Boy Scouts Handbook
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Title: Boy Scouts Handbook
Author: Boy Scouts of America
Release date: August 1, 2009 [eBook #29558]
Most recently updated: January 5, 2021
Language: English
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Credits: Produced by Don Kostuch
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOY SCOUTS HANDBOOK ***
Produced by Don Kostuch
Transcriber's note:
Page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed
in curly braces, e.g. {99}. They have been located where page
breaks occurred in the original book.
Descriptions of illustrations are indented to distinguish
them from the running text. The "next" page immediately
preceding or following a group of illustrations may jump to
account for the pages occupied by the illustrations.
Italic are enclosed in underscores: _this is italicized_.
Some suggestions that have serious consequences are noted (e.g.,
Use lead acetate to waterproof a tent).
Numerous untitled or otherwise ambiguous illustrations are described
and annotated with (tr)--transcriber.
End Transcriber's note.
BOY SCOUTS HANDBOOK
_The First Edition, 1911_
[Illustration: Boy Scouts at camp. (tr)]
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
Boy Scouts of America
Official National Out
SIGMUND EISNER
New York Salesrooms
103 Fifth Avenue
Red Bank. N. J.
[Illustration: Two Boy Scouts in full uniform. (tr)]
Each part of the uniform is stamped with the official seal of the Boy
Scouts of America.
If there is no agency for the official uniform in your city write for
samples.
SIGMUND EISNER
Manufacturer of U. S. Army and National Guard Uniform
The Best Food for The Boy Scouts is
[Illustration: Cereal bowl. (tr)]
Shredded Wheat
because it has all the muscle-building, bone-making material in the
whole wheat grain prepared in a digestible form, supplying all the
strength needed for work or play. It is ready-cooked and ready-to-eat.
It has the greatest amount of body-building nutriment in smallest
bulk. Its crispness compels thorough mastication, and the more you
chew it the better you like it. Shredded Wheat is the favorite food of
athletes. It is on the training table of nearly every college and
university in this country. The records show that the winners of many
brilliant rowing and track events have been trained on Shredded Wheat.
_The BISCUIT is in little loaf form. It is baked a crisp, golden brown.
It is eaten with milk or cream, or fruit, or is delicious when eaten
as a toast with butter. TRISCUIT is the Shredded Wheat wafer---the
ideal food for the camp or the long tramp_.
_Building buster boys is bully business--that's the reason we want to
help the Boy Scout movement_.
The Shredded Wheat Company
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
[Illustration: Getting the final word before hiking.]
BOY SCOUTS of AMERICA
THE OFFICIAL HANDBOOK
FOR BOYS
[Illustration: First Class Scout Emblem. (tr)]
_Published for_
THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
200 FIFTH AVENUE
NEW YORK
GARDEN CITY, NEW YORK
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1911
COPYRIGHT 1911
BY BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
BOY SCOUT CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that _________
of ___________ State of _________
Street and City or Town address
Age_____ Height_____ Weigh_____
is a member of ________ Patrol, of Troop No. _____
________________
Scout Master
SCOUT HISTORY
Qualified as Tenderfoot ________ 191_
Second Class Scout _________ 191_
First Class Scout _______ 191_
QUALIFIED FOR MERIT BADGES
SUBJECT DATE
1________________ ________________
2________________ ________________
3________________ ________________
4________________ ________________
5________________ ________________
Qualified as Life Scout ________________
Qualified as Star Scout ________________
Qualified as Eagle Scout ________________
Awarded Honor Medal ________________
{v}
PREFACE
The Boy Scout Movement has become almost universal, and wherever
organized its leaders are glad, as we are, to acknowledge the debt we
all owe to Lieut.-Gen. Sir Robert S. S. Baden-Powell, who has done so
much to make the movement of interest to boys of all nations.
The BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA is a corporation formed by a group of men
who are anxious that the boys of America should come under the
influence of this movement and be built up in all that goes to make
character and good citizenship. The affairs of the organization are
managed by a National Council, composed of some of the most prominent
men of our country, who gladly and freely give their time and money
that this purpose may be accomplished.
In the various cities, towns, and villages, the welfare of the boy
scouts is cared for by local councils, and these councils, like the
National Council are composed of men who are seeking for the boys of
the community the very best things.
In order that the work of the boy scouts throughout America may be
uniform and intelligent, the National Council has prepared its
"Official Handbook," the purpose of which is to furnish to the patrols
of the boy scouts advice in practical methods, as well as inspiring
information.
The work of preparing this handbook has enlisted the services of men
eminently fitted for such work, for each is an expert in his own
department, and the Editorial Board feels that the organization is to
be congratulated in that such men have been found willing to give
their time and ripe experience to this movement. It would be
impossible adequately to thank all who by advice and friendly
criticism have helped in the preparation of the book, or even to
mention their names, but to the authors whose names are attached to
the various chapters, we acknowledge an especial obligation. Without
their friendly help this book could not be. We wish especially to
express our appreciation of the helpful suggestions made by Daniel
Carter Beard.
We have carefully examined and approved all the material which goes to
make up {vi} the manual, and have tried to make it as complete as
possible; nevertheless, no one can be more conscious than we are of
the difficulty of providing a book which will meet all the demands of
such widely scattered patrols with such varied interests. We have
constantly kept in mind the evils that confront the boys of our
country and have struck at them by fostering better things. Our hope
is that the information needed for successful work with boy scouts
will be found within the pages of this book.
In these pages and throughout our organization we have made it
obligatory upon our scouts that they cultivate courage, loyalty,
patriotism, brotherliness, self-control, courtesy, kindness to
animals, usefulness, cheerfulness, cleanliness, thrift, purity and
honor. No one can doubt that with such training added to his native
gifts, the American boy will in the near future, as a man, be an
efficient leader in the paths of civilization and peace.
It has been deemed wise to publish all material especially for the aid
of scout masters in a separate volume to be known as "The Scout
Masters' Manual."
We send out our "Official Handbook," therefore, with the earnest wish
that many boys may find in it new methods for the proper use of their
leisure time and fresh inspiration in their efforts to make their
hours of recreation contribute to strong, noble manhood in the days to
come.
THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
Editorial Board.
WILLIAM D. MURRAY
GEORGE D. PRATT,
A. A. JAMESON,
{vii}
OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
THE FIFTH AVENUE BUILDING, 200 FIFTH AVENUE
NEW YORK CITY
Honorary President THE HON. WILLIAM H. TAFT
Honorary Vice-President Colonel THEODORE ROOSEVELT
President COLIN H. LIVINGSTONE, Washington, D. C.
1st Vice-President B. L. DULANEY, Bristol, Tenn.
2d Vice-President MILTON A. McRAE, Detroit, Mich.
3d Vice-President DAVID STARR JORDAN, Stanford, Ca.
Chief Scout ERNEST THOMPSON SETON, Cos Cob, Conn.
National Scout Commissioner DANIEL CARTER BEARD, Flushing, L. I., N.Y.
National Scout Commissioner Adj.-Gen. WILLIAM VERBECK, Albany, N.Y.
National Scout Commissioner Colonel PETER S. BOMUS, New York City
Treasurer GEORGE D. PRATT, Brooklyn, N. Y.
MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE BOARD
COLIN H. LIVINGSTONE, Chairman
Daniel Carter Beard
Milton A. McRae
Mortimer L. Schiff
Col. Peter S. Bomus
William D. Murray
Ernest Thompson Seton
B. L. Dulaney
George D. Pratt
Seth Sprague Terry
Lee F. Hanmer
Frank Presbrey
Adj.-Gen. William Verbeck
George W. Hinckley
Edgar M. Robinson
JAMES E. WEST, Executive Secretary
MEMBERS OF NATIONAL COUNCIL
Charles Conrad Abbott
Arthur Adams
Dr. Felix Adler
Harry A. Allison
Henry Morrell Atkinson
B. N. Baker
Ray Stannard Baker
Evelyn Briggs Baldwin
Clifford W. Barnes
Daniel Carter Beard
Henry M. Beardsley
Martin Behrman
August Belmont
Ernest P. Bicknell
{viii}
Edward Bok
Colonel Peter S. Bomus
Hon. Charles J. Bonaparte
William D. Boyce
H. S. Braucher
Roeliff Brinkerhoff
Dr. Elmer E. Brown
Luther Burbank
Dr. Richard C. Cabot
Rev. S. Parkes Cadman
Arthur A. Carey
E. C. Carter
Richard B. Carter
W. D. Champlin
Thomas Chew
Winston Churchill
G. A. Clark
P. P. Claxton
Randall J. Condon
C. M. Connolly
Ernest K. Coulter
Dr. C. Ward Crampton
George H. Dalrymple
Dr. George S. Davis
E. B. DeGroot
Judge William H. De Lacy
William C. Demorest
Dr. Edward T. Devine
Admiral George Dewey
Gov. John A. Diz
Myron E. Douglas
Benjamin L. Dulaney
Hon. T. C. Du Pont
Dr. George W. Ehler
Griffith Ogden Ellis
Robert Erskine Ely
Henry P. Emerson
Hon. John J. Esch
J. W. Everman
Eberhard Faber
Dr. George J. Fisher
Horace Fletcher
Homer Folks
Dr. William Byron Forbush
Dr. Lee K. Frankel
Robert Ives Gammell
Hon. James R. Garfield
Hamlin Garland
Robert Garrett
William H. Gay
Bishop David H. Greer
Jesse A. Gregg
George B. Grinnell
S. R. Guggenheim
Luther Halsey Gulick, M. D.
Dr. G. Stanley Hall
Dr. Winfield Scott Hall
Lee F. Hanmer
Dr. Hastings H. Hart
Hon. W. M. Hays
Prof. C. R. Henderson
Clark W. Hetherington
George W. Hinckley
Allen Hoben
Hon. R. P. Hobson
Rev. R. W. Hogue
John Sherman Hoyt
C. R. H. Jackson
Prof. Jeremiah W. Jenks
G. E. Johnson
Dr. David Starr Jordan
Mayor William S. Jordan
Otto Herman Kahn
Dr. William J. Kerby
Charles H. Kip
Dr. J. H. Kirkland
Judge Henry E. Klamroth
Rev. Walter Laidlow
Charles R. Lamb
Joseph Lee
Samuel McC. Lindsay
Judge Ben B. Lindsey
Colin H. Livingstone
Col. Frank L. Locke
Hon. Nicholas Longworth
Hon. Frank O. Lowden
Hon. Lee McClung
William McCormick
{ix}
Hon. Henry B. F. Macfarland
J. Horace McFarland
C. W. McKee
Hon. William B. McKinley
J. S. McLain
Francis H. McLean
Milton A. McRae
Charles G. Maphis
George W. Manton
Edgar S. Martin
Frank S. Mason
Frank Lincoln Masseck
Dr. William H. Maxwell
Lieut.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles
John F. Moore
Arthur C. Moses
William D. Murray
Dr. Cyrus Northrop
Frank W. Ober
Hon. C. S. Page
Dr. C. H. Parkhurst
Hon. Herbert Parsons
Hon. Gifford Pinchot
David R. Porter
George D. Porter
Perry Edwards Powell
Frederic B. Pratt
George D. Pratt
Frank Presbrey
G. Barrett Rich, Jr.
Jacob A. Riis
Clarence C. Robinson
Edgar M. Robinson
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt
Lincoln E. Rowley
Oliver J. Sands
Dr. D. A. Sargent
Henry B. Sawyer
Mortimer L. Schiff
Charles Scribner
George L. Sehon
Rear Admiral Thomas Oliver Selfridge
Jefferson Seligman
Jesse Seligman
Ernest Thompson Seton
Samuel Shuman
Rear Admiral Charles Dwight Sigsbee
William F. Slocum
Fred. B. Smith
Hon. George Otis Smith
Lorillard Spencer
Lorillard Spencer, Jr.
Judge William H. Staake
Hon. Adlai Stevenson
Andrew Stevenson
A. E. Stilwell
C. H. Stoddard
Rev. John Timothy Stone, D.D.
Isidor Straus
Hon. Oscar S. Straus
Josiah Strong
Hon. William H. Taft
Edward K. Taylor
Graham Romeyn Taylor
Judge Harry L. Taylor
William L. Terhune
Seth Sprague Terry
John E. Thayer
Rev. James I. Vance
Dr. Henry Van Dyke
Adj. Gen. William Verbeck
John Wanamaker
Henry L. Ward
Lucien T. Warner
Richard Benedict Watrous
Rear Admiral J. C. Watson
W. D. Weatherford
Dr. Benjamin Ide Wheeler
Eli Whitney
Mornay Williams
Gen. George W. Wingate
A. E. Winship
Henry Rogers Winthrop
Major-Gen. Leonard Wood
Surgeon-Gen. Walter Wyman
Major Andrew C. Zabriskie
{x}
A MESSAGE FROM THE CHIEF SCOUT
TO THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA:
There was once a boy who lived in a region of rough farms. He was wild
with the love of the green outdoors--the trees, the tree-top singers,
the wood-herbs and the live things that left their nightly tracks in
the mud by his spring well. He wished so much to know them and learn
about them, he would have given almost any price in his gift to know
the name of this or that wonderful bird, or brilliant flower; he used
to tremble with excitement and intensity of interest when some new
bird was seen, or when some strange song came from the trees to thrill
him with its power or vex him with its mystery, and he had a sad sense
of lost opportunity when it flew away leaving him dark as ever. But he
was alone and helpless, he had neither book nor friend to guide him,
and he grew up with a kind of knowledge hunger in his heart that
gnawed without ceasing. But this also it did: It inspired him with the
hope that some day he might be the means of saving others from this
sort of torment--he would aim to furnish to them what had been denied
to himself.
There were other things in the green and living world that had a
binding charm for him. He wanted to learn to camp out, to live again
the life of his hunter grandfather who knew all the tricks of winning
comfort from the relentless wilderness the foster-mother so rude to
those who fear her, so kind to the stout of heart.
And he had yet another hankering--he loved the touch of romance. When
he first found Fenimore Cooper's books, he drank them in as one
parched might drink at a spring. He reveled in the tales of courage
and heroic deeds, he gloated over records of their trailing and
scouting by red man and white; he gloried in their woodcraft, and
lived it all in imagination, secretly blaming the writer, a little,
for praising without describing it so it could be followed. "Some
day," he said, "I shall put it all down for other boys to learn."
As years went by he found that there were books about most of the
things he wished to know, the stars, the birds, the {xi} quadrupeds,
the fish, the insects, the plants, telling their names; their hidden
power or curious ways, about the camper's life the language of signs
and even some of the secrets of the trail. But they were very
expensive and a whole library would be needed to cover the ground.
What he wanted--what every boy wants--is a handbook giving the broad
facts as one sees them in the week-end hike, the open-air life. He did
not want to know the trees as a botanist, but as a forester; nor the
stars as an astronomer, but as a traveler. His interest in the animals
was less that of anatomist than of a hunter and camper, and his
craving for light on the insects was one to be met by a popular book
on bugs, rather than by a learned treatise on entomology.
So knowing the want he made many attempts to gather the simple facts
together exactly to meet the need of other boys of like ideas, and
finding it a mighty task he gladly enlisted the help of men who had
lived and felt as he did.
Young Scouts of America that boy is writing to you now. He thought
himself peculiar in those days. He knows now he was simply a normal
boy with the interests and desires of all normal boys, some of them a
little deeper rooted and more lasting perhaps--and all the things
that he loved and wished to learn have now part in the big broad work
we call Scouting.
"Scout" used to mean the one on watch for the rest. We have widened
the word a little. We have made it fit the town as well as the
wilderness and suited it to peace time instead of war. We have made
the scout an expert in Life-craft as well as Wood-craft, for he is
trained in the things of the heart as well as head and hand. Scouting
we have made to cover riding, swimming, tramping, trailing,
photography, first aid, camping, handicraft, loyalty, obedience,
courtesy, thrift, courage, and kindness.
Do these things appeal to you? Do you love the woods?
Do you wish to learn the trees as the forester knows them? And the
stars not as an astronomer, but as a traveler?
Do you wish to have all-round, well-developed muscles, not those of a
great athlete, but those of a sound body that will not fail you? Would
you like to be an expert camper who can always make himself
comfortable out of doors, and a swimmer that fears no waters? Do you
desire the knowledge to help the wounded quickly, and to make yourself
cool and self-reliant in an emergency?
Do you believe in loyalty, courage, and kindness? Would {xii} you like
to form habits that will surely make your success in life?
Then, whether you be farm boy or shoe clerk, newsboy or millionaire's
son, your place is in our ranks, for these are the thoughts in
scouting; it will help you to do better work with your pigs, your
shoes, your papers, or your dollars; it will give you new pleasures in
life; it will teach you so much of the outdoor world that you wish to
know; and this Handbook, the work of many men, each a leader in his
field, is their best effort to show you the way. This is, indeed, the
book that I so longed for, in those far-off days when I wandered,
heart hungry in the woods.
ERNEST THOMPSON SETON,
Chief Scout.
Headquarters Boy Scouts of America,
200 Fifth Avenue, New York City.
June 1, 1911.
{xiii}
CONTENTS
PAGE
Boy Scout Certificate iii
Preface v
Officers and Members of the National Council vii
CHAPTER I.
Scoutcraft 3
AIM OF SCOUT MOVEMENT John L. Alexander
WHAT SCOUTING MEANS John L. Alexander
SCOUT VIRTUES John L. Alexander
THE BOY SCOUT ORGANIZATION Special Committee
SCOUT OATH Special Committee
SCOUT LAW Special Committee
TENDERFOOT, SECOND CLASS, AND
FIRST CLASS SCOUT REQUIREMENTS Special Committee
BADGES, AWARDS AND EQUIPMENT Special Committee
KNOTS EVERY SCOUT SHOULD KNOW. Samuel A. Moffat
CHAPTER II.
Woodcraft 57
WOODLORE Ernest Thompson Seton
BIRDCRAFT National Association Audubon Societies
SHELLS AND SHELLFISH Dr. Wm. Healey Dall
REPTILES Dr. Leonhard Stejneger
INSECTS AND BUTTERFLIES United States Bureau of Entomology
FISHES AND ANGLING Dr. Hugh M. Smith
AQUARIUM Dr. Wm. Leland Stowell
ROCKS AND PEBBLES United States Geological Survey
FLOWERS, FERNS AND GRASSES Dr. L. C. Corbett
MUSHROOMS, FUNGI OR TOADSTOOLS Ernest Thompson Seton
COMMON NORTH AMERICAN TREES Ernest Thompson Seton
NATIVE WILD ANIMALS Ernest Thompson Seton
CHAPTER III.
Campcraft 145
HIKING AND OVER-NIGHT CAMPS H. W. Gibson
TENT MAKING MADE EASY H. J. Holden
AN OPEN OUTING TENT Warren H. Miller
CANOEING, ROWING, AND SAILING Special Committee
{xiv}
CHAPTER IV.
Tracks, Trailing, and Signaling Ernest Thompson Seton 187
CHAPTER V.
Health and Endurance George J. Fisher, M.D. 219
CHAPTER VI.
Chivalry John L. Alexander 237
CHAPTER VII.
First Aid and Life Saving Major Charles Lynch 255
WATER ACCIDENTS Wilbert E. Longfellow
CHAPTER VIII.
Games and Athletic Standards 291
INDOOR AND OUTDOOR GAMES Ernest Thompson Seton
ATHLETIC STANDARDS Special Committee
CHAPTER IX.
Patriotism and Citizenship Waldo H. Sherman 323
PRACTICAL CITIZENSHIP Col. Theodore Roosevelt
APPENDIX.
EQUIPMENT 359
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 369
INDEX 393
ADVERTISEMENTS
HANDBOOK FOR BOYS
{3}
CHAPTER I
SCOUTCRAFT
_This chapter is the result of the work of the Committee on Scout Oath,
Scout Law, Tenderfoot, Second-class and First-class Requirements; the
Committee on Badges, Awards, and Equipment; the Committee on Permanent
Organization and Field Supervision, and John L. Alexander and Samuel
A. Moffat_.
Aim of the Scout Movement
_By John L. Alexander, Boy Scouts of America_
The aim of the Boy Scouts is to supplement the various existing
educational agencies, and to promote the ability in boys to do things
for themselves and others. It is not the aim to set up a new
organization to parallel in its purposes others already established.
The opportunity is afforded these organizations, however, to introduce
into their programs unique features appealing to interests which are
universal among boys. The method is summed up in the term Scoutcraft,
and is a combination of observation, deduction, and handiness, or the
ability to do things. Scoutcraft includes instruction in First Aid,
Life Saving, Tracking, Signaling, Cycling, Nature Study, Seamanship,
Campcraft, Woodcraft, Chivalry, Patriotism, and other subjects. This
is accomplished in games and team play, and is pleasure, not work, for
the boy. All that is needed is the out-of-doors, a group of boys, and
a competent leader.
What Scouting Means
In all ages there have been scouts, the place of the scout being on
the danger line of the army or at the outposts, protecting those of
his company who confide in his care.
The army scout was the soldier who was chosen out of all the army to
go out on the skirmish line.
