The Century Handbook of Writing

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Title: The Century Handbook of Writing

Author: Garland Greever
Easley S. Jones

Release date: October 20, 2009 [eBook #30294]
Most recently updated: October 24, 2024

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30294

Credits: Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes, Karina Aleksandrova, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING ***

[Transcriber's Notes:

1. Italic text is rendered with underscores _like this_, and bold with
equal signs =like this=.

2. Misprints and punctuation errors were corrected. A list of
corrections can be found at the end of the text.]

THE
CENTURY HANDBOOK OF
WRITING

BY
GARLAND GREEVER
_AND_
EASLEY S. JONES

NEW YORK
THE CENTURY CO.
1927

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

PREFACE

This handbook treats essential matters of grammar, diction, spelling,
mechanics; and develops with thoroughness the principles of sentence
structure. Larger units of composition it leaves to the texts in formal
rhetoric.

The book is built on a decimal plan, the material being simplified and
reduced to one hundred articles. Headings of these articles are
summarized on two opposite pages by a chart. Here the student can see at
a glance the resources of the volume, and the instructor can find
immediately the number he wishes to write in the margin of a theme. The
chart and the decimal scheme together make the rules accessible for
instant reference.

By a device equally efficient, the book throws upon the student the
responsibility of teaching himself. Each article begins with a concise
rule, which is illustrated by examples; then follows a short "parallel
exercise" which the instructor may assign by adding an _x_ to the number
he writes in the margin of a theme. While correcting this exercise, the
student will give attention to the rule, and will acquire theory and
practice at the same time. Moreover, every group of ten articles is
followed by mixed exercises; these may be used for review, or imposed in
the margin of a theme as a penalty for flagrant or repeated error. Thus
friendly counsel is backed by discipline, and the instructor has the
means of compelling the student to make rapid progress toward good
English.

Although a handbook of this nature is in some ways arbitrary, the
arbitrariness is always in the interest of simplicity. The book does
have simplicity, permits instant reference, and provides an adequate
drill which may be assigned at the stroke of a pen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT

1. Fragments wrongly used as sentences
2. Incomplete constructions
3. Necessary words omitted
4. Comparisons not logically completed
5. Cause and reason
6. _Is when_ and _is where_ clauses
7. Undeveloped thought
8. Transitions
9. EXERCISE
A. Incomplete sentences
B. Incomplete constructions
C. Incomplete logic
D. Undeveloped thought and transitions

UNITY OF THOUGHT

10. Unrelated ideas in one sentence
11. Excessive detail
12. Stringy sentences to be broken up
13. Choppy sentences to be combined
14. Excessive coördination
15. Faulty subordination of the main thought
16. Subordination thwarted by _and_
17. The _and which_ construction
18. The comma splice
19. EXERCISE
A. The comma splice
B. One thought in a sentence
C. Excessive coördination
D. Upside-down subordination

CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT

REFERENCE
20. Divided reference
21. Weak reference
22. Broad reference
23. Dangling participle or gerund

COHERENCE
24. General incoherence
25. Logical sequence
26. Squinting modifier
27. Misplaced word
28. Split construction
29. EXERCISE
A. Reference of pronouns
B. Dangling modifiers
C. Coherence

PARALLEL STRUCTURE
30. Parallel structure for parallel thoughts
31. Correlatives

CONSISTENCY
32. Shift in subject or voice
33. Shift in number, person, or tense
34. Mixed constructions
35. Mixed imagery

USE OF CONNECTIVES
36. The exact connective
37. Repetition of connective with gain in clearness
38. Repetition of connective with loss in clearness
39. EXERCISE
A. Parallel structure
B. Shift in subject or voice
C. Shift in number, person, or tense
D. The exact connective
E. Repetition of connectives

EMPHASIS

40. Emphasis by position
41. Emphasis by separation
42. Emphasis by subordination
43. The periodic sentence
44. Order of climax
45. The balanced sentence
46. Weak effect of the passive voice
47. Repetition effective: a Words; b Structure
48. Repetition offensive: a Words; b Structure
49. EXERCISE
A. Lack of emphasis in general
B. Loose structure
C. Repetition

GRAMMAR

50. Case: a Nominative, especially after _than_ or _as_;
b Nominative _who_ and _whoever_; c Predicate nominative;
d Objective; e Objective with infinitive; f Possessive;
g Possessive with gerund; h Possession by inanimate
objects; i Agreement of pronouns
51. Number: a _Each_, _every one_, etc.; b _Those kind_, etc.;
c Collective nouns; d _Don't_
52. Agreement--not to be thwarted by: a Intervening nouns;
b _Together with_ phrases; c _Or_ or _nor_ after subject;
d _And_ in the subject; e A predicate noun;
f An introductory _there_
53. _Shall_ and _will_
54. Principal parts. List
55. Tense, mode, auxiliaries: a Tense in dependent clauses
or infinitives; b The past perfect; c Present tense for a
general statement; d Mode; e Auxiliaries
56. Adjective and adverb: a Adjective misused for adverb;
b Ambiguous cases; c After verbs pertaining to the
senses
57. A word in a double capacity
58. List of the terms of grammar
59. EXERCISE
A. Case of pronouns
B. Agreement
C. _Shall_ and _will_
D. _Lie, lay; sit, set; rise, raise_
E. Principal parts of verbs
F. General

DICTION

60. Wordiness
61. Triteness
62. The exact word
63. Concreteness
64. Sound
65. Subtle violations of good use: a Faulty idiom; b Colloquialism
66. Gross violations of good use: a Barbarisms; b Improprieties;
c Slang
67. Words often confused in meaning. List
68. Glossary of faulty diction
69. EXERCISE
A. Wordiness
B. The exact word
C. Words sometimes confused in meaning
D. Colloquialisms, slang, faulty idioms

SPELLING

70. Recording errors
71. Pronouncing accurately
72. Logical kinship in words
73. Superficial resemblances. List
74. Words in _ei_ and _ie_
75. Doubling a final consonant
76. Dropping final _e_
77. Plurals: a Plurals in _s_ or _es_; b Nouns ending in _y_;
c Compound nouns; d Letters, figures, and signs;
e Old plurals; f Foreign plurals
78. Compounds: a Compound adjectives; b Compound nouns;
c Numbers; d Words written solid; e General principle
79. SPELLING LIST (500 words, 200 in bold-face type)

MISCELLANEOUS

80. Manuscript: a Titles; b Spacing; c Handwriting
81. Capitals: a To begin a sentence or a quotation; b Proper
names; c Proper adjectives; d In titles of books or
themes; e Miscellaneous uses
82. Italics: a Titles of books; b Foreign words; c Names of
ships; d Words taken out of context; e For emphasis
83. Abbreviations: a In ordinary writing; b In business
writing
84. Numbers: a Dates and street numbers; b Long figures;
Sums of money, etc.
85. Syllabication: a Position of hyphen; b Division between
syllables; c Monosyllabic words not divided; d One consonant
between syllables; e Two consonants between
syllables; f Prefixes and suffixes; g Short words; h Misleading
division
86. Outlines: a Topic Outline; b Sentence Outline; c Paragraph
Outline; d Indention; e Parallel form; f Faulty
coördination; g Too detailed subordination
87. Letters: a Heading; b Inside address and greeting;
c Body, Language; d Close; e Outside address;
f Miscellaneous directions; g Model business letter;
h Formal notes
88. Paragraphs: a Indention; b Length; c Dialogue
89. EXERCISE
Capitals, numbers, abbreviations, etc.

PUNCTUATION

90. The Period: a After sentences; b But not after fragments
of sentences; c After abbreviations
91. The Comma: a Between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_;
b But NOT to splice clauses not joined by a conjunction;
c After a subordinate clause preceding a main clause;
d To set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases; e To
set off parenthetical elements; f Between adjectives;
g Between words in a series; h Before a quotation;
i To compel a pause for clearness; j Superfluous uses
92. The Semicolon: a Between coördinate clauses not joined
by a conjunction; b Between long coördinate clauses;
c Before a formal conjunctive adverb; d But not before
a quotation
93. The Colon: a To introduce a formal series or quotation;
b Before concrete illustrations of a previous general
statement
94. The Dash: a To enclose a parenthetical statement; b To
mark a breaking-off in thought; c Before a summarizing
statement; d But not to be used in place of a period;
e Not to be confused with the hyphen
95. Parenthesis Marks: a Uses; b With other marks; c Confirmatory
symbols; d Not used to cancel words;
e Brackets
96. Quotation Marks: a With quotations; b With paragraphs;
c In dialogue; d With slang, etc.; e With words
set apart; f Quotation within a quotation; g Together
with other marks; h Quotation interrupted by _he said_;
i Omission from a quotation; j Unnecessary in the title
of a theme, or as a label for humor or irony
97. The Apostrophe: a In contractions; b To form the possessive;
c To form the possessive of nouns ending in _s_;
d Not used with personal possessive pronouns; e To
form the plural of certain signs and letters
98. The Question Mark: a After a direct question; b Not
followed by a comma within a sentence; c In parentheses
to express uncertainty; d Not used to label irony; e The
Exclamation Point
99. EXERCISE
100. GENERAL EXERCISE

TO THE STUDENT

When a number is written in the margin of your theme, you are to turn to
the article which corresponds to the number. Read the rule (printed in
bold-face type), and study the examples. When an _r_ follows the number
on your theme, you are, in addition, to copy the rule. When an _x_
follows the number, you are, besides acquainting yourself with the rule,
to write the exercise of five sentences, to correct your own faulty
sentence, and to hand in the six on theme paper. If the number ends in 9
(9, 19, 29, etc.), you will find, not a rule, but a long exercise which
you are to write and hand in on theme paper. In the absence of special
instructions from your teacher, you are invariably to proceed as this
paragraph requires.

Try to grasp the principle which underlies the rule. In many places in
this book the reason for the existence of the rule is clearly stated.
Thus under 20, the reason for the rule on parallel structure is
explained in a prologue. In other instances, as in the rule on divided
reference (20), the reason becomes clear the moment you read the
examples. In certain other instances the rule may appear arbitrary and
without a basis in reason. But there is a basis in reason, as you will
observe in the following illustration.

Suppose you write, "He is twenty one years old." The instructor asks you
to put a hyphen in _twenty-one_, and refers you to 78. You cannot see
why a hyphen is necessary, since the meaning is clear without it. But
tomorrow you may write. "I will send you twenty five dollar bills." The
reader cannot tell whether you mean twenty five-dollar bills or
twenty-five dollar bills. In the first sentence the use of the hyphen in
_twenty-one_ did not make much difference. In the second sentence the
hyphen makes seventy-five dollars' worth of difference. Thus the
instructor, in asking you to write, "He is twenty-one years old," is
helping you to form a habit that will save you from serious error in
other sentences. Whenever you cannot understand the reason for a rule,
ask yourself whether the usage of many clear-thinking men for long years
past may not be protecting you from difficulties which you do not
foresee. Instructors and writers of text books (impressive as is the
evidence to the contrary) are human, and do not invent rules to puzzle
you. They do not, in fact, invent rules at all, but only make convenient
applications of principles which generations of writers have found to be
wisest and best.

THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING SENTENCE STRUCTURE

COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT

The first thing to make certain is that the thought of a sentence is
complete. A fragment which has no meaning when read alone, or a sentence
from which is omitted a necessary word, phrase, or idea, violates an
elementary principle of writing.

=Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences=

=1. Do not write a subordinate part of a sentence as if it were a
complete sentence.=

Wrong: He stopped short. Hearing some one approach.

Right: He stopped short, hearing some one approach. [Or]
Hearing some one approach, he stopped short.

Wrong: The winters are cold. Although the summers are pleasant.

Right: Although the summers are pleasant, the winters are cold.

Wrong: The hunter tried to move the stone. Which he found very
heavy.

Right: The hunter tried to move the stone, which he found very
heavy. [Or] The hunter tried to move the stone. He found it
very heavy.

Note.--A sentence must in itself express a complete thought. Phrases or
subordinate clauses, if used alone, carry only an incomplete meaning.
They must therefore be attached to a sentence, or restated in
independent form. Elliptical expressions used in conversation may be
regarded as exceptions: Where? At what time? Ten o'clock. By no means.
Certainly. Go.

Exercise:

1. My next experience was in a grain elevator. Where I worked
for two summers.

2. The parts of a fountain pen are: first, the point. This is
gold. Second, the body.

3. The form is set rigidly. So that it will not be displaced
when the concrete is thrown in.

4. There are several reasons to account for the swarming of
bees. One of these having already been mentioned.

5. Since June the company has increased its trade three per
cent. Since August, five per cent.

=Incomplete Constructions=

=2. Do not leave uncompleted a construction which you have begun.=

Wrong: You remember that in his speech in which he said he
would oppose the bill.

Right: You remember that in his speech he said he would oppose
the bill. [Or] You remember the speech in which he said he
would oppose the bill.

Wrong: He was a young man who, coming from the country, with
ignorance of city ways, but with plenty of determination to
succeed.

Right: He was a young man who, coming from the country, was
ignorant of city ways, but had plenty of determination to
succeed.

Wrong: From the window of the train I perceived one of those
unsightly structures.

Right: From the window of the train I perceived one of those
unsightly structures which are always to be seen near a
station.

Exercise:

1. As far as his having been deceived, there is a difference of
opinion on that matter.

2. The fact that he was always in trouble, his parents wondered
whether he should remain in school or not.

3. People who go back to the scenes of their childhood
everything looks strangely small.

4. It was the custom that whenever a political party came into
office, for the incoming men to discharge all employees of the
opposite party.

5. Although the average man, if asked whether he could shoot a
rabbit, would answer in the affirmative, even though he had
never hunted rabbits, would find himself badly mistaken.

=Necessary Words Omitted=

=3. Do not omit a word or a phrase which is necessary to an immediate
understanding of a sentence.=

Ambiguous: I consulted the secretary and president. [Did the
speaker consult one man or two?]

Right: I consulted the secretary and the president. [Or] I
consulted the man who was president and secretary.

Ambiguous: Water passes through the cement as well as the
bricks.

Right: Water passes through the cement as well as through the
bricks.

Wrong: I have had experience in every phase of the automobile.

Right: I have had experience in every phase of automobile
driving and repairing.

Wrong: About him were men whom he could not tell whether they
were friends or foes.

Right: About him were men regarding whom he could not tell
whether they were friends or foes. [Or, better] About him were
men who might have been either friends or foes.

Exercise:

1. When still a small boy, my family moved to Centerville.

2. Constantly in conversation with some one broadens our ideas
and our vocabulary.

3. It was a trick which opposing teams were sure to be
baffled.

4. They departed for the battle front with the knowledge they
might never return.

5. At the banquet were all classes of people; I met a banker
and plumber.

=Comparisons=

=4. Comparisons must be completed logically.=

Wrong: His speed was equal to a racehorse.

Wrong: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer.

Wrong: The shells which are used in quail hunting are different
than in rabbit hunting.

Compare a thing with another thing, an abstraction with another
abstraction. Do not carelessly compare a thing with a part or quality of
another thing. Always ask yourself: What is compared with what?

Right: His speed was equal to that of a racehorse.

Right: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer's.

Right: The shells used in quail hunting are different from
those used in rabbit hunting.

Self-contradictory: Chicago is larger than any city in
Illinois.

Right: Chicago is larger than any other city in Illinois.

Impossible: Chicago is the largest of any other city in
Illinois.

Right: Chicago is the largest of all the cities in Illinois.
[Or] Chicago is the largest city in Illinois.

Note.--After a comparative, the subject of the comparison should be
excluded from the class with which it is compared; after a superlative,
the subject of the comparison should be included within the class.

Wrong: {taller of all the girls.
{tallest of any girl.

Right: {taller than any other girl [comparative].
{tallest of all the girls [superlative].

Exercise:

1. The climate of America helps her athletes to become superior
to other countries.

2. This tobacco is the best of any other on the market.

3. You men are paid three dollars more than any other factory
in the city.

4. I thought I was best fitted for an engineering course than
any other.

5. Care should be taken not to turn in more cattle than the
grass in the pasture.

=Cause and Reason=

=5. A simple statement of fact may be completed by a _because_ clause.=

Right: I am late because I was sick.

=But a statement containing _the reason is_ must be completed by a _that_
clause.=

Wrong: The reason I am late is because I was sick. [The
"reason" is not a "because"; the "reason" is the fact of
sickness.]

Right: The reason I am late is that I was sick.

=_Because_, the conjunction, may introduce an adverbial clause only.=

Wrong: Because a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is
poor. [A _because_ clause cannot be the subject of _is_.]

Right: The fact that a man wears old clothes is no proof that
he is poor. [Or] The wearing of old clothes is not proof that a
man is poor.

Note.--_Because of_, _owing to_, _on account of_, introduce adverbial
phrases only. _Due to_ and _caused by_ introduce adjectival phrases
only.

Wrong: He failed, due to weak eyes. [Due is an adjective;
it cannot modify a verb.]

Right: His failure was {due to } weak eyes
{caused by}

{because of }
Right: He failed {owing to } weak eyes.
{on account of}

Exercise:

1. The reason why I would not buy a Ford car is because it is
too light.

2. My second reason for coming here is because of social
advantages.

3. Because John is rich does not make him happier than I.

4. Because I like farming is the reason I chose it.

5. The only reason why vegetation does not grow here is because
of the lack of water.

=_is when_ or _is where_ Clauses=

=6. Do not use a _when_ or _where_ clause as a predicate noun. Do not
define a word by saying it is a "when" or a "where". Define a noun by
another noun, a verb by another verb, etc.=

Wrong: The great event is when the train arrives.

Right: The great event is the arrival of the train.

Wrong: Immigration is where foreigners come into a country.

Right: Immigration is the entering of foreigners into a
country.

Wrong: A simile is when one object is compared with another.

Right: A simile is a figure of speech in which one object is
compared with another.

Note.--A definition of a term is a statement which (1) names the class
to which the term belongs, and (2) distinguishes it from other members
of the class. Example. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having four
sides and four angles. To test a definition ask whether it separates the
term defined from all other things. If the definition does not do this,
it is incomplete. Define _California_ (so as to exclude other states),
_window_ (so as to exclude _door_), _star_ (exclude _moon_), _night_,
_rain_, _circle_, _Bible_, _metal_, _mile_, _rectangle_.

