absence of any
proper system of public prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless
cases of neglect and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as
nobody's business, because there was no person ready to undertake in the
public interest the protection of the children of cruel or negligent
parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special object of
preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded in 1894 by a
more stringent act, which was repealed by the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded for the most part by the
Children Act 1908, which introduced many new provisions in the law
relating to children and specifically deals with the offence of
"cruelty" to them. This offence can only be committed by a person over
sixteen in respect of a child under sixteen of whom he has "custody,"
"charge" or "care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of
its parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, or of
its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that it is in the
charge of a person to whom the parent has committed such charge (e.g. a
schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a person who has actual
possession or control of it. Cruelty is defined as consisting in
assault, ill-treatment (falling short of actual assault), neglect,
abandonment or exposure of the child in a manner likely to cause
_unnecessary_ suffering or injury to health, including injury to or loss
of sight, hearing or limb, or any organ of the body or any mental
derangement; and the act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and
intentional, and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may
be punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender may be
sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly or
indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the death of the
child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted under the Friendly
Societies Acts. A parent or other person legally liable to maintain a
child or young person will be deemed to have "neglected" him by failure
to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in
the event of inability to provide such food, &c., by failure to take
steps to procure the same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.

These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes already
mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the provisions which
facilitate the taking of evidence of young children, in permitting poor
law authorities to prosecute at the expense of the rates, and in
permitting a constable on arresting the offender to take the child away
from the accused, and the court of trial on conviction to transfer the
custody of the child from the offender to some fit and willing person,
including any society or body corporate established for the reception of
poor children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The
provisions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only to
the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily injury
to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, kidnapping and
illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public performance. The act
of 1908 also makes an endeavour to check the heavy mortality of infants
through "overlaying,"[1] enacting that where it is proved that the death
of an infant under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst
the infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the influence
of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have neglected the child
in manner likely to cause injury to its health, as mentioned above. The
acts have been utilized with great zeal and on the whole with much
discretion by various philanthropic societies, whose members make it
their business to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all
classes in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter of the
28th of May 1895, for the purposes _inter alia_ of preventing the public
and private wrongs of children, and the corruption of their morals and
of taking action to enforce the laws for their protection.

The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against baby-farming
(q.v.). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 did not apply where only
one child was taken, but now by the act of 1908, where a person
undertakes for reward the nursing and maintenance of one or more infants
under the age of _seven_ years apart from their parents or having no
parents, he must give notice in writing to the local authority within
forty-eight hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is
already in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception of the
child. The notice to the local authority must state the name, sex, date
and place of birth of the infant, the name and address of the person
receiving the infant and of the person from whom the infant was
received. Notice must also be given of any change of address of the
person having the care of the infant, or of the death of the infant, or
of its removal to the care of some other person, whose name and address
must also be given. It is the duty of local authorities to provide for
the carrying-out in their districts of that portion of the act which
refers to nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants'
protection visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c. Relatives or
legal guardians of an infant who undertake its nursing and maintenance,
hospitals, convalescent homes, or institutions, established for the
protection and care of infants, and conducted in good faith for
religious and charitable purposes, as well as boarding schools at which
efficient elementary education is given, are exempt from the provisions
of the act.

The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in relation to
children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced restrictions on
the employment of children which lie on the border land between cruelty
and the regulation of child labour. It prohibits custodians of children
from taking them, or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses
to sing, play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These
provisions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen. There
are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under eleven to sing,
play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer anything for sale in
public-houses or places of public amusement at any hour without a
licence from a justice, which is granted only as to children over ten
and under stringent conditions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen
to be trained as acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for
any dangerous performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act
1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male young
person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a dangerous public
performance.

The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or
alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without hard
labour for any term not exceeding three months, any custodian, &c., of
any child or young person who allows him to be in any street, premises
or place for the purpose of begging or receiving alms, or of inducing
the giving of alms, whether or not there is a pretence of singing,
playing, performing or offering anything for sale. An important
departure in the act of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of
children to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under
seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open grate not
sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of burning or scalding
is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £10. Provision
is made against allowing children between the ages of four and sixteen
to be in brothels; it is also made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c.,
of a girl under sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or
prostitution, and any person having the custody of a young girl may be
bound over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of
a court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person, that
she is exposed to such risk.

The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the United
States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty on selling
tobacco to any person apparently under the age of sixteen, whether for
his own use or not. It empowers constables and park keepers to seize
tobacco in the possession of any person apparently under sixteen found
smoking in any street or public place, as well as to search them; it
also empowers a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic
machines for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a court
whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain cases (e.g.
of decency or morality), and the forbidding children (other than infants
in arms) being present in court during the trial of other persons; it
places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking an article in pawn from children
under fourteen; and on vagrants for preventing children above the age of
five receiving education. It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating
liquor to any child under the age of five, except upon the orders of a
duly qualified medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other
urgent cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the licensed
premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts to cause a child to
be in the bar of licensed premises other than railway refreshment rooms
or premises used for any purpose to which the holding of a licence is
merely auxiliary, or where the child is there simply for the purpose of
passing through to some other part of the premises. It makes provision
for the safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS).

In the act of 1908, "child" is denned as a person under the age of
fourteen years, and "young person" as a person who is fourteen years and
upwards and under the age of sixteen years. The act applies to Scotland
and Ireland. In the application of the act to Ireland exception is made
relative to the exclusion of children from bars of licensed premises, in
the case of a child being on licensed premises where a substantial part
of the business carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other
business wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and
the child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
intoxicating liquor.

