A History of Art for Beginners and Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
by Clara Erskine Clement Waters · English · Gutenberg #25632 · 507,130 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
Author: Clara Erskine Clement Waters
Release date: May 29, 2008 [eBook #25632]
Most recently updated: January 3, 2021
Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART FOR BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS: PAINTING, SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURE ***
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Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
[Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE VENUS OF MILO. (_See page 87._)]
A
HISTORY OF ART
FOR
BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS
PAINTING--SCULPTURE--ARCHITECTURE
WITH
_COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_
BY
CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT
AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART," "PAINTERS,
SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS," "ARTISTS OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.
NEW YORK
FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MDCCCXCI
COPYRIGHT, 1887,
BY FREDERICK A. STOKES,
SUCCESSOR TO WHITE, STOKES, & ALLEN.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
ANCIENT SCULPTURE:
EGYPT, 1
ASSYRIA, 10
CHAPTER II.
GREEK SCULPTURE, 18
CHAPTER III.
ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE, 82
CHAPTER IV.
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH
CENTURY, 105
CHAPTER V.
ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 136
CHAPTER VI.
SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN,
FROM 1450 TO 1550, 160
CHAPTER VII.
ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI,
MICHAEL ANGELO, AND OTHERS, 181
CHAPTER VIII.
EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA, 213
CHAPTER IX.
CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS, 235
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Venus of Milo, _Frontispiece_
Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo, 3
Various Kinds of Dogs, 5
Androsphinx, 6
Kriosphinx, 6
The Great Sphinx, 7
Hieracosphinx, 8
The Colossi at Thebes, 9
Polishing a Colossal Statue, 10
Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the Quarries (from a
lithographic Drawing), 11
Statue of Sardanapalus I. (from Nimrud), 12
Lion-Hunt (from Nimrud), 13
Wounded Lion Biting a Chariot-wheel, 15
Arm-chair or Throne (Khorsabad), 16
Mode of Drawing the Bow (Koyunjik), 17
Lion Devouring Deer, 22
Heracles, Triton, and Nereids, 23
Heracles and the Cecrops, 23
Actaeon and his Dogs, 24
From the Harpy Monument, London, 25
Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of Minerva, at AEgina, 27
Archaistic Artemis at Naples, 28
The Discobolus (Myron), 30
Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos, 34
Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus, 36
Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli, 37
Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?), 38
From the Frieze of the Parthenon, 43
The Five Central Figures, 44
Youths Preparing to join the Cavalcade, 45
Horsemen Starting, 46
Procession of Cavalry, 46
Procession of Chariots, 47
Train of Musicians and Youths, 47
Cows for Sacrifice, 48
Train of Noble Maidens, 48
Head of Asclepius (in the British Museum), 50
A Wounded Amazon (Cresilas), 52
Statue of Pericles (Cresilas), 52
Eirene and the Young Plutus (Cephisodotus), 56
Portrait of Mausolus, 57
From the Frieze of the Mausoleum, 58
The Eros of Centocelle, 60
Niobe and her Youngest Daughter, 62
Brother and Sister, 63
The Eldest Daughter, 64
A Niobid, 65
Ganymede (after Leochares), 66
Monument of Lysicrates (Athens), 67
Bacchus and Lion (from the Lysicrates Monument), 68
The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, 69
The Laocoon Group, 75
The Farnese Bull, 77
Gallic Warrior (Venice), 78
The Dying Gaul, 79
Boy and Goose, 80
Spinario, 81
Venus de' Medici, 86
The Farnesian Hercules, 89
The Apollo Belvedere, 90
Head of Apollo Belvedere, 91
The Steinhaeuser Head, 91
The Stroganoff Apollo, 92
_Diane a la Biche_, 95
Athena of the Capitol, 96
Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus, 97
From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column, 99
Portrait of Sophocles, 101
Statue of Augustus, 102
Agrippina the Elder, 103
Statue of St. Peter, 106
From the Cathedra of Maximianus, 109
Diptych (Zurich), 110
From the Facade of Chartres Cathedral, 113
From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral, 118
From the West Facade of Strasburg Cathedral, 120
Duke Robert of Normandy, 121
Ivory Relief (Hunting Scene), 124
Relief by Nicola Pisano (Lucca), 128
Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa (Nicola Pisano), 129
Campo Santo of Pisa (Giovanni Pisano), 132
Relief by Jacopo della Quercia (Bologna), 138
From the Eastern Gates (showing compartments 6, 8, and 10), 141
The Annunciation (Donatello), 143
Statue of St. George (Donatello), 144
Dancing Boys (Luca della Robbia), 147
Boy with Dolphin (Verocchio), 149
Statue of Colleoni (Verocchio), 150
Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande (Milan), 156
Count Eberhard von Grumbach (Rimpar), 169
Justice, 170
The Three Wise Virgins, 170
Tomb of St. Sebald (Nuremberg), 172
Peter Vischer's Statue, 173
St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles (Vischer), 174
Peter (Vischer), 175
John (Vischer), 175
Man and Geese (Labenwolf), 176
Pharisee, Levite (Rustici), 183
Bacchus (Jacopo Sansovino), 185
Perseus (Benvenuto Cellini), 191
Michael Angelo's Angel (Bologna), 197
Pieta (Michael Angelo), 199
Michael Angelo's David, 201
Giuliano de' Medici (Michael Angelo), 205
Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo), 207
Mercury (Giovanni da Bologna), 215
Relief by Berruguete (Valladolid), 217
Rape of Proserpine (Bernini), 225
Caryatide (Quellinus), 231
Heads of Dying Warriors (Schlueter), 232
The Great Elector (Schlueter), 233
The Three Graces (Canova), 241
Hebe (Canova), 246
Ariadne and the Panther (Dannecker), 249
Jason (Thorwaldsen), 256
Ganymede and the Eagle (Thorwaldsen), 260
The Three Graces (Thorwaldsen), 261
Statue of Queen Louise (Rauch), 270
Nymph (by Bosio), 273
SCULPTURE.
CHAPTER I.
ANCIENT SCULPTURE.
EGYPT.
No one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first
practised by the Egyptians; we only know that it was a very long time
ago. But we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty, which dates
from 2466 B.C., sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as
could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training
and practice in this art.
In the Egyptian collection of the Louvre, at Paris, there is the
memorial stone of an old Egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that
reads as if he had written it himself; this was the way by which
Egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke
to those who were still alive. This sculptor's name was Martisen, and he
lived about forty-four centuries ago. Brugsch-Bey, a very learned writer
on Egypt, says: "He calls himself 'a master among those who understand
art, and a plastic artist,' who 'was a wise artist in his art.' He
relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues, in every
position, according to prescribed use and measure; and brings forward,
as his particular invention, an etching with colors, if I have rightly
understood the expression, 'which can neither be injured by fire nor
washed off by water; 'and, as a further explanation of this, states that
'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and
the eldest son of his race, whom God's will has created. He has arisen
able to do this, and the exercise of his hand has been admired in
masterly works in all sorts of precious stones, from gold and silver to
ivory and ebony.'"
There is no doubt but that Martisen and his son, who was named
Usurtasen, were sculptors at the time when Egyptian art reached its
highest point.
The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in
the chambers of the tombs; the walls are almost covered with them, and
they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh, though
more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on. The
subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried
in the tombs, and even their possessions and occupations are thus
represented. These sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the
stone and then cutting it away between the figures. The mode of
arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it
should be. It seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their
minds--no aim as to what the effect should be when finished. On the
contrary, the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure,
and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the
fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the
whole; and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them, but as
if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one
sense really have no relation to each other.
The same is true of the Egyptian statues. It appears as if the different
parts might have been made separately or even by different sculptors,
and then joined together. All this is because the Egyptians seemed to
think of an object in parts and not as a whole. Then, too, the position
of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward. The arms were placed
close to the sides of the body, and there was no separation between the
legs; and though in some of their articles of furniture, their pottery,
and in the details of their architecture, the Egyptians made a great
advance, they did not equally improve in their sculpture.
One great hindrance to the progress of Egyptian sculpture was the fact
that figures were never represented in action. They were not figures
moving and living in stone; they were like figures petrified and fixed:
they were _statues_, and no one can forget this for a moment while
looking at them. I can learn of but one Egyptian figure sculptured as if
in action; this is a quoit-thrower in the Tombs of the Kings. A sitting
statue, whether of a man or a woman, had the hands rested on the knees
or held across the breast (Fig. 1).
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STATUE OF CEPHREN IN THE MUSEUM AT CAIRO.]
There were very few groups in Egyptian sculpture, and these seldom had
more than two figures. It was customary to represent a husband and wife
sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands, or having their
arms around one another's waists or shoulders. Sometimes the principal
figure is of large size, and the inferior persons are made much smaller
and placed at the sides of the larger figure. In short, very few
attitudes are represented in Egyptian sculpture, and it almost seems as
if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of
positions after which all sculptured figures were made.
In spite of this sameness and stiffness, Egyptian sculpture is
remarkable, and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by
prejudices and rules the Egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture
and painting.
The sides of obelisks and, more especially, the walls of temples were
covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings--of their wars
and conquests, and of their great works in their kingdoms. The
sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods, or
even acres, better than by lesser measures. Their amount and the labor
it required to make them are simply marvellous.
I will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the
palace-temple of Medemet Haboo, and will quote from Wilkinson's "Egypt
and Thebes." On the west wall "the Egyptian princes and generals conduct
the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king. He is seated at the
back of his car, and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on
foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him, which an officer
counts, one by one, as the other notes down their number on a scroll;
each heap containing three thousand, and the total indicating the
returns of the enemy's slain. The number of captives, reckoned one
thousand in each line, is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above,
where the name of the Rebo points out the nation against whom this war
was carried on. Their flowing dresses, striped horizontally with blue or
green bands on a white ground, and their long hair and aquiline noses
give them the character of an Eastern nation in the vicinity of Assyria
and Persia, as their name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom he
places near the Caspian." ...
The suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall. The
king, returning victorious to Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car,
conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk beside and
before it, three others being bound to the axle. Two of his sons attend
as fan-bearers, and the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a
corps of their allies, under the command of these princes, marching in
regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops, accompany
their king. He arrives at Thebes, and presents his captives to Amen-Ra
and Mut, the deities of the city, who compliment him, as usual, on the
victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the enemy he has "trampled
beneath his feet."
[Illustration: FIG. 2--VARIOUS KINDS OF DOGS.]
This description of these bas-reliefs, which are usually painted, will
give an idea of the great works of Egyptian sculptors.
The representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful
as any part of them. There being no intellectual expression required,
they are more pleasing than the human beings, with their set, unchanging
features and expression. The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs, and
the picture here (Fig. 2) is made up from the dogs found in the
sculptures--No. 1, hound; 2, mastiff; 3, turnspit; 4, 5, fox-dogs; 6, 7,
greyhounds.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ANDROSPHINX.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--KRIOSPHINX.]
One of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of Egypt was the
Sphinx. The colossal and most famous one (Fig. 5) is not far from the
great pyramid, and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head.
It is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, and is _the_ Sphinx of the
world; but there were great numbers of these strange figures in
Egypt--in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered
by them on each side. The form of the Sphinx was intended to express
some spiritual thought to the Egyptians, and the stories about it are
very interesting. Its form certainly denotes the union of physical and
mental power. The form of which we have spoken as being that of the
great Sphinx is called the _androsphinx_ (Fig. 3). Another has the body
of the lion with the head of the ram, and is called the _kriosphinx_
(Fig. 4); still another has the same body and the head of a hawk; this
is called the _hieracosphinx_ (Fig. 6). They all typified the king,
without doubt, and it is probable that the various heads were so given
to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the
heads of these creatures. Sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in
place of the lion's paws. The winged Sphinx has been found in Egypt, but
it is rare.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE GREAT SPHINX.]
The colossal statues of Egypt are very wonderful on account of their
vast weight and size. The most famous are two which stand on the west
bank of the Nile at Thebes (Fig. 7). Each of these colossi is made from
a single block of stone such as is not found within several days'
journey of the place where they stand. They are forty-seven feet high,
and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each. But a third is
still larger; it represents the King Rameses II., and, when whole, was
of a single stone, and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons. It
was brought from Assouan to Thebes, a distance of one hundred and
thirty-eight miles. It is wonderful to think of moving such a vast
weight over such a distance, and one would naturally wish to know also
how the sculptors could work on such a statue. The plate here given
(Fig. 8) shows the process of polishing a statue, and the following one
(Fig. 9) illustrates the mode of moving one when finished. These
representations are found in tombs and grottoes, and tell us plainly
just what we wish to know about these things.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HIERACOSPHINX.]
I have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of Egyptian sculpture,
and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that
in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of
Egyptian architecture. In the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the
decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect, while
at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the
nation and period. In the temple palaces this is also true--though the
reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings; they are,
as it were, framed into and make a part of the architectural effect. The
obelisks, colossal figures and Sphinxes were placed before the grand
buildings, and made a part of them architecturally. In general terms we
may say that sculpture never became an independent art in Egypt, but was
essentially wedded to architecture; and this fact largely accounts for
that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in Egypt
that it promised, or the excellence that would have seemed to be the
natural result of its earliest attainments.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE COLOSSI AT THEBES.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8--POLISHING A COLOSSAL STATUE.]
ASSYRIA.
The works of sculpture in Assyria consisted of statues, bas-reliefs,
statuettes in clay, carvings in ivory, metal castings, and some smaller
works, such as articles for jewelry, made in minute imitation of larger
works in sculpture.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MODE OF TRANSPORTING A COLOSSUS FROM THE
QUARRIES. _From a Lithographic Drawing._
In a Grotto at Dayr E'Shake, near El Bersheh.
1. The statue bound upon a sledge with ropes. It is of a private
individual, not of a king, or a deity.
2. Man probably beating time with his hands, and giving out the verse of
a song, to which the men responded; though 3 appears as if about to
throw something which 2 is preparing to catch, or striking crotala.
4. Pouring a liquid, perhaps grease, from a vase.
5. Egyptian soldiers, carrying boughs.
6, 7, 8, 9. Men, probably captives and convicts, dragging the statue.
10. Men carrying water, or grease.
11. Some implements.
12. Taskmasters.
13, 14, 15, 16. Reliefs of men.]
The statues found in Assyria are by no means beautiful, according to our
idea of beauty. They are as set and stiff in design as the Egyptian
works of this sort, and they have suffered so much injury from the
weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which
they were originally finished.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--STATUE OF SARDANAPALUS I.