Exercise:

1. The pistol shot is when the race begins.

2. A snob is when a man treats others as inferior socially.

3. The wireless telegraph is where messages are sent a long
distance through the air.

4. The definition of usury is where one charges interest higher
than the legal rate.

5. Biology is when one studies plant and animal life.

=Undeveloped Thought=

=7. Do not halfway express an idea. If the idea is important, develop it.
If it is not important, omit it.=

Incomplete: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way,
and Jack said he had a business engagement that night.

Better: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, a fact
which was all the more annoying as Jack said he had a business
engagement that night.

Puzzling: Since McAndrew had inherited money, his suitcase was
plastered with labels.

Right: Since McAndrew had inherited money, he had traveled
extensively. His suitcase was plastered with the labels of
foreign hotels.

Careless: In looking for gasoline troubles, we forgot to see
whether the tank was supplied.

Right: In looking for the cause of the trouble, we forgot to
see whether the tank was supplied with gasoline.

Note.--In giving information about books, do not confuse the title with
the contents or some part of the contents. Be accurate in referring to
the time, scene, action, plot, or characters.

Loose thinking: Shakespeare's _Hamlet_ occurs in Denmark [The
scene is laid?]. Many passages are powerful, especially the
grave-digging [Is grave-digging a passage?]. The character of
Horatio is a noble fellow [conception], and the same is true of
Ophelia [Ophelia a fellow?]. The drama takes place over several
weeks. [The action covers a period of several weeks.]

Exercise:

1. The victrola brings to the home the world's musical ability.

2. The user of Dietzgen instruments is not vexed by numerous
troubles that accompany the inferior makes.

3. To the picnicker rainy weather is bad weather, while the
farmer raises a big crop.

4. Some diseases can be checked by preventives, and in many
cases can be of great use to an army.

5. This idea of breaking all records held for eating is
naturally harmful to the digestion, and these important organs
may thank their stars that Christmas does not come very often.

=Transitions=

The state of mind of a writer is not the state of mind of his reader.
The writer knows his ideas, and has spent much time with them. The
reader meets these ideas for the first time, and must gather them in at
a glance. The relation between two ideas may be clear to the writer, and
not at all clear to the reader. Therefore,

=8. In passing from one thought to another, make the connection clear. If
necessary, insert a word, a phrase, or even a sentence, to carry the
reader safely across.=

Space transition needed: We were surprised to see a house in
the distance, but we went to the door and knocked. [This
sentence does not give a reader the effect of distance.]

Better: We were surprised to see a house in the distance. _But
we hastened toward it with thoughts of a warm meal and a good
lodging. We entered the yard_, and went up to the door, and
knocked.

Exterior-interior transition needed: We noticed that the house
was built of cobblestones. There was a broad window from which
we could look out upon the small stream that dashed down the
rocky hillside.

Better: We noticed that the house was built of cobblestones.
_We went inside, and found that the living room was large and
airy._ There was a broad window from which we could look out
upon the small stream that dashed down the rocky hillside.

Cause transition lacking: The Romans were great road-builders.
They wished to maintain their empire.

Better: The Romans were great road-builders, _because means of
moving troops quickly were necessary_ to the maintenance of
their empire.

General-to-particular transition needed: Modern machinery often
makes men its slaves. Last summer I worked for the Chandler
Company. [This gap in thought occurs oftenest between the first
two sentences of a paragraph or theme.]

Better: Modern machinery often makes men its slaves. _This
truth is well illustrated by my own experience._ Last summer I
worked for the Chandler Company.

Transition to be improved by changing order: A careless trainer
may spoil a good colt. A good horse can never be made of a
vicious colt. [Here the order of ideas is: "Trainer ... colt.
Horse ... colt." Turn the last sentence end for end.]

Better: A careless trainer may spoil a good colt. And a vicious
colt can never be made a good horse. [Now the order of ideas is
"Trainer ... colt. Colt ... horse."]

Transition to be improved by removal of a disturbing element:
Our class in physics last week visited a pumping station in
which the Corliss type of steam engine is used. _The engines
are manufactured by the Allis-Chalmers Company of Milwaukee,
Wisconsin._ This type of engine is used because it has several
advantages. [The italicized sentence should be omitted here,
and used later in the theme.]

Note.--The divisions of thought within a paragraph may likewise be
indicated by connectives: _however_, _on the other hand_, _equally
important_, _another interesting problem is_, _for this reason_, _the
remedy for this_, _so much for_, _it remains to mention_, _of course I
admit_, _finally_. (For a longer list see 36.) Such phrases are also
useful in linking one paragraph to another.

When a student first learns the art, he is likely to use transition
phrases in excess, and produce something like the following: "When I
have to write a theme, I first think of my subject. As soon as I have my
subject, I take out my paper. On the paper I then make a rough outline."
This abuse of transition causes an overlapping of thought, like shingles
laid three inches to the weather. An abrupt transition is better than
wordiness.

Exercise:

1. The shore looked far off. Then we reached it.

2. A light snow was falling last night. This is a good day for
hunting rabbits.

3. A dollar is often a large sum. I sold newspapers when I was
a boy.

4. Many English words still preserve their old meanings. There
is the teller in the bank.

5. We had to walk half a mile across the pastures in the fresh
morning air. Exercise indoors does not arouse much zest or
enthusiasm.

=9.= EXERCISE IN COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT

=A. Fragments Misused as Sentences=

Rewrite the following statements in sentences each of which expresses a
complete thought.

1. He gave me a flower. Which was wilted.

2. The gasoline flows through the supply tube to the
carburetor. Where it should vaporize and enter the cylinders.

3. People of all ages were there. Old men, young women, and
even children.

4. He told us that you had a good standing among business men.
That you always met your bills promptly.

5. Excuse Everett Smith from school this morning. He having the
measles.

6. The internal combustion engine may be either one of two
types. The two cycle or the four cycle.

7. The young men and women acted like children. Who should have
known better.

8. There was a cross cow in the pasture. Which had long horns.

9. Bacteria are microscopic organisms. Especially found where
milk or some other substance decomposes.

10. We pass on down the street. The buildings rising two or
three stories high on either side.

11. The Y. M. C. A. enables you to keep your religious
interests alive. As well as to associate with clean young men.

12. She wasted her time on foolish clothes. While her mother
took in washing.

13. He was dressed in a ridiculous fashion. Wearing, for
instance, an orange necktie.

14. The point is similar to that of the ordinary steel pen,
except that it is made of gold. Gold being used on account of
its greater smoothness and durability.

15. Tire troubles have been made less formidable by the
invention of a compact, efficient little vulcanizer. A factory
for making which is now being built.

=B. Incomplete Constructions=

Improve the following statements. Supply missing words. Make sure that
each construction and each sentence is complete.

1. When one year old, my mother died.

2. Yours received, and in reply would say your order has been
filled.

3. While in there a man came in and bought a quarter's worth of
soap.

4. War is largely dependent upon the engineers to design new
machinery.

5. When you talk to a man look at him, not the floor or
ceiling.

6. In writing a book, an author's first one is usually not very
good.

7. Every summer while in high school, our family has gone to
our cottage on Lake Michigan.

8. When a boy, Mary was my best friend.

9. There is, however, another reason a person should know how
to swim.

10. I think more of her than anyone else.

11. Corrupt laws are often the means rich people obtain the
earnings of others.

12. A hundred dollars invested in a warning signal, future
accidents would be prevented.

13. Electric transmission is sometimes used on automobiles more
of an experiment than anything else.

14. Was delighted to hear from you. Glad to hear you entered
the wholesale business. Wish you success.

15. As a rule people eat too much. This point should be
noticed, and not overwork the digestive organs.

=C. Incomplete Logic=

The following sentences are inadequate statements of cause, comparison,
etc. Complete the thought.

1. His neck is as long as a giraffe.

2. His name was David Meek, from New Hampshire.

3. The Pacific Ocean is larger than any ocean.

4. Because he never worked led to his failure.

5. A monitor is where a heavily armored boat of light draft can
go near the shore.

6. Democracy is when people, through representatives, govern
themselves.

7. The story of _Huckleberry Finn_ is in reality Mark Twain
himself.

8. Because a man has money is no reason why he should be lazy.

9. The character of Sydney Carton is the real hero of this
novel.

10. A forester leads an interesting life is the reason I want
to be one.

11. Tact is where a man anticipates the criticism of others,
and acts with discretion.

12. The comfort of a modern house is much greater than the
old-time house.

13. Free trade is when no revenue is collected on imports,
beyond enough to run the government.

14. The cost of room, board, and tuition is low at this school,
compared to the more fashionable schools.

15. The theme of this novel tells how a peasant, Jean Valjean,
from a convict comes to be a respected citizen.

=D. Undeveloped Thought and Transitions=

Complete the thought of the following sentences, and secure a smooth
transition between parts.

1. As you enter this room, to the left is an interesting
painting of the Canterbury Pilgrims.

2. Poe delights in fantastic plots. A pirate's treasure chest
was discovered in _The Gold Bug_.

3. I got up and ate a bite of breakfast. A few of my friends
came over. We went to play golf.

4. All the loose material on the trail is carried off by the
rush of the water. The last time I was on it was in early
summer, and I found it in this rough condition.

5. I managed to find the softest board in the floor and went to
sleep. Some of the boys found pleasure in arousing me with a
shower of cold water.

6. Under guise of friendly escort the Indians accompanied the
inhabitants of the fort a few miles. Only three escaped the
massacre.

7. Many people say that in civil engineering it depends on the
prosperity of the country; in hard times they do not build and
in good times they do build.

8. Canada has more forests than minerals. Canada has made only
a start in the lumber industry. The minerals are found, for the
most part, in the mountain district near Lake Superior.

9. Thanksgiving day, as we are told, is a day on which our
Puritan forefathers gathered round the roast turkey and gave
thanks to God for his goodness. Last Thanksgiving I was at
home.

10. The old method was to dig the holes by hand, and drop two
or three kernels in each hole. Corn has become a staple crop.
Machinery is used. The preparing of a field for corn has become
a science.

UNITY OF THOUGHT

Unity means oneness. A sentence should contain one thought. It may
contain two or more statements only when these are closely related parts
of a larger thought or impression. A writer should make certain, first,
that his thought has unity; and second, that this unity will be obvious
to the reader.

=Unrelated Ideas in One Sentence=

=10. Do not combine ideas which have no obvious relation to each other.
Place the ideas in separate sentences. Or, write the ideas as one
sentence, making their relation obvious.=

Wrong: The Spartans did not care for literature, and lived in
the southern part of Greece.

Wrong: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, and the
most important work in preparing coffee for the market is the
roasting of the green berries.

The simplest method of correction is to divide the sentence.

Right: The Spartans lived in the southern part of Greece. They
did not care for literature.

Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn. The most
important work in preparing the coffee for the market is the
roasting of the green berries.

Another method of correction is to subordinate one idea to the other, or
to change the wording until the relation between the ideas is obvious.

Right: The Spartans, who lived in the southern part of Greece,
did not care for literature.

Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, since the
only important work in preparing the coffee for the market is
the roasting of the green berries.

Exercise:

1. Franklin is often regarded as the typical American, and
wrote an interesting autobiography.

2. Coal miners wear little oil lamps in their caps, and they
seldom receive very good wages.

3. My neighbor, Mr. Houghton, was always a very good friend of
mine, and died last night.

4. I dropped the clock and injured the works, but the jeweler
told me it would be cheaper for me to buy a new clock.

5. The next thing the camper should do is to make a bed, and
the branches of the spruce are the best.

=Excessive Detail=

=11. Do not encumber the main idea of a sentence with superfluous
details. Place some of the details in another sentence, or omit them.=

Faulty: In the town in which I live there are several large
churches, and about six o'clock one morning, in a violent
storm, one of these churches was struck by lightning.

Right: In my home town there are several large churches. One
morning about six o'clock, in a violent storm, one of these
churches was struck by lightning.

Wrong: In 1836, in Baltimore, Poe married Virginia Clemm, his
cousin, who was hardly more than a child, being then fourteen
years old, while Poe himself was twenty-eight, and to her he
wrote much of his best verse.

Right: In 1836 Poe married Virginia Clemm. Poe was then
twenty-eight, and Virginia was only fourteen. To this girl Poe
wrote much of his best verse.

Exercise:

1. The house with the red tile roof is the finest in the city,
and is owned by Mr. Saunders, who made his money speculating in
land.

2. Then the engine tilted and fell over on one side, and the
boiler exploded and added to the frightful scene.

3. The deer whose antlers you see over the fireplace as you
enter the room was shot by my Uncle Will, who is now in South
America on a hunting expedition.

4. The seeds, which have previously been soaked in water over
night, are now planted carefully, not too deep, in straight
rows sixteen inches apart, the best time being in April, when
the ground is soft and has been thoroughly spaded.

5. One day last week my employer, Mr. Conway, a jolly, peculiar
man, raised my salary, first telling me I was about to be
discharged, and laughing at me when I looked so surprised.

=Stringy Sentences to be Broken up=

=12. Avoid stringy compound sentences. The crude, rambling style which
results from their use may be corrected by separating the material into
shorter sentences, or by subordinating lesser ideas to the main thought.=

Faulty: The second speaker had sat quietly waiting, and he was
a man of a different type, and he began calmly, yet from the
very first words he showed great earnestness.

Right: The second speaker, who had sat quietly waiting, was a
man of a different type. He began calmly, yet from his very
first words he showed great earnestness.

Faulty: There are many stops on the organ which control the
tones of the different pipes and one has to learn how and when
to use these and this takes time and practice.

Right: On the organ are many stops which control the tones of
the different pipes. To learn how and when to use these takes
time and practice.

Faulty: He published prose fiction, and this was then the
accepted literary form, and the drama was neglected.

Better: He published prose fiction, which was then the accepted
literary form, the drama being neglected. [This sentence makes
three statements in a diminishing series. The important idea is
expressed in a main clause; a less important explanation is
fitted into a relative clause; and a still less important
comment takes a parenthetical phrase at the end.]

Note.--One of the crying faults of the immature writer is that by
excessive coördination he obscures the fine shades of meaning. When two
clauses are joined, the meaning will very often be more exact if one is
subordinated to the other. For a list of subordinating connectives, see
36.

Exercise:

1. He went down town, and it began to rain, and so he decided
to go to the city library.

2. There is an old saying which I have often heard and I
believe in it to a certain extent, and it runs as follows: The
more you live at your wit's end, the more the wit's end grows.

3. Our salesman, Mr. Powers, has spoken very favorably of your
firm, and we feel that our relations will be most pleasant, and
the report of the commercial agencies is sufficient evidence of
your good financial standing.

4. There was no escaping from this churn, so one of the frogs,
after a brief struggle thought that he might just as well die
one time as another, and so he gave up and sank to the bottom.

5. Socrates did no writing himself, and the only information we
have of him we get from the writings of his pupils and from
later writers, and our most reliable knowledge comes from two
of these writers, Plato and Xenophon.

=Choppy Sentences to be Combined=

=13. Do not use two or three short sentences to express ideas which will
make a more unified impression in one sentence. Place subordinate ideas
in subordinate grammatical constructions.=

Excessive predication: Excavating is the first operation in
street paving. The excavating is usually done by means of a
steam shovel. The shovel scoops up the dirt and loads it
directly into wagons.

Right: Excavating, the first operation in street paving, is
usually done by a steam shovel which loads the dirt directly
into wagons.

Monotonous: The doe is wading along the shore. She is nibbling
the lily pads as she goes. Now she moves slowly around the
point. She has a little spotted fawn with her. The fawn frolics
along at the heels of his mother.

Better: Wading along the shore, the doe nibbles the lily pads
by the way, and moves slowly around the point. A spotted fawn
frolics at her heels.

Primer style: Rooms are marked on the floor. These rooms are
about fourteen feet square.

Better: The floor is marked off into rooms about fourteen feet
square.

Note.--An occasional short sentence is permissible, even desirable.
Successive short sentences may be used to express rapid action, or
emphatic assertion, or deliberate simplicity. Otherwise, avoid them.

Exercise.

1. Decatur has wide streets. The streets are paved with brick,
asphalt, and creosote blocks.

2. Sixteen posts are set in a row. All of these are at equal
intervals.

3. The boat approaches the leeward side of the ship. This side
is the side protected from the wind.

4. The _Scientific American_ reports the progress of science.
It explains new inventions. It makes practical applications of
scientific principles.

5. The beans are usually harvested about the middle of
September. They are cut when the plants turn color at the roots
and the beans turn white. They are cut by a bean-cutter which
takes two rows at a time.

=Excessive Coördination=

In structure a sentence may be

A. Simple: The rain fell.

B. Compound: The rain continued and the stream rose.

C. Complex: When the rain ceased, the flood came.

In B, the clauses are of almost equal importance, and the first is
coördinated with the second. In C, the clauses are not of equal
importance, and the first is subordinated to the second. _And_ is a
coördinating conjunction. _When_ is a subordinating conjunction. For a
list of connectives see 36.

=14. Do not use coördination when subordination will secure a more clear
and emphatic unit of thought. Especially do not coördinate a main idea
with an explanatory detail.= The speech of children connects all ideas,
important and unimportant, with _and_. Discriminating writers place
minor ideas in subordinate clauses, consign still less important ideas
to participial or prepositional phrases, and omit trivial details
altogether.

Childish: I went down town and saw a crowd standing in the
street, and wanted to know what was the matter, and so I went
up and asked a man.

Right: When I went down town, I saw a crowd standing in the
street, and since I wanted to know what was the matter, I asked
a man. [Two clauses are subordinated by the use of _when_ and
_since_. This change abolishes two _ands_. The words _went up
and_ are struck out. One _and_ remains, and deserves to remain,
for it joins two ideas which are truly coördinate.]

Main idea not emphasized: I talked with an old man and his name
was Ned.

Better: I talked with an old man named Ned. [A participial
phrase replaces a clause. The name is now subordinated.]

Main idea not emphasized: Developing is the next step in
preparing the film, and it is very important.