_British Possessions._--Legislation much on the lines of the acts of
1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g. Tasmania
(1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica (1896), South Australia
(1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892 and 1900), New Zealand (1906),
Mauritius (1906), Victoria (1905,1906). In South Australia a State
Children's Department has been created to care for and manage the
property and persons of destitute and neglected children, and the
officials of the council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the
legislation of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South
Australia. See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGISLATION.
    (W. F. C.; T. A. I.)


FOOTNOTE:

    [1] There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to
    say a person "_overlays_" or "_overlies_" a child, and the question
    came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray
    (see Letter in _The Times_, 12th of May 1908) "to lie," an
    intransitive verb, becomes transitive when combined with a
    preposition, e.g. a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; "to
    lay" is the causal derivative of "to lie," and is followed by two
    objects, e.g. to lay the table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on
    the table; similarly, to overlay a surface with varnish, or to
    overlay a child with a blanket, or with the nurse's or mother's
    body. The instrument can be left unexpressed, and a person can be
    said to overlay a child, i.e. with her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus,
    while "overlie" covers the case where the woman herself lies over
    the child, "overlay" is the more general word.




CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic aluminium iron
phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization. The ferrous oxide is in part
replaced by manganous oxide and lime, and in the closely allied and
isomorphous species eosphorite manganese predominates over iron. The
general formula for the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO2 + H2O.
Childrenite is found only as small brilliant crystals of a
yellowish-brown colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general
appearance. They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form
of double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply striated
parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5; specific gravity
3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the zoologist and mineralogist J.G.
Children (1777-1852), secretary of the Royal Society, was detected in
1823 on specimens obtained some years previously during the cutting of a
canal near Tavistock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few
copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.

Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles very nearly
the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite, it has a distinct
cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in compact masses as well as
in crystals. The colour is sometimes yellowish-white, but usually
rose-pink, and on this account the mineral was named from [Greek:
êosphoros], dawn-bearer. Hardness 5; specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was
discovered in 1878 in a pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut,
where it is associated with other rare manganese phosphates.    (L. J. S.)




CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special system of tribunals for
dealing with juvenile offenders, first suggested in the United States.
The germ of such institutions was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when
a plan was introduced at Boston of hearing charges against children
separately, and apart from the ordinary business of the lesser
tribunals. No great progress was made in the development of the idea in
Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of the
utility or need for a separate court so long as the children were kept
strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured by a separate
session. But the system of "probation," by which children were handed
over to the kindly care and guardianship of an appointed officer, and
thus escaped legal repression, was created about the same time in Boston
and produced excellent results. The probation officer is present at the
judge's side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the
offender, whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary to
bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts in due
course influenced other countries, and especially the British colony of
South Australia, where a State Children's Department was created at
Adelaide in 1895, and three years later a juvenile court was opened
there for the trial of persons under eighteen and was conducted with
great success, though the system of probation officers was not
introduced. A juvenile court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on
the South Australian model.

The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very rapidly. In the
United States Illinois was the first state to call a distinct children's
court into existence, and Judge Richard Tuthill was the pioneer at
Chicago, where the court was established in 1899. Many states followed
suit, including New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas,
Colorado, Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906.
In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the Society for
the Protection of Children, there is a separate children's court with
rooms attached, where the children for detention wait till they are
brought in for trial. Brooklyn has also a children's court. In
Pennsylvania, where the juvenile court was at first opposed as
unconstitutional, the difficulty was met by first bringing the child
before the magistrate in the police court, a course which (though
followed by his transferring the case to the special court) perpetuated
the very evils the children's court was intended to avoid; the work of
probation was, however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female
officers. The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an
especially appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to
some extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation
of being the most complete and perfect in the United States. It works
with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer probation officers
under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver, Colorado, attained
remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey, whose magnetic personality,
wonderful comprehension of boy nature, and extraordinary influence over
them achieved great results. The court meets once a fortnight, when
fresh cases are tried and boys already on probation report themselves,
often to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear before
the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a sealed
letter, and according to its purport receives praise or blame, or he may
be committed to the Detention House. An efficient court was also
constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with a judge especially chosen to
preside, probation being for fixed periods, varying from three months to
three years, and children being brought back to the court for parole or
discharge, or, if necessary, committal to the house of one of the
philanthropic societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was followed,
and it was found that numbers of children came to the court for help and
guidance, looking upon the judge for the time being as their friend and
counsellor. Probation in this instance offered peculiar difficulties on
account of the colour question, two-thirds of the children having negro
blood and a white boy being always preferred for a vacant situation.
Throughout, the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been
to bring each individual into "human touch" with kindly helpful workers
striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to follow the
straight path. It was the result always of the effort of private persons
and not due to government initiative, indeed the advocates and champions
of the system only established it by overcoming strong opposition from
the authorities.

Progress in the same direction has been made in England. The home office
had recommended London police magistrates to keep children's cases
separate from those of adults; the same practice or something analogous
obtained in many county boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol,
Bolton, Bradford, Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the
Children Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act
enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges, &c.,
against children or young persons should, unless the child or young
person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different building or
room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or
on different days or at different times. Furthermore, provision must be
made for preventing persons apparently under the age of sixteen years
whilst being conveyed to or from court, or whilst waiting before or
after their attendance in court, from associating with adults, unless
such adults are charged jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons
other than members and officers of the court, the parties to the case,
their solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave of the
court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted. The main
object of the whole system is to keep the child, the embryotic offender
who has probably erred from ignorance or the pressure of circumstances
or misfortune, altogether free from the taint or contagion that attaches
to criminal proceedings. The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is
injurious to the youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench,
whether as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
legal processes.