The pioneer, who was out on the edge of the wilderness, {4} guarding
the men, women, and children in the stockade, was also a scout. Should
he fall asleep, or lose control of his faculties, or fail on his
watch, then the lives of the men, women, and children paid the
forfeit, and the scout lost his honor.
But there have been other kinds of scouts besides war scouts and
frontier scouts. They have been the men of all ages, who have gone out
on new and strange adventures, and through their work have benefited
the people of the earth. Thus, Columbus discovered America, the
Pilgrim Fathers founded New England, the early English settlers
colonized Jamestown, and the Dutch built up New York. In the same way
the hardy Scotch-Irish pushed west and made a new home for the
American people beyond the Alleghanies and the Rockies.
These peace scouts had to be as well prepared as any war scouts. They
had to know scoutcraft. They had to know how to live in the woods, and
be able to find their way anywhere, without other chart or compass
than the sun and stars, besides being able to interpret the meaning of
the slightest signs of the forest and the foot tracks of animals and
men.
They had to know how to live so as to keep healthy and strong, to face
any danger that came their way, and to help one another. These scouts
of old were accustomed to take chances with death and they did not
hesitate to give up their lives in helping their comrades or country.
In fact, they left everything behind them, comfort and peace, in order
to push forward into the wilderness beyond. And much of this they did
because they felt it to be their duty.
These little-known scouts could be multiplied indefinitely by going
back into the past ages and reading the histories and stories of the
knights of King Arthur, of the Crusaders, and of the great explorers
and navigators of the world.
Wherever there have been heroes, there have been scouts, and to be a
scout means to be prepared to do the right thing at the right moment,
no matter what the consequences may be.
The way for achievement in big things is the preparing of one's self
for doing the big things--by going into training and doing the little
things well. It was this characteristic of Livingstone, the great
explorer, that made him what he was, and that has marked the career of
all good scouts.
To be a good scout one should know something about the woods and the
animals that inhabit them, and how to care for one's self when
camping.
{5}
The habits of animals can be studied by stalking them and watching
them in their native haunts.
The scout should never kill an animal or other living creature
needlessly. There is more sport in stalking animals to photograph
them, and in coming to know their habits than in hunting to kill.
But woodcraft means more than this. It means not only the following of
tracks and other signs, but it means to be able to read them. To tell
how fast the animal which made the tracks was going; to tell whether
he was frightened, suspicious, or otherwise.
Woodcraft also enables the scout to find his way, no matter where he
is. It teaches him the various kinds of wild fruit, roots, nuts, etc.,
which are good for food, or are the favorite food of animals.
[Illustration: Scout Stalking.]
By woodcraft a scout may learn a great number of things. He may be
able to tell whether the tracks were made by an animal or by man,
bicycle, automobile or other vehicle.
By having his power of observation trained he can tell by very slight
signs, such as the sudden flying of birds, that someone is moving very
near him though he may not be able to see the person.
{6}
Through woodcraft then, a boy may train his eye, and be able to
observe things that otherwise would pass unnoticed. In this way he may
be able to save animals from pain, as a horse from an ill-fitting
harness. He may also be able to see little things which may give him
the clew to great things and so be able to prevent harm and crime.
[Illustration: Horse with head pulled back. (tr)]
Torture (Note the check or bearing-rein)
[Illustration: Horse with head relaxed. (tr)]
Comfort
Besides woodcraft one must know something of camp life. One of the
chief characteristics of the scout is to be able to live in the open,
know how to put up tents, build huts, throw up a lean-to for shelter,
or make a dugout in the ground, how to build a fire, how to procure
and cook food, how to bind logs together so as to construct bridges
and rafts, and how to find his way by night as well as by day in a
strange country.
Living in the open in this way, and making friends of the trees, the
streams, the mountains, and the stars, gives a scout a great deal of
confidence and makes him love the natural life around him.
[Illustration: Camp loom, for making mats and mattresses.]
To be able to tell the difference between the trees by their bark and
leaves is a source of pleasure; to be able to make a {7} bed out of
rough timber, or weave a mattress or mat out of grass to sleep on is a
joy. And all of these things a good scout should know.
Then too, a good scout must be chivalrous. That is, he should be as
manly as the knights or pioneers of old. He should be unselfish. He
should show courage. He must do his duty. He should show benevolence
and thrift. He should be loyal to his country. He should be obedient
to his parents, and show respect to those who are his superiors. He
should be very courteous to women. One of his obligations is to do a
good turn every day to some one. He should be cheerful and seek
self-improvement, and should make a career for himself.
All these things were characteristics of the old-time American scouts
and of the King Arthur knights. Their honor was sacred. They were
courteous and polite to women and children, especially to the aged,
protected the weak, and helped others to live better. They taught
themselves to be strong, so as to be able to protect their country
against enemies. They kept themselves strong and healthy, so that they
might be prepared to do all of these things at a moment's notice, and
do them well.
So the boy scout of to-day must be chivalrous, manly, and gentlemanly.
When he gets up in the morning he may tie a knot in his necktie, and
leave the necktie outside his vest until he has done a good turn.
Another way to remind himself is to wear his scout badge reversed
until he has done his good turn. The good turn may not be a very big
thing--help an old lady across the street; remove a banana skin from
the pavement so that people may not fall; remove from streets or roads
broken glass, dangerous to automobile or bicycle tires; give water to
a thirsty horse; or deeds similar to these.
The scout also ought to know how to save life. He ought to be able to
make a stretcher; to throw a rope to a drowning person; to drag an
unconscious person from a burning building, and to resuscitate a
person overcome by gas fumes. He ought also to know the method of
stopping runaway horses, and he should have the presence of mind and
the skill to calm a panic and deal with street and other accidents.
This means also that a boy scout must always be in the pink of
condition. A boy cannot do things like these unless he is healthy and
strong. Therefore, he must be systematically taking exercise, playing
games, running, and walking. It means that he must sleep enough hours
to give him the necessary strength, and if possible to sleep very much
in the open, or at least {8} with the windows of his bedroom open both
summer and winter.
It means also that he should take a cold bath often, rubbing dry with
a rough towel. He should breathe through the nose and not through the
mouth. He should at all times train himself to endure hardships.
In addition to these the scout should be a lover of his country. He
should know his country. How many states there are in it, what are its
natural resources, scope, and boundaries. He ought to know something
of its history, its early settlers, and of the great deeds that won
his land. How they settled along the banks of the James River. How
Philadelphia, New York, and other great cities were founded. How the
Pilgrim Fathers established New England and laid the foundation for
our national life. How the scouts of the Middle West saved all that
great section of the country for the Republic. He ought to know how
Texas became part of the United States, and how our national heroes
stretched out their hands, north and south, east and west, to make one
great united country.
He ought to know the history of the important wars. He ought to know
about our army and navy flags and the insignia of rank of our
officers. He ought to know the kind of government he lives under, and
what it means to live in a republic. He ought to know what is expected
of him as a citizen of his state and nation, and what to do to help
the people among whom he lives.
In short, to be a good scout is to be a well-developed, well-informed
boy.
Scout Virtues
There are other things which a scout ought to know and which should be
characteristic of him, if he is going to be the kind of scout for
which the Boy Scouts of America stand. One of these is obedience. To
be a good scout a boy must learn to obey the orders of his patrol
leader, scout master, and scout commissioner. He must learn to obey,
before he is able to command. He should so learn to discipline and
control himself that he will have no thought but to obey the orders of
his officers. He should keep such a strong grip on his own life that
he will not allow himself to do anything which is ignoble, or which
will harm his life or weaken his powers of endurance.
Another virtue of a scout is that of courtesy. A boy scout {9} ought
to have a command of polite language. He ought to show that he is a
true gentleman by doing little things for others.
Loyalty is also a scout virtue. A scout ought to be loyal to all to
whom he has obligations. He ought to stand up courageously for the
truth, for his parents and friends.
Another scout virtue is self-respect. He ought to refuse to accept
gratuities from anyone, unless absolutely necessary. He ought to work
for the money he gets.
For this same reason he should never look down upon anyone who may be
poorer than himself, or envy anyone richer than himself. A scout's
self-respect will cause him to value his own standing and make him
sympathetic toward others who may be, on the one hand, worse off, or,
on the other hand, better off as far as wealth is concerned. Scouts
know neither a lower nor a higher class, for a scout is one who is a
comrade to all and who is ready to share that which he has with
others.
The most important scout virtue is that of honor. Indeed, this is the
basis of all scout virtues and is closely allied to that of
self-respect. When a scout promises to do a thing on his honor, he is
bound to do it. The honor of a scout will not permit of anything but
the highest and the best and the manliest. The honor of a scout is a
sacred thing, and cannot be lightly set aside or trampled on.
Faithfulness to duty is another one of the scout virtues. When it is a
scout's duty to do something, he dare not shirk. A scout is faithful
to his own interest and the interests of others. He is true to his
country and his God.
Another scout virtue is cheerfulness. As the scout law intimates, he
must never go about with a sulky air. He must always be bright and
smiling, and as the humorist says, "Must always see the doughnut and
not the hole." A bright face and a cheery word spread like sunshine
from one to another. It is the scout's duty to be a sunshine-maker in
the world.
Another scout virtue is that of thoughtfulness, especially to animals;
not merely the thoughtfulness that eases a horse from the pain of a
badly fitting harness or gives food and drink to an animal that is in
need, but also that which keeps a boy from throwing a stone at a cat
or tying a tin can on a dog's tail. If a boy scout does not prove his
thoughtfulness and friendship for animals, it is quite certain that he
never will be really helpful to his comrades or to the men, women, and
children who may need his care.
{10}
And then the final and chief test of the scout is the doing of a good
turn to somebody every day, quietly and without boasting. This is the
proof of the scout. It is practical religion, and a boy honors God
best when he helps others most. A boy may wear all the scout uniforms
made, all the scout badges ever manufactured, know all the woodcraft,
campcraft, scoutcraft and other activities of boy scouts, and yet
never be a real boy scout. To be a real boy scout means the doing of a
good turn every day with the proper motive and if this be done, the
boy has a right to be classed with the great scouts that have been of
such service to their country. To accomplish this a scout should
observe the scout law.
Every boy ought to commit to memory the following abbreviated form of
the Scout law.
The Twelve Points of the Scout Law
1. A scout is trustworthy.
2. A scout is loyal.
3. A scout is helpful.
4. A scout is friendly.
5. A scout is courteous.
6. A scout is kind.
7. A scout is obedient.
8. A scout is cheerful.
9. A scout is thrifty.
10. A scout is brave.
11. A scout is clean.
12. A scout is reverent.
The Boy Scout Organization
(Result of work of Committee on Permanent Organization and Field
Supervision:--H. S. Braucher, Chairman. Lorillard Spencer. Jr., Colin
H. Livingstone. Richard C. Morse. Mortimer Schiff, Dr. George W.
Ehler, C. M. Connolly, E. B. DeGroot, Lee F. Hamner.)
To do good scouting a boy must understand the organization of which he
is a part. The Boy Scouts of America is promoted and governed by a
group of men called the National Council. This National Council is
made up of leading men of the country and it is their desire that
every American boy shall have the opportunity of becoming a good
scout.
The National Council holds one meeting annually at which it elects the
officers and the members of the Executive Board. It copyrights badges
and other scout designs, arranges for their manufacture and
distribution, selects designs for uniforms and scout equipment, issues
scout commissioners' and scout masters' certificates, and grants
charters for local councils.
{11}
A local council through its officers--president, vice-president,
secretary, treasurer, and scout commissioner, its executive committee,
court of honor, and other committees--deals with all local matters
that relate to scouting.
The scout commissioner is the ranking scout master of the local
council and presides at all scout masters' meetings as well as at all
scout field meets. It is also the duty of the scout commissioner to
report to and advise with the Chief Scout through the Executive
Secretary concerning the scouts in his district. The scout
commissioner's certificate is issued from National Headquarters upon
the recommendation of a local council after this council has been
granted a charter.
The scout master is the adult leader of a troop, and must be at least
twenty-one years of age. He should have a deep interest in boys, be
genuine in his own life, have the ability to lead, and command the
boys' respect and obedience. He need not be an expert at scoutcraft; a
good scout master will discover experts for the various activities.
His certificate is granted upon the recommendation of the local
council.
An assistant scout master should be eighteen years of age or over. His
certificate is granted by the National Council upon the recommendation
of the scout master of his troop and the local council.
Chief Scout and Staff
The Chief Scout is elected annually by the National Council and has a
staff of deputies each of whom is chairman of a committee of
scoutcraft. These deputies are as follows:
Chief Scout Surgeon.
Chief Scout Director of Health.
Chief Scout Woodsman.
Chief Scout Athletic Director.
Chief Scout Stalker.
Chief Scout Citizen.
Chief Scout Master.
Chief Scout Director of Chivalry.
Chief Scout Camp Master.
Scouts are graded as follows:
Chief Scout and Staff.
Scout Commissioner.
Scout Master.
Assistant Scout Master.
Patrol Leader.
Assistant Patrol Leader.
Eagle Scout.
Star Scout.
Life Scout.
First-class Scout.
Second-class Scout.
Tenderfoot.
How to Become a Boy Scout
The easiest way to become a boy scout is to join a patrol that has
already been started. This patrol may be in {12} a Sunday School,
Boys' Brigade, Boys' Club, Young Men's Christian Association, Young
Men's Hebrew Association, Young Men's Catholic Association, or any
other organization to which you may belong. If there is no patrol near
you, get some man interested enough to start one by giving him all the
information.
A patrol consists of eight boys, one of whom becomes the patrol leader
and another the assistant patrol leader.
A troop consists of three or more patrols, and the leader of the troop
is called a scout master. There can be no patrols or troops of boy
scouts without this scout master.
The Scout Motto
The motto of the boy scouts is Be Prepared, and the badge of the boy
scouts is a copyrighted design with this motto, "Be Prepared," on a
scroll at its base.
The motto, "Be Prepared," means that the scout is always in a state of
readiness in mind and body to do his duty. To be prepared in mind, by
having disciplined himself to be obedient, and also by having thought
out beforehand any accident or situation that may occur, so that he
may know the right thing to do at the right moment, and be willing to
do it. To be prepared in body, by making himself strong and active and
able to do the right thing at the right moment, and then to do it.
The Scout Badge
The scout badge is not intended to represent the fleur-de-lis, or an
arrowhead. It is a modified form of the sign of the north on the
mariner's compass, which is as old as the history of navigation. The
Chinese claim its use among them as early as 2634 B. C., and we have
definite information that it was used at sea by them as early as 300
A. D. Marco Polo brought the compass to Europe on his return from
Cathay. The sign of the north on the compass gradually came to
represent the north, and pioneers, trappers, woodsmen, and scouts,
because of this, adopted it as their emblem. Through centuries of use
it has undergone modification until it has now assumed the shape of
our badge.
This trefoil badge of the scouts is now used, with slight local
variations, in almost every civilized country as the mark of
brotherhood, for good citizenship, and friendliness.
Its scroll is turned up at the ends like a scout's mouth, because he
does his duty with a smile and willingly.
The knot is to remind the scout to do a good turn to someone daily.
{13}
The arrowhead part is worn by the tenderfoot. The scroll part only is
worn by the second-class scout. The badge worn by the first-class
scout is the whole badge.
The official badges of the Boy Scouts of America are issued by the
National Council and may be secured only from the National
Headquarters. These badges are protected by the U. S. Patent Laws
(letters of patent numbers 41412 and 41532) and anyone infringing
these patents is liable to prosecution at law.
In order to protect the Boy Scout Movement and those who have
qualified to receive badges designating the various degrees in
scoutcraft, it is desired that all interested cooperate with the
National Headquarters in safeguarding the sale and distribution of
these badges. This may be done by observing the following rules:
1. Badges should not be ordered until after boys have actually
complied with the requirements prescribed by the National Council and
are entitled to receive them.
2. All orders for badges should be sent in by the scout master with a
certificate from the local council that these requirements have been
complied with. Blanks for this purpose may be secured on application
to the National Headquarters.
Where no local council has been formed, application for badges should
be sent direct to Headquarters, signed by the registered scout master
of the troop, giving his official number.
Scout commissioners', scout masters', and assistant scout masters'
badges can be issued only to those who are registered as such at
National Headquarters.
_Tenderfoot Badge_--Gilt metal.
_Patrol Leader's Tenderfoot Badge_--Oxidized silver finish.
These badges are seven eighths of an inch wide and are made either for
the button-hole or with safety-pin clasp. Price 5 cents.
_Second-Class Scout Badge_--Gilt metal.
_Patrol Leader's Second-Class Scout Badge_--Oxidized silver.
These badges--safety-pin style--to be worn upon the sleeve. Price 10
cents.
_First-Class Scout Badge_--Gilt metal.
_Patrol Leader's First-Class Scout Badge_--Oxidized silver.
Both badges safety-pin style--to be worn upon the sleeve. Price 15
cents.
_Scout Commissioner's, Scout Master's, and Assistant Scout Master's Arm
Badges_.
These badges are woven in blue, green, and red silk, and are to be
worn on the sleeve of coat or shirt. Price 25 cents.
{14}
_Buttons_--The official buttons worn on the scout uniforms sell for 10
cents per set for shirt and 15 cents per set for coat.
_Merit Badges_--Price 25 cents each.
_Boy Scout Certificates_--A handsome certificate in two colors, 6 x 8
inches, has been prepared for boy scouts who wish to have a record of
their enrolment. The certificate has the Scout Oath and Law and the
official Seal upon it, with place for the signature of the scout
master. The price is 5 cents.
Directions For Ordering
Important! When ordering supplies send exact remittance with order, If
check is used add New York exchange. Make checks and money orders
payable to Boy Scouts of America. All orders received without the
proper remittance will be shipped C. O. D., or held until remittance
arrives.
The Scout Oath
Before he becomes a scout a boy must promise:
On my honor I will do my best:
1. To do my duty to God and my country, and to obey the scout law;
2. To help other people at all times;
3. To keep myself physically strong, mentally awake, and morally straight.
[Illustration: Hand position. (tr)]
When taking this oath the scout will stand, holding up his right hand,
palm to the front, thumb resting on the nail of the little finger and
the other three fingers upright and together.
The Scout Sign
This is the scout sign. The three fingers held up remind him of his
three promises in the scout oath.
The Scout Salute
When the three fingers thus held are raised to the forehead, it is the
scout salute. The scout always salutes an officer.
The Scout Law
(Result of work of Committee on Scout Oath, Scout Law, Tenderfoot,
Second-class and First-class Scout Requirements:--Prof. Jeremiah W.
Jenks, Chairman. Dr. Lee K. Frankel, George D. Porter, E. M. Robinson,
G. W. Hinckley, B. E. Johnson, Clark W. Hetherington, Arthur A. Carey.)
There have always been certain written and unwritten laws regulating
the conduct and directing the activities of men. {15} We have such
unwritten laws coming down from past ages. In Japan, the Japanese have
their Bushido or laws of the old Samurai warriors. During the Middle
Ages, the chivalry and rules of the Knights of King Arthur, the
Knights Templar and the Crusaders were in force. In aboriginal
America, the Red Indians had their laws of honor: likewise the Zulus,
Hindus, and the later European nations have their ancient codes.
The following laws which relate to the Boy Scouts of America, are the
latest and most up to date. These laws a boy promises to obey when he
takes his scout oath.
1. A scout is trustworthy.
A scout's honor is to be trusted. If he were to violate his honor by
telling a lie, or by cheating, or by not doing exactly a given task,
when trusted on his honor, he may be directed to hand over his scout
badge.
2. A scout is loyal.
He is loyal to all to whom loyalty is due: his scout leader, his
home, and parents and country.
3. A scout is helpful.
He must be prepared at any time to save life, help injured persons,
and share the home duties. He must do at least one good turn to
somebody every day.
4. A scout is friendly.
He is a friend to all and a brother to every other scout.
5. A scout is courteous.
He is polite to all, especially to women, children, old people, and
the weak and helpless. He must not take pay for being helpful or
courteous.
6. A scout is kind.
He is a friend to animals. He will not kill nor hurt any living
creature needlessly, but will strive to save and protect all
harmless life.
7. A scout is obedient.
He obeys his parents, scout master, patrol leader, and all other
duly constituted authorities.
8. A scout is cheerful.
He smiles whenever he can. His obedience to orders is prompt and
cheery. He never shirks nor grumbles at hardships.
9. A scout is thrifty.
He does not wantonly destroy property. He works faithfully, wastes
nothing, and makes the best use of his {16} opportunities. He saves
his money so that he may pay his own way, be generous to those in
need, and helpful to worthy objects.
_He may work for pay but must not receive tips for courtesies or good
turns_.
10. A scout is brave.
He has the courage to face danger in spite of fear and has to stand
up for the right against the coaxings of friends or the jeers or
threats of enemies, and defeat does not down him.
11. A scout is clean.
He keeps clean in body and thought, stands for clean speech, clean
sport, clean habits, and travels with a clean crowd.
12. A scout is reverent.
He is reverent toward God. He is faithful in his religious duties
and respects the convictions of others in matters of custom and
religion.