_From Nimrud._]
The number of Assyrian statues that have been found is small; this one
given here (Fig. 10), of Sardanapalus I., is in the best state of
preservation of any of them. It is smaller than life size, being about
forty-two inches high. The statuettes of the Assyrians are less artistic
than the statues. They are made from a clay which turned red in baking,
and are colored so as to resemble Greek pottery. They are almost always
of a grotesque appearance, and usually represent gods or genii. They
also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way
than is done in the Egyptian representation of the Sphinx. There are
also small figures of animals in terra-cotta, principally dogs and
ducks. But the large and small statues of the Assyrians are their most
unimportant works in sculpture. It is in their bas-reliefs that their
greatest excellence is seen, and in them alone their progress in art can
be traced. This sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the
Assyrians just as painting was used in Italy after the Renaissance. It
was their mode of expressing everything. Through it they gave expression
to their religious feeling; they told the history of their nation, and
glorified their kings; they represented the domestic scenes which now
make the subjects of _genre_ pictures; and even imitated vegetables and
fruits, as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these
pictures cut from stone. In truth, it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs
that we learn the history of Assyria, and in this view their sculptures
are even more important than when they are considered merely from an
artistic view.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LION-HUNT. _From Nimrud._]
The most ancient palaces at Nimrud furnish the earliest examples of
bas-relief. These date at about the end of the tenth century B.C. One
striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures, both men and
animals, are given in exact profile. In spite of this sameness of
position they have much spirit and action. The picture of a lion-hunt
given here (Fig. 11) is one of the very best of these reliefs, and you
will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the
human beings. This is true of all Assyrian art in all its stages. In
these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds; but later on these
are added, and mountains, hills, streams, trees, and wild animals are
all introduced as details of the general design. The highest state of
this art was reached about 650 B.C. At this period the various forms
seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule. The
human faces and figures are more delicately finished, and there is an
air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far
better than that of any other time. The plants and trees are far more
beautiful than before.
The figures of animals, too, are full of life and action in this period.
I shall only give one illustration, and shall choose the head of a lion,
probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in
Assyrian art. It represents the head of a wounded lion, who, in his
agony, rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth. The
drawing of this head, as a portrayal of agony and fierceness, compares
favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art,
either classic or modern (Fig. 12).
There is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of
color used on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. From the traces of color
remaining on those that are found in the excavations, and from what we
know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs
belonged, we may be sure that colors were used on them; but to what
extent cannot be told. It may have been applied with the freedom of the
Egyptians, or it may have been sparingly used, as was the manner of the
ancient Greeks. The colors that have been found in the ruins of Assyria
are white, black, red and blue.
Next to the sculpture, the metal work of the Assyrians was the most
important of their arts. This work was done in three ways: I. Whole
figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape. II. Castings of low
bas-reliefs. III. Embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer, but
finished with the graver. In the solid castings there are only animal
forms, and lions are far more numerous than any other creature. Many of
them have a ring fastened to the back, which indicates that they were
used for weights. These castings are all small and their form good; but
we have no reason to think that the Assyrians could make large metal
castings.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--WOUNDED LION BITING A CHARIOT-WHEEL. _From the
North Palace, Koyunjik._]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARM-CHAIR OR THRONE.
_Khorsabad._]
The castings in relief were used to ornament thrones, furniture, and
perhaps chariots. They were fastened in their places by means of small
nails. They had no great merit. The embossed or hammered work, on the
contrary, is artistic and very curious. Large numbers of embossed bowls
and dishes have been found, and this work was used for the end of
sword-sheaths, the sides of chairs and stools, and various other
ornamental purposes. It is probable that the main part of the tables,
chairs, and so on were of wood, with the ornaments in embossed metals.
All this shows the Assyrians to have been an artistic people, and to
have reached an interesting stage in their arts, though their works are
coarse and imperfect when judged by Greek standards or by our own idea
of what is beautiful. If we had the space to consider all the various
designs of the bas-reliefs in detail, you would learn from them a great
many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and
interesting people. From them we can learn all about the costumes worn
by the king and those of lesser rank; can see how their wars were
carried on, and what their chariots, weapons, and equipments were.
Their games, amusements, musical instruments, agricultural pursuits,
food, and, in short, everything connected with their daily life is
plainly shown in these sculptures, and, as I have said before, the whole
history of Assyria is better studied from them than from any other one
source. For this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated (Fig.
13).
Other very ancient nations had sculptors, and a few remains of their
arts still exist. This is true of the Medes, Babylonians, and Persians;
but the general features of their arts resembled those of the Assyrians,
though they were less advanced than that nation, and have left nothing
as interesting as the Egyptian and Assyrian remains which we have
considered. I shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of
Greece.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--MODE OF DRAWING THE BOW. _Koyunjik._]
CHAPTER II.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
We have seen that the Egyptians and Assyrians were skilful in sculpture,
but at the same time their works have not moved us as we wish to be
moved by art; there is always something beyond them to be desired, and
it remained for the Greeks to attain to that perfection in sculpture
which satisfies all our nature and fills our highest conceptions of
beauty and grace. In truth, in Greece alone has this perfection in
plastic art existed, and since the time of its highest excellence there
no other nation has equalled the examples of Greek sculpture which still
exist, though we have reason to believe that its finest works have
perished, and that those remaining are of the second grade.
There are many reasons for the high artistic attainments of the Greeks,
and a discussion or even a simple statement of them would require an
essay far too learned and lengthy for the scope of this book; but I will
speak of one truth that had great influence and went far to perfect
Greek art--that is, the unbounded love of beauty, which was an essential
part of the Greek nature. To the Greek, in fact, beauty and good had the
same meaning--_beauty was good_, and the good must be beautiful.
Sculpture deals almost exclusively with the form of man, and the other
features in it have some relation to the human element of the design;
and it would have been impossible for a true Greek to represent the
human form otherwise than beautiful. A writer on this point says: "The
chief aim of the enlightened Greek, his highest ambition and his
greatest joy, was to be a _man_ in the fullest sense of the word--man in
the most complete development of his bodily strength and beauty, in the
active exercise of the keenest senses, in the greatest because tempered
enjoyment of sensual pleasure, in the free and joyous play of an
intellect strong by nature, graced and guided by the most exquisite
taste, and enlightened by the sublimest philosophy." Thus, beauty was so
important to the Greek that every parent prayed that his children might
have this gift, and the names of beautiful persons were engraved upon
pillars set where all could read them; and at times there were
competitions for the prize of beauty.
The religion of the Greek, too, taught that the body was the beautiful
and godlike temple of his soul; and the truth that human beings have
something in common with a higher power than their own gave him a great
respect for humanity, and, in truth, he felt that if he could escape
death he should be content and almost, if not quite, a god. For we must
remember that the gods of the Greek were not all-wise, all-powerful, and
all-good, as we believe our God to be. If you read their mythology you
will find that with the power of the god much imperfection and weakness
were mingled. They did not believe that Zeus had been the greatest god
from the beginning, but that there was a time when he had no power. He
was not omniscient nor omnipresent, and was himself subject to the
decrees of Fate, as when he could not save his loved Sarpedon from
death. Not knowing all things, even the gods are sometimes represented
as depending upon mortals for information, and all these religious views
tended to make the human form far more noble to the Greek than it can be
to the Christian, with his different views of the relations of God and
man.
Greek sculpture existed in very early days, and we have vague accounts
of a person called DAEDALUS, who seems to have been a wood-carver. Many
cities claimed to have been his birthplace, and no one can give any
clear account of this ancient artist. He is called the inventor of the
axe, saw, gimlet, plummet-line, and a kind of fish-glue or isinglass. He
is also said to have been the first sculptor who separated the arms from
the bodies of his statues, or made the feet to step out; he also opened
their eyes, and there is a legend that the statues of Daedalus were so
full of life that they were chained lest they should run away.
We call the time to which Daedalus belonged the prehistoric period, and
his works and those of other artists of his day have all perished. Two
very ancient specimens of sculpture remain--the Lion Gate of Mycenae and
the Niobe of Mount Sipylus; but as their origin is not known, and they
may not be the work of Greek artists, it is best for us to pass on to
about 700 B.C., when the records of individual artists begin.
Among the earliest of these was DIBUTADES, of whom Pliny said that he
was the first who made likenesses in clay. This author also adds that
Dibutades first mixed red earth with clay, and made the masks which were
fastened to the end of the lowest hollow tiles on the roofs of temples.
Pliny relates the following story of the making of the first portrait in
bas-relief.
Dibutades lived in Sicyon, and had a daughter called sometimes Kora, and
again Callirhoe. She could not aid her father very much in his work as a
sculptor, but she went each day to the flower-market and brought home
flowers, which gave a very gay and cheerful air to her father's little
shop. Kora was very beautiful, and many young Greeks visited her father
for the sake of seeing the daughter. At length one of these youths asked
Dibutades to take him as an apprentice; and when this request was
granted the young man made one of the family of the sculptor. Their
life was one of simple content. The young man could play upon the reed,
and his education fitted him to be the instructor of Kora. After a time,
for some reason that Pliny does not mention, it was best for the youth
to go away from the artist's home, and he then asked Kora if she would
be his wife. She consented, and vows of betrothal were exchanged, while
they were sad at the thought of parting.
The last evening of his stay, as they sat together, Kora seized a coal
from the brazier, and traced upon the wall the outline of the face that
was so dear to her; and she did this so correctly that when her father
saw it he knew instantly from what face it had been drawn. Then he
wished to do his part, for he also loved the young man. So he brought
his clay and filled in the outline which Kora had drawn, and so went on
to model the first portrait in bas-relief that was ever made. Thus did
this great art grow out of the love of this beautiful maiden of Sicyon,
about twenty-five hundred years ago.
After this beginning Dibutades went on to perfect his art. He made
medallions and busts, and decorated the beautiful Grecian structures
with his work, and work in bas-relief became the most beautiful
ornamentation of the splendid temples and theatres of Greece. He also
founded a school for modelling at Sicyon, and became so famous an artist
that several Greek cities claim the honor of having been his birthplace.
The bas-relief made from Kora's outline was preserved in the Nymphaeum at
Corinth for almost two hundred years, but was then destroyed by fire.
She married her lover, and he became a famous artist at Corinth.
We have said that accounts of individual artists exist from about 700
B.C.; but these accounts are of so general a character and so wanting in
detail that I shall pass on about two hundred years, after saying a few
words of the advance made in the arts of sculpture, and mentioning a
few of the examples which remain from that early time, which is called
the Archaic period. This expression not only means an ancient period of
art, but carries also the idea of an obsolete art--of something that is
not only ancient, but something that is no longer practised in the same
manner or by the same people as existed in this ancient or archaic time.
During this archaic period a beginning was made in many branches of
plastic art. There were statues in metal and marble, bas-reliefs in
various kinds of stone and marble, as well as some chryselephantine
statues. This kind of work is often said to have been invented by
Phidias, but the truth seems to be that he was not its inventor, but
carried it to great perfection. These chryselephantine statues were made
of wood and then covered with ivory and gold; the ivory was used for the
flesh parts of the statue, and gold for the drapery and ornaments of the
figure, and the finished work was very brilliant in its effect.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--LION DEVOURING DEER.]
The principal subjects represented in the sculpture of the archaic
period were connected with the religion of the Greeks, which is known to
us as mythology. Most statues were of the gods, but portrait statues
were not unknown, and the custom of setting up statues of the victors in
the Greek games dates back to this very early time. This was a custom
which afforded a large field for sculptors to work in, and must have had
a great influence to give life and progress to their art.
Of the remains of this art very interesting things have been written,
but I shall speak only of a few such objects of which pictures can be
given to aid you in understanding about them. Among the earliest reliefs
that have been preserved are those now in the Museum of the Louvre, at
Paris, which were found in the ruins of a Doric temple at Assos (Fig.
15).
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HERACLES, TRITON, AND NEREIDS.]
The various designs upon these marbles seem to have no connection with
each other, and are executed in a rude manner. The most interesting one
represents Heracles, or Hercules, struggling with a Triton (Fig. 16).
The female figures represent Nereids, who are terrified by seeing
Heracles in contest with the sea-monster. There are many proofs that
these reliefs belong to a very ancient day.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--HERACLES AND THE CECROPS.]
An interesting relief from the temple of Selinus represents Heracles
striding off with a pole across his shoulders, to which are hung two
Cecrops who had robbed and tormented him (Fig. 17).
A very fine work is also from Selinus, and represents Actaeon torn by his
dogs. The mythological story was that Zeus, or Jupiter, was angry with
Actaeon because he wished to marry Semele, and the great god commanded
Artemis, or Diana, to throw a stag's skin over Actaeon, so that his own
dogs would tear him. In the relief Artemis stands at the left (Fig. 18).
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ACTAEON AND HIS DOGS.]
There is in the British Museum a monument which was discovered at
Xanthos in 1838. It is thought to have been made about 500 B.C., and is
called "The Harpy Monument," It is a tower, round the four sides of
which runs a frieze at a height of about twenty-one feet from the
ground. The frieze is of white marble, and is let into the frieze which
is of sandstone. The Lycians, in whose country it was found, were
accustomed to bury their dead at the top of such towers.
There is very great difference of opinion among scholars and critics
concerning the meaning of the various scenes in these sculptures; and as
all their writing is speculation, and no one knows the truth about it, I
shall only say that it is a very interesting object in the history of
art, and shall speak of the four corner figures on the shortest parts of
the frieze, from which the whole work takes its name. The Harpies are
very curious; they had wings, and arms like human arms, with claws for
hands, and feathered tails. Their bodies are egg-shaped, which is a very
strange feature in their formation. We cannot explain all these
different things, but there is little doubt that, with the little forms
which they have in their arms, they represent the messengers of death
bearing away the souls of the deceased. In the Odyssey, Homer represents
the Harpies as carrying off the daughters of King Pandareus and giving
them to the cruel Erinnyes for servants. For this reason the Harpies
were considered as robbers, and whenever a person suddenly disappeared
it was said that they had been carried off by Harpies (Fig. 19).
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_From the Harpy Monument, London._]
Before leaving this subject of existing sculptures from the fifth
century B.C., I will speak of the two groups which belonged to the
temple of Minerva in AEgina, and are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The
city of AEgina was the principal city of the island of AEgina, which was
in the gulf of the same name, near the south-west coast of Greece. This
city was at the height of its prosperity about 475 B.C., at which time a
beautiful temple was built, of which many columns are still standing,
though much of it has fallen down. In 1811 some English and German
architects visited this place, and the marbles they obtained are the
most remarkable works which still exist from so early a period.
Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, restored these reliefs, and the King
of Bavaria bought them.