The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from its
association with the system of personal guardianship and close
supervision exercised by the probation officers, official and voluntary.
Where the intervention of the newly constituted tribunal can not only
save the child from evil association when first arrested, but can rescue
him without condemnation and committal to prison, its functions may be
relied upon to diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much
depends upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm, sympathetic,
tactful and able to gain the confidence of those brought before him, he
may do great good, by dealing with each individual and not merely with
his offence, realizing that the court does not exist to condemn but to
strengthen and give a fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a
branch of the existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, the
beneficial results are not so noticeable.    (A. G.)




CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in recent years
become an important branch of folklore research in England, and has
contributed not a little towards elucidating many unrecorded facts in
early history. These games may be broadly divided into two
kinds--dramatic games, and games of skill and chance. These differ
materially in their object. Games of skill and chance are played for the
purpose of winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided between
boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly of a contest
character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys' dramatic games have
preserved some interesting beliefs and customs, but the tendency in
these games, such as "prisoner's base," has been to drop the words and
tune and to preserve only that part (action) which tends best for
exercise and use in school playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have
not developed on these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of
their early characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune
and action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs not
now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking place between
men and women and between people of different villages. The tunes are
simple, and the same tune is frequently used for different games. The
actions are illustrative of the ideas to be expressed. The players
represent various objects--animals, villages and people. The singing
game is therefore not a game in the usual sense of the word. There is no
element of "gambling" or playing "to win" in it--no one is richer or
poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play together.
It is really a "play," and has survived because it has handed down some
instances of custom and belief which were deeply rooted and which made a
strong appeal to the imagination of our ancestors. The singing games
represent in dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances
common to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated
events which served to bind the people together and to give them a
common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were dramatic
in character, singing and action forming a part of them, and their
performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. They are probably
survivals of what we might call folk drama. In these times it was held
imperative to perform religious ceremonies periodically; at sowing and
harvesting to ensure good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions
of marriage, birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare
of the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance, song and
feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected with some
belief which rendered ceremony necessary.

At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for their
basis, but in process of time they became purely secular and were
performed at certain seasons only, because it was the custom to do so.
They then became recognized as beautiful or pleasing things in the life
of the people, and so continued, altering somewhat in ideas but
retaining their old dramatic forms. They were danced by old and young at
festivals and holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been held.

Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, "line" and
"circle." These represent two of the early forms of dramatic action. The
"line" form (two lines of players standing opposite each other having a
space of ground between them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents
two different and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest.
This method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The "circle"
form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, represents those
occasions when all the people of one place were engaged in celebrating
events in which all were interested. Thus games celebrating sowing and
harvest, and those associated with love and marriage, are played in this
form. Both these methods allow of development. The circle varies from
examples where all perform the same actions and say the same words to
that where two or more players have principal parts, the others only
singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the singing has
disappeared. The form or method of play and the actions constitute the
oldest remaining parts of the game (the words being subject to
alterations and loss through ignorance of their meaning), and it is to
this form or method, the actions and the accompaniment of song, that
they owe their survival, appealing as they do to the strong dramatic
instinct of children and of uncultured folk.

It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known singing
games. In "line" form, a fighting game is "We are the Rovers." The words
tell us of two opposing parties fighting for their land; both sides
alternately deride one another and end by fighting until one side is
victorious. Two other "line" games, "Nuts in May" and "Here come three
dukes a-riding," are also games of contest, but not for territory. These
show an early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
capture, and are played in "line" form because of the element of contest
contained in the custom. Another form, the "arch," is also used to
indicate contest.

Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest and
marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and sanction by
assembled friends. "Oats and beans and barley" and "Sally Water" are
typical of this form. The large majority of circle games deal with love
or marriage and domestic life. The customs surviving in these games deal
with tribal life and take us back to "foundation sacrifice," "well
worship," "sacredness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs.

  Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore
  Society, and particularly in the following works:--A.B. Gomme's
  _Traditional Games of Great Britain_ (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898);
  Gomme's _Children's Singing Games_ (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein's
  _Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (Duckworth, 1906); Maclagan,
  _Games of Argyllshire_, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's _Games of
  American Children_ (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In Mrs Gomme's
  _Traditional Games_, several versions of each game, together with a
  short account of the suggested origin and of the custom or belief
  indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. 458-531) a memoir
  of the history of games is given, and the customs and beliefs which
  originated them, reviewing the whole subject from the anthropological
  point of view, and showing the place which games occupy among the
  evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein's comparative study of
  nursery rhymes suggested origins are given for many of these, and an
  attempt made to localize certain of the customs and events. In several
  of the publications of the Folk-lore Society local collections of
  games are given, all of which may be studied with advantage. Stubbes
  and other early writers give many instances of boys' games in their
  days, many of which still exist. Tylor and other writers on
  anthropology, in dealing with savage custom, confirm the views here
  expressed. For nursery rhymes see Halliwell, _Nursery Rhymes_ (1845),
  and Chambers's _Popular Rhymes_ (first printed 1841, reprinted in
  1870). The recently collected _Morris Dances_ by Mr Cecil Sharp should
  also be consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently
  dealing with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while
  others indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each
  line dancing in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and
  thus conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more
  ordinary game.    (A. B. G.*)




CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher, was born in
Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829. He was educated in the
public schools, and after a brief term of service in the navy, he became
in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he
established an independent book-shop, and two years later organized the
publishing house of Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel,
he purchased the _Public Ledger_, at that time a little known newspaper;
he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it one of the
most influential journals in the country. He died at Philadelphia on the
3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely known for his public spirit and
philanthropy. In addition to numerous private benefactions in
educational and charitable fields, he erected memorial windows to
William Cowper and George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to
Milton in St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt at
Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon
(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to Richard A. Proctor. He
gave Woodland Cemetery to the Typographical Society of Philadelphia for
a printers' burial-ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a
home for Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.

His _Recollections_ were published at Philadelphia in 1890.




CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua _chiri_, cold, or
_tchili_, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the narrow
western slope of the continent between Peru and its southern extremity.
(For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends from the northern boundary of the
province of Tacna, about 17° 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme
southern point of the Fuegian archipelago in 55° 58' 40'' S., with an
extreme meridian length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably
exceeding that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3-1/2° and an
eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width ranges
from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the islands of the
southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 sq. m., though the
Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 sq. m. Chile is thus a
ribbon-like strip of territory between the Andes and the Pacific,
comparatively regular north of the 42nd parallel, but with an extremely
ragged outline south of that line. It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by
Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary
lines are described under ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1879-81 with
Peru and Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department of the
Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department of Tarapacá, were
formally ceded to Chile, and the northern frontier was removed to the
river Camarones, which enters the Pacific at 19° 12' S. Under the treaty
of Ancon (20th October 1883) Chile was to retain possession of the
provinces of Tacna and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of
Moquegua for a period of ten years, and then submit "to popular vote
whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession of
the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and Arica, which became
the province of Tacna under Chilean administration, removed the frontier
still farther north, to the river Sama, which separates that province
from the remaining part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting
from the mouth of that river, in 17° 57' S., the disputed boundary
follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in the
Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water parting to the
Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.

  _Physiography._--For purposes of general topographical description
  Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
  north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
  Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region south
  of lat. 41° S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
  descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it breaks
  down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the sea this
  plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat topped hills
  closely following the coast line. The surface is made up of extensive
  plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline salts, broken by
  ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes,
  and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of the main cordillera
  enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region is rainless, barren
  and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation except in some
  small river valleys where irrigation is possible, and on the slopes of
  some of the snow-covered peaks where the water from the melting snows
  nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation before it disappears in the
  thirsty sands. It is very rich in mineral and saline deposits,
  however. The eastern parts of this region lie within the higher ranges
  of the Andes and include a large district awarded to Chile in 1899
  (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA). This arid, bleak area is apparently a
  continuation southward of the great Bolivian _altaplanicie_, and is
  known as the Puna de Atacama. Its average elevation is estimated at
  11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to
  south, and extensive lava beds cover a considerable part of its
  surface. Large shallow saline lakes are also characteristic features
  of this region. From 28° S. the spurs from the cordillera toward the
  coast are more sharply defined and enclose deeper valleys, where the
  cultivation of the soil becomes possible, at first through irrigation
  and then with the aid of light periodical rains. The slopes of the
  Andes are precipitous, the general surface is rough, and in the north
  the higher ground and coast are still barren. Beginning with the
  province of Aconcagua the coast elevations crystallize into a range of
  mountains, the Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south
  to the province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by
  the mountain range of Chiloé and the islands of the western coast,
  which are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this
  coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
  the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
  over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes
  called the "Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most
  thickly-populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region,
  is well watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate
  rainfall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great
  productiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are
  filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed.
  It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
  tracts, as in Ñuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
  forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the
  enclosing mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is
  heavier, the plain is well covered with forest. South of 41° S. the
  country is mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are
  only a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic
  tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The
  deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve the
  general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian archipelago,
  the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cordillera Maritima.
  The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout this region, especially
  in the latitude of Chiloé, gives rise to a large number of rivers and
  lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the form of
  snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at a comparatively low level
  which in places discharge into the inlets and bays of the sea. The
  extreme southern part of this region extends eastward to the Atlantic
  entrance to the Straits of Magellan, and includes the greater part of
  the large island of Tierra del Fuego with all the islands lying south
  and west of it. There are some comparatively level stretches of
  country immediately north of the Straits, partly forested and partly
  grassy plains, where sheep farming has been established with some
  degree of success, but the greater part of this extreme southern
  territory is mountainous, cold, wet and inhospitable. The perpetual
  snow-line here descends to 3500 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the
  forest growth does not rise above an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.


    Mountains.

  It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
  comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 sq.
  m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. The desert regions
  of the north include comparatively large areas of plains and gently
  sloping surfaces, traversed by ranges of barren hills. The remainder
  of the republic, probably more than three-fifths of its surface, is
  extremely mountainous. The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs
  and lateral ranges, cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the
  republic, and the Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its
  western side from about lat. 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloé,
  or below lat. 43°. This maritime range is traversed by several river
  valleys, some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle
  a slope as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken
  barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
  general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the
  Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its
  eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great
  mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
  apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
  short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
  parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean
  side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau. The
  Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th
  parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several
  noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and Cerro
  Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing the
  province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known as the
  Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia the main
  chain, which has served as the boundary line between Argentina and
  Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal one continuing
  almost due north along the eastern side of the great Bolivian
  _alta-planicie_, and the other forming its western rim, where it is
  known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend of the
  coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera Occidental. The
  western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with short spurs
  enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, and a
  considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently active,
  noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating point of the
  Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of 23,097 ft.