The Three Classes of Scouts
There are three classes of scouts among the Boy Scouts of America, the
tenderfoot, second-class scout, and first-class scout. Before a boy
can become a tenderfoot he must qualify for same. A tenderfoot,
therefore, is superior to the ordinary boy because of his training. To
be a tenderfoot means to occupy the lowest grade in scouting. A
tenderfoot on meeting certain requirements may become a second-class
scout, and a second-class scout upon meeting another set of
requirements may become a first-class scout. The first-class scout may
then qualify for the various merit badges which are offered in another
part of this chapter for proficiency in scouting. The requirements of
the tenderfoot, second-class scout, and first-class scout, are as
follows:
_Tenderfoot_
To become a scout a boy must be at least twelve years of age and must
pass a test in the following:
1. Know the scout law, sign, salute, and significance of the badge.
2. Know the composition and history of the national flag and the
customary forms of respect due to it.
3. Tie four out of the following knots: square or reef, sheet-bend,
bowline, fisherman's, sheepshank, halter, clove hitch, timber hitch,
or two half hitches.
[Illustration: Tenderfoot badge. (tr)]
Tenderfoot
{17}
He then takes the scout oath, is enrolled as a tenderfoot, and is
entitled to wear the tenderfoot badge.
[Illustration: Second-class Scout badge. (tr)]
Second-class Scout
_Second-class Scout_
To become a second-class scout, a tenderfoot must pass, to the
satisfaction of the recognized local scout authorities, the following
tests:
1. At least one month's service as a tenderfoot.
2. Elementary first aid and bandaging; know the general directions for
first aid for injuries; know treatment for fainting, shock, fractures,
bruises, sprains, injuries in which the skin is broken, burns, and
scalds; demonstrate how to carry injured, and the use of the
triangular and roller bandages and tourniquet.
3. Elementary signaling: Know the semaphore, or American Morse, or
Myer alphabet.
4. Track half a mile in twenty-five minutes; or, if in town, describe
satisfactorily the contents of one store window out of four observed
for one minute each.
5. Go a mile in twelve minutes at scout's pace--about fifty steps
running and fifty walking, alternately.
6. Use properly knife or hatchet.
7. Prove ability to build a fire in the open, using not more than two
matches.
8. Cook a quarter of a pound of meat and two potatoes in the open
without the ordinary kitchen cooking utensils.
9. Earn and deposit at least one dollar in a public bank.
10. Know the sixteen principal points of the compass.
_First-class Scout_
To become a first-class scout, the second-class scout must pass the
following tests:
1. Swim fifty yards.
2. Earn and deposit at least two dollars in a public bank.
3. Send and receive a message by semaphore, or American Morse, or Myer
alphabet, sixteen letters per minute.
4. Make a round trip alone (or with another scout) to a point {18} at
least seven miles away, going on foot or rowing boat, and write a
satisfactory account of the trip and things observed.
5. Advanced first aid: Know the methods for panic prevention; what to
do in case of fire and ice, electric and gas accidents; how to help in
case of runaway horse, mad dog, or snake bite; treatment for
dislocations, unconsciousness, poisoning, fainting, apoplexy,
sunstroke, heat exhaustion, and freezing; know treatment for sunburn,
ivy poisoning, bites and stings, nosebleed, earache, toothache,
inflammation or grit in eye, cramp or stomach ache and chills;
demonstrate artificial respiration.
6. Prepare and cook satisfactorily, in the open, without regular
kitchen utensils, two of the following articles as may be directed.
Eggs, bacon, hunter's stew, fish, fowl, game, pancakes, hoe-cake,
biscuit, hardtack or a "twist," baked on a stick; explain to another
boy the methods followed.
7. Read a map correctly, and draw, from field notes made on the spot,
an intelligible rough sketch map, indicating by their proper marks
important buildings, roads, trolley lines, main landmarks, principal
elevations, etc. Point out a compass direction without the help of the
compass.
8. Use properly an axe for felling or trimming light timber; or
produce an article of carpentry or cabinet-making or metal work made
by himself. Explain the method followed.
9. Judge distance, size, number, height and weight within 25 per cent.
10. Describe fully from observation ten species of trees or plants,
including poison ivy, by their bark, leaves, flowers, fruit, or scent;
or six species of wild birds by their plumage, notes, tracks, or
habits; or six species of native wild animals by their form, color,
call, tracks, or habits; find the North Star, and name and describe at
least three constellations of stars.
11. Furnish satisfactory evidence that he has put into practice in his
daily life the principles of the scout oath and law.
12. Enlist a boy trained by himself in the requirements of a
tenderfoot.
_NOTE.--No deviation from above requirements will be permitted unless
in extraordinary cases, such as physical inability, and the written
consent of the National Headquarters has been obtained by the
recognized local scout authority_.
[Illustration: First-class Scout badge. (tr)]
First-class Scout
{19}
Patrol Signs
Each troop of boy scouts is named after the place to which it belongs.
For example, it is Troop No. 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., of New York or Chicago.
Each patrol of the troop is named after an animal or bird, but may be
given another kind of name if there is a valid reason. In this way,
the Twenty-seventh New York Troop, for instance, may have several
patrols, which may be respectively the Ox, Wolf, Jackal, Raven,
Buffalo, Fox, Panther, and Rattlesnake.
[Illustration: Boy Scout in uniform. (tr)]
Positions of Various Badges
Each scout in a patrol has a number, the patrol leader being No. 1,
the assistant patrol leader No. 2, and the other scouts the remaining
consecutive numbers. Scouts in this way should {22} work in pairs,
Nos. 3 and 4 together; 5 and 6 together; 7 and. 8 together.
{20}
[Illustration: Outline of animals. (tr)]
MONGOOSE
Squeak--"Cheep"
BROWN AND ORANGE
HAWK
Cry (same as Eagle)--"Kreeee"
PINK
WOLF
Howl-"How-oooo"
YELLOW AND BLACK
PEEWIT
Whistle-"Tewitt"
GREEN AND WHITE
HOUND
Bark "Bawow-wow"
ORANGE
CAT
Cry--"Meeaow"
GRAY AND BROWN
JACKAL
Laughing Cry-"Wahwah-wah-wah-wah."
GRAY AND BLACK
RAVEN
Cry-"Kar-kaw"
BLACK
BUFFALO
Lowing (same as Bull) "Um-maouw"
RED AND WHITE
PEACOCK
Cry-"Bee-oik"
GREEN AND BLUE
BULL
Lowing-"Um-maouw"
RED
SEAL
Call-"Hark"
RED AND BLACK
OWL
Whistle "Koot-koot-koo"
BLUE
TIGER
Purr-"Grrrao"
VIOLET
LION
Roar-"Eu-Ugh"
YELLOW AND RED
KANGAROO
Call-"Coo-ee"
RED AND GRAY
HORSE
Whinney-"Hee-e-e-e"
BLACK AND WHITE
{21}
FOX
Bark-"Ha-ha"
YELLOW AND GREEN
BEAR
Growl-"Boorrr"
BROWN AND RED
STAG
Call-"Baow"
VIOLET AND BLACK
STORK
Cry-"Korrr"
BLUE AND WHITE
PANTHER
Tongue in side of mouth--"Keeook"
YELLOW
CURLEW
Whistle--"Curley"
GREEN
HYENA
Laughing Cry-"Ooowah-oowah-wah"
YELLOW AND BROWN
RAM
Bleat--"Ba-a-a"
BROWN
WOOD PIGEON
Call--"Book-hooroo"
BLUE AND GRAY
EAGLE
Very shrill cry--"Kreeee"
GREEN AND BLACK
HIPPO
Hiss-"Brrussssh"
PINK AND BLACK
RATTLESNAKE
Rattle a pebble in a small potted meat tin.
WILD BOAR
Grunt--"Broof-broof"
GRAY AND PINK
COBRA
Hiss--"Pssst"
ORANGE AND BLACK
CUCKOO
Call--"Cook-koo"
GRAY
OTTER
Cry--"Hoi-oi-oick"
BROWN AND WHITE
BEAVER
Slap made by clapping bands
BLUE AND YELLOW
{22 continued}
Each scout in a patrol should be able to imitate the call of his
patrol animal. That is, the scouts of the Wolf patrol should be able
to imitate a wolf. In this way scouts of the same patrol can
communicate with each other when in hiding, or in the dark of night.
It is not honorable for a scout to use the call of any other patrol
except his own.
The patrol leader calls up his patrol at will by sounding his whistle
and by giving the call of the patrol.
When the scout makes signs anywhere for others to read he also draws
the head of his animal. That is to say, if he were out scouting and
wanted to show that a certain road should not be followed by others,
he would draw the sign, "not to be followed," across it and add the
name of his patrol animal, in order to show which patrol discovered
that the road was bad, and by adding his own number at the left of the
head to show which scout had discovered it.
[Illustration: Outline of animals. (tr)]
BLUE BUFFALO on white ground
FLYING EAGLES
"Yeh-yeh-yeh"
Black and white on red
BLUE HERONS
"Hrrrr"
Blue and green
HORNED KINGBIRDS
SINAWA
Black on red
BLACKBEARS
Black on red
AHMEEKS
SILVER FOXES
RED TRAILERS
MOON BAND
Yellow on blue
OWNEOKES
BLAZING ARROW
Each patrol leader carries a small flag on the end of his staff {23} or
stave with the head of his patrol animal shown on both sides. Thus the
Tigers of the Twenty-seventh New York Troop should have the flag shown
below.
[Illustration: Banner with tiger and "27 N.Y." (tr)]
The Merit Badges
(Result of work of Committee on Badges, Awards and Equipment: Dr.
George J. Fisher, Chairman, Gen. George W. Wingate, Dr. C. Ward
Crampton, Daniel Carter Beard. C. M. Connolly, A. A. Jameson. Ernest
Thompson Seton.)
When a boy has become a first-class scout he may qualify for the merit
badges.
_The examination for these badges should be given by the Court of Honor
of the local council. This examination must not be given any boy who
is not qualified as a first-class scout. After the boy has passed the
examination, the local council may secure the merit badge for him by
presenting the facts to the National Council. These badges are
intended to stimulate the boy's interest in the life about him and are
given for general knowledge. The wearing of these badges does not
signify that a scout is qualified to make his living by the knowledge
gained in securing the award_.
Scouts winning any of the following badges are entitled to place after
their names the insignia of the badges won. For instance, if he has
successfully passed the signaling and seamanship tests, he signs his
name in this manner--
[Illustration: Signature of "James E. Ward" with insignia. (tr)]
{24}
Agriculture
[Illustration: Plow insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Agriculture a scout must
1. State different tests with grains.
2. Grow at least an acre of corn which produces 25 per cent. better
than the general average.
3. Be able to identify and describe common weeds of the community and
tell how best to eliminate them.
4. Be able to identify the common insects and tell how best to handle
them.
5. Have a practical knowledge of plowing, cultivating, drilling,
hedging, and draining.
6. Have a working knowledge of farm machinery, haymaking, reaping,
loading, and stacking.
7. Have a general acquaintance of the routine seasonal work on the
farm, including the care of cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs.
8. Have a knowledge of Campbell's Soil Culture principle, and a
knowledge of dry farming and of irrigation farming.
Angling
[Illustration: Fish insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Angling a scout must
1. Catch and name ten different species of fish: salmon or trout to be
taken with flies; bass, pickerel, or pike to be caught with rod or
reel, muskallonge to be caught by trolling.
2. Make a bait rod of three joints, straight and sound, 14 oz. or less
in weight, 10 feet or less in length, to stand a strain of 1-1/2 lbs.
at the tip, 13 lbs. at the grip.
3. Make a jointed fly-rod 8-10 feet long, 4-8 ozs. in weight, capable
of casting a fly sixty feet.
4. Name and describe twenty-five different species of fish found in
North American waters and give a complete list of the fishes
ascertained by himself to inhabit a given body of water.
5. Give the history of the young of any species of wild fish from the
time of hatching until the adult stage is reached.
Archery
[Illustration: Bow and Arrow insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Archery a scout must
1. Make a bow and arrow which will shoot a distance of one hundred
feet with fair precision.
2. Make a total score of 350 with 60 shots in one or {25} two meets,
using standard four-foot target at forty yards or three-foot target at
thirty yards.
3. Make a total score of 300 with 72 arrows, using standard target at
a distance of fifty yards.
4. Shoot so far and fast as to have six arrows in the air at once.
Architecture
[Illustration: Column and Lintel insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Architecture a scout must
1. Present a satisfactory free-hand drawing.
2. Write an essay on the history of Architecture and describe the five
orders.
3. Submit an original design for a two-story house and tell what
material is necessary for its construction, giving detailed
specifications.
Art
[Illustration: Brushes and Pallet insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Art a scout must
1. Draw in outline two simple objects, one composed of straight lines,
and one of curved lines, the two subjects to be grouped together a
little below the eye.
2. Draw in outline two books a little below the eye, one book to be
open; also a table or chair.
3. Make in outline an Egyptian ornament.
4. Make in outline a Greek or Renaissance ornament from a cast or
copy.
5. Make an original arrangement or design using some detail of
ornament.
6. Make a drawing from a group of two objects placed a little below
the eye and show light and shade.
7. Draw a cylindrical object and a rectangular object, grouped
together a little below the eye, and show light and shade.
8. Present a camp scene in color.
Astronomy
[Illustration: Star insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Astronomy a scout must
1. Have a general knowledge of the nature and movements of stars.
{26}
2. Point out and name six principal constellations; find the North by
means of other stars than the Pole-star in case of that star being
obscured by clouds, and tell the hour of the night by the stars and
moon.
3. Have a general knowledge of the positions and movements of the
earth, sun and moon, and of tides, eclipses, meteors, comets,
sun-spots, and planets.
Athletics
[Illustration: Winged foot insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Athletics a scout must
1. Write an acceptable article of not less than five hundred words on
how to train for an athletic event.
2. Give the rules for one track and one field event.
3. Make the required athletic standard according to his weight,
classifications and conditions as stated in chapter eight.
Automobiling
[Illustration: Wheel insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Automobiling a scout must
1. Demonstrate how to start a motor, explaining what precautions
should be taken.
2. Take off and put on pneumatic tires.
3. Know the functions of the clutch, carburetor, valves, magneto,
spark plug, differential cam shaft, and different speed gears, and be
able to explain difference between a two and four-cycle motor.
4. Know how to put out burning gasoline or oil.
5. Have satisfactorily passed the requirements to receive a license to
operate an automobile in the community in which he lives.
Aviation
[Illustration: Biplane insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Aviation a scout must
1. Have a knowledge of the theory of aeroplanes, balloons, and
dirigibles.
2. Have made a working model of an {27} aeroplane or dirigible that
will fly at least twenty-five yards; and have built a box kite that
will fly.
3. Have a knowledge of the engines used for aeroplanes and dirigibles,
and be able to describe the various types of aeroplanes and their
records.
Bee Farming
[Illustration: Bee insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Bee Farming a scout must
1. Have a practical knowledge of swarming, hiving, hives and general
apiculture, including a knowledge of the use of artificial combs.
2. Describe different kinds of honey and tell from what sources
gathered.
Blacksmithing
[Illustration: Anvil insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Blacksmithing a scout must
1. Upset and weld a one-inch iron rod.
2. Make a horseshoe.
3. Know how to tire a wheel, use a sledge-hammer and forge, shoe a
horse correctly and roughshoe a horse.
4. Be able to temper iron and steel.
Bugling
[Illustration: Bugle insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Bugling a scout must
1. Be able to sound properly on the Bugle the customary United States
Army calls.
Business
[Illustration: Quill Pen insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Business a scout must
1. Write a satisfactory business, and a personal letter.
2. State fundamental principles of buying and selling.
3. Know simple bookkeeping.
4. Keep a complete and actual account of personal receipts and
expenditures for six months.
{28}
5. State how much money would need to be invested at 5 per cent. to
earn his weekly allowance of spending money for a year.
Camping
[Illustration: Tent insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Camping a scout must
1. Have slept in the open or under canvas at different times fifty
nights.
2. Have put up a tent alone and ditched it.
3. Have made a bed of wild material and a fire without matches.
4. State how to choose a camp site and how to prepare for rain; how to
build a latrine (toilet) and how to dispose of the camp garbage and
refuse.
5. Know how to construct a raft.
Carpentry
[Illustration: Wood plane insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Carpentry a scout must
1. Know the proper way to drive, set and clinch a nail.
2. Know the different kinds of chisels, planes and saws, and how to
sharpen and use them.
3. Know the use of the rule, square, level, plumb-line and mitre.
4. Know how to use compasses for scribing both regular and irregular
lines.
5. Make an article of furniture with three different standard joints
or splices, with at least one surface of highly polished hard or
decorative wood. All work to be done without assistance.
Chemistry
[Illustration: Chemical retort insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Chemistry a scout must be able to pass the
following test:
1. Define physical and chemical change. Which occurs when salt is
dissolved in water, milk sours, iron rusts, water boils, iron is
magnetized and mercuric oxide is heated above the boiling point of
mercury?
2. Give correct tests for oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, and
carbon dioxide gases.
3. Could you use the above gases to extinguish fire? How?
4. Why can baking soda be used to put out a small fire?
{29}
5. Give tests for a chloride, sulphide, sulphate, nitrate, and
carbonate.
6. Give the names of three commercial forms of carbon. Tell how each
is made and the purpose for which it is used.
7. What compound is formed when carbon is burned in air?
8. Tell process of making lime and mortar from limestone.
9. Why will fresh plaster harden quicker by burning charcoal in an
open vessel near it?
Civics
[Illustration: Ax insignia (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Civics a scout must
1. State the principal citizenship requirements of an elector in his
state.
2. Know the principal features of the naturalization laws of the
United States.
3. Know how President, Vice-President, senators, and congressmen of
the United States are elected and their terms of office.
4. Know the number of judges of the Supreme Court of the United
States, how appointed, and their term of office.
5. Know the various administrative departments of government, as
represented in the President's Cabinet.
6. Know how the governor, lieutenant-governor, senators,
representatives, or assemblymen of his state are elected, and their
terms of office.
7. Know whether the judges of the principal courts in his state are
appointed or elected, and the length of their terms.
8. Know how the principal officers in his town or city are elected and
for what terms.
9. Know the duties of the various city departments, such as fire,
police, board of health, etc.
10. Draw a map of the town or city in which he lives, giving location
of the principal public buildings and points of special interest.
11. Give satisfactory evidence that he is familiar with the {30}
provisions and history of the Declaration of Independence, and the
Constitution of the United States.
Conservation
[Illustration: Sunset over forest insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Conservation a scout must
1. Be able to recognize in the forest all important commercial trees
in his neighborhood; distinguish the lumber from each and tell for
what purpose each is best suited; tell the age of old blazes on trees
which mark a boundary or trail; recognize the difference in the forest
between good and bad logging, giving reasons why one is good and
another bad; tell whether a tree is dying from injury by fire, by
insects, by disease or by a combination of these causes; know what
tools to use, and how to fight fires in hilly or in flat country.
Collect the seeds of two commercial trees, clean and store them, and
know how and when to plant them.
2. Know the effect upon stream-flow of the destruction of forests at
head waters; know what are the four great uses of water in streams;
what causes the pollution of streams, and how it can best be stopped;
and how, in general, water power is developed.
3. Be able to tell, for a given piece of farm land, whether it is best
suited for use as farm or forest, and why; point out examples of
erosion, and tell how to stop it; give the reasons why a growing crop
pointed out to him is successful or why not; and tell what crops
should be grown in his neighborhood and why.
4. Know where the great coal fields are situated and whether the use
of coal is increasing, and if so at what rate. Tell what are the great
sources of waste of coal, in the mines, and in its use, and how they
can be reduced.
5. Know the principal game birds and animals in his neighborhood, the
seasons during which they are protected, the methods of protection,
and the results. Recognize the track of any two of the following:
rabbit, fox, deer, squirrel, wild turkey, ruffed grouse and quail.
Cooking
[Illustration: Cooking pot insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Cooking a scout must
1. Prove his ability to build a fireplace out of stone or sod {31} or
logs, light a fire, and cook in the open the following dishes in
addition to those required for a first-class scout: Camp stew, two
vegetables, omelet, rice pudding; know how to mix dough, and bake
bread in an oven; be able to make tea, coffee, and cocoa, carve
properly and serve correctly to people at the table.
Craftsmanship
[Illustration: Drafting compass insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Craftsmanship a scout must
1. Build and finish unassisted one of the following articles: a round,
square or octagonal tabouret; round or square den or library table;
hall or piano bench; rustic arm chair or swing to be hung with chains;
or rustic table.
2. He must also make plans or intelligent rough sketch drawing of the
piece selected.
Cycling
[Illustration: Wheel insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Cycling a scout must
1. Be able to ride a bicycle fifty miles in ten hours.
2. Repair a puncture.
3. Take apart and clean bicycle and put together again properly.
4. Know how to make reports if sent out scouting on a road.
5. Be able to read a map and report correctly verbal messages.
Dairying
[Illustration: Butter churn insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Dairying a scout must
1. Understand the management of dairy cattle.
2. Be able to milk.
3. Understand the sterilization of milk, and care of dairy utensils
and appliances.
{32}
4. Test at least five cows for ten days each, with the Babcock test,
and make proper reports.
Electricity
[Illustration: Fist holding lightening insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Electricity a scout must
1. Illustrate the experiment by which the laws of electrical
attraction and repulsion are shown.