Upon the western pediment there were eleven figures which represented an
episode in the Trojan war; it was the struggle of Ajax, Ulysses, and
other Greek warriors to obtain the dead body of Achilles, which was held
by the Trojans. The story is that the goddess Thetis had dipped her son
Achilles in the river Styx for the purpose of making him invulnerable,
or safe from wounds by weapons. But as she held him by the ankles they
were not wetted, and so he could be wounded in them. During the siege of
Troy Apollo guided the arrow of Paris to this spot, and the great leader
of the Greeks was killed. It is believed that the warrior in this
picture who is about to send his arrow is Paris. In the central or
highest part of the pediment the goddess Minerva stands and tries to
cover the fallen body of Achilles with her shield. These figures are on
the side where the space grows narrower. You can judge of what the
action and spirit of the whole must be when these smaller figures have
so much. We are sure that the arrow will shoot out with such force as
must carry death to its victim, and the second warrior, who braces
himself on his feet and knee, will thrust his lance with equal power
(Fig. 20).
There are traces of color and of metal ornaments upon these AEginetan
statues; the weapons, helmets, shields, and quivers were red or blue;
the eyes, hair, and lips were painted, and there are marks upon the
garments of the goddess that show that she must have had bronze
ornaments. There was a famous sculptor of AEgina named Callon, who lived
about the time that this temple was built; and though it is not known to
be so, yet many critics and scholars believe that he may have been the
sculptor of these works, because they resemble the written descriptions
of his statues and reliefs.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of
Minerva, at AEgina._]
There was a period which we call archaistic, and by this we indicate a
time when it was the fashion for the sculptors to imitate as nearly as
possible the works of the true archaic period. It has constantly
happened in the history of society that fashion has ordained this same
thing, though the objects of imitation have varied with the different
ages and nations. This archaistic "craze" to imitate old sculptures was
at its height in the times of the Roman emperors Augustus and Hadrian;
but here in America we have seen the same passion manifested in the
desire to have such furniture as Queen Anne and her people admired, or
such as "came over in the Mayflower;" and when the true original
articles were no longer to be found in garrets and out-of-the-way
places, then manufacturers began to imitate the old in the new, and one
can now buy all sorts of ancient-looking furniture that is only just
from the workmen's hands.
But among the Greeks there was a second motive for reproducing the works
of the earlier artists, which was the fact that the images of the gods
and such articles as belonged to religious services were sacred in their
earliest forms, and were venerated by the people. Thus it followed that
the advance and change in the taste of the people and the skill of the
artists was more suited to other subjects, while the religious images
were made as nearly as possible like the older ones. If it happened that
a rude ancient image of a god was placed side by side with a modern and
more beautiful statue of the same deity, the pious Greek would prefer
the ugly one, while he could well admire the most lovely. You should
remember that these temple images were really objects of actual worship.
Many of these archaistic works are in various museums of art.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--ARCHAISTIC ARTEMIS AT NAPLES.]
This is a very beautiful temple image, and was discovered at Pompeii in
1760. It was found in a small temple or chapel, of which it must have
been the principal deity. It is in excellent preservation; the only
parts which are wanting are the fingers of the right hand and the object
which it held. Like many of these statues, it is less than
life-size--four feet and two inches in height. When it was first
discovered there were many traces of color about it. The hair was gilded
to represent the blonde hair which the poets ascribed to Artemis
(Diana). There was considerable red about the garments, and some flowers
were upon the border of the drapery. There is an archaic stiffness
about this statue, but the flowing hair, the form of the eyes, and the
free style of the nude parts all show that it belongs to the archaistic
period (Fig. 21).
It would be pleasant and satisfying if we could trace step by step the
progress of Greek sculpture from the rude archaic manner to that of the
Periclean age, or from such art as is seen in the sculpture of AEgina to
the perfections of the reliefs of the Parthenon. This we cannot do; but
we know some of the causes that led to this progress, and can give
accounts of a few sculptors who, while they did not equal the great
Phidias, were at least the forerunners of such a type of art as his.
The chief cause of the progress of art was the greater freedom of the
artist in the choice and treatment of his subjects. So long as the
subjects were almost entirely religious there could be little variety in
the manner of treating them. Each god or goddess had its own attributes,
which must be rendered with exact care; and any new mode of portraying
them was almost a sacrilege. But as time passed on and the Panhellenic
games and the national Pantheon at Olympia grew into their great
importance, new subjects were furnished for the artists, which allowed
them to show their originality and to indulge their artistic
imaginations to their fullest extent. The victors in the games were
heroes, and regarded even as demi-gods, and statues were allowed to be
erected to them, although this had hitherto been considered a divine
honor and was accorded to the gods alone. When these heroes were
represented, the artists, not being bound by any laws, could study their
subjects and represent them to the life as nearly as they were able to
do. This exaltation of the Olympian victors gave an opportunity for the
development of sculpture such as cannot be over-estimated in its
influence and results.
Another characteristic of the art of the time we are now considering
was the almost universal use of bronze. This metal is excellent for
displaying the minute features of the nude parts of statues, but it is
not equal to marble in the representation of draperies or for giving
expression to the face. PYTHAGORAS OF RHEGIUM was a famous artist who
worked entirely in bronze. The only copies from his works of which we
know are on two gems, one of which is in the Berlin Museum. He made
exact studies of the body in action, and gave new importance to the
reproduction of the veins and muscles. It is also claimed that
Pythagoras was the first to lay down clearly the laws of symmetry or
proportion which is governed by strict mathematical rules.
MYRON OF ELEUTHERAE flourished about 500 to 440 B.C., and was reckoned
among Athenian artists because, though not born at Athens, he did most
of his works there, and his most famous work, the statue of a cow, stood
on the Acropolis of that city. This cow was represented as in the act of
lowing, and was elevated upon a marble base. It was carried from Athens
to Rome, where it stood in the Forum of Peace. Many writers mentioned
this work of Myron's, and thirty-seven epigrams were written concerning
it.
[Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE DISCOBOLUS.]
Though the cow was so much talked of, the artistic fame of Myron rests
more upon the "Discobolus," or quoit-thrower. The original statue does
not exist, but there are several copies of it. That in the Massimi Villa
is a very accurate one, and was found on the Esquiline Hill at Rome in
A.D. 1782; our illustration is made from this statue. Myron's great
skill in representing the human figure in excited action is well shown
in the quoit-thrower. To make such a figure as this requires great power
in a sculptor. No model could constantly repeat this action, and if he
could there is but a flash of time in which the artist sees just the
position he reproduces. This figure, however, is so true to life that
one feels like keeping out of the range of the quoit when it flies (Fig.
22). There are several other existing works attributed to Myron: they
are a marble copy of his statue of Marsyas, in the Lateran at Rome; two
torsi in the gallery at Florence; a figure called Diomed, and a bronze
in the gallery at Munich.
Myron made statues of gods and heroes, but he excelled in representing
athletes. His works were very numerous, and a list of those which are
only known through the mention of them by various writers would be of
little value here. While Myron reproduced the form and action of the
body with marvellous effect, he made no advance in representing the
expression of the face, nor in the treatment of the hair. He was daring
in his art, for he not only imitated what he saw in life, but he also
represented grotesque imaginary creatures, and in many ways proved that
he had a rich creative fancy.
A third sculptor of this time was CALAMIS, who was in his prime about
B.C. 450. He was not born in Athens, but he worked there. Calamis added
to the exact representations of Pythagoras and Myron the element of
grace beyond their powers in that direction. He made a greater variety
of figures than they, for to gods and heroes he added heroines, boys and
horses. His works were in bronze, gold and ivory, as well as marble. But
what we know of Calamis is gathered from the writings of Greek authors
rather than from works, or copies of works, by him still existing;
indeed, no statue remains known to be his own, though there are some
which critics fancy may be so. But we may be certain of his great
excellence from the many praises sung and said of him, and Lucian, who
knew all the best works of all the greatest masters of Greece, puts
Calamis before them all for elegance and grace, and for the finer
expression of faces; when imagining a beautiful statue of a young girl
he declares that he would go to Calamis to impart to it a chaste modesty
and give it a sweet and unaffected smile.
PHIDIAS is the most famous of all Greek sculptors, and as Greek
sculpture is the finest sculpture of which we have any knowledge, it
follows that Phidias was the first sculptor of the world. And yet, in
spite of his fame, we do not know the time of his birth. We know that he
was the son of Charmidas, but we know nothing of the father except that
he had a brother who was a painter, and this makes it probable that the
family of Phidias were artists.
As nearly as can be told, Phidias was born about B.C. 500. This would
have made him ten years old at the time of the battle of Marathon and
twenty years old when Salamis was fought, while he came of age at the
time of Plataea. He seems to have begun his artistic life as a painter,
and we know nothing of him as an independent sculptor until the
administration of Cimon, about B.C. 471. But his finest works belong to
the time of Pericles, who was his friend as well as patron, and made him
the master over all the great public works at Athens during what we
speak of as the Periclean age.
It seems that the favor of Pericles was a dear privilege to Phidias, for
it exposed him to bitter envy and hatred; and those who feared to attack
Pericles himself avenged themselves upon Phidias, and accused him of
dishonesty in obtaining the gold for the robe of the statue of Minerva
which he made for the Parthenon. He proved himself innocent of this,
but he was accused of other crimes, and one account says that he was
thrown into prison and died there of disease or poison. Another account
relates that the great sculptor went into exile at Elis, where he made
his most famous statue, the Olympian Zeus, and that he was there
convicted of theft and put to death. With such contradictory stories we
cannot know the exact truth; but we do know that he went to Elis
accompanied by distinguished artists. He was received with honor, and
for a long time the studio that he occupied there was shown to
strangers. The Olympians also allowed him an honor which the Athenians
never extended to him--that is, to inscribe his name upon the base of
the statue of Zeus, which he was not permitted to do in the case of the
Minerva (or Athena) of the Parthenon.
It often happens in the case of a very great man that the events which
have preceded his manhood have prepared the way for him and his work in
so striking a manner that it seems as if he could not have been great at
any other time, and that he could not avoid being so, when everything
had been shaped to his advantage. This was true of Phidias. When he came
to be a man the dreadful wars which had ravaged Greece were over, and
the destruction of the older structures prepared the way for the
rebuilding of Athens. Large quantities of "marble, bronze, ivory, gold,
ebony and cypress wood" were there, and a great number of skilful
workmen were at hand to work under his command. The Athenians were
ablaze with zeal to rebuild the temples and shrines of their gods, who,
as they believed, had led them to their victories, and not only the
public, but the private means were used to make Athens the grandest and
most beautiful city of the world.
The first great work with which the name of Phidias was connected was
the building of the temple of Theseus, called also the Theseion. This
was a very important temple, and was constructed in obedience to the
command of an oracle in this wise: In B.C. 470 the island of Scyros had
been taken by the Athenians, and upon this island Theseus had been
buried. After the battle of Marathon, in which he had aided the
Athenians, Theseus was much regarded by them, and in B.C. 476 they were
directed to remove his bones to Athens and build over them a shrine
worthy of so great a champion. Just then a gigantic skeleton was
discovered at Scyros by Cimon, and was brought to Athens with great
ceremony, and laid to rest with pompous respect, and the splendid temple
dedicated to Theseus was begun, and Phidias was commissioned to make its
plastic ornaments. The precincts of this temple later became a sanctuary
where the poor man and the slave could be safe from the oppressor.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--ATHENIAN COINS WITH THE MINERVA PROMACHOS.]
Phidias executed many works under the patronage of Cimon, the greatest
of which was the colossal statue of Minerva, which stood on the
Acropolis. It was called the "Minerva Promachos," and was so gigantic
that "the crest of her helmet and the point of her spear could be seen
by the mariner off the promontory of Sunium glittering in the sunlight
as a welcome to her own chosen people, and an awful warning to her
foes." The meaning of Promachos may be given as champion or guardian,
and we know from existing descriptions that, with its pedestal, it must
have been at least seventy feet in height. It was made from the spoils
taken at Marathon; its pedestal was found, in 1840, standing between the
Parthenon and the Erechtheium. It has been called the "Pallas with the
golden spear," for this goddess was known as Athena, Minerva, and
Pallas, and it is said that Alaric was so impressed by its awful aspect
that he shrank from it in horror. The only representations of this
statue now in existence are upon Athenian coins, and the position of the
goddess differs in these, as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 23);
there are reasons for believing that the one in which the shield rests
upon the ground is correct, one of which is that some years after the
death of Phidias the inside of the shield was ornamented by a relief of
the battle of the Centaurs.
Though Phidias proved himself to be a great artist during the reign of
Cimon, it was not until the time of Pericles that he reached the
glorious height of his genius. Pericles and Phidias seem to have been
two grand forces working in harmony for the political and artistic
grandeur of Athens, and, indeed, of all Attica, for within a period of
twenty years nearly all the great works of that country were begun and
completed. Plutarch writes of these wonders in these words: "Hence we
have the more reason to wonder that the structures raised by Pericles
should be built in so short a time, and yet built for ages. For as each
of them, as soon as it was finished, had the venerable air of antiquity,
so now that they are old they have the freshness of a modern building. A
bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect untarnished by
time, as if they were animated with a spirit of perpetual youth and
unfading elegance."
It is quite impossible that I should speak here of the works of Phidias
in detail, and I have decided to speak only of the frieze of the
Parthenon, because the Elgin marbles enable us to give illustrations
from it and to know more about this than of the other works of the great
masters about whom whole volumes might be written with justice. But,
first, I will give a picture of a coin which shows the great Olympian
Zeus, or Jupiter, which Phidias made at Elis, after he was an exile from
Athens (Fig. 24). When Phidias was asked how he had found a model for
this Jupiter, he quoted the lines from Homer:
"He said, and nodded with his shadowy brows,
Waved on the immortal head the ambrosial locks,
And all Olympus trembled at the nod."
[Illustration: FIG. 24.--COIN OF ELIS WITH THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS.]
The writings of the ancients have almost numberless references to this
statue, and its praise is unending. It was colossal in size and made of
ivory and gold, and one historian says that though the temple had great
height, yet the Jupiter was so large that if he had risen from his
throne he must have carried the roof away. It is related that when the
work was completed Phidias prayed to Jupiter to give him a sign from
heaven that he might know whether his work was pleasing to the great god
or not. This prayer was answered, and a flash of lightning came which
struck the pavement in front of the statue. This statue was reckoned
among the seven wonders of the world, and it is believed that the
magnificent bust called the "Jupiter Otricoli" is a copy from the
Olympian statue (Fig. 25).
[Illustration: FIG. 25.--BUST OF JUPITER FOUND AT OTRICOLI.]