  In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation of
  these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined. The
  highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Macá (lat. 45°
  S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft.
  Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. and
  the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast range of
  central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating point in
  the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central Chile and the
  northern desert region there is a highly mountainous district where
  distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic from the Andes
  to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great beauty and
  fertility. The most famous of these is the "Vale of Quillota" between
  Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes between Tacna and Valdivia
  are crossed by 24 passes, the majority of them at elevations exceeding
  10,000 ft. The best-known of these is the Uspallata pass between
  Santiago and the Argentine city of Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above
  sea-level. The passes of central and southern Chile are used only in
  the summer season, but those of northern Chile are open throughout the
  whole year.

  The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
  elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
  western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
  In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake shocks
  have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of the
  coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert FitzRoy
  (1805-1865) of H.M.S. "Beagle" found putrid mussel-shells still
  adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island of Santa
  Maria, 30 m. from Concepción, and Charles Darwin declares, in
  describing that disaster, that "there can be no doubt that the land
  round the bay of Concepción was upraised two or three feet." These
  upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
  sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
  island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at
  elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows
  that these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast,
  have been in operation through long periods of time and that the
  greater part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the
  sea in this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct
  characteristics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible,
  called a _temblor_, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a
  violent horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at
  frequent intervals, called a _terremoto_, which is caused by a
  fracture or displacement of the earth's strata at some particular
  point, and often results in considerable damage. When the earthquake
  occurs on the coast, or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves
  are sometimes formed, which cause even greater damage than the
  earthquake itself. Arica has been three times destroyed by tidal
  waves, and other small towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered
  similar disasters. Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and
  Concepción and Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great
  earthquake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
  not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually limited
  to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may be felt at
  long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this respect Chile
  may be divided into at least four great earthquake areas, two in the
  desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and the fourth
  extending from Concepción to Chiloé. A study of Chilean earthquake
  phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division of southern
  Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.


    Coast.

  The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of islands
  extending from Chiloé S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which shows
  that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain, a
  continuation southward of the Cordillera Maritima. Three groups of
  these islands, called the Chiloé, Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes,
  lie N. of the Taytao peninsula (lat. 45° 50' to 46° 55' S.), and with
  the mainland to the E. form the province of Chiloé. The largest of
  these is the island of Chiloé, which is inhabited. Some of the smaller
  islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive
  rainfall of these latitudes and the violent westerly storms render
  them highly unfavourable for human occupation. Some of the smallest
  islands are barren rocks, but the majority of them are covered with
  forests. These archipelagoes are separated from the mainland in the
  north by the gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m.
  wide, which appear to be a submerged part of the great central valley
  of Chile, and farther south by the narrower Moraleda channel, which
  terminates southward in a confusing network of passages between the
  mainland and the islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts
  of the Chilean mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of
  this group, where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island,
  which indents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the
  basin of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp
  wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between the
  two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called the Tres
  Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the mainland, with
  which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui, over which the
  natives and early missionaries were accustomed to carry their boats
  between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Peñas. A short ship canal
  here would give an uninterrupted and protected inside passage from
  Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of Magellan, a distance of
  over 760 m. A southern incurving projection of the outer shore-line of
  this peninsula is known as Tres Montes peninsula, the most southern
  point of which is a cape of the same name. Below the Taytao peninsula
  is the broad open Gulf of Peñas, which carries the coast-line eastward
  fully 100 m. and is noticeably free from islands. The northern
  entrance to Messier Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt,
  Sarmiento and Smyth's Channels, which form a comparatively safe and
  remarkably picturesque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m.
  in length, separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland.
  These channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands
  which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo
  (lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campaña, Little Wellington,
  Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington archipelago), Madre
  de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover, Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell
  and the Queen Adelaide group of small barren rocks and islands lying
  immediately north of the Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan.
  The large number of English names on this coast is due to the fact
  that the earliest detailed survey of this region was made by English
  naval officers; the charts prepared from their surveys are still in
  use and form the basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands
  is inhabited, although some of them are of large size, the largest
  (Great Wellington) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been
  determined, since the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention
  to these territories and led to their careful exploration at the
  points in dispute, that Skyring Water, in lat. 53° S., opens westward
  into the Gulf of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba
  (or Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has
  been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable
  when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain
  FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters
  of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south of the
  Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, Dawson,
  Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with innumerable
  smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and filling the
  channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this inhospitable
  region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of the globe, may be
  found in the _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's
  Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years 1826 and 1836_ (3
  vols., 1839).

  The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to
  Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56° 25' S., is the Diego
  Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern possession of
  the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez and Easter
  islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and the latter, the
  easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27° 6' S., 109° 17' W.
  Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between the 33rd and
  34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez group, and
  rising apparently from the same submerged plateau about 500 m. farther
  north of the latter are the rocky islets of San Ambrosio and San
  Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of Chiloé there are few islands
  in close proximity to the coast. The more important of these are La
  Mocha, off the southern coast of Arauco, in lat. 38° 20' S., which is
  8 m. long and rises to an elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa
  Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion, which partially encloses the
  Bay of Arauco and is well cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the
  port of Talcahuano in the entrance to Concepción bay. There are a few
  barren islands on the desert coast, the largest of which are between
  Coquimbo and Caldera. Since the removal of their guano deposits they
  have become practically worthless, except where they serve to shelter
  anchorages.