Better: Developing, the next step in preparing the film, is
very important. [An appositional phrase replaces the first
predicate.]

Main idea not emphasized: They began their perilous journey,
and they had four horses.

Right [emphasizing _perilous journey_]: With four horses they
began their perilous journey. [A prepositional phrase replaces
a clause.]

Right [emphasizing _having the horses_]: When they began their
perilous journey, they had four horses. [A subordinate clause
replaces a main clause.]

Capable of greater unity: The frog is a stupid animal, and may
be caught with a hook baited with red flannel. [Is the writer
trying to tell us _how to catch frogs_, or merely that _frogs
are stupid_? Coördination makes the two ideas appear equally
important.]

Right [emphasizing _frogs are stupid_]: The fact that the frog
can be caught with a hook baited with red flannel proves his
stupidity.

Right [emphasizing _how to catch frogs_]: The frog, being
stupid, will bite at a piece of red flannel.

Exercise.

1. Men were sent to Panama and could not live in such
unsanitary conditions.

2. When a letter came and it bore a familiar handwriting, I
always opened it eagerly.

3. West Hickory is the name of the place where the tannery is
situated, and it is a laboring man's town.

4. She wore a dress and it was silk, and cost her father a lot
of money.

5. Every race horse has a care taker or groom, and this man
spends all his time and makes the horse comfortable.

=Faulty Subordination of the Main Thought=

=15. Do not put the principal statement of a sentence in a subordinate
clause or phrase.= This violation of unity is sometimes called
"upside-down subordination".

Faulty: I was going down the street, when I heard an explosion.
[If _hearing the explosion_ is the main thought, it should be
placed in the main clause.]

Right: When I was going down the street, I heard an explosion.

Faulty: Longstreet received orders to attack the Federal right
wing, which he did immediately.

Right: As soon as Longstreet received orders, he attacked the
Federal right wing.

Faulty: I suspected that it would rain, although I did not take
an umbrella.

Right: Although I suspected that it would rain, I did not take
an umbrella.

Exercise:

1. An old man used to work for us, who died yesterday.

2. He became angry, saying he positively refused to go.

3. He is a bright boy, although I should not want to trust him
with my pocketbook.

4. He had an ambition which was to become the best lawyer in
the state by the time he was forty years old.

5. The cable breaks and the elevator starts to drop, when the
safety device always operates at once to prevent an accident.

=Subordination Thwarted by _and_=

=16. Do not attach to a main clause by means of _and_, a word, phrase, or
clause which you intend shall be subordinate. The presence of _and_
thwarts subordination.=

Wrong: Major went to bed, and leaving the work unfinished.

Right: Major went to bed, leaving the work unfinished.

Wrong: He ran home and with coat tails flying.

Right: He ran home with coat tails flying.

Exercise:

1. They denied my request, and giving no reason for the
refusal.

2. He gave me his answer and in few words.

3. The girl stood on the edge of the cliff, and thus showing
that she was not afraid.

4. A telegraph line is leased by the Associated Press, and thus
giving the newspapers quick service.

5. When the summer passed, the fisherman returned home for the
winter, and where he renewed his acquaintance with the
villagers.

=The _and which_ construction=

=17. Use _and which_ (or _but which_), _and who_ (or _but who_) only
between relative clauses similar in form. Between a main clause and a
relative clause, _and_ or _but_ thwarts subordination.=

Wrong: This is an important problem, and which we shall not
find easy to solve.

Right: This problem is an important problem, which we shall not
find easy to solve.

Right: This problem is one _which_ is important, _and which_ we
cannot easily solve.

Wrong: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest and which
everybody should read.

Right: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest, and one
which everybody should read.

Wrong: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician,
but who is now less popular than he was.

Right: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician,
who is now less popular than he was.

Note.--Rule 17 is sometimes briefly stated: "Do not use _and which_
unless you have already used _which_ in the sentence." This statement is
generally true, but an exception must be made for sentences like the
following: Right: "He told me what countries he had visited, and which
ones he liked most."

Exercise:

1. Just outside is a small porch looking out over the street,
and which can be used for sleeping purposes.

2. She is a woman of pleasing personality, and who can converse
intelligently.

3. It is a difficult task, but which can be accomplished in
time.

4. He is a good-looking man, but who is very snobbish.

5. The rule made by the conference of college professors in
1896, and which has been followed ever since, applies to the
case we are considering.

=Unity Thwarted by Punctuation=

=The Comma Splice=

=18. Do not splice two independent statements by means of a comma. Write
two sentences. Or, if the two statements together form a unit of
thought, combine them (1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a
semicolon, or (3) by reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a
subordinate clause.=

Wrong: The town has two railroads, it was founded when oil was
discovered.

Right: The town has two railroads. It was founded when oil was
discovered.

Wrong: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was,
this was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise. [Here are
three commas. The reader cannot quickly discover which one
marks the great division of thought.]

Right: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was.
This was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise.

Wrong: The winters were long and cold, nothing could live
without shelter.

Right: The winters were long and cold. Nothing could live
without shelter.

Right: The winters were long and cold, and nothing could live
without shelter [For the use of the comma, see 91a].

Right: The winters were long and cold; nothing could live
without shelter [For the use of the semicolon see 92].

Right: The winters were so long and cold that nothing could
live without shelter.

Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are parallel in structure and
leave a unified impression, may be joined by commas, even though the
conjunctions be omitted.

Right: All was excitement. The ducks quacked, the pigs
squealed, the dogs barked. [The general idea _excitement_ gives
the three clauses a certain unity.]

Exercise:

1. The key is turned to the right, this unlocks the door.

2. The author keeps one guessing, there is no hint how the
story will end.

3. The farmer is independent, he has no task-master.

4. There has been a change of government, in fact there has
been a revolution.

5. Lamb had failed in poetry, in the drama, and in the novel,
in the essay, at last, he succeeded.

=19.= EXERCISE IN UNITY OF THOUGHT

=A. The Comma Splice=

Rewrite the following material in sentences each of which is a unit of
thought. Most of the statements should be summarily cut apart. If you
decide that others taken together have unity of thought, combine them
(1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a semicolon, or (3) by
reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a subordinate clause.

1. The canoe is long and narrow, it is made of birch bark.

2. I decided to serve tea, of course cream and sugar would be
needed.

3. Some men hunt rabbits for market purposes only, they are the
sportsman's enemies.

4. This city furnished many boats for the siege of Calais, when
these boats returned they brought the plague with them.

5. The bottom of the box is then put in, it is nailed to the
sides.

6. It is not easy to become a good musician, one must practice
continually.

7. The Northern and Southern states could not be separate
nations, there was no natural boundary between them.

8. The telephone is a great invention, it is very useful to the
farmer.

9. Why would no one come to help me, my feet ached and I was
thirsty.

10. I know a girl who has a cynical disposition, she is always
criticizing.

11. I went into the office hopeless, a dime stood between me
and starvation.

12. The construction of the bridge has much to do with the tone
of a violin, it should be lower on the side nearest the E
string.

13. A private expense account does not require much labor or
time, just one hour a week will suffice to keep tract of all
expenditures.

14. We offer you sixty dollars a month to start, this is all we
can afford to pay at present.

15. He wanted personal success but would not shirk a duty or
harm any one in any way to gain that success, at all times he
forgot his own personal importance and was ready to do any task
set before him.

=B. One Thought in a Sentence=

By dividing, subordinating, or logically combining the following
statements, secure unity of thought.

1. She was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on September 30, 1902,
where she has lived ever since and is now well known.

2. Franklin was kindly, shrewd, and capable, and was the
representative of the United States in France.

3. She said that Mrs. Brown was ill and that she was just
caring for the baby, she loved babies anyway, she said.

4. One Sunday afternoon there was an excursion to Beaver and
several of us decided to go and take our lunches and return on
the eight o'clock car.

5. He gave me the dimensions of the room. The dimensions were
ten by twelve feet.

6. Good grades may be obtained in two ways: by honest work, and
by cheating; however any one who cheats is doing himself more
harm than good.

7. The wall studding is made of two-by-fours. These
two-by-fours are placed sixteen inches apart.

8. The returning Crusaders brought with them oriental learning,
and found the peasantry impoverished.

9. The articles in this magazine are of high quality. The
articles are well written and attractively illustrated.

10. A Japanese woman going abroad at night must carry a lighted
lamp and must not speak to any one, women do not have much
freedom in Japan.

11. The sugar beets are irrigated by river water. They are
irrigated by means of furrows. The furrows run between the rows
of beets. The beets are irrigated once a week.

12. The referee asked each captain if his men were ready, after
which he blew the whistle, and the game was on, and within five
minutes our team scored a touchdown.

13. The ground should be harrowed as soon as possible after it
is plowed. It is a good plan to harrow the ground on the same
day that it is plowed, or on the day following.

14. Choose the middle of the prepared ground, which is about
eighty-five by fifty feet, as your starting point, measure
twenty-four feet east and west and set the net posts; then,
after marking off the different courts with tape, you are ready
for a good game of tennis.

15. There are two places on the island suitable for plays: one
in the bungalow and the other down on the sandy point; the
latter lends itself to the purpose readily, there are two trees
which make a splendid support for wires on which to hang the
curtain, and just east of these the ground slopes enough to
make a natural amphitheater.

=C. Excessive Coördination=

The ideas in the following sentences are loosely strung together with
coördinating conjunctions. Place the important idea in the main clause.
Subordinate other ideas by reducing each to a dependent clause, or a
phrase, or a word.

1. Chris has a new coat and it is double-breasted.

2. I had a dog, and his name was Scratcher.

3. He gave a laugh but it was forced.

4. The woodcock is so foolish and deliberately walks into a
trap.

5. The engineers fastened rafts to the piles, and which were
pulled up when the tide rose.

6. Students often sit all doubled up, and raising their feet
high on the table.

7. Dunlap is carrying a palette, but without any paint on it.

8. The government has been successful in its suit, and the
tobacco trust was dissolved.

9. The British troops had no protection against poisonous gas
and the use of gas by the enemy was unexpected.

10. I make it a rule to study one thing at least an hour and no
long rest between.

11. The concrete is spread in a layer, and this is about nine
inches thick, and the width being ten feet.

12. Rockwell is our postmaster, and is accommodating, but he
has a disposition to be curious.

13. At the Gatun Dam there are concrete locks, and the purpose
of these is to lift vessels into the lake.

14. They say to tourists that objects are historic but which
are not historic at all.

15. I was lying quietly in the hammock, and I happened to look
up in the tree, and there was a green bird and eating a cherry.

16. They disputed for a time, and afterward the officer became
angry, and whipped out his sword.

17. A mirage is an illusion and the traveler thinks he sees
water when there really is none.

=D. Upside-down Subordination=

In the following sentences the important idea is buried in a subordinate
clause or phrase. Rescue this main idea, express it in the main clause,
and if possible subordinate the rest of the sentence to it.

1. I spoke to her on the street, when she did not answer.

2. She thanked me for my assistance, also asking me to come and
visit her the following Sunday.

3. The water froze in the buckets, although they did not burst.

4. The crows cawed angrily and circling around in one place.

5. He is threatened with tuberculosis, although he will not
sleep in the open air.

6. We had hacked the bark, the tree dying after a few months.

7. One of the contestants was from Wendover College, who
received the prize.

8. You ask a person what a spiral staircase is, when he will go
to showing you by motions of his hand.

9. It was about three o'clock, and we decided to return home,
which we did.

10. The plumber came, stopping the leak as soon as he arrived.

11. Benton sold stamps, in which business he grew rich.

12. The sun's heat beats down upon the brick tenements, which
is terrible.

13. The chemist tested the purity of the water, but which he
found unfit to drink.

14. Montaigne wrote an essay on "Solitude," where he pointed
out the disadvantages of travel.

15. The house is set close to the edge of the bluff,
overlooking a wide bend of the Alleghany River.

16. Things had been going from bad to worse among the Indians,
and some Sioux were entertaining a few Chippewas, and murdered
them, when the government took a hand in the affair.

17. The slight knowledge of metals and wide-awake observation
of an inexperienced miner discovered gold in Arizona.

CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT

Clearness is fundamental. The writer should be content, not when his
meaning may be understood, but only when his meaning cannot be
misunderstood. He may attain this entire clearness by giving attention
to five matters:

Reference (20-23)
Coherence (24-28)
Parallel Structure (30-31)
Consistency (32-35)
Use of Connectives (36-38)

REFERENCE

By the use of pronouns, participles, and other dependent words, language
becomes flexible and free. But each dependent part must refer without
confusion to a word which is reasonably near, and properly expressed.
Ordinarily a reader expects a pronoun or a participle to refer to the
nearest noun (or pronoun) or to an emphatic noun.

=Divided Reference=

=20. A pronoun should be placed near the word to which it refers, and
separated from words to which it might falsely seem to refer. If this
method does not secure clearness, discard the pronoun and change the
sentence structure.=

Uncertain reference of _which_: He dropped the bundle in the
mud which he was carrying to his mother. [The reader for a
moment refers the pronoun to the wrong noun. Bring _which_
nearer to its proper antecedent _bundle_.]

Right: He dropped in the mud the bundle which he was carrying
to his mother.

Vague reference of _this_: My failure in mathematics was
serious. My grades in English, history, and Latin were good
enough. But this brought down my average. [_This?_ What _this_?
Five nouns intrude between the pronoun _this_ and its proper
antecedent _failure_.]

Right: In English, history, and Latin I received fairly good
grades. But in mathematics I received a failure. This brought
down my average.

Remote reference of _it_: If you want to make a good speech,
take your hands out of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and
throw yourself into it.

Right: If you want to make a good speech, take your hands out
of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into
what you are saying. [Or, better] Take your hands out of your
pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into the
speech.

Ambiguous reference of _he_: John spoke to the stranger, and he
was very surly.

Right: John spoke to the stranger, who was very surly. [Or]
John spoke in a surly manner to the stranger.

Note.--The reference of relative and demonstrative pronouns is largely
dependent upon their position. The reference of a personal pronoun
(_he_, _she_, _they_, etc.) is not so much dependent upon its position,
the main consideration being that the antecedent shall be emphatic (See
the next article.)

Exercise:

1. He was driving an old mule attached to a cart that was blind
in one eye.

2. There is a grimy streak on the wall over the radiator which
can be removed only with great difficulty.

3. The feet of Chinese girls were bandaged so tightly when they
were babies that they could not grow.

4. He gave me a receipt for the money which he told me to keep.

5. After the pictures have been taken and the film has been
removed, they are sent to the developing room where it is
developed and dried.

=Weak Reference=

=21. Do not allow a pronoun to refer to a word not likely to be central
in the reader's thought; a word, for example, in the possessive case, or
in a parenthetical expression, or in a compound, or not expressed at
all. Make the pronoun refer to an emphatic word.=

Wrong: When a poor woman came to Jane Addams' famous Hull
House, she always gave help. [_Poor woman_ and _Hull House_ are
the emphatic words, to which any pronoun used later is
instinctively referred by the reader.]

Right: When a poor woman came to Jane Addams' famous Hull
House, she always received help. [Or] When a poor woman came to
Hull House, Jane Addams always gave help.

Wrong: In biology, which is the study of plants and animals we
find that they are made up of unitary structures called cells.
[Since the words _plants and animals_ occur only in a
parenthetical clause, the reader is surprised to find them used
as an antecedent.]

Right: In the study of biology we find that plants and animals
are made up of unitary structures called cells.

Wrong: This old scissors-grinder sharpens them for the whole
neighborhood. [The center of interest in the reader's mind is a
man, not scissors.]

Right: This old scissors-grinder sharpens scissors for the
whole neighborhood.

Wrong: I always liked engineers, and I have chosen that as my
profession.

Right: I always liked engineering, and I have chosen it as my
profession.

Absurd: When the baby is through drinking milk, it should be
disconnected and put in boiling water. [The central idea in the
reader's mind is _baby_, not _milk-bottle_. The writer may have
been thinking about the _bottle_, but he did not make the word
emphatic; in fact, he did not express it at all.]

Right: When the baby is through drinking milk, the bottle
should be taken apart and put in boiling water.

Note.--Ordinarily, do not refer to the title in the first line of a
theme. The reader expects you to assert something, and face forward, not
to turn back to what you have said in the title.

Faulty: Color Photography

I am interested in this new development of science. For
a long time I ...

Right: Color Photography

Taking pictures in color has long appealed to me as an interesting
possibility ...

Exercise:

1. In Shakespeare's play _Othello_ he makes Iago a fiend.

2. The noodle-cutter is a kitchen device which saves time in
making this troublesome dish.

3. The life of a forester is interesting, and I intend to
follow that profession.

4. He took down his great-grandfather's old sword, who had
carried it at Bunker Hill.

5. I was always making experiments in science, and I naturally
acquired a liking for periodicals of that nature.

=Broad Reference=

=22. Do not use a pronoun to refer broadly to a general idea. Supply a
definite antecedent or abandon the pronoun.=

Wrong: The tapper strikes the gong, which continues as long as
the push button is pressed. [The writer intends that _which_
shall refer to the entire preceding clause, but the reference
is intercepted by the word _gong_.]

Right [supplying a definite antecedent]: The tapper strikes the
gong, a process which continues as long as the push button is
pressed. [Or, abandoning the pronoun] The tapper strikes the
gong as long as the push button is pressed.

Wrong: Read the directions which are printed on the bottle and
it may save you from making a mistake.

Right [supplying a definite antecedent]: Read the directions
which are printed on the bottle. This precaution may save you
from making a mistake. [Or, abandoning the pronoun] Reading the
directions on the bottle may prevent a mistake.

Wrong: The managers told him they would increase his salary if
he would represent them in South America. He refused that.

Right: The managers told him they would increase his salary if
he would represent them in South America. He refused the offer.

Exception.--It cannot be maintained that a pronoun must _always_ have
one definite word for its antecedent. Many of the best English authors
occasionally use a pronoun to refer to a clause. But the reference must
always be clear.

Note.--Impersonal constructions must be used with caution. "It is
raining" is correct, although _it_ has no antecedent. We desire that the
antecedent shall be vague, impersonal. But unnecessary use of the
indefinite _it_, _you_, or _they_ should be avoided.