I shall speak in another volume (upon Architecture) of the former glory
and the present ruin of the Parthenon at Athens, and tell how upon its
decoration Phidias lavished his thought and care until it surpassed in
beauty any other structure of which we have knowledge. Early in the
present century Lord Elgin, the English Ambassador to the Porte,
interested himself in having the sculptures found in the ruins taken to
England. In 1812 eighty chests containing these priceless works of the
greatest sculptor who ever lived were placed in Burlington House, and a
few years later Parliament purchased them for L35,000, and they were
placed in the British Museum, where they now are. There is a great
number of them, and all are of great interest; but I shall pass over the
metopes and the pediments, and shall pass to the frieze after speaking
of this one figure of Theseus, which is from the sculptures of the
eastern pediment. The sculptures upon this pediment represented the
story of the birth of Athena, and it was proper that Theseus should be
present, as he was king over Athens, of which city Athena, or Minerva,
was the protecting goddess. Torso is a term used in sculpture to denote
a mutilated figure, and many such remains of ancient sculpture exist
which are so beautiful, even in their ruin, that they are the pride of
the museums where they are, and serve as studies for the artists of all
time. This figure of Theseus is wonderful for the majesty and grace of
its attitude, for perfection of its anatomical accuracy, and for the
appearance of elasticity of muscle with which it impresses one, even
though made of marble. It really seems as if the skin could be moved
upon it, so soft does its surface look to be. It is ranked as the
greatest miracle of sculpture. Though it is called a Theseus, I ought to
state that some critics take exceptions to this name, and believe it to
be Hercules or Bacchus; but by almost general consent it is called a
Theseus (Fig. 26).
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--TORSO OF A STATUE OF THESEUS (?).]
We may imagine that the representation upon this eastern pediment must
have been magnificent. Of course the chosen goddess of Athens would be
made to appear with great glory. The myth relates that Athena was born
in an instant, by springing forth from the head of Zeus, or Jupiter,
fully armed. It is believed that in this sculpture she was represented a
moment after birth when she appeared in full, colossal majesty, shouting
her war-cry and waving her lance--something as these lines represent the
scene:
"Wonder strange possessed
The everlasting gods, that shape to see
Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously
Rush from the crest of aegis-bearing Jove.
Fearfully Heaven was shaken, and did move
Beneath the might of the Caerulean-eyed
Earth dreadfully surrounded far and wide,
And lifted from its depths; the sea swelled high
In purple billows."
It is very important, when considering the sculpture at Athens, to know
something about the character of this goddess whose power and influence
was so great there. I shall give an extract from an English writer on
Greek sculpture, Mr. Walter Copeland Perry:
"It is a very remarkable fact, and one which gives us a deep insight
into the character of the Athenians, that the central figure in their
religion, the most perfect representative of their feelings, thoughts,
and aspirations, was not Zeus or Hera (Juno), nor the most popular gods
of all times and nations, Ares (Mars) and Aphrodite (Venus), but Athena,
the virgin, the goddess of wise counsel and brave deed! She was
enthroned in the very heart of their citadel; and she stood in colossal
grandeur on the battlements to terrify their foes, and to give the first
welcome to the mariner or the exile when he approached his divine and
beautiful home, which reposed in safety under the protection of her
lance and shield."
The attributes of this goddess, as given in Greek literature and shown
forth in Greek art, are very varied and hard to be understood as
belonging to one person. She is the patroness of war, and in Homer's
Iliad she is represented as rushing into battle in this wise:
"The cuirass donn'd of cloud-compelling force
And stood accoutred for the bloody fray.
Her tasselled aegis round her shoulders next
She threw, with terror circled all around,
And on its face were figured deeds of arms
And Strife and Courage high, and panic Rout.
There too a Gorgon's head of monstrous size
Frown'd terrible, portent of angry Jove.
. . . . . . . In her hand
A spear she bore, long, weighty, tough, wherewith
The mighty daughter of a mighty sire
Sweeps down the ranks of those her hate pursues."
But this warlike goddess is also represented as the wise counsellor who
restrains Achilles from rash action; and though she does not shrink from
war and danger, yet the most precious gift to her people was not the
war-horse, but the olive, the emblem of peace, and to her honor was this
sacred tree planted. "She stands in full armor, with brandished lance,
on the highest point of the Acropolis, and yet she is the patroness of
all household and female work, in which she herself excels."
It is very interesting to notice that in the early representations of
Athena, while she is very warlike in her bearing and raises her lance in
her right hand, she also carries in her left the distaff and the spindle
and the lamp of knowledge. In the later art of Phidias she is still
stern and severe, but her face also expresses dignity and grandeur of
thought and character. Later still, her warlike attributes are made less
prominent: the shield rests on the ground, and the lance is more like a
sceptre, until, in the decline of art, she is represented as lovely and
gentle, and all her grand power is lost, and she is not above a great
number of other goddesses who are attractive for their soft, lovely
grace, but have no selfhood, no individuality to command our admiration
or respect.
We come now to speak of the Elgin marbles from the frieze of the
Parthenon. It was about thirty-five feet above the floor, three feet
three inches broad, and about five hundred and twenty-two feet long. It
represented a continuous procession, and the subject is called the
great Panathenaic Procession. About four hundred feet of this frieze
remains, so that a good judgment can be formed of it. First I must tell
you what this procession means. The festival of the Panathenaea was the
most important of all the splendid pomps which were celebrated at
Athens. It is probable that this festival was held every year about the
middle of August, but _the great Panathenaic_ occurred only in the third
year of each olympiad; an olympiad was a period of four years, extending
from one celebration of the Olympic games to another, which was an event
of great importance in reckoning time with the Greeks; thus we see that
the great procession represented on the frieze occurred once in every
four years. This festival continued several days, and all were filled
with horse-racing, cock-fighting, gymnastic and musical contests, and a
great variety of games; poets also recited their verses, and
philosophers held arguments in public places.[A] But the most important
day was that on which a procession went up to the Parthenon and carried
the peplos, or garment for the great goddess, which had been woven by
the maidens of Athens. This peplos was made of crocus-colored stuff, on
which the figures of the gods engaged in their contests with the giants
appeared in beautiful, rich embroidery. In later years, after the
Athenians had fallen from their first high-minded simplicity, they
sometimes embroidered on the peplos the likeness of a man whom they
wished to flatter, as thus placing him in the company of the gods was a
very great compliment.
[Footnote A: In the Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes, B.C. 480, that
monarch was surprised to learn that the Olympic games were not suspended
at the approach of his army.]
The procession of the peplos was formed at daybreak in the Potters'
Quarter of the city, and passed to the Dromos, then to the market-place,
onward to the temple of Demeter, round the Acropolis along the Pelasgic
wall, through the Propylaea to the temple of Athena Polias. The
procession was as splendid as all the wealth, nobility, youth and beauty
of Athens could make it. Of the vast multitude which joined it some were
in chariots, others on horses and almost countless numbers on foot.
After the most important officers of the government come the envoys of
the Attic colonies with the noble Athenian maidens, the basket-bearers,
the aliens who resided in Athens dressed in red instead of white, and a
chosen company of aged men bearing branches of the sacred olive.
The peplos was not borne by hands, but was suspended from the mast of a
ship, upon wheels, which some writers say was moved by machinery placed
underground. When the temple was reached the splendid garment was placed
upon the sacred statue, which was believed to have fallen from heaven.
During the festival of the Panathenaea prisoners were permitted to enjoy
their freedom, men whose services to the public merited recognition
received gifts of gold crowns, and their names were announced by heralds
in public places, and many interesting ceremonies filled up the time. We
do not know the exact order in which all these things happened; but it
is believed that the procession of the peplos was the crowning glory of
it all, and was celebrated on the final day.
The plan of the Parthenon frieze which represented this great procession
was as follows: On the eastern side above the main entrance to the
temple there were two groups of the most important and powerful of the
many gods of the Greek religion. Each of these groups had six gods and
an attendant, so that there were seven figures in each of these groups,
as you will see by the illustration (Fig. 27).
[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
There has been much study of these sculptures, and many scholars have
written about them. There is still a difference of opinion as to which
gods are here represented, but I shall give you the most generally
accepted opinion, which calls _a_, Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of
the gods; _b_, Apollo; _c_, Artemis, or Diana; _d_, Ares, or Mars; _e_,
Iris, who is attending upon _f_, Hera, or Juno; _g_, Zeus, or Jupiter;
h__, Athena, Minerva, or Pallas; _i_, Hephaestus, or Vulcan; _j_,
Poseidon, or Neptune; _k_, Dionysus, or Bacchus; _l_, _m_, _n_ are more
doubtful, but are probably Aphrodite, or Venus, Demeter, or Ceres, and
Triptolemus, the boy who was a favorite with Ceres, who invented the
plough and first sowed corn.
Now, these two groups of divinities were divided by a very singular
group containing five figures (Fig. 28).
There has been much controversy as to these figures and what they are
doing. They seem to be unconscious of the great gods who are near to
them on either side. The greater number of critics consider that the two
maidens, _e_ and _d_, are of the number who have embroidered the
peplos; the central figure, _c_, a priestess of Athena; _a_, the Archon
Basileus; and _b_, a consecrated servant-boy, who is delivering up the
peplos. Other critics believe, however, that these figures are all
preparing for the sacred ceremonies about to begin, and that the priest
is giving the boy-servant a garment which he has taken off. Other
theories may arise, and we can only listen to them all, and yet not know
the truth; but the more we study the more we shall admire these
exquisite figures.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE FIVE CENTRAL FIGURES.]
Just here I will call your attention to one feature of these antique
bas-reliefs which is called _Isocephalism_, and means that all the heads
are at an equal height. You will see that all figures, whether standing
or sitting, walking, in chariots, or on horseback, have the heads on the
same level.
These three groups, the five central figures and the two groups of gods,
are approached on each side by long, continuous processions, and these
processions each start out from the south-west corner of the Parthenon,
so that one branch goes along the south and a part of the east side, and
the other and longer division marches on the whole of the west and
north, and a portion of the east side. I shall give here a series of
pictures which are all explained by their titles, and will give you an
excellent idea of this magnificent frieze, and doubtless many of my
readers have studied or will study and admire it in the British Museum
(Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35).
[Illustration: FIG. 29--YOUTHS PREPARING TO JOIN THE CAVALCADE.]
Though all this frieze was the conception of the great Phidias, it must
have been the work of many hands, and close examination shows that some
portions of it are done much better than others. These sculptures have a
double value; for while they are so priceless as treasures of art, they
tell us much of that prosperous, glorious Athens of which we love to
read and hear stories. These figures show us how the people dressed and
moved, and we see in them the "stately" magistrates and venerable seers
of Athens, the sacred envoys of dependent states, the victors in their
chariots drawn by the steeds which had won for them the cheap but
priceless garland, the full-armed warriors, the splendid cavalry, and
the noble youths of 'horse-loving' Athens on their favorite steeds,
in the flush and pride of their young life; and last, not least, the
train of high-born Athenian maidens, marching with bowed heads and quiet
gait, for they are engaged in holy work, with modest mien, and gentle
dignity and grace. All that was sacred, powerful, and grand--all that
was beautiful, graceful, and joyous in Athenian life, is represented
there, in ideal form, of course, but in strict conformity with the
realities of life.... It is by the study of such works as these that we
get the clearest insight into the essence and spirit of classical
antiquity; and they help us better to understand all that we may read in
history or poetry concerning the ancient, classic Greeks.
[Illustration: FIG. 30.--HORSEMEN STARTING.]
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--PROCESSION OF CAVALRY.]
[Illustration: FIG. 32.--PROCESSION OF CHARIOTS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 33.--TRAIN OF MUSICIANS AND YOUTHS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 34.--COWS FOR SACRIFICE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--TRAIN OF NOBLE MAIDENS.]
We must now leave Phidias and speak of other sculptors who were his
contemporaries and pupils. Among the last ALCAMENES was the most
celebrated. He was born in Lemnos, but was a citizen of Athens; so he is
sometimes called an Athenian, and again a Lemnian. His statues were
numerous, and most of them represented the gods. One of Hephaestus, or
Vulcan, was remarkable for the way in which his lameness was concealed
so skilfully that no deformity appeared.
His most famous statue was a Venus, or Aphrodite, concerning which it is
related that Agoracritus, another celebrated pupil of Phidias, contended
with Alcamenes in making a statue of that goddess. The preference was
given to Alcamenes, and Agoracritus believed this to have been done on
account of his being an Athenian citizen, and not solely for the merit
of the statue. The Venus of Alcamenes stood in a temple of that goddess
in a garden beyond the eastern wall of Athens. This statue was very much
praised for its beauty by ancient writers, who all mention with especial
pride the _eurythmy_ of the action of the wrist. This is a term
frequently used in regard to sculpture, and is somewhat difficult to
explain. It means a harmony and proportion of action which corresponds
to rhythm in music. When a statue has the effect it should have it
appears as if the motion of the figure was arrested for a moment, and
would be resumed immediately. That is what we mean when we say a statue
has life; and, as in life, the motion of a statue may be awkward or it
may be graceful; it may be harmonious to the eye, just as music is
harmonious to the ear, or it may seem out of tune and time, just as
inharmonious sounds are to a correct ear for the rhythm of sound; so
when we speak of the eurythmy of sculpture we mean that its apparent
motion is in accord with the laws of proportion, and is harmonious and
graceful to the eye.
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--HEAD OF ASCLEPIUS. _In the British Museum._]
While Alcamenes had this power of imparting grace to his statues, he
also approached Phidias in majesty and a divine sweetness, which was the
sweetness of great strength. In truth, he is recognized as the sculptor
who most nearly approached the great Phidias. He represented also for
the first time the god Asclepius, or AEsculapius, who was very important
to the Greeks, who placed great value upon physical health. Alcamenes
represented him as a sort of humanized Zeus or Jupiter. Of the Asclepius
heads found at Melos we may regard this one given here as a free copy of
the type of god which this great sculptor represented the god of
medicine and health to be (Fig. 36).
Alcamenes was also the principal assistant of Phidias in his decoration
of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, and is said to have himself
executed the relief upon the western pediment, in which the battle of
the Centaurs and Lapithae was represented with great spirit.
AGORACRITUS of Paros, who has been mentioned as the rival of Alcamenes,
is called the favorite pupil of Phidias, and it is said that the master
even gave Agoracritus some of his works, and allowed the pupil to
inscribe his name upon them. For this reason the ancient writers were
often in doubt as to the authorship of the statues called by the names
of these sculptors. It is said that when the Venus of Alcamenes was
preferred before that of Agoracritus the latter changed his mark, and
made it to represent a Nemesis, or the goddess who sent suffering to
those who were blessed with too many gifts. It is said that this statue
was cut from a block of marble which the Persians brought with them to
Marathon for the purpose of making a trophy of it which they could set
up to commemorate the victory they felt so sure of gaining; in their
flight and adversity it was left, and at last served a Greek sculptor in
making a statue of an avenging goddess. This seems to be a striking
illustration of "poetic justice."
Agoracritus sold the Nemesis to the people of Rhamnus, who had a temple
dedicated to that goddess, and made a condition that it should never be
set up in Athens. In the museum of the Lateran at Rome there is a small
but very beautiful antique statue of Nemesis, which is thought to be a
copy of this famous work. As Nemesis was the goddess who meted out
fortune according to her idea of right, a measure was her symbol, and
the Greek measure of a cubit was generally placed in her hand. The word
cubit means the length of the forearm from the elbow to the wrist, and
in this statue of which we speak this part of the arm is made very
prominent, and the measure itself is omitted.