    Harbours.

  The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in
  good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations
  in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point
  of land, or small island. The landings are generally dangerous because
  of the surf, and the anchorages are unsafe from storms on the
  unprotected side. Among the most frequented of these are Valparaiso,
  Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and Arica. There are some small harbours
  for coasting vessels of light draught along the coast of central
  Chile, usually at the partially obstructed mouths of the larger
  rivers, as San Antonio near the mouth of the Maipó, Constitución at
  the mouth of the Maule, and Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but
  there is no harbour of importance until Conceptión (or Talcahuano) Bay
  is reached. There are three harbours on this bay, El Tomé, Penco and
  Talcahuano (q.v.), the last being the largest and best-protected port
  on the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this
  bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river
  discharges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are
  the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that of
  El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below the
  city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast of
  Chiloé, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port of
  Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for vessels of
  light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloé the large gulfs
  of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected from the severe
  westerly storms of these latitudes, but they are little used because
  the approach through the Chacao channel is tortuous and only 2 to 3 m.
  wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m. wide and 150 m. long, are
  beset with small rocky islands. At the north end of the first is the
  Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked bay, on which stands Puerto
  Montt, the southern terminus of the Chilean central railway. The large
  Gulf of Peñas, south of Taytao peninsula, is open to the westerly
  storms of the Pacific, but it affords entrance to several natural
  harbours. Among these are the Gulfs of Tres Montes and San Estevan,
  and Tarn Bay at the entrance to Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of
  the Chilean coast contain numerous bays and inlets affording safe
  harbours, but the mainland and islands are uninhabited and the climate
  inhospitable. Behind Rennell Island in lat. 52° S., however, is a
  succession of navigable estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the
  Argentine frontier. The central part of this group of estuaries is
  called Worsley Sound, and the last and farthest inland of its arms is
  Last Hope Inlet (Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean
  agricultural colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about
  360 m. in length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them
  is situated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the
  republic.


    Rivers.

  Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the
  simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in
  the Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses are
  necessarily short, and only a few have navigable channels, the
  aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all rivers in the
  desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching the coast.
  Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence of a
  time when climatological conditions on this coast were different. The
  principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms the provisional
  boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, Copiapó, Huasco,
  Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the largest, having its sources
  on the slopes of the Cordillera south of the Minho volcano, between
  21° and 21° 30' S. lat., and flowing south on an elevated plateau to
  Chiuchiu, and thence west and north in a great curve to Quillaga,
  whence its dry channel turns westward again and reaches the Pacific in
  lat. 21° 28' S., a few miles south of the small port of Huanillos. Its
  total length is estimated at 250 m. The upper courses of the river are
  at a considerable elevation above the sea and receive a large volume
  of water from the Cordilleras. The water of its upper course and
  tributaries is sweet, and is conducted across the desert in pipes to
  some of the coast towns, but in its lower course, as in all the rivers
  of this region, it becomes brackish. The Copiapó, which once
  discharged into the sea, is now practically exhausted in irrigating a
  small fertile valley in which stands the city of that name. The
  Copiapó and Huasco have comparatively short courses, but they receive
  a considerable volume of water from the higher sierras. The latter is
  also used to irrigate a small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the
  province of Coquimbo--the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa--exist
  under less arid conditions, and like those of the province of
  Aconcagua--the Ligua and Aconcagua--are used to irrigate a much larger
  area of cultivated territory. The central agricultural provinces are
  traversed by several important rivers, all of them rising on the
  western slopes of the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower
  coast range to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate
  the great central valley of Chile. These are the Maipó (Maypó or
  Maipú), Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten,
  Valdivia or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the
  first three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are
  open only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their
  mouths. The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220
  m., 100 of which are navigable. These rivers have been of great
  service in the agricultural development of this part of Chile,
  affording means of transportation where railways and highways were
  entirely lacking. Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers,
  whose economic value has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which
  flows through Santiago and enters the Maipó from the north; the
  turbulent Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro,
  which waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
  Maule from the north; the Ñuble, which rises in the higher Andes north
  of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province of
  Ñuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which rises
  in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about lat.
  35° 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the Cautin,
  which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a tortuous
  course westward nearly across that province forms the principal
  confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions of Chiloé
  (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of important
  rivers which have been only partially explored. They have their
  sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side of the line of
  highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of the same name
  in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through the Cordilleras
  into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of Reloncavi at the
  northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower course is impeded in
  such a manner as to form three small lakes, called Superior, Inferior
  and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary of the Puelo, the Manso,
  has its sources in Lake Mascardi and other lakes and streams
  south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in Argentina, and flows
  south-west through the Cordilleras to unite with the Puelo a few miles
  west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi Inlet also receives the
  outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through a short tortuous stream
  called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and river form the boundary line
  between the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloé, and traverse a densely
  wooded country in a north-westerly direction from the Andes to the
  north-eastern shore of the Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the
  Yelcho is the next important river to traverse this region. It drains
  a large area of Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio
  Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen, its principal source being a large lake of
  the same name. It flows south-west through the Andes, and then
  north-west through Lake Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine
  colony of the 16th of October, settled principally by Welshmen from
  Chubut, is located on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in
  about lat. 43° S. The Palena is another river of the same character,
  having its source in a large frontier lake called General Paz and
  flowing for some distance through Argentine territory before crossing
  into Chile. It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo
  Pico, and enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of
  the 44th parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an
  extensive Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and
  discharging into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena
  island from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine
  territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as
  far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
  discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in about
  lat. 45° 20' S. The lower course of this river is essentially an
  inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is
  the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
  Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific. Both
  of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The Las Heras
  discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large estuary
  called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland about 75 m.
  and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the Gulf of Peñas.
  Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within this great
  estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, called
  Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The course of
  the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, the
  short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros San Valentin
  and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker Inlet also
  receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean lake, San
  Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend from lat. 49° 10' to
  48° 20' S.; its north-west arm drains into the Tero, or La Pascua,
  river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply cut passage through
  the Andes, and the divide between its southern extremity (Laguna Tar)
  and Lake Viedma, which discharges through the Santa Cruz river into
  the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the hypothesis that this was
  once a strait between the two oceans. After a short north-westerly
  course the Toro discharges into Baker Inlet in lat. 48° 15' S., long.
  73° 24' W. South of the Toro there are no large rivers on this coast,
  but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply into the mountains and bring
  away the drainage of their snow-capped, storm-swept elevations. A
  peculiar network of fjords and connecting channels terminating inland
  in a peculiarly shaped body of water with long, widely branching arms,
  called Worsley Sound, Obstruction Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an
  extensive area between the 51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly
  to the Argentine frontier. It has the characteristics of a tidewater
  river and drains an extensive region. The sources of the Argentine
  river Coile are to be found among the lakes and streams of this same
  region, within Chilean territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern
  Chile, from the Taytao peninsula (about 46° 50' S. lat.) to Tierra del
  Fuego, is the large number of glaciers formed on the western and
  southern slopes of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which
  discharge direct into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger
  lakes of the Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation
  of these icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge
  direct into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found
  elsewhere in the same latitudes.


