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Practical taxidermy

by Montagu Browne · English · Gutenberg #26014 · 761,469 chars · public domain (US)

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Title: Practical taxidermy
        a manual of instruction to the amateur in collecting, preserving, and setting up natural history specimens of all kinds. To which is added a chapter upon the pictorial arrangement of museums. With additional instructions in modelling and artistic taxidermy.

Author: Montagu Browne


        
Release date: July 9, 2008 [eBook #26014]

Language: English

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26014

Credits: Produced by Jon Richfield


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY ***




Produced by Jon Richfield





PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY

A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION TO THE AMATEUR

IN COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND

SETTING UP NATURAL HISTORY SPECIMENS OF ALL KINDS.

TO WHICH IS ADDED A CHAPTER UPON

THE PICTORIAL ARRANGEMENT OF MUSEUMS.

ILLUSTRATED.

BY

MONTAGU BROWNE, F.Z.S, etc.

Curator, Town Museum, Leicester.

====================

SECOND EDITION,

Revised and considerably Enlarged,

With additional Instructions in Modelling and Artistic Taxidermy.

====================

LONDON:

1. UPCOTT GILL, BAZAAR BUILDINGS, DRURY LANE, W.C.

(FORMERLY OF 170, STRAND).

NEW YORK:

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 153-157, FIFTH AVENUE.

Plate I Peregrine Falcon on Flight

Showing Method of Binding etc.

Frontispiece--see chapter V

LONDON:

1. UPCOTT GILL, LONDON AND COUNTY PRINTING WORKS,

BAZAAR BUILDINGS. W.C.

PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

THE First Edition of "Practical Taxidermy" having now run through the
press--with, I venture to hope, some profit to students of the art, if
I may judge from the many hundreds Of letters I have from time to time
received--the publishers have invited me to revise such parts of the
work as may be expedient, and also to add many technical methods of
modelling animals an artistic manner.

I do this the more readily because of the narrow way in which most
professional Taxidermists bolster up their art in a secret and
entirely unnecessary manner--unnecessary because amateur can, but by
the severest application, possibly compete with the experience of the
technical or professional worker. No pictorial artist ever pretends he
has a special brush or colours with which he can paint landscapes or
sea pieces at will; he knows that only thorough mastery of the
technicalities of his art--supplemented by wide experience and close
application--enables him to succeed as he does, and to delight people
who, seeing his facility of handling, may imagine that picture
painting is very easy and could be readily acquired--perhaps from
books. So it is with the Taxidermist. Those, therefore, who procure
this book, thinking to do all attempted to be explained therein
without long study and without a knowledge of anatomy, form,
arrangement, and colour, may put it on one side as useless. These
pages are merely an introduction to a delightful art, which must be
wooed with patient determination and loving pains until technical
skill invests it with beauty.

If I can be of any assistance to my readers, I invite them to write to
me if at any time they are puzzled or temporarily disheartened; merely
asking them to remember:

(1)--That, not being in business, I cannot of course answer purely
business communications; and (2)--Not being a man of infinite leisure,
it must also be remembered that a properly directed envelope for
return to the inquirer is of consequence when minutes are precious.
Unlike the Prime Minister, I do not like post-cards, and never answer
them if from unknown correspondents.

I may here mention that this edition is not only considerably
enlarged, but has several woodcuts and four plates added, three of
which latter have been engraved from photographs specially taken for
this work.

I say now, in conclusion, work hard, study hard, and look to good
modellers and painters--and not to bird-stuffers--for conceptions of
form, arrangement, and colour, and in the end, believe me, you will
achieve a better success than attends the labours of those who follow
in the old paths of careless or inartistic Taxidermy.

MONTAGU BROWNE.

LEICESTER.

PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY.

CHAPTER I.

THE RISE AND PROGRESS of TAXIDERMY.

TAXIDERMY, which is derived from two Greek words, a literal
translation of which would signify the "arrangement of skins," appears
to have been practised in a limited degree ages ago, for may we not
say without doubt that the first taxidermists were the ancient
Egyptians, who, despite the fact that they seldom or never appear to
have removed the skin as a whole, as in our modern methods, yet,
taking into consideration the excellent manner in which they preserved
their human or other bodies for thousands of years by the aid of
injections, spices, essential oils, or what not, they may, I think, be
fairly placed in the front rank as the first taxidermists the world
has known. For an account, of the arts used in embalming see
Herodotus, who says:

In Egypt certain persons are appointed by law to exercise this art
(embalming) as their peculiar business; and when a dead body is
brought them they produce patterns of mummies in wood imitated in
painting, the most elaborate of which are said to be of him (Osiris)
whose name I do not think it right to mention on this occasion. The
second which they show is simpler and less costly; the third is the
cheapest. Having exhibited them all, they inquire of the persons who
have applied to them which method they wish to be adopted, and this
being settled, and the price agreed upon, the parties return, leaving
the body with the embalmers.

In preparing it according to the first method, they commence by
extracting the brain from the nostrils with a curved iron probe,
partly clearing the head by this means, and partly by pouring in
certain drugs; then, making an incision in the side with a sharp
Ethiopian stone, they draw out the intestines through the aperture.
Having cleansed and washed them with palm wine they cover them with
pounded aromatics, and afterwards filling the cavity with powder of
pure, myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant substances, frankincense
excepted, they sew it up again. This being done, they salt the body,
keeping it in natron seventy days, to which period they are strictly
confined. When the seventy days are over they wash the body and wrap
it up entirely in bands of fine linen smeared on their inner side with
gum, which the Egyptians generally use instead of glue. The relatives
then take away the body, and have a wooden ease made in the form of a
man, in which they deposit it, and, when fastened up, they keep it in
a room in their house, placing it upright against the wall. This is
the most costly method of embalming.

For those who choose the middle-kind, on account of the expense, they
prepare the body as follows: They fill syringes with oil of cedar, and
inject this into the abdomen, without making any incision or removing
the bowels, and, taking care that the liquid shall not escape, they
keep it in salt during the specified number of days. The cedar oil is
then taken out, and such is its strength, that it brings with it the
bowels and all the inside in a state of dissolution. The natron also
dissolves the flesh, so that nothing remains but the skin and bones.
This process being over, they restore the body without any further
operation.

The third kind of embalming is only adopted for the poor. In this they
merely cleanse the body, by an injection of syrmoea, and salt it
during seventy days, after which it is returned to the friends who
brought it.

The account given by Diodorus is similar, if we except the cost and
time of embalming. The most expensive way of embalming costs a talent
of silver (about 250 pounds sterling); the second, twenty-two minae
(60 pounds); and the third is extremely cheap. The persons who embalm
the bodies are artists who have learnt this secret from their
ancestors. They present to the friends of the deceased who apply to
them an estimate of the funeral expenses, and ask them in what manner
they wish it to be performed, which being agreed upon, they deliver
the body to the proper persona appointed to that office. First, one
who is denominated the scribe, marks upon the left side of the body,
as it lies on the ground, the extent of the incision which is to be
made; then another, who is called the dissector, cuts open as much of
the flesh as the law permits with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and
immediately runs away, pursued by those who are present throwing
stones at him, amidst bitter execrations, as if to cast upon him all
the odium of this necessary act, for they look upon everyone who has
offered violence to, or inflicted b wound or any other injury upon a
human body to be hateful; but the embalmers, on the contrary, are held
in the greatest consideration and respect, being the associates of the
priests, and permitted free access to e temples as sacred persons.

As soon as they have met together to embalm the body thus prepared
them, one introduces his band through the aperture into the abdomen,
and takes everything out except the kidneys and heart, another
cleanses each of the viscera with palm wine and aromatic substances;
lastly, having applied oil of cedar and other things to the whole body
for wards of thirty days, they add myrrh, cinnamon, and those drugs
which have not only the power of preserving the body for a length of
time, but of imparting to it a fragrant odour. It is then restored to
the friends of the deceased; and so perfectly are all the members
preserved even the hair of the eyelids and eyebrows remains
undisturbed, and the whole appearance of the person is so unaltered
that every feature may be recognised.

Sir J. Gardener Wilkinson ("Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians") from whom I have quoted, says that:

"The extraction of the brain by the nostrils is proved by the
appearance of the mummies found in the tombs; and some of the crooked
instruments (always of bronze) supposed to have been used for this
purpose have been discovered at Thebes."  The preservatives appear to
have been of two classes, bituminous and saline, consisting, in the
first class, of gums, resins, asphaltum, and pure bitumen, with,
doubtless, some astringent barks powders, etc. rubbed in. Mummies
prepared in this is way are known by their dry, yet flexible skins,
retracted and adherent to the bones; features, and hair, well
preserved and life-like. Those mummies filled with bitumen, have black
skins, hard and shining as if varnished, but with the features
perfect, having been prepared with great care, and even after ages
have elapsed, are but little susceptible to exposure.

Of the mummies of the second class (also filled with resins and
asphaltum), we must assume that their skins and flesh have been
subjected to sodaic or saline products; for Boitard, in a work
published at Paris in 1825, says that an injection is made with oil of
cedar and common salt, also, that they wash the corpse with nitre and
leave it to steep for seventy days, at the end of which time they
remove the intestines, which the injection has corroded, and replace
their loss by filling the cavity of the abdomen with nitre. This is
also borne out by Wilkinson, who says:

"On exposure to air they (the mummies) become covered with
efflorescence of sulphate of soda, and also readily absorb moisture
from the atmosphere."

It appears, also, that after the period of preparation (thirty, forty,
or seventy days, as fixed by various authors), the corpse was
relieved, in the first-class ones, of all the old saline, nitrous, or
resinous products, and re-filled with costly resins, aromatic spices,
and bitumen; which, says Monsieur Rouyer:

"Having styptic, absorbent, and balsamic qualities, would produce a
kind of tanning operation on the body, which would also, no doubt, be
heightened by the washing with palm wine."

He here broaches the ingenious and highly probable theory, that the
corpse, during its mummification, was placed in stoves of a certain
temperature, where the heat gradually and closely united the various
preservative agents before mentioned. They were then swathed in linen
bandages of great length, and enclosed in beautifully painted and
gilded cartonages; the faces were heavily gilded and the eyes imitated
in enamel; they were then inclosed in three or four cases, also richly
gilded and painted, and finally "mounted" in a sarcophagus.

Common people appear in some cases to have been merely salted and
plunged in liquid pitch, others were simply salted and dried. Mummies
prepared by these methods freely attract moisture--are ill preserved,
and, therefore, as a matter of course, fall to pieces easily on
contact with external air.

In summing up the process of embalming, as described by the authors
just quoted, we find a few problems of more or less difficulty, and
which none of them appear inclined to solve; and I do not wonder at
this, as the attempt, in my own case, in one or two instances, has
involved days of study and references to dozens of medical and other
works with but a meagre result. However, to take them seriatim, we can
assume, I think, with some show of evidence, that the Ethiopian stone,
mentioned as being used to make the first incision in the corpse,
might have been a piece of obsidian or basalt, but most probably was
merely an ordinary sharp flint of a dark colour.

The first chemical used in embalming is the hardest nut of all to
crack, and on which I have most exercised my intellectual teeth--and
that is natron. Now, what is natron? [Footnote: Natrium is the old
Latin term for the metal or base we now call sodium. The old names for
some of its salts were: Natron Carbonicum--or Bicarbonate of Soda;
Natron Vitriolatum--or Sulphate of Soda; discovered or re-discovered
about 1670. Nitrum =Carbonate of soda.] Ordinary dictionaries and
authors tell us, as a matter of course--carbonate of soda. In support
of this theory M. Rouyer writes:

"The natron would be used just as it was got from many of the lakes of
Egypt, where it is found abundantly in the form of carbonate of soda."

Pereira, in "Materia Medica," though intimating that natron is not to
be confounded with nitre, says, in speaking of carbonate of soda:

"This salt was probably known to the ancients under the term of
Nitron."

Now, as Nitron is more likely, from its etymology, to be translated
"nitre," we are landed into another difficulty, if by nitre we mean
saltpetre, for that will, as we all know, preserve animal tissue for a
certain time; however, I do not think we can translate natron as being
nitre (saltpetre), for in former days many salts were included under
the general term nitre; for instance, our common soda and potash, the
chemical composition of which was unknown until Davy, in 1807,
extracted the metals sodium and potassium from those salts. Boitard
expressly states:

"Il parait que ce natrum était un alkali fixe, et pas du tout du nitre
comme quelques auteurs l'ont pensé; ce qui semblerait appuyer cette
opinion, c'est que lea femmes egyptiennes se servaient de natrum pour
faire leur lessive, comme on as sert aujourd'hui de la soude."

In Peru the soil may be said to be impregnated with nitre, but that is
nitrate of soda, and not really saltpetre (nitrate of potassium), as
many people imagine who hear it called simply nitre.

Mr. Thos. W. Baker, who has most obligingly unearthed several old
works for me, says:

"Now I think of it, natron is perfectly familiar to me as apparently a
mixture of broken soda crystals and a brown earth which is sold in the
bazaars of India, under the name of 'sootjee moogee,' for domestic
purposes; and I know, from experience, that unless it is washed off
paint work directly it is passed over it with a cloth all the paint
comes off bare, sometimes to the wood."

Again, he says:

"In Bayley's Dictionary, circa 1730, I find the following: 'Natron;
or, a Natron, from Gr. Natron (?), a kind of black greyish salt, taken
out of a lake of stagnant water in the territory of Terrana, in
Egypt."

Also see "Penny Cyclopaedia," vol. xvi, p. 105, "Natron, native
sesquicarbonate of soda (see 'Sodium'):"

"The Natron Lakes, which are six in number, are situated in a valley
bordering upon Lower Egypt, and are remarkable for the great quantity
of salt which they produce. The crystallisations are both of muriate
of soda (or common salt) and of carbonate of soda. ... The 'Natron' is
collected once a year, and is used both in Egypt and Syria, as also in
Europe, for manufacturing glass and soap, and for bleaching linen."

Turning to "Sodium" for the sesquicarbonate, which is found native in
Hungary, and also near Fezzan, in Africa:

'By the natives it is called "Trona." It is found in hard striated
crystalline masses, and is not altered by exposure to the air, but is
readily soluble in water. This salt appears to be formed when a
solution of the carbonate of soda is heated with carbonate of ammonia,
and probably also when a solution of the bicarbonate is heated. Its
taste is less alkaline than that of the carbonate, into which it is
converted when strongly heated by losing one-third of its carbonic
acid.'

That it was one of the products of soda cannot reasonably be doubted.
Biborate of soda (with which I have been experimenting lately) has
certainly wonderfully preservative powers, especially in conjunction
with common salt, or saltpetre; but then it has not the caustic
properties of natron. May not natron have been a fixed alkali, or has
the native carbonate of soda more caustic and antiseptic properties
than the usual carbonate of soda of commerce, which plainly cannot be
intended?

We have here a most interesting subject to solve as to the component
parts of the ancient natron; my suspicion is that natron, as used by
the Egyptians, was a mixture of biborate of soda, caustic soda, and
muriate of soda. [Footnote: The following report appeared in the
California Alta, 24th June. 1874:

"AN INTERESTING DISCOVERY.--Several weeks ago we mentioned the
departure of Mr. Arthur Robottom, Birmingham, England, on a search for
borax in the southern part of California. He has now returned,
bringing news of an interesting and valuable discovery. Beyond the
Sierra Nevada, in the Enclosed Basin of North America, about 140 miles
in a north-eastward direction from Bakersfield, there is the bed of a
dry lake filled over an area of fifteen miles long by six wide with
saline crystals to a depth of about six or eight feet. The appearance
of the surrounding country clearly indicates that water once stood
sixty feet deep here over a large area, the ancient beach being
distinctly traceable. The most remarkable fact about this-saline
deposit is that in its middle there is a tract, five miles long and
two wide, of common salt, while on the outside there is a deposit of
borate of soda, three feet thick, and under this a lower stratum
composed of sulphate of soda and tincal mixed together, from one to
three feet thick. These minerals are all in crystals, the sulphate of
soda and tincal forming a solid mass, almost like stone in its
hardness. The borate of soda is of a dirty hue, but the salt, which
lies above the level of the entire deposit, in some places to a depth
of seven feet, is white as snow. The report of natural deposits thus
situated will appear very improbable to scientific men, for there is
nothing to account for the separation of the salt from the borates, or
for the accumulation of salt above the level of other crystalline
deposits. We have Mr. Robottom for authority, and the country is open
for those who wish to examine for themselves. The place can easily be
found. It is known as the Borax Fields in the Slate Range, and will be
examined carefully by many competent men, since the tincal--a crude
borate of soda--is a valuable mineral, and can be separated, at little
expense, from the sulphate of soda."]

The next chemical agent we have to notice (which should, however, have
appeared prior to natron), is palm wine, used in the first process of
cleansing the intestines; this would doubtless act as an astringent,
and would, of course, tend to coagulate the liquid albumen contained
in the body (in a similar manner to our ordinary spirits of wine),
which, if followed by a caustic alkali (such as natron may have been),
to dissolve the solid albumen, fibrin and gelatine, ought certainly to
have exercised a decidedly tanning influence.

Following this is oil of cedar. The present oil of cedar (ol cedrat of
commerce) cannot be intended, as that is made from the citron, and
being merely an essential oil can have little of the antiseptic or
corrosive qualities imputed to the ancient oil of cedars. May it not
have been a product distilled from the actual cedar tree (one of the
coniferae) similar to our oil or spirit of turpentine? I have,
however, been unable to discover any writings in certain support of
this theory; "Encyclopaedia Britannica" merely mentions it as "a
certain oily liquor extracted from the cedar;" while Boitard boldly
says, "... Sans doute l'essence de terebenthine." [Footnote: The
Detroit Review of Medicine and Pharmacy for July, 1876. gives a report
of a case of poisoning through an overdose of oil of red cedar (oleum
juniper virginianae) which supports my theory as to there being
extracted an oil from the Lebanon (or other) cedars partaking of the
nature of turpentine and totally distinct from ol cedrat.]

Whatever may have been the composition of--and manner of applying--the
foregoing agents, it is certain that they had the effect intended, for
Diodorus writes fully within bounds when mentioning the life-like
appearance of the features in mummies, as we know by later
discoveries, for there are some well-known specimens still in
existence of which the eyelids, lashes, eyebrows, and hair are still
in their natural state, and this after an interval of thousands of
years. In some mummies, for instance, the contour of the features is
plainly discernible, and surely this is scientific "preparation of
specimens" not to be excelled in the present day.

The Egyptian mode of embalming was imitated occasionally by the Jews,
Greeks, Romans, and other nations, and has sometimes been adopted in
modern times, but never to the same extent or perfection as they
attained. The only other method which is known to have been adopted as
a national custom was that practised by the Guanches, the ancient
inhabitants of the Canary Isles. Their mummies are particularly
described by M. Bortj de St. Vincent, in his 'Essai sur les Isles
Fortunées.' Numerous and vast catacombs are filled with them in each
of the thirteen islands, but the best known is one in Teneriffe, which
contained upwards of a thousand bodies. The mummies are sewn up in
goat or sheep skins, and five or six are commonly found together, the
skin over the head of one being stitched to that over the feet of
another; but those of the great are contained in cases hollowed out of
a piece of savin wood. The bodies are not bandaged, and are dry, light
tan-coloured, and slightly aromatic. Several of them are completely
preserved with distinct, though distorted, features.

The method of embalming adopted by the Guanches consisted in removing
the viscera in either of the same ways as the Egyptians practised,
then filling the cavities with aromatic powders, frequently washing
and anointing the surface, and, lastly, drying the body very carefully
for fifteen or sixteen days in the sun or by a stove.

[Footnote: My friend, the late Thos. Baker, wrote me, some time before
his sad death by shipwreck: "In an old work which I have, 'A General
Collection of Voyages,' I find the following relating to the
'Guanches' in vol. i, book ii, chap. i, page 184, 'The Voyage of Juan
Rejon to the Canary Islands, AD. 1491': 'When any person died, they
preserved the body in this manner: First, they carried it to a cave
and stretched it on a fiat stone, where they opened it and took out
the bowels; then, twice a day, they washed the porous parts of the
body, viz, the arm-pits, behind the ears, the groin, between the
fingers, and the neck, with cold water. After washing it sufficiently
they anointed those parts with sheep's butter (?), and sprinkled them
with a powder made of the dust of decayed pine trees, and a sort of
brushwood which the Spaniards call Brefsos, together with the powder
of pumice stone. Then they let the body remain till it was perfectly
dry, when the relatives of the deceased came and swaddled it in sheep
or goat skins dressed. Girding all tight with long leather thongs,
they put it in the cave which had been set apart by the deceased for
his burying place, without any covering. There were particular persons
set apart for this office of embalming, each sex performing it for
those of their own. During the process they watched the bodies very
carefully to prevent the ravens from devouring them, the relations of
the deceased bringing them victuals and waiting on them during the
time of their watching.'"]