2. Name three uses of the direct current, and tell how it differs from
the alternating current.
3. Make a simple electro-magnet.
4. Have an elementary knowledge of the action of simple battery cells
and of the working of electric bells and telephones.
5. Be able to remedy fused wire, and to repair broken electric
connections.
6. Construct a machine to make static electricity or a wireless
apparatus.
7. Have a knowledge of the method of resuscitation and rescue of a
person insensible from shock.
Firemanship
[Illustration: Fire hose nozzle insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Firemanship, a scout must
1. Know how to turn in an alarm for fire.
2. Know how to enter burning buildings.
3. Know how to prevent panics and the spread of fire.
4. Understand the use of hose; unrolling, joining up, connecting two
hydrants, use of nozzle, etc.
5. Understand the use of escapes, ladders, and chutes, and know the
location of exits in buildings which he frequents.
6. Know how to improvise ropes and nets.
7. Know what to do in case of panic, understand the fireman's lift and
drag, and how to work in fumes.
8. Understand the use of fire extinguishers; how to rescue animals;
how to save property; how to organize a bucket brigade, and how to aid
the police in keeping back crowds.
First Aid
[Illustration: Large "X" insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for First Aid a scout must
1. Be able to demonstrate the Sylvester and Schaefer methods of
resuscitation.
{33}
2. Carry a person down a ladder.
3. Bandage head and ankle.
4. Demonstrate treatment of wound of the neck with severe arterial
hemorrhage.
5. Treat mangling injury of the leg without severe hemorrhage.
6. Demonstrate treatment for rupture of varicose veins of the leg with
severe hemorrhage.
7. Show treatment for bite of finger by mad dog.
8. Demonstrate rescue of person in contact with electric wire.
9. Apply tourniquet to a principal artery.
10. State chief differences between carbolic poisoning and
intoxication.
11. Explain what to do for snake bite.
12. Pass first aid test of American Red Cross Society.
First Aid to Animals
[Illustration: Bandaged dog insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for First Aid to Animals a scout must
1. Have a general knowledge of domestic and farm animals.
2. Be able to treat a horse for colic.
3. Describe symptoms and give treatment for the following: wounds,
fractures and sprains, exhaustion, choking, lameness.
4. Understand horseshoeing.
Forestry
[Illustration: Pine cone insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Forestry a scout must
1. Be able to identify twenty-five kinds of trees when in leaf, or
fifteen kinds of deciduous (broad leaf) trees in winter, and tell some
of the uses of each.
2. Identify twelve kinds of shrubs.
3. Collect and identify samples of ten kinds of wood and be able to
tell some of their uses.
4. Determine the height, and estimate the amount of timber,
approximately, in five trees of different sizes.
{34}
5. State laws for transplanting, grafting, spraying, and protecting
trees.
Gardening
[Illustration: Corn cob insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Gardening, a scout must
1. Dig and care for during the season a piece of ground containing not
less than 144 square feet.
2. Know the names of a dozen plants pointed out in an ordinary garden.
3. Understand what is meant by pruning, grafting, and manuring.
4. Plant and grow successfully six kinds of vegetables or flowers from
seeds or cuttings.
5. Cut grass with scythe under supervision.
Handicraft
[Illustration: Hammer and Screwdriver insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Handicraft a scout must
1. Be able to paint a door.
2. Whitewash a ceiling.
3. Repair gas fittings, sash lines, window and door fastenings.
4. Replace gas mantles, washers, and electric light bulbs.
5. Solder.
6. Hang pictures and curtains.
7. Repair blinds.
8. Fix curtains, portiere rods, blind fixtures.
9. Lay carpets and mend clothing and upholstery.
10. Repair furniture and china.
11. Sharpen knives.
12. Repair gates.
13. Fix screens on windows and doors.
Horsemanship
[Illustration: Horseshoe insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Horsemanship a scout must
1. Demonstrate riding at a walk, trot, and gallop.
2. Know how to saddle and bridle a horse correctly.
3. Know how to water and feed and to what amount, and how to groom a
horse properly.
{35}
4. Know how to harness a horse correctly in single or double harness
and to drive.
5. Have a knowledge of the power of endurance of horses at work and
know the local regulations concerning driving.
6. Know the management and care of horses.
7. Be able to identify unsoundness and blemishes.
8. Know the evils of bearing or check reins and of ill-fitting harness
or saddlery.
9. Know two common causes of, and proper remedies for, lameness, and
know to whom he should refer cases of cruelty and abuse.
10. Be able to judge as to the weight, height, and age of horses; know
three breeds and their general characteristics.
Interpreting
[Illustration: Handshake insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Interpreting, a scout must
1. Be able to carry on a simple conversation.
2. Write a simple letter on subject given by examiners.
3. Read and translate a passage from a book or newspaper, in French,
German, English, Italian, or any language that is not of his own
country.
Invention
[Illustration: Gear insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Invention a scout must
1. Invent and patent some useful article;
2. Show a working drawing or model of the same.
Leather Working
[Illustration: Awl insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Leather Working a scout must
1. Have a knowledge of tanning and curing.
{36}
2. Be able to sole and heel a pair of boots, sewed or nailed, and
generally repair boots and shoes.
3. Be able to dress a saddle, repair traces, stirrup leathers, etc.,
and know the various parts of harness.
Life Saving
[Illustration: Lifesaving buoy insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Life Saving a scout must
1. Be able to dive into from seven to ten feet of water and bring from
bottom to surface a loose bag of sand weighing five pounds.
2. Be able to swim two hundred yards, one hundred yards on back
without using the hands, and one hundred yards any other stroke.
3. Swim fifty yards with clothes on (shirt, long trousers, and shoes
as minimum).
4. Demonstrate (a) on land--five methods of release; (b) in the
water--two methods of release; (c) the Schaefer method of
resuscitation (prone pressure).
Machinery
[Illustration: Pipewrench insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Machinery a scout must
1. State the principles underlying the use and construction of the
lathe, steam boiler and engine, drill press and planer.
2. Make a small wood or metal model illustrating the principles of
either levers, gears, belted pulleys, or block and fall.
Marksmanship
[Illustration: Target insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Marksmanship a scout must
1. Qualify as a marksman in accordance with the regulations of the
National Rifle Association.
Masonry
[Illustration: Trowel insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Masonry a scout must
1. Lay a straight wall with a corner.
{37}
2. Make mortar and describe process.
3. Use intelligently a plumb-line, level, and trowel.
4. Build a stone oven.
5. Demonstrate a knowledge of various uses for cement.
6. Build a dry wall.
Mining
[Illustration: Shovel insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Mining a scout must
1. Know and name fifty minerals.
2. Know, name and describe the fourteen great divisions of the earth's
crust (according to Geikie).
3. Define watershed, delta, drift, fault, glacier, terrace, stratum,
dip; and identify ten different kinds of rock.
4. Describe methods for mine ventilation and safety devices.
Music
[Illustration: Lyre insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Music a. scout must
1. Be able to play a standard musical instrument satisfactorily.
2. Read simple music.
3. Write a satisfactory essay of not less than five hundred words on
the history of American music.
Ornithology
[Illustration: Bird insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Ornithology a scout must
1. Have a list of one hundred different kinds of birds personally
observed on exploration in the field.
2. Have identified beyond question, by appearance or by note,
forty-five different kinds of birds in one day.
3. Have made a good clear photograph of some wild bird, the bird image
to be over one half inch in length on the negative.
4. Have secured at least two tenants in bird boxes erected by himself.
{38}
5. Have daily notes on the nesting of a pair of wild birds from the
time the first egg is laid until the young have left the nest.
6. Have attracted at least three kinds of birds, exclusive of the
English sparrow, to a "lunch counter" which he has supplied.
Painting
[Illustration: Paintbrush insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Painting a scout must
1. Have knowledge of how to combine pigments in order to produce
paints in shades and tints of color.
2. Know how to add positive colors to a base of white lead or of white
zinc.
3. Understand the mixing of oils; turpentine, etc., to the proper
consistency.
4. Paint a porch floor or other surface evenly and without laps.
5. Know how and when to putty up nail holes and uneven surfaces.
6. Present for inspection a panel covered with three coats of paint,
which panel must contain a border of molding, the body of the panel to
be painted in one color and the molding in another.
Pathfinding
[Illustration: Indianhead insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Pathfinding a scout must
1. Know every lane, by-path, and short cut for a distance of at least
two miles in every direction around the local scouts' headquarters in
the country.
2. Have a general knowledge of the district within a five mile radius
of his local headquarters, so as to be able to guide people at any
time, by day or night.
3. Know the general direction and population of the five principal
neighboring towns and be able to give strangers correct directions how
to reach them.
4. Know in the country in the two mile radius, approximately, the
number of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs owned on the five
neighboring farms: or in a town must know in a half-mile radius what
livery stables, garages and blacksmiths there are.
5. Know the location of the nearest meat markets, bakeries, groceries,
and drug stores.
{39}
6. Know where the nearest police station, hospital, doctor, fire
alarm, fire hydrant, telegraph and telephone offices, and railroad
stations are.
7. Know something of the history of the place, its principal public
buildings, such as town or city hall, post-office, schools, and
churches.
8. As much as possible of the above information should be entered on a
large scale map.
Personal Health
[Illustration: Heart insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Personal Health a scout must
1. Write a statement on the care of the teeth.
2. State a principle to govern in eating, and state in the order of
their importance, five rules to govern the care of his health.
3. Be able to tell the difference in effect of a cold and hot bath.
4. Describe the effect of alcohol and tobacco on the growing boy.
5. Tell how to care for the feet on a march.
6. Describe a good healthful game and state its merit.
7. Describe the effects of walking as an exercise.
8. Tell how athletics may be overdone.
Photography
[Illustration: Camera and tripod insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Photography a scout must
1. Have a knowledge of the theory and use of lenses, of the
construction of cameras, and the action of developers.
2. Take, develop, and print twelve separate subjects: three interiors,
three portraits, three landscapes, and three instantaneous "action
photos."
3. Make a recognizable photograph of any wild bird larger than a
robin, while on its nest; or a wild animal in its native haunts; or a
fish in the water.
Pioneering
[Illustration: Pickaxe and hatchet insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Pioneering a scout must
1. Fell a nine-inch tree or pole in a prescribed direction neatly and
quickly.
{40}
2. Tie six knots of knots quickly.
3. Lash spars properly together for scaffolding.
4. Build a modern bridge or derrick.
5. Make a camp kitchen.
6. Build a shack of one kind or another suitable for three occupants.
Plumbing
[Illustration: Faucet insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Plumbing a scout must
1. Be able to make wiped and brazed joints.
2. Repair a burst pipe.
3. Mend a ball or faucet tap.
4. Understand the ordinary hot and cold water system of a house.
Poultry Farming
[Illustration: Chicken insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Poultry Farming a scout must
1. Have a knowledge of incubators, foster-mothers, sanitary fowl
houses, and coops and runs.
2. Understand rearing, feeding, killing, and dressing birds for
market.
3. Be able to pack birds and eggs for market.
4. Raise a brood of not less than ten chickens.
5. Report his observation and study of the hen, turkey, duck, and
goose.
Printing
[Illustration: Ink roller insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Printing a scout must
1. Know the names of ten different kinds of type and ten sizes of
paper.
2. Be able to compose by hand or machines.
3. Understand the use of hand or power printing machines.
4. Print a handbill set up by himself.
5. Be able to read and mark proof correctly.
Public Health
[Illustration: Torch insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Public Health a scout must
1. State what the chief causes of each of the following disease are:
tuberculosis, typhoid, malaria.
{41}
2. Draw a diagram showing how the house-fly carries disease.
3. Tell what should be done to a house which has been occupied by a
person who has had a contagious disease.
4. Tell how a scout may cooperate with the board of health in
preventing disease.
5. Describe the method used in his community in disposing of garbage.
6. Tell how a city should protect its foods; milk, meat, and exposed
foods.
7. Tell how to plan the sanitary care of a camp.
8. State the reason why school children should undergo a medical
examination.
Scholarship
NOTE: The requirements for the merit badge for Scholarship had not
been decided upon when this book was published. Information about same
may be secured upon application to National Headquarters.
Sculpture
[Illustration: Bust insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Sculpture a scout must
1. Make a clay model from an antique design.
2. Make a drawing and a model from nature, these models to be faithful
to the original and of artistic design.
Seamanship
[Illustration: Anchor insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Seamanship
1. Be able to tie rapidly six different knots.
2. Splice ropes.
3. Use a palm and needle.
4. Fling a rope coil.
5. Be able to row, pole, scull, and steer a boat; also bring a boat
properly alongside and make fast.
6. Know how to box the compass, read a chart, and show use of parallel
rules and dividers.
7. Be able to state direction by the stars and sun.
8. Swim fifty yards with shoes and clothes on.
{42}
9. Understand the general working of steam and hydraulic winches, and
have a knowledge of weather wisdom and of tides.
Signaling
[Illustration: Signal flags insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Signaling a scout must
1. Send and receive a message in two of the following systems of
signaling: Semaphore, Morse, or Myer, not fewer than twenty-four
letters per minute.
2. Be able to give and read signals by sound.
3. Make correct smoke and fire signals.
Stalking
[Illustration: Leaf insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Stalking a scout must
1. Take a series of twenty photographs of wild animals or birds from
life, and develop and print them.
2. Make a group of sixty species of wild flowers, ferns, or grasses,
dried and mounted in a book and correctly named.
3. Make colored drawings of twenty flowers, ferns, or grasses, or
twelve sketches from life of animals or birds, original sketches as
well as the finished pictures to be submitted.
Surveying
[Illustration: Theodolite insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Surveying a scout must
1. Map correctly from the country itself the main features of half a
mile of road, with 440 yards each side to a scale of two feet to the
mile, and afterward draw same map from memory.
2. Be able to measure the height of a tree, telegraph pole, and church
steeple, describing method adopted.
3. Measure width of a river.
4. Estimate distance apart of two objects a known distance away and
unapproachable.
5. Be able to measure a gradient.
Swimming
[Illustration: Swimmer insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Swimming a scout must
1. Be able to swim one hundred yards.
{43}
2. Dive properly from the surface of the water.
3. Demonstrate breast, crawl, and side stroke.
4. Swim on the back fifty feet.
Taxidermy
[Illustration: Talon insignia. (tr)]
To obtain a merit badge for Taxidermy a scout must
1. Have a knowledge of the game laws of the state in which he lives.
2. Preserve and mount the skin of a game bird, or animal, killed in
season.
3. Mount for a rug the pelt of some fur animal.
Life Scout
[Illustration: Life Scout insignia. (tr)]
The life scout badge will be given to all first-class scouts who have
qualified for the following five-merit badges: first aid, athletics,
life-saving, personal health, and public health.
Star Scout
[Illustration: Star Scout insignia. (tr)]
The star scout badge will be given to the first-class scout who has
qualified for ten merit badges. The ten include the list of badges
under life scout.
Eagle Scout
[Illustration: Eagle Scout insignia. (tr)]
Any first-class scout qualifying for twenty-one merit badges will be
entitled to wear the highest scout merit badge. This is an eagle's
head in silver, and represents the all-round perfect scout.
{44}
Honor Medals
[Illustration: Honor medal insignia. (tr)]
A scout who is awarded any one of the following medals is entitled to
wear the same on the left breast:
Bronze medal. Cross in bronze with first-class scout badge
superimposed upon it and suspended from a bar by a red ribbon. This is
awarded to a scout who has saved life.
Silver Medal. Silver Cross with first-class scout badge superimposed
upon it and suspended from bar by blue ribbon. This medal is awarded
to a scout who saves life with considerable risk to himself.
Gold Medal. Gold Cross with first-class scout badge superimposed upon
it and suspended from bar by white ribbon. This medal is the highest
possible award for service and heroism. It may be granted to a scout
who has saved life at the greatest possible risk to his own life, and
also to anyone who has rendered service of peculiar merit to the Boy
Scouts of America.
The Honor Medal is a national honor and is awarded only by the
National Council. To make application for one of these badges the
facts must first be investigated by the Court of Honor of the Local
Council and presented by that body to the Court of Honor of the
National Council.
_The Local Court of Honor may at any time invite experts to share in
their examinations and recommendations_.
When the National Court of Honor has passed upon the application, the
proper medal will be awarded.
Badges of Rank
The following devices are used to distinguish the various ranks of
scouts:
Patrol Leader
[Illustration: Patrol leader insignia. (tr)]
Patrol Leader: The patrol leader's arm badge consists of two bars,
1-1/2-inches long and 3/8-inch wide, of white braid worn on the sleeve
below the left shoulder. In addition he may {45} wear all oxidized silver
tenderfoot, second-class or first-class scout badge according to his
rank. The assistant patrol leader wears one bar.
[Illustration: Service Stripe insignia. (tr)]
Service Stripes: For each year of service as a boy scout, he will be
entitled to wear a stripe of white braid around the sleeve above the
wrist, three stripes being changed for one red one. Five years of
scouting would be indicated by one red stripe and two white stripes.
The star indicates the position for wearing merit badges.
[Illustration: Scoutmaster insignia. (tr)]
Scout Master: The badge of the scout commissioner, scout master, and
assistant scout master is the first-class scout's badge reproduced in
blue, green, and red, respectively, and are worn on the sleeve below
the left shoulder.
[Illustration: Star insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout: The badge of the Chief Scout is the first-class scout
badge with a five-pointed star above it embroidered in silver.
[Illustration: Caduceus (snakes on pole) insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout Surgeon: The badge of the Chief Scout Surgeon is the
first-class scout badge with a caduceus above it embroidered in
green. (The Chief Scout's staff wear the badge of rank in the same
manner as the Chief Scout.)
[Illustration: Crossed hatchets insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout Woodsman: The badge of the Chief Scout Woodsman is the
first-class scout badge with two crossed axes above it embroidered in
green.
[Illustration: Leaf insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout Stalker: The badge of the Chief Scout Stalker is the
first-class scout badge with an oak leaf above it embroidered in
blue.
[Illustration: Tongues of fire insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout Director of Health: The badge of the Chief Scout Director
of Health is the first-class scout badge with {46} tongues of fire
above it embroidered in red.
[Illustration: Moccasin insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout Camp Master: The badge of the Chief Scout Camp Master is
the first-class scout badge with a moccasin above it embroidered in
green:
[Illustration: Winged foot insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout of Athletics: The badge of the Chief Scout Director of
Athletics is the first-class scout badge with a winged Mercury foot
above it embroidered in green.
Chief Scout Director of Chivalry: The badge of the Chief Scout
Director of Chivalry is the first-class scout badge with the scout
sign above it embroidered in gold.
[Illustration: American Flag insignia. (tr)]
Chief Scout Citizen: The badge of the Chief Scout Citizen is the
first-class scout badge with the United States flag above it in
silver.
Appropriate badges for national and local councilmen may be secured
from the National Headquarters.
Equipment
_It should be clearly understood by all interested in the Scout
Movement that it is not necessary for a boy to have a uniform or any
other special equipment to carry out the scout program. There are a
great many troops in the country which have made successful progress
without any equipment whatever_.
However, for the convenience of boys who wish to secure a uniform or
other equipment, the National Council has made arrangements with
certain manufacturers to furnish such parts of the equipment as may be
desired by the boys. Such arrangements have been made with these
manufacturers only after a great number of representative firms have
been given an opportunity to submit samples and prices; the prices
quoted to be uniform throughout the country. These manufacturers {47}
are given the privilege of using for a limited period an imprint of
the official badge as an indication that the Committee on Equipment is
willing to recommend the use of that particular article. The official
badge is fully protected by the U. S. Patent Laws and anyone using it
without expressed authority from National Headquarters is subject to
prosecution at law.
Considerable difficulty has been experienced in the selection of the
material used in making coats, breeches, and shirts. The material used
in the boy scout coat, breeches, and shirt has been submitted to a
thirty-day sun test, the acid and strength test and is guaranteed to
be a fast color and durable. To show the result of the selection made,
the manufacturer of these articles has been given the privilege of
using the imprint of the official seal and the right to use the
official buttons. We recommend the purchase of the articles having
this imprint through any local dealer or through National
Headquarters. However, where a local council exists, buttons will be
supplied on order of the Executive Committee for use on such uniforms
as the Committee may desire to have made locally. In communities where
no local council has been formed, they may be supplied on order of a
registered scout master. Prices of the buttons per set for coat is 15
cents and per set for shirt 10 cents.
Every effort is made to have all parts of the uniform and equipment
available to scouts through local dealers. If such arrangements have
not been made in a community, the National Headquarters will be glad
to help in making such an arrangement. Many scout masters prefer to
order uniforms and other supplies direct from National Headquarters.
In order to cover the expense involved in handling these supplies, the
manufacturers have agreed to allow National Headquarters the same
trade discount allowed to local dealers. Trade through National
Headquarters if sufficiently large will help to meet a part of the
current expenses of the National Organization. Any combination desired
may be made from this list. A fairly complete equipment may be secured
at the very nominal sum of $2.15. For instance, the Summer equipment
which consists of: Hat, 50 cents; Shirt, 75 cents; Shorts, 50 cents;
Belt, 40 cents.