    Lakes.

  The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are found
  chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the only
  lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper saline plateaus
  between the 23rd and 28th parallels. They are fed from the melting
  snows and periodical storms of the higher Andes, and most of them are
  completely dry part of the year. Their waters are saturated with
  saline compounds, which in some cases have considerable commercial
  value. In central Chile above the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small
  and have no special geographical interest, with the exception perhaps
  of the Laguna del Maule, in 36° 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37°
  20', which lie in the Andes near the Argentine frontier and are
  sources of the two rivers of the same names. Below the Bio-Bio river
  there is a line of large picturesque lakes extending from the province
  of Cautin, south through that of Llanquihue, corresponding in
  character and position to the dry lacustrine depressions extending
  northward in the same valley. They lie on the eastern side near the
  Cordilleras, and serve the purpose of great reservoirs for the
  excessive precipitation of rain and snow on their western slopes. With
  one exception they all drain westward into the Pacific through short
  and partly navigable rivers, and some of the lakes are also utilized
  for steamship navigation. These lakes are Villarica on the southern
  frontier of Cautin, Rinihue and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue,
  Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of
  the number are Lakes Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an
  estimated area of 200 sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos
  los Santos is situated well within the Andean foothills north-east of
  Puerto Montt and at an elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that
  of the other lakes, Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The
  great Andean lakes of General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos
  Aires (in lat. 46° 30' S.), Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47° 15' S.) and
  San Martin (49° S.), lie partly within Chilean territory. In the
  extreme south are Lagoa Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52°
  30' S., and two large inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called
  Otway Water and Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.

  _Geology._--Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions which
  differ from each other in their geological structure. Along the coast
  lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous
  and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are formed chiefly of
  folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks of later date. The
  great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, but only
  approximately, along the boundary between the two zones. Towards the
  north the coastal zone disappears beneath the sea and the Andean zone
  reaches to the shore. The ancient rocks which form the most
  characteristic feature of the former do indeed occur upon the coast of
  Peru, but in the north of Chile they are found only in isolated masses
  standing close to the shore or, as at Mejillones, projecting into the
  sea. South of Antofagasta the old rocks form a nearly continuous band
  along the coast, extending as far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and
  occupying the greater part of the islands of southern Chile.
  Lithologically they are crystalline schists, together with granite,
  diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks. They are known to be
  pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic or Archaean is
  uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid unconformably by
  Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north both the Cretaceous and
  Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in extent, but towards the
  south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part Cretaceous, form a
  band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds include both marine and
  terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly of Miocene and Pliocene
  age. The whole of the north part of Tierra del Fuego is occupied by
  plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata.