So complete is the desiccation of these mummies, that a whole body,
which Blumenbach possessed, weighed only 7.5 lb, though the dried
skeleton of a body of the same size, as usually prepared, weighs at
least 9 lb.

In some situations the conditions of the soil and atmosphere, by the
rapidity with which they permit the drying of the animal tissues to be
effected, are alone sufficient for the preservation of the body in the
form of a mummy; this is the case in some parts of Peru, especially at
Arica, where considerable numbers of bodies have been found quite dry
in pits dug in a saline dry soil. There is an excellent specimen of a
mummy of this kind in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, which was
brought from Caxamarca by General Paroissien--like most of them, it is
in a sitting posture, with the knees almost touching the chin, and the
hands by the sides of the face. It is quite dry and hard; the features
are distorted, but nearly perfect, and the hair has fallen off. The
Peruvian mummies do not appear to have been subjected to any
particular preparation, the dry and absorbent earth in which they are
placed being sufficient to prevent them from putrefying. M. Humboldt
found the bodies of many Spaniards and Peruvians lying on former
fields of battle dried and preserved in the open air. In the deserts
of Africa the preservation of the body is secured by burying it in the
hot sand; and even in Europe soils are sometimes met with in which the
bodies undergo a slow process of drying, and then remain almost
unalterable even on exposure to the air and moisture. There is a vault
at Toulouse in which a vast number of bodies that have been buried
were found, after many years, dry and without a trace of the effects
of putrefaction; and in the vaults of St. Michael's Church, Dublin,
the bodies are similarly preserved. In both cases putrefaction is
prevented by the constant absorption of the moisture from the
atmosphere, and through its medium from the body by the calcareous
soil in which the vaults are dug.--Penny Cyclopaedia, vol. xv, p.
477."

Having now given a brief sketch of the best-known methods of
preserving Nature's greatest handiwork--Man--I may mention that the
Egyptians also devoted their energies to the preservation of those
things more intimately connected with our theme, namely, mammals,
birds, etc. A people who knew how to preserve and arrest from decay the
carcase of so immense an animal as the hippopotamus (a mummy of which
was discovered at Thebes), or the various bulls, cows, dogs, cats,
mice, ichneumons, hawks, ibises, fishes, serpents, crocodiles, and
other sacred animals (mummies of which have been and are constantly
found), must have had some glimmerings of taxidermy; many of the
subjects are preserved in so beautiful a manner that mummied ibises,
hawks, etc, are occasionally discovered even in a good state of
preservation, and Cuvier actually found in the intestines of a mummied
ibis (Ibis religiosa, a species still found, though rarely, in Egypt)
the partly-digested skin and scales of a snake!

From this period of the world's history I can discover but few links
to the chain of Practical Taxidermy.

True it is that the Greeks, Romans, and the tribes which inhabited
ancient Britain must have had some knowledge of preserving Skins of
animals slaughtered by them in the chase, for we everywhere read of
the skins of lions, tigers, wolves, etc, being used for purposes of
necessity, as in the case of those barbarians who clothed themselves
with skins as a protection from the inclemency of the weather, and
also in the case of the luxurious Greeks and Romans, who used skins in
the adornment of their persons or homes. In fact, the conversion of
skins into leather must be of the highest antiquity, for, in the Leeds
mummy described in 1828, there was found on the bandages of the head
and face a thong composed of three straps of leather, and many of the
Egyptian divinities are represented with a lion or leopard skin as a
covering for the throne, etc.; and do we not read in many places in
Holy Writ of leather and of tanners?--a notable instance, to wit, in
Simon, the tanner--in fact, the ancient history of all nations teems
with the records of leather and of furs; but of the actual setting up
of animals as specimens I can find no trace.

I doubt, however, if we can carry taxidermy proper farther back than
to about 150 years ago, at which date naturalists appear to have had
some idea of the proper preservation and mounting of natural history
specimens; but Réaumur, more than a century and a quarter ago,
published a treatise on the preservation of skins of birds; however,
as his plan was simply setting up with wires birds which had
previously been steeped in spirits of wine, his method did not find
much favour. It appears that, just after that time, the system was
tried of skinning birds in their fresh state, and also of cutting the
skins longitudinally in two halves, and filling the one half with
plaster; then the skin was fixed to a backboard, an eye was inserted,
and the beak and legs were imitated by painting: and this was then
fixed in a sort of framework of glass. This system is still followed
to a certain extent; for, fifteen years ago, when I was in one of the
Greek islands, a German came round the town selling birds mounted in
the same way, and also mounted feather by feather.

To quote now from the translation of a French work, published by
Longman, Rees, and Co, in London, in 1820, we find that "A work
appeared at Lyons in 1758, entitled 'Instructions on the Manner of
Collecting and Preparing the Different Curiosities of Natural
History.'" [Footnote: The sixth edition, twenty-three years later, has
this title, "Taxidermy, or the Art of Preparing and Mounting Objects
of Natural History for the use of Museums and Travellers, by Mrs. R.
Lee, formerly Mrs. J. Edward Bowdich. Sixth edition, 1843. Longman,
Brown, Green, and Longman."]

The author was the first who submitted some useful principles for
taxidermy. He ornamented his book with many plates, more than half of
which are in all respects foreign to his subject, as they simply
represent shells, and other marine productions, with their
descriptions.

In 1786, the Abbé Manesse published a volume under the title of
"Treatise on the Manner of Stuffing and Preserving Animals and Skins."
He presented his work to the Academy, who made a favourable report of
it.

Mauduyt has given a memoir on the manner of preparing dead birds for
forming collections. (See la 5ème "Livraison de l'Encyclopédie,
Méthodique, Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux," t. i, deuxième partie, p.
435.) By studying his method we may, with perseverance, be able to
mount birds well, although he had never prepared them himself, for he
has composed his memoir from the notes which Lerot furnished him, who
mounted them very well, and who merited the confidence which Mauduyt
had accorded him in all the preparations which his fine collection
required.

An old sculptor, living at Lahaye, devoted himself to the practice of
taxidermy, and in a short time surpassed all those who had employed
themselves in mounting animals, especially large mammalia.

It seems that neither the English nor the Dutch have published any
work which treats of the method of mounting animals according to
system.

In 1801 we were not more advanced than they were. What we possessed of
this kind appeared insufficient to amateurs. Notwithstanding, many
derived advantage from the memoir of Mauduyt, but being inserted in
the "Encyclopédie Méthodique," it was not always easy to procure it.
There was, besides, only the work of Abbé Manesse, and the tediousness
of the means which he pointed out frightened all those who desired to
learn taxidermy. The professors of natural history to the central
schools of the departments felt more than ever the want of a work
which furnished the method of preserving and augmenting their
zoological collections. In 1802 their wishes were nearly accomplished,
for there appeared almost at the same time two works on taxidermy, the
one by M. Nicholas, a chemist, the other by M. Henon. M. Nicholas
makes an analysis of all that had been said before on the preparation
of animals. This view comprehends nearly half the volume.

Bécoeur, of Metz, was the best apothecary in that city. He mounted
fresh birds in the greatest perfection, and by a little practice one
is sure to succeed with his method. He opened his birds in the usual
manner, that is to say, by the middle of the belly. He easily took out
the body by this opening without cutting any of the extremities; he
then removed the flesh by the aid of a scalpel, taking the precaution
to preserve all the ligaments; he anointed the skin, and put the
skeleton in its place, carefully dispersing the feathers on each side.
He ran the head through with an iron wire, in which he had formed a
little ring at nearly the third of its length; the smallest side
passed into the rump in such a manner that 'the ring of the iron wire
was under the sternum. He then passed a wire into each claw, so that
the extremities of the wire united to pass into the little ring; he
bent these extremities within, and fixed them with a string to the
iron in the middle of the vertebral column. He replaced the flesh by
flax, or chopped cotton, sewed up the bird, placed it on a foot or
support of wood, and gave it a suitable attitude, of which he was
always sure--for a bird thus mounted could only bend in its natural
posture (?). He prepared quadrupeds in the same manner.

It remains for us to speak of a little work published by Henon and
Mouton Fontenelle. They had at first no other object than to read
their manuscript to the Athenaeum at Lyons, of which they were
members. They were earnestly solicited to print it, and published it
in 1802. The authors speak of birds only. They describe an infinity of
methods practised by others, and compare them to their own, which,
without doubt, are preferable, but too slow to satisfy the impatience
of ornithologists.

The book from which I have just quoted seems to have been the only
reliable text book known at that period, and with the exception of
certain modern improvements in modelling and mounting, contains a mass
of--for that day--valuable elementary information. In fact, the French
and German taxidermists were then far in advance of us, a stigma which
we did not succeed in wiping off until after the Great Exhibition of
1851.

Although, as I have just said, the French and Germans excelled us in
the setting up of specimens, yet their collections did not, in all
cases, exceed ours in point of interest or magnitude, for the old
taxidermists had been at work prior to 1725, at which date it is
recorded that the museum of Sir Hans Sloane (the nucleus of our
British Museum collection) contained the following number of
specimens: Mammals, 1194; birds, 753; reptiles, 345; fishes, 1007. A
gradual increase appeared by 1753, when the figures stood: Mammals,
1886; birds, 1172; reptiles, 521; fishes, 1555. A great proportion of
these were, however, not stuffed specimens, but simply bones and
preparations of fleshy parts in spirits. Nothing shows the gradual
rise and progress of taxidermy better than the history of the British
Museum, which, under the then name of Montagu House, was opened to the
public by special ticket on Jan. 15, 1759.

Soon after its opening the natural history collections appear to have
claimed more interest from the public, for in 1765 we had a very good
collection of butterflies, and in 1769 the trustees acquired, by
purchase, a considerable collection of stuffed birds from Holland. The
restrictions on visitors were, however, vexatious, people of all
classes being hurried through the rooms at a tremendous speed--vide
Hutton, the Birmingham historian, who visited it in 1784, and relates
how he would fain have spent hours looking at things for which only
minutes were allowed. From this period up to 1816 (at which date the
valuable ornithological collection of Col. Montagu was purchased for
the nation at a cost of £11,000) the additions to the natural history
galleries were not many, probably owing to the troublous times;
however, when we had succeeded in breaking the power of Napoleon and
restored peace to Europe, naturalists and taxidermists found that the
public had then time and inclination to devote themselves to their
collections or works.

Accordingly, during the next twenty years many works (including those
before noted) were written on taxidermy, the most notable being by
Swainson, Brown, and that eccentric genius Waterton, whom we may call
the pioneer of our present system of mounting, and who, in his usual
caustic style, pointed out the very inferior way in which specimens
were then mounted.

At the end of his "Wanderings in South America" appeared a treatise on
Taxidermy, but, as he decried the use of arsenical preparations, and
mounted his birds without wires in a fashion peculiar to himself, his
system did not find favour in the eyes of the school of rigid
stuffing, who had not then worked out the present happy compromise
between his style and theirs. His patience must have been
inexhaustible; indeed, the Rev. J. G. Wood, who knew him well, has
told me of many instances in which he spent days in scraping out the
hands and feet of the larger apes until he got them as thin as paper,
and also of his delight when he invented the kid-glove substitute for
a peacock's face much to the astonishment of the reverend gentleman.
Of course; all these works on the preservation of natural history
objects and the labours of collectors directed the public mind to the
contemplation of natural history.

The British Museum at this time also--relieved of a few of the
restrictions on admission--became more popular, and in 1836 we find
the natural history collections were as follow: Mammals, species 405;
birds, species 2400; constituting altogether in specimens the sum
total of 4659. Of reptiles we could boast--species 600, specimens
1300; fish 1000 specimens. These figures did not contrast favourably
with the Paris Museum as in the days of old for now Paris stood:
Mammals, species 500; birds, species 2300; grand total of specimens
6000. Of fish the French had four times as many as we (and beat us,
proportionately, in other sections), while we were far in advance in
this class of the Vienna and Berlin Museums. In shells (not fossils),
London and Paris were equal and much superior to Berlin and Leyden. In
1848 an extraordinary increase (marking the great interest taken in
taxidermical science) had taken place; we now had added to the British
Museum since 1836, 29,595 specimens, comprising 5797 mammals, 13,414
birds, 4112 reptiles, 6272 fish.

In mammals and birds we held the proud position of having the finest
and most extensive collection in the world, while in reptiles and fish
we were again beaten by Paris. In proof of the growing interest taken
in natural history, we find that in 1860 the number of visitors to the
natural history department was greatly in excess of all the other
departments; and at the present time the attendance has greatly
increased, as also the objects exhibited, a fact patent to all who
will take the trouble to visit the British Museum, or to inspect the
official catalogues published from time to time, a synopsis of which
cannot at present be given owing to their extent and variety; but we
can assume, I think, that we have as complete a natural history
collection as is to be found in any of the museums of the world.
[Footnote: Some idea of the extent of the National Natural History
Collections may be gathered from the pages of the recently-published
British Museum "Catalogues" 1874-82, where, in many instances, the
number of specimens of a certain order of birds contained in the
Museum falls very little short of the ascertained number of species
for the whole of the world.]

Though taxidermy flourished, as we see, for some years previous to the
Great Exhibition of 1851, yet that decidedly gave a considerable
impetus to the more correct and artistic delineation of animals,
especially in what may be called the grotesque school instituted by
the Germans, which, though it may perhaps be decried on the score of
misrepresenting nature in the most natural way possible, yet teaches a
special lesson by the increased care necessary to more perfectly
render the fine points required in giving animals that serio-comic and
half-human expression which was so intensely ridiculous and yet
admirable in the studies of the groups illustrating the fable of
"Reinecke the Fox," which were in the Wurtemburgh Court, class XXX.
and were executed by H. Ploucquet, of Stuttgart. These groups, or
similar ones, are now to be seen in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.

In nearly all of these groups the modelling and the varied expressions
of hope, fear, love, and rage, were an immense step in advance of the
old wooden school of taxidermy; specimens of which are still to be
found in museums--stiff, gaunt, erect, and angular. Copies of those
early outrages on nature may still be seen in the dreary plates of the
anything but "animated" work of "poor Goldie," who, as Boswell said,
"loved to shine" in what was least understood.

16 PRACTICAL TAXIDERMY.

From this era the English artists, having had their eyes opened by the
teachings of the foreign exhibits of 1851, steadily gained ground, and
the Wards having the sense to employ, in the first instance, foreign
artistic workmen, rapidly pushed to the front, until the finest animal
study of ancient or modern times was achieved by one of them--the
"Lion and Tiger Struggle," exhibited at Paris, and afterwards at the
Sydenham Crystal Palace. This, and one or two analogous works, carried
the English to the foremost ranks of zoological artists; and now that
we embellish our taxidermic studies with natural grasses, ferns, etc.
and with representations of scenery and rockwork, in the endeavour to
carry the eye and mind to the actual localities in which the various
species of animals are found--an advance in art not dreamed of fifty
years ago--and also correctly model the heads and limbs of animals, we
still hold our own, and are as far advanced in taxidermy as any other
nation.

CHAPTER II.

DECOYING AND TRAPPING ANIMALS.

THE decoying and trapping of birds, etc, is a somewhat delicate subject
to handle, lest we degenerate into giving instruction in amateur
poaching; but the application of my direction I must leave to the
reader's own sense of fitness of time and scene, and object to be
snared. And now, before launching into my subject, one word in season.
Observe as a golden rule--never to be broken--this: Do not snare,
shoot, nor kill any more birds or animals than you absolutely want--in
fine, do not kill for killing's sake, or snare in wantonness. Let all
you do have reference to some object to be attained, either to procure
specimens wanted for a collection, or, in cases of necessity, for
food. Bear this in mind, for, without sympathy with creatures
fashioned in as complex and beautiful a manner as ourselves, we can
never hope to be true naturalists, or to feel a thrill of exquisite
pleasure run through us when a new specimen falls to our prowess. How
can we admire its beauty when alive, or feel a mournful satisfaction
at its death, if we are constantly killing the same species of bird
for sport alone?

Another thing: kill a wounded bird as quickly and humanely as
possible, which you may always do by pressing its breast just under
the wings with your finger and thumb, bearing the whole weight of the
palm of the hand on the sternum or breast-bone, and gradually
increasing the pressure until life is extinct. This plan suffices for
even the larger birds, provided you can find a means of holding them
firmly while you employ both hands in the manner previously indicated.

Again: if collecting eggs, be content with half the sitting of a nest,
and if you know of a very rare nest of eggs, do not take them all in
your acquisitive greed. If you see a rare bird, on common land, you
may as well secure him as let "Jack Smith" make him up in a sparrow
pie; but if the bird is on preserved land, or in a retired spot where
no one is likely to harry it, do think a minute before pulling
trigger, and ask yourself three questions:

1. Will this bird be likely to stay if unmolested?

2. Is it likely to have a mate?

3. Will it nest here?

If you can answer any of these questions in the affirmative, why,
"don't shoot, colonel;" for think of the aid to science, and your own
satisfaction, if you can discover anything new in its habits, or
verify any doubtful point. Many rare birds would nest here if
undisturbed, and come again with additions. The Hoopoe, or golden
oriole, for instance, and many other rare birds, would nest, and,
indeed, do nest here when allowed.

An interesting account of the appearance of the great bustard in
Norfolk, and the pains taken through the kindness of Lord Lilford to
provide it with a mate, appeared in the Field of April 8, 1876. But
alas! everyone is not so considerate, and we have but a select few of
such self-sacrificing people.

I presume no notice is required how to set the first trap on our list
--I mean our boyhood's old favourite, the brick trap, or the sieve and
string, both very well in their way in hard weather; but a notice may
be required as to the uses to which the next simplest trap, or springe
(the horsehair noose), may be applied. For the very few people who do
not know how to set it, I will, in the manner of Col. Hawker, who did
everything at the time which he wished to explain in writing, proceed
to make one.

Fig. 1--Loop in wire.

Here, then, I have a black horsehair about two feet long; I double it,
holding it between the right-hand finger and thumb, leaving a little
loose loop of about half an inch long; from this point I proceed by an
overhand motion of the thumb to twist it up; on reaching the bottom I
make a small knot to prevent its unrolling; then, pushing the knotted
end through the eye of the loop, I thus form a loose noose. I then
attach a piece of wire to the free end by a twisted loop (see Fig. 1).

With about half a dozen of these springes coiled in an oval tin box I
am ready to snare any small bird whose haunt I may discover. Birds
which are nesting can easily be caught by placing one noose in the
nest and others round the edge or mouth, making fast the end wires to
any contiguous branch or twigs. Moorhens or water-rails, which swim or
run through the constantly frequented tracks which they have made in
dense undergrowth or rushes in bogs, may be captured by attaching
these nooses to a string stretched across--indeed, a writer in the
Field, of July 8, 1876, says, speaking of Turkestan:

"Ducks are caught by rather a clever arrangement with horsehair nooses
attached to a string, which is stretched over the ditches and canals
used for irrigation, and so close to the water that the ducks are
compelled when swimming under the string to stretch out their necks,
when they are easily caught in the hanging nooses."

Also a useful plan for catching plovers or snipes, which haunt the
edges of streams having a narrow margin between the bank and the
water, is described by him as used for catching quails:

"One method is simplicity itself: a hair noose is fastened to a lump
of clay well worked together; a number of these appliances are
scattered about the lucerne fields, which the quails are fond of
frequenting; the bird caught in the noose is prevented from flying
away owing to the weight of the lump of clay and its getting easily
entangled in the grass."

Wheatears and ortolans are caught by suspending a hair noose between
two turves placed on end and touching each other in the form of the
roof of a house; to this shelter the birds constantly run on the
approach of danger, or even, apparently, through timidity, on the
gathering of storm clouds.

With this springe, also, thrushes and similar birds are described as
being snared by Mr. Gould (in his "Birds of Great Britain"), who,
giving Mr. Box as his authority, says:

The thrush is a great source of amusement to the middle, and of
profit to the lower, classes during its autumnal migration. Many
families of Liege, Luxemburg, Luneburg, Namur, parts of Hainault, and
Brabant choose this season for their period of relaxation from
business, and devote themselves to the taking of this bird with
horsehair springes. The shopkeeper of Liege and Verviers, whose house
in the town is the model of comfort and cleanliness, resorts with his
wife and children to one or two rooms in a miserable country village
to enjoy the sport he has been preparing with their help during the
long evenings of the preceding winter, in the course of which he has
made as many as from 5000 to 10,000 horsehair springes and prepared as
many pieces of flexible wood, rather thicker than a swan-quill, in and
on which to hang the birds. He hires what he calls his 'tenderie,'
being from four to five acres of underwood about three to five years
old, pays some thirty shillings for permission to place his springes,
and his greatest ambition is to retain for several years the same
tenderie and the same lodgings, which he improves in comfort from year
to year.