The sculptor Myron also had pupils and followers who executed many
works, and of this school was CRESILAS of Cydonia, in Crete. We are
interested in him because two copies from his works exist, of which I
give pictures here. Pliny, in speaking of the portrait statue of
Pericles, said it was a marvel of the art "which makes illustrious men
still more illustrious." The cut given here is from a bust in the
British Museum. There is reason to believe that Cresilas excelled Myron
in the expression of his faces (Figs. 37, 38).
[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A WOUNDED AMAZON. _Cresilas._]
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--STATUE OF PERICLES. _Cresilas._]
CALLIMACHUS is an artist of whom we know little, but that little is
interesting. We do not know where he was born, but as he was employed to
make a candelabra for the eternal lamp which burned before the sacred
statue of Athena Polias, we may suppose that he was an Athenian. Some
writers say that he invented a lamp which would burn a year without
going out, and that such an one made of gold was the work he did for the
temple of Minerva. Callimachus lived between B.C. 550 and 396, and is
credited with having invented the Corinthian capital in this wise: A
young girl of Corinth died, and her nurse, according to custom, placed a
basket upon her grave containing the food she had loved best in life. It
chanced that the basket was put down upon a young acanthus plant, and
the leaves grew up about the basket in such a way that when Callimachus
saw it the design for the capital which we know as Corinthian was
suggested to him, and was thus named from the city in which all this had
occurred.
While the plastic art of Athens, or the Attic school of sculpture,
reached its greatest excellence in Phidias, there was in the
Peloponnesus another school of much importance. Argos was the chief city
of this school, and its best master was POLYCLEITUS of Sicyon, who was
born about B.C. 482. He was thus about twelve years younger than
Phidias. Polycleitus was held in such esteem that many of the ancient
writers couple his name with that of Phidias. He was employed in the
decoration of the Heraion, or temple of Hera, at Argos. But his greatest
work was a statue of Hera, or Juno, for a temple on Mount Euboea,
between Argos and Mycenae. This statue was chryselephantine, and as Juno
was the majestic, white-armed, ox-eyed goddess consort of Jupiter, it is
a striking coincidence that Phidias at Olympia and Polycleitus on Mount
Euboea should have made from ivory and gold two famous statues of this
renowned pair, who reigned over the mythical world of the Greek
religion. There are several copies of heads of Juno in various museums,
and some of them have been ascribed to Polycleitus; but the proof of the
truth of this is far from being satisfactory. This master made other
statues of divinities, but he excelled in representing athletes; and
however fine his other works may have been, it was in the reproduction
of strong, youthful, manly beauty that he surpassed other sculptors.
Some of his statues of this sort, especially a Doryphorus, or
spear-bearer, were considered as models from which all other artists
could work.
Polycleitus is said to have written a treatise in which he gave exact
rules for the proportions of the different parts of the body. This was
called "the canon" of Polycleitus, and there is good reason to believe
that the Doryphorus was called by the same name, "the canon," because it
was fashioned according to the rules laid down by Polycleitus in his
treatise. His pupils and followers are mentioned with honor by the Greek
authors of his time, but I need not mention them here.
The art of Phidias and Polycleitus was the art of Greece at its best
period. After the close of the Persian wars the people of Greece were a
religious and patriotic people. The Persian wars developed the best
quality of character, for these wars were waged against a foreign foe,
and the Greeks were defending their freedom and their civilization, and
at the end of the struggle Pericles, who guided them to their greatest
prosperity, was a statesman and a man of high aims; he was a gentleman
as well as a strong ruler. The Peloponnesian war, on the contrary, was a
civil war, and it divided the Greeks among themselves and roused the
evil passions of friend against friend all over their country. It was
the cause of selfishness, treachery, and immorality, and one of its
worst effects was seen in the loss of religious tone among the people:
their old contented simplicity of life and thought was gone; every man
thought only of himself, and the nation began to sink into the condition
which at last made it an easy prey to the Macedonians. We have studied
all these wars in our histories, but perhaps we have not thought how
much they affected sculpture and the other arts, and brought them down
from the lofty heights of the Periclean age.
But there were still men who strove to be great and grand in morals and
in intellect, and perhaps strove all the more earnestly for this on
account of the decline they saw about them. Few countries in any age
have had more splendid men than Socrates, Plato, Euripides,
Aristophanes, Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Demosthenes, Dion, and Timoleon,
and these all lived between the Peloponnesian and the Macedonian wars.
And while the arts were less grand than before, they did not fall into
decline for some years, though they took on new features. The gods who
had been mostly represented were less often the subjects of the
sculptor, and when they were so they were softened and made less awful
in their effect. Other gods were more freely taken for models, such as
came nearer to human life and thought, because less sublime in their
attributes and characters. Among these were Venus as a lovely woman
rather than as the great mother of all living creatures, and Eros, or
Love; while Plutus, or Wealth, and satyrs, nymphs, and tritons were
multiplied in great numbers.
When the gods who were represented were more like human beings in their
character, it followed that the statues of them more nearly resembled
men and women, and gradually the old grandeur and sublimity were changed
to grace, beauty, and mirth. Many people would prefer these works
because they come nearer to the every-day life of the world; but
earnest, thoughtful minds look for something more noble in
art--something that will not come down to us as we are, but will help us
to rise above ourselves and to strive after better things.
CEPHISODOTUS was a sculptor who lived until about B.C. 385, or a little
later, and stood between the old and the new schools of Greek art. The
cut given here is from a group at Munich, which is believed to be a copy
of a work by him, and it is a combination of the simple dignity of the
art of Phidias (which is seen in the flowing drapery and the wavy edge
of its folds) and the later Attic style (which is seen in the dreamy,
gentle air of the face of the nurse of the little god). (Fig. 39.) We
know very little of the life of Cephisodotus, and as little is said of
his works by ancient writers.
[Illustration: FIG. 39.--EIRENE AND THE YOUNG PLUTUS. _Cephisodotus._]
SCOPAS of Paros was one of the greatest sculptors of the later Attic
school. The island of Paros, where he was born, was the place where the
finest Greek marble was found; but he worked so much at Athens that he
is spoken of as an Athenian. He was an architect as well as a sculptor,
and he superintended the erection of some splendid structures, which he
also ornamented with his sculptures. I shall speak especially of the
tomb of Mausolus, the King of Caria. Scopas executed the sculptures of
the east side, and as he was the best artist of the sculptors employed
there, it is probable that he had much to do with the design for all the
work. This mausoleum was reckoned as one of the "seven wonders of the
world," and has given a name to fine tombs the world over.
The most interesting of the sculptures from this tomb which are now in
the British Museum seems to me to be the statue of Mausolus himself. It
is plainly intended to be an exact portrait of the king, and it is so
designed and executed that we feel sure it must show him to us just as
he was when alive, more than twenty-two hundred years ago (Fig. 40).
A part of the frieze upon the mausoleum showed the battle of the Greeks
and the Amazons, and this illustration from it gives an idea of the
boldness of action and the correctness of the design (Fig. 41). This
picture is from a slab in the possession of the Serra family in Genoa.
On the right a warrior holds down an Amazon whom he has forced to her
knees and is about to kill, while she stretches out her right hand in
supplication. The figures to the left are full of spirit, and absolutely
seem to be in motion. We do not know that any of these figures were
executed by the hand of Scopas, but it is probable that they were, and
they give us an idea of the art of his time.
[Illustration: FIG. 40.--PORTRAIT OF MAUSOLUS.]
Scopas also carved one of the splendid pillars of the temple of Diana at
Ephesus, and did much architectural decoration, as well as to execute
many statues and groups of figures. The ancient writers say very little
of the art of Scopas, but when all that we can learn is brought
together, it shows that he had great fertility in expressing his own
ideas, that his genius was creative and his works original. He
represented the gods which the earlier sculptors had shown in their
works in quite a new manner, and he was the first to show the goddess
Venus in all the beauty which imagination could attribute to her. His
representations of nymphs of wood and sea, of monsters, and all sorts of
strange, imaginary beings were numberless, and he made his sculptured
figures to express every emotion that can be fancied or felt, from the
tenderest and sweetest affection to the wildest passions of the soul.
[Illustration: FIG. 41--FROM THE FRIEZE OF THE MAUSOLEUM.]
His works were always representations of gods or of sentiments as shown
by some superhuman beings; he never portrayed a hero, with the
exception of Hercules, and was ever busy with the ideal rather than with
realities about him. He worked in marble only, which is far more suited
to the elegant beauty of his style than are bronze and gold or ivory.
We are accustomed to call PRAXITELES the greatest sculptor of the second
school of Greek art, just as we give that place to Phidias in the first.
We have no fixed dates concerning Praxiteles. We know that he was the
son of a Cephisodotus, who was a bronze worker, and was thought to be a
son of Alcamenes, thus making Praxiteles a grandson of the latter.
Praxiteles was first instructed by his father. Later he came under the
influence of Scopas, who was much older than he; and by Scopas he was
persuaded to give up working in bronze and confine himself to marble.
Perhaps the most authentic date we have concerning him is that given by
Pliny, who says that he was in his prime from B.C. 364-360.
It is impossible to praise a sculptor more than Praxiteles was praised
by the Greek authors; and, although Athens was the place where he lived
and labored most, yet he was known to all Greece, and even to other
countries, and the number of his works was marvellous. There are
trustworthy accounts of forty-seven groups, reliefs, and statues by his
hand, and it is not probable that these are all that he executed.
Praxiteles represented youth and beauty and such subjects as are most
pleasing to popular taste. Thus it happened that his male figures were
the young Apollo, Eros, and youthful satyrs, while a large proportion of
his statues represented lovely women. Venus was frequently repeated by
him, and there is a story that he made two statues of her, one being
draped and the other nude. The people of Cos bought the first, and the
last was purchased by the Cnidians, who placed it in the midst of an
open temple, where it could be seen from all sides. It became so famous
that many people went to Cnidos solely for the purpose of seeing it, and
the "Cnidian Venus" acquired a reputation wherever art was known. When
the oppressor of the Cnidians, King Nicodemus of Bithynia, offered to
release them from a debt of one hundred talents (about $100,000) if they
would give him the Venus, they refused, and declared that it was the
chief glory of their State.
[Illustration: FIG. 42.--THE EROS OF CENTOCELLE.]
Another story relates that Phryne, a friend of Praxiteles, had been told
by him that she could have any work which she might choose from his
workshop. She wished to have the one which the artist himself considered
the best. In order to find out which he so esteemed she sent a servant
to tell him that his workshop was on fire. He exclaimed, "All is lost if
my Satyr and Cupid are not saved!" Then Phryne told him of her trick,
and chose the Cupid, or Eros, for her gift. Phryne then offered the
statue to the temple of Thespiae, in Boeotia, where it was placed
between a statue of Venus and one of Phryne herself. This Cupid was
almost as celebrated as the Cnidian Venus, and was visited by many
people. The head given here (Fig. 42), which was found in Centocelle by
Gavin Hamilton, and is now in the Vatican, is thought by many to be a
copy of a Cupid by Praxiteles, and even of the Thespian statue; but we
have no proof of this. The Cupid, or Eros, of the art of Scopas and
Praxiteles is not the merry little creature who bears that name in later
art; he is a youth just coming into manhood, with a dreamy, melancholy
face, the tender beauty of which makes him one of the most attractive
subjects in sculpture. Caligula carried the Thespian Cupid to Rome;
Claudius restored it to its original place, but Nero again bore it to
Rome, where it was burned in a conflagration in the time of Titus.
I shall say no more of Praxiteles personally, because I wish to describe
to you the largest and grandest group of Greek statues which exists, or,
as I should say, of which we have any copies. We do not know whether
Scopas or Praxiteles made these famous figures, since they are
attributed to both these sculptors; perhaps we can never positively know
to whom to ascribe the fame of this marvellous work. The historian Pliny
tells us that they stood in the temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome.
Sosius was the legate of Antony in Syria and Cilicia; he erected this
temple in his own honor, and brought many beautiful works from the East
for its decoration. It is believed that he brought the Niobe group from
Cilicia, and displayed it when celebrating his victory over Judea, B.C.
35.
In A.D. 1583 a large number of statues representing this subject were
found in Rome, and were purchased by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who
placed them in the Villa Medici. In 1775 they were removed to the Palace
of the Uffizi, in Florence, where an apartment was assigned to them. The
figures were restored, and each one placed on its own pedestal, which
work was not completed until 1794.
The group must have had originally seventeen figures--Niobe and fourteen
children, a pedagogue and a female nurse. Now there are but
twelve--Niobe, six sons, four daughters, and the pedagogue. At first it
was supposed that these figures ornamented the temple pediment, but it
is now thought that they stood on an undulating rocky base, with a
background at a little distance. Niobe is the central figure, in any
case, and the children were fleeing toward her from either side; she is
the only one represented in such a way as to present the full face to
the beholder (Fig. 43). But we shall better understand our subject if I
recount as concisely as possible the story of Niobe, which, as you know,
is a Grecian myth. Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus, and was born on
Mount Sipylus. When a child Niobe played with Lato, or Latona, who
afterward married the great god Jupiter, or Zeus. Niobe became the wife
of Amphion, and had a very happy life; she was the mother of seven sons
and seven daughters, and all this prosperity made her forget that she
was mortal, and she dared to be insolent even to the gods themselves.
Lato had but two children, the beautiful Apollo and the archer-queen of
heaven, called Diana, or Artemis.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 44.--BROTHER AND SISTER.]
Amphion and Niobe were the King and Queen of Thebes, and when the
worship of Lato was established in that city Niobe was very angry. She
thought of Lato as her playmate and not a goddess, and was so imprudent
as to drive in her chariot to the temple and command the Theban women
not to join in this worship. Niobe also asserted that she was superior
to this Lato, who had but two children, while she had fourteen lovely
sons and daughters, any one of which was worthy of honor. All this so
enraged Lato that she begged Apollo, who was the god of the silver bow,
and Diana, her huntress daughter, to take revenge on Niobe. Obedient to
her commands, Apollo and Artemis descended to earth, and in one day slew
all the children of Niobe. Then this proud mother, left alone, could do
nothing but weep, and this she did continually until Jupiter took pity
on her and turned her into stone, and whirled her away from Thebes to
Mount Sipylus, the scene of her happy childhood. In this picture of
Niobe she clasps her youngest child, who has fled to her for
protection.
I cannot give pictures of all the figures, but one of the most
interesting is this brother and sister. She is wounded, and he endeavors
to raise his garment so as to shield her and himself from the deadly
arrows which pursue them (Fig. 44).
This figure of the eldest daughter is very beautiful. An arrow has
pierced her neck, and the right hand is bent back to the wound. The face
is noble and simple, and has been a favorite model to Guido Reni and
other Italian masters (Fig. 45).