Where it is desired to equip the members of the troop with a standard
uniform the following equipment is suggested: Hat, Shirt, Coat,
Breeches or Knickerbockers, Belt, Leggings or Stockings, shoes,
Haversack.
{48}
Other combinations may be made according to the resources of the boys
forming the troop.
However, it is recommended that each troop decide upon a definite
combination to be worn by its members so that all of the scouts in the
troop may dress alike. Each boy should pay for his own supplies and
equipment. Soliciting donations for this purpose should be prohibited.
A complete list of all supplies and equipment with full information
about places where same can be secured is given in the appendix of
this book.
KNOTS EVERY SCOUT SHOULD KNOW
_By Samuel A. Moffat, Boy Scouts of America_
Every scout knows what rope is. From the earliest moment of his play
life he has used it in connection with most of his games. In camp life
and on hikes he will be called upon to use it again and again. It is
therefore not essential to describe here the formation of rope; its
various sizes and strength. The important thing to know is how to use
it to the best advantage. To do this an intelligent understanding of
the different knots and how to tie them is essential. Every day
sailors, explorers, mechanics, and mountain-climbers risk their lives
on the knots that they tie. Thousands of lives have been sacrificed to
ill-made knots. The scout therefore should be prepared in an
emergency, or when necessity demands, to tie the right knot in the
right way.
There are three qualities to a good knot: 1. Rapidity with which it
can be tied. 2. Its ability to hold fast when pulled tight, and 3. The
readiness with which it can be undone.
The following knots, recommended to scouts, are the most serviceable
because they meet the above requirements and will be of great help in
scoutcraft. If the tenderfoot will follow closely the various steps
indicated in the diagrams, he will have little difficulty in
reproducing them at pleasure.
In practising knot-tying a short piece of hemp rope may be used. To
protect the ends from fraying a scout should know how to "whip" them.
The commonest method of "whipping" is as follows:
[Illustration: Whipping.]
Lay the end of a piece of twine along the end of the rope. {49} Hold
it to the rope with the thumb of your left hand while you wind the
standing part around it and the rope until the end of the twine has
been covered. Then with the other end of the twine lay a loop back on
the end of the rope and continue winding the twine upon this second
end until all is taken up. The end is then pulled back tight and cut
off close to the rope.
For the sake of clearness a scout must constantly keep in mind these
three principal parts of the rope:
[Illustration: Rope loop. (tr)]
1. _The Standing Part_--The long unused portion of the rope on which
he works;
2. _The Bight_--The loop formed whenever the rope is turned back
upon itself; and,
3. _The End_--The part he uses in leading. Before proceeding with the
tenderfoot requirements, a scout should first learn the two primary
knots: the overhand and figure-of-eight knots.
[Illustration: Overhand knot.]
_The Overhand Knot_.
Start with the position shown in the preceding diagram. Back the end
around the standing part and up through the bight and draw tight.
[Illustration: Figure eight knot.]
_The Figure of Eight Knot_. Make a bight as before. Then lead the end
around back of the standing part and down through the bight.
After these preliminary steps, the prospective tenderfoot may proceed
to learn the required knots.
{50}
[Illustration: Reef knot.]
_Square or Reef Knot_. The commonest knot for tying two ropes together.
Frequently used in first-aid bandaging. Never slips or jams; easy to
untie.
[Illustration: False reef knot.]
_False Reef or Granny_. If the ends are not crossed correctly when
making the reef knot, the false reef or granny is the result. This
knot is always bad.
[Illustration: Sheet bend knot.]
_Sheet Bend or Weaver's Knot_. This knot is used in bending the sheet to
the clew of a sail and in tying two rope-ends together.
Make a bight with one rope A, B, then pass end C, of other rope up
through and around the entire bight and bend it under its own standing
part.
[Illustration: Bowline knot.]
_The Bowline_. A noose that neither jams nor slips. Used in lowering a
person from a burning building, etc.
Form a small loop on the standing part leaving the end long enough for
the size of the noose required. Pass the end up through the bight
around the standing part and down through the bight again. To tighten,
hold noose in position and pull standing part.
[Illustration: Halter knot.]
_Halter, Slip, or Running Knot_. A bight is first formed and an overhand
knot made with the end around the standing part.
[Illustration: Sheepshank knot.]
_Sheepshank_. Used for shortening ropes. Gather up the amount to be
shortened, then make a half hitch round each of the bends as shown in
the diagram.
{51}
[Illustration: Clove hitch knot.]
_Clove Hitch_. Used to fasten one pole to another in fitting up
scaffolding; this knot holds snugly; is not liable to slip laterally.
Hold the standing part in left hand, then pass the rope around the
pole; cross the standing part, making a second turn around the pole,
and pass the end under the last turn.
[Illustration: Fisherman's bend knot.]
_The Fisherman's Bend_. Used aboard yachts for bending on the gaff
topsail halliards. It consists of two turns around a spar or ring,
then a half hitch around the standing part and through the turns on
the spar, and another half hitch above it around the standing part.
[Illustration: Timber hitch knot.]
_Timber Hitch_. Used in hauling timber. Pass the end of the rope around
the timber. Then lead it around its standing part and bring it back to
make two or more turns on its own part. The strain will hold it
securely.
[Illustration: Two half hitches knot.]
_Two Half Hitches_. Useful because they are easily made and will not
slip under any strain. Their formation is sufficiently indicated by
the diagram.
[Illustration: Blackwall hitch knot.]
_Blackwall Hitch_. Used to secure a rope to a hook. The standing part
when hauled tight holds the end firmly.
[Illustration: Becket hitch knot.]
_Becket Hitch_. For joining a cord to a rope. May be easily made from
diagram.
{52}
[Illustration: Fisherman's knot.]
_The Fisherman's Knot_. Used for tying silk-worm gut for fishing
purposes. It never slips; is easily unloosed by pulling the two short
ends.
The two ropes are laid alongside one another, then with each end an
overhand knot is made around the standing part of the other. Pull the
standing parts to tighten.
[Illustration: Carrick bend knot.]
_Carrick Bend_. Used in uniting hawsers for towing. Is easily untied by
pushing the loops inwards.
Turn the end of one rope A over its standing part B to form a loop.
Pass the end of the other rope across the bight thus formed, back of
the standing part B over the end A, then under the bight at C, passing
it over its own standing part and under the bight again at D.
[Illustration: Mariner's compass.]
The Mariner's Compass
Boxing the Compass consists in enumerating the points, beginning with
north and working around the circle as follows:
North
North by East
North, North-east
North-east by North
North-east
North-east by East
East, North-east
East by North
East
East by South
East, South-east
South-east by East
South-east
South-east by South
{53}
South, South-east
South by East
South
South by West
South, South-west
South-west by South
South-west
South-west by West
West, South-west
West by South
West
West by North
West, North-west
North-west by West
North-west
North-west by North
North, North-west
North by West
North
NOTES
{54}
Notes
{55}
Notes
{56}
Notes
{57}
CHAPTER II
WOODCRAFT
Woodlore
_By Ernest Thompson Seton, Chief Scout_
The Watch for a Compass
(From "Boy Scouts of America," by Ernest Thompson Seton. Copyright,
1910, by Doubleday, Page & Company )
The watch is often used to give the compass point exactly. Thus: Point
the hour-hand to the sun; then, in the morning, half-way between the
hour-hand and noon is due south. If afternoon, one must reckon
half-way backward.
Thus: at 8 A. M., point the hour-hand to the sun and reckon forward
half-way to noon; the south is at 10. If at 4 P. M., point the
hour-hand at the sun and reckon back half-way. The south is at two
o'clock.
The "half-way" is because the sun makes a course of twenty-four hours
and the clock of but twelve. If we had a rational timepiece of
twenty-four hours, it would fit in much better with all nature, and
with the hour-hand pointed to the sun would make 12 o'clock, noon,
always south.
If you cannot see the sun, get into a clear, open space, hold your
knife point upright on your watch dial, and it will cast a faint
shadow, showing where the sun really is, unless the clouds are very
heavy.
Finding Your Latitude by the Stars
The use of the stars to the scout is chiefly to guide him by showing
the north, but the white man has carried the use a step farther: he
makes the Pole-star tell him not only where the north is, but where he
himself is. From the Pole-star, he can learn his latitude.
It is reckoned an exploit to take one's latitude from the North Star
with a cart-wheel, or with two sticks and a bucket of water.
{58}
The first attempt I made was with two sticks and a bucket of water. I
arranged the bucket in the daytime, so that it could be filled from
rim to rim; that is, it was level, and that gave me the horizon line;
next, I fastened my two sticks together at an adjustable angle. Then,
laying one stick across the bucket as a base, I raised the other till
the two sight notches on its upper edge were in straight line for the
Pole-star. The sticks were now fastened at this angle and put away
till the morning. On a smooth board--the board is allowable because it
can be found either far on the plains when you have your wagon, or on
the ship at sea--I mapped out, first a right angle, by the old plan of
measuring off a triangle, whose sides were six, eight, and ten inches,
and applied the star angle to this. By a process of equal subdivision
I got 45 degrees, 22-1/2 degrees, finally 40 degrees, which seemed to
be the latitude of my camp; subsequent looking-up showed it to be 41
degrees 10 minutes.
[Illustration: Bucket and sticks. (tr)]
Of course, it is hard to imagine that the boys will ever be so placed
that it is important for them to take their latitude with home-made
implements; but it is also hard to imagine circumstances under which
it would be necessary to know that the sun is 92,000,000 miles away.
It is very sure, however, that a boy who has once done this has a
larger idea of the world and its geography, and it is likely to help
him in realizing that there is some meaning to the lines and figures
on the border of his school maps, and that they are not put there
merely to add to his perplexities.
[Illustration: Sundial, or hunter's clock.]
{59}
To make a scout's sundial, prepare a smooth board about fifteen inches
across, with a circle divided into twenty-four equal parts, and a
temporarily hinged pointer, whose upper edge is in the middle of the
dial. Place on some dead level, solid post or stump in the open. At
night fix the dial so that the twelve o'clock line points exactly to
north, as determined by the Polestar. Then, using two temporary
sighting sticks of exactly the same height (so as to permit sighting
clear above the edge of the board) set the pointer exactly pointing to
the Pole-star; that is, the same angle as the latitude of the place,
and fix it there immovably. Then remove the two sighting sticks. As a
timepiece, this dial will be found roughly correct for that latitude.
The angle of the pointer, or style, must be changed for each latitude.
Building a Log Cabin
(From Country Life in America. May, 1905 )
There are as many different kinds of log cabins as of any other
architecture. It is best to begin with the simplest. The tools needed
are a sharp ax, a crosscut saw, an inch auger, and a spade. It is
possible to get along with nothing but an ax (many settlers had no
other tool), but the spade, saw, and auger save much work.
For the site select a high, dry place, in or near the woods, and close
to the drinking-water. It should be a sunny place, and with a view,
preferably one facing south or east. Clear off and level the ground.
Then bring your logs. These are more picturesque with the bark left
on, but last longer peeled. Eight feet by twelve feet outside makes a
good cabin for three or four boys.
Cut and carry about twelve logs, each ten feet long; and twelve more,
each fourteen feet long. The logs should be at least six inches
through. Soft wood is preferable, as it is easier to handle; the four
ground logs or sills, at least, should be of cedar, chestnut, or other
wood that does not rot. Lay two of the fourteen-foot logs on the
ground, at the places for the long sides, and seven feet apart. Then
across them, at the end, lay two short ones, eleven feet apart. This
leaves about a foot projecting from each log. Roll the last two into
their resting places, and flatten them till they sit firmly. It is of
prime importance that each log rest immovably on the one below. Now
cut the upper part of each end log, to an edge over each corner. (Fig.
1.)
{60}
[Illustration: Log cabin, figures 1 to 10.]
Next put on two long logs, roll them onto the middle, taking care to
change off, so the big end at a given comer may be followed next time
by the small end and insure the corner rising evenly. Roll one of
these large logs close to where it is to be placed, then cut on its
upper surface at each end a notch corresponding with the ridge on the
log it is to ride on. When ready, half a roll drops it into place. The
log should be one to three inches above the one under it, and should
not touch except at {61} the ends. Repeat the process now with the other
sides, then the two ends, etc., always keeping the line of the corner
plumb. As the walls rise, it will be found necessary to skid the
larger logs; that is, roll them up on two long logs, or skids, leaning
against the wall. (Fig. 2.)
When the logs are in place to the height of four and a half feet from
the ground, it is time to decide where the door and window are to be;
and at that place, while the next long log is lying on top, bottom up,
cut out a piece four feet long and four inches deep. Roll this log
into place. (Fig. 3.) One more log above this, or certainly two, will
make your shanty high enough for boys. Put on final end logs, then two
others across the shanty. (Fig. 4.) Roll up the biggest, strongest log
of all for the ridge (sometimes two are used side by side); it should
lie along the middle of the four cross pieces shown in Fig. 4.
The two cross logs, B and C, and the ridge log should be very strong,
as the roof is heavy. Now we are ready to cut the doorway and window.
First, drive in blocks of wood between each of the logs, all the way
down from A to the ground, and from B down to D, and C to E. (Fig. 5.)
Saw down now from A half-way through the ground log F. Then from B
down to half-way through the log D; now continue from G, cutting down
to half through the ground log. Use the ax to split out the upper half
of the ground log, between the saw-cuts and also the upper half of the
log D.
Hew a flat piece of soft wood, five or six inches wide, about two
inches thick, and as long as the height of this doorway. Set it up
against the ends of the logs A to F. Bore an auger hole through it
into the end of each log (these holes must not be in line lest they
split the jamb), including the top and bottom ones, and drive into
each a pin of oak. This holds all safely. Do the same on the other
side, H to E, and put a small one down B, D, which is the side of the
window.
Now we are ready to finish the roof. Use the ax to bevel off the
corners of the four cross-logs, A and B. (Fig. 6.) Then get a lot of
strong poles, about five feet long, and lay them close together along
the two sides of the roof till it is covered with poles; putting a
very heavy one, or small log, on the outer edge of each, and fastening
it down with a pin into the ridge log. Cut two long poles and lay one
on each of the lower ends of the roof poles, as at A, B, and C (Fig.
7), pinning them to the side logs.
Cover this roof with a foot of hay or straw or grass, and cover {62}
that again evenly with about four inches of stiff clay. Pack this
down. It will soon squeeze all that foot of straw down to little more
than one inch, and will make a warm and water-tight roof. As the clay
is very heavy, it is wise, before going inside, to test the roof by
jumping on it. If it gives too much, it will be well to add a centre
prop.
Now for the door: Hew out planks; two should be enough. Fasten these
together with two cross-pieces and one angle-piece, using oak pegs
instead of nails, if you wish to be truly primitive. For these the
holes should be bored part way with a gimlet, and a peg used larger
than the hole. The lower end of the back plank is left projecting in a
point. (Fig. 8.) This point fits into a hole pecked with a point or
bored with an auger into the door-sill.
Bore another hole near the top of the door (A), and a corresponding
one through the door-jamb between two logs. Set the door in place. A
strip of rawhide leather, a limber willow branch, or a strip of
hickory put through the auger hole of the door and wedged into the
hole in the jamb, makes a truly wild-wood hinge. A peg in the front
jamb prevents the door going too far out, and a string and peg inside
answer for a latch.
The window opening may be closed with a glass sash, with a piece of
muslin, or with the rawhide of an animal, scraped clear of hair and
stretched on a frame.
It now remains to chink and plaster the place.
Chinking is best done from the inside. Long triangular strips and
blocks of wood are driven in between the logs and fastened there with
oak pins driven into the lower log till nothing but small crannies
remain. Some cabins are finished with moss plugged into all the
crannies, but mud worked into plaster does better.
It should be put on the outside first, and afterward finished form the
inside. It is best done really with two plasterers working together,
one inside and one out.
This completes the shanty, but a bunk and fireplace are usually added.
The fireplace may be in one corner, or in the middle of the end. It is
easiest to make in the former.
Across the corner, peg three angle braces, each about three feet long.
These are to prevent the chimney falling forward.
Now begin to build with stone, using mud as mortar, a fireplace this
shape. (Fig. 9.) Make the opening about eighteen inches across; carry
it up two feet high, drawing it in a little, then lay a long stone
across the front, after which build up {63} the flue behind the corner
braces right up to the roof. The top corner-piece carries the rafter
that may be cut off to let the flue out. Build the chimney up outside
as high as the highest part of the ridge.
But the ideal fireplace is made with the chimney on the outside of the
cabin, at the middle of the end farthest from the door. For this you
must cut a hole in the end log, like a big, low window, pegging a jamb
on the ends as before.
With stones and mud you now build a fireplace inside the shanty, with
the big chimney carried up outside, always taking care that there are
several inches of mud or stone between the fire and any of the logs.
In country where stone cannot be found, the fireplace is often built
of mud, sustained by an outside cribbing of logs.
If the flue is fair size, that is, say one quarter the size of the
fireplace opening, it will be sure to draw.
The bunk should be made before the chinks are plastered, as the
hammering is apt to loosen the mud.
Cut eight or ten poles a foot longer than you need the bunk; cut the
end of each into a flat board and drive these between the long logs at
the right height and place for the bunk, supporting the other end on a
crosspiece from a post to the wall. Put a very big pole on the outer
side, and all is ready for the bed; most woodsmen make this of small
fir boughs.
There are two other well-known ways of cornering the logs--one is
simply flattening the logs where they touch. This, as well as the
first one, is known in the backwoods of Canada as hog-pen finish. The
really skilful woodsmen of the North always dovetail the comers and
saw them flush: (Fig. 10)
Sometimes it is desirable to make a higher gable than that which one
ridge log can make. Then it is made thus: (Fig. 11.) This is as much
slope as a clay roof should have; with any more, the clay would wash
off.
This is the simplest way to build a log-cabin, but it illustrates all
the main principles of log building. Shingle roofs and gables, broad
piazzas outside, and modern fitting inside, are often added nowadays in
summer camps, but it must be clear that the more towny you make the
cabin, the less woodsy it is, and less likely to be the complete rest
and change that is desired.
For fuller instructions, see "Log-Cabins and Cottages." By. Wm. S.
Wicks, 1900. (Pub. Forest and Stream, N. Y.) {64} Also, "The Jack of
All Trades." By Dan C. Beard, Scribner's; and "Field and Forest Handy
Book."
Measuring Distances
(See "Two Little Savages," 1903.)
The height of a tree is easily measured when on a level, open place,
by measuring the length of its shadow, then comparing that with your
own shadow, or that of a ten-foot pole.
Thus, the ten-foot pole is casting a fifteen-foot shadow, and the
tree's shadow is one hundred and fifty feet long, apply the simple
rule of three.
15 : 150 :: 10 : x = 100
But it is seldom so easy, and the good old rule of the triangle can be
safely counted on: Get a hundred or more feet from your tree, on open
ground, as nearly as possible on the level of its base. Set up a
ten-foot pole (A B, page 65). Then mark the spot where the exact line
from the top of the tree over the top of the pole touches the ground
(C). Now measure the distance from that spot (C) to the foot of the
ten-foot pole (B); suppose it is twenty feet. Measure also the
distance from that spot (C) to the base of the tree (D); suppose it is
one hundred and twenty feet, then your problem is:
20 : 10 :: 120 : x = 60
i.e., if at that angle twenty feet from the eye gives ten feet
elevation, one hundred and twenty feet must give sixty.
_To make a right angle_, make a triangle whose sides are exactly six,
eight, and ten feet or inches each (or multiples of these). The angle
opposite the ten must be a true right angle.
[Illustration: To make a right angle.]
There are many ways of measuring distance across rivers, etc., without
crossing. The simplest, perhaps, is by the equilateral triangle. Cut
three poles of exactly equal length; peg them together into a
triangle. Lay {65} this on the bank of the river so one side points to
some point on the opposite bank. Drive in three pegs to mark the exact
points of this triangle (A,B,C). Then move it along the bank until you
find a place (F,E,G) where its base is on line with the two pegs,
where the base used to be, and one side in line with the point across
the river (D). The width of the river is seven eighths of the base of
this great triangle.
[Illustration: Measuring the width of a river by sighting with
a triangle. (tr)]
Another method is by the isosceles triangle. Make a right-angled
triangle as above, with sides six, eight, and ten feet (A,B,C); then,
after firmly fixing the right angle, cut down the eight-foot side to
six feet and saw off the ten-foot side to fit. Place this with the
side D B on the river bank in line with the sight object (X) across.
Put three pegs to mark the three {66} corner places. Then take the
triangle along the bank in the direction of C until C' D' are in line
with the sight object, while B' C' is in line with the pegs B C. Then
the length of the long base B C' will equal the distance from B to X.
[Illustration: Measuring height of tree.]
[Illustration: Measuring the distance between two distant objects.]
To measure the space between two distant objects, D and E. Line A B on
one, then move this right-angled triangle until F G is lined on the
other, with B G in line with G H. B G equals the space between D and E
then.
If the distance is considerable, it may be measured sometimes by
sound. Thus, when a gun is fired, a man is chopping, or a dog barking,
count the seconds between the sight and the hearing of the sound, and
multiply by eleven hundred feet, which is the distance sound travels
in a second.