Faulty: It says in our history that Columbus was an Italian.

Right: Our history says that Columbus was an Italian.

Not complimentary to the reader: You aren't hanged nowadays for
stealing.

Right: No one is hanged nowadays for stealing.

Faulty: They are noted for their tact in France.

Right: The French are noted for their tact.

Exercise:

1. You use little slang in your paper which is commendable.

2. They had no reinforcements which caused them to lose the
battle.

3. The carbon must be removed from pig iron to make pure steel,
and that is done by terrific heat.

4. Our stenographer spends most of her spare time at a cheap
movie theater, which is in itself an index of her character.

5. It says in the new rules that you aren't allowed in the
building on Sunday.

=Dangling Participle or Gerund=

=23. A participle, being dependent, must refer to a noun or pronoun. The
noun or pronoun should be within the sentence which contains the
participle, and should be so conspicuous that the participle will be
associated with it instantly and without confusion.=

Wrong: Coming in on the train, the high school building is
seen. [Is the building coming in? If not, who is?]

Right: Coming in on the train, one sees the high school
building.

A sentence containing a dangling participle may be corrected (1) by
giving the word to which the participle refers a conspicuous position in
the sentence, or (2) by replacing the participial phrase by some other
construction.

Wrong: Having taken our seats, the umpire announced the
batteries.

Right: Having taken our seats, we heard the umpire announce
the batteries. [Or] When we had taken our seats, the umpire
announced the batteries.

Wrong: She was for a long time sick, caused by overwork. [The
participle _caused_ should not modify _sick_. A participle is
used as an adjective, and should therefore modify a noun.]

Right--using an adjectival modifier:

She had a long sickness, {caused by} overwork.
{due to }

Right--using an adverbial modifier:

{because of }
She was for a long time sick {owing to } overwork.
{on account of}

=When a gerund phrase (_in passing_, _while speaking_ etc.) implies the
action of a special agent, indicate what the agent is. Otherwise the
phrase will be dangling.=

Faulty: In talking to Mr. Brown the other day, he told me that
you intend to buy a car.

Better: In talking to Mr. Brown the other day, I learned that
you intend to buy a car.

Faulty: The address was concluded by reciting a passage from
Wordsworth.

Better: The speaker concluded his address by reciting a passage
from Wordsworth. [Or] The address was concluded by the
recitation of a passage from Wordsworth.

Note.--Two other kinds of dangling modifier, treated elsewhere in this
book, may be briefly mentioned here. A phrase beginning with the
adjective _due_ should refer to a noun; otherwise the phrase is left
dangling (See 5 Note). An elliptical sentence (one from which words are
omitted) is faulty when one of the elements is left dangling (See 3).

Faulty: I was late _due_ to carelessness [Use _because of_].

Ludicrous: My shoestring always breaks when hurrying to the
office at eight o'clock [Say _when I am hurrying_].

Exercise:

1. Coming out of the house, a street car is seen.

2. While engaged in conversation with my host and hostess, my
maid placed upon the table a steaming leg of lamb.

3. A small quantity of gold is thoroughly mixed with a few
drops of turpentine, using the spatula to work it smooth.

4. After being in the oven twenty minutes, open the door. When
fully baked, you are ready to put the sauce on the pudding.

5. Entering the store, a soda fountain is observed. Passing
down the aisle, a candy counter comes into view. The rear of
the store is bright and pleasant, caused by a skylight.

COHERENCE

The verb _cohere_ means to stick or hold firmly together. And the noun
_coherence_ as applied to writing means a close and natural sequence of
parts. Order is essential to clearness.

=General Incoherence=

=24. Every part of a sentence must have a clear and natural connection
with the adjoining part. Like or related parts should normally be placed
together.=

Bring related ideas together: Little Helen stood beside the
horse wearing white stockings and slippers.

Right: Little Helen, in white stockings and slippers, stood
beside the horse.

Keep unlike ideas apart: The colors of purple and green are
pleasing to the eye as found in the thistle.

Right: The purple and green colors of the thistle are
pleasing.

Distribute unrelated modifiers, instead of bunching them: I
found a heap of snow on my bed in the morning
which had drifted in through the window. [Subject
verb--object--place--time--explanation.]

Right: In the morning I found on my bed
a heap of snow which had drifted in through the window.
[Time--subject verb--place--object--explanation.]

Bring related modifiers together: When he has prepared his
lessons, he will come, as soon as he can put on his old
clothes. [Condition--main clause--condition.]

Right: When he has prepared his lessons and put on his old
clothes, he will come. [Condition and condition--main clause.]

Exercise:

1. He was gazing at the landscape which he had painted with a
smiling face.

2. She turned the steak with a fork which she was cooking for
dinner every few minutes.

3. Dickens puts the various experiences he had in the form of a
novel when he was a boy.

4. If the roads are made of dirt, the farmer has to wait, if
the weather is rainy, till they dry.

5. We received practically very little or none at all
experience in writing themes.

=Logical Sequence=

=25. Place first in the sentence the idea which naturally comes first in
thought or in the order of time.=

Faulty: We went to the station from the house after bidding all
goodby.

Right: We said goodby to all, and went from the house to the
station.

=Do not begin one idea, abandon it for a second, and then return to the
first. Complete one idea at a time.=

Faulty: She looked up as he approached and smoothed her hair.
[The writer begins a main clause, changes to a subordinate
clause, and then attempts to add more to the main clause.
Unfortunately the last two verbs appear to be coördinate.]

Right: She looked up and smoothed her hair as he approached.
[Or] As he approached she looked up, and smoothed her hair.

=Ordinarily, let a second thought begin where the first leaves off.=

Faulty: An orange grove requires plenty of water. The young
trees will die if they do not have plenty of water. [The order
of ideas is: "Grove ... water. Trees ... water." Reverse the
order of the second sentence.]

Right: An orange grove requires plenty of water. For without
water the young trees will die. [Now the order of ideas is:
"Grove ... water. Water ... trees."]

Exercise:

1. I boarded the train, after buying a ticket.

2. I dropped my pen when the whistle blew and sighed.

3. Unless the bank clerk has ability he will never be
successful unless he works faithfully and hard.

4. I remember the days when Rover was a pup. Now he is not half
so interesting as he was then.

5. A chessboard is divided into sixty-four squares, and there
is plenty of room between the opposing armies for a terrific
battle, since each army occupies only sixteen squares.

=Squinting Modifier=

=26. Avoid the squinting construction. That is, do not place between two
parts of a sentence a modifier that may attach itself to either. Place
the modifier where it cannot be misunderstood.=

Confusing: I told him when the time came I would do it. [_When
the time came_ is said to "squint" because the reader cannot
tell whether it looks forward to the end of the sentence, or
backward to the beginning.]

Right: When the time came, I told him I would do it. [Or] I
told him I would do it when the time came.

Confusing: Some friends I knew would enjoy the play. [_I knew_
squints.]

Right: Some friends would enjoy the play, I knew.

Confusing: The orator whom every one was calling for
enthusiastically hurried to the platform. [_Enthusiastically_
squints.]

Clear: The orator whom every one was enthusiastically calling
for hurried to the platform.

Exercise:

1. The man who laughs half the time does not understand the
joke.

2. Playing football in many ways improves the mind.

3. When she reached home much to her disgust the door was
locked.

4. When the lightning struck for the first time in my life I
was afraid.

5. The landlord wrote that he would if the rent were not paid
in thirty days eject the tenant.

=Misplaced Word=

=27. Such an adverb as _only_, _ever_, _almost_, should be placed near
the word it modifies, and separated from words which it might falsely
seem to modify. Such a conjunction as _nevertheless_, if required with a
clause, should usually be placed near the beginning.=

Illogical: I only need a few dollars.

Right: I need only a few dollars.

Illogical: I don't ever intend to go there again.

Right: I don't intend ever to go there again. [Or] I intend
never to go there again.

Illogical: She has the sweetest voice I nearly ever heard.

Right: She has nearly [or _almost_] the sweetest voice I ever
heard.

Tardy use of conjunction: I intend to try. I do not expect to
accomplish much, however.

Right: I intend to try. I do not, however, expect to accomplish
much.

Exercise:

1. Students are only admitted to one lecture.

2. This is the smallest book I almost ever saw.

3. He is so poor he hasn't any food, scarcely.

4. She had one dress that she never expected to wear.

5. The difficulties were tremendous. He said that he would do
his best, nevertheless.

=Split Construction=

=28. Elements that have a close grammatical connection should not be
separated awkwardly or carelessly. These elements are: (a) subject and
verb, or verb and object; (b) the parts of a compound verb; and (c) the
parts of an infinitive.=

Awkward: One in the struggle for efficiency should not become a
machine.

Better: In the struggle for efficiency one should not become a
machine.

Awkward: What use of an education could a girl who married a
penniless rogue and afterwards knew
nothing but hard labor, make?

Better: What use of an education could a girl make who married
a penniless rogue and afterward knew nothing but hard labor?

Crude: He was unable to even so much as stir a foot.

Better: He was unable even to stir a foot.

Note.--It is often desirable to separate the forms enumerated under (a)
and (b) above, either for emphasis (See 40) or to avoid a bunching of
modifiers at the end of a sentence (See 24). The whole point of rule 28
is not to depart from a natural order needlessly.

Exercise:

1. One thing the beginner must remember is to not get excited.

2. Ralph, when he heard the news, came flying out of the house.

3. The president called together, for the need was urgent, his
cabinet.

4. Bryce said that it is more patriotic to judiciously vote
than to frantically wave the American flag.

5. About the time Florence Nightingale had to give up her
plans, a war between Turkey, England, and France on one side
and Russia on the other, broke out.

=29.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT

=A. Reference of Pronouns=

In the following sentences make the reference of pronouns exact and
unmistakable.

1. Brown wrote to Roberts that he had made a mistake.

2. We heard a voice through the door which told us to enter.

3. There is a walk leading from the street to the house which
is made of thin slabs of stone.

4. A milking stool was beside the cow on which he was
accustomed to sit.

5. Should a community, such as a small village, spend the money
they do on roads?

6. This magazine prints many special articles on politics and
social reforms that are always instructive.

7. I wish I could do something for the protection of birds in
our country which is neglected.

8. After a man has failed in one business, it is no sign he
will fail in every other.

9. Sometimes cane syrup is mixed with the maple syrup, which
reduces the value of the product.

10. It means hard and diligent work to study Latin, but it
strengthens our brain or at least it gives it good exercise.

11. In the class room the students become acquainted, which may
develop into lifelong friendships.

12. He was delighted with a ride on horseback, which animal he
had been familiar with in his childhood on the farm.

13. It says in our history that the battle of New Orleans was
fought after the treaty of peace had been signed.

14. Sparks flew about in the air, and it reminded me of a huge
Fourth of July celebration.

15. The doctor gave me medicine to stop the dull pain in my
head. This made me feel much better.

=B. Dangling Modifiers=

Remembering that a participle is used as an adjective and must therefore
refer to a noun or pronoun, correct the following sentences. Gerund
phrases and a few elliptical sentences are included in the list.

1. Having planned the basement, the next thing considered was
the first floor.

2. Glancing around the room, the ugly wall paper at once
confronted me.

3. After ringing the bell, and waiting a few moments, a maid
came to the door.

4. When selecting a site for an orchard, it should be well
drained.

5. Not being a skilled dancer, my feet moved awkwardly.

6. Having no watch, the clock must be consulted.

7. He was sick, caused by eating too much dessert.

8. Radium is very difficult to get, making it the most valuable
metal.

9. One man goes home and beats his wife, resulting in internal
injuries.

10. Over the paper and kindling a few small chunks of coal are
scattered, taking care not to choke the draft.

11. In speaking of character, it does not mean to be a governor
or a general.

12. This town draws trade for a radius of twenty miles, thus
accounting for the large volume of business.

13. While talking to Ralph yesterday, he spoke about his recent
success in the hardware business.

14. The bus holds fifteen people, and when full, the bus man
shuts the door.

15. If bright and pleasant, the rabbit will be found sitting at
the entrance of his burrow.

=C. Coherence=

Secure a clear, smooth, natural order for the following sentences.

1. I have a lot for sale near the city limits.

2. Many men can only speak their native tongue.

3. I saw yesterday, crossing the street, a beautiful woman.

4. They entered the room, and sitting on the floor they saw a
baby.

5. I put down my book when the clock struck and yawned.

6. She dropped the money on the sidewalk which she was carrying
home.

7. The horse did not notice that the gate was open for several
minutes.

8. It was worth the trouble. I do not wish to have the
experience again, however.

9. My first trip away from home, of any distance, was made on a
steamboat from St. Louis to New Orleans.

10. He gazed at a young man who was waving his hands violently,
called a cheer leader.

11. Any soil will grow some variety of strawberry, except sand
and clay.

12. I turned triumphantly to Will, who was still gazing at the
place where the muskrat sank with a beaming face.

13. Only the interest, the principal being kept intact, is
spent.

14. A student should see that external conditions are favorable
for study, such as light, temperature, and clothing.

15. Draw a heavy line using a ruler to connect New York and San
Francisco across the map.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE

When the structure of a sentence is simple and uniform, the important
words strike the eye at once. Compare the following:

Parallel: Beggars must not be choosers.

Confusing: Beggars must not be the one who choose.

A reader gives attention partly to the structure of a sentence, and
partly to the thought. The less we puzzle him with our structure, the
more we shall impress him with our thought.

Parallel: Seeing is believing. [Attention goes to the thought.]

Confusing: Seeing is to believe. [Attention is diverted to
_structure_.]

The reader's expectation is that uniform structure shall accompany
uniform ideas, and that a departure from uniformity shall indicate a
change of thought.

=Parallel Structure for Parallel Thoughts=

=30. Give parallel structure to those parts of a sentence which are
parallel in thought. Do not needlessly interchange an infinitive with a
participle, a phrase with a clause, a single word with a phrase or
clause, a main clause with a dependent clause, one voice or mode of the
verb with another, etc.=

Faulty: Riding is sometimes better exercise than to walk.

Right: Riding is sometimes better exercise than walking. [Or]
To ride is sometimes better exercise than to walk.

Faulty: He had two desires, of which the first was for money;
in the second place, he wanted fame.

Right: He had two desires, of which the first was for money and
the second for fame. [Or] He had two desires: in the first
place, he wanted money; in the second, fame.

Faulty: His rival handled cigars of better quality and having a
higher selling price.

Right: His rival handled cigars of better quality and higher
price.

Faulty: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears,
and after a little practice you will be a good driver.

Right: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears,
and had a little practice, you will be a good driver. [Or]
After you master the gears and have a little practice, you will
be a good driver.

Faulty. These are the duties of the president of a literary
society:

(a) To preside at regular meetings,
(b) He calls special meetings,
(c) Appointment of committees.

Right: These are the duties of the president of a literary
society:

(a) To preside at regular meetings,
(b) To call special meetings,
(c) To appoint committees.

Faulty: She was actively connected with the club, church, and
with several organized charities. [Here parallelism is obscured
by the omission from the second phrase of both the preposition
and the article.]

Right: She was actively connected with the club, with the
church, and with several organized charities.

Faulty: He was red-faced, awkward, and had a disposition to eat
everything on the table. [The third element is like the others
in thought, and should have similar form.]

Right: He had a red face, an awkward manner, and a disposition
to eat everything on the table. [Or] He was red-faced, awkward,
and voracious.

Note.--Avoid misleading parallelism. For ideas _different_ in kind, do
_not_ use parallel structure.

Wrong: He was hot, puffing, and evidently had run very hard.
[The third element is unlike the others in thought; hence the
_and_ is misleading.]

Right: He was hot and puffing; evidently he had run very hard.

Confusing: He was admired for his knowledge of science, and for
his taste for art, and for this I too honor him. [The last
_for_ gives a false parallelism to unlike thoughts.]

Better: He was admired for his scientific knowledge and for his
artistic taste. I honor him for both these qualities.

Exercise:

1. The duties of the secretary are to answer correspondence,
and keeping the minutes of the meetings.

2. This process is the most difficult; it costs the most; and
is most important.

3. I make it a rule to be orderly, spend no money foolishly,
and keep still when I have nothing to say.

4. The cotton is put up in bales about five feet in length and
three feet wide and four thick, and one of them weighing about
five hundred pounds.

5. Considerations of economy that one should bear in mind when
planning a house are: first, a rectangular ground-plan; second,
a one-chimney plan; third, to have only one stairway; fourth,
eliminate as many doors as possible; fifth, the bathroom should
be above the kitchen so as to reduce the cost of plumbing; and
lastly, the rooms should be few and large rather than small and
many of them.

=Correlatives=

Conjunctions that are used in pairs are called correlatives; for
example, _not only_ ... _but also_ ..., _both_ ... _and_
..., _either_ ... _or_ ..., _neither_ ... _nor_ ..., _not_ ... _or_ ...,
_whether_ ... _or_ ....

=31. Correlatives should usually be followed by elements parallel in
form; if a predicate follows one, a predicate should follow the other;
if a prepositional phrase follows one, a prepositional phrase should
follow the other; and so on.=

Faulty: He was not only courteous to rich customers but also to
poor ones. [Here the phrases intended to be balanced against
each other are _to rich customer's_ and _to poor ones_. As the
sentence stands, it is the word _courteous_ that is balanced
against _to poor ones_.]

Right: He was courteous not only to rich customers but also to
poor ones.

Faulty: She could neither make up her mind to go nor could she
decide to stay.

Right: She could neither make up her mind to go nor decide to
stay. [Or] She could not make up her mind either to go or to
stay.

Faulty: I talked both with Brown and Miller. [Here one
conjunction is followed by a preposition and the other by a
noun.]

Right: I talked with both Brown and Miller. [Or] I talked both
with Brown and with Miller.

Exercise:

1. He was courteous to both friends and his enemies.

2. Such conduct is not only dangerous to society but becomes a
national disgrace as well.

3. She had neither affectation of manners nor was she
sharp-tongued.

4. After reading Thoreau's _Walden_ I appreciate not only the
style but also I am inclined to believe in his ideas.

5. The good that the delegates derive from the convention not
only helps them, but they tell others what happened.

CONSISTENCY

=Shift in Subject or Voice=

=32. Do not needlessly shift the subject, voice, or mode in the middle of
a sentence. Keep one point of view, until there is a reason for
changing.=

Faulty: In the stream which the road led over, fish were
plentiful. [Here the first mental picture is of a stream. Then
the thought is jerked away to the road above. Then it returns
to the fish in the stream.]