The springes being made and the season of migration near, he goes for
a day to his intended place of sojourn, and cuts as many twigs, about
18 in. in length, as he intends hanging springes. There are two
methods of hanging them--in one the twig is bent into the form of the
figure six, the tail end running through a slit out in the upper part
of the twig. The other method is to sharpen a twig at both ends, and
insert the points into a grower or stem of underwood, thus forming a
bow, of which the stem forms the string below the springe; and hanging
from the lower part of the bow is placed a small branch, with three or
four berries of the mountain ash (there called "sorbier "); this is
fixed to the bow by inserting the stalk into a slit in the wood. The
hirer of a new tenderie three or four acres in extent is obliged to
make zigzag footpaths through it, to out away the boughs which
obstruct them, and even to hoe and keep them clean. Having thus
prepared himself, he purchases one or two bushels of mountain ash
berries, with the stalks to which they grow, picked for the purpose
after they are red, but before they are ripe, to prevent falling off:
these he lays out on a table in the loft or attic. The collection of
these berries is a regular trade, and the demand for them is so great
that, although planted expressly by the side of the roads in the
Ardennes, they have been sold as high as 2 pounds the bushel; but the
general price is 5 francs.

We will now suppose our thrush-catcher arrived at his lodgings in the
country--that he has had his footpath cleared by the aid of a
labourer, and that he is off for his first day's sport. He is provided
with a basket, one compartment of which holds his twigs bent or
straight, another his berries; his springes being already attached to
the twigs, he very rapidly drives his knife into a lateral branch, and
fixes them, taking care that the springe hangs neatly in the middle of
the bow, and that the lower part of the springe is about three
fingers' breadth from the bottom. By this arrangement the bird
alighting on the lower side of the bow, and bending his neck to reach
the berries below, places his head in the noose. Finding himself
obstructed in his movements, he attempts to fly away; but the
treacherous noose tightens round his throat, and he is found by the
sportsman hanging by the neck, a victim of misplaced confidence.

The workman, who at this season earns a second harvest by this
pursuit, carries on his industry in wilder districts, or he frequently
obtains permission from his employer to set springes in his master's
woods. In this case he supplies the family with birds, which are
highly appreciated as a delicacy, especially when almost covered with
butter, with a few juniper berries, and some bacon cut into small dice
and baked in a pan. The rest of his take he sells at from 5d. to 10d.
per dozen.

No person who has not lived in the country can imagine the excitement
among all classes when the "grives" arrive. If the morning be foggy,
it is a good day for "grives"; if bright, bad "tenderie"! The reason
is obvious. When the birds arrive in a fog they settle at once in the
woods; if bright, they fly about, seeking the most propitious place
for food.

It appears that redwings and fieldfares are caught by this method
also, as well as a few ring-ousels and blackbirds.

"Stonehenge" says that the springe just described was used for snaring
woodcocks, in the following mariner:

"It used to be the constant practice on all the hill downs in these
parts to place out underwood or furze, about a foot in height, to a
very great extent along the ground, in the shape of a letter V, at the
apex of which an opening would be left, where a hair noose or springe
would be set, which seldom failed to yield the pot-hunter a nightly
supply, as the cock would run along the side of the brushwood feeding,
not taking the trouble to top over it, until he was led into the
snare; but this plan is now, owing to the scarcity of cocks, when
compared with former years, very seldom practised."

Ptarmigan are said by Daniels, in his "Rural Sports," to be led up to
springes in nearly the same manner, stones being substituted for
furze.

Another mode of making a springe, which is a capital plan for catching
almost any bird, whether it be a percher or a runner, is this: Procure
an elastic wand (hazel or osier makes the best) of about 3 ft. 6 in.
long, to the top of which tie a piece of twisted horsehair about 3 in.
in length; to the free end attach a little piece of wood of 2 in. in
length, by the middle, cutting one end to an obtuse point, flattened
on the top and underneath. Just underneath this little crosspiece
attach two horsehair springes, at right angles; next cut a little
fork, or rather angle piece, from a tree, one end of which is to be
quite 4 in. long (to drive in the ground), the other end about 0.5 in,
measuring from underneath.

To set this trap, push the long wand into the ground until about 3 ft.
of it is out; then, at a distance of 2 ft, drive in the fork piece,
until only 0.5 in. clears the ground; next bend the wand down in the
form of a bow, and bring the pointed end of the crosspiece under the
peg, or fork, planted in the ground at the other end. The free end is
now a little elevated, while the middle is held very lightly on the
point of the catch, and its opposite end rests lightly on the ground.
On the "ticklish" setting of this everything depends.

Next place some blades of grass or light moss so as to hide the fork
piece at the back and sides, taking care that no small sticks
interfere with the proper working of the trap; strew some suitable
seed or bait on the grass or moss, and then carefully place one
horsehair noose in such a manner as to trap a bird should it merely
hop on the crosspiece, and the other noose arrange so as to catch it
by the neck should it attempt to seize the bait or to pass. In either
case it dislodges the crosspiece, which instantly flies up, suspending
the bird by the neck or legs in one or both of the nooses. The
appearance of the set trap before the grass or moss is arranged is as
represented in Fig. 2, which I have drawn from a trap set for that
purpose.

Sometimes this trap (or properly springe) is set with another fork
placed at right angles to the other, and sufficiently distant from it
to just catch the opposite end of the crosspiece, and though, perhaps,
this plan allows it to be set a little finer, it has many
disadvantages.

Fig. 2--"SPRINGE," OR SNARE FOR BIRDS.

Yet another modification of the same springe. The wand or
spring-stick, crosspiece, and nooses as before, but instead of the
simple catch, use a complete bow, with both ends stuck in the ground.
At some little distance from this drive in a straight piece of stick;
next procure a piece of stick with a complete fork or crutch at one
end. To set it, draw down the spring-stick and pull the crosspiece
under the bow by the top side farthest from the spring-stick. Now hold
it firmly with one hand while you place the forked stick with its
crutch pressing against the opposite upright stick, and bring its free
end against the lower end of the crosspiece, and adjust both as finely
as you can. Finally, arrange the nooses in such a manner that if
either of them or the crutched stick is touched the latter falls, and
releasing the crosspiece, the spring-stick flies up, and the bird with
it.

To see the setting of this at a glance, vide Fig. 3 (showing only one
noose, however), which I have "cribbed" from a tail piece of Bewick's,
putting it a little out of drawing to show it up.

Fig. 3--"Springe" FOR SNIPE.

The next simple trap to be considered is evidently the pit-fall, used
only, however, for large and fierce animals, and varying in
construction in different countries. For descriptions of methods of
baiting for and catching such animals as lions, leopards, tigers,
elephants, etc, consult almost any book on African or Indian field
sports.

Of poisons or intoxicants for capturing birds or animals, I do not
intend to treat, as they are better left to gamekeepers and poachers.

Dead-falls, such as the "Figure of 4 trap," are easy to make, and
useful for killing small animals. The materials required are simply
three ordinary pieces of wood, a small piece of string, or, better
still, wire, and a large, heavy, flat paving stone, or slate. Having
procured three pieces of wood of half an inch square by one foot long,
we call one the "upright," which is simply brought to a point at one
end, somewhat like a chisel. The second is the "slanting stick," which
should be cut to about 8 in. long, having a nick in it about half an
inch from one end, about half way through its depth; the other end is
brought to a chisel point on its upper surface; the third, which is
the "foot" or "bait stick," has a square notch, the thickness of the
upright, cut in it, about three inches from one end; the inner end of
this notch is relieved a little, so as not to bind on the upright too
much. Within half an inch of the other end another notch is cut, but
at right angles to the last, that is to say, this last notch is cut on
the top, while the other is cut at the side; the outer or top notch
also slopes inward. At the inner or side notch end drill a little
hole, through which place a piece of pointed wire to receive the bait.

The appearance of the three sticks when set is best explained by Fig
4; A. is the upright, B the slanting stick, and C bait or bottom
stick. To set it, take the upright in the left hand, chisel point up,
pick up B with the right hand, place it with its notch fitting on the
top of A, and keeping the slanting stick pressed down firmly, you hold
the two in proper position. This has relieved the left hand entirely,
which now is used to pick up c; place the side notch of this on the
upright A, slide it up until its end nick is caught by the point of B;
a sufficient leverage, as it were, being attained on this, we can hold
the whole of the trap now with the right hand. By grasping B with the
fingers of the hand in opposition to the palm, while the thumb presses
it down on the top, the left hand, being at liberty, is used to drag
the stone and to raise one end to fall on the top of B; the weight of
the stone now sets the three parts in opposition to each other. An
animal touching the bait in the slightest manner is sufficient to
destroy the nice balance of the whole affair, and down it comes with a
run. The sizes given--from a trap I have just set--are, of course, for
small animals only, but it may be enlarged or decreased to any extent,
at the pleasure of the operator.

Fig. 4--"FIGURE of 4" TRAP.

As "Stonehenge" and "High Elms" have introduced some improvements, I
may as well quote the former:

The Figure of 4 trap is composed of a large square piece of stone or
slate propped up in a peculiar manner with three pieces of wood, which
are arranged in the shape of a 4.

In examining this figure it will be seen to consist of a perpendicular
limb or upright, of a horizontal one or stretcher, and of a short
slanting stick, as the third is called. The upright is usually cut
about half an inch wide, shaved to a thin edge at top, but "High Elms"
recommends it to have a forked foot to keep it from twisting, and a
notch in it to prevent the stretcher slipping down. The slanting stick
has a notch cut in it half an inch from its upper end to receive the
top of the upright, while its lower end is shaved off to fit in a
notch in the upper surface of the front of the stretcher. Lastly, the
stretcher has this notch in front, and another notch cut in its side
by which it is caught by the upright and held in its place.

A bait being tied to the external end of the stretcher, and a stone
placed so that it will lie flat on the ground, the whole is ready for
setting, which is effected as follows: Raise the stone, and support it
by the notched end of the slanting stick held in the left hand, the
notch itself looking downwards, then place the upright with one end on
the ground and the other in this notch, and let it carry the weight of
the stone, which will have a tendency to tilt up the slanting stick
still held down by the left hand; finally, hitch the middle notch of
the stretcher in the upright, with its front notch facing upwards,
then bring the lower end of the slanting stick down to this front
notch, drop it in, and the trap is set. Of course, it requires that
each part shall be carefully adapted to the others, but when the trap
is seen set it will be readily understood, practice being, however,
required to set it properly.

I quite agree with "High Elms" that the footed upright is an
improvement; but I am inclined to doubt the advantage of the double
notch between the upright and the stretcher. I have tried both, and I
cannot find that there is any great superiority in his plan; but,
perhaps, though I have exactly followed his directions as given in the
Field, I may have omitted some point of practical importance. In
setting the Figure of 4 trap, the height of the upright and the size
and weight of the stone will be proportioned to the animal for which
it is set. I do not like the trap myself, as it cannot be concealed so
well as the steel trap, and, indeed, has no advantage except in
cheapness. Dozens of them may be set in the woods, and if stolen
little harm is done, as the cost is barely a penny apiece if made in
large numbers. I have also known pheasants caught by the head and
killed in them, the flesh with which they are baited being often
attractive to tame-bred birds, which usually are fed with more or less
of it in their rearing.

Mr. G. S. Purden has informed me that he has succeeded in capturing
birds alive with this trap by hollowing out the ground where the stone
falls.

Another "deadfall" for taking capercailzie in Norway is described by
Mr. Yarnell in his "British Birds":

"Where the trees grow thickly on either side of a footpath, two long
pieces of wood are placed across it; one end of these rests on the
ground, the other being raised a foot and a half, or somewhat more,
from the surface, and supported by a piece communicating with a
triangular twig, placed in the centre of the path, and so contrived
that on being slightly touched the whole fabric falls; a few stones
are usually placed upon the long pieces of wood to increase the
rapidity of the drop by the additional weight. Birds running along the
footpath attempt to pass beneath the barrier, strike the twig, and are
killed by the fall of the trap."

Taking birds by means of bird-lime is my next consideration. Bird-lime
is made either from boiled oil or from holly-bark, but the making of
it is not "worth the candle," it being so easily bought from any
professional bird-catcher.

To those who wish to make their own, I commend the following: Take
half a pint of linseed oil and put it into an old pot, or any vessel
that will stand the fire without breaking. The vessel should not be
more than one-third full. Place it over a slow fire and stir it until
it thickens as much as required. This can be ascertained by cooling
the stick in water and trying if it will stick to the fingers. When
sufficiently boiled, pour into cold water, and it will be found ready
for use.

I have submitted the foregoing to a practical birdcatcher and maker of
bird-lime, and he has "passed" it as correct, only adding that the oil
takes somewhere about four hours to slowly boil before it becomes
sufficiently tenacious for use. Holly-bark he does not believe in, as
he says it takes too long to make; but that is no reason why we should
pass over bird-lime made from this substance. The "Encyclopaedia
Britannica" says:

"It is usually prepared by boiling holly-bark ten or twelve hours, and
when-the green coat is separated from the other it is covered up for a
fortnight in a moist place; then pounded into a rough paste, and
washed in a running stream till no motes appear. It is next put up to
ferment for four or five days, and repeatedly skimmed. To prepare it
for use, a third part of nut oil or thin grease must be incorporated
with it over the fire."

Bird-lime can also be made from many other plants, but the best
quality is made by either of the two methods mentioned above.

The "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia" says further that:

When bird-lime is about to be applied to use, it should be made hot,
and the rods or twigs should be warmed a little before they be dipped
in it. Where straws and cords are to be limed it should be very hot,
and after they are prepared they should be kept in a leather bag till
used. In order to prevent bird-lime from being congealed by cold, it
should be mixed with a little oil of petroleum; and, indeed, before
the common kind can be used at all, it must be melted over the fire
with a third part of nut oil or any thin grease, if that has not been
added in the preparation.

The smaller kinds of birds are frequently taken with bird-lime, which
is one of the most eligible modes in frost or snow, when all sorts of
small birds assemble in flocks, and which may be used in various ways.
Put the bird-lime into an earthen dish, with the addition of one ounce
of fresh lard to every quarter-pound of bird-lime, and melt the whole
gently over the fire. Take a quantity of wheat ears, with a foot of
the straw attached to thorn, and, having warmed the lime, that it may
spread the thinner, lime about six inches of the straw from the bottom
of the ears. Scatter a little chaff and thrashed ears over a compass
of twenty yards; stick the limed straws into the ground, with the ears
inclining downwards, or even touching the surface; traverse the
adjoining places in order to disturb the birds, and make them fly
towards the snare, and, by pecking at the ears of corn, they will
become so entangled with the limed straw as to be easily taken by the
hand.

The lime may also be applied to cords, rods, and twigs, especially
when it is intended to entangle the larger birds, such as snipes and
fieldfares, and for this purpose the following mode may be adopted:
Take the main branch of any bushy tree, with long, straight, and
smooth twigs, such as the willow or birch, clear the twigs from every
notch and prickle, lime the branches to within four fingers of the
bottom, leaving the main bough from which the others rise untouched by
the composition, and then place the bush where the birds resort. For
small birds two to three hundred single twigs, about the thickness of
a rush and three inches in length, may be stuck in sheaves of flag and
corn.

In hot and dry weather the twigs may be placed around the rivulets,
ditches, and pools to which the birds come for drink, covering the
waters at the same time with brushwood, so that they can have no
access to quench their thirst, except at the spot where the twigs are
fixed. For this purpose the rods or twigs should be about a foot in
length, limed to within two inches of the thickest end, which is stuck
into the bank in such a manner that they may lie within two fingers'
breadth of the ground, and as the birds do not alight at once upon the
place where they are to drink, but gradually descend from the higher
trees to the lower, thence to the bushes, and lastly to the bank, it
is useful to fix a few branches about a fathom from the water in a
sloping direction, with a few lime twigs fastened upon them on which
the birds will as frequently be caught as on those which are placed
nearer to the water. The best time for this sport is from ten to
eleven in the forenoon, from two to three in the afternoon, and about
an hour before sunset, when the birds come to the watering places in
flocks before they retire to roost.

The application of bird-lime is of ancient origin, and is practised in
many countries. Pennant gives an account of how to take Small birds by
liming twigs around a stuffed or tethered live owl. I have heard of
this plan being adopted, but have not tried it myself. From the
curious manner in which small birds usually mob an owl, I should fancy
it would succeed.

According to Folkard's "Wildfowler:"


"There was also a method much in vogue previously to the invention and
discovery of decoys, of taking wild fowl with lime strings made of
packthread or string, knotted in various ways and besmeared with
birdlime; these were set in rows about fens, moors, and other feeding
haunts of the birds, an hour or two before morning or evening
twilight. This plan was to procure a number of small stakes, about 2
ft. in length, sharpened to a point at the nether end, and forked at
the upper. These were pricked out in rows about a yard or two apart,
some being placed in a slanting direction, and each stake siding one
with another, within convenient distances of 4 yds. or 5 yds, so as to
bear up the strings, which were laid upon the crutches, and placed
loosely about 18 in. above the ground. The lime strings were thus
drawn from stake to stake in various directions, and lightly placed
between the forks at the top of the stakes, some rows being higher
than others; and in this manner the whole space occupied by the stakes
was covered with lime strings, as if carefully laid in wave-like
coils, or placed in different directions, the ends being secured to
the stakes with slip-knots, so that upon a light strain the whole of
any string which might be touched by the bird became instantly loose,
and, sticking to the feathers, the more it struggled to free itself,
so much the more the string twisted about it, and thus the bird was
quickly entangled, and became an easy prey. In this manner numbers of
wild fowl of the largest species were taken at night at the moment of
sweeping over the ground at very slow flight, just before alighting;
and it would appear that this method of fowling was particularly
successful in taking plovers, which generally alight on the ground
thickly congregated together.

A similar method was employed for taking wild fowl with lime strings
placed over the surface of rivers and ponds frequented by those birds,
and apparently with remarkable success. For this purpose it was
necessary to procure a waterproof bird-lime wherewith to dress the
strings, which were knotted in a similar manner to those employed for
taking birds on land. The strings so prepared were in serpentine coils
from stake to stake, the stakes being forked at the top, and of
similar form to those last described, but of sufficient length to
reach the bottom of the water and obtain a firm fixing in the mud.
Some of the stakes were placed on the banks of the water or in any
manner so that the lime strings could be drawn across and about the
surface in different directions, resting here and there on some or
other of the stakes or any boughs or overhanging trees, in such a way
that the birds, when in the act of alighting on the water at night,
might strike against the lime strings and become therein entangled.

The principal secret of success in this and the preceding device was
that of placing the lime strings in shaded places over the most
assured haunts of the birds; and it was only obtainable on dark
nights, or in good shade, for whenever there was sufficient light for
the birds to see the least sign of the snare spread for them the
fowler had no chance of making any captives. (And be sure to take this
caution not to use these strings in moonshine nights, for the shadow
of the line will create a jealousy in the fowl, and so frustrate your
sport.) And as wildfowl in their descent, just before alighting on the
water, diverge from their accustomed angular figure, and spread
themselves more in a broad front line, a whole flight sometimes comes
swooping into the fowler's snare all at once."


A method of trapping, with the assistance of bird-lime, might, I
think, be tried with some chance of success. It is to insert a piece
of fish in a cone of paper well smeared with bird-lime, and to throw
down a few of these prepared cones in places accessible to gulls,
herons, and such birds, who, in attempting to seize the fish, would be
effectually hoodwinked, and thus easily secured.

Hawking, by which birds are captured by trained falcons, is of the
highest antiquity. Pennant mentions that the Saxon King Ethelbert (who
died in 760) sent to Germany for a cast of falcons to fly at cranes
(herons?). As this sport has now fallen into disuse, I must refer my
readers for particulars to Blaine, Daniel, Freeman, Harting, Captain
Dugmore, and to occasional articles by one or two modern falconers in
the columns of the Field.