[Illustration: To climb a tree that is too thick--Place small tree
against it.]
{67}
Occasionally, the distance of an upright bank, cliff, or building can
be measured by the echo. Half the seconds between shout and echo,
multiplied by eleven hundred gives the distance in feet.
The usual way to estimate long distances is by the time they take to
cover. Thus, a good canoe on dead water goes four to five miles an
hour. A man afoot walks three and a half miles an hour on good roads.
A packtrain goes two and a half miles an hour, or perhaps one and a
half on the mountain trails.
A man's thumb is an inch wide.
Span of thumb and longest finger, nine inches. Brisk walking pace is
one yard for men.
What To Do When Lost in the Woods
(Ladies' Home Journal, October, 1902.)
"Did you ever get lost in the woods?" I once asked a company of twenty
campers. Some answered, "Yes; once or twice." Others said, "Many a
time." Only two said, "No, never." Then I said, turning to the two, "I
know that all the others here have had plenty of experience, and that
you two are the tenderfeet, and never lived in the woods."
It is quite certain to come sooner or later; if you go camping, you
will get lost in the woods. Hunters, Indians, yes, birds and beasts,
get lost at times. You can avoid it for long by always taking your
bearings and noting the landscape before leaving the camp, and this
you should always do; but still you will get lost some time, and it is
well to be ready for it by carrying matches, knife, and compass.
When you do miss your way, the first thing to remember is, like the
Indian, "You are not lost; it is the teepee that is lost." It isn't
serious. It cannot be so unless you do something foolish.
The first and most natural thing to do is to get on a hill, up a tree,
or other high lookout, and seek for some landmark near camp. You may
be sure of this much:
You are not nearly so far from camp as you think you are. Your friends
will soon find you.
You can help them best by signaling.
The worst thing you can do is to get frightened. The truly dangerous
enemy is not the cold or the hunger so much as the fear. It is fear
that robs the wanderer of his judgment and of his limb power; it is
fear that turns the passing experience into a final tragedy. Only keep
cool and all will be well.
{68}
If there is snow on the ground, you can follow your back track.
If you see no landmark, look for the smoke of the fire. Shout from
time to time, and wait; for though you have been away for hours it is
quite possible you are within earshot of your friends. If you happen
to have a gun, fire it off twice in quick succession on your high
lookout; then wait and listen. Do this several times and wait plenty
long enough--perhaps an hour. If this brings no help, send up a
distress signal--that is, make two smoke fires by smothering two
bright fires with green leaves and rotten wood, and keep them at least
fifty feet apart, or the wind will confuse them. Two shots or two
smokes are usually understood to mean "I am in trouble." Those in camp
on seeing this should send up one smoke, which means, "Camp is here."
If you have a dog or a horse with you, you may depend upon it he can
bring you out all right; but usually you will have to rely on
yourself. The simplest plan, when there is fresh snow and no wind, is
to follow your own track back. No matter how far around or how crooked
it may be, it will certainly bring you out safely.
If you are sure of the general direction to the camp and determined to
keep moving, leave a note pinned on a tree if you have paper; if not,
write with charcoal on a piece of wood, and also make a good smoke, so
that you can come back to this spot if you choose. But make certain
that the fire cannot run, by clearing the ground around it and by
banking it around with sods. And mark your course by breaking or
cutting a twig every fifty feet. You can keep straight by the sun, the
moon, or the stars, but when they are unseen you must be guided by the
compass. I do not believe much in guidance by what are called nature's
compass signs. It is usual to say, for example, that the north side of
the tree has the most moss or the south side the most limbs, etc.
While these are true in general, there are so many exceptions that
when alarmed and in doubt as to which is north, one is not in a frame
of mind to decide with certainty on such fine points.
If a strong west wind, for example, was blowing when you left camp,
and has blown ever since, you can be pretty sure it is still a west
wind; but the only safe and certain natural compass guides are the
sun, moon, and stars.
The Pole or North Star, and the Great Bear (also called the Dipper and
the Pointers), should be known to every boy as they are to every
Indian. The Pointers always point out the {69} Pole-star. Of course,
they go around it once in twenty-four hours, so this makes a kind of
clock.
The stars, then, will enable you to keep straight if you travel. But
thick woods, fog, or clouds are apt to come up, and without something
to guide you are sure to go around in a circle.
Old woodsmen commonly follow down the streams. These are certain to
bring you out somewhere; but the very worst traveling is along the
edges of the streams, and they take you a long way around. All things
considered, it is usually best to stay right where you are, especially
if in a wild country where there is no chance of finding a farm house.
Make yourself comfortable for the night by gathering plenty of good
wood while it is daylight, and building a wind screen on three sides,
with the fire in front, and something to keep you off the ground. Do
not worry but keep up a good fire; and when day comes renew your two
smokes and wait. A good fire is the best friend of a lost man.
I have been lost a number of times, but always got out without serious
trouble, because I kept cool. The worst losing I ever got was after I
had been so long in the West that I qualified to act as a professional
guide, and was engaged by a lot of Eastern farmers looking for land
locations.
This was in the October of 1883 on the Upper Assiniboin. The main body
of the farmers had remained behind. I had gone ahead with two of them.
I took them over hundreds of miles of wild country. As we went
northward the country improved. We were traveling with oxen, and it
was our custom to let them graze for two hours at noon. One warm day,
while the oxen were feeding, we went in our shirt sleeves to a distant
butte that promised a lookout. We forgot about the lateness till the
sun got low. Even then I could have got back to camp, but clouds came
up and darkness fell quickly. Knowing the general direction I kept on,
and after half an hour's tramp we came to a canyon I had never seen
before. I got out my compass and a match and found that I had been
circling, as one is sure to do in the dark. I corrected the course and
led off again. After another brief turn I struck another match and
learned from the compass that I was again circling. This was
discouraging, but with corrected course we again tramped. I was
leading, and suddenly the dark ground ten feet ahead of me turned
gray. I could not make it out, so went cautiously nearer. I lay down,
reached forth, and then slowly made sure that we were on the edge of a
steep precipice. I backed off, {70} and frankly told the men I did not
know where we were. I got out my match box and compass and found I had
but one match left.
"Any of you got any matches?" I asked. "No; left 'em all in our
coats," was their answer.
"Well," said I, "I have one. Shall I use it to get a new course from
the compass, or shall we make a fire and stay here till morning?"
All voted to camp for the night. There was now a cold rain.
We groped into a hollow where we got some dead wood, and by using our
knives got some dry chips from the inside of a log. When all was ready
we gathered close around, and I got out the one match. I was about to
strike it when the younger of the men said:
"Say, Seton, you are not a smoker; Jack is. Hadn't you better give him
that match?"
There was sense in this. I have never in my life smoked. Jack was an
old stager and an adept with matches. I handed it to him.
"Rrrp-fizz"--and in a minute we had a fire.
With the help of the firelight we now found plenty of dead wood; we
made three blazing fires side by side, and after an hour we removed
the centre one, then raked away all the hot ashes, and all lay down
together on the warm ground. When the morning came the rain ceased. We
stretched our stiffened limbs and made for camp. Yes, there it was in
plain view two miles away across a fearful canyon. Three steps more on
that gloomy night and we should have been over the edge of that canyon
and dashed to the bottom.
How to Make Fire by Rubbing Sticks
"How do the Indians make a fire without matches?" asked a boy who
loved to "play Indian." Most of us have heard the answer to this. "The
Indians use a flint and steel, as our own fathers and mothers did one
hundred years ago, and before they had flint and steel they used
rubbing-sticks." We have all read about bringing fire out of two
sticks by rubbing them together. I tried it once for an hour, and I
know now I never would have got it in a thousand years as I was doing
it. Others have had the same experience; consequently, most persons
look upon this as a sort of fairy tale, or, if they believe it to be
true, they think it so difficult as to be worth no second thought. All
scouts, I find, are surprised and greatly interested to learn that not
only is it possible, it is easy, to make a friction {71} fire, if you
know how; and hopeless, if you don't. I have taught many boys and men
(including some Indians) to do it, and some have grown so expert that
they make it nearly as quickly as with an old-fashioned sulphur match.
When I first learned from Walter Hough, who learned from the Indians,
it took me from five to ten minutes to get a blazing fire--not half an
hour, as some books have it. But later I got it down to a minute, then
to thirty-one seconds from the time of taking up the rubbing-sticks to
having a fine blaze, the time in getting the first spark being about
six seconds.
My early efforts were inspired by book accounts of Indian methods,
but, unfortunately, I have never yet seen a book account that was
accurate enough to guide anyone successfully in the art of
fire-making. All omit one or other of the absolute essentials, or
dwell on some triviality. The impression they leave on those who know
is that the writers did not.
The surest and easiest method of making a friction fire is by use of
the bow-drill. Two sticks, two tools, and some tinder are needed.
The two sticks are the drill and the fire-board, or fire-block. The
books generally tell us that these must be of different kinds of wood.
This is a mistake. I have uniformly gotten the best results with two
pieces of the same kind--all the better, indeed, if they are parts of
the same stick.
What Kind of Wood
This is a very important question, as woods that are too hard, too
soft, too wet, too oily, too gummy, or too resinous will not produce
fire. The wood should be soft enough to wear away, else it produces no
punk, and hard enough to wear slowly, or the heat is not enough to
light the punk, and, of course, it should be highly inflammable. Those
that I have had the best luck with are balsam fir, cottonwood roots,
tamarack, European larch, red cedar, white cedar, Oregon cedar,
basswood, cypress, and sometimes second-growth white pine. It should
always be a dry, sound stick, brash, but not in the least punky.
In each part of the country there seems to be a kind of wood well
suited for fire-making. The Eastern Indians used cedar; the Northern
Indians, cedar or balsam fir; the plains Indians used cottonwood or
sage-brush roots.
Perhaps the most reliable of all is dry and seasoned balsam fir;
either the species in the North woods or in the Rockies will do. It
gives a fine big spark or coal in about seven seconds.
{72}
When in the grinding the dust that runs out of the notch is coarse and
brown, it means that the wood is too soft; when it is very fine and
scanty it means that the wood is too hard.
[Illustration: The rubbing-sticks for fire-making.]
1. The simplest kind of bow; a bent stick with a stout leather thong
fastened at each end. It is about 27 inches long and 5/8 inch thick.
2. A more elaborate bow with a hole at each end for the thong. At the
handle end it goes through a disc of wood. This is to tighten the
thong by pressure of the hand against the disc while using.
3. Simplest kind of drill-socket; a pine or hemlock knot with a
shallow hole or pit in it. 3a is under view of same. It is about 4-1/2
inches long.
4. A more elaborate drill-socket; a pebble cemented with gum in a
wooden holder. 4a is under view of same.
5. A very elaborate drill-socket; it is made of tulip wood, carved to
represent the Thunderbird. It has eyes of green felspar cemented in
with resin. On the under side (5a) is seen, in the middle, a soapstone
socket let into the wood and fastened with pine gum, and on the head a
hole kept filled with grease, to grease the top of the drill before
use.
6. The drill; 12 to 18 inches long and about 3/4 inch thick; it is
roughly eight-sided so the thong will not slip, and pointed at each
end. The best wood for the drill is old, dry brash, but not punky,
balsam fir or cottonwood roots; but basswood, white cedar, red cedar,
tamarack, and sometimes even white pine, will do.
7. Fire-board or block; about 3/4 inch thick and any length handy; a
is notch with pit just begun, b shows the pit after once using and in
good trim for second time, c shows the pit bored through and now
useless; the notch is 1/2 inch wide and 3/4 inch deep.
8. Shows the way of using the sticks. The block (a) is held down with
one foot, the end of the drill (b) is put in the pit, the drill-socket
(c) is held on top in left hand, one end of the bow (d) is held in the
right hand, while the bow is drawn back and forth.
9. Is a little wooden fire-pan, not essential but convenient; its thin
edge is put under the notch to catch the powder that falls.
{73}
I have made many experiments to determine whether there is anything in
the idea that it is better to have the block and the drill of
different woods.
But no hybrid combination was so successful as "two of a kind."
The drill and the bow and socket are fully described in the
illustration.
The preparing of the fire-board is one of the most important things.
At the edge cut a notch half an inch wide and about three fourths of
an inch deep; at the top of this notch make a pit or shallow hole, and
the board is ready. The importance of this notch is such that it is
useless to try fire-making without it.
While these are the essentials, it is well to get ready, also, some
tinder. I have tried a great many different kinds of lint and punk,
including a number that were artificially prepared, soaked with
saltpetre or other combustibles. But these are not really fair play.
The true woodcrafter limits himself to the things that he can get in
the woods, and in all my recent fire-making I have contented myself
with the tinder used for ages by the red men: that is, cedar wood
finely shredded between two stones. Some use the fringes that grow on
birch, improving it by rubbing in powdered charcoal.
Now that he has the tools and material ready, it will be an easy
matter for the matchless castaway to produce a fire.
Pass the leather thong once around the drill--and this should make the
thong taut; put the lower point of the drill in the pit at the top of
the notch in the fire-board, and hold the socket with the left hand on
top of the drill. The notch of the fire-board should be resting on a
chip or thin wooden tray. Hold the bow by the handle end in the right
hand, steady the board under the left foot, and the left arm against
the left knee. Now draw the bow back and forth with steady, even
strokes, its full length. This causes the drill to turn in the pit and
bore into the wood; ground-up wood runs out of the side of the notch,
falling on the chip or tray. At first it is brown; in two or three
seconds it turns black, and then smokes; in five or six seconds it is
giving off a cloud of smoke. A few more vigorous strokes of the bow,
and now it will be found that smoke still comes from the pile of black
wood-dust on the chip. Fan this gently with the hand; the smoke
increases, and in a few seconds you see a glowing coal in the middle
of the dust. (There are never any visible flying sparks.)
Now take a liberal pinch of the cedar tinder--about a teaspoonful;
wrap this in some bark fibre or shredded rope to {74} keep it from
blowing away. Hold it down on the coal, and, lifting tray and all,
blow or fan it until in a few seconds it blazes. Carefully pile over
it the shreds of birch bark or splinters of fat pine prepared
beforehand, and the fire is made.
If you have the right wood and still cannot get the fire, it is likely
because you do not hold the drill steady, or have not cut the side
notch quite into the middle point of the little fire pit.
The advantages of learning this method are threefold:
First: Fire-making by friction is an interesting experiment in
woodcraft.
Second: A boy is better equipped having learned it. He can never
afterward freeze to death for lack of matches if he has wood and an
old shoe lace.
Third: For the very reason that it is difficult, compared with
matches, it tends to prevent the boys making unnecessary fires, and
thus reduces the danger of their setting the woods ablaze or of
smoking the forbidden cigarette.
There is such a fascination in making the rubbing-stick fire that one
of my Western cooks, becoming an expert, gave up the use of matches
for a time and lit his morning fire with the fire-drill, and, indeed,
he did not find it much slower than the usual way.
Walter Hough told me a story of an Apache Indian who scoffed at the
matches of white men, and claimed that he could light a fire with
rubbing-sticks faster than Hough could with matches. So each made
ready. They were waiting for the word "go" when the Indian said:
"Wait. I see if him right." He gave a few strokes with the drill, and
called--"Stop--stop him no good." He rearranged the sticks, and tried
a few more strokes. Just as Mr. Hough was going to strike the match,
he said: "Stop--stop him no good." He did this three times before he
called "Ready." Then the word "Go" was given. The white man struck the
slow, sizzling match. The Indian gave half a dozen twirls to the
drill--the smoke burst forth. He covered it with the tinder, fanned a
few seconds, then a bright flame arose, just before the white man got
his twigs ablaze. So the Indian won, but it was by an Indian trick;
for the three times when he pretended to be trying it, he was really
warming up the wood--that is, doing a large part of the work. I am
afraid that, deft as he was, he would have lost in a fair race. Yet
this incident shows at least that, in point of speed, the old
rubbing-sticks are not very far behind the matches, as one might have
supposed.
{75}
It is, indeed, a wonder that the soldiers at West Point are not taught
this simple trick, when it is so easily learned, and might some day be
the one thing to save the lives of many of them.
Archery
No woodcraft education is complete without a knowledge of archery. It
is a pity that this noble sport has fallen into disuse. We shall find
it essential to some of our best games.
The modern hunting gun is an irresistible weapon of wholesale murder,
and is just as deadly no matter who pulls the trigger. It spreads
terror as well as death by its loud discharge, and it leaves little
clew as to who is responsible for the shot. Its deadly range is so
fearfully great as to put all game at the mercy of the clumsiest tyro.
Woodcraft, the oldest of all sciences and one of the best, has
steadily declined since the coming of the gun, and it is entirely due
to this same unbridled power that America has lost so many of her fine
game animals.
The bow is a far less destructive weapon, and to succeed at all in the
chase the bowman must be a double-read forester. The bow is silent and
it sends the arrow with exactly the same power that the bowman's arm
puts into it--no more, no less--so it is really his own power that
speeds the arrow. There is no question as to which hunter has the
right to the game or is responsible for the shot when the arrow is
there to tell. The gun stands for little skill, irresistible force
supplied from an outside source, overwhelming unfair odds, and sure
death to the victim. The bow, on the other hand, stands for all that
is clever and fine in woodcraft; so, no guns or fire-arms of any kind
are allowed in our boy scout camp.
The Indian's bow was short, because, though less efficient, it was
easier to carry than a long one. Yet it did not lack power. It is said
that the arrow head sometimes appeared on the far side of the buffalo
it was fired into, and there is a tradition that Wah-na-tah, a Sioux
chief, once shot his arrow through a cow buffalo and killed her calf
that was running at the other side.
But the long bow is more effective than the short one. The old English
bowmen, the best the world has ever seen, always shot with the long
bow.
The finest bows and arrows are those made by the professional makers,
but there is no reason why each boy should not make his own.
According to several authorities the best bow woods are mulberry,
osage-orange, sassafras, Southern cedar, black locust, {76} apple,
black walnut, slippery elm, ironwood, mountain ash, hickory,
California yew, and hemlock.
Take a perfectly sound, straight, well-seasoned stick five or six feet
long (your bow should be about as long as yourself); mark off a
five-inch space in the middle for the handle; leave this round and a
full inch thick; shave down the rest, flat on one side for the front
and round on the other for the back, until it is about one inch wide
and three fourths of an inch thick next the handle, tapering to about
one half that at the ends, which are then "nocked," nicked, or notched
as shown in Cut I. These notches are for the string, which is to be
put on early. Draw the bow now, flat side out, not more than the
proper distance, and note carefully which end bends the most; then
shave down the other side until it bends evenly. The middle scarcely
bends at all. The perfect shape, when bent, is shown in Cut II. Trim
the bow down to your strength and finish smoothly with sandpaper and
glass. It should be straight when unstrung, and unstrung when not in
use. Fancy curved bows are weak affairs. The bow for our boy should
require a power of fifteen or twenty pounds (shown on a spring
balance) to draw the string twenty-three inches from the bow; not
more. The best string is of hemp or linen; it should be about five
inches from the middle of the bow when strung (Cut II). The notches
for the string should be two-thirds the depth of the string. If you
have not a bought string make one of strong, unbleached linen thread
twisted together. At one end the string, which is heaviest at the
ends, should be fast knotted to the bow notch (Cut V); at the other it
should have a loop as shown in Cut IV. In the middle it should be
lashed with fine silk and wax for five inches, and the exact place
marked where the arrow fits it.
The arrow is more important than the bow. Anyone can make a bow; few
can make an arrow, for, as a Seminole Indian expressed it to Maurice
Thompson, "Any stick do for bow; good arrow much heap work, ugh."
Hiawatha went all the way to Dakota to see the famous arrow maker. In
England when the bow was the gun of the country, the bow maker was
called a "bowyer," and the arrow maker a "fletcher" (from the Norman
fleche, an arrow). So when men began to use surnames those who
excelled in arrow making were proud to be called the "Fletchers "; but
to make a good bow was not a notable achievement, hence few took
"Bowyer" as their name.
The first thing about an arrow is that it must be perfectly straight.
"Straight as an arrow" refers to the arrow itself, not to its flight;
that is always curved.
{77}
[Illustration: THE ARCHERY OUTFIT (Not all on scale.)]
I. The five-foot bow as finished, with sections at the point shown.
II. The bow "braced" or strung.
III. The bow unstrung, showing the loop slipped down.
IV. The loop that is used on the upper end of the bow.
V. The timber hitch always used on the lower end or notch of the bow.
VI. A turkey feather with split midrib, all ready to lash on.
VII. End view of arrow, showing notch and arrangement of three feathers.
VIII. Part of arrow, showing feathering and lashing.
IX. Sanger hunting arrow with wooden point; 25 inches long.
X. Sanger war arrow with nail point and extra long feathers;
it also is 25 inches long.
XI. Quiver with Indian design; 20 inches long.
XII. The "bracer" or arm guard of heavy leather for left arm with
two laces to tie it on. It is six inches long.
{78}
The Indians made arrows of reeds and of straight shoots of viburnum or
arrow-wood, and of elder, but we make better arrows out of the solid
heartwood of hard pine for target use, and of hickory or ash for
hunting. The arrow should be twenty-five inches long, round, and three
eighths of an inch thick, and have three feathers set as shown in Cut
VI, about an inch from the notch. The feather B, that stands out at
right angles to notch A, should always be away from the bow in
shooting. This is called the cock-feather, and it is usually marked or
colored in some way to be quickly distinguished.