Right: In the stream which flowed under the roadway, fish were
plentiful.

Faulty: Mark Twain was born in the West, but the East was his
home in later years. [The change of subject is uncalled for.]

Right: Mark Twain was born in the West, but lived in the East
in his later years. [Or] The West was the birthplace of Mark
Twain, and the East was his home in his later years.

Faulty: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of
gasoline, and at the same time very little lubricating oil is
used. [The shift from active to passive voice is awkward and
confusing.]

Right: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of
gasoline, and at the same time use very little lubricating oil.

Faulty: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when we wish
to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of
mathematics is indispensable.

Right: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when certain
formulas are to be calculated, a knowledge of mathematics is
indispensable. [Or] When we face a problem in chemistry, or
wish to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of
mathematics is indispensable.

Faulty: Next the ground should be harrowed. Then you sow the
wheat. [The subject changes from _ground_ to _you_. One verb
explains what _should_ be done, the other what somebody
_does_.]

{is }
Right: Next the ground { } harrowed. Then it
{should be}
{is }
{ } sown to wheat. [Or] Next you should harrow
{should be}
the ground. Then you should sow the wheat.

Exercise:

1. One end of a camera carries the film, and the lens and
shutter are in the other end.

2. When an athlete is in training, good healthful food should
be eaten.

3. An engineer's time is not devoted to one branch of science,
but should include many.

4. By having only five men in charge of our city government,
they would have more power, and we could then fix
responsibility.

5. There are two main classes of cake, sponge and butter. We
are taught to make both in cooking school. I like the sponge
cake. The butter cake is preferred by most persons.

=Shift in Number, Person, or Tense=

=33. Avoid an inconsistent change in number, person, or tense.=

Faulty change in number: One should save their money.

Right: People should save their money. [Or] A man should save
his money.

Faulty change in person: Place the seeds in water, and in a few
days a person can see that they have started to grow.

Right: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days you will see
that they have started to grow.

Faulty change in number: Take your umbrella with you. They will
be needed today.

Right: Take your umbrella with you. You will need it today.

Faulty change in tense: Freedom means that a man may conduct
his affairs as he pleases so long as he did not injure anybody
else.

Right: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he
pleases so long as he does not injure anybody else.

Faulty change in tense: When he heard the news, he hurries down
town and buys a paper.

Right: When he heard the news, he hurried down town and bought
a paper.

Note.--A change of tense within a sentence is desirable and necessary in
certain instances, for which see 55.

Sometimes, for the sake of vividness, past events are described in the
present tense, as if they were taking place before our eyes. This usage
is called the _historical present_. A shift to the historical present
should not be made abruptly, or frequently, or for any subject except an
important crisis.

Exercise:

1. A person should be careful of their conduct.

2. Sentences should be so formed that the reader feels it to be
a unit.

3. One should make the best of their surroundings and their
possessions, provided they cannot better them.

4. When he sees me coming, he looked the other way.

5. Silas Marner lost many of his habits of solitude, and goes
out among his neighbors.

=Mixed Constructions=

=34. Do not make a compromise between two constructions.=

Faulty: I cannot help but go.

Right: I cannot help going. [Or] I cannot but go. [Or] I can
but go.

Faulty: They are as following:

Right: They are as follows: [Or] They are the following:

Faulty: He tried, but of no avail.

Right: He tried, but to no avail. [Or] He tried, but his effort
was of no avail.

Faulty: There is no honor to be on this committee.

Right: It is no honor to be on this committee. [Or] There is no
honor in being on this committee.

Faulty: Sparks from the chimney caught the house on fire.

Right: Sparks from the chimney set the house on fire. [Or] The
house caught fire from the sparks from the chimney.

Note.--The double negative and kindred expressions (_not hardly_, _not
scarcely_, etc.) are an especially gross form of mixed construction.

Wrong: He isn't no better now than he was then. [Logically, not
no better means _better_. The two negatives cancel each other
and leave an affirmative.]

Right: He isn't any better now than he was then. [Or] He is no
better now than he was then.

Wrong: She couldn't see her friend nowhere.

Right: She couldn't see her friend anywhere. [Or] She could see
her friend nowhere.

Wrong: We couldn't hardly see through the mist.

Right: We could hardly see through the mist. [Or] We couldn't
see well through the mist.

Exercise:

1. He doesn't come here no more.

2. I cannot help but make this error.

3. I remember scarcely nothing of the occurrence.

4. I would not remain there only a few days.

5. John would not do this under no circumstances.

=Mixed Imagery=

=35. Avoid phrases which may call up conflicting mental images. When
using metaphor, simile, etc., carry one figure of speech through,
instead of shifting to another, or dropping suddenly back into literal
speech.=

Crude: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the heart of
the cotton belt.

Right: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the South.

Crude: He traveled a rough road and climbed with his burden the
ladder of success, where he is a glowing example and guide to
other men. [The suggestion which a reader with a sense of humor
may get is, that a man starts out as a traveler, suddenly
becomes a hod-carrier, and is then transformed into a bonfire
or a lighthouse.]

Right: He traveled a rough road, but found success. Other men
followed in his steps.

Incongruous: Spring came scattering flowers, and there was rain
a great per cent of the time. [This sentence mingles the
language of poetry with the language of science. It should be
fanciful, or else literal, throughout.]

Right: Spring came scattering flowers and rain. [Or] Spring
came with much rain and many flowers.

Inconsistent use of irony: The phonograph was shrieking, "Waltz
me around again, Willie." I am sure I love that beautiful song.
The taste of the people who attend these cheap theaters is
deplorable. [The three sentences should be ironical throughout,
or not ironical at all.]

Exercise:

1. We should meet the future from the optimistic point of view.

2. General Wolfe put every ounce of his life into the capture
of Quebec.

3. A key-note of sincerity should be the mainspring of a
well-built speech.

4. He went drifting down the sands of time on flowery beds of
ease.

5. The blank in my mind crystallized into action.

USE OF CONNECTIVES

=The Exact Connective=

=36. Use a connective which expresses the exact relation between two
clauses. Distinguish between time and cause, concession and condition,
etc. Do not overwork _and_, _so_, or _while_.=

Misleading: _While_ he is sick, he is able to walk. [Use
_though_.]

Misleading: Miss Brown sang, _while_ her sister spoke a piece.
[Use _but_.]

Faulty. Work hard _when_ you want to succeed. [Use _if_.]

Faulty: They will be sorry _without_ they do this. [Use
_unless_.]

Faulty: Little poetry is read, _only_ at times when it is
compulsory. [Use _except_.]

Faulty. The early morning and evening are the best times to
find ducks, _and_ we did not see many flying. [Use _and for
that reason_.]

Faulty: Corbin says: "In America sportsmanship is almost a
passion," _and_ in England "the player very seldom forgets that
he is a man first and an athlete afterward." [Use _whereas_.]

Note.--_So_ is an elastic word that covers a multitude of vague
meanings. Language has need of such a word, and in many instances
(especially when the relation between clauses is obvious and does not
need to be pointed out) _so_ serves well enough. Use it, but not as a
substitute for more exact connectives. Beware of falling into the
"_so_-habit."

Abuse of _so_ as a vague coördinating connective: So I went to
call on Mrs. Woods, and so she told me about Mrs. White's new
gown; so then I missed the car, and so of course our supper is
late. [Strike out every _so_.]

Abuse of _so_ as a subordinating connective: You may go, _so_
you keep still. [Use _provided_.] _So_ you do only that, I
shall be satisfied. [Use _though_.]

Permissible: I was excited, so I missed the target.

_So_ may sometimes be used to express result. But when a clause of
result is important and needs emphasis, it is perhaps better to strike
out _so_ and subordinate the preceding clause.

Right: In my excitement I missed the target.

Right: Because I was excited, I missed the target.

Right: Being excited, I missed the target.

=List of Connectives=

=A. With Coördinate Clauses, expressing=

=1. Addition:= and, besides, furthermore, again, in addition, in
like manner, likewise, moreover, then too, and finally.

=2. Contrast:= but, and yet, however, in spite of, in contrast to
this, nevertheless, notwithstanding, nor, on the contrary, for
all that, rather still, but unhappily, yet unfortunately,
whereas.

=3. Alternative:= or, nor, else, otherwise, neither, nor, or on
the other hand.

=4. Consequence:= therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, in
this way, it follows that, the consequence is, and under such
circumstances, wherefore, thus, as a result, as a consequence.

=5. Explanation:= for example, for instance, in particular, more
specifically, for, because.

=6. Repetition for emphasis:= in other words, that is to say, and
assuredly, certainly, in fact, and in truth, indeed it is
certain, undoubtedly, for example, in the same way, as I have
said.

=B. With Subordinate Adverb Clauses, expressing=

=1. Time:= when, then, before, while, after, until at last, as
long as, now that, upon which, until, whenever, whereupon,
meanwhile.

=2. Place:= where, whence, whither, wherever.

=3. Degree or Comparison:= as, more than, rather than, than, to
the degree in which.

=4. Manner:= as, as if, as though.

=5. Cause:= because, for, as, inasmuch as, since, owing to the
fact that, seeing that, in that.

=6. Purpose:= that, so that, in order that, lest.

=7. Result:= that is, so that, but that.

=8. Condition:= if, provided that, in case that, on condition
that, supposing that, unless.

=9. Concession:= though, although, assuming that, admitting that,
granting that, even if, no matter how, notwithstanding, of
course.

=C. With Adjective Clauses.= Adjective or relative clauses are introduced
by who, which, that, or an equivalent compound.

Exercise:

Insert within the parentheses all the connectives that might
conceivably be used, and underscore the one which you consider
to be most exact:

1. He is not a broad-minded man; ( ) he has many prejudices.

2. A number of friends came in, bringing refreshments, ( )
we spent a delightful evening.

3. We ought to return now, for it is growing dark; ( ) I
told Mary we would be home at six o'clock.

4. I do not believe that climate is responsible for many of the
differences between races, ( ) Taine says that it is.

5. She took the letter from me and read it slowly, ( ) her
eyes filled with tears.

=Repetition of Connective with a Gain in Clearness=

=37. Connectives that accompany a parallel series should be repeated when
clearness requires.=

Preposition to be repeated: He was regarded as a hero by all
who had known him at school, and especially his old school
mates.

Right: He was regarded as a hero _by_ all who had known him at
school, and especially _by_ his old school mates.

Sign of the infinitive to be repeated: He wishes to join with
those who love freedom and justice, and end needless suffering.

Right: He wishes _to_ join with those who love freedom and
justice, and _to_ end needless suffering.

Conjunction to be repeated: Since he was known to have
succeeded in earlier enterprises, though confronted by
difficulties that would have taxed the ability of older men,
and his powers were now acknowledged to be mature, he was put
in charge of the undertaking.

Right: _Since_ he was known to have succeeded in earlier
enterprises, though confronted by difficulties that would have
taxed the ability of older men, and _since_ his powers were now
acknowledged to be mature, he was put in charge of the
undertaking.

Conjunction to be repeated: He explained that the strikers
asked only a fair hearing, since their contentions were
misunderstood; were by no means in favor of the violent
measures to which the public had grown accustomed; and had no
desire to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property.

Right: He explained _that_ the strikers asked only a fair
hearing, since their contentions were misunderstood; _that_
they were by no means in favor of the violent measures to which
the public had grown accustomed; and _that_ they had no desire
to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property.

Exercise:

1. The place is often visited by fishermen who catch some
strange varieties of fish and especially summer tourists.

2. The worth of a man depends upon his character, not his
possessions. 3. He was delighted with that part of the city
which overlooked the harbor and bay, and especially the citadel
on the highest point.

4. Although he was so youthful in appearance that the
recruiting officer must have known he was under twenty-one, and
had not yet become a fully naturalized citizen, his effort to
enlist met with immediate success.

5. In the course of his speech he said that he was a foreigner,
he came to this country when he was fourteen years old, landing
in New York with his only possessions tied in a handkerchief,
went to work in an iron foundry, and after many years of toil
he found himself at the head of a great industry.

=Repetition of Connective with a Loss in Clearness=

=38. Do not complicate thought by persistent repetition of elements
beginning with _that_, _which_, _of_, _for_, or _but_, and NOT parallel
in structure.=

Complicated repetition of _that_: He gave a quarter to the boy
that brought the paper that printed the news that the war was
ended. [_That_, _which_, and _who_ are often used carelessly to
form a chain of subordinate clauses. Three successive
subordinations are all that a reader can possibly keep
straight; ordinarily a writer should not exceed two. But in
parallel structure (See 30 and 37) the number of _that_,
_which_, or _who_ clauses does not matter; a writer may
fill a page with them and not confuse the reader at all.]

Right: He gave the boy a quarter for bringing him the paper
with the news that the war was ended.

Complicated repetition of _of_: The East Side Civics Club is an
organization of helpers of the helpless of the lower classes of
the city.

Right: The East Side Civics Club is organized to help the
helpless poor of the city.

Complicated repetition of _for_: The general was dismayed, for
he had not expected resistance, for he had thought the power of
the enemy was shattered.

Right: The general was dismayed; he had not expected
resistance, for he had thought the power of the enemy was
shattered.

Complicated repetition of _but_: He was undoubtedly a brave
man, but now he was somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn
back.

Right: He was undoubtedly a brave man; though now somewhat
alarmed, he would not turn back. [Or] He was undoubtedly a
brave man. He was now somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn
back.

Note.--Guard against the _but_-habit. Frequent recurrence of _but_ makes
the reader's thought "tack" or change its course too often. There are
ways to avoid an excessive use of _but_ and _however_. When one wishes
to write about two things, A and B, which are opposed, he need not rush
back and forth from one idea to the other. Let him first say all he
wants to say about A. Then let him deliberately use the adversative
_but_, and proceed to the discussion of B. In the following paragraph on
"Whipping Children" the writer tries to be on both sides of the fence at
once.

Confusing: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed, than
to explain and argue. _But_ the gentler method is better. _Yet_
we all admit that the birch must be used sometimes. _However_,
if it is used only for serious trangressions, the child will
have a sense of proportion regarding what offenses are grave.
_But_ for ordinary small misdemeanors I think we need a new
motto: Spoil the rod and spare the child.

Right: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed than to
explain and argue. And of course we all admit that the birch
must be used sometimes. _But_ if it is used only for serious
transgressions, the child will have a sense of proportion
regarding what offenses are grave. For ordinary small
misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and
spare the child.

Exercise:

1. He did not agree at first, but hesitated for a time, but
finally said that he would go along.

2. Push down on the foot lever, which closes a switch which
starts an electric motor which turns the flywheel so that the
gasoline engine starts.

3. Apple dumplings are good, but they must be properly baked,
but fortunately this is not difficult to do.

4. The work of the course consists partly of the study of the
principles of grammar and of rhetoric, partly of the writing of
themes, partly of oral composition, and partly of the reading
and study of models of English prose.

5. The landscape which lay before me was one which was
different from any which I had ever seen before. There was one
thing which impressed me, and that was the miles and miles of
grass which stretched and undulated away from the hill on which
I stood.

=39.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT

=A. Parallel Structure=

Give parallel structure to elements which are parallel in thought.

1. Baskets are of practical value as well as being used for
ornaments.

2. The Book of Job ought to be interesting to a student, or for
anybody.

3. The important considerations are whether the soil is sandy,
and if it is well drained, and that it shall be easily
cultivated.

4. A flower garden is a source of profit--profit not measured
in money but in pleasure.

5. He was successful in business, and also attained success in
the political world.

6. Whether his object was writing for pastime, or to please a
friend, or money, we do not know.

7. Always praise your enemy, because if you whip him your glory
is increased, and if he whips you it lets you down easy.

8. Either the ship will sink in the rough sea or go to pieces
on the shore.

9. An athlete must possess strength, nerve, and be able to
think quickly.

10. We were interested in buying some dry-goods, and at the
same time see the sights of the great city.

11. Some people talk foolishness, and others on serious
subjects, and some keep still.

12. Not only she noticed my condition, but commented on it.

13. He abides by neither the laws of God nor man. He spoke both
to Harry and Tom.

14. It is good for the health of one's mind to get new ideas
every day, and expressing them clearly in writing.

15. Everyone who is capable of understanding the tax laws
should know them and how they are abused.

16. I began by making applications at federal, state, and city
employment bureaus for a position as cost accountant, salesman,
or clerical work.

17. The damage to the trunk was caused by rough handling and
not from faults in construction.

18. Pope, Swift, Addison, and Defoe were four satirists, but
differing greatly in their work.

19. The occupants of these buildings are engaged in various
kinds of business, namely: shoe-shining, shoe repair shops,
cleaning and pressing clothes, confectionery stores, and
restaurants.

20. I sing of geese: of the Biblical goose, that blew his bugle
from the roof of Noah's Ark; the classical goose that picked
his livelihood along the shores of the Ægean; of the
historical goose, that squawked to save old Rome; the mercenary
goose, laying the golden egg; and, finally, of the roast goose.

=B. Shift in Subject or Voice=

Rewrite the following sentences, avoiding all unnecessary shift in
construction.

1. After you decide on the plan of the house, your attention is
turned to the materials of construction.

2. Editors are careful to use words that are exact, yet simple,
and the use of technical terms is not generally considered to
be good.

3. Bank accounts should be balanced once a month in order that
you may know your exact standing.

4. We should have our athletic contest between the weakest
students, and in that way they will become physically strong.

5. When one is making a long-distance run, several cautions
should be borne in mind by him.

6. In melody the poem is good, but the author's ideas are
eccentric.

7. Lincoln's sentences are plain, blunt, and to the point. He
lacks the ornate eloquence of Jefferson.

8. The operator places a large shovelful of concrete in the
mold, and the mixture is made solid by tamping.

9. He might become angry, but it was over in a few minutes.

10. The pauper chanced to gain entrance to the royal palace,
and while there the young prince is met by him.

11. When the weather is hot, plowing is accomplished very
slowly with horses, while on the tractor the heat has no
effect.