  The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of Bolivia
  and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds,
  together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions. The Mesozoic
  beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run in the
  direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
  complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous
  beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in
  general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are
  thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western
  flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
  igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation
  rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias is known
  only at La Ternera near Copiapó, where coal-seams with Rhaetic plants
  have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series, from the Lias to
  the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented without a break of
  more than local importance. The deposits are marine, consisting mainly
  of sandstone and limestone, together with tuffs and conglomerates of
  porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic rocks form a characteristic
  feature of the southern Andes, and were at one time supposed to be
  metamorphic; but they are certainly volcanic, and as they contain
  marine fossils they must have been laid down beneath the sea. They are
  not confined to any one horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the
  Jurassic and occasionally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They
  form, in fact, a special facies which may frequently be traced
  laterally into the more normal marine deposit of the same age. The
  fauna of the Mesozoic beds is very rich, and includes forms which are
  found in northern Europe, others which occur in central Europe, and
  others again which are characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It
  lends no support to Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part
  of the chain is covered by the products of the great volcanoes which
  still form the highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The
  rocks are liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The
  recent lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are
  olivine-bearing hypersthene-andesite and basalt.[1]

  _Climate_.--The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical
  heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
  temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego and the
  southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region also introduce
  vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent by the rainless
  plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall of the south. In
  general terms it may be said that the extremes of temperature are not
  so great as in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere,
  because of the greater expanse of water in comparison with the land
  areas, the summers being cooler and the winters warmer. The cold
  antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps northward along the coast and
  greatly modifies the heat of the arid, tropical plateaus. The climate
  of northern and central Chile is profoundly affected by the high
  mountain barrier on the eastern frontier and by the broad treeless
  pampas of Argentina, which raise the easterly moisture-laden winds
  from the Atlantic to so high an elevation that they sweep across Chile
  without leaving a drop of rain. At very rare intervals light rains
  fall in the desert regions north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by
  the prevailing coast winds. With this exception these regions are the
  most arid on the face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun
  during the day and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered
  heights and a cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly
  falls and the rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided
  into a short rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At
  Copiapó, in 27° 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual
  temperature is 60° and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in
  29° 56' S., the temperature is 59.2° and the rainfall 1½ in. At
  Santiago, in 33° 27' S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature
  is 54° and the annual rainfall 16½ in., though the latter varies
  considerably. The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21.
  At Talca, in 35° 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual
  temperature is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the
  rainfall has increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region
  makes irrigation necessary, and vegetation has something of a
  subtropical appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37°.
  The climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
  common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
  unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes a
  radical change--the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a long
  rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well as the
  western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers become
  torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great part of the
  year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49' S. and near the sea-level, the mean
  annual temperature is 52.9° and the annual rainfall 108 to 115 in.,
  with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological conditions
  are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north end of the island of
  Chiloé, in 41° 46' S., where the mean annual temperature is 50.7° and
  the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable character of the climate at
  this point is shown by the limited range between its summer and winter
  temperatures, the mean for January being 56.5° and the mean for July
  45.9°. The almost continual cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal
  cause, not only of the low summer temperatures, but also of the
  comparatively high winter temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and
  snow does not lie long. The climate is considered to be healthful
  notwithstanding the excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the
  Chonos Archipelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely
  approximating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year
  through, though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and
  Valdivia. The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above
  sea-level between lat. 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in
  Tierra del Fuego, affording another indication of the low maximum
  temperatures ruling during the summer. At the extreme south, where
  Chilean territory extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the
  Straits of Magellan, a new climatic influence is encountered in the
  warm equatorial current flowing down the east coast of South America,
  which gives to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that
  of the western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these
  latitudes, also exert a modifying influence on these eastern
  districts, sheltering them from the cold westerly storms and giving
  them a drier climate. This accounts for the surprising meteorological
  data obtained from Punta Arenas, in 53° 10' S., where the mean annual
  temperature is 43.2° and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other
  observations reduce this annual precipitation to less than 16 in.
  According to observations made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition
  (1901-1903), at Orange Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31' S., long.
  68° 05' W., which is more exposed to the westerly storms, the mean
  temperature for 11 months was 41.98° and the total precipitation (rain
  and snow) 53.1 in. The mean maximum temperature was 49.24°, and the
  mean minimum 35.83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or
  snow, of which 70 were with snow.

  _Flora_.--The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less
  interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
  peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora
  necessitates its division into at least three general zones--the
  desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of
  the south. The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of
  the coast, between Tacna and Copiapó, but with a coarse scanty
  vegetation near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes
  where moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the
  sand. In the valleys of the Copiapó and Huasco rivers a meagre
  vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is
  produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry
  river channels below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing
  southward into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid
  conditions may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras
  afford a larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent
  are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
  supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
  indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent growth
  near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be
  found the "algarrobo" (_Prosopis siliquastrum_) and "chañar"
  (_Gourliea chilensis_), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is
  a species of _Skytanthus_. Near the sierras where irrigation is
  possible, fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and
  fig, that the product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to
  the indigenous flora of this region John Ball[2] says: "The species
  which grow here are the more or less modified representatives of
  plants which at some former period existed under very different
  conditions of life." Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a
  dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (_Cereus quisco_).
  The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields
  fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better
  covered with a thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the
  streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse
  ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua.

  To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
  between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than this,
  however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly
  its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South
  American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile. This
  zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps a
  little farther south to include some characteristic types. The
  evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
  and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical
  aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the
  _peumo_ (_Cryptocarya peumus_), whose dense evergreen foliage is
  everywhere conspicuous. The _quillay_ (_Quillaja saponaria_) is
  another characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark
  possesses saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm
  (_Jubaea spectabilis_) was to be found throughout this part of Chile,
  but it has been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap,
  from which a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees
  is the _pehuen_ or Chilean pine (_Araucaria imbricata_), which often
  grows to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its
  fruit. Three indigenous species of the beech--the _roble_ (_Fagus
  obliqua_), _coyhue_ (_F. Dombeyi_), and _rauli_ (_F. procera_)--are
  widely diffused and highly prized for their wood, especially the

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