The infinite variety of nets used in the capture of various birds
requires almost a chapter by itself; but it will suffice for the
present one if we mention those most generally used, or the most
striking varieties. First, then, comes the ordinary "clap-net" of the
London and provincial bird-catchers. The "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia"
says, with regard to clap-nets:

"Birds are also taken with nets during the day, and especially in
those seasons of the year when they change their situation; in the
month of October, for instance, when the wild birds begin to fly, and
in March, when the smaller kinds assemble for pairing. They are
chiefly on the wing from daybreak to noon, and always fly against the
wind. The birdcatchers, therefore, lay their nets towards that point
to which the wind blows. The nets employed in this way are generally
12.5 yds. long and 2.5 yds. wide, and are spread on the ground
parallel to each other, in such a manner as to meet when turned over.
They are provided with lines, fastened in such a way that, by a sudden
pull, the birdcatcher is able to draw them over the birds that may
have alighted in the space between those parallel sides. In order to
entice the wild birds to alight amongst the nets, call birds are
employed, of which there must be one or two of each of the different
kinds which are expected to be caught, such as linnets, goldfinches,
greenfinches, etc. Besides the call birds there are others denominated
flur birds, which are placed upon a moveable perch within the net,
called a flur, and which can be raised or depressed at pleasure, and
these are secured to the flur by means of a brace or bandage of
slender silk strongly fastened round the body of the bird. The call
birds are deposited in cages at a little distance from the nets, and
as soon as they see or hear the approach of the wild birds, which they
perceive long before it can be observed by the birdcatcher, they
announce the intelligence from cage to cage with the greatest
appearance of joy, and they proceed to invite them to alight by a
succession of notes or short jerks, as they are termed by the
birdcatcher, which may often be heard at a considerable distance. The
moment that the call is heard by the wild birds they stop their flight
and descend towards the net, and so great is the ascendancy and
fascination of the call birds that they can induce the others to
return repeatedly to the nets till every bird in the flock be caught."

Being somewhat afraid that this description would not meet all the
practical requirements of the case, and knowing myself but little or
nothing of this mode of birdcatching, I thought it advisable to
interview a practical man. Having at last succeeded in capturing a
specimen of the genus homo, species birdcatcher, I prevailed upon him
(through the medium of a tip) to impart his stock of birdcatching
lore, and to cut me patterns of play-sticks and pegs, and also to
correct my rough sketches when necessary.

The sum and substance of my interview is as follows: The nets, which
are of two pieces, are each about twelve yards long by two-and-a-half
yards wide, and are made with a three-quarter mesh of what is
technically called two-thread. The staves at each end, to which the
nets are permanently attached, are made of red deal, ferruled and
jointed at the middle, in the manner of a fishing rod, for the
convenience of carriage. The length of each when put together is about
five feet six inches, being thus shorter than the width of the net.
This, it will be readily observed, allows for the bagging of the
net--an important particular, as, if the nets were strained tight with
no allowance made for bagging, the birds would flutter along the
ground until they got out at one end or the other. As it is, they roll
themselves up in the meshes, and effectually entangle themselves while
attempting to escape.

A strong line, called the top line, made of clock line, passes the
whole length of each net, and is protracted some feet past the staves
at either end. A similar line runs along the bottom made of
three-thread or whip thread. This is called the bottom line. There are
then two unattached cords of some strength, called the pull line and
the forked line, which latter is attached, when required for use, to
the two staves nearest the birdcatcher, at the intersection of the top
line.

Eight pegs are used, made of hard wood, generally ash, four of which
are called the "chief pegs." The whole of the pegs are notched, for
the convenience of attaching a line.

The method of laying the clap-net is best described with the aid of a
drawing (vide Fig. 5).

The first thing to be done is to lay down the right-hand net, and to
drive in the two chief pegs where shown, namely, at the bottom of the
staves, to which they are attached by a loop of strong cord, acting as
a hinge. The two end pegs are then driven in the ground at some little
distance from and in an exact line to the chief pegs. The bottom line
is then made fast at each end, as also the continuation of the top
line. The two pegs, lines, and staff thus forma triangle at each end.
The other net is then laid in such a manner that when both are pulled
over, one net shall overlap the other to the extent of six inches. It
is then turned back and pegged down in the same way as the right-hand
net. The next operation is to tie the forked line to each top end of
the staves, a nick being cut in each for this purpose.

Exactly in the centre of the forked line the pull line is knotted, at
the other end of which the birdcatcher stands at varying distances,
according to the bird he wishes to catch; for instance, for linnets or
goldfinches, thirty to forty yards; for starlings a greater distance
is required; or to capture these wary birds a better plan is to place
the nets in one field while you retire into another, bringing the pull
line through an intervening hedge.

Cages containing birds are dispersed about on the outer edges of the
nets, the best, or call birds, being placed farther away; in fact, my
informant thinks that if all the cages were placed a moderate distance
away from the nets it would be better, as he has found that the usual
red or green cages have been the means of "bashing "--i.e.
frightening--the wild birds away from the nets.

Fig. 5--PLAN AND METHOD OF SETTING CLAP-NET.

"When doctors differ, who shall decide?"

On mentioning the above to another birdcatcher he gave a huge snort of
dissatisfaction, and roundly swore that my man knew "nought about it,"
for he always set his cages as near the nets as possible; "for don't
it stand to reason," quoth he, "that if you set your cages fur away,
your 'call birds' will 'tice the wild 'uns down round 'em? an' they
won't come near your nets."

An important actor in the performance is the "play-bird," which is a
bird braced by a peculiar knot or "brace," as shown in Fig. 6, on an
arrangement called the play-stick.

The "play-stick" is resolvable into three parts, Fig. 7 being the
ground peg, formed of a piece of hard wood about six inches long,
having a round hole bored through close to the top, through which the
"play-line" passes. Immediately underneath is a square slot for the
reception of a piece of brass tube beaten flat at one end (Fig. 8),
while the other end is left open for the reception of the "play-stick"
(C, Fig. 9), simply a rough twig or piece of hard wood, upon which the
bird is tied by the "brace" (Fig. 6)--which is constructed, as shown
in drawing, by doubling a piece of string, tying a knot in the centre
and then joining the ends. The head and body of the bird is thrust
through, so that a loop catches it on each side and in front of the
wings, the legs and tail being thrust through the other, one loop
coming on each side of the body behind the wings. A swivel is attached
at one of the knots, and, by another piece of string, is made fast to
the play-stick near its end. The bird is thus perfectly free so far as
the wings and legs are concerned.

Fig. 6, 7 & 8--"Play-stick" parts

The "play-stick," as a whole, is represented in Fig. 9, which shows
the bird in repose, with the end of the stick (C) resting on the
ground, the play-line passing through a hole in the ground peg (A),
while the part marked B works in the slot in the same.

A little food and water are put down by the play-bird's side, to which
it addresses itself in its intervals of rest. Directly birds appear,
the play-line is smartly pulled, which has the effect of jerking the
play-bird upwards, while at the same time it flutters its wings to
regain its perch. This motion is mistaken by the wild birds as a
natural proceeding; they accordingly alight around the play-bird, to
assist it in feeding. The pull-line of the net is then smartly jerked,
which causes the forked-line to fly inwards, and, acting on the hinged
pegs and top and bottom lines as by a lever, the staves rise from the
outside, become perpendicular, and finally fall over, inclosing all
within the open space in the nets.

Fig. 9--"FLUR" OR "PLAY-STICK."

The "Play-bird" is always placed on the left hand of the birdcatcher,
about two yards into the net. Sometimes more than one play-stick and
bird are used; all are, however, played by the same string. The best
birds are, however, contrary to my expectations, not used, as the
constant pulling up and down, to say nothing of the worry of the
falling nets, very soon kills the poor little "play-bird." From
Michaelmas to Christmas would appear to be the best times for
catching.

Many rare birds not calculated on by the operator, are procured in
this way. I allude to hawks, which constantly dash at the call, or
play-birds, of the netsman. I remember seeing, taken in a lark net on
the racecourse of Corfu--one of the Ionian Isles--a most beautiful
male specimen of the hen harrier (Circus cyaneus, Macg.); and here in
England I have received, within the last few years, one great grey
shrike (Lanus excubitor, 1.), four or five hobby hawks (Falco
subbuteo, 1.), a dozen or more merlins (Falco oesalon, Tunstall), and
a great number of sparrowhawks, and kestrels, all captured by this
method.

Draw-nets are those used by fen-men and others at night for taking
lark, snipe, plover, etc, by dragging a long net of a certain
construction over the fields and swamps. The actual originator of this
method of capture as applied to snipe and such birds, appears to have
been Mr. Daniel himself (vide "Rural Sports," vol. 3, p. 179).

Glade nets, which are nets stretched in narrow glades or ridings in
woods from tree to tree, are used chiefly for taking night-flying
birds, such as woodcocks, or wild ducks. Folkard thus describes their
use:

"The proceedings connected with the use of glade nets appear to be
very simple. These nets are of lengths and breadths proportioned to
the places in which they are suspended. They are simply pieces of fine
thread netting, edged with cords adapted to the extent of the lint.
The glade net so formed is suspended between two trees, directly in
the track of the woodcock's flight. Both the upper and lower corners
have each a rope attached to them which, as regards the upper part of
the net, is rove through sheaves, iron rings, or thimbles fastened to
the trees on either side at the top of the glade at a moderate height,
varying from ten to twelve or fifteen feet. The falls of the two upper
ropes are joined or so adjusted that they form a bridge, to the
central part of which a rope is attached of several yards in length,
which the fowler holds in his hand in a place of concealment, and thus
commands full power over the net, being able to drop it down suddenly
and intercept the flight of any birds which may attempt to escape
through the glade; or he can draw it up as suddenly from the ground to
a perpendicular position. A stone, of about 5 lb. weight, is attached
to each of the lower cords of the net, so that when the fowler lets go
his controlling rope the weight of the stones forces the lower part of
the net down in an instant with a strong fall, and, at the same time,
they draw up the upper part of the net. The fowler having stationed
himself in such a position as to command a full view of the glade in
which his net is placed, beaters are employed to flush the cocks from
their retreats; immediately on one or more flying in the direction of
the fowler a signal is given, and just as the bird approaches the net
it is suddenly let down or drawn up, when the woodcock, flying
forcibly against it, is immediately ensnared. The instant the birds
have struck the net the fowler lets go another rope, which is
generally looped to a stake within reach of his arm, and the whole
net, with the birds entangled, then drops to the ground. In forcing
themselves forward in their endeavour to escape they form the net into
a sort of bag, which makes their capture more certain."

Nets are in some parts of the world set under water to procure wild
fowl. I remember, when in Norfolk, a gannet being brought in by one of
the fishing boats; the bird had become accidentally entangled in one
of the nets whilst attempting to rob-it of some fish.

Small nets of a few yards long, made of fine black silk, with a small
mesh, are used in some parts of the country for taking kingfishers.
These nets are stretched across a small watercourse or the arch of a
bridge in such a manner that, a little "slack" being allowed, the bird
is taken to a certainty in attempting to pass. So fatal is this net
when skilfully set, that I know one man who adds several pounds to his
income in the course of a year by taking kingfishers in this manner.

For the netting of hawks by a contrivance called the bow net, which
was formerly used in England, see Blaine's "Encyclopaedia of Rural
Sports."

Many birds (notably sea and rock birds) are to be procured by
descending the rocks attached to a stout line. But this highly
dangerous work had better not be attempted by the tyro. For an ancient
but interesting account of rock fowling in the Orkneys, see Pennant's
"Arctic Zoology," page 29. The same system is still adopted on many
parts of the coast. In fact, I recollect (when some years ago I
visited the Isle of Wight on a collecting expedition) seeing two men
with ropes and an iron bar going to the top of the "Bench" (a famous
place for sea fowl), and while one man was let down over the edge of
the cliff his fellow remained at the top to answer the pull of the
"bird-line" and look after the safety of the "man-rope" and iron bar.
So fascinating did this appear to me that, having been "between heaven
and earth" once or twice before, I volunteered to "go below;" but I
found that the fowlers did not care for the risk, or the loss of time,
and booty, involved in letting an amateur down.

It was, indeed, a wonderful sight. I crept as closely as I dared, and
lying on my breast looked over the cliff. Hundreds of feet down, the
sea, lashed into breakers by the breeze, crept up the steep black rock
walls, or tumbled over the half-hidden crags; and yet, though you
could see the white war of waters, but the faintest murmur of this
battle between land and sea could be heard--below and halfway up, the
puffins and guillemots were sitting in rows, or flying off in droves
as little black specks on the white foam.

Here I learned that they often baited fish-hooks with offal or pieces
of fish, for the purpose of catching the gulls, and this brought to my
mind the quantities of robins, thrushes, and such birds I had seen
caught by fish-hooks baited with worms and pegged down in the olive
groves of the Ionian Sea.

I notice that Pennant mentions that the lapwing is decoyed into nets
by the twirling of looking glass. I have seen exactly the same thing
myself on the Continent applied to the taking of larks. A cylinder of
wood, inlaid with pieces of looking-glass, is fixed 'between two
uprights, and made to revolve by means of a small crank and wheel, to
which a line is attached. The netsman, retiring to some little
distance, keeps the cylinder in constant motion by pulling the line,
at the same time keeping up a soft whistling noise with his mouth. The
larks flutter over the twirler, and seemingly dazzled, descend on the
ground between the nets which are then pulled over in the usual
manner.

Steel traps are of many shapes and sizes, and are best procured ready
made from a good firm, though I have known a few country blacksmiths
who could turn them out decently. As everyone knows this, the ordinary
"gin," or tooth trap, used for capturing rats or other animals and
birds, no description is, I think necessary, further than to say that
the springs should be highly tempered, and that the teeth should not
be too long. These traps can be set in various places with or without
baits--in the water, on the ground, up a tree, or on a post; but
post-traps proper, which are chiefly useful, when set unbaited, for
catching hawks, are made with an arm and spring at right angles to the
plate, so that they may be fastened to the post which supports them.
In setting these traps great care and skill are necessary; and in
giving directions how to do this properly, I cannot do better than
quote "Stonehenge," who says:

"First lay the trap on the ground, then mark the outline of it,
allowing half an inch clear all round; out away the turf to this
pattern, and in the centre dig a hole deep enough to receive a strong
peg and the chain which fastens the trap to it, which will thus be
entirely concealed; drive in the peg, arrange the chain neatly upon
this and in the channel for the spring, and then set the trap in its
place, temporarily propping up the plate by a piece of twig, which can
finally be withdrawn by a string; take care so to out away the turf
that the jaws are only just below the level of the ground. Having done
this, cut a very thin slice of the turf which was removed to make way
for the trap, leaving little more than the grass itself with a ragged
edge, and lay this gently on the plate, and withdraw the prop. Then
cover the spring in the same way; and, lastly, put some more shreds of
grass or leaves over the jaws themselves, but in such a way that the
former will not be caught between the teeth when the trap is sprung.
When the keeper can do all this so neatly that the trap cannot be
discovered by the eye at two or three yards distance, and yet will be
sprung by half an ounce weight being placed upon the plate over and
above what it has already, and without leaving anything between the
jaws, he may be considered a master of his craft. All this should be
done with strong leather gloves on the hands, and with as little
breathing over the trap as possible. The object of these precautions
is to avoid leaving any scent behind, which might alarm the vermin,
who are always suspicions of any place where they have reason to
believe man has been at work."

Daniel, in his "Rural Sports," says:


Otters are taken in an unbaited trap, for they reject every kind of
bait, This trap must be placed near his landing place, which will be
found by carefully examining the edges of rivers or ponds, either by
his spraints, his seal, or the remains of fish (for in whatever place
he eats his plunder he always leaves the tail or hinder parts of the
fish undevoured). The trap must be set in and covered with mud to
prevent his seeing it; the instant the trap "strikes," the otter
plunges into the water with it, when its weight, preventing his rising
to the surface, soon destroys him. The trap will seldom be drawn more
than twenty yards from the spot, and with a grappling iron is soon
recovered. If the place where he comes out of the water cannot be
discovered, upon the ground where the remains of fish are left, out a
hole near the edge of the water, and place a trap or two upon a level
with the ground and cover it over carefully with moss.


This aqueous method of trapping, is also recommended for taking all
birds of the crow tribe. The bait in this case is an egg, so secured
that on the bird walking along a prepared pathway to seize the
delicacy he springs a concealed trap, and fluttering into deep water
drowns by the weight of the attachment.

Another method of setting the trap on land for the taking of some
animals, which, says Daniel, speaking of the marten (now a rare animal
in most parts of England), is a sure way of catching this destructive
little animal in a park or covert which is railed in, is to cut a
groove in some of the posts or gate posts, in which set an unbaited
steel trap, and as they constantly run along the posts and pales early
in the morning to dry themselves, in leaping up from the ground upon
the place where the trap is set, they are sure to be captured.

Fish is recommended as bait for weasels, polecats, etc, although I
think the best way of trapping such animals is to form an enclosure of
brushwood, etc, in which peg down some live bird, leading two narrow
pathways from it from each end and exactly opposite each other, in
each of which place an ordinary steel trap, unbaited, concealed in as
skilful a manner as possible. The animal running along one of these
pathways, to seize his prey, is inevitably trapped. Be sure and have
two openings, or this plan will not succeed. Cats may be trapped in
this manner.

St. John, in his "Highland Sports," mentions that if a wild cat, or
fox, can be killed, and the body placed in the usual haunts of its
kind, well surrounded with traps, curiosity or some such feeling will
impel them to visit the "dear departed," and in walking round they
often succeed in springing the traps, and remaining as mourners in a
fashion they did not intend.

Hawks may be trapped by first capturing their young, and pegging one
or more to the ground, and surrounding it or them by concealed traps.
This cruel but highly effective way succeeds by reason of the old
birds seeing or hearing their young, and attempting to release them.

If part of a bird or animal killed by a hawk can be found, a good plan
is to allow it to remain, surrounding it also with concealed traps, as
they usually return to finish their meal, and that sometimes after the
lapse of days.

The "box trap" is used for catching many animals for which the
ordinary gin is used; but the advantage which it possesses over the
latter is that it captures all animals alive, which, in the case of a
hare or a rabbit accidentally getting in, is of consequence, as it may
be released unhurt, whereas the ordinary steel trap, if accidentally
sprung by them, would have killed or maimed them to a certainty. These
box traps can be bought ready-made at many places; but, for those who
wish to make one themselves, I must refer them for plans and
description to Col. Hawker, or "Stonehenge." Almost anything does to
bait a gin or box trap with--bits of flesh, fish, offal, half-cooked
red herrings, etc.--and it is a generally understood thing that if
half-putrid flesh or entrails of any animal are rubbed over traps or
the thorns or bushes placed as entrances to traps, hares and the like
will seldom go near.

Of course, a very small trap must be used for small birds, and baited
either with seeds, bread, worms, or a small piece of fat meat, which
latter is a most tempting bait for the birds of the genus Parus
(titmice).

There are several other made traps, such as the trap cage; the best of
which has a bird as a decoy partitioned off from the actual trap. This
is a useful little trap in some seasons, and is well known, being
easily procurable at any of the bird fanciers'.

Mr. James Hiam, well known in Worcestershire for his "Notes on Natural
History," sends me the following description of his method of trapping
bullfinches:

"I find the best way to trap bullfinches is to procure a caged bird,
also what is known as a trap-cage, putting the tame bird in the lower
part, placing a bunch of blackberries or privet berries in the top
part; and hanging the cage against a wall or tree out of the reach of
cats. I have reserved a stook of bunches of blackberries by inserting
their stems in water, grape-fashion, for a succession of food for
bait. I have also caught scores, if not hundreds, on bird-lime, but
this injures their plumage and is somewhat troublesome, especially to
anyone not accustomed to handle it. I have also caught them in a bat
fowling net at night out of thick hedges. I find a trap cage or cages
best, for bullfinches generally go in small parties, and I have taken
two out at once from two separate cages, while others waited round and
were caught afterwards.

The well-known and easily imitated call of the bullfinch at this
season of the year (autumn) appears to have a greater attraction--for
what reason I cannot say--than at any other period; there is also a
great difference in individual call birds. The best should be
selected. When fresh caught, bullfinches are best placed in a low kind
of box cage about six inches deep, with wires only on one side. Such
cage may be easily made out of a soap box from the grocer's, giving
them a good supply of canary and hemp seed and water. If they refuse
to eat the seed, which sometimes happens, give a few blackberries or
such other food as they feed on at the time; the seed of the dock is
always a favourite dish in the winter, and the probability is in a day
or two they will take to the seed, which should be strewed over the
bottom of the cage."

The nightingale trap (perhaps not quite so well known) is a compromise
between the bow net and the spring trap; it is useful for taking most
insectivorous birds, is easily made by anyone possessing a little
mechanical ability, and is to be bought cheaply at most of the bird
shops. As I have been asked, however, by many correspondents in the
country, where such things are to be procured, they are informed that
in the classic retreat of the Seven Dials--that is to say, in the
street running through from Charing Cross to Bloomsbury--are to be
found many bird fanciers' shops where the nightingale trap can be
procured for something under a couple of shillings.

In setting all of these traps be sure to touch them with the hands as
little as possible, especially if setting a baited trap. Gloves are
recommended to be worn, scented with musk when baiting for stoats,
weasels, etc, and with vervain or valerian if baiting for cats.

I will proceed now to the consideration of decoys. Decoys are of two
classes, fixed and mechanical, or those easily removable and natural.
Of the former the most important is what is called a decoy for wild
fowl, viz, a large tract of land and water specially fitted up with
nets of the sorts most suitable for taking ducks and similar birds,
and near which it is unlawful to fire a gun. For a thoroughly
exhaustive and interesting article on decoy ponds, see Folkard's "Wild
Fowler," pp. 44-94.