[Illustration: CORRECT FORM IN SHOOTING. The diagram at bottom is to
show the centres of heels in line with target.]
Turkey and goose wing feathers are the best that grow in our country
for arrow feathers. The Indians mostly use turkey. With a sharp knife
cut a strip of the midrib on which is the vane of the feather; make
three pieces, each two to three inches long. White men glue these on
to the arrow. The Indians leave the midrib projecting at each end and
by these lash the {79} feathers without gluing. The lashed feathers
stand the weather better than those glued, but do not fly so well. The
Indians use sharp flint arrow heads for war and for big game, but for
birds and small game they make arrow heads with a knob of hard wood or
the knuckle bone of some small animal. The best arrow heads for our
purpose are like the ferrule of an umbrella top; they receive the end
of the shaft into them and keep it from splitting.
One of the best arrows I ever shot with was twenty-eight inches long,
five sixteenths of an inch thick, had a ferrule head and very small
feathers.
The finishing touch of an arrow is "painting" it. This is done for
several purposes: First, to preserve it from damp which would twist
the arrow and soften the glue that holds the feathers; second, each
hunter paints all his arrows with his mark so as to know them; third,
they are thus made bright-colored to help in finding them when lost.
There are four other things required by our archer: A smooth, hard
arm-guard, or bracer, usually of hard leather. The Indians who use one
make it of wood, grass, or rawhide. In photographs of famous Indians
you may often see this on the left wrist, and will remember that it
was there as a protection from the blow of the bow cord. Some archers
can shoot with the wrist bent so as to need no guard. The three middle
fingers of the right hand also need protection. An old leather glove,
with thumb and little finger cut away, will do very well for this,
though the ready-made tips at the archery stores are more convenient.
Some archers who practise all their lives can shoot without protecting
the fingers.
The bow case and quiver are important. Any kind of a cover that will
keep them from the rain, and hang on your back, will do, but there are
many little things that help to make them handy. When the cover is off
the arrows should project three or four inches so that they may be
more easily drawn out. The Indians often carried very beautiful
quivers of buckskin ornamented with quills and beads.
One day out West I saw an Omaha brave with a bow case and quiver
covered with very odd material--a piece of common red and white cotton
print. When allowed to examine it, I felt some other material
underneath the print. After a little dickering he sold me bow, arrows,
quiver, and all for a couple of dollars. I then ripped open the print
and found my first suspicions confirmed; for, underneath, the quiver
was of buckskin, beautifully embroidered with red feathers and
porcupine {80} quills of deep red and turquoise blue. The Indian was as
much puzzled by my preference for the quill work as I was by his for
the cotton print.
The standard target for men is four feet across with a nine-inch
bull's-eye, and around that four rings, each four and three quarter
inches wide. The bull's-eye counts nine, the other rings seven, five,
three, one. The bought targets are made of straw, but a good target
may be made of a box filled with sods, or a bank covered with sacking
on which are painted the usual rings.
Now comes the most important point of all--how to shoot. There are
several ways of holding an arrow, but only one good one. Most boys
know the ordinary finger and thumb pinch, or grip. This is all very
well for a toy bow, but a hunter's bow cannot be drawn that way. No
one has strength enough in his fingers for it. The true archer's grip
of the arrow is shown in the cut. The thumb and little finger have
nothing to do with it.
[Illustration: The archer's grip.]
As in golf and all such things, there is a right "form." You attend to
your end of the arrow's flight and the other will take care of itself:
Stand perfectly straight. Plant your feet with the centres of the two
heels in line with the target. (Cut page 78.) Grasp the bow in the
middle with the left hand and place the arrow on the string at the
left side of the bow. Hold the bow plumb, and draw as above till the
notch of the arrow is right under your eye, and the head of the arrow
back to the bow. The right elbow must be in the same line with the
arrow. Let go the arrow by straightening the fingers a little, turning
the hand outward at the bottom and drawing it back one inch. Always do
this in exactly the same way and your shooting will be even. Your left
hand should not move a hair's breadth until the arrow strikes the
target.
To begin shooting put the target very near, within fifteen or twenty
yards; but the proper shooting distance when the archer is in good
practice is forty yards for a four-foot target and thirty yards for a
three-foot target. A good shot, shooting twelve arrows at this, should
score fifty.
{81}
The Indians generally used their bows at short range, so that it was
easy to hit the mark. Rapid firing was important. In their archery
competitions, therefore, the prize was given to the one who could have
the most arrows in the air at once. Their record, according to Catlin,
was eight.
The Stars
As Seen With the Naked Eye
The chief works referred to in this are C. Flammarion's "Popular
Astronomy" (Gore's translation), and Garrett P. Serviss's "Astronomy
with an Opera Glass." (Those who wish to go farther a-sky are referred
to these books.)
Whether he expects to use them as guides or not, every boy should
learn the principal constellations and the important stars. A
non-scientific friend said to me once: "I am always glad that I
learned the principal star groups when I was young. I have never
forgotten them, and, no matter in what strange country I find myself,
I can always look up at night, and see the old familiar stars that
shone on me in my home in my own country."
All American boys know the Dipper or Great Bear. This is, perhaps, the
most important star group in our sky, because of its size, peculiar
form, and the fact that it never sets in our latitude, and last, that
it always points out the Pole-star, and, for this reason, it is
sometimes known as the Pointers. It is called the Dipper because it is
shaped like a dipper with a long, bent handle. Why it is called the
Great Bear is not so easy to explain. The classical legend has it that
the nymph Calisto, having violated her vow, was changed by Diana into
a bear, which, after death, was immortalized in the sky by Zeus.
Another suggestion is that the earliest astronomers, the Chaldeans,
called these stars "the shining ones," and their word happened to be
very like the Greek arktos (a bear). Another explanation (I do not
know who is authority for either) is that vessels in olden days were
named for animals, etc. They bore at the prow the carved effigy of the
namesake, and if the Great Bear, for example, made several very happy
voyages by setting out when a certain constellation was in the
ascendant, that constellation might become known as the Great Bear's
constellation. Certainly, there is nothing in its shape to justify the
name. Very few of the constellations, indeed, are like the thing they
are {82} called after. Their names were usually given for some fanciful
association with the namesake, rather than for resemblance to it.
The Pole-star is really the most important of the stars in our sky; it
marks the north at all times; it alone is fixed in the heavens: all
the other stars seem to swing around it once in twenty-four hours. It
is in the end of the Little Bear's tail. But the Pole-star, or
Polaris, is not a very bright one, and it would be hard to identify
but for the help of the Dipper, or Pointers.
The outside (Alpha and Beta) of the Dipper points nearly to Polaris,
at a distance equal to three and one half times the space that
separates these two stars of the Dipper's outer side.
Various Indians call the Pole-star the "Home Star," and "The Star that
Never Moves," and the Dipper they call the "Broken Back."
The last star but one in the Dipper, away from the pole--that is, the
star at the bend of the handle,--is known to astronomers as Mizar, one
of the Horses; Just above it, and tucked close in, is a smaller star
known to astronomers as Alcor, or the Rider. The Indians call these
two the "Old Squaw and the Pappoose on Her Back." In the old world,
from very ancient times, these have been used as tests of eyesight. To
be able to see Alcor with the naked eye means that one has excellent
eyesight. So also on the plains, the old folks would ask the children
at night, "Can you see the pappoose on the old squaw's back?" And when
the youngster saw it, and proved that he did by a right description,
they rejoiced that he had the eyesight which is the first requisite of
a good hunter.
The Great Bear is also to be remembered as the Pointers for another
reason. It is the hour-hand of the woodman's clock. It goes once
around the North Star in about twenty-four hours, the same way as the
sun, and for the same reason--that it is the earth that is going and
leaving them behind.
The time in going around is not exactly twenty-four hours, so that the
position of the Pointers varies with the seasons, but, as a rule, this
for woodcraft purposes is near enough. The bowl of the Dipper swings
one and one half times the width of the opening (i.e., fifteen
degrees) in one hour. If it went a quarter of the circle, that would
mean you had slept a quarter of a day, or six hours.
{83}
Each fifteen days the stars seem to be an hour earlier; in three
months they gain one fourth of the circle, and in a year gain the
whole circle.
According to Flammarion, there are about seven thousand stars visible
to the naked eye, and of those but nineteen are stars of the first
magnitude. Thirteen of them are visible in the latitude of New York,
the other six belong to the South Polar Region of the sky. Here is
Flammarion's arrangement of them in order of seeming brightness. Those
that can be seen in the Southern Hemisphere only, are in brackets:
1. Sirius, the Dog-star.
2. [Canopus, of Argo.]
3. [Alpha, of the Centaur.]
4. Arcturus, of Bootes.
5. Vega, of the Lyre.
6. Rigel, of Orion's foot.
7. Capella, of Auriga.
8. Procyon, or the Little Dog-star.
9. Betelguese, of Orion's right shoulder.
10. [Beta, of the Centaur.]
11. [Achernar, of Eridanus.]
12. Aldebaran, of Taurus, the Bull's right eye.
13. Antares, of Scorpio.
14. [Alpha, of the Southern Cross.]
15. Altair, of the Eagle.
16. Spica, of Virgo.
17. Fomalhaut, of the Southern Fish.
18. [Beta, of the Southern Cross.]
19. Regulus, of the Lion.
Orion
Orion (O-ri-on), with its striking array of brilliant stars,
Betelguese, Rigel, the Three Kings, etc., is generally admitted to be
the finest constellation in the heavens.
Orion was the hunter giant who went to Heaven when he died, and now
marches around the great dome, but is seen only in the winter,
because, during the summer, he passes over during daytime. Thus he is
still the hunter's constellation. The three stars of his belt are
called the "Three Kings."
Sirius, the Great Dog-star, is in the head of Orion's hound, and
following farther back is the Little Dog-star, Procyon. In old charts
of the stars, Orion is shown with his hound, hunting the bull, Taurus.
{84}
[Illustration: Taurus. Orion, Sirius and Procyon. (tr)]
Pleiades
Pleiades (Ply-a-des) can be seen in winter as a cluster of small stars
between Aldebaran and Algol, or, a line drawn from the back bottom,
through the front rim of the Dipper, about two Dipper lengths, touches
this little group. They are not far from Aldebaran, being on the
shoulder of the Bull, of which Aldebaran is the right eye. They may be
considered the seven arrow wounds made by Orion. They are nearer the
Pole-star than Aldebaran is, and on the side away from the Dipper;
also, they are nearly on a line between Beta of the Dipper (front
bottom) and Capella.
Serviss tells us that the Pleiades have a supposed connection with the
Great Pyramid, because "about 2170 B. C., when the beginning of spring
coincided with the culmination of the Pleiades at midnight; that
wonderful group of stars was visible {85} just at midnight, through the
mysterious southward-pointing passage of the Pyramid."
The Moon
The moon is one fifth the diameter of the earth, about one fiftieth of
the bulk, and is about a quarter million miles away. Its course, while
very irregular, is nearly the same as the apparent course of the sun.
But "in winter the full moon is at an altitude in the sky near the
limit attained by the sun in summer, . . . and even, at certain times,
five degrees higher. It is the contrary in summer, a season when the
moon remains very low" (F.).
The moon goes around the earth in 27-1/4 days. It loses nearly three
fourths of an hour each night; that is, it rises that much later.
BIRDCRAFT
_By the National Association of Audubon Societies_
Any boy who cares enough for out-doors to be a scout is sure to want a
good acquaintance with the birds. Even dull people cannot help taking
notice of our "little brothers of the air," on account of their
beauty, their songs, and their wondrous flight. But most folks never
take the trouble to try and learn the names of any except a few common
birds. Scouts whose eyes are sharp and ears are keen will find the
study of birds a fascinating sport, which may prove to be the best fun
that the woods provide.
Knowing the Birds
It is no easy matter, this trying to get to know the birds; but scouts
are not looking for the easiest jobs, and it is great sport for them
to follow some shy songster through the briery thicket until a really
good look can be had, to sit stock still for half an hour to watch
some unknown bird come home to her nest, or to wriggle on all fours
through the grass to have a glimpse over the top of the knoll at the
ducks in the pool beyond.
The only equipment necessary for bird study is an opera or field
glass, a note-book and a good bird reference book. As soon as you get
a good look at a strange bird, notice its colors and markings, and
then, if it moves, follow it up until you have seen practically all of
its most prominent features. It will be impossible to carry these
facts in your head, and unless some definite memorandum is made at the
time you will probably {86} be hopelessly perplexed when you go to consult
the bird book later. As it is hard to jot down satisfactory notes in
the field, while catching fleeting glances of some timid bird, a handy
little booklet has been prepared in which observations can be recorded
very rapidly. These can be procured for fifteen cents apiece from the
National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974 Broadway, New York
City.
Location _______________________ _______________________
Date _______________________Hour _______________________
Weather ___________________Wind _______________________
[Illustration: A bird. (tr)]
SIZE:
Smaller than wren
Between wren and sparrow
Between sparrow and robin
Between robin and crow
Larger than crow
SEEN
Near ground or high up
In heavy woods
Bushy places
Orchard
Garden
Swamp
Open country
Near water
Name ______________________
Order ______________________ Family _______________________
Genus_______________________ Species ______________________
{87}
Each booklet contains outline figures of the five leading types of
birds: (1) small perching birds, (2) hawks, (3) snipes, (4) herons,
(5) ducks. On the page opposite is a list of numbers corresponding to
colors. You can quickly mark on the outline the proper numbers, and
note with your pencil any marks on the bird. Then check the other data
on the page, add any additional memoranda, and you have your "bird in
the hand," ready to take back and look up at your leisure.
Careful Observation
Notice particularly the "range" of the birds in your reference book,
and eliminate all those not stated as occurring in your territory.
Notice too, dates of the birds' coming and going, and do not expect to
find species at any other time of year than within the dates
mentioned. By thus narrowing down the possibilities the task is much
simplified. As a final resort, the National Association of Audubon
Societies stands ready to help all scouts who are positively
"stumped," and if the descriptive slips are mailed with return
envelopes to the secretary of the association, 1974 Broadway, New York
City, an identification will be made, if the information furnished
renders it in any way possible.
The next time you see a bird that you have once identified, you will
probably remember its name, and in this way you will be surprised to
find how rapidly your bird acquaintance will grow. After a time even
the flight of a bird or its song will be enough to reveal an old
acquaintance, just as you can often recognize a boy friend by his walk
or the sound of his voice, without seeing his face. And what a new joy
in life there is for anybody that really knows the birds about him. He
can pick from the medley of bird songs the notes of the individual
singers; he knows when to look for old friends of the year before; no
countryside is ever lonely for him, for he finds birds everywhere and
knows that any moment he may make some rare discovery or see a bird
before unknown to him.
Bird Lists
A scout should make a list of all the birds he has positively
identified. This is his "life list" and is added to year by year. In
addition he will keep daily lists of the birds seen on special trips
in the field. Two or more patrols can enjoy a friendly rivalry by
covering different regions and seeing which can observe the largest
variety of birds. Hundreds of well-known {88} ornithologists often
have the fun of this kind of competition, sending in their lists to a
central bureau. As many as one hundred and twenty different kinds of
birds have been counted in a single day by one energetic band of
bird-lovers. Such a list is, however, attainable only under
exceptionally favorable circumstances and by skilled observers who
know their country thoroughly. For most scouts, thirty to forty
species on a summer day, and fifty to sixty during the spring
migration, would be regarded as a good list.
88 Boy Scouts
[Illustration: Bob-white at feeding station.]
Nesting Season
Undoubtedly the most interesting season to study birds is during the
nesting period which is at its height in June. It takes a pair of
sharp eyes to find most birds' nests in the first place, and once
found, there are dozens of interesting little incidents which it is a
delight to watch. Only a foolish scout would rob himself of his chance
to observe the secrets of nest life by stealing the contents, or would
take any delight in piling up a collection of egg shells whose value
at its best is almost nothing, and whose acquisition is necessarily
accompanied by {89} genuine heart pangs on the part of the rightful
owners. It is more exciting to try to hide yourself near the nest so
skilfully that the birds will carry on their domestic duties as though
you were not near. A blind made of green cloth and set up near the
nest like a little tent will often give opportunity for very close
observation. It is surprising how near many birds will allow one to
come in this way. Even though the blind looks very strange and out of
place, the birds soon seem to get used to it, so long as it is
motionless and the inmate cannot be seen. A simple type of blind can
be constructed by sewing the edges of long pieces of green cloth
together, drawing in the top with a cord, and then draping it over an
open umbrella.
[Illustration: Bird blind.]
How to Photograph
From such a hiding place, photographs can often be secured of timid
birds at their nests. In attempting to take photographs it must be
remembered that cameras of the pocket variety or fixed box type are
almost useless. Most of them cannot be worked without special
attachments at closer range than six feet, and, even if the focus is
correctly guessed, the image is apt to be very small. In this work it
is far better to invest in a cheap camera (second-hand if need be)
with which one can obtain a definite image on the ground glass where
the plate or film is to be. Focus the camera on some spot where it is
expected the bird will come; usually this is on the nest or young,
sometimes it is the food, a favorite perch, or some form of decoy. The
next requisite is patience. If the coveted opportunity arrives, set
off the shutter by hand in the {90} blind, or, where this is not
possible, by means of a long thread, after carefully hiding the camera
with boughs, leaves, sods, etc.
How to Know
An idea of the details of a bird's life which a scout may come to
know, may be had from the following table:
1. Description. (Size, form, color, and markings.)
2. Haunts. (Upland, lowland, lakes, rivers, woods, fields. etc.)
3. Movements. (Slow or active, hops, walks, creeps, swims, tail
wagged, etc.)
4. Appearance. (Alert, listless, crest erect, tail drooped, etc.)
5. Disposition. (Solitary, flocking, wary, unsuspicious, etc.)
6. Flight. (Slow, rapid, direct, undulating, soaring, sailing,
flapping, etc.)
7. Song. (Pleasing, unattractive, long, short, loud, faint, sung from
the ground, from a perch, in the air, etc. Season of song.)
8. Call notes. (Of surprise, alarm, protest, warning, signaling, etc.)
9. Season. (Spring, fall, summer, winter, with times of arrival and
departure and variations in numbers.)
10. Food. (Berries, insects, seeds, etc.; how secured.)
11. Mating. (Habits during courtship.)
12. Nesting. (Choice of site, material, construction, eggs,
incubation, etc.)
13. The young. (Food and care of, time in the nest, notes, actions,
flight, etc.)
So varied is a bird's life that there is still plenty to be learned
about even our common birds. It is quite possible for a scout to
discover some facts that have never yet been published in books.
[Illustration: Red-breasted nuthatch.]
What One Boy Did
A boy once originated the idea of varying the usual "bird's nesting"
craze into a systematic study of the breeding of our common birds. In
one spring he found within the limits of a single village one hundred
and seventy robins' nests. "One hundred were in suitable situations on
private places, forty-one were in woods, swamps and orchards, eight
were placed under bridges (two being under the iron girders of the
railroad bridge), four were {91} in quarries, sixteen were in barns,
sheds, under piazzas, etc., and one was on the ground at the foot of a
bush."
In addition to searching out the birds in their natural haunts, there
is a great fascination in trying to attract them to our homes. During
winter evenings boy scouts can busy themselves making nesting boxes.
Even an old cigar box or a tomato can with a hole in it the size of a
quarter will satisfy a house wren. Other boxes which are suitable for
bluebirds, chickadees, tree swallows, purple martins, and starlings,
will, if set up in March, often have tenants the very first season. In
many cases it is feasible to have hinged doors or sides on the nesting
boxes, so that they may occasionally be opened and the progress of
events within observed. It is needless to add, however, that great
caution must be exercised to prevent desertion of the nest, or other
disturbance of the birds' home life. Under favorable circumstances,
even some of the shyer inhabitants of the woods, such as woodpeckers,
owls, and ducks can be induced to patronize artificial cavities, if
they are made right and erected right.
[Illustration: Downy woodpecker.]
[Illustration: Observation box, open.]
Caring for Birds
Another way of attracting birds in summer is by providing drinking and
bathing places. A little artificial pool protected from cats, will be
a source of joy to the birds and of delight to the observer from
morning to night. Apply to the {92} National Association of Audubon
Societies for information as to where ready-made nest boxes and
fountains can be procured, also books on this subject, as well as on
the subject of making friends of the birds through feeding.