12. First, one should mix one-half cup of corn syrup and one
cup of brown sugar; then one cup of cream and the flavoring are
added.

13. In the college situated in a small town there are
dormitories for the student, but in the cities they usually
room where they please.

14. An education should enable us to tell the valuable from
the cheap book, and by it we should be able to tell the true
from the counterfeit man.

15. Moisten the sand thoroughly and set the box in a warm
place, and in about a week's time it can readily be seen by the
way the grains have sprouted which ears of seed corn have
greatest vitality.

=C. Shift in Number, Person, or Tense=

Rewrite the following sentences, removing all inconsistency in
grammatical form.

1. Every one has a right to their own opinion.

2. Bryant rushed to the window and shouts at the postman.

3. The life of the honey bee has been studied, and their
activities found to be remarkable.

4. He says to me, "Are you ready?" And I answered, "No."

5. When a person keeps a store, you should remember the names
and faces of your customers.

6. An automobile is expensive, and they are liable to become an
elephant on your hands.

7. If one studies the market, he would find that prices rise
every year.

8. If one went to Europe, he will find everything different.

9. Since these tires were different in construction, the method
of repairing will vary.

10. Contentment is a state of mind in which one is satisfied
with themselves and their surroundings.

11. It is easy to catch 'possums if you can find the rascal.

12. The writer of a theme should not waste time on a long
introduction, and get to the facts of your subject as quickly
as possible.

13. Shakespeare's comedies are great fun. I prefer it to
tragedy.

14. Often a man will knock at the door, and finds no one at
home.

15. Too much attention will spoil a child. They should not be
entertained every minute.

=D. The Exact Connective=

Each of the following sentences contains an idea which is, or may be,
subordinate to another idea. (1) Decide what kind of subordinate
relation should exist between the ideas. (2) Determine what connective
best expresses this relation. (Consult 36 for a list of connectives.)
(3) Write the sentence as it should be.

1. Wealth is a good thing, while honest wealth is better.

2. Spend an hour in the open air every day when you want to
keep your health.

3. The rattlesnake gives warning and it is only afterward that
he strikes.

4. South Americans are our national neighbors, and we as a
nation should understand them.

5. The city man knows nothing about a cow, only that it has
horns.

6. He got up early in order that he might be able to see the
sunrise.

7. The tenderfoot saw the funnel-shaped cloud when he made for
a cyclone cellar.

8. Men fear what they do not understand, and a coward is one
who is ignorant.

9. Hinting did not influence her; then he tried scolding.

10. The valet spilled the wine, and the duke started up with an
oath.

11. While he writhed on the ground, he was not really hurt.

12. He will not cash the check without you indorse it.

13. We want this work done by the first of April, so please
send an estimate soon.

14. He had traveled everywhere, and he had a vivid recollection
of only three scenes: Niagara Falls, the Jungfrau, and Lake
Como.

15. I never hear him talk but he makes me angry.

16. Animals have some of the same feelings as human beings
have.

17. It was four o'clock and we decided to return and be home
for supper.

=E. Repetition of Connectives=

In the following sentences determine whether repetition is desirable or
undesirable, and change the sentences accordingly.

1. With the coming of meal time, the potatoes are removed from
the fire with a fork with a long handle.

2. His clothes were brushed and neat, but patched and
repatched. But still he could be bright and cheery.

3. To no other magazine do I look forward to the arrival of its
new issue, more than I do to the _World's Work_.

4. At the time the book was written, I believe Forster was
considered to be almost the best biographer living at that
time.

5. The freshman has no spirit until the sophomores have
provoked him until he resists until he finds that he has
spirit.

6. Some socialists are against the present system of
initiative, referendum, and recall, but advocate a system much
like it but applied in a different way.

7. The gun with which the Germans bombarded Paris with had a
range of seventy-five miles.

8. Basketball is a game that I have played for years, and I am
greatly interested in.

9. This is the lever which throws the switch which directs the
train that takes the track that goes to Boston.

10. Short talks were made by the captain, the coach, and by the
faculty.

11. At this school one can study to be a doctor, dentist,
farmer, a lawyer, or an engineer.

12. I like to cross the harbor on the ferry, to dodge in and
out among the ships, see the gulls dart among the waves, smell
the sharp tang of salty air, and to feel the rocking motion of
the boat.

13. In the sultry autumn, and when the winter's storms came,
and when in spring the winds whistled, and in the summer's
heat, he always wore the same old coat.

14. He knew that if he did not ignite the piece of wet bark
this time, that he could not dry his clothing or broil the
bacon.

15. The next speaker said that the need was critical, the
schools must be enlarged, and that the paving now begun must be
completed, and a new board of health should be created, that
the interest on past debts had to be paid, and the city
treasury was at this moment out of funds.

EMPHASIS

=Emphasis by Position=

=40. Reserve the emphatic positions in a sentence for important words or
ideas. (The emphatic positions are the beginning and the end--especially
the end.)=

Weak ending: Then like a flash a vivid memory of my uncle's
death came to me.

Weak: I demand the release of the prisoners, in the first
place.

Weak: This principle is one we cannot afford to accept, if my
understanding of the question is correct.

Place the important idea at the end. Secure, if possible, an emphatic
beginning. "Tuck in" unimportant modifiers.

Emphatic: Like a flash came to me a vivid memory of my uncle's
death.

Emphatic: I demand, in the first place, the release of the
prisoners.

Emphatic: This principle, if my understanding of the question
is correct, is one we cannot afford to accept.

Exercise:

1. "War is inevitable," he said.

2. The cat had been poisoned to all appearances.

3. There are several methods of learning to swim, as everyone
knows.

4. A liar is as bad as a thief, in my estimation.

5. He saw a fight below him in the street, happening to look
out of the window.

=Emphasis by Separation=

=41. An idea which needs much emphasis may be detached, and allowed to
stand in a sentence by itself.=

Faulty: The flames were by this time beyond control, and the
walls collapsed, and several firemen were hurt. [The ideas here
are too important to be run together in one sentence.]

Right: By this time the flames were beyond control, and the
walls collapsed. Several firemen were hurt.

A quotation gains emphasis when it is separated from what follows.

Faulty: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men
Gang aft a-gley,"

are some lines from Burns which McDonald was always quoting.

Right: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men
Gang aft a-gley."

McDonald was always quoting these lines from Burns.

Direct discourse is more emphatic when it is separated from explanatory
phrases, particularly from those which follow.

Faulty: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted defiantly, "I
will never consent to that!" and he looked as if he meant what
he said.

Right: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted his defiance: "I
will never agree to that!" And he looked as if he meant what he
said.

Exercise:

1. After the tents are pitched, the beds made, and the fires
started, the first meal is cooked and served, and this meal is
the beginning of camp-life joy.

2. He tried to make his wife vote for his own, the Citizen's
Party, but she firmly refused.

3. At the word of command the dog rushed forward; the covey
rose with a mighty whir, and the hunter fired both barrels, and
the dog looked in vain for a dead bird, and then returned
disconsolate.

4. I sat and gazed at the motto, "Aim high, and believe
yourself capable of great things," which my mother had placed
there for me.

5. "A Book of Verses underneath the Bough,
A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread, and Thou
Beside me singing in the Wilderness."

were the four things Omar Khayyam wanted to make him happy.

=Emphasis by Subordination=

=42. Do not place the important idea of a sentence in a subordinate
clause or phrase. Make the important idea grammatically independent. If
possible, subordinate the rest of the sentence to it.=

Faulty: He had a manner which made me angry.

Faulty: The fire spread to the third story, when the house was
doomed.

Faulty: For years the Indians molested the white people,
thereby causing the settlers to want revenge.

The important idea should not be placed in a _which_ clause, or a _when_
clause, or a participial phrase.

Right: His manner made me angry.

Right: When the fire spread to the third story, the house was
doomed.

Right: Years of molestation by the Indians made the white men
want revenge.

Exercise:

1. I was riding on the train, when suddenly there was an
accident.

2. There are two windows in each bedroom, thus insuring good
ventilation.

3. Yonder is the house which is my home.

4. He saw that argument was useless, so he let her talk.

5. His clothes were very old, making him look like a tramp.

=The Periodic Sentence=

A sentence is periodic when the completion of the main thought is
delayed until the end. This delay creates a feeling of suspense. A
periodic sentence is doubly emphatic: it has emphasis by position
because the important idea comes at the end; it has emphasis by
subordination because all ideas except the last one are grammatically
dependent.

=43. To give emphasis to a loosely constructed sentence, turn it into
periodic form.=

Loose: I saw two men fight a duel, many years ago, on a moonlit
summer night, in a little village in northern France. [What is
most important, the time? the place? or the actual duel? Place
the important idea last.]

Periodic: Many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a
little village in northern France, I saw two men fight a duel.

Loose: We left Yellowstone Gateway for the ride of our lives in
a six-horse tally-ho. [Place the important idea last, _and make
all other ideas grammatically subordinate_.]

Periodic: Leaving Yellowstone Gateway in a six-horse tally-ho,
we had the ride of our lives.

Loose: The river was swollen with incessant rain, and it swept
away the dam. [Which is the important idea? Why not make it
appear more important by subordinating everything to it?]

Periodic: The river, swollen with incessant rain, swept away
the dam.

Loose: War means to have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness
rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement,
to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national
hatred.

Periodic: To have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely
broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to
saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national
hatred--this is war.

Exercise:

1. I am happy when the spring comes, when the sun is warm, when
the fields revive.

2. He cares nothing for culture, for justice, for progress.

3. As the boat gathered speed, the golden sun was setting far
across the harbor.

4. He amassed a great fortune, standing there behind his dingy
counter, discounting bills, pinching coins, buying cheap and
selling dear.

5. The shattered aqueducts, pier beyond pier, melt into the
darkness, from the plains to the mountains.

=Order of Climax=

=44. In a series of words, phrases, or clauses of noticeable difference
in strength, use the order of climax.=

Wrong order: He was insolent and lazy.

Weak ending: Literature has expanded into a sea, where before
it was only a small stream.

Weak ending: As we listened to his story we felt the sordid
misery and the peril and fear of war.

Emphatic: He was lazy and insolent.

Emphatic: The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent,
expanded into a sea.

Emphatic: As we listened to his story we felt the fear, the
peril, the sordid misery of war.

Exercise:

1. We boarded the train, after having bought our tickets and
checked our baggage.

2. War brings famine, death, disease after it.

3. They have broken up our homes, enslaved our children, and
stolen our property.

4. In the old story, the drunken man, carried into the duke's
palace, sees himself surrounded with luxury, and imagines
himself a true prince, after waking up.

5. The becalmed mariners were famished, hungry.

=The Balanced Sentence=

=45. Two ideas similar or opposite in thought gain in emphasis when set
off, one against the other, in similar constructions.=

Weak and straggling: This paper, like many others, has many bad
features, but in some ways it is very good. The news articles
are far better than the editorials, which are feeble.

Balanced structure: This paper is in some respects good; in
other respects very poor. The news articles are impressive, the
editorials are feeble.

Weak and complicated: From the East a man who lives in the West
can learn a great deal, and an Easterner ought to be able to
understand the West.

Balanced: A Westerner can learn much from the East, and an
Easterner needs to understand the West.

Weak: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers.
Mill taught some of them to reason, but many more of them
learned from Macaulay only a superficial eloquence.

Balanced: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger
writers. If Mill taught some of them to reason, Macaulay
tempted many more of them to declaim.

Note.--Although excessive use of balance is artificial, occasional use
of it is powerful. It can give to writing either dignity (as in an
oration) or point (as in an epigram). Observe how many proverbs are in
balanced structure. "Seeing is believing.--Nothing venture, nothing
have.--For every grain of wit there is a grain of folly.--You cannot do
wrong without suffering wrong.--An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth."
Note the effective use of balance in Emerson's _Essays_, particularly in
_Compensation_; and in the Old Testament, particularly in _Psalms_ and
_Proverbs_.

Exercise:

1. Machinery is of course labor-saving, but countless men are
thrown out of work.

2. There is a difference between success in business and in
acquiring culture.

3. I attend concerts for the pleasure of it, and to get an
understanding of music.

4. The stag in the fable admired his horns and blamed his feet;
but when the hunter came, his feet saved him, and afterward,
caught in the thicket, he was destroyed by his horns.

5. We do not see the stars at evening, sometimes because there
are clouds intervening, but oftener because there are
glimmerings of light; thus many truths escape us from the
obscurity we stand in, and many more from the state of mind
which induces us to sit down satisfied with our imaginations
and of our knowledge unsuspicious. [This sentence is correctly
balanced, except at the end.]

=The Weak Effect of the Passive Voice=

=46. Use the active voice unless there is a reason for doing otherwise.
The passive voice is, as the name implies, not emphatic.=

Weak: Your gift is appreciated by me.

Better: I appreciate your gift.

Weak and vague: His step on the porch was heard.

Better: His step sounded on the porch. [Or] I heard his step on
the porch.

The passive voice is especially objectionable when by failing to
indicate the agent of the verb it unnecessarily mystifies the reader.

Vague: The train was seen speeding toward us.

Better: We saw the train speeding toward us.

Exercise:

1. Their minds were changed frequently as to what profession
should be taken up by them.

2. A gun should be examined and oiled well before a hunter
starts.

3. Finally the serenaders were recognized.

4. In athletics a man is developed physically.

5. If a man uses slang constantly, a good impression is not
made.

=Effective Repetition=

=47a. The simplest and most natural way to emphasize a word or an idea is
to repeat it.= The Bible is the best standard of simplicity and dignity
in our language, and the Bible uses repetition constantly. A word or
idea that is repeated must, of course, be important enough to deserve
emphasis.

Fairly emphatic: He works and toils and labors, but he seems
never to get anywhere.

Very emphatic: Work, work, work, all he does is work, and still
he seems never to get anywhere.

Fairly emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He
withdrew before it!

Very emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He
withdrew! He retreated! He ran away!

Homely but emphatic: "I went under," said the old salt; "bows,
gunnels, and starn--all under."

Deliberately too emphatic: Everywhere we hear of
efficiency--efficiency experts, efficiency bureaus, efficiency
methods, in the office, in the school, in the home--until one
longs to fly to some savage island beyond the reach of inhuman
modern science.

=b. Not only words, but an entire grammatical structure may be repeated
on a large scale for emphasis.=

Weak: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good
condition, and that you will favor us with other orders in the
future, which will be given prompt and courteous attention.
[This sentence is flimsy and spineless because the writer had a
timid reluctance to repeat.]

Strong: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good
condition. We believe that the quality of our goods will induce
you to send us a second order. We assure you that such an order
will receive prompt and courteous attention. [Note the emphasis
derived from the resolute march of the expressions _We hope_,
_We believe_, _We assure_.]

Emphatic: Through the patience, the courage, the high character
of Alfred the country was saved--saved from the rapacities of
fortune, saved from the malignancy of its enemies, saved from
the sluggish despair of the people of England themselves.

Emphatic and natural: This corner of the garden was my first
playground. Here I made my first toddling effort to walk. Here
on the soft grass I learned the delight of out-of-doors. Here I
became acquainted with the bull-frog, and the bumble-bee, and
the neighbor's dog.

Emphatic and delightful: He maketh me to lie down in green
pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth
my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his
name's sake.

Exercise:

1. He kept digging away for gold through long years.

2. Breaking against the shore, came innumerable waves.

3. Sand, sagebrush, shimmering flat horizon. I could not endure
the barren monotony of the desert.

4. We want you to come and visit us, and bring along a good
appetite and your customary high spirits. Plan to stay a long
time.

5. 'Twas bitter cold outside. The cat meowed until I had to let
her in.

=Offensive Repetition=

Careless repetition attracts attention to words that do not need
emphasis. It is extremely annoying to the reader.

=48a. Unless a word or phrase is repeated deliberately to gain force or
clearness, its repetition is a blunder. Get rid of recurring expressions
in one of three ways: (1) by substituting equivalent expressions, (2) by
using pronouns more liberally, (3) by rearranging the sentence so as to
say once what has awkwardly been said twice.= Each of these schemes is
illustrated below.

=1.= Repetition cured by the use of equivalent expressions (synonyms).

Bad: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _just_ off
Milwaukee, we _began_ to feel a slight motion of the ship and
the _wind began_ to freshen. The _wind began_ to blow more
fiercely from the south and the waves _began_ to leap high. The
boat _began_ to pitch and roll.

Right: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _opposite_
Milwaukee, we began to feel a slight motion of the ship, for
the wind _had_ freshened. Before long _a gale_, _blowing_ from
the south, _kicked up a heavy sea and caused_ the boat to pitch
and roll. [Notice how combining the last two sentences helps to
solve the problem of the last _began_, besides giving firmer
texture to the construction.]

=2.= Repetition cured by the use of pronouns. (In using this method, one
should take care that the reference of the pronouns is clear.)

Bad: The _Law Building_, the _Commerce Building_, and the
_Science Building_ are close together. The _Commerce Building_
is south of the _Law Building_, and the _Science Building_ is
south of the _Commerce Building_. The _Law Building_ is old and
dilapidated. The _Commerce Building_ is a red brick _building_,
trimmed in terra-cotta. The _Science Building_ resembles the
_Commerce Building_.

Right: The Law, Commerce, and Science Buildings are close
together in a row. _The first of these_ is old and dilapidated.
South of it stands the Commerce Building, _which_, because of
_its_ red brick and terra-cotta trimmings, somewhat resembles
the Science Building.

=3.= Repetition cured by rearranging and condensing.

Bad: The _autumn_ is my favorite of all the _seasons_. While
_autumn_ in the _city_ is not such a pleasant _season_ as
_autumn_ in the country, yet even in the _city_ my preference
will always be for the _autumn_.

Right: My favorite season is autumn. I like it best in the
country, but even in the city it is the best time of the year.

=b. Avoid a monotonous repetition of sentence structure. To give variety
to successive sentences: (1) vary the length, (2) vary the beginnings,
(3) avoid a series of similar compound sentences, (4) interchange loose
with periodic structure, (5) use rhetorical question, exclamation,
direct discourse, (6) avoid an excessive use of participles or
adjectives.=

=1.= Vary the length of sentences.