Some singular and highly original methods of catching birds are
described by ancient and modern authors. Pennant, in his "Arctic
Zoology," vol. ii, page 550, describes a quaint but doubtful method of
decoying wild geese in Siberia; he also, at page 311, records how
immense numbers of willow grouse are taken by a curious mode of
netting.

Folkard also mentions an ingenious way of capturing wild fowl in their
own element by the aid of calabashes. This, however, I think, "must be
seen to be believed," though I am bound to confess that it is partly
corroborated by other writers.

Of the lasso or the "bolas," used in South America for capturing
certain animals and birds, no description need be given, as this
method of trapping is only to be performed by a person trained from
childhood to ride and throw the lasso. The same remark applies to the
use of the blowpipe (see Bates's "Amazons"), and the Australian
"boomerang" and "throwstick."

Regarding the use of the blowpipe, I see that an American author on
Taxidermy, who has written a very good book on the subject--albeit he
has, perhaps unwittingly, cribbed my title of "Practical
Taxidermy"--appears to have attained remarkable proficiency in the use
of this weapon, and describes also his method of making it, thus:

"The blowpipe is of great service for collecting warblers and other
small birds. It should be made by encasing a long glass tube in wood,
to prevent breaking. The ordinary glass tubes used by glass-blowers
make good blowpipes, which should have a diameter of 0.5 in. and be
not less than 6 ft. long.

To encase a pipe with wood, take two strips of straight-grained pine,
and plane or "gouge" out a half-round groove the full length of each,
glue them together, and wire firmly over the glass pipe. When the glue
is dry, remove the wires, and plane the wood round until it has a
diameter of 1.5 in.; if smaller it will sag, and not do good shooting.
Putty balls should be used, and blown with a quick puff, which is
easily acquired by practice. The putty is thickened with whiting until
the pellets will roll hard, but they should not be dry enough to
crumble.

With this novel gun I have killed as many as fifty-six warblers in
less than a day, and spoiled but few specimens in killing."

Rowland Ward, also, in his "Sportsman's Handbook," appears to favour
the use of the blowpipe, and very correctly says at page 9:

"The implement is so simple and so easily constructed that the price
of it is inappreciable. About 3 ft. length of any straight metal or
wooden tubing, 0.75 in. diameter, through which a pellet the size of a
marble may be thrown, will serve well, but an even longer tube may be
chosen. The pellet should be of clay or any putty, rolled in the hand
to easily pass through the barrel without too much windage. It should
not touch the mouth, but be lightly placed just in the orifice, by
stopping which with the thumb the tube can be conveniently carried
loaded, muzzle up, ready for the most rapid use. To propel the pellet
the puff must be sudden and powerful. There is a proper way of
effecting this. When a practitioner first begins to use the blow-pipe,
it is a common error to eject the breath only direct from the lungs;
he should acquire the habit of inflating his cheeks, so as to make a
storage of wind, as it were, for each shot; that, added to the breath
from the lungs, gives a force which will sometimes astonish him. The
hand follows the eye in aim, and practice will often develop
unthought-of proficiency."

The catapult is also a first-rate weapon in a skilful hand for
procuring small birds. I must confess I cannot use it as well as some
young friends of mine, who knock over nearly every sitting bird they
aim at, and even now and then are successful with such difficult shots
as at swallows on the wing; a novice, on the contrary, nearly always
succeeds in stinging his fingers and missing the object aimed at.

I remember also, when a boy, using a very effective weapon, which I
should describe as a catapult gun. It was, if I recollect aright,
fashioned similarly to a cross bow, the bolt, however, from which was
ejected from a little wash-leather bag by means of very powerful
India-rubber springs, which being released by a trigger delivered a
bullet or small shot from a tube with amazing force and precision. I
do not know if such guns are made now, but I should imagine that
anyone with a little ingenuity could construct one for himself.

All these appliances, with the well-known air-gun, are chiefly of use
for collecting the smaller birds with a minimum of noise. There are
several small collecting guns made which do the work required in a
much more thorough manner. Messrs. Bland, gun-makers, of Birmingham,
some time since showed me an elegant little double-barrelled central
fire gun, which seems to be just the thing for the purpose. Messrs.
Clarke, of Leicester, also make a small single-barrelled central fire
.410-bore collector's gun, but as before observed, they are only fit
for small birds at short ranges.

I have lately procured a small walking-stick gun .410-bore, central
fire, with a removeable stock, which I have found of great service in
collecting small birds--bringing down swifts and swallows flying, at
moderate ranges.

Many birds, especially males, in the breeding season, are taken by
decoying them into nets or snares by tame or wild birds of the
opposite sex; in fact, advantage was wont to be taken of the pugnacity
or devotion of the Ruffes when "hilling," by previously setting
springes or nets on their battle-ground, into which said snares they
danced, when courting or fighting (see Daniel, vol. U, p. 212).

Poachers also sometimes take cock pheasants by bringing an armed
gamecock into the woods and hiding themselves, while the domesticated
bird challenges and gives battle to the unarmed wild one. The boldness
of cock pheasants during their breeding time is wonderful; many
instances having come under my notice of wild pheasants coming from
the woods to do battle with aviary ones, and also with farm-yard
"roosters."

A highly interesting account of the ludicrous actions and
insensibility to fear of the capercailzie, and blackgame, when
courting (and through which they are easily shot), is given by a
writer on Norway in the Field of March 27, 1875; and this brings us to
the greatest of all aids for the procuring of specimens--I mean the
shot-gun and rifle. So much of success depends upon being a clever
marksman, and also upon having a good general knowledge of woodcraft,
that although for instructions in guns and shooting I refer the reader
to Col. Hawker, Daniel, Blaine, "Stonehenge," Folkard, Greener,
"Wildfowler," and many others, yet a few words on some peculiar, and
in some cases well-known, methods of decoying birds within gunshot,
may not be out of place.

The stalking-horse was, no doubt, the earliest decoy or shield under
which the ancient fowler got near his birds with the crossbow or gun.
It was sometimes a mere framework of wood, covered with painted canvas
to represent a horse or cow, or was a real animal trained to feed and
move in a natural manner in the midst of the fowl. In the first
instance, the fowler carried the framework in front of him, and made
his shot through an opening; in the second case he gently urged the
animal on, hiding behind, and making his shot under the belly, or over
the back. For ancient methods of stalking, see Gervase Markham; for a
modern method, see "Bustard Shooting in Spain," in the Country of Jan.
21, 1875, and current pages of the Field.

Decoying birds by imitating their notes or cries is an art which the
collector must acquire. Many mechanical calls for wood pigeons,
curfews, and other birds are made. One call, which I do not think is
made or used in England, is a Greek idea for decoying thrashes. It is
a whistle formed from two discs of thin silver or silvered copper,
each the size of, or a little smaller than, a "graceless" florin, or
say an inch across; those discs are--one fully concave, and the other
slightly convex, both have a hole in the centre and are soldered
together by their edges in the manner shown in Fig. 10. [Footnote:
Since writing this I find there are now sold to boys, for the large
sum of one-halfpenny, whistles formed in tin, of almost similar
construction to those described. I never yet found anyone to make them
"speak" properly; boys not knowing how to modulate or inspire the
breath. I have now tried one of them against my silver whistle, and I
cannot say which has the better tone.]

Fig. 10--DECOY WHISTLE FOR THRUSHES, etc.

The concave part is placed in the mouth, pressing against the teeth,
and by inspiring the breath and modulating the tones with the closed
or open hands, as the case may be, a very perfect imitation of the
song-thrush's note is the result. This, the arriving or newly-arrived
birds hear, and, imagining it proceeds from the throat of one of their
species, who, entirely at his ease, is letting the ornithological
world know how excessively overjoyed he is at his safe arrival, alight
in the trees which surround and conceal the treacherous imitator, and
quickly fall a prey to the ready gun. So infatuated are they, that
enormous quantities are killed by this method early in the season; in
fact, I knew one person who shot one hundred and four, besides other
birds, to his own gun in one day.

Quails may be called from a distance if the sportsman hides himself
and imitates with his mouth their peculiar cry, "More wet, more wet."

There are many other birds which come to call in addition to quail.
Woodpigeons and doves will sometimes be attracted to an ambush by
making a soft cooing noise with the mouth and the hollows of both
hands, but the most successful way of procuring both of these birds is
to build a hut with boughs in the hedge of a field to which they
resort, in which hut the shooter hides himself, keeping perfectly
quiet, and not attempting to shoot until the birds have begun feeding,
as woodpigeons, or doves, when they first alight "have their eyes all
about them," the slight rustle even of the gun being brought to the
present, is enough to scare them, and a snap shot at a flying dove is
rarely successful when you are penned and cramped up in a little bough
hut. Pea, tare, and barley fields, when they are first sown in the
spring, and pea and corn fields, after getting in the crops in the
autumn, are their especial haunts, though they do not despise turnip
leaves and acorns.

Salt marshes are also especially favoured by all the pigeon family in
quest of salt, of which they seem to be inordinately fond. Fresh water
rivers in hot weather are also sure spots to find them; and a stuffed
pigeon is a good decoy in some seasons, if placed in front of a place
of concealment.

Perhaps it may be as well to mention that often, while lying in wait
for wild pigeons, you will observe the advent of one or two tame ones,
or even a flock from some neighbouring farmyard, and, as some of these
pigeons are almost certain to closely resemble the wild stock dove
(Columba oenas, 1.), some little discrimination is required to
distinguish the two species.

The Gannet or Solon goose (Sula bassana, Hewitson) is said to be taken
by the strange device of floating a plank out at sea, to which a fish
is attached, in such a manner that, on the bird dashing down on the
half-submerged plank, it strikes itself with such violence as not
unfrequently to break its neck or breastbone. On mentioning this to
Mr. Frederick Ryland, he assured me that he has in some instances
observed the marks of the bird's bill, which had indented the plank--a
pretty conclusive evidence of the extraordinary force of its descent.

Many other birds besides pigeons are attracted by "stales," which was
the ancient name for a representation of the living bird by stuffed
specimens or wooden images; knots and godwits, says Daniel (vol. iii.
p. 214), were attracted into nets by this mode. Gulls and terns I have
often found attracted by a stuffed bird, or, when one can be shot,
should it be left to lie on the water, or propped up on land, as if
alive, the others almost always hover around it. Sheep's lights thrown
on the water is another good decoy for gulls.

Ducks are sometimes attracted by dummies of indiarubber sold at some
of the shops for that purpose, but the best modification of this is
the French "hut system," described at length, in his usual amusing
style, by the once-renowned Col. Hawker.

A more singular way still, of decoying these birds to the gun is by
the American fashion of "toling," a lucid description of which I
append, culled from the pages of Folkard's "Wildfowler:"

"There is one system of fowling practised in America which is as
curious in performance as it is interesting. It is probably one of the
most remarkable methods ever invented, and approaches the nearest to
the system of decoy as practised in England of any of the arts
employed by the people of a foreign country for the capture of
wildfowl. The method alluded to is termed "toling." I am unable to
trace the origin of the term, unless it simply implies a death knell,
for such it assuredly assumes to those birds which approach within
range of the secreted sportsman. This singular proceeding is said to
have been first introduced upwards of fifty years ago near
Havre-de-Grace, in Maryland; and, according to traditional testimony,
the art was accidentally discovered by a sportsman whilst patiently
lying in ambush watching a paddling of wild ducks, which were a little
beyond the range of his gun. Whilst in a state of doubt and anxiety as
to whether they would approach near enough to be shot, he suddenly
observed them raise their heads and swim towards the shore apart from
his ambuscade; and, whilst wondering at the cause of so strange a
proceeding, his attention was directed to a fox which was skipping
about on the shore, and evidently enticing the ducks to approach. This
accidental discovery of so weak a point in the nature of the feathered
tribe led the sportsman to turn it to advantage, and thence arose the
curious art of "toling." To practise it successfully the sportsman
requires simply the services of a dog, which he uses in a similar way
to that of a "piper," employed at an English decoy. [Footnote: The
word "toling" may be explained as a corruption of "tolling," i.e.
enticing.]

For the purpose of "toling," the American sportsman erects blinds or
screens on the margin of some lake, the resort of wildfowl; when any
birds are in sight upon the water, he, with his dog, takes up a
position behind the screens, and by throwing small bits of wood or
pebbles up and down the shore, he keeps the dog in active motion so as
to attract the attention of the birds, and induce them to swim towards
the shore within a few yards of the screens, when, if they do, the
sportsman immediately discharges his fowling piece at them, and
sometimes kills large numbers at a shot. The principal things to be
observed are, a strict silence, and to keep the dog constantly in
motion, and all the time in sight of the ducks. The little animal
should be encouraged to skip and bound over the rocks and stones in
front of the screens, and to flourish his tail about with playful
vivacity. He must never bark, for that would alarm the fowl and cause
them to fly away immediately.

Red or chestnut coloured dogs with long bushy tails are best for the
purpose of "toling"; the nearer they approach a fox in colour and
appearance the better."

Tubs may be sunk on the seashore into which the shooter gets at the
approach of night (or even a "skip" or basket may be used to sit on)
to wait till flight time to procure specimens; but having myself sat
in a marsh at night between a river and the sea in Norfolk more than
once for several hours during a very severe winter, I cannot recommend
this as a torrid amusement--indeed, the melancholy "sough" of the sea,
and the pale glitter of the stars in the half-frozen pools, whose dead
and dry sedges rustle in unison to the icy blasts rushing from the
dead white north, make even the most hardy long for the old armchair
by the cozy fireside.

A writer in the Zoologist some years ago appeared to think that iodine
was a species of enchanter's wand in rendering your presence unknown
to wildfowl. I have never tried it, having but little faith in cunning
nostrums concocted for the taking of either birds or fish; but as he
is a gentleman of standing and great experience, I will quote his
words from which I drew my inference:

"A cormorant once perched himself on my back as I lay concealed on a
rock enveloped in a drab driving coat, which so closely resembled the
rock in colour that even he was deceived, and, taking my back as the
highest pinnacle, accommodated himself accordingly; neither did he
discover his error till my hand grasped him by the legs. I have
frequently had cormorants and shags perched around me within a few
feet; but their suspicions seemed generally to be aroused by human
smell, unless I had rubbed iodine on some part of my clothes."

The landrail or corncrake, whose peculiar rasping cry we hear in the
grass or young corn in the spring of the year, is easily called to the
gun by rubbing one notched bone over another, or, better still, using
that peculiar instrument of torture worked at fairs, and called a
"scratchback"--the same which, in the palmy days of Greenwich or
Charlton fairs, was retailed to the cry of "All the fun of the fair
for one penny".

In bringing this chapter to a close, let me not omit to mention that
all shot birds should immediately have the mouth, palatal slit, and
nostrils, stopped with tow or cotton wool, to prevent the blood from
running out and soiling the feathers; then, if possible, always wrap
each specimen separately in paper, smoothing the feathers in their
proper places before doing so. Also, never carry a shot bird by its
neck, as the weight of the bird's body depending from the neck must
stretch the latter beyond its fair proportions.

I have here briefly glanced at a few of the many ways of taking birds
and beasts; to have described them all would have required a special
volume double the size of the present one. I think, however, I have
said enough for all practical needs; but in case any reader should
require fuller information, I must refer him to such articles as he
will find week by week in The Field, Land and Water, or the American
publication, Forest and Stream.

Good text books, also, on Trapping, etc, are W. B. Lord's "Shifts and
Expedients of Camp Life," Captain Darwin's ("High Elms") "Game
Preservers' Manual," Jefferries' "Amateur Poacher," "Gamekeeper at
Home," etc. For details as to the hunting and scientific shooting of
foreign large game, with directions as to the vulnerable spots to be
aimed at, I must again refer the reader to articles from the pen of
such men as Sir Samuel Baker, G. P. Sanderson, "Smoothbore," "The Old
Shekarry," Gordon Cumming, Jules Gerard, C. J. Andersson, Emil Holub,
F. C. Selous, etc, all of whom have either written books on sporting,
or whose articles are still to be met with in late numbers of The
Field.

CHAPTER III.

NECESSARY TOOLS.

A BAD workman, it is said, always quarrels with his tools. If this be
so, it is equally certain that a good workman, though he may make
shift with indifferent implements of his craft, yet always prefers the
best and most labour-saving tools he can procure. The chief point of
difference, however, between the skilled and unskilled workman is,
that the former may and often does get the best results with the
fewest possible tools, while the other must surround himself with
dozens of unnecessary things before he can "do a stroke." This being
so, I propose to point out to my readers in a few words, and by means
of drawings, how very few tools are required to skin and set up a bird
or small animal. My remarks will, therefore, be addressed as much to
the amateur as to the tyro desirous of becoming a professional; in
fact, I wish it to be understood that I write as much to educate the
one as the other.

The first and almost indispensable tool is the knife (I say almost,
because I have known a person begin and finish a small bird with a
pair of scissors); nearly any small knife will do to make the first
incision, but experience has shown the most useful shape to be as in
Fig. 11, which is the skinning knife; the blade, it will be observed,
is long and narrow, 3 in. to 4 in. along the cutting edge, and half an
inch across; the handle, which should be of box, lignum vitae, or any
hard wood susceptible, of a high polish, is 3.5 in. in length,
exclusive of a half-inch brass ferrule; the shape shown is the most
comfortable and handiest to work with. Fig. 12 shows a broader and
stronger knife, five-eighths of an inch across, having a somewhat
differently shaped hard wood handle, as the knife is intended for
heavier work. Fig. 13 shows a broad strong blade, one inch across, and
of an entirely different character; this, which is useful for the
rough, large work, to be hereafter mentioned, has a perforated tang,
to which two half rounded pieces of hard wood should be bolted. Length
of blade and handle, 4 in. each.

My reason for having all of these handles of polished hard wood is,
that blood and dirt will the more easily wash off. All of these knives
are best procured at the leather sellers', for the reasons that,
first, the shapes drawn are always in stock; secondly, they are
manufactured of the finest and toughest steel; and thirdly, their
expense is trifling. The handles, however, are usually of softwood,
unpolished, and had better be replaced at the turner's. The knives
when first purchased are about 4 in. long in the blade; for skinning I
think them pleasantest to use when ground or worn down to 3 in. or 3.5
in.; this, however, is a matter of individual taste.

I have, since the above was written, found that some dealers in
leather and shoemakers' "grindery" sell knives of varied and
serviceable patterns--other than those described--all of which have
hard wood handles. Dissecting knives and scalpels, to be procured at
any Surgical instrument maker's, are also very useful for fine work.
"Transfixion" knives are of service when engaged upon very large
animals, and here also come in the post-mortem hooks.

Fig. 11, 12, 13--SKINNING KNIVES.

The next most important tool is the scissors, two pairs of which
should be procured, one pair long and fine, 5.5 in. or 6 in. long (see
Fig. 14), for use in small and delicate work connected with birds; the
other about 4 in. long, of a different shape and much stouter and
stronger (see Fig. 15). These are used for general work upon larger
birds or small mammals.

Fig. 14--SCISSORS, No 1. pattern.

Fig. 15--SCISSORS, No 2. pattern.

For still heavier work connected with mammals, and especially with
fish, I prefer a pair of small spring shears, 6 in, to 7 in. long,
similar to those used by gardeners for grape-pruning.

Fig. 16.--Bell-hangers' Pliers.

Fig. 16 brings us to a really indispensable adjunct to the
taxidermist's kit--the compound or bell-hangers' pliers; these pliers
are as the ordinary holding ones at the top, but have a cutting plane
fixed lower down (those with flat, not raised, cutters, are to be
preferred); the figure gives a good idea, but the grip should not be
quite so broad as they are usually made; from 8 in. to 10 in. is the
most useful size. The 10 in. is rather large, but is, perhaps, the
best for professional needs. [Footnote: These pliers are sometimes
made with a nick at the intersection of the joint to form a cutting
plane for thick wires.]

Fig. 17 shows the ordinary cutting nippers, 4 in. to 5 in. long,
useful for cutting fine wires or pins, in situations where the use of
the other pliers is impracticable. Remarks as to grip as before.

Fig. 17--Cutting nippers.

Both of these articles should be of the best workmanship and
materials. Buck, of London, and Stubbs, of Warrington, may be
recommended as good makers.

I lately procured a very handy little pair of cutting nippers of
elegant workmanship, used chiefly by watchmakers, and made in Paris.
These are excellent for delicate work or for cutting very fine wire or
entomological pins (see Fig. 18).

Fig. 18--French Cutting Nippers

I now figure a most necessary little pair of pliers for dressing the
feathers of birds. These are also used by watchmakers, are of neat
construction and differ from most pliers in having an obtusely rounded
point (see Fig. 19, A and B). These, which I call "feather pliers,"
are in conjunction with a small, thick, round, camel-hair brush (used
by artists for "washing in"), indispensable for "feathering up" birds,
a process to be described later on.