[Illustration: House wren and tomato-can house]
[Illustration: Birch-bark house]
The Bird Lunch Counter
How best to feed the birds is almost an art in itself. A winter lunch
counter spread with suet, nuts, hemp seed, meat, and crumbs will
attract nuthatches, chickadees, downy and hairy woodpeckers, creepers,
blue jays, etc. Canary seed, buckwheat, oats and hay-chaff scattered
on the ground beneath will provide an irresistible banquet for other
feathered boarders. A feeding place of this sort can be arranged for
convenient observation from a window, and afford no end of diversion
and instruction. But whether close to home or far afield, the great
secret of success in such work is regularity. Begin to put the food
out early in November, and let the birds get to know that they are
always sure to find a supply of dainties in a certain spot, and the
news will soon spread among them. In wintry weather, especially, it is
amazing what can be accomplished by feeding the birds regularly, and
at least the following birds have been induced to feed from the human
hand: chickadee, white-breasted nuthatch, red-breasted nuthatch, brown
creeper, Carolina wren, cardinal, evening grosbeak, tufted titmouse,
Canada jay, Florida jay, Oregon jay, and redpoll. Even in spring
untiring patience has resulted in the gratification of this supreme
ambition of the bird-lover, and bluebird, robin, cat-bird: chipping
sparrow, oven-bird, brown thrasher and yellow-throated vireo have been
known to feed from the hand of a trusted friend, even with plenty of
food all around. What scout can add to this list?
Protecting the Birds
Many a boy thinks that just because a bird is alive and moves it is a
proper target for his air rifle or his sling shot. {93} Let us be
thankful that there has now arisen a new class of boys, the scouts,
who, like the knights of old, are champions of the defenceless, even
the birds. Scouts are the birds' police, and wo betide the lad who is
caught with a nest and eggs, or the limp corpse of some feathered
songster that he has slaughtered. Scouts know that there is no value
in birds that are shot, except a few scientific specimens collected by
trained museum experts. Scouts will not commend a farmer for shooting
a hawk or an owl as a harmful bird, even though it were seen to
capture a young chicken. They will post themselves on the subject and
find that most hawks and owls feed chiefly on field mice and large
insects injurious to the farmer's crops, and that thus, in spite of an
occasional toll on the poultry, they are as a whole of tremendous
value. The way the birds help mankind is little short of a marvel. A
band of nuthatches worked all winter in a pear orchard near Rochester
and rid the trees of a certain insect that had entirely destroyed the
crop of the previous summer. A pair of rose-breasted grosbeaks were
seen to feed their nest of youngsters four hundred and twenty-six
times in a day, each time with a billful of potato-bugs or other
insects. A professor in Washington counted two hundred and fifty tent
caterpillars in the stomach of a dead yellow-billed cuckoo, and, what
appeals to us even more, five hundred bloodthirsty mosquitoes inside
of one night-hawk.
[Illustration: White-breasted nuthatch]
[Illustration: Bluebird at entrance of nesting-box]
It must not be forgotten that large city parks are among the best
places for observing birds. As an example of what can be accomplished,
even with limited opportunities, there was a boy who happened to know
where some owls roosted. {94} Now all owls swallow their prey whole,
and in digesting this food they disgorge the skulls, bones, fur, and
feathers in the form of hard dry pellets. This boy used to go out on
Saturday or Sunday afternoon and bring home his pockets full of
pellets, and then in the evening he would break them apart. In this
way he learned exactly what the owls had been eating (without killing
them) and he even discovered the skulls of certain field mice that
naturalists had never known existed in that region. He let the owl be
his collector.
Patrol Work
It is a good idea to keep at patrol headquarters a large sheet on the
wall, where a list of the year's bird observations can be tabulated.
Each time a new bird is seen, its name is added, together with the
initial of the observer, and after that its various occurrences are
noted opposite its name. The keenest eyed scouts are those whose
initials appear most frequently in the table. In addition, the tables
will show the appearance and relative abundance of birds in a given
locality. For patrols of young boys, a plan of tacking up a colored
picture of each bird, as soon as it is thoroughly known, has been
found very successful, and the result provides a way to decorate the
headquarters.
Such pictures can be obtained very cheaply from the Perry Pictures
Co., Boston, Mass., or the National Association of Audubon Societies,
1974 Broadway, New York City.
MOLLUSCA--Shells and Shellfish
_By Dr. William Healey Dall, of the United States Geological Survey_
[Illustration: Fig. 1; White lipped snail (Polygyra albolabris)]
Among the shy and retiring animals which inhabit our woods and waters,
or the borders of the sea, without making themselves conspicuous to
man except when he seeks the larger ones for food, are the mollusca,
usually confounded with crabs and crayfish under the popular name of
"shellfish," except the few which have no external shell, which are
generally called slugs. Hardly any part of the world (except deserts)
is without them, but, shy as they are, it takes pretty sharp eyes to
find them. Some come out of their hiding places {95} only at night,
and nearly all our American kinds live under cover of some sort.
The mollusks can be conveniently divided into three groups: those
which inhabit fresh water, those which breathe air and live on dry
land, and lastly those which are confined to the sea. The land shells,
or snails, have generally thin shells of spiral form and live upon
vegetable matter, many of them laying small eggs which look like
minute pearls. Their hiding places are under leaves in shady or moist
places, under the bark of dead trees or stumps, or under loose stone.
They creep slowly and are most active after rain. Some of our larger
kinds are an inch or two in diameter, (see Fig. 1., the white-lipped)
but from this size there are others diminishing in size to the
smallest, which are hardly larger than the head of a pin, In
collecting them the little ones may be allowed to dry up. The big ones
must be killed in boiling water, when the animal can be pulled out
with a hook made of a crooked pin, leaving the shell clean and
perfect. The slugs are not attractive on account of the slime which
they throw out and can only be kept in spirits. Some of the species
found in California are as large as a small cigar, but those of the
states east of the Rocky Mountains are smaller and have mostly been
introduced from Europe, where they do a lot of mischief by eating such
garden plants as lettuce.
Many of the fresh-water snails are abundant in brooks and ponds, and
their relations, the fresh-water mussels, are often very numerous in
shallow rivers. They have a shell frequently beautifully pearly, white
or purple, and sometimes have the brown outer skin prettily streaked
with bright green.
[Illustration: Fig. 2 Whelk (Buccinum umatum)]
[Illustration: Fig. 3 Pond snail (Lymnaea palustris)]
The principal fresh-water snails are the pond snail (_Lymnaea_; see
Fig. 3); the _Physa_ (see Fig. 6), which is remarkable for having the
coil turned to the left instead of the right; and the orb-snail,
(_Planorbis_: see Fig. 4) which has its coil flat. All of {96} these
lay minute eggs in a mass of transparent jelly, and are to be found on
lily pads and other water plants, or crawling on the bottom, while the
mussels bury themselves more or less in the mud or lie on the gravelly
bottom of streams. There is also a very numerous tribe of small
bivalve shells, varying from half an inch to very minute in size,
which are also mud lovers and are known as Sphaerium or Pisidium,
having no "common" English names, since only those who hunt for them
know of their existence.
On the seashore everybody knows the mussel (Mytilus: see Fig. 5), the
soft clam, the round clam, and the oyster, as these are sought for
food; but there is a multitude of smaller bivalves which are not so
well known. The sea-snails best known on the coast north of Chesapeake
Bay are the whelk (Buccinum: see Fig. 2), the sand snail or Natica,
which bores the round holes often found in clam shells on the beach,
in order to suck the juices of its neighbors, and the various kinds of
periwinkles (rock snails or Littorina) found by the millions on the
rocks between tides. These, as well as the limpets, small boat-shaped
or slipper-shaped conical shells found in similar places, are
vegetable feeders. Altogether, there are several hundred kinds found
on the seashore and the water near the shore, and a collection of them
will not only contain many curious, pretty, and interesting things,
but will have the advantage of requiring no preservative to keep them
in good condition after the animal has been taken out.
[Illustration: Fig. 4 Orb-Shell (Planorbis trivolvis)]
[Illustration: Fig. 5 Black Mussel (Mytilus)]
[Illustration: Fig. 6 Bubble snail (Physa heterostropha)]
The squids, cuttle-fishes, octopus, and their allies are also
mollusks, but not so accessible to the ordinary collector, and can
only be kept in spirits.
Books which may help the collector to identify the shells he may find
are:
For the land and fresh-water shells: {97}
"Mollusks of the Chicago Area" and "The Lymnaeidae of North America."
By F. C. Baker. Published by the Chicago Academy of Sciences.
For the American Marine Shells: Bulletin No. 37. Published by the
United States National Museum, at Washington.
For shells in general: "The Shell Book." Published by Doubleday, Page
& Co., Garden City, N.Y.
On the Pacific Coast the "West Coast Shells," by Prof. Josiah Keep of
Mills College, will be found very useful.
REPTILES
_By Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, Curator National Museum_
By reptiles we understand properly a certain class of vertebrate or
backboned animals, which, on the whole, may be described as possessing
scales or horny shields since most of them may be distinguished by
this outer covering, as the mammals by their hair and the birds by
their feathers. Such animals as thousand-legs, scorpions, tarantulas,
etc., though often erroneously referred to as reptiles, do not concern
us in this connection. Among the living reptiles we distinguish four
separate groups, the crocodiles, the turtles, the lizards, and the
snakes.
The crocodiles resemble lizards in shape, but are very much larger and
live only in the tropics and the adjacent regions of the temperate
zone. To this order belongs our North American alligator, which
inhabits the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the coast country
along the Atlantic Ocean as far north as North Carolina. They are
hunted for their skin, which furnishes an excellent leather for
traveling bags, purses, etc., and because of the incessant pursuit are
now becoming quite rare in many localities where formerly they were
numerous. The American crocodile, very much like the one occurring in
the river Nile, is also found at the extreme southern end of Florida.
The turtles are easily recognized by the bony covering which encases
their body, and into which most species can withdraw their heads and
legs for protection. This bony box is usually covered with horny
plates, but in a large group, the so-called soft-shell turtles, the
outer covering is a soft skin, thus forming a {98} notable exception
to the rule that reptiles are characterized by being covered with
scales or plates. While most of the turtles live in fresh water or on
land, a few species pass their lives in the open ocean, only coming
ashore during the breeding season to deposit their eggs. Some of these
marine turtles grow to an enormous size, sometimes reaching a weight
of over eight hundred pounds. One of them is much sought for on
account of the delicacy of its flesh; another because of the thickness
and beauty of its horny plates which furnish the so-called
tortoise-shell, an important article of commerce. Turtles appear to
reach a very old age, specimens having been known to have lived
several hundred years. The box tortoise of our woods, the musk
turtles, the snapping turtles are familiar examples of this order,
while the terrapin, which lives in brackish ponds and swamps along our
sea-coasts, is famous as a table delicacy.
[Illustration: Harlequin snake]
The lizards are four-legged reptiles, usually of small size, living on
the ground or in the trees, out very rarely voluntarily entering
water. The so-called water lizards are not lizards at all, but belong
to the salamanders and are distinguished by having a naked body not
covered with scales. Most of the true lizards are of very graceful
form, exceedingly quick at running; others display the most gorgeous
coloration which, in many of them, such as the chameleons, changes
according to the light, or the temperature, or the mood of the animal.
Not all of them have four legs, however, there being a strong tendency
to develop legless species which then externally become so much like
snakes that they are told apart with some difficulty. Thus our
so-called glass-snake, common in the Southern states, is not a snake
at all, but a lizard, as we may easily see by observing the ear
openings on each side of the head, as no snake has ears. This
beautiful animal is also known as the joint-snake, and both names have
reference to the exceeding brittleness of its long tail, which often
breaks in many pieces in the hands of the enemy trying to capture the
lizard. That these pieces ever join and heal together is of course a
silly fable. As a matter of fact, the body in a comparatively short
time grows a new tail, which, however, is much shorter and stumpier
than the old one. The new piece is often of a different color from the
rest of the body and {99} greatly resembles a "horn," being conical and
pointed, and has thus given rise to another equally silly fable, viz.,
that of the horn snake, or hoop snake, which is said to have a sting
in its tail and to be deadly poisonous. The lizards are all perfectly
harmless, except the sluggish Gila monster (pronounced Heela, named
from the Gila River in Arizona) which lives in the deserts of Arizona
and Mexico, and whose bite may be fatal to man. The poison glands are
situated at the point of the lower jaw, and the venom is taken up by
the wound while the animal hangs on to its victim with the tenacity of
a bulldog. All the other lizards are harmless in spite of the dreadful
stories told about the deadly quality of some of the species in
various parts of the country.
[Illustration: Rattlesnake palate]
The snakes form the last group of the reptiles. Universally legless,
though some of the boas and pythons have distinct outer rudiments of
hind limbs, they are not easily mistaken. And it is perhaps well so,
for unless one is an expert at distinguishing between the poisonous
and the harmless kind it is just as well to keep at a respectful
distance from them. It is safest not to interfere with them,
especially as those that are not poisonous are usually very useful in
destroying rats and mice and other vermin, except perhaps those living
in trees and feeding on eggs and young birds, which certainly do not
deserve our protection. Of course the rattlesnake is not to be
mistaken. The horny appendix to its tail, with which it sounds the
warning of its presence, is enough to distinguish it. It should here
be explained that both lizards and snakes at various intervals shed
the outer layer of their skin, the so-called epidermis. This
transparent layer, after a certain length of time, loosens and is
usually stripped off whole by the animal crawling out of it and
turning it inside out, as a tight glove is turned. Now, at the end of
a rattlesnake's tail there is a horny cap which is {100} called the
button, and being narrowed at the base and more strongly built than
the rest of the epidermis it is not shed with the rest of the skin,
but remains attached.
Thus for each shedding a new joint or ring is added to the rattle. How
often the shedding takes place depends on various circumstances and
may occur an uncertain number of times each year. Such a rattle,
loose-jointed as it is, is rather brittle and the tip of the sounding
instrument is easily broken and lost. It will therefore be easily
understood that the common notion that a rattlesnake's age can be told
by the number of the rings in its rattle is absolutely erroneous.
Another equally common and equally erroneous notion relates to the
tongue of the snake, which the ignorant often term its "sting" and
which they believe to be the death-dealing instrument. Of course, the
soft, forked tongue which constantly darts out and in of the snake's
mouth is perfectly harmless. It serves rather as a "feeler" than as a
taste organ. The wound is inflicted by a pair of large, curved, teeth
or fangs, in the upper jaw. These fangs are hollow and connected by a
duct with the gland on the side of the head, in which the poison is
formed. Pressure on this gland at the time of the strike--for our
poisonous snakes strike rather than bite--squirts the poison into the
wound like a hypodermic syringe. The fangs when shed or damaged are
replaced within a short time with new ones, so that a poisonous snake
can only be made harmless for a short period by breaking them off.
Only in exceptional cases need snake bites prove fatal. It is
estimated that in North America only about two persons in a hundred
bitten are killed by the poison, though many more die from
carelessness or bad treatment, the worst of which is the filling up
with whiskey, which aids the poison rather than counteracts it. The
essential things in case of snake bite are: (1) keeping one's wits;
(2) tying a string, or the like, tightly around the wounded limb
between the wound and the heart, and loosening it about once in
fifteen minutes, so as to admit the poison slowly into the
circulation; (3) making the wound bleed freely by enlarging it with a
knife or otherwise; (4) if permanganate of potash be handy it should
at once be applied to the {101} wound; (5) treat the wound as
antiseptically as it is possible with the means at hand and hurry to a
doctor.
[Illustration: Copperhead]
The danger depends greatly on the amount of the poison injected, hence
upon the size of the snake. It is for this reason that the big Florida
rattlesnakes which grow to six feet and over are more to be feared
than are other poisonous snakes. Of these, we have in our country,
besides the rattlesnakes, the water moccasin, or cotton mouth, the
copperhead, and the coral snake. The latter is a bright-colored snake
of red, yellow, and black rings found in the South, but it is usually
small, and not aggressive, so that but few cases of poisoning are
known. The other two are common enough, the former from Norfolk, Va.,
south, the other all over the eastern country from Texas to
Massachusetts. They are usually confounded, however, with two
perfectly harmless snakes, the cotton mouth with the common water
snake, the copperhead with the so-called spreading adder, but as
their differences have to be learned from actual inspection and are
very hard to express in a description which would help to identify
living specimens, it is wisest to keep away from all of them.
See "The Poisonous Snakes of North America." By Leonard Stejneger,
published by Government Printing office, Washington.
[Illustration: Water moccasin]
[Illustration: Chrysalis]
INSECTS AND BUTTERFLIES
_United States Bureau of Entomology_
(Illustrations are copies from Comstock's "How to Know the
Butterflies," through courtesy of D. Appleton & Company.)
There is an advantage in the study of insects over most other branches
of nature, excepting perhaps plants, in that there is plenty of
material. You may have to tramp miles to see a certain bird or wild
animal, but if you will sit down on the first patch of grass you are
sure to see something going on in the insect world.
Butterflies
Nearly all insects go through several different stages. The young bird
is very much like its parent, so is the young squirrel or a young
snake or a {102} young fish or a young snail; but with most of the
insects the young is very different from its parents. All butterflies
and moths lay eggs, and these hatch into caterpillars which when full
grown transform to what are called pupae or chrysalids--nearly
motionless objects with all of the parts soldered together under an
enveloping sheath. With some of the moths, the pupae are surrounded by
silk cocoons spun by the caterpillars just before finally transforming
to pupae. With all butterflies the chrysalids are naked, except with
one species which occurs in Central America in which there is a common
silk cocoon. With the moths, the larger part spin cocoons, but some of
them, like the owlet moths whose larvae are the cutworms, have naked
pupre, usually under the surface of the ground. It is not difficult to
study the transformations of the butterflies and moths, and it is
always very interesting to feed a caterpillar until it transforms, in
order to see what kind of a butterfly or moth comes out of the
chrysalis.
Take the monarch butterfly, for example: This is a large,
reddish-brown butterfly, a strong flier, which is seen often flying
about in the spring and again in the late summer and autumn. This is
one of the most remarkable butterflies in America. It is found all
over the United States. It is one of the strongest fliers that we
know. It passes the winter in the Southern states as an adult
butterfly, probably hidden away in cracks under the bark of trees or
elsewhere. When spring comes the butterflies come out and begin to fly
toward the north. Wherever they find the milk-weed plant they stop and
lay some eggs on the leaves. The caterpillars issue from the eggs,
feed on the milkweed, transform to chrysalids; then the butterflies
issue and continue the northward flight, stopping to lay eggs farther
north on other milkweeds. By the end of June or July some of these
Southern butterflies have found their way north into Canada and begin
the return flight southward. Along in early August they will be seen
at the summer resorts in the Catskill Mountains, and by the end of
October they will have traveled far down into the Southern states
where they pass the winter.
[Illustration: Empty chrysalis and butterfly]
The caterpillar of the monarch or milkweed butterfly is a very
striking creature. It is nearly two inches long when full grown. Its
head is yellow striped with black; its body is white with narrow black
and yellow cross-stripes on each {103} segment. On the back of the
second segment of the thorax there is a pair of black, whiplash-like
filaments, and on the eighth joint there is a similar shorter pair.
When this caterpillar gets ready to transform to chrysalis, it hangs
itself up by its tail end, the skin splits and gradually draws back,
and the chrysalis itself is revealed--pale pea-green in color with
golden spots. Anyone by hunting over a patch of milkweed anywhere in
the United States during the summer is quite apt to find these
caterpillars feeding. It will be easy to watch them and to see them
transform, and eventually to get the butterfly.
The same thing may be done with anyone of the six hundred and
fifty-two different kinds of butterflies in the United States.
[Illustration: Larva getting ready to transform]
[Illustration: Full grown larva]
Moths
When it comes to moths, there is a much greater variety.
Instead of six hundred and fifty-two, there are fifty-nine hundred and
seventy in Doctor Dyar's big catalogue. Perhaps the most interesting
of these caterpillars are the big native silk-worms, like those of the
cecropia moth, the luna moth, the polyphemus moth, or the promethia
moth. These caterpillars are very large and are to be found feeding
upon the leaves of different trees, and all spin strong silken
cocoons. People have tried to reel these cocoons, thinking that they
might be able to use the silk to make silk cloth as with the domestic
silk-worm of commerce, but they have been unable to reel them
properly. The polyphemus moth, for example, has been experimented with
a great deal. It is found over a greater part of the United States,
and its caterpillar feeds upon a great variety of trees and shrubs
such as oak, Butternut, hickory, basswood, elm, maple, birch,
chestnut, sycamore, and many others. The caterpillar is light green
and has raised lines of silvery white on the side. It grows to a very
large size and spins a dense, hard cocoon, usually attached to leaves.
There {104} are two generations in the Southern states, and one in the
Northern states. The moth which comes out of the cocoon has a wing
spread of fully five inches. It is reddish-gray or somewhat buff in
color with darker bands near the edge of the wings, which themselves
are pinkish on the outside, and with a large clear spot near the
centre of the forewing and a regular eyespot (clear in part and blue
in the rest) in the centre of the hind wing.
One wishing to know about butterflies and moths should consult a book
entitled, "How to Know the Butterflies," by Prof. J. H. Comstock of
Cornell University and his wife, Mrs. Comstock, published by D.
Appleton & Co., of New York, or, "The Butterfly Book," by Dr. W. J.
Holland of Pittsburg, published by Doubleday, Page & Co., of New York,
and "The Moth Book," also by Doctor Holland, and published by the same
firm.
[Illustration: Caterpillar to chrysalis]
Other Insects
There are many more different kinds of insects than there are of
flowering plants, and if we were to add together all of the different
kinds of birds, mammals, reptiles, fishes, crabs, mollusks, and all of
the lower forms of animal life, they would not all together amount to
so many different kinds as there are insects. This makes the
classi
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