Bad: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms. She
was wet from head to toe. Damp curls clung to her pale face.
Water dripped from her clothes. One hand hung loosely over
Walter's arm. The other held a live duckling. She had saved
the little duck from drowning. This was Betty's first day in
the country.

Right: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his
arms--little Betty who was spending her first day in the
country. She was wet from head to toe; damp curls clung to her
pale face, and water dripped from her clothes. In one hand she
held a live duckling. Her face lighted with courage as she told
how she jumped into the pond and saved the little duck from
drowning.

=2.= Vary the beginnings of sentences. Do not allow too many sentences to
begin with the subject, or with a time clause, or with a participle, or
with _so_. When you have finished a composition, rapidly read over the
opening words of each sentence, to see if there is sufficient variety.

Bad [too many sentences begin directly with the subject]: Our
way is circuitous. A sharp turn brings us round a rocky point.
The road drops suddenly into a little valley. The roof of a
house appears in a grove of trees below. A cottage is there and
a flower garden. An old-fashioned well is near the door.

Right: Presently, on our circuitous way, we make a sharp turn
round a rocky point. Before us the road drops suddenly into a
little valley. In a grove of trees below appears the roof of a
house, and as we draw nearer we see a cottage surrounded by
flowers. Nothing could be more attractive to a weary traveler
than the old-fashioned well near the door.

=3.= Avoid a series of similar compound sentences, especially those of two
parts of equal length, joined by _and_ or _but_.

Bad: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his
master. One day there came a deep snow, and the flock did not
return. They found the herder frozen stiff, and the dog
shivering beside him.

Right: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his
master. One day there came a deep snow. When the flock failed
to return, the men became uneasy, and began to search. They
found the herder frozen stiff, with the dog shivering beside
him.

=4.= Change occasionally from loose to periodic or balanced structure (See
43 and 45).

Monotonous: I stood at the foot of Tunbridge hill. I saw on the
horizon a dense wood, which, in the evening sunlight, was
veiled in purple haze [Loose]. On the left was the village, the
houses appearing like specks in the distance [Loose]. Nearer on
the right was the creek, winding through the willows [Loose].
The creek approached nearer until it reached the dam, over
which it rushed tumultuously [Loose]. Near by was a thicket of
tall trees, through which I could see the white tents of my
fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Loose].

Right: Far south from Tunbridge hill, on the dim horizon, I
saw, veiled in the evening haze, a dense wood [Periodic, long,
conveying the idea of distance better than a loose sentence].
On my left stood the village, the houses like specks; on my
right wound the creek, nearer and nearer through the willows
[Balanced]. The creek advanced by slow sinuous turns, until,
reaching the dam, it plunged over tumultuously [Loose]. Through
a thicket of tall trees, near at hand, I could see the white
tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires
[Periodic through the middle of the sentence; then loose].

=5.= Use question, exclamation, direct quotation.

Somewhat flat: He asked me the road to Camden. I did not know.
I told him to ask Thurber, who knew the country well.

Better: He asked me the road to Camden. The road to Camden? How
should I know? "Ask Thurber," I said impatiently; "he knows
this country. I'm a stranger."

=6.= Avoid an excessive use of participles. Do not pile adjectives around
every noun. Above all, do not form a habit of using adjectives in pairs
or triplets.

Bad: Sitting by the window, I saw a sharp, dazzling flash of
lightning, and heard a loud rumbling crash of heavy thunder,
warning me of the coming of the storm. Darting across the gray,
leaden sky, the quick, jagged lightning flashed incessantly.
The tall stately poplar trees thrashed around in the boisterous
wind. Then across the window, like a great white curtain, swept
the streaming, blinding rain.

Right: I sat by the window. Suddenly a sharp flash of lightning
and a roll of thunder gave warning of the approach of a storm.
Soon lightning zig-zagged across the sky incessantly. The wind
huddled the poplar trees. Then like a white curtain across the
window streamed the rain.

Exercise:

1. The parts of the tables are not put together at the factory,
but the different parts are shipped in different shipments.

2. In order to convince the reader that the present management
of farms is inefficient, I shall give some examples of
efficiency in the farm management on some farms with which I am
acquainted.

3. When one wishes to learn how to swim one must first become
accustomed to the water. The best way to become accustomed to
the water is to go into it frequently. After one has become
accustomed to the water he may begin to learn the strokes.

4. _The Life of Sir Walter Scott_, written by J. G. Lockhart,
is an interesting biography of this great writer. It consists
of a short biography by Scott himself, and also consists of a
continuation of this biography by his son-in-law, J. G.
Lockhart.

5. If a piece of steel is kept hot for several seconds, it will
lose some of its hardness. If kept hot longer, it will lose
more of its hardness. Along with losing its hardness it will
lose its brittleness. If the piece of steel is heated
continually it will lose nearly all its hardness and
brittleness. In other words, it will lose its "temper."

=49.= EXERCISE IN EMPHASIS

=A. Lack of Emphasis in General=

Make the following sentences emphatic.

1. The man is a thief who fails in business but continues to
live in luxury.

2. The plant was withered and dry, not having been watered for
over a week.

3. Much time is saved in Chicago by taking the elevated cars,
if you have a great distance to travel.

4. The clock struck eleven, when he immediately seized his hat
and left.

5. These liberal terms should be taken advantage of by us.

6. The study of biology has proved very interesting, as far as
I have gone.

7. Who is this that comes to the foot of the guillotine,
crouching, trembling?

8. They must pay the penalty. Their death is necessary. They
have caused harm enough.

9. I intend to get up fifteen minutes earlier, thereby giving
myself time to eat a good breakfast.

10. The book was reread several times, for I never grew tired
of it.

11. "What is the aim of a university education?" the speaker
asked.

12. A bicycle is sometimes ridden when a tire contains no air,
total ruin resulting from the weight of the rim upon the flat
tire.

13. He sprang forward the instant the pistol cracked, since the
start of a sprint is very important, and one cannot overdo the
practicing of it.

14. Sometimes the fuses fail to burn, or burn too fast, causing
an explosion before the workmen are prepared for it.

15. How father made soap was always a mystery to me. Cracklings
saved from butchering time, lye, and water went into the kettle
on a warm spring day and came out in the form of soap a few
hours later, to my great astonishment.

=B. Loose or Unemphatic Structure=

Make the following sentences more emphatic by throwing them into
periodic form.

1. It was Tom, as I had expected.

2. I will not tell, no matter how you beg.

3. The supremacy of the old river steamboat is gone forever,
unless conditions should be utterly changed.

4. Across the desert he traveled alone, and over strange seas,
and through quaint foreign villages.

5. The hot water dissolves the glue in the muresco, making the
mixture more easily applied.

6. Visions of rich meadows and harvest-laden fields now pass
before my eyes, as I sit by the fire.

7. Some of the women were weeping bitterly, thinking they would
never see their homes again.

8. I splashed along on foot for three miles after night in a
driving rain.

9. Very high rent is demanded, thus keeping the peasants
constantly in debt.

10. Roderigo was in despair because he had been rejected by
Desdemona, and was ready to end his life, by the time Iago
entered.

11. Through storm and cold the open boat was brought to the
shore at last, after toil and suffering, with great difficulty.

12. The car came to a violent stop against a rock pile, after
it demolished two fences, upset a hen-house, and scared a pig
out of his wits.

13. The Panama Canal is the fulfilment of the dreams of old
Spanish adventurers, the desires of later merchant princes,
and the demand of modern nations for free traffic on the seas.

14. The fiddle yelled, and the feet of the dancers beat the
floor, and the spectators applauded, and the room fairly rang.

15. The man with the best character, not the man with most
money, will come out on top in the end.

=C. Faulty Repetition=

Repetition in the following sentences is objectionable, because it
attracts attention to words or constructions that do not need to be
emphasized. Improve the sentences, avoiding unnecessary repetition.

1. He is a great friend of boys, and views things from the
boys' point of view.

2. In the case of the strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, the
real cause was low wages caused by immigration and child labor.

3. First, a subject must be chosen, and in choosing a subject,
choose one that you know something about.

4. There are great opportunities in the field of science, and a
scientist who makes a mark in the world of science makes a mark
for himself everywhere.

5. While the practical man is learning skill in the practical
world, the college man is attaining a development of mentality
that will surpass that of the practical man when the college
man learns the skill of the practical man.

6. The field is dragged and rolled. Dragging and rolling leaves
the ground smooth and ready for planting.

7. A great number and variety of articles appears in every
issue. There is a complete review of each subject. It is
treated in a short, but thorough manner.

8. They gave me a hearty welcome. They stood back and looked at
me. They wanted to see if three months in the city had made any
changes in me. But they said it had not.

9. Engineering is looked upon by many students as an easy and
uninteresting study, but to my knowledge it is not
uninteresting and easy. Engineering is probably one of the
hardest courses in college. To me it is also the most
interesting.

10. A duck hunter should have a place to hunt where ducks are
frequently found in duck season. Ducks often light in the
backwater along a river, and in ponds. They are often found in
small lakes. Corn fields are common feeding places for ducks.
Ducks make regular trips to cornfields within reach of a body
of water such as a river or lake. It is their nature to spend
the night in the water, and in the morning and in the evening
they go out to the fields to feed.

GRAMMAR

=Case=

=50a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, even when the verb
is remote, or understood (not expressed).=

Wrong: They are as old as us.

Right: They are as old as we [are].

Wrong: He is taller than her.

Right: He is taller than she [is].

Note.--_Than_ and _as_ are conjunctions, not prepositions. When they are
followed by a pronoun merely, this pronoun is not their object, but part
of a clause the rest of which may be understood. The case of this
pronoun is determined by its relation to the rest of the unexpressed
clause. Sometimes the understood clause calls for the objective: "I like
his brother better than [I like] him." _Than whom_, though
ungrammatical, is sanctioned by usage.

=b. Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ into the objective
case by intervening expressions like _he says_.=

Wrong: The man whom they believed was the cause of the trouble
left the country. [_They believed_ is parenthetical, and the
subject of _was_ is _who_.]

Right: The man who they believed was the cause of the trouble
left the country.

Wrong: Whom do you suppose made us a visit?

Right: Who do you suppose made us a visit?

=Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ or _whoever_ into the
objective case by a preceding verb or preposition.=

Wrong: Punish whomever is guilty. [The pronoun is the subject
of _is_. The object of _punish_ is the entire clause _whoever
is guilty_.]

Right: Punish whoever is guilty.

Wrong: The mystery as to whom had rendered him this service
remained. [The pronoun is the subject of _had rendered_. The
object of the preposition is the entire clause _who had
rendered him this service_.]

Right: The mystery as to who had rendered him this service
remained.

=c. The predicate complement of the verb _to be_ (in any of its forms,
_is_, _was_, _were_, _be_, etc.) is in the nominative case.= _To be_
never takes an object, because it does not express action.

Wrong: Was it her? Was it them? It is me.

Right: Was it she? Was it they? Is it I.

Wrong: The happiest people there were him and his mother.

Right: The happiest people there were he and his mother.

=d. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the objective case.=

Wrong: Some of we fellows went fishing.

Right: Some of us fellows went fishing.

Wrong: That seems incredible to you and I.

Right: That seems incredible to you and me.

Wrong: Who did they detect?

Right: Whom did they detect?

=e. The "assumed" subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.=

Right: I wanted him to go. [_Him to go_ is the group object of
the verb _wanted_. _To go_, being an infinitive, cannot assert
an action, and consequently cannot take a subject. But _to go_
implies that something is at least capable of action. _Him_ is
the latent or assumed subject of the action implied in _to
go_.]

Right: _Whom_ do you wish _to be_ your leader? [_Whom_ is the
assumed subject of the infinitive _to be_.]

=f. A noun or pronoun used to express possession is in the possessive
case.= Do not omit the apostrophe (See 97) from nouns, or from the
pronouns _one's_ and _other's_. Most of the other possessive
pronouns do not require an apostrophe.

Right: The man's hair is gray.

Right: The machine does its work well. [_It's_ would mean _it
is_.]

Right: One should do one's duty.

=g. A noun or pronoun linked with a gerund should be in the possessive
case whenever the use of the objective case might cause confusion.=

Faulty: Is there any criticism of Arthur going?

Right: Is there any criticism of Arthur's going?

Right: I had not heard of his being sick.

Right, but slightly less desirable: I had not heard of him
being sick.

Note.--In other instances than those in which clearness is involved many
good writers use the objective case with the gerund. But even in these
instances most writers prefer the possessive case.

=h. It is usually awkward and slightly illogical to attribute possession
to inanimate objects.=

Awkward: The farm's management.

Better: The management of the farm.

Awkward: The stomach's lining.

Better: The lining of the stomach.

Note.--Usage justifies many exceptions, particularly (1) expressions
that involve time or measure, _a day's work_, _a hair's breadth_, _a
year's salary_, _a week's vacation_, _a cable's length_; and (2)
expressions that involve personification, explicit or implied, _Reason's
voice_, _the law's delay_, _for mercy's sake_, _the heart's desire_,
_the tempest's breath_.

=i. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number,
but not in case.=

Right: _I, who am_ older, know better.

Right: Tell _me, who am_ older, your trouble.

Right: Many a man has saved _himself_ by counsel.

Exercise:

1. I am as old as (he, him). They may be pluckier than (we,
us). Nobody is less conceited than (she, her).

2. He gave help to (whoever, whomever) wanted it. The girls
(who, whom) they say have the worst taste are on a committee to
select the class pin.

3. Four of (we, us) boys were left without a cent. That is a
good investment for her cousin and (she, her).

4. It was (he, him). It is (they, them). The sole occupants of
the car were his chum and (he, him).

5. I had not heard of (his, him) being sick. She does not
approve of (our, us) being late to dinner. (They, them) who
labor now the Master will reward.

=Number=

=51a. _Each_, _every_, _every one_, _everybody_, _anybody_, _either_,
_neither_, _no one_, _nobody_, and similar words are singular.=

Wrong: Everybody did their best.

Right: Everybody did his best.

Wrong: Each of my three friends were there.

Right: Each of my three friends was there.

Wrong: Either of the candidates are capable of making a good
officer.

Right: Either of the candidates is capable of making a good
officer.

=b. Do not let _this_ or _that_ when modifying _kind_ or _sort_ be
attracted into the plural by a following noun.=

Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities.

Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities.

Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards.

Right: I never did like this sort of post cards.

=c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to
the meaning intended.=

Right: The crowd is waiting.

Right: The crowd are not agreed.

Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an
inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable
union.

English usage: The government were considering a new bill
regarding labor.

American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at
the disposal of General Foch.

=d. Do not use _don't_ in the third person singular. Use _doesn't_.
_Don't_ is contraction of _do not_.=

Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning.

Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning.

Exercise:

1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind
of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of
travelers.

2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one
assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening.

3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come
today.

4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the
agent for telling us the train was not late.

5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter.

=Agreement=

=52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which
intervenes between it and the subject.=

Wrong: The size of the plantations vary.

Right: The size of the plantations varies.

Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the
country.

Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the
country.

Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the
demand.

Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand.
[Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.

=b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject
of words introduced by _with_, _together with_, _no less than_, _as well
as_, and the like.=

Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have
investigated the charges.

Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has
investigated the charges.

=c. Singular subjects joined by _or_ or _nor_ take a singular verb.=

Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have
devised are acceptable.

Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have
devised is acceptable.

=d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by _and_ takes a
plural verb.=

Right: The hunting and fishing are good.

=e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate
noun.=

Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders.

Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders.

Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure.

Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure.

=f. In _There is_ and _There are_ sentences the verb should agree in
number with the noun that follows it.=

Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision.

Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision.

Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child.

Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child.

Exercise:

1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of
an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are)
injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses
(is, are) often more harmful still.

2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a
voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are)
always out of tune.

3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to
sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the
engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured.

4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against
children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is,
are) the factory whistles.

5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing
freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give)
me confidence in my judgment.

=_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_=

Although there is a tendency to disregard subtle distinctions between
_shall_ and _will_ in ordinary speech, it is desirable to preserve the
more important distinctions in written discourse.

=53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use _shall_ with the
first person (both singular and plural) and _will_ with the second and
third.=

I shall go. We shall walk.
You will play. You will hear.
He will sing. They will reply.

=To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is,
use _will_ with the first person (both singular and plural), and _shall_
with the second and third.=

I will; I tell you, I will. We will not be excluded.
You shall do what I bid. You shall not delay us.
He shall obey me. They shall pay the tribute.

In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer.

"Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?"
"You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?"

_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules given for _shall_ and _will_.

Mere statement of a fact:
I [or We] should like to go.
You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer.

Resolution or emphatic assurance:
I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading.
You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it.

_Should_ has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to
express a condition; and _would_ has a special use (in all persons) to
express a wish, or customary action.

If it should rain, I shall not go.

If I should remain, it would probably clear off.

Would that I could swim!

He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour.

Exercise:

1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I
(shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall,
will) bring forth.

2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose.
When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch
the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow.

3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He
(shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he
(shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old
horse.

4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the
organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window?
(Should, would) I ask his permission?

5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should,
would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You
(shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I
ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell.

=Principal Parts=

=54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle.= Avoid
_come_, _done_, _bursted_, _knowed_, _says_ for the past tense; and
[_had_] _eat_, [_had_] _froze_, [_have_] _ran_, [_has_] _went_, [_has_]
_wrote_, [_are_] _suppose_ for the past participle. Memorize the
principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present
tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall
these is to repeat the formula: Today I _sing_; yesterday I _sang_;
often in the past I have _sung_. The principal parts of _sing_ are
_sing_, _sang_, _sung_. A list of difficult verbs is given below.

bear bore borne
born
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bid bid bid
bade bidden
bite bit bit
bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
burn burnt burnt
burned burned
burst burst burst
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
deal dealt dealt
dive dived dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt dreamt
dreamed dreamed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
dwell dwelt dwelt
dwelled dwelled
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fight fought fought
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
flow flowed flowed
freeze froze frozen
get got got
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
hang hanged hanged
hold held held
kneel knelt knelt
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lend lent lent
lie lay lain
lie lied lied
loose loosed loosed
lose lost lost
mean meant meant
pay paid paid
prove proved proved
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
slink slunk slunk
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spit spit spit
spat spat
steal stole stolen
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trod
trodden
wake woke waked
waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
weep wept wept
write wrote written

Exercise:

1. Adams ---- (past tense of _draw_) another glass of cider and
---- (past tense of _drink_) it. When those squashes once ----
(past tense of _begin_), they ---- (past tense of _grow_) like
mad.