Fig. 20 is the next, and I fancy I hear some reader exclaim, "What on
earth has a goffering-iron to do with taxidermy?" I reply: This shaped
tool is wanted for artfully conveying small morsels of tow, etc, into
the necks and hollow places of birds' skins. It may be easily made in
this wise: Procure as small and fine a pair of goffering-irons as you
possibly can, and have them drawn out and brought to a fine yet obtuse
point by some smith, and you thus get a finished tool for about half
what it would cost to make outright. Length, when finished, should be
somewhere about 10 in.

Fig. 19--Feather Pliers

A large and a fine crooked awl with handles, a file, and a rough stone
from the leatherseller's, are other things to procure, and these, with
the ten tools previously particularised, some tow, wool, wire, eyes,
and a needle and thread, a pot of preservative paste, and a piece of
wood or a wire for a stuffing iron, are all that the amateur or the
professional requires to skin and stuff a small or medium-sized bird
or mammal. Cost of the stone and tools (which, with ordinary care,
will last for years) should be within the reach of all.

Fig. 20--Tow Forceps

The "stuffing iron" mentioned above is best made, if wanted for small
birds, from the broken steel of a wool comber's "devil," about nine
inches long, fixed in a bradawl handle of about four inches, or, if
for large birds or mammals, the iron may be made from a broken fencing
foil, to any size between twelve and thirty inches, with suitable
handle. In either case the smallest end is driven into the handle, and
the top is filed across with a smooth nick, to push in, but not to
retain the tow. See Fig. 21.

Fig. 21--Stuffing Iron

This, I would point out to the non-professional reader, is a much more
satisfactory way of getting thoroughly efficient tools than going to
the expense of ordering a box of "bird-stuffing implements," at a cost
of many pounds and finding one half of them unnecessary, and the other
half worthless.

CHAPTER IV.

PRESERVATIVE SOAPS, POWDERS, ETC.

HAVING skinned a zoological specimen, we require, as a matter of
course, to anoint the inside of the skin with some preservative, for
the purpose of arresting decomposition and general decay, and also
defending it from the ravages of insects for an indefinite period.
Many things will partially cure a skin; for instance, rubbing it with
dry earth and exposing it to the sun, as I have done with some success
when hunting abroad; chalk also will do, if nothing else can be
procured. I have at the present moment a raven's head cut off by a
rifle ball, cured only with chalk, and which is now, after a lapse of
twenty years, in as good a state of preservation as need be. Still we
require other aids than sun and chalk to properly preserve our
specimens, especially in our usually cold, damp climate; and if we ask
what is the sine qua non, a chorus of professional and amateur
taxidermists shout out, "Arsenic, of course."

I propose to show the fallacy of this, being quite of the way of
thinking of Waterton, who says, "It (arsenic) is dangerous to the
operator and inefficient as a preservative." I will, however, give
everyone a chance of doing exactly as he pleases by jotting down three
different recipes for arsenical soaps. The inventor of the first of
these appears to have been one Bécoeur, of the now world-renowned
Metz. Bécoeur appears to have flourished about the year 1770, and his
formula is still commonly used. It is compounded as follows:

No. 1.--Bécoeur's Arsenical Soap.

Camphor,                         5 oz.

Salt of tartar,                     12 oz.

Powdered arsenic,                 2 lb.

Lime in powder (or powdered chalk),     4 oz.

White soap,                     2 lb.

Cut the soap into small slices as thin as possible, put them into a
pot over a gentle fire with very little water, stirring it often with
a wooden spoon; when dissolved, add the salts of tartar and powdered
chalk; take it off the fire, add the arsenic, and stir the whole
gently; lastly, put in the camphor, which must first be pounded in a
mortar with a little spirits of wine. When the whole is properly mixed
together it will have the consistence of paste. It may be preserved in
tin or earthenware pots, well closed and cautiously labelled. When
wanted for use it must be diluted with a little cold water to the
consistence of clear broth; the pot may be covered with a lid of
pasteboard, having a hole for the passage of the brush, by which the
liquor is applied. (There appears in this formula to be an error in
giving 12 oz. of Salts of tartar, which should, I think, be reduced to
2 oz.; also the proportion, of arsenic and soap is clearly excessive
with regard to the quantity of the lime or chalk.)

Swainson appears to have used a composition somewhat different from
the preceding. He describes it as follows:

No. 2.--Swainson's Arsenical Soap.

Arsenic,             1 oz.

Distilled water,         6 drms.

White soap,         1 oz

Camphor,             2 drms.

Carbonate of potash,     1 drm.

This mixture should be kept in small tin boxes; when it is to be used
moisten a camel-hair pencil with any kind of spirituous liquor, and
with it make a lather from the soap, which is to be applied to the
inner surface of all parts of the skin, and also to such bones as may
not be removed.

The next formula is of my own arrangement; I have used it, and have
found it quite equal to any of the other arsenical preparations, which
is not saying much for any of them.

No. 3.--Browne's Arsenical Soap.

Arsenic,                     1 lb

Distilled water                 6 drms

Soft soap,                     2 lb.

Whiting (or powdered chalk),         3 lb.

Camphor or tincture of musk,         2 oz.

Place the arsenic in an old saucepan (which is not to be used for any
other purpose whatever); put the whiting over it, next pour sufficient
water over it to make it into a thick paste, then add the soft soap,
stir the whole well together, add a little water, and place on the
fire to boil, adding from time to time water sufficient to render the
whole mass of the consistence of gruel. When it boils up it is
sufficiently well done; take it off the fire, and place outside in the
open air to cool, as the fumes, if given off in a close room, are
highly prejudicial to health. When nearly cold, stir in the camphor,
previously pounded to a fine powder by the addition of a few drops of
any spirit--spirits of wine, gin, rum, turpentine, etc. If musk is used
it is sufficient to stir it in the mass, or 1 oz. of pure carbolic
acid (previously melted) may be substituted for either the camphor or
musk.

The reason for stirring in the camphor, musk, or carbolic acid, when
the arsenical paste is nearly cold, is twofold--first, to prevent the
inhaling of the metallic fumes, which readily attack the lungs; and
secondly, to prevent the said fumes or heated air carrying off with it
the volatile essences of those drugs. The quantities given are
sufficient to fill two six-pound Australian meat tins, which form
capital receptacles for arsenical paste, and should be soldered up,
only to be opened as required for use. As this quantity is, however,
perhaps too much for the amateur, the proportions may be decreased,
and what is not in actual use had better be soldered up in the tins
just referred to, and which may be found very useful, besides, for
such purposes as paint pots, etc. Carefully label this preparation
"Poison," and place it out of the reach of children.

I have given the foregoing formulae, not because I have the slightest
faith in any of them, but simply for the benefit, or otherwise, of
those persons who elect to use arsenical preparations in defiance of
the teachings of common sense, and in deference to the prevailing
notion that arsenic is the only poison extant which has extraordinary
preservative powers. This I flatly deny, after an experience of more
than five and twenty years. Let us dissect the evidence as to the
claim of arsenic to be considered as the antiseptic and preservative
agent par excellence.

Its advocates claim for it--First, that it dries and preserves all
flesh from decay better than anything else known; secondly, that if
the skin is well painted with arsenical soap no moth or maggot will be
found to touch it. This, then, is all is wanted--immunity from decay
and protection from insects. Now I maintain that arsenical mixtures
are not only most dangerous, but quite useless also for the purpose.

Arsenic is simply a drier of animal tissue to a certain extent, but so
are hundreds of other agents not so dangerous. It is also perfectly
useless as a scarecrow or poison to those bêtes noire of the
taxidermist, the larvae of the various clothes and fur eating moths of
the genus Tinea, or the larvae of Dermestes lardarius, murinus, and
other museum beetles. They simply laugh arsenic to scorn; indeed, I
believe, like the Styrian arsenic eaters, they fatten on it. I could
give many instances. Of course, when you point out to a brother
taxidermist--rival, I mean; there are no brothers in art--the fact
that somehow this arsenical paste does not work the wonders claimed
for it, he replies, "Oh! ah! yes! that specimen, I now recollect, was
done by a very careless man I employed; he never half painted the
skin."

All nonsense! Men, as well as masters, lay the "preservative" on as
thickly as they can. Verbum sap.! A great outcry is being made at the
present day as to arsenical wall papers and ladies' dresses--very
properly so; but did it never strike any taxidermist--they must read
the papers some times, even if not scientific men--that if it was
dangerous to live in a room, the paper of which contains a barely
appreciable quantity of arsenic, it was also dangerous to work all day
in a shop amid hundreds of specimens actually reeking with arsenic,
and giving it off when dry, and when handled, in the form of dust?
Painted on the skin while wet is bad enough; but what shall we say to
those--well, we will not use harsh terms--who calmly tell you that
they always use dry arsenic. Incredible as the statement may appear to
the scientist, yet it is true that I have seen a man plunge his hand
in the most matter-of-fact way into a box containing dry arsenic, and
coolly proceed to dust it on a skin. What is the consequence of this
to the user of wet or dry arsenical preparations? Coughs, colds,
chronic bronchitis, soreness of the lips and nose, ugly ulcers,
brittleness of nails, and partial or complete paralysis. I knew a man
who formerly used dry arsenic, whose constitution was thoroughly
broken up by it. Again, an amateur of long standing called on me some
time since, paralyzed in one hand--the doctors could make nothing of
him. I said at once, "You have been using quantities of arsenic, and
probably dry?"

Much astonished, he said "Yes;" and he had never mentioned this fact
to his numerous doctors, who worked, of course, in the dark, when, by
a course of antidotes taken at first, he might have been saved.

Used alone, arsenical paste is worse than useless for animals, causing
them to "sweat" at once in certain places, and preventing your pulling
them about, as you must do if modelling; again, if used for fur, you
seldom or never can relax by that crucial test of a good preservative,
i.e,--plunging in water.

Yet one question to the advocates of arsenic. If it possesses the
chief advantage claimed for it, why use camphor in museums under the
idea that it drives away moths?

Perhaps it will be as well to point out secundum artem the pros and
cons for the use of arsenic.

ARSENICAL PASTE.

Advantages claimed.                          Disadvantages.

A perfect dryer of              Will often "sweat" skins, especially
  animal tissue.              those of mammals, for which it is useless.

Keeps all things free             Is not of the slightest use for
from attack of insects.                    this purpose.

Easier to make and use                        Denied.
than any other preparation.

Gives off poisonous fumes
when hot.

Deposits metallic
arsenic when drying.

Gives off poisonous dust
when thoroughly dry.

Causes colds, coughs, etc,
which turn to bronchitis,
paralysis, etc.

Having now summed up in the case of Common Sense versus Arsenic, I
challenge contradiction to any of my statements, and ask, Why use a
dangerous and inefficient preservative agent, when a harmless
preservative, and that quite as good worker and dryer as arsenic, will
suffice? I have invented a soap for which I claim those advantages,
and as to its deterrent principle re insects, I am convinced that it
is quite as good as the other, for is there any one thing
known--compatible with clean-looking work--that will prevent the
ravages of the maggots in birds' skins? I answer, No!--if we except
one thing, too dangerous to handle--bichloride of mercury, of which
anon. Let me whisper a little fact, and blow the poison theory to the
winds: The real secret of success is to case your specimens up as soon
as practicable, or to keep them always in full light, not poking them
away in obscure corners, which the Tineidae and other pests
love--hating light as the Father of Evil is said to hate holy water.

My Preservative formula is as follows:

No. 4.--Brown's (Non poisonous) Preservative Soap.

Whiting or chalk,         2.5 lb.

Chloride of lime,         2 oz.

Soft soap,                1 lb.

Tincture of musk,         1 oz.

Boil together the whiting and the soap with about a pint of water;
then stir in the chloride of lime (previously finely pounded) while
the mixture is hot; if this point is not attended to, the mixture will
not work smoothly; when nearly cool, stir in the tincture of musk.
This will about fill a 6 lb. Australian meat tin. Caution: It is not
necessary to hold the mouth over the mixture while hot, as chlorine is
then rapidly evolved. This mixture has stood the test of work and
time, and I therefore confidently bring it to the notice of the public
as completely superseding the arsenical paste or soap for small
mammals and all birds; indeed, numbers of persons, totally unknown to
me, have written to me about its advantages.

One says: "I have followed the bird-stuffing now for several years in
connection with another trade, but I have never seen anything to touch
it before. I have quite given up arsenic, and can get on fine without
it, and only wish that I had known the grand secret before."

Another: "Your recipe for preservative unction (non-poisonous) is
simply invaluable to taxidermists. I have been trying for a long time
to make a non-poisonous unction, but never fairly succeeded; always
had a doubt as to their efficacy, prejudice had something to do with
it."

A third says: "I have tried your recipe, and am well satisfied of its
qualities for preserving skins, having tried Swainson's, and
Bécoeur's, and yours, and after a twelvemonth have relaxed the skins,
and give my favour to yours as a toughener of the skin."

None of the above correspondents are known tome, and their opinion was
sent unasked. Those people I do know who are using it are perfectly
satisfied, as I myself am after a constant use of it for the past
seven years. I find that skins dressed by it are not "burned," as some
people may think, but relax most perfectly after a lapse of years by
any method, even by the water process spoken of hereafter. I do not
think it any better or worse than the arsenical preparations for
preventing the attacks of insects, but the addition of tincture of
musk (a lasting perfume) has seemed to me to be a great gain. One
person wrote to me stating his opinion that the lime unduly corroded
the wires used in setting up. I believe this might happen in cases
where the mixture was used in a more fluid state than directed,
namely, as a paste of a creamy consistence. I know of no evil effects
produced.

Of course the mixture, if kept exposed, dries up in time, and is then
best wetted with a little warm water, into which a few drops of
tincture of musk have been stirred. Where there is more fat or flesh
than usual, say, on the inside of the wings, or on the leg bones, or
inside the mouth, a small quantity of carbolic acid wash (Formula No.
16) will be found useful to dilute the preservative paste. Carbolic
acid, however weak, must not be used on the thin parts of the skin of
small mammals or birds, as it dries and shrivels them up so quickly as
to seriously interfere with subsequent modelling.

Though many insects eat the skin itself, yet how is it possible to
guard against insects which attack the feathers only of birds (as the
most minute species of the little pests do) by an agent which
professedly cures the skin only? I remember once seeing the most
comical sight possible, a stuffed cock and hen entirely denuded of
feathers by thousands of a minute tines, their dry skins only left;
they were as parchment effigies of their former selves. Difficult as
the matter is, I yet hope to show both amateurs and professionals how
to considerably increase the chances of preservation. It is this:
After using the soap, and having the mammal arranged or bird stuffed
ready for "cottoning," brush over the whole of the feathers, legs,
toes, and beak, with the following preparation:

No. 5.--Waterton's Solution of Corrosive Sublimate.

To a wine-bottleful of spirits of wine add a large teaspoonful of
corrosive sublimate; in twelve hours draw it off into a clean bottle,
dip a black feather into the solution, and if, on drying, a whiteness
is left on the feather, add a little more alcohol.

Care must be taken not to handle the bird more than absolutely
necessary after this operation, for reasons which I will give below
when speaking of the following recipe, which I have extracted from a
little book professedly written by a well-known taxidermist, though I
believe he knew nothing at all about it until it was published.

The preparation referred to, which should be labelled "Dangerous! Not
to be used!" is as follows:

No. 6.--Gardner's Preservative.

Arsenic, 6 oz.

Camphor, 1 oz.

Corrosive sublimate, 3 oz.

Spirits of wine, 0.5 pint.

Yellow soap, 2 oz.

"Put all these ingredients in a pipkin, which place over a slow fire,
stirring the mixture briskly till the several parts are dissolved and
form one homogeneous mass. This may then be poured into a wide-mouthed
bottle and allowed to stand till quite cold, when it will be ready for
use. Of course, these quantities may be increased or decreased
according to the size of the animal to be operated on; but the
proportions here given must be preserved."

Did it ever occur to the gifted author of this that stirring camphor
and spirits of wine briskly over a slow fire would be as quick a way
as could be invented of summoning the fire brigade; also, that nine
ounces of poison to eleven ounces of other ingredients, well worked
into the hands at different times, as it must be, when handling, or
returning skins painted with it, would not tend to lengthen the life
of the learner? Corrosive sublimate being a mercurial preparation--i.e,
bichloride of mercury--I ask any chemist amongst my readers what
effect three ounces of that dangerous preparation, six ounces of
arsenic, yellow soap, and spirits of wine would have upon the
constitution? Would it not be readily absorbed through the hands
into the system? and next comes salivation, and then--the last scene
of all!

Yet another little treat for the amateur desirous of committing
suicide under the transparent pretence of studying taxidermy. This,
which I have culled from the pages of "Maunders' Treasury of Natural
History," is, by a fine irony, entitled Bullock's "Preservative"
Powder:

No. 7.--Bullock's Preservative Powder.

Arsenic,             1 lb.

Camphor,             0.5 lb.

Burnt alum,          1 lb.

Tincture of musk,     12 oz.

Tanners' bark         2 lb.

"Mix the whole thoroughly, and after reducing it to a powder pass it
through a sieve. Keep in close tin canisters. This powder is more
particularly adapted to fill up incisions made in the naked parts of
quadrupeds and the skulls of large birds. It has been strongly
recommended to us, but, being perfectly satisfied with our own, we
have never tried it."

With regard to the foregoing composition I have a few words to say,
which are these, that the reason I have copied it is that I have met
with it in more books than one, and I wish therefore to call special
attention to it, that it may be labelled "Dangerous," and that anyone
using it will do so at his peril. Fancy shaking arsenic up in a sieve,
and afterwards dusting it in con amore! Really, if people will use
poisons, and others put themselves to considerable pains to invent the
most deadly compounds for them, is it not criminal carelessness that
such things should be published without a word of warning as to their
character or effects?

Powders, as a rule, being made of astringents, dry the skin too
quickly (especially if a bird is being operated on) to perfectly shape
the specimen. As they are useful, however, to fill up and quickly dry
cavities in the wings, and such like, of large birds, etc, and in some
cases even to prepare a skin for future stuffing, I will give a powder
of my own composition, the chief point of merit of which consists in
its being harmless to the user, and also that it has been tried on a
large bird's skin, which it so effectually preserved and toughened
that, eighteen months afterwards, it was relaxed and stuffed up better
than the usual run of made skins:

No. 8.--Browne's Preservative Powder.

Pure tannin,         1 oz.

Red pepper,         1 oz.

Camphor,             1 oz.

Burnt alum,         8 oz.

Pound and thoroughly mix, and keep in stoppered bottles or canisters.

The foregoing preparation, though perfectly efficient for small
mammals (say up to squirrel size) and for birds, is not sufficiently
strong to penetrate the skin and thoroughly fix the hair of the larger
mammals. For this purpose the older taxidermists used a wash or
powder, composed of equal parts of alum and nitre (saltpetre). This
had the double disadvantage of rendering the specimen cured by its aid
almost dripping with humidity in damp weather, and efflorescing with
the double salts around the eyes and mouth in dry weather. Alum alone
was frequently used by those unaware of its peculiar property of
deliquescing in heat as well as in humidity.

I have, I believe, at last succeeded in arranging the proper
proportions, and in substituting, for the worse than useless crude
alum, the alum ustum or burnt alum, which is not affected by moisture
(at least to any appreciable extent). The proportions are:

No. 9.--Browne's Preservative Powder for Skins of Mammals.

Burnt alum,             1 lb.

Saltpetre,                 0.25 lb.

Pound and thoroughly mix.

This, well rubbed into the skin and fleshy parts of mammals, is a
certain and thoroughly trustworthy cure, and will penetrate through
skin a quarter of an inch or more thick, fixing the hair or fur in a
most admirable manner, and has the double advantage of being harmless
to the person using it, and beneficial even if it gets on the outside
of the skin of the specimen; indeed, it should be rubbed in on the fur
side if the specimen is at all "high" when brought in. In all cases it
is a good plan to thoroughly rub the outside of the ears, eyelids,
nose, and lips, with this composition before skinning. I consider this
the greatest boon to the animal preserver ever invented, and those to
whom I have imparted the formula are loud in its praise, as witness
the dozens of letters I have received from all parts during the last
seven years.

If the proportions given are adhered to, no crystallisation of salts
will take place around the eyes and mouth. Should this, however,
happen from any cause, a stiff brush dipped in olive oil may be used
to remove it and prevent its reappearance.

After the mammal is stuffed and mounted, it may be washed over with
Waterton's Solution (previously given) or the following, which ought
to preserve the specimen from the attacks of insects:

No. 10.--Preservative Wash.

Corrosive sublimate,             1 oz.