[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE ELDEST DAUGHTER.]
Fig. 46 shows one of the older sons, who, though wounded and fallen on
one knee, still looks toward his slayer with an air of defiance. There
is a world of interest connected with these statues, and they move us
with a variety of emotions. The poor mother, so prosperous a moment
before, and now seeing her children dying around her, slain by the sure
arrows of the unseen gods--how can we pity her enough! and then the
brave son who tries to shield his sister while he is dazed by the
suddenness of the misfortunes which he cannot account for; the old
pedagogue, to whom the youngest boy has run for protection--and,
indeed, all demand our sympathy for their grief and our admiration for
their beauty, which is still theirs in spite of their woe.
One of the young sculptors who was employed with Scopas in the work on
the mausoleum was LEOCHARES. We read of several statues of Zeus and
Apollo by this master, but his most celebrated work was the group of
Ganymede borne upward by the eagle of Zeus. There are several copies of
this sculpture, but that given here, from the Vatican figure, is the
best of all, and is very beautiful. We know very few facts concerning
Leochares, and cannot even say whether he was an Athenian or not (Fig.
47).
There is still standing at Athens, in its original place, the Choragic
monument of Lysicrates; and though we do not know the names of the
architects and sculptors who made it, there are traces upon it which
indicate that it belonged to the school of Scopas (Fig. 48).
[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A NIOBID.]
[Illustration: FIG. 47.--GANYMEDE. _After Leochares._]
This monument was erected B.C. 334, when Lysicrates was _choragus_--that
is, when it was his office to provide the chorus for the plays
represented at Athens. This was an expensive office, and one that
demanded much labor and care. He had first to find the choristers, and
then bring them together to be instructed, and provide them with proper
food while they studied. The choragus who gave the best musical
entertainment received a tripod as his reward, and it was the custom to
build a monument upon which to place the tripod, so that it should be a
lasting honor to the choragus and his family. The street in which these
monuments were erected was called "the street of the Tripods."
It was also the custom to dedicate each tripod to some special divinity,
and this of Lysicrates was dedicated to Bacchus, and had a frieze with
sculptures telling the story of that god and the Tyrrhenian robbers who
bore him off to their ship. In order to revenge himself he changed the
oars and masts into serpents and himself into a lion; music was heard,
and ivy grew all over the vessel; the robbers went mad and leaped into
the sea, and changed into dolphins.
[Illustration: FIG. 48.--MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. _Athens._]
In the frieze, however, it is represented that the god is on shore
quietly amusing himself with the lion (Fig. 49), while satyrs and sileni
punish the robbers by beating them with sticks and chasing them with
fury, while they are turning gradually into dolphins and rushing into
the sea. The design is so fine that it might easily be attributed to one
of the best sculptors; but the execution is careless, and this is not
strange when we remember that it was all done at the expense of one
man, and he a private citizen.
We will return now to the Peloponnesian school, of which Polycleitus was
the head in its earliest period. After his time the sculptors of his
school continued to prefer the subjects in which he excelled, and
represented youthful heroes and victors with as much industry as the
artists of Athens bestowed upon their statues of womanly grace and
beauty. The subjects of the Peloponnesian school were especially suited
to the use of bronze, and the chief sculptor of his time, LYSIPPUS,
whose works are said to have numbered fifteen hundred, worked entirely
in bronze. In order to keep a record of the number of his works, he
adopted the plan of putting aside one gold coin from the price of every
statue, and at his death his heirs are said to have found the above
number of these coins thus laid away. His home was at Sicyon, and his
time of work is given as B.C. 372-316. This seems a long period for
active employment as a sculptor; but the number of his works accords
well with this estimate of his working years.
[Illustration: FIG. 49.--BACCHUS AND LION. _From the Lysicrates
Monument._]
[Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE APOXYOMENOS OF LYSIPPUS.]
Lysippus cannot be said to have followed any school; he was original,
and this trait made him prominent, for he was not bound by old customs,
but was able to adapt himself to the new spirit of the age, which came
to Greece with the reign of Alexander. This sculptor made a great number
of statues of Hercules; and as Alexander loved to regard himself as a
modern Hercules, Lysippus also represented the monarch in many different
ways, and with much the same spirit as that he put into the statues of
the hero-god. For example, he made a statue of "Alexander with his
Spear," "Alexander at a Lion Hunt," "Alexander as the Sun-God," and so
on through many changes of expression and attributes, but all being
likenesses of the great king. There is in the Capitol at Rome a head of
Alexander called _Helios_, which is thought by many critics to be the
best bust of him in existence. There are metal rays fastened to the
head; it has a wild, Bacchus-like air, and the hair is thrown back, as
if he had shaken his head furiously; and the defect of a wry neck, which
the monarch had, is cleverly concealed by this motion. Alexander was a
very handsome man, his faults being this twist in his neck and a
peculiar shape of the eye.
We cannot here give the long list of works by Lysippus, but will speak
of that which interests us most, because we have a beautiful copy of it.
I mean the Apoxyomenos, which is in the Vatican. It represents a youth
scraping himself (as the name denotes) with the strigil after a contest
in the arena (Fig. 50). The Vatican copy was found in the Trastevere at
Rome in 1849, and is well preserved. Without doubt it is a faithful
reproduction of the original, which was probably brought from Greece to
Rome by Agrippa, who set it up in front of his public baths. Here it
became such a favorite with the people that when Tiberius removed it to
his own house there was a demonstration in the theatre, and so violent a
demand was made for its restoration that the cunning emperor dared not
refuse. This statue may be called an example of a grand _genre_ style.
It represents a scene from common life in Greece, but it is so simply
natural, so graceful and free from restraint, that one could not weary
of it. The expression of the face is that of quiet content--his task has
been faithfully done, and the remembrance of it is pleasant. The hair is
finely executed; this was a point in which Lysippus excelled; but the
great charm of the whole is in the pose of the figure. In his occupation
of scraping one portion of the body after another he must constantly
change his position, and this one, in which he can rest but a moment,
seems to have the motion in it which he must almost instantly make,
while it is full of easy grace in itself. The art of Lysippus was not as
elevated as that of Phidias, who tried to represent the highest ideal
which a mortal may form of a god; but there was nothing mean or vulgar
in the works of the former; on the contrary, it was with a pure and
noble spirit that he endeavored to represent the perfections of
youthful, manly beauty, and his naturalism was of a healthy and
dignified sort.
The most important pupil of Lysippus was CHARES OF LINDOS, who was
prominent not only on account of his own works, but also because he
introduced the art of Sicyon into his native island of Rhodes. This
island is but forty-five miles long and twenty miles wide at its
broadest part, and yet its art became second only to that of Athens.
At the city of Rhodes alone there were three thousand statues, besides
many paintings and other rare and beautiful objects. Chares is best
known for the sun-god which he erected here; it was called the "Colossus
of Rhodes," and was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world.
One hundred statues of the sun were erected at Rhodes, and Pliny says
that any one of them was beautiful enough to have been famous; but that
of Chares was so remarkable that it overshadowed all the rest.
It stood quite near the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes, but we have no
reason to believe that its legs spanned the mouth of the port so that
ships sailed between them, as has often been said, although its size was
almost beyond our imagination. The statue was one hundred and five feet
high, and few men could reach around one of its thumbs with their arms,
while each finger was as large as most statues. Twelve years were
occupied in its erection, from B.C. 292 to 280, and it cost three
hundred talents, or about $300,000 of our money, according to its usual
estimate, though there are those who name its cost as more than four
times that amount. The men of Rhodes obtained this great sum by selling
the engines of war which Demetrius Poliorcetes left behind him when he
abandoned the siege of Rhodes in B.C. 303. We have no copy of this
statue, but there are coins of Rhodes which bear a face that is believed
with good reason to be that of the Colossus.
Fifty-six years after its completion, in B.C. 224, the Colossus was
overthrown by an earthquake, and an oracle forbade the restoration of it
by the Rhodians. In A.D. 672, nearly a thousand years after its fall,
its fragments were sold to a Jew of Emesa by the command of the Caliph
Othman IV. It is said that they weighed seven hundred thousand pounds,
and nine hundred camels were required to bear them away. When we
consider what care must have been needful to cast this huge figure in
bronze, and so adjust the separate parts that the whole would satisfy
the standard of art at Rhodes, we are not surprised that it should have
been reckoned among the seven wonders, and that Chares should have
become a famous master.
Chares also founded a school of art which became very important, and,
indeed, it seems to have been the continuance of the school of the
Peloponnesus; for after the time of Lysippus the sculpture of Argos and
Sicyon came to an end, and we may add that with Lysippus and his school
the growth of art in Greece ceased; it had reached the highest point to
which it ever attained, and all its later works were of its decline, and
foreshadowed its death.
The reign of Alexander the Great was so brilliant that it is difficult
to realize that it was a time of decline to the Greeks; and during the
life of Alexander perhaps this does not appear with clearness; but at
the close of his reign there arose such contentions and troubles among
his generals that everything in Greece suffered, and with the rest Greek
art was degraded. In the time of Pericles it was thought to be a crime
in him that he permitted his portrait to be put upon the shield of the
Parthenon, and he was prosecuted for thus exalting himself to a
privilege which belonged to the gods alone. Alexander, on the contrary,
claimed to be a god, and was represented by painters and sculptors until
his portraits and statues were almost numberless.
Soon after the death of Alexander the humiliation of Athens and its old
Periclean spirit was complete. If you read the history of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, who was even allowed to hold his revels in the most sacred
part of the Parthenon--the temple of Minerva--you will see that Athens
was enslaved and her people no longer worthy to lead the world in the
arts of peace, as they were no longer the brave men who could stand
first in war. In their degraded state the Athenians suffered three
hundred and sixty statues to be erected to Demetrius Phalereus, and
these were destroyed to make way for the golden images of the conquering
freebooter Poliorcetes. This last was hailed by the debased people as a
god and a saviour. His name and that of his father, Antigonus, were
woven into the sacred peplos.
At length, under the Diadochi, or successors of Alexander, order was
restored, and Antigonus, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus divided the
kingdom of Alexander into four Graeco-Oriental monarchies. The dynasty of
the Ptolemies in Egypt was the most reputable of these, and gave much
encouragement to art and letters. But the sacred fire seems to have died
out, or did not burn clearly when transplanted from Athens to
Alexandria. The Alexandrines seem to have been mere imitators of what
had gone before, and there is nothing to be said of them that is of
importance enough for us to linger over it. Very few works remain from
this Diadochean period. The Metope of Ilium, which Dr. Schliemann has in
his garden in Athens, the Barberini Faun, in the Glyptothek at Munich,
and the Nile of the Vatican are the most important remnants of
Alexandrine sculpture.
Amid all the confusion and strife which followed the death of Alexander
the island of Rhodes remained undisturbed, and when the division of the
monarchies was made the Rhodians still retained their independence. They
were neutral, and so had a commerce with all the monarchies, and thus
gained great wealth; and theirs was the only independent State of the
old Hellenic world which was able to found and maintain a school of
art. Among the great works of the Rhodian artists none is more familiar
to us than the group of the Laocoon.
In the time of Pliny this work stood in the palace of Titus, and the
historian called it "preferable to all other works of pictorial or
plastic art." There is a difference of opinion as to the period when it
was made, and many date it in the time of Titus, who lived A.D. 40 to
81. But the weight of argument seems to me to rest with those who
believe that it was made at Rhodes in the time of the Diadochi.
The group in the Vatican is probably a copy, because Pliny says that the
original was made of one block, and that of the Vatican is composed of
six pieces. Pliny also tells us that the Laocoon was the work of three
sculptors, AGESANDER, POLYDORUS, and ATHENODORUS. The Vatican group was
found in 1506 in the excavation of the Baths of Titus, in Rome, and was
placed in its present position by Pope Julius II. (Fig. 51). The right
arm of Laocoon was missing, and Michael Angelo attempted to restore it,
but left it incomplete; Montorsoli made an unsatisfactory attempt for
its restoration, and the arm as it now is was made by Cornacini, and
more straight than it should be.
The story which these statues illustrate is told in the second book of
the AEneid, and says that Laocoon was a priest of Apollo at Troy, who,
when the Greeks left the wooden horse outside the city and pretended to
sail away, warned the Trojans against taking the horse inside the walls;
he also struck his spear into the side of the monster. But Sinon, who
had been left behind by the Greeks, persuaded the Trojans that the horse
would prove a blessing to them, and they drew it into the city, and
ordered feasts and sacrifices to be celebrated to do honor to the
occasion. Laocoon had much offended Pallas Athene by his words and acts,
and when he went to prepare a sacrifice to Neptune that goddess sent two
huge serpents up out of the sea to destroy him and his two sons, who
were with him by the altar. When the three victims were dead the fearful
creatures went to the Acropolis and disappeared.
[Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE LAOCOON GROUP.]
In the Laocoon group it appears that the eldest son will save himself,
and in certain minor points the sculptors seem not to have followed the
account of Virgil; but we see that it must be the same story that is
illustrated, and we know that it was told with some variation by other
poets. This group is a wonderful piece of sculpture, but it is not of
the highest art, and it is far from pleasant to look at. The same is
true of another famous group which is in Naples, and which is also from
the Rhodian school.
I mean the Farnesian Bull, or the Toro Farnese. This group was made by
APOLLONIUS and TAURISCUS, who are believed to have been brothers. It was
probably made at Tralles, in Caria, which was their native place, and
sent by them to Rhodes, the great art-centre; from Rhodes it was sent to
Rome, where it was in the possession of Asinius Pollio. This splendid
group, which is probably the original work, was found in the Baths of
Caracalla, in 1546, and was first placed in the Farnese Palace, from
which it was removed to the National Museum in Naples, in 1786 (Fig.
52).
This group tells a part of the story of Dirce, who had incurred the
hatred and displeasure of Antiope, the mother of Amphion, who was King
of Thebes and the husband of Niobe. In order to appease the wrath of his
mother, Amphion, with the aid of his twin-brother Zethus, bound Dirce to
the horns of a wild bull to be dashed to pieces. All this takes place on
Mount Cithaeron, and it is said that after Dirce had suffered horrible
agonies the god Dionysus changed her into a fountain, which always
remains upon this mountain.
In this piece of sculpture, dreadful as the idea is, there is less of
horror than in the Laocoon, for the reason that the moment chosen is
that just before the climax of the catastrophe, while in the Laocoon it
is in its midst. The latter group is made to be seen from but one side,
and was probably intended for a niche; but the Farnese Bull is perfect,
and presents a finished aspect on all sides and from every point of
view. There are numerous accessories and much attention to detail, while
the rocky base represents Mount Cithaeron and the wildness of the scene
in a manner not before known in sculpture. The group has been much
restored, but its excellences support the theory of its being the
original work of the Greek artists, and the skill with which the various
figures are brought into one stupendous moment is such as commands great
praise and admiration; it is doubtful if any other work of sculpture
tells its story with power equal to that of this celebrated group.