2. The thermometer had ---- (past participle of _fall_) twenty
degrees, and three water pipes had ---- (past participle of
_freeze_). Afterward one ---- (past tense of _burst_).

3. Annie had ---- (past participle of _speak_) a piece, and
Nancy had ---- (past participle of _write_) a poem, and Isabel
had nearly ---- (past participle of _burst_) with envy.

4. He ---- (past tense of _do_) a brave deed; he ---- (past
tense of _swim_) straight for the whirlpool. I had ---- (past
participle of _know_) him before, and had ---- (past participle
of _shake_) hands with him.

5. He ---- (past tense of _come_) home late, and has ---- (past
participle of _eat_) his dinner. Now he has ---- (past
participle of _go_) down town. He has ---- (past participle of
_ride_) before. I ---- (past tense of _see_) him. He ---- (past
tense of _run_) swiftly.

=Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries=

=55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered
in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.=

Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb _intended_
indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do
something. What? Did I intend _to go_, or _to have gone_?]

Right: I intended to go.

Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The
principal verb _hoped_ indicates a past time. In that past time
our hope was that you _would_ come, not that you _would have
come_.]

Right: We hoped that you would come.

=b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a
preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.=

Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals
which he shot.

Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals
which he had shot.

=c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are
usually expressed in the present tense.=

Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet.

Right: He said that Venus is a planet.

=d. The subjunctive mode of the verb _to be_ is used to express a
condition contrary to fact, or a wish.=

Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy.

Right: If he were here, I should be happy.

Faulty: I wish that I was a man.

Right: I wish that I were a man.

=e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect
of successive verbs is not altered without reason.=

Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier
_learns_ discipline, and consequently _would have_ steady
nerves in time of war. [_Learns_ should be followed by _will
have_.]

Wrong: An automobile _should be_ kept in good working order so
that its life _is_ lengthened. [_Should be_ is properly
followed by _may be_.]

Exercise:

1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken.

2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so
long.

3. If I was sick, I should go home.

4. They expected to have won the game.

5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a
person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably
be able to secure membership for him.

=Adjective and Adverb=

=56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.=

Crude: He spoke slow and careful.

Right: He spoke slowly and carefully.

Crude: He sure did good in his classes.

Right: He surely did well in his classes.

=b. In such sentences as _He stood firm_ and _The cry rang clear_ the
modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb
if it refers to the verb.=

Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the
thought is that the sun which shines is bright.]

Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the
manner of working rather than to the person who works. It
should therefore be an adverb.]

Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes
angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems
intelligent.

=c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, _look_, _sound_, _taste_,
_smell_, _feel_, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to
the subject.= (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to
the verb.)

She looks _beautiful_. [Not _beautifully_.]

The dinner bell sounds _good_. [Not _well_.]

My food tastes _bad_. [Not _badly_.]

That flower smells _bad_. [Not _badly_.]

I feel good [_in good spirits_.]

I feel well [_in good health_. An adjectival use of _well_.]

I feel bad [_in bad health or spirits_. "I feel badly" would
mean "My sense of touch is impaired."]

Exercise:

1. They fought ---- (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled
----(awkward, awkwardly).

2. Margaret ---- (sure, surely) worked ---- (faithful,
faithfully) in economics.

3. At this reply the teacher grew ---- (wrathful, wrathfully).
I hear you ---- (plain, plainly).

4. I feel ---- (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks ---- (sweet,
sweetly). No perfume smells so ---- (dainty, daintily).

5. That salad tastes ---- (good, well). I feel ---- (bad,
badly) today. Your voice sounds ---- (good, well) and
----(familiar, familiarly).

=A Word in a Double Capacity=

=57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double
capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.=

Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and
two churches in another.

Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two
churches were built in another.

Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it.

Right: He always has done it, and always will do it.

Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any
other man in the community.

Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not
older.

Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work.

Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it.

Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most
skilful, tennis players in the state.

Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the
state, if not the most skilful.

Exercise:

1. He is as old, if not older, than she is.

2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore.

3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many
hobbies.

4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good,
as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things
than in any show.

5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping
our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous
physician said that one of the next, if not the very next,
marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries
in the realm of dentistry.

Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation

The Parts of Speech and Their Uses

=Noun.= A noun is a name. It may be =proper= (_Philip Watkins_), or
=common=. Common nouns may be =concrete= (_man_, _windmill_), or
=abstract= (_gratitude_, _nearness_). =A= noun applied to a group
is said to be =collective= (_family_, _race_). The uses of a noun
=are=: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object
of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another
noun (Jenkins, our _coach_), to indicate possession (_Joseph's_
coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an
adjective (the _brick_ sidewalk) or adverb (John went _home_),
and to indicate direct address (_Jehovah_, help us!).

=Pronoun.= A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun.
It may be =personal= (_I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_,
_we_, _they_), =relative= (_who_, _which_, _what_, _that_, _as_,
and compounds _whoever_, _whichsoever_, etc.), =interrogative=
(_who_, _which_, _what_), =demonstrative= (_this_, _that_,
_these_, _those_), or =indefinite= (_some_, _any_, _one_, _each_,
_either_, _neither_, _none_, _few_, _all_, _both_, etc.).
Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and
indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns
are also used as adjectives, notably the =possessives= (_my_,
_his_, _their_, etc.) and the relative or interrogative _which_
and _what_. The addition of _-self_ to a personal pronoun forms
a =reflexive pronoun= or =intensive= (I blamed _myself_. You
_yourself_ are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands
is called the =antecedent=. The uses of pronouns are in general
the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as
connectives (the man _who_ spoke), interrogatives ask questions
(_what_ man?), and demonstratives point out (_that_ man).

=Verb.= A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion
about the subject. It may express either action or mere
existence. It may be =transitive= (_trans_ meaning "across";
hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act;
Brutus _stabbed_ Cæsar; Cæsar is _stabbed_) or =intransitive=
(not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery _fell_). Its
meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice
shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion
made by the verb. The =active voice= shows the subject as actor
(They _elected_ Washington); the =passive voice=, as acted upon
(Washington _was elected_). (A transitive verb may be active or
passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates
the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion,
condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The
=indicative mode= affirms or denies (He _went_. She _did not
dance_.) The =subjunctive= expresses condition or wish (If he
_were_ older, he would be wiser. Would that I _were_ there!).
The =imperative= expresses command or exhortation (_Remain_
there. _Go!_ _Let_ us pray). =Modal auxiliaries= with these three
modes form =modal aspects= of the verb. There are as many
different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are
sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively
the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or
existence. The tenses are the =present=, the =past=, the =future=
(employing the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_), the =perfect=
(employing _have_), the =past perfect= (employing _had_), and the
=future perfect= (employing _shall have_ and _will have_).
=Verbals= are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of
speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms,
infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings.

=Adjective.= An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or
pronoun. An adjective may be =attributive= (_bright_ sun,
_cool-headed_ adventurers) or =predicate= (The field is _broad_.
The meat tastes _bad_. I want this _ready_ by Christmas).
Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison.
The =positive degree= indicates the simple quality of the object
without reference to any other. The =comparative degree=
indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the _older_
brother). The =superlative degree= indicates that three or more
objects are compared (Stanley is the _oldest_ child in the
family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A
_most excellent_ record). Ordinarily _er_ or _r_ is added to
the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ or _st_ to the
positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But
some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of
more than two, syllables) prefix _more_ (or _less_) to the
positive to form the comparative, and _most_ (or _least_) to
the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more
beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities
that do not permit comparison (_dead_, _four-sided_, _unique_).

=Adverb.= An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, another adverb (She played _well_; _unusually_
handsome; _very_ sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun
(Walking _fast_ is good for the health), a preposition (The
ship drifted _almost_ upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It
came _just_ when we wished). Certain adverbs (_fatally_,
_entirely_) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do
are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables
(_slowly_, _more_ or _less slowly_, _most_ or _least slowly_).

=Preposition.= A preposition is a connective _placed before_ a
substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the
substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast _of_
heraldry, the pomp _of_ power. He ran _toward_ the enemy
_without_ fear).

=Conjunction.= A conjunction is a word used to _join together_
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A =coördinate conjunction=
connects elements of equal rank (See 36). =Correlative
conjunctions= are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A
=subordinate conjunction= is one that connects elements unequal
in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its
function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place,
or cause, it is often called a =conjunctive adverb= or =relative
adverb=.

=Interjection.= An interjection is a word _thrown into_ speech to
express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other
words. (_Oh_, is that it? _Well_, I'll do it. _Hark!_)

=Other Grammatical Terms=

=Absolute expression.= An expression (usually composed of a
substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which,
though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought
related to the remainder of the sentence. (_The relief party
having arrived_, we went home. _This disposed of_, the council
proceeded to other matters. _Defeated_, he was not dismayed.)

=Antecedent.= A substantive to which a pronoun or participle
refers. Literally, _antecedent_ means _that which goes
before_; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent
word. (The _man_ who hesitates is lost. Entering the store,
_we_ saw a barrel of apples.) _Man_ is the antecedent of the
pronoun _who_, and _we_ is the antecedent of the participle
_entering_.

=Auxiliary.= _Be_, _have_, _do_, _shall_, _will_, _ought_, _may_,
_can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, etc., when
used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are
called auxiliary verbs.

=Case.= The relation of a substantive to other words in the
sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject
of a verb, or the predicate of the verb _to be_, is in the
nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the
"assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A
noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive
case.

=Clause.= A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a
verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains
one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal)
clause: _When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin_.

=Conjugation.= The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate
person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect.

=Declension.= The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to
indicate person, number, or case.

=Ellipsis, elliptical expression.= An expression partially
incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the
meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words
is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker.
Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the
reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples
of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your
sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go
if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice.

=Gerund.= A verbal in _-ing_ used as a noun. (I do not object to
your _telling_. His _having deserted_ us makes little
difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of
the infinitive.

=Infinitive.= A verbal ordinarily introduced by _to_ and used as
a noun (_To err_ is human). In such sentences as "The road to
follow is the river road," _follow_ may be regarded as the noun
of a phrase (compare _the road to Mandalay_), or the entire
phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He
hastened to comply," _comply_ may be regarded as a noun or _to
comply_ as an adverb. After certain verbs (_bid_, _dare_,
_help_, _make_, _need_, etc.) the _to_ is omitted from the
infinitive group. (He bids me _go_. I need not _hesitate_.)

=Inflection.= Change in the form of a word to show a modification
or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language
there was a separate form for practically every modification.
Although separate forms are now less numerous, _inflection_ is
still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it
includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives
and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs.

=Modify.= To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or
alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man,"
_the_ and _old_ modify _man_, and _very_ modifies _old_.

=Participle.= A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective
with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest,
is also the best liked," _being oldest_ refers exclusively, or
almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival.
In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running
down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the
participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore
adverbial as well as adjectival.

=Phrase.= A group of words forming a subordinate part of a
sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples:
_With a whistle and a roar_ the train arrived [prepositional
phrase]. _Bowing his head_, the prisoner listened to the
verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose,
untechnical sense _phrase_ may refer to any short group of
words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb.

=Predicate.= The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an
assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with
or without objects or modifiers.

=Predicate adjective.= An adjective in the predicate, usually
linked with the subject by some form of the verb _to be_ (_is_,
_was_, _were_, etc.). (John is _lazy_. The soldiers were very
_eager_.)

=Predicate noun.= A noun linked with the subject by some form of
the verb _to be_. (John is _halfback._ They were our
_neighbors._)

=Sentence.= A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a
subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or
without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words
outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related
in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex;
sentences of type 2 are compound. A =simple sentence= contains
one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A =complex
sentence= contains one independent clause and one or more
subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A
=compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses (The
dog barks, and the thief runs).

=Substantive.= A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The
_king_ summoned _parliament_. The _bravest_ are the
_tenderest_. _She_ was inconsolable.) A =substantive phrase= is a
phrase used as a noun. (_From Dan to Beersheba_ is a term for
the whole of Israel.) A =substantive clause= is a clause used as
a noun. (_That he owed the money_ is certain.)

=Syntax.= Construction; the grammatical relation between the
words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.

=Verbal.= Any form of the verb used as another part of speech.
Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are
used to express action without asserting it, and cannot,
therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs.

=Abridged Conjugation of the verb _to take_=

=Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice=

=Indicative Mode=

=Present= I take I am taken
=Past= I took I was taken
=Future= I shall (will) take I shall (will) be taken
=Perfect= I have taken I have been taken
=Past Perfect= I had taken I had been taken
=Future Perfect= I shall (will) have taken I shall (will) have been taken

=Subjunctive Mode=

=Present= If I take If I be taken
=Past= If I took If I were taken
=Perfect= If I have taken If I have been taken
=Past Perfect= If I had taken If I had been taken

=Imperative Mode=

=Present= Take

=Modal Aspects=

(Modal aspects, formed by combining auxiliaries with the main verb, give
special meanings--emphatic, progressive, etc.--to the primary modes.
Since there are almost as many aspects as there are auxiliaries, only a
few can be enumerated here.)

=Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice=

{ =Emphatic:= I do take
{ =Progressive:= I am taking I am being taken
=Present= { =Contingent:= I may take I may be taken
=Indicative= { =Potential:= I can take I can be taken
{ =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken
{ =Etc.=

{ =Emphatic:= I did take
{ =Progressive:= I was taking I was being taken
=Past= { =Contingent:= I might take I might be taken
=Indicative= { =Potential:= I could take I could be taken
{ =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken
{ =Etc.=

{ =Emphatic:= If I do take
{ =Progressive:= If I be taking
=Present= { =Contingent:= If I might take
=Subjunctive= { =Potential:= If I could take
{ =Obligative:= If I must take
{ =Etc.=

=Present= { =Emphatic:= Do take
=Imperative= { =Progressive:= Be taking

=Verbals=

=Infinitive=

=Active Voice= =Passive Voice=
=Present:= To take To be taken
=Perfect:= To have taken To have been taken

=Gerund=

=Present:= Taking Being taken
=Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken

=Participle=

=Present:= Taking Being taken
=Past:= Taken
=Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken

Exercise:

Copy a page of good prose from any book, leaving wide spaces
between the lines. Indicate the part of speech of every word.
This may be done by abbreviations placed beneath the words. For
example:

"Von Arden, having fallen into a very unquiet
_noun_ _part._ _prep._ _art._ _adv._ _adj._

slumber, dreamed that he was an aged man
_noun_ _verb_ _conj._ _pers pro._ _verb_ _art._ _adj._ _noun_

who stood beside a window."
_rel. pro._ _verb_ _prep._ _art._ _noun_

=59.= EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR

=A. Case of Pronouns=

Determine the correct form of the pronoun.

1. It is (I, me).

2. No one knows better than (she, her).

3. Then came the whistle for Gerald and (I, me).

4. It was (they, them).

5. Alice can drive a car as well as (he, him).

6. It was (she, her) (who, whom) you saw on the car.

7. John, you may go with Dan and (I, me).

8. If I were (she, her), I could not think of accepting the
questionable honor.

9. One evening four of (we, us) girls decided to go to the
theater.

10. Others are older than (we, us).

11. (Who, Whom) do you imagine will be our next president?

12. He does not approve of (our, us) walking on the grass.

13. Counsel will be given to (they, them) who ask for it.

14. That seems strange to you and (I, me).

15. Her mother has more regular features than (she, her).

16. Women (who, whom) some people would call "quiet" are often
the wisest.

17. Between you and (I, me), I'm hungry.

18. The thought of (it, its) coming by parcel post never
entered my mind.

19. He never discovered (who, whom) his enemy was.

20. In case of a fumble, the ball is given to (whoever,
whomever) recovers it.

=B. Agreement=

Determine the correct form of the verb.

1. He (don't, doesn't) care for music.

2. The swimming, boating, and fishing (is, are) good.

3. Each one of the two hands of the clock (is, are) made of
gold.

4. The ore is sorted and the cars having good ore (is, are)
hauled to the smelter.

5. A deck of ordinary playing cards consisting of fifty-two
cards (is, are) used.

6. It is safe to say that only one out of every ten of the
great number of students (realizes, realize) the value of
economy.

7. In spite of all obstacles, the construction of the three
hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds (was, were)
completed.

8. Some nights may seem still, yet there (is, are) always
noises.

9. The exact meaning of such words as _inspiration_,
_prophecy_, and _orthodox_ (puzzles, puzzle) laymen.

10. Hard roads (is, are) an important matter to all country
people.

11. There (has, have) been many lives lost in Arctic
exploration.

12. Personal gifts inspired by good will and directed by
careful thought (is, are) the very best kind of charity.

13. In Lincoln's replies to Douglas there (is, are) no flights
or oratory.

14. The conciseness of these lines (is, are) to be admired.

15. A constant stream of wagons and horses (was, were) passing
as the circus was unloaded.

16. Nevertheless there (exists, exist) a certain class of
students who are socially submerged.

17. She (doesn't, don't) care for olives.

18. "Current Events" (is, are) a very useful department of this
magazine.

19. No people (lives, live) in that house.

20. The corporal, together with two other members of the
patrol, (was, were) captured by the enemy.

=C. _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_=

Determine the correct form of the verb.

1. Perhaps I (shall, will) be able to go.

2. I tell you, I (shall will) not allow that dog in the car.

3. It is odd what a person (shall, will) do in a time of
excitement.

4. They have never seen anything like it, and probably they
never (shall, will).

5. "Johnny, you (shall, will) not go!" Johnny knew that further
begging was useless.

6. As

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