Tincture of camphor (or musk),     1 oz.

Methylated spirits, 1 quart.         1 oz.

This solution must be kept in a bottle, carefully labelled "Poison,"
and when used is not to be touched with the hands, but laid on with a
brush.

It constantly happens that parts of the bodies of animals--notably
their fore and hind limbs, and their heads even--are required to be
preserved for some considerable time for purposes of modelling their
contour or muscles; it then becomes necessary to find some preparation
which will keep large pieces of flesh sufficiently sweet and firm to
model from. For the first edition, I had written to a scientific
friend as to the preparations now in use at the various hospitals for
the preservation of subjects, etc, to which he answered:

"As far as I can glean from various sources, the medical profession
has only within the last few years attempted to preserve whole bodies.
Parts have, of course, been preserved in alcohol of some kind until
they have literally crumbled away. At St. George's Hospital they use a
preservative fluid, invented by the hospital porter (dissecting-room
porter). The subjects are kept in a slate tank filled with the fluid.
To show the efficiency of this fluid, I might mention that the first
subject arrived much decomposed some months since, but is now quite
fresh and sweet. The muscles inevitably lose a little of their colour
in the preparation, which is all the change as yet observed. At Guy's
is used a preparation of glycerine and arsenic, but at the present
moment I do not recollect the exact proportions. At King's College,
the method invented by Sterling, of Edinburgh, is used. All other
hospitals have the old methods in vogue, such as preparations of
arsenic."

Since then, I have had occasion to go more deeply into the subject and
have used some of the formulae which follow, viz, rectified spirits,
Moeller's Solution, and various preparations of lime.

Messrs. Medlock and Bailey's bisulphite of lime (calcium) is most
highly recommended by analytical experts for preserving large joints
of meat and fish; and, indeed, the experiments conducted under
scientific and Government supervision have abundantly proved its
value. Its price is not great. For large joints the following is the
formula:

No. 11.--Messrs. Medlock and Bailey's Formula.

Bisulphite of lime,     1 gall.

Common salt,         0.25 pint.

Water,             2 to 4 galls.

The following, taken from the "Year Book of Pharmacy for 1880,"
appears to be a very efficient formula; like all the rest of such
formulae, it contains a certain percentage of arsenious acid:

A new Preserving Fluid.--The Prussian Secretary of State for Education
has caused the publication of the following compound and method of its
application, discovered by Wickersheimer, the Preparator of the
Anatomical Museum of the University of Berlin, who had at first
patented the compound, but was induced to renounce his patent claims.

No. 12.--Wickersheimer's Preserving Liquid, No. 1.

In 3000 parts of boiling water dissolve 100 of alum, 25 of sodium
chloride, 12 of potassium nitrate, 60 of potassa, and 10 of arsenious
acid, let cool and filter. To every 10 litres of the filtrate add 4
litres of glycerine and 1 litre of methylic alcohol. [Footnote: A gram
= 15.444 grains troy; a litre = a little more than 11 pints.]

Its application differs with the special objects to be preserved. In
general, the objects must be impregnated with it. If the objects are
to be preserved dry, they are soaked in the liquid from six to twelve
days, and afterwards dried in the air.

Ligaments, muscles, and other animal objects remain perfectly soft and
movable. Hollow organs, as lungs and intestines, should be filled with
the liquid previous to immersion in it; after being taken out, and
before drying, it is advisable to inflate them with air. Injecting the
liquid into a corpse will preserve the latter completely, and the
muscular tissue will always retain the natural colour of fresh
corpses. To preserve the outward appearance of the latter, they should
be well impregnated externally and enclosed in air-tight oases; this
is only necessary to preserve the exact original appearance; if it
is not done, the body will keep equally well if thoroughly injected,
but the exterior will gradually become somewhat dry and dark coloured.
Plants may likewise be preserved by this liquid. [Footnote: So
expensive a preparation is, I think, sufficiently well replaced by
salt, corrosive sublimate, and distilled water (see Formula No. 27).
M. Decandolle exhibited, some years since, a branch of a coffee tree
which had been perfectly preserved for fifty years. It was then
pointed out that the efficacy of such solutions (saline) depended on
their being boiled and applied to the plants hot (not boiling).]

The following is a modification of the above, useful for comparison as
to relative strengths for injection and immersion:

No. 13.--Wickersheimer's Preserving Liquids, Nos. 2 and 3.

                          For Injecting.         For Immersing.

Arsenious acid             16 grams               12 grams.

Sodium chloride            80 grams               60 grams.

Potassium sulphate        200 grams              150 grams.

Potassium nitrate          25 grams               18 grams.

Potassium carbonate        20 grams               15 grams.

Water                      10 litres              10 litres.

Glycerine                   4 litres               4 litres.

Wood naphtha                0.75 litres            0.75 litres.

My friend, Dr. Priestley Smith, surgeon to the Birmingham Eye
Hospital, has kindly given me his formula for a process which most
admirably preserves delicate parts of animals. Having been enabled to
give him some eyes of rare animals and fishes (whales and sharks), he
showed me the process which is now fully explained in the following
extract from the British Medical Journal of Jan. 10th, 1880:

PRESERVATION OF OPHTHALMIC SPECIMENS.

Several friends and correspondents have asked me to refer them to a
description of the method which I employ for the preservation of
ophthalmic specimens, examples of which were exhibited in the annual
museum of the Association in Cork last summer. I published an account
of it in the Birmingham Medical Review for July, 1878; but, as several
improvements have been effected since that time, I shall be greatly
obliged by being allowed space in this journal for a brief description
of my present method.

No. 14.--Priestley Smith's Formula.

The following are the solutions, etc, employed:

1. Mueller's Fluid--viz.

   Bichromate of potash 1 part,

   Sulphate of soda 1 part,

   Water 100 parts;

2. Hydrate of chloral and water, 1 in 20;

3. Glycerine and water, 1 in 4,

4. Glycerine and water, 1 in 2--i.e, equal parts;

5. Glycerine-jelly--viz.

   Best French gelatine 1 part,

   Glycerine 6 parts,

   Water 6 parts,

   Soak the gelatine in the water until swollen, then heat and add
   the glycerine, add a few drops of a saturated solution of carbolic
   acid, and filter hot through white blotting-paper;

6. A thick white varnish made by mixing oxide of zinc with copal
   varnish in a mortar.

The eyeball is placed, immediately after excision, unopened, in
Mueller's Fluid for about three weeks, light being carefully excluded.
It is then frozen solid by immersion for a few minutes in a mixture of
finely powdered ice and salt, and immediately divided into lateral
halves by means of a sharp-edged table-knife. The portion to be
mounted is then placed in chloral solution for some weeks, in order to
remove the yellow colour; light being still excluded, and the fluid
being changed until it is no longer discoloured by the bichromate. The
specimen next lies for twenty-four hours or longer in the weaker
glycerine solution, and is then transferred for a similar period to
the stronger glycerine solution, after which it may be mounted in the
jelly without danger of shrinking. A specimen-jar being two-thirds
filled with melted jelly, the half-eye is placed in it, the concavity
upwards. When every interstice is filled, it is turned over (care
being taken to avoid the inclusion of an air-bubble), and held in a
central position in contact with the bottom of the jar. When cold and
firmly coagulated, the jelly is coated over with white varnish. A few
days later, when the surface of the varnish is firm, this again is
thinly coated with a film of jelly, and thereby preserved from the
ultimate danger of cracking. The jar is fixed with glue into a
suitable wooden stand. The gelatine which yields the strongest and
most colourless jelly is that manufactured by Coignet and Co, of
Paris, obtainable in packets, and known as the "gold-label" variety.
The specimen-jars, admirable both as to material and workmanship, have
been made expressly for me by Messrs. F. and C. Osler, of Broad
Street, Birmingham, from whom they may be obtained in any
number.--PRIESTLEY SMITH, Birmingham.

Glycerine retards fermentation and decomposition to a remarkable
degree. It combines readily with alcohol or water.

Boracic acid in small quantities mixed with a solution of saltpetre,
i.e, 1 to 50, is stated to be of service in the preservation of flesh.

Previously salted meat cannot be preserved this way; salting evidently
removes the phosphates. Action of boracic acid would, no doubt, set up
acid phosphates, which are the prime causes of the preservation.

A preparation of borax has been brought out by Mr. Robottom, of
Birmingham, who claims for it that it preserves all animal and
vegetable tissue, as well as being useful for tanning skins. I shall
refer to this preparation further on. Carbolic acid (pure) will be
found a valuable ally of the taxidermist. Calvert was the chief if not
the only maker of the pure preparation, which is sold in 0.5 lb. or 1
lb. bottles in a solid crystalline state, as if it were frozen. The
bottle, with the stopper temporarily removed, must be plunged in
boiling water to melt out as much as is required, to which must be
added many times its weight or quantity of water. This diluted
preparation will be found of infinite service in the hot summer months
for pouring in the "gentle" infested throats or wounds of mammals and
birds preparatory to skinning. Diluted and poured on a little burnt
alum or pure tannin, and the mixture well shaken together, it forms an
exceedingly strong preparation, as well as a valuable one, for
painting the noses or pickling the tongues of animals before or after
skinning. Two strengths of this will be found very useful. Thus:

No. 15--Carbolic Wash, No. 1 (for Mammals).

Glacial carbolic acid,             2 oz.

Burnt alum or pure tannin,         1 oz.

Water,                             1 pint.

Keep in stoppered bottle labelled "Poison," and shake up before using.

No. 16.--Carbolic Wash, No. 2 (for Birds).

Glacial carbolic acid, 1 oz.

Water, 1 pint.

Keep in stoppered bottle labelled "Poison," and shake before using.
Carbolic acid is a caustic poison, and therefore must be handled
carefully.

It sometimes happens that the taxidermist, if in a large way of
business, is called upon to destroy the insects infesting, it may be,
the entire collection of heads or skins hanging in some gentleman's
hall. No better or more effective way of doing this is to be found
than plunging them entirely in a bath composed of:

No. 17.--Carbolic Acid Wash, No. 3 ("Poison").

Carbolic acid,               1 lb.

Sal ammoniac,              0.5 oz.

Corrosive sublimate,         3 oz.

Pure tannin,                 4 oz.

Hot water,                   4 galls.

Mix this up in some out-house, or in the open air away from the house,
if a fine day; and when the mixture is cold plunge the heads or skins
in, holding the former by the horns, and stirring the latter about
with a stick; in fact, allowing the mixture to touch the hands as
little as possible.

It is, I believe, more efficacious if laid on hot than cold, but the
danger to health is greater. I venture to say that if there is
anything which will preserve objects for an indefinite period it is
corrosive sublimate. Deadly though it be, and dangerous to work with,
it has the advantage of being used as a finishing preparation, and
therefore need not, except in extreme cases, be handled.

Instead of rectified spirits of wine, I have used with much success as
an exterior wash for valuable bird skins, the following:

No. 18.--Preservative Wash.

Pure sulphuric ether,         1 pint.

Corrosive sublimate,          6 grs.

Keep in a stoppered bottle, labelled "Poison," and when used apply
with a brush. This is more rapid in its evaporation than spirits of
wine, but is very expensive. Of course, the more rapidly any spirit
evaporates, and deposits poison previously held in solution, the
better chance you have of not spoiling your specimens.

PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS FOR FISHES AND REPTILES.

I have lately given a great deal of attention to the preservation of
fishes--and especially large ones--in some fluid which should have
four advantages:

1. Perfect preservation of the specimen--and which also, if a foreign
one, is consequently a long time in transit.

2. Its freedom from causing great shrinking or shrivelling of the
integument.

3. The points 1 and 2 being so well balanced that the specimen is in a
fit state--after many months--either to be treated as a specimen shown
in fluid, or to be mounted by the process of taxidermy.

4. The comparative cheapness and facility of carriage of the
preservative medium.

In trying to obtain all these advantages there seem almost insuperable
difficulties in the reconcilement of these diverse conditions.

Dr. A. Guenther, F.R.S, the eminent, ichthyologist and Chief of the
British Museum, recommends, in his new book, that pure or rectified
spirits of wine (56 per cent. over-proof) be the only thing used for
fishes, for permanent preservation in glass jars or tanks, and this
even for ordinary fishes 3 ft. to 4 ft. in length, or even up to 6 ft.
in length, if eel-like. "Proof" spirit (containing only 49 per cent.
by weight of pure alcohol as against 84 per cent. contained in
rectified spirit) is, says Dr. Guenther, the lowest strength which can
be used.

These will then stand as

No. 19.--Rectified Spirits of Wine (56 per cent. over-proof),

and

No. 20.--Proof Spirits of Wine.

If a spirituous solution is absolutely required, I would substitute
for pure spirits of wine methylated spirit (alcohol containing a
certain percentage of impure gum or undrinkable wood spirit) as being
cheap and sufficiently good for some purposes. It will not, however,
bear any diluting with water; it must stand, therefore, as

No. 21.--Methylated Spirit (undiluted),

or as

No. 22.--Alcoholic Solution, No. 1.

Methylated spirit,             1.5 pints.

Burnt alum (pounded),            2 oz.

Distilled water,               0.5 pint.

Saltpetre,                       4 oz.

This, which is to be well shaken together, becomes milky at first, but
will soon fine down, and may then be decanted.

No. 23.--Alcoholic Solution, No. 2.

Methylated spirit,              3 parts.

Glycerine,                      1 part.

Distilled water,                1 part.

Although turpentine will not preserve reptiles or fishes, yet, struck
with the perfect manner with which I was enabled to preserve
soft-bodied beetles for nearly a year in benzol or benzoline, I lately
tried if this cheap and colourless liquid would be of service for
other subjects, with the result that I have now some frogs (six or
seven) in a glass jar containing benzoline which have been immersed
for over three months, and have apparently undergone less change than
if in spirits for the same length of time. Whether they are likely to
be permanently preserved by this method I cannot, of course, yet
determine, but if so, it would be a great gain, owing to the
brilliancy of the liquid, its cheapness, and its advantages over all
alcoholic spirit in its less powerful action on the sealing wax or
coating used over the corks or stoppers of the glass preparation jars.

There is no doubt that pure spirits of wine will preserve objects for
a great length of time, but the cost is very serious to most persons,
or even to institutions of less importance than the British
Museum--added to which the strong spirit unquestionably shrivels and
distorts such objects as fishes and reptiles, whilst, diluted to any
appreciable extent, spirit will not preserve anything for any great
period. To obviate these inconveniences chemists have invented more or
less perfect preservative fluids, the oldest perhaps of which is

No. 24.--Goadby's Solution, No. 1.

Bay salt,                        4 oz.

Corrosive sublimate,             4 grs.

Alum,                            2 oz.

Boiling water,                   2 quarts.

Keep in stoppered bottle labelled "Poison."

[Footnote: "Bay salt" is salt formed by evaporation of sea-water in
shallow lagoons or "salt-pans" exposed to the rays of the sun.]

No. 25.--Goadby's Solution, No. 2.

Bay salt,                  0.5 lb.

Corrosive sublimate,         2 grs.

Arsenious acid,             20 grs.

Boiling rain water,          1 quart.

Keep in stoppered bottle labelled "Poison."

Note that, corrosive sublimate being a remarkably difficult thing to
dissolve, even in pure spirits of wine, it may not be generally known
that the addition of a saturated solution of sal ammoniac, in weight
about half an ounce, is sufficient to dissolve many ounces of
corrosive sublimate. Thus a solution useful for some purposes is
easily made as follows:

No. 26.--Browne's Preservative Solution.

Saltpetre,                          4 oz.

Corrosive sublimate,             0.25 oz.

Alum,                               2 oz.

Sal ammoniac,                   0.125 oz.

Boiling water,                 half gallon.

Keep in stoppered bottle labelled "Poison."

This, it will be seen, is a modification of Goadby's Solution.

In the three preceding formulae the corrosive sublimate must be
dissolved in a small quantity of spirits of some kind, or, as
explained above, by the addition of a strong solution of sal ammoniac.

No. 27.--Saline Solution for bottling Fish and Reptiles.

Bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate),      1 grain.

Chloride of sodium (common salt),                90 grains.

Distilled water,                                  1 pint.

Intimately mix, set aside, let settle, and when clear, decant and
preserve in stoppered bottles. The following might also be tried:

No. 28.--Camphorated Fluid for Preserving Fishes, etc.

To distilled water, sixteen parts, add one part of rectified spirits
of wine and a few drops of creosote, sufficient to saturate it; stir
in a small quantity of best prepared chalk, and then filter. With this
fluid mix an equal quantity of camphor water (water saturated with
camphor), and before using, strain off through very fine muslin.

The bisulphite of lime (see formula No. 11, ante) would also, no
doubt, be excellent as a preservative for fishes if not quite so much
diluted. Chloride of zinc, much diluted, is recommended as a good
preservative.

Dr. Priestley Smith's formula (see No. 14, ante) would do exceedingly
well for small specimens to be subsequently arranged in glass-topped
tanks, as at the British Museum.

Another formula, sometimes used in the medical schools for preserving
parts of subjects, and useful as a pickle for fish and reptiles, is a
preparation called Moeller's Solution:

No. 29--Moeller's Solution.

Bichromate of potash,     2 oz.

Sulphate of soda,         1 oz.

Distilled water,          3 pints.

A saturated solution of chromic acid is also used for the same
purposes. The chief disadvantage which both this and Moeller's
Solution possess in common is their colour--a rich golden one--which,
of course, stains everything with which they come in contact. This,
however, is easily removable by the Hydrate of Chloral formula (see
Priestley Smith's formula, No. 14, Section 2, ante).

This last (Moeller's Solution) I have kept purposely until the end, as
it is the formula which, in my opinion, fulfils all the four
requirements stated in the opening paragraph, as desirable in the
preservation of the lower vertebrates. On my appointment to the
curatorship of the Leicester Museum I had occasion to overhaul the
"pickles" and prepare some fresh specimens, and was very loth to use
expensive spirits, or even methylated, for large fish, and therefore
tried many things with varying results. At last I was driven back on
Moeller's Solution, and by its aid saved some specimens which were
slowly rotting in other fluids, and successfully "pickled" such flabby
things as sharks' eggs, sea anemones, and large-sized "lump fish." It
was then tried on common "dog-fish," one of which came out limp, yet
perfectly tough, and was skinned as an experiment after a month's
immersion.

One day two large "topers" (a small species of shark), about six feet
long, were sent from Scarboro'. My taxidermist being very busy at the
time, I decided to give Moeller a severe test and pickle them.
Accordingly--their viscera only being removed--they were tumbled into
a large tub containing 2 lb. of bichromate of potassa to 20 galls. of
spring water. This was on 13th Sept, 1882; I looked at them on 17th
July, 1883, and they were perfectly fresh, quite limp, unshrivelled,
and yet so tough as to be capable of any treatment, even to being cast
as models, or "set up" by the taxidermic art; and this after the lapse
of ten calendar months--a time more than sufficient for even a sailing
vessel to come from any part of the world.

I changed the solution once, the total cost from first to last being
one shilling and fourpence. Had pure spirit been used, the expense
would have been many pounds, to say nothing of the great shrivelling
which would have taken place by now. I must therefore think that
Moeller's solution is, for the purpose, one of the best things ever
invented.

PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS FOR MOLLUSCA.

Generally speaking, pure alcohol is the best for this purpose.
Chloride of zinc would doubtless be of considerable service, and I
notice that Woodward, in his "Manual of the Molluscs," says that
chloride of calcium, made by dissolving chalk, or the purer carbonate
--white marble,--in hydro-chloric acid until effervescence ceases and
a saturated solution is obtained, is most useful as a preservative, as
it "keeps the specimen previously steeped in it permanently moist
without injuring its colour or texture; while its antiseptic
properties will aid in the preservation of matters liable to decay."

Possibly some of the beautiful preparations in the Fisheries
Exhibition of 1883 were prepared in this manner, and such objects as
the sea-anemones, with tentacles expanded as in life, may have been
instantaneously killed by osmic acid.

LUTING FOR STOPPERS.

No doubt, every one notices how the ordinary wax, which is used as a
protective coating for bottles or "preparation" jars, is attacked by
the contained spirit in such a manner as to be useless as a preventive
of evaporation. Ordinary sealing wax, "bottle wax," beeswax, or
paraffin wax, being useless, we are driven back on a very old recipe
of the French naturalist M. Peron, who claimed for it advantages which
it certainly possesses.

No. 30.--"Lithocolle" for Sealing Bottles.

Common resin.

Yellow beeswax (or paraffin wax).

Red ochre (in powder).

Oil of turpentine (turps).

The proportions of this luting are determined by putting more or less
resin and red ochre, or turpentine and wax, as the "lithocolle" is to
be more or less brittle or elastic. Melt the wax in the resin, then
add the ochre in small quantities, and at each addition of this stir
the whole briskly round. When the mixture has boiled seven or eight
minutes, pour in the turpentine, stir it round, and set it near the
fire to keep it warm some little time. To ascertain the quality, and
if it requires more or less wax, put a little out on a cold plate, and
note its degree of tenacity.