[Illustration: FIG. 52.--THE FARNESE BULL.]
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--GALLIC WARRIOR. _Venice._]
After the art of Rhodes that of Pergamon was important. When Attalus I.,
King of Pergamon, gained his victory over the Gauls, in B.C. 229, the
Greek artists were aroused to new efforts to record in sculpture the
great deeds of Attalus and to place him on a level with the glorious
heroes of their nation who had preceded him. It is recorded that the
conqueror himself offered four groups of statues at Athens, and that
they stood on the southern wall of the Acropolis. The subjects were:
"The Battle of the Gods and Giants," "The Battle of Athenians and
Amazons," "The Battle of Marathon," and "The Destruction of the Gauls in
Mysia by Attalus." Thus the different epochs of Greek history were
represented, and Attalus placed himself near the other great warriors
who had preserved the honor and freedom of their nation. These groups
consisted of many figures, and are estimated to have been from sixty to
eighty in number. It is believed that at least ten of them are now in
European collections--that is, three in Venice, four in Naples, one in
Paris, one in the Vatican, and the last in the Castellani collection in
Rome. This picture of one of those in Venice seems to represent a
warrior who has been suddenly thrown down; his weapons and shield--which
last was probably held in the left hand--have been dropped in the
violence of the shock which has prostrated him (Fig. 53). His face and
hair are of the barbarian type, and the power and elasticity of his
powerful frame are manifest even in this moment of his defeat. He is
yet unwounded, but the weapon of his adversary may be before his eyes,
and in another moment he may sink back in the agony of death.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE DYING GAUL.]
It is now believed that the statue of the Dying Gaul, often called the
Dying Gladiator, was the work of a sculptor of Pergamon, and represents
a Gaul who has killed himself rather than submit as a slave to his
conquerors. The moment had come when he could not escape, and he chose
death rather than humiliation. We learn from history that when these
barbarians saw that all was lost they frequently slew their wives and
children and then themselves, to avoid being taken as prisoners, which
really meant being made slaves. This warrior has thrown himself upon his
shield; his battle-horn is broken, and the sword which has given him the
freedom of death has fallen from his hand. His eye is already dim, his
right arm can scarce sustain him, his brow is contracted with pain, and
it seems as if a sigh escaped his lips. He has not the noble form of the
Greeks; we do not feel the exalted spirit which is shown in the death
scenes of some of the Periclean statue heroes; here it is only a rude,
barbarous Gaul, suffering death as a brute might; it is very realistic,
and when we are near the marble itself we see the coarseness of the
skin, the hardened soles of the feet, the coarse hand, and we are sure
the artist must have made a true representation of this wild, savage
man, who yet had the nobility of nature which would not live to be
enslaved (Fig. 54).
[Illustration: FIG. 55.--BOY AND GOOSE.]
These illustrations and remarks will give you some idea of the art of
Pergamon, and I shall now leave the subject of Greek sculpture after
some account of BOETHUS OF CHALCEDON. His date is very uncertain, though
we have accounts of his works by ancient writers. Some scholars believe
that he lived about B.C. 275. Many works in chased silver made by
Boethus were in the temple of Athena in Lindus in the time of the
historian Pliny; there are accounts of a figure of a boy made in gold
and one of the youthful Asclepius; but the Boy Strangling a Goose, in
the gallery of the Louvre, is his most interesting work for us (Fig.
55). You will remember that even the ancient Egyptians made caricatures
and playful, mocking pictures not unlike some of our own day. This boy
and goose are of the same spirit, and is intended as a parody on the
representations of Hercules struggling with the Nemean lion, which had
been represented many times by Greek artists. The boy seems to be
working as hard as any giant could do. The execution of this work is
fine. It was probably made for a fountain, the water coming through the
beak of the goose. There are several works of ancient sculpture which
are of the same spirit, and for this reason are attributed to Boethus.
The Spinario, or Thorn-extractor, in the museum of the Capitol, at Rome,
is one of the most charming pieces of _genre_ statuary in existence
(Fig. 56).
[Illustration: FIG. 56.--SPINARIO.]
It represents a boy taking a thorn from his foot. His attitude is
natural and graceful, and the purity and simplicity of its style places
it on an equality with works of the best period of sculpture. The
expression of the face is that of perfect absorption in what he is
doing, and is given with great skill and truthfulness. The treatment of
the hair is like that of the archaic period, and there will always be
some critics who cannot think that such perfection could exist in the
sculpture of what we call the Alexandrian age.
CHAPTER III.
ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE.
Ancient Italian sculpture was essentially Greek in its spirit, and
originated with the Etruscans, a very ancient people in Italy. There are
traces of an Oriental influence in the art of Etruria--a suggestion of
the sculpture of Egypt and Assyria, just as there is in Greek archaic
art; but the real feeling and spirit of it is Greek, and must have been
borrowed from Greece in some way.
The different theories and opinions about the Etruscans and their origin
do not concern us here; we have to do only with their sculpture as it is
seen in the remnants of it now in existence. In the beginning the
Etruscans made their statues of clay; marble was very rarely used. Later
on they learned the art of working in bronze, and carried it to great
perfection. Their bronze works were so numerous that in B.C. 295 Fulvius
Flaccus is said to have carried away two thousand statues from Volsinii
alone. Some of their figures were colossal, but the greater number were
statuettes.
There are some Etruscan bronzes remaining in the museums of Europe. The
Etruscans always were copyists rather than original artists; but they
copied such excellent things, and did it so well, that their productions
are by no means to be despised, and the skill which they acquired caused
their bronze and metal work to be highly valued, even in Athens itself.
The Etruscans were physically a more luxurious people than the Greeks,
as may be seen in the pictures of them which still remain in the tombs
of Corneto and other places. They gave much attention to luxury of
living, and the richly decorated goblets and other articles of table
furniture which they made may be seen in the Vatican and British Museum,
while the delicate and artistic gold work of their personal ornaments is
still much admired and copied diligently.
The Romans as a people were patrons of art rather than artists. They
seem from very early days to have admired the plastic art of other
nations; but of Romans themselves there were very few sculptors; their
artists were architects of grand structures rather than workers in the
lesser monuments of artistic skill and genius. At first, as we have
said, they relied upon the Etruscans, who built their earliest temples
and adorned them with sculptures, and the first record which we have of
Greek artists working in Rome gives us the names of Damophilus and
Gorgasus, who decorated the temple of Ceres with paintings and
sculptures. This temple was consecrated in B.C. 493; if its adornment
was of the same date, the knowledge of Greek art was brought to Rome at
a very early period--at least fifty-six years before the completion of
the Parthenon.
But the means by which the whole Roman people were made familiar with
the beauties of Greek art are to be found in another direction. It was
not the building of their own temples, or any work done by Greek artists
in Rome, that gave the Romans their love and appreciation for art; it
was rather the art spoils seized by their victorious leaders and brought
home to adorn and beautify every portion of the Eternal City. In B.C.
212 Marcellus carried to Rome the spoils he had taken at Syracuse; he
exhibited them in his triumphal procession, and afterward consecrated
them in the temple of Honor and Valor which he built. From this time it
was the fashion to bring home all the choice things that Roman
conquerors could seize, and the number of beautiful objects thus gained
for Rome was marvellous.
When Flaminius defeated Philip of Macedon it required two days to gather
up the spoils. After Fulvius Nobilior conquered the AEtolians he brought
Greek artists to Rome to arrange his festivities, and he exhibited five
hundred and fifteen bronze and marble statues which he had taken from
the defeated people. When Perseus of Macedon was overcome by AEmilius
Paulus it required two hundred and fifty wagons to remove the pictures
and statues alone which he displayed in his triumphal procession; among
these treasures there was a statue of Athena by Phidias himself. This
work of spoiling the Grecian cities which came into their power was
diligently carried on by Mummius, Sulla, and others, until at length the
Emperor Augustus removed many of the archaic sculptures to Rome. But the
works which best pleased the Romans were those of the later school of
Athens. The ruling gods at Rome were Mars, Bacchus, and Venus, and the
statues of these deities were much valued.
So far, to the time of Augustus, the statues and other objects removed
had been the spoils of war; but Caligula and Nero did not hesitate to go
in times of peace and act the part of robbers. The first sent a consul
in A.D. 31 with orders to bring the best works of art from Greece to
Rome to adorn his villas; Nero went so far as to send his agents to
bring even the images of the deities from the most sacred temples,
together with the offerings made to them, for the decoration of his
Golden House; it is said that from Delphi alone he received five hundred
statues of bronze.
At first the larger number of these art spoils were so placed as to be
constantly seen by the whole Roman people, and there is no doubt that
their influence was very great and went far to refine their ideas and
to prepare the way for the polish and grace of the Augustan age. Very
soon the individual desire for works of art was felt, and wealthy men
began to decorate their homes with pictures and statues; and at last
these things were thought to be necessary to the proper enjoyment of
life.
From all these causes there came about a revival of Greek art under the
Romans, and in it many beautiful works were produced. Indeed, the
greater portion of the sculptures which are now the pride of the
collections all over Europe belong to this period. It cannot be said
that the artists of this date originated much, but they followed the
greatest masters that ever lived; and if they repeated their subjects
they so changed them to suit the spirit of their time that they gave
their works a certain effect of being something new, and threw their own
individuality about them.
The list of names which can be given as belonging to Greek sculptors who
worked at Rome is long, and would have little interest here. Instead of
speaking of the artists I shall speak of the most famous works of the
time which remain; most of these are so placed that they are seen by
travellers, and have become familiar to all the world.
The beautiful statue which is known as the Venus de' Medici is so called
because after its discovery it rested for a time in the Medici Palace in
Rome. It was found in the seventeenth century in the Portico of Octavia
at Rome, and was broken into eleven fragments. The arms from the elbows
down are restored; when it was found it had traces of gilding on the
hair; the ears are pierced, as if gold rings had sometimes been placed
in them. In 1680 Duke Cosmo III. removed it to Florence, where it is the
chief glory of the famous Tribune of the Uffizi Gallery. Many persons
believe this to have been a copy of the renowned Cnidian Venus by
Praxiteles, of which I have told you. This Venus de' Medici was the
work of an Athenian artist named Cleomenes. He was the son of
Apollodorus, a sculptor who lived in Rome in the first or second century
of the Christian era. (Fig. 57.)
[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.]
The aim of the sculptor was not to make a goddess, and his work lacks
the dignity which was thrown around the more ancient statues of Venus.
Cleomenes endeavored to produce a lovely woman in the youth of her
beauty. Some critics believe that this Venus is intended to represent
the moment when that goddess stood before Paris for judgment. If this
story is not well known I will tell how when Peleus and Thetis were
married they invited all the gods to their wedding save the goddess
Discordia, and she was so offended by this slight that she threw into
the midst of the assembly a golden apple on which were the words, "To
the fairest." Juno, Minerva, and Venus all claimed it, and Jupiter sent
Mercury to conduct these three beautiful goddesses to Paris, that he
might decide to which it belonged. His decision gave the apple to Venus;
and this so excited the jealousy and hatred of the others that a long
list of serious troubles arose until Paris was driven out of Greece,
and, going to the house of Menelaus, he saw and loved Helen, carried her
off to Troy, and thus brought on the Trojan war of which the world has
heard so much ever since. If I were writing a Sunday-school book I could
draw many lessons from this story; but as I am only writing about art, I
will go back and remind you that many persons try to study these old
statues and to find out exactly what they mean; some such students say
that the moment when Paris pronounced Venus to be the most lovely of the
goddesses is the time represented by the sculptor of the Venus de'
Medici.
As Venus was the goddess of Love and Beauty, it was natural that statues
of her should be multiplied. The Chigi Venus in the Vatican has much the
same pose as the Venus de' Medici, but she holds the end of a fringed
garment in her hand. The Venus of the Capitol, in Rome, is larger than
these; the Venus Callipiga, which was found in the Golden House of Nero,
and is now in the Museum of Naples, is also worthy of being mentioned in
company with these other exquisite sculptures.
However, there is yet another Venus more admirable and more praised than
these. She is called the Venus of Milo, or Melos, and is in the gallery
of the Louvre, at Paris. This statue is probably of a later date than
those of which we have spoken, and is thought to be the work of
Alexandros, the son of Menides of Antiocheia, or one of those sculptors
who are called Asiatic Greeks. It is said that the base of this statue
with the name of the artist upon it was destroyed, for the purpose of
leading the King of France to believe it to be more ancient than it
really is (Fig. 58, _frontispiece_).
This magnificent statue was discovered in 1820 by a peasant of the town
of Melos, or Milo, on the island of the same name. It was in a niche of
a wall which had long been buried. The Marquis of Riviere, who was the
French Ambassador at Constantinople, purchased it and presented it to
King Louis XVIII., who placed it in the Louvre. It is made from two
blocks of marble joined above the drapery which envelops the legs. As
the statue now stands it has the tip of the nose and the foot which
projects beyond the drapery as they have been restored by modern
artists.
This is the only Venus which has come down to us from the past which
represents a goddess rather than a beautiful woman. The form has beauty
of the highest type, but it has a grandeur which exalts it far above
mere beauty. The pure, majestic expression of the head and face speak
the calm dignity of a superior being. I shall quote from Perry, who
says: "The Venus de Milo is justly admired, not only for the grandeur of
its design, the perfection of its proportion, and the exquisite moulding
of the superb and luxuriant form, but for the vivid freshness of the
flesh and the velvet softness of the skin, in which it stands unrivalled
in ancient and modern art. The extraordinary skill with which minute
details, such as the folds of the skin in the neck, are harmonized with
the ideal beauty of the whole is beyond all imitation and all praise.
The life-like effect of this wonderful masterpiece is greatly enhanced
by the rare and perfect preservation of the epidermis and by the
beautiful warm, yellowish tinge which the lapse of centuries has given
to the marble."
In the Museum at Naples is the Farnesian Hercules, which was found in
the Baths of Caracalla, in Rome, in 1540. It was first placed in the
Farnese Palace, and from that circumstance received the name by which it
is known. It is the work of Glycon, an Athenian, and his name is
inscribed upon it. There is little doubt that this is a copy of a more
ancient statue by the great Lysippus; that master created
representations of Hercules in all ages and forms. Glycon probably
worked in the time of Hadrian; and though he copied the design and form
of Lysippus, he exaggerated some points so as to injure the effect of
the whole. For example, the head is small in proportion to the breadth
of the breast and shoulders; and because Hercules was a swift runner the
sculptor has made the legs too long to be natural. It is in such
particulars as these that the decline of art may be traced, even in
works that command admiration (Fig. 59).
The moment in which the god is represented is that which immediately
followed his securing the apples of the Hesperides, the wedding present
of Ge to Juno. Of all the labors of Hercules, perhaps this was the most
arduous. Juno had left these apples with the Hesperides for safekeeping.
These goddesses lived on Mount Atlas, and the serpent Ladon helped them
to guard their precious trust. Hercules did not know just where the
apples were kept, and this made his task all the more difficult. When,
therefore, he arrived at Mount Atlas he offered to hold up the world for
Atlas if he would go and fetch the apples. This Atlas did, but refused
to take the weight from Hercules again. However, Hercules took the
apples and hastened to his master, Eurystheus, with them. While
performing this labor he had a terrible struggle with Ladon, and some
accounts say that he killed the monster.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE FARNESIAN HERCULES.]
Now, the statue represents the god with the apples in his right hand,
the world held on his back, while he leans heavily on his club covered
with a lion's skin. All the muscles of his body are swollen from his
struggle; his head droops, his whole expression of face and form is that
of sadness and weariness. The youthfulness and strength with which the
older sculptors invested him is not here. It is a splendid work, but it
is not of the best; it belongs to an age when there was too much
straining after effect, when the moderation of the best Greek masters
did not satisfy the spirit of the time; and no sculptor lived whose
power equalled that of Phidias or Lysippus.
There are some reliefs and vases of this Roman period that are very
interesting. I shall speak of but one relief--the Sacrifice of
Iphigenia, which is in Florence. It is called the work of Cleomenes, and
his name is inscribed upon it; but there is some doubt as to the
genuineness of the inscription. This relief is very beautiful. It
represents a priest cutting off the hair of the lovely maiden as a
preparation for her sacrifice.
[Illustration: FIG. 60.--THE APOLLO BELVEDERE.]
The story runs that Iphigenia was the daughter of Agamemnon, who killed
a hart sacred to Diana. To revenge this act the goddess becalmed the
Greek fleet on its way to Aulis. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon to
sacrifice his daughter to appease Diana; this he consented to do, but
Diana put a hart in the place of the maiden, whom she bore to Tauris and
made a priestess. In this relief the maiden has an air of resigned
grief; her father stands by himself with his head covered. The sculptor
of this relief was not the first who had represented Agamemnon thus, for
a painter, Timanthes, had made a picture of this subject about B.C. 400,
and in describing it Quintilian said that "when he had painted Calchas
sad, Ulysses sadder, and had represented in the face of Menelaus the
most poignant grief that art can express, having exhausted the deepest
feelings and finding no means of worthily portraying the countenance of
_the father_, he covered his head and left it to every man's own heart
to estimate his sufferings."
[Illustration: FIG. 57.--VENUS DE' MEDICI.]
I come now to the Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of all
the statues in the Vatican, and the best known and most universally
admired of all the ancient statues which remain to us. It was found at
about the end of the fifteenth century at the ancient city of Antium,
where it probably made one of the ornaments of the Imperial Palace. The
authorities upon such subjects have never yet agreed as to whether the
marble from which it is cut is a marble of Greece or of Italy (Fig. 60).
[Illustration: FIG. 62.--THE STEINHAeUSER HEAD.]
This statue has been lauded in all tongues of the civilized world, and
nothing could be added to what has been said in its praise; and yet all
who see it wish to exalt it still higher if possible. A few years ago
another head of Apollo, of Greek marble, was found in a magazine in
Rome, by Herr Steinhaeuser, by whose name it is known; it is now in the
museum at Basle (Figs. 61, 62).
Though this statue has been so much studied and admired it has never yet
been satisfactorily explained, and there are several important questions
about it which cannot be answered with certainty. Nothing is known of
its age or of the name of its sculptor. It is not described by any
ancient writer, neither can any one say whether it is an original or a
copy; and above all in importance is the question of what this beautiful
young god is doing--what is the meaning of it?
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE STROGANOFF APOLLO.]
The answers of the authorities to these queries vary so much that here I
shall only mention the theory which I love, and which is accepted by
many. When the statue was found the left hand was missing, and a bow was
believed to have been the article which it held; and it was said that
Apollo had just shot an arrow on some dreadful flight, and was watching
for its effect. This theory was the principal one until 1860, when a
scholar, Stephani, called attention to the fact that in St. Petersburg
there is a bronze statuette, less than two feet high, which is almost
exactly the same as the Apollo Belvedere--too nearly the same to be an
accidental likeness. Now, as this is an antique bronze, it seems to
prove that both it and the marble of the Vatican are copies of an
ancient work. The statuette is called the Stroganoff Apollo, because it
belongs to the collection of a nobleman of that name. It is believed to
be one of a number of bronzes which were found near Janina in 1792, and
given by the son of Ali Pasha to his physician, Dr. Frank (Fig. 63).
The chief importance of this discovery was the fact that the left hand
was perfect, and did not hold a bow, but some soft, elastic substance
which Stephani believes to be the aegis, or shield, of Jupiter, on which
was the head of Medusa. The sight of this shield paralyzed those who saw
it; and though it belonged to Jupiter and Minerva, Jupiter sometimes
lent it to his son Apollo to aid him in his warfare; such instances are
recorded by Homer. After Stephani had told his idea of it, the German
scholar Ludwig Preller pointed out what seems to be the true meaning of
it by suggesting that Apollo was extending this dreadful _aegis_ before
the sight of the Gauls at Delphi, in B.C. 279. History relates that when
the Gauls approached Delphi the people asked the oracle if they should
carry away and conceal the treasures of the temple. The oracle replied,
"I myself and the White Maidens (meaning Athena and Artemis) will take
care of that." Then four thousand Greeks stood by ready to defend the
sacred place; but in the midst of the battle the youthful god came down
through the roof of the temple, and the White Maidens left their own
altars to aid him in driving back the barbarous foe. A great tempest
arose, and rocks fell from Parnassus on the heads of the Gauls, and it
seemed as if all the powers of heaven and earth had united to sustain
the Greeks against their enemies. It is also written that the spectres
of Greek heroes who had long been dead were seen in the midst of the
battle dealing death upon the Gauls. But above all the fury of the
tempest and the noise of war the clashing of the shield and spear of
Athena and the twanging sound of the oft-discharged bow of Artemis were
heard, while the flash of the awful shield of Apollo was seen to be even
more vivid and terrific than the forked lightnings themselves.
It is recorded that after this victory two statues of Apollo and one
each of Athena and Artemis were offered in the temple of Apollo as
thank-offerings for its preservation and the victory over the Gauls. It
is delightful to regard the Apollo Belvedere as a copy of one of these,
and this view of it is most satisfying. Luebke, in speaking of this
theory, says: "Not till now have we understood the Apollo Belvedere. In
unveiled beauty we see the elegant form of the slender figure, the left
shoulder only being covered by the chlamys, which falls down over the
arm, which, far outstretched, holds the aegis with its Medusa head. The
right arm is slightly turned aside, but both hands have been unskilfully
restored. The attitude of the god is full of pathos, and is conceived at
a dramatic moment. Ardently excited and filled with divine anger, with
which is mingled a touch of triumphant scorn, the intellectual head is
turned sideward, while the figure, with elastic step, is hastening
forward. The eye seems to shoot forth lightning; there is an expression
of contempt in the corners of the mouth, and the distended nostrils seem
to breathe forth divine anger. It is a bold attitude thus transfixed in
marble, full of life-like and excited action."
In the Iliad Homer describes the scene when Jupiter gave the aegis to
Apollo, that he might put the Achaeans to flight with it. In connection
with the Apollo Belvedere it is well to recall that description which is
thus translated by Lord Derby
"While Phoebus motionless his aegis held,
Thick flew the shafts, and fast the people fell
On either side; but when he turned its flash
Full in the faces of the astonished Greeks,
And shouted loud, their spirits within them quailed,
Their fiery courage borne in mind no more."
It is very interesting to know that many who believe that the Apollo
Belvedere represents that god when terrifying the Gauls, believe also
that the statues of the "White Maidens" rushing forth from their temples
to aid him are in existence, the Artemis being the statue at the Louvre
known as "_Diane a la Biche_" and the Minerva being the Athena with
spear and shield in the museum of the Capitol at Rome.
This statue of Artemis, or Diana, has been in France since the time of
Henry IV. Formerly it was at Versailles, but is now one of the treasures
of the Louvre. The left hand with the bow is restored. The effect of the
figure is that of lightness combined with strength. She is going forward
rapidly, with her eyes fixed on some distant object, and draws an arrow
from her quiver even as she flies. This figure corresponds to the Apollo
Belvedere in its spirit and apparent earnestness of purpose; it is of
the same proportions, and in such details of treatment as the rich
sandals it plainly belongs to the time and the school of the
Apollo--indeed, there is no reason why it might not have formed a part
of a group in which the Apollo stood. (Fig. 64.)
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--DIANE A LA BICHE.]
If we think of this Diana simply as an ideal huntress hastening to the
chase the statue is very beautiful, and a remarkable example of such a
subject; but when she is regarded as one of the "White Maidens" rushing
forth to aid her brother in defending his temple against a barbarous
enemy she is invested with a deeper interest; she becomes an important
actor in a terrible drama, and those of us who could have no sympathy
with her love for hunting are roused to an enthusiastic hope that she
will succeed in doing her part to turn the savage foe away from the
sacred hill of Pytho, and thus preserve its temple and its treasures.
The statue of Athena, advancing with spear and shield, is supposed to be
a third member of the group which commemorated the victory over the
Gauls. The position of the two goddesses would indicate that they were
represented as hastening from opposite directions toward the Apollo
Belvedere, the central figure of the whole. The whole bearing of this
statue carries out the impression which Homer gives of the delight with
which Athena led the Greeks to battle; she is full of eagerness, and
rushes forward with the undaunted vigor of the confidence and courage of
one who goes to fight for a just and holy cause (Fig. 65).
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ATHENA OF THE CAPITOL.]
Whether this "Gallic theory," as it is called, concerning the Apollo,
Diana, and Athena be correct or no, it is the most satisfactory in
sentiment of any that has been advanced, and certainly, when we consider
the three statues in this connection, there is nothing inharmonious in
the supposition that they made the important parts of a whole which may
have had many other figures of lesser importance in it.
There are many other statues of the Roman period in various museums, but
I shall leave this part of our subject here, and speak briefly of the
historical sculpture in the reliefs upon the triumphal arches of the
Eternal City. In an age when martial glory was the chief desire of man,
and among a people who accorded to successful generals the highest
honors, it was most natural that the conquerors should desire to place
some monument of their exploits where it would be constantly before the
eyes of the people, and thus keep in perpetual remembrance their valiant
deeds and their great successes.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION FROM ARCH OF TITUS.]
We read that pictures of the foreign scenes of sieges and battles were
displayed in public places in Rome at a very early date. We cannot find
records of plastic works of this sort before the time of the emperors,
but after such sculptures came into favor they were multiplied rapidly.
The principal historical reliefs in Rome were upon the arches of
Claudius, Titus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Septimius Severus, and on
the architrave of the temple of Minerva in the Forum.
Of the arch of Claudius there are some remaining fragments of sculpture,
now in the Villa Borghese. The arch of Titus was erected to celebrate
the taking of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. It was restored in 1822. The frieze
represents both a triumphal procession and one of sacrifice. The picture
we give here shows a company of warriors in the dress of peace, who bear
articles of booty taken from the conquered city. They have the
candelabra with seven branches, the table of the shew-bread, the silver
trumpets, etc. This will give you a good idea of these reliefs. (Fig.
66.)
The arch of Trajan no longer stands, and its reliefs are now on the arch
of Constantine; but Trajan's Pillar is one of the best preserved of all
the antique monuments of Rome, and with some account of this column and
a picture from it we will leave the historical sculptures of Rome. The
Senate and people of Rome decreed that this column should be erected to
the memory of Trajan, and it was in the centre of the Forum which bore
the same name--the Forum Trajani. The column is about one hundred and
six feet high, and originally was surmounted by a bronze statue of
Trajan, which was replaced by one of St. Peter by Pope Sixtus V. A band
of reliefs runs around this pillar in a spiral form; this band is six
hundred feet long, and the sculptures represent Trajan's campaign
against the Dacians. Many of the figures lose their effect on account of
the height at which they are placed. There are more than a hundred
scenes upon it, in which are about twenty-five hundred human figures,
besides many horses and other objects. The whole is executed with the
greatest care.
The real object of the whole work was to glorify the Emperor Trajan, and
he is represented in many of the scenes; sometimes he is conducting
engagements, storming a fort, or encouraging his troops; again he is
holding an audience, protecting the women of a conquered city, or
sitting in judgment on captives. Fig. 67 represents the Dacians
assaulting a Roman fort. It is winter, and while some have crossed the
ice in safety, others have broken through. Everything about it is
represented in the most life-like and matter-of-fact manner, and this
shows distinctly the principal difference between the Greek and the
Roman art when the latter was not influenced by the former. It is pure,
realistic, historical sculpture, and this pillar shows this at its very
best estate; it is a splendid specimen of this kind of art. In all these
many scenes there are but two mythological figures: one is Selene, used
to represent Night, and the other is _Jupiter tonans,_ who indicates
Storm. But the correctness and elegance of the sculptures show what the
Greek teaching did for the Romans; for it was to the Greeks that the
latter owed their knowledge of the human form and their power to render
it properly in sculpture.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--FROM THE RELIEFS OF TRAJAN'S COLUMN.]
The last sort of ancient sculpture of which I shall speak is portrait
sculpture, and perhaps this belongs also to historical sculpture, for it
is by means of statues and busts that we know the faces and forms of
many of the great men and women who hold their places in the regard of
the world through all the centuries, because they were concerned in the
events which make up what we call the history of the world. We have said
that in Greece in very early times there were no portrait sculptures;
gradually they were introduced until, in the time of Alexander, portrait
statues were almost numberless, and these and busts were used for the
decoration of libraries and public buildings, as well as for the
adornment of squares and places of resort in the open air.
The finest life-size statue which remains from the Greeks is that of
Sophocles, of which we give a picture (Fig. 68). It was not found until
about 1839, and was presented to Pope Gregory XVI. by Cardinal
Antonelli; it is in the museum of the Lateran. This engraving from it
shows its beauties so well that it is scarcely needful to speak of it in
detail. This statue is valuable not only as a portrait of Sophocles, but
as a representation of a true product of the highest and best of
Athenian civilization and culture; of an elegant, aristocratic man who
was trained in gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed his
physical parts, as well as in science, philosophy, and music--in various
deep studies and lighter accomplishments which rendered him profound and
scholarly, and at the same time elegant and graceful. "The attitude,
though simple, is well chosen to show the most graceful lines of the
figure; and the position of the arms--the one gracefully enveloped in
the himation, and the other firmly planted on the hip--gives to the
whole form an air of mingled ease and dignity. The face is handsome and
full