It is rather dangerous to prepare, and is best managed over a gas jet
or stove, so arranged that the flame does not rise above the edge of
the iron pot containing the composition; if this is attended to, not
much danger can arise, especially if, in case of the composition
firing, the lid of the pot be immediately clapped on.

Apply with an old brush, or by repeatedly plunging the neck of the
bottle in the luting before the latter becomes cold. I have used an
application of glue with great success on corks over spirits, by
procuring the best glue, making it rather thin, and applying it whilst
hot in successive coats. It will not do, however, for non-alcoholic
solutions, nor for glass stoppers, from which it scales off when cold.

GENERAL REMARKS.

In all cases when "pickling" animals it must be remembered that the
first pickle, whether alcoholic or not, is essentially deteriorated by
the bloody mucus and water which exudes from the specimens, especially
if large and "flabby;" this, of course, reduces the strength of the
preservative medium. It is well, therefore, to have from three to four
different vessels, in which the objects shall be successively immersed
for several days, or even weeks, until, coming to the final
preparation jar, they shall not stain the liquid in which they are
ultimately to rest.

By using the various strengths of each preservative fluid one under
the other, in which to steep the specimens, proper results will be
obtained, by the exercise of a little forethought and judgment.
Filtration through blotting paper or charcoal is necessary from time
to time, and expensive spirits may be re-distilled when becoming too
weak by constant use.

Large fishes must have small cuts made in the walls of the abdomen to
allow the fluid to properly penetrate. In cases where the specimen is
not required for dissection, the removal of the viscera facilitates
the ultimate preservation.

If at 'any time it is necessary to throw away a quantity of
inexpensive spent liquor which may smell offensively, a small quantity
of the crystals of permanganate of potassa will instantly deodorise a
large quantity of fluid, and this without adding to it any offensive
scent of its own, as in the case of chloride of lime or carbolic acid.
The vessel must be afterwards well rinsed out in clean water, as 'the
potassa temporarily stains everything in contact a rich purplish red.

Some experiments which I conducted with benzoline incontestably proved
to me its valuable properties. I experimented on a Cornish chough--an
old specimen, infested with maggots or larvae of the "clothes" moth. I
immediately plunged it in benzoline, took it out, drained the
superfluous spirit off, and rapidly dried it by suspending it in a
strong current of air.

It took but a short time to dry, and, though the feathers were very
slightly clotted after the operation, yet, by a little manipulation,
explained hereafter, they soon arrived at their pristine freshness,
and all the insects which previously infested it were effectually
killed. I afterwards found on another specimen--a short-eared owl--two
or three larvae feeding on the feathers. I poured a little benzoline
over them in situ, and they fell off, apparently dead. I kept them for
a day, and by that time they were shrivelled and undeniably dead.

Here, then, we have the two elements of success--a perfect destroyer
of insects, and an agent not damaging, but positively beneficial, to
the feathers of birds when applied; added to which, is the remarkable
cheapness of benzoline. Caution--do not use it near a candle, lamp,
nor fire, as it gives off a highly inflammable vapour at a low
temperature; it also fills a house with a peculiarly disagreeable
odour, finding its way upstairs, as all volatile gases do; so it had
better always be used in the workshop or outhouse.

I have just discovered--and feel very "small" that I did not do so
before--that benzoline perfectly preserves birds "in the flesh" for a
considerable time. I tried it on a razorbill (Alta torda, 1.), which I
placed in a "preparation" jar, filled with common benzoline at 1 s.
per gallon. The bird was simply cut under the wing to allow the
benzoline to penetrate, and was left for three weeks; at the end of
which time it and taken out, cleaned in plaster (as described in
Chapter XI.), and made a most excellent taxidermic object! The
advantages of this to the overworked professional are obvious.

In very severe cases I have used turpentine ("turps") with excellent
effect; in fact, as a destructive agent for insects, I prefer it to
benzoline, having now mastered the hitherto fatal objections to its
use on birds' skins. For the skins of mammals there is nothing to beat
it. This will be enlarged on in the chapter on "Relaxing and Cleaning
Skins."

In thus speaking of benzoline and turpentine as agents in the
destruction of insect plagues, I mean, of course, that the specimens
should be plunged into, or have poured over them either benzoline or
turpentine. This seems to have been lost sight of by some former
correspondents of mine, one of whom writes--"In your toxicological
section, I do not find any opinion on atmospheric poisoning of acari,
etc.

"If not giving you too much trouble, I should be glad to know whether
you think spirits of turpentine would be efficacious if allowed to
evaporate in a case of birds in which moths have lately shown
themselves.

"I am unwilling to have them taken out, in fact they have not been
cased twelve months, and I thought of boring a hole in an obscure
corner with bit and brace, and inserting a saturated sponge, and then
closing it again.

"Waterton says--'The atmosphere of spirit of turpentine will allow
neither acarus nor any insect to live in it: Do you believe this?"

My answer to him, and to all such correspondents, was that I had
repeatedly proved that all such little vermin did not care a bit for
the fumes of benzoline, nor of any spirits whatever, as I had caused
gallons of turpentine, etc, to be poured into large cases containing
specimens without producing the smallest effect, unless it absolutely
touched them, but that I had partly succeeded by introducing cyanide
of potassium (deadly poison) into small cases containing birds,
through a hole bored for the purpose; but it was objectionable:

(I) on the score of its danger to health, should the poisonous vapour
escape; and

(2) because it deliquesced rapidly in any but the driest atmosphere,
by its affinity for damp, and, consequently, often caused mildew in
cases of birds, etc, into which it had been introduced. The fumes of
sulphur during combustion are, on the contrary, really of service in
destroying insect life, as evidenced in the fumigation of hospital
wards, etc, but I cannot tell how anyone may burn sulphur in specimen
cases without half choking himself, and probably setting on fire the
fittings and spoiling the work altogether. It is also objectionable
because it readily discharges certain colours from fabrics, flowers,
and birds' feathers. My advice is, therefore, to pull to pieces any
case infested with insects, to burn all fittings not absolutely
valuable, and to drench with turpentine all specimens, together with
all the rockwork and fittings desired to be retained. [Footnote: I
would indeed advise the destruction by burning of the birds themselves
even, should they be common specimens, or easily replaced.]

Crude creosote, in little pots or saucers, is a great deterrent to the
visits of insect plagues; it cannot, however, be exposed openly, as
its scent is overpowering and decidedly unhealthy for use in private
houses. In museums it does very well if cased up.

With regard to camphor in museums, although it is so constantly used,
I consider it of no use as a deterrent. A small piece of tallow
candle is equally efficacious, and of late I have had much more faith
in insect powders, the best of which is, I believe, compounded of the
petals of the Russian tansy (Pyrethrum roseum). This has certainly
some principle contained in it not obvious to our senses. It is
perfectly harmless to man, and to domestic animals, but on insects its
action is entirely different. I cannot as yet discover whether insects
eat it, or if its smell overcomes them, whether it repels, or attracts
them to their doom. A series of experiments has left me just as much
in the dark as ever. Certain it is that I have never found insects
among skins over which it has been strewn.

There is, however, one slight objection to its use, which is that it
stains light-coloured skins, if at all greasy, with its fine,
brownish-yellow dust. This is, however, but a trifle, easily avoided,
in face of its unquestionable value. I have used it now for many
years, and have never had cause to alter my opinion as to its
efficacy. The best only must be procured, from some well-known
wholesale house, price about 3s. per lb. That sold made up in small
quantities is generally adulterated and useless. No curator should
ever be without it, and a small quantity should always be placed
inside a newly-made skin. It can also be worked up in many of the
preservative pastes, or macerated in spirit as a wash, for the inside
of skins.

Baking or stowing maggot-infected specimens is recommended by some
authors, but I strongly object to it in the case of old or valuable
skins, firstly, because the heat can seldom be properly regulated,
unless in an apparatus specially constructed; secondly, because heat
sufficient to kill the larvae is also sufficient to crimp or twist
some part of the plumage or render the skin, if an old specimen, too
crisp or tender for ultimate handling; thirdly, because even a
moderate degree of heat is sufficient to set free the fat contained in
the skin, and thus spoil the feathers.

Perhaps the tyro may remark, "But in a preserved and stuffed skin
there ought to be no fat to ooze out." Quite true, there ought not to
be, but as skins are usually dressed with arsenical soap, the fat,
instead of being dried up, is beautifully conserved, ready to run out
at the slightest provocation, or be drawn out by the capillary
attraction of the threads used in sewing up--another hard knock for
arsenical pastes!

Writing about pastes reminds me that no taxidermist should be without
a pot of flour paste, which is far better and more cleanly than gum or
glue for sticking in loose feathers, etc. For a small quantity,
sufficient to fill a jam-pot, take

No. 31.--Flour Paste.

Good wheat flour,     2 oz.

Essence of cloves,     0.5 a teaspoonful.

Water,             0.5 pint.

Mix the flour with part of the water in a basin, being careful to
crush out all the lumps, and work it up smoothly to the consistence of
thick cream; add the remainder of the water, and boil for a few
minutes in a saucepan. Turn out into a jam-pot, and when nearly cold
stir in the essence of cloves; this latter gives an agreeable odour to
the paste, is not poisonous, and preserves the paste indefinitely from
turning mouldy. A few drops of carbolic acid may be used instead of
the cloves; but in this case the pot must be labelled "Poison."

Strong gum water may be made from gum arabic, into which a little
powdered white sugar is stirred. Essence of cloves prevents mould in
this also, unless there be an excess of water.

A fine paste, useful for paper or photographic work, is made from
rice-flour.

"Dextrine," in powder, is cheap and strong, easily soluble in cold
water, but as a paste shows up on feathers, etc, much more than
wheat-flour paste.

Cement, for uniting broken bones or fossils, or to fix shells, etc, on
tablets, is, says the late Frank Buckland, made thus

No. 32.--White Cement.

Beeswax,                         1 part.

Powdered plaster of Paris (best fine),     5 parts.

Resin,                         4 parts.

Warm the edges (when possible) and use the cement warm.

I would advise the plaster being stirred into the other two
ingredients as wanted. The great objection to this and to all the
"coagulines" is that the edges of the specimen require warming, which
cannot always be done.

Another good colourless cement is

No. 33.--White Cement, No. 2.

Gum tragacanth in powder,         1 part.

Gum arabic (acacia) in powder,     1 part.

Glacial acetic acid,             a few drops.

When used, moisten the gums with a little of the acetic acid diluted.

Gum mastic dissolved in alcohol, and white shellac dissolved in
naphtha, are two other white cements.

Where, however, colour does not matter, take

No. 34--Brown Cement.

Common shellac,         0.25 lb.

Spirits of naphtha,     0.5 pint.

Place them in a bottle in a warm situation on a closed stove, or in a
vessel containing hot water. Be careful of fire. The edges of bones or
undersides of fossils are smeared with this, tied with string, and
left for a day or so to unite.

The reader has now a repertoire of poisonous and harmless preparations
from which he may choose. As for myself, for the preservation of
birds, I pin my faith to formula No. 4, viz, my Preservative Soap for
the inside of the skin, and a wash of benzoline or turpentine
liberally applied from time to time--say twice a year--to the outside
of all uncased or exposed specimens. This, it will be seen, entirely
does away with the use of any poison, and yet is proved to be of the
highest efficacy.

For those who do not object to expense nor to the use of a poisonous
preparation, a wash of Waterton's Solution (No. 5), or the sulphuric
ether preparation (No. 18), can be substituted for benzoline or
turpentine. I mention the expense, because only rectified spirits of
wine, or pure sulphuric ether, will do for birds; the methylated
spirit, though of service for washing over most subjects, is not so
good when applied to the delicate feathers of birds, as it leaves on
drying a certain impure residuum behind it.

For mammals I recommend my formula of burnt alum and saltpetre (No.
9), followed by a wash of benzoline or turpentine twice a year, or by
any one of the mercurial preparations given.

On a retrospect of this chapter it will, I think, be admitted that, if
I am adverse to the use of any poisonous preparations in taxidermy, I
at least point out the why and wherefore, as also an alternative
course, showing at the same time the benefits and defects of both
systems. I now, therefore, leave the amateur to choose for
himself--bearing in mind the time-honoured aphorism, chacun à son
goût.

Plate II Skeleton of Peregrine Falcon

SHOWING THE PROPER POSITION OF THE VARIOUS BOXES.

Explanation: follows:

SKELETON OF PEREGRINE FALCON (above.)

SHOWING THE PROPER POSITION OF THE VARIOUS BOXES.

Explanation:

A, skull; B, upper mandible; C, lower mandible;

D, cervical vertebrae (9);

E, humeri (sing. humerus); F, radius; G, Ulna;

H, carpus, or wrist I and J, metacarpal bones (8); i, "knuckle" joint;

K, pollex (first digit, or "'thumb"); K2 and K3 second or "index" digit,
and next or third digit;

1, pelvis or "ossa innominata" ilium, ischium, and pubes anchylosed;

M, femur; N, tibia; O O, fibula;

P, metatarse, or "tarso-metarsus" (3, sometimes 4 bones);

p, actual "knee" joint; q, "heel," or tibiotarsal joint;

Q, hallux (first or "big" toe), called in ornithology the "hind" toe

R, fourth (or outermost) toe; S S sternum, or breast bone.

CHAPTER V.

SKINNING AND PRESERVING BIRDS.

IN order that this shall be a thoroughly practical chapter, I will, in
my method of working, copy the admirable plan of my old sporting
favourite, Col. Hawker, who, when wishing to note down some difficult
point, was in the habit of doing with his own hands all things
pertaining to the matter at issue, because, as he said, he might not
make mistakes when subsequently writing upon knotty subjects intended
for his readers' consideration.

I have, therefore, specially procured a starling, as I consider this
bird the very best for the amateur's purpose, not only on account of
the toughness of the skin, but also because, being a medium-sized
bird, it presents no difficult points in skinning, and with this bird
before me I shall minutely instruct my pupil, pointing out each step
that has to be taken and each difficulty that is likely to arise.

As I shall have occasion constantly to refer to the various parts of
the skeleton, I now give an engraving of that of the Peregrine Falcon,
in order to help my explanations in the future (see Plate II.).

Having placed ready for use the skinning knife (see Fig. 11), the
scissors (Fig. 14), and the cobbler's crooked awl in handle, a pot of
preservative mixture, some cotton wool or wadding, some tow, and a
needle and thread; lay the starling on its back on a piece of clean
paper, the head of the bird pointing from the operator; then seize the
bird by the sides of the head with the first two fingers and thumb of
the left hand in opposition, the awl held in the palm of the right
hand, and a piece of wool between the right-hand finger and thumb;
then insert the point of the awl between the upper and lower
mandibles, and, having opened them, keep them open with the first
finger of the right hand, removing the piece of wool which should have
been previously placed there by the sportsman (see instructions re
shot birds, at end of Chapter II.). Replacing it with the fresh piece
of wool held in readiness, plug the nostrils in the same manner.

As even this simple operation will have somewhat disarranged the
feathers of the head and neck, smooth them down with the fingers,
taking care, however, not to stretch the neck in doing so. The next
operation is to hold the left-hand wing with the left hand, and with
the fingers of the right hand break or disjoint the bone of the wing
as close to the body as possible, i.e, across the "humerus" (E) (in
the case of large birds, or for some special purpose, this bone is
often left intact, but the amateur will be puzzled how to subsequently
arrange it in the skin if unbroken). Repeat this on the other wing.
For those whose fingers are not strong enough to do this effectually,
I recommend a small pair of flat-nosed pliers, some sizes larger than
the "feather pliers" (Fig. 19).

Large birds may have their wings broken at the humeri (E) by striking
them with a stick or hammer in such a manner as not to break nor
seriously disarrange the feathers; the largest-sized pliers (Fig. 16)
may also be used for this purpose, but in that case a piece of clean
rag should be folded in the jaws of the pliers so as to envelope the
upper and under surface of the wing, in order to protect the feathers
from injury. Practice will, however, point out the best method of
doing this. Next take hold of the legs with the fingers and gently
twist them out of joint at the junction of the tibia and femur.

Now, keeping the head of the bird toward you, part the feathers away
from each side of the sternum or breast-bone; then with the knife held
short in the hand, the point placed exactly in the centre of the bird
(calculating from the bill to the tip of the tail), make the first
incision just on the right side of the breast bone down to the vent,
taking care not to cut so deeply as to expose the intestines. Now turn
the bill towards your right, and gently lay hold of the cut edge of
the skin, which you see shining whitely in front of you; then with the
point of the knife--the cutting edge kept on the flesh--gently loosen
the skin above, below, and downwards. Completely reverse the bird, and
repeat this for the other side.

At this stage the body may be held down, with the knife pressed on the
side of the breast bone, and thus the two first fingers of the left
hand may be advantageously employed--but in a very gentle manner--to
loosen the skin around the upper part of the breast-bone from the
inside, while the thumb regulates the pull from the outside. All must
be done with the feathers kept as much away from the flesh as
possible.

Fig. 22--Starling--Showing Position of First Incision and the
Commencement of the Removal of the Skin.

Fig. 22 shows the appearance which the specimen should now present.

The skin being, as it were, nicely "persuaded" from the flesh (more
being done by pushing than by pulling), the legs begin to appear. Take
hold of the one nearest to you with the right hand, at the same time
inserting the fingers of the left inside the skin; then, by gently
pushing up with the right hand, free the legs sufficiently to show the
second joint, where it has been previously twisted or broken.

Laying down the knife, and picking up the scissors, force their point
underneath the joint, marked P in Plate II, and cut it completely off;
it should then be clear of the flesh, showing the skin on either side
as if it were a stocking turned inside out. Pull it gently by the claw
back into its proper position, and there leave it, and do the same by
the other leg, turning the bird again for that, purpose.

Both the legs should now be entirely free, not holding to the body at
any point. Taking up the knife again, carefully work with it down
toward the tail, and as far round the back as you can get with safety.
Now let the bird rest on its head, as it were, with the beak from you,
and, placing the fingers with the thumb on the back (which is now
underneath), the middle finger on the root of the tail inside, flanked
by the first and third fingers keeping down the skin on either side,
cautiously insert the knife through the skin of the vent, and cut that
free, cutting upward in a slanting direction; having done this,
carefully cut away on the root of the tail, at the same time freeing
it wherever it sticks; then, when nothing but one bone, that is to
say, the last caudal vertebra, holds it, slip the knife underneath and
cut with a drawing motion upward. The tail is now entirely separated
from the body.

Now advance the fingers of the left hand and seize the bottom part of
the loosened body with the right hand, and by pushing with the
finger-nails, and occasionally using the knife where the tendons hold
the skin, gradually work up the back, turning it round and round, and
working very carefully until the place where the wings have been
previously broken is arrived at. Again lay down the knife, and taking
up the scissors, cut the wing nearest to you away from the skin; do
the same with the other side; and now the only thing which holds skin
and body together is the neck. Taking the whole of the body in the
hand, proceed with the fingers of the other (using no knife) to
gradually cause the skin to leave its attachment at the neck. With
care work over the head by the same means, and here progress is
stopped by the skin being held on either side of the face by a little
membrane; this is the inner skin of the ears.

Regaining the knife, slip the point underneath, and gradually lift
them out, cutting towards the flesh and not towards the skin. This
done, the skin will appear darker, immediately above this point. These
are the eyes; carefully cut on top of them with a very gentle motion,
until they are skinned to where only a very thin membrane hides them
from view; arrived at this, the knife-point must be pushed gently
underneath, and an upward cut made, which, if carefully done, entirely
severs the eyelids from the retaining membrane. The exact point shown
in Fig. 23 is now reached.

Fig. 23--Skin of Bird Turned Ready for Severance from Body

After this sever the skull from the neck at the point where the dotted
lines A--B are shown in the drawing. This exposes the brain without
cutting off too much at the base of the cranium, the shape of which is
wanted for subsequent operations. After the body is completely
severed, proceed to pull the tongue out (unless wanted for show) by
placing the knife on the other aside of it in opposition to the thumb,
give a smart pull, keeping an even pressure on, and the tongue will
come out with little or no difficulty.

Next enlarge the orifice at the back of the head by cutting a
triangular piece out towards the palate or roof of the mouth, scooping
the brains out with the point of the knife, having a small piece of
paper in readiness to receive them. During this operation hold the
beak of the bird through the skin of the neck by the two first
fingers, and thumb, the latter being uppermost, the other fingers
being employed in keeping the remainder of the skin with the feathers
out of harm's way.

Inserting the point of the knife at the back of the eye, place the
thumb on the eyeball and gently pull it out, taking care not to let
the point of the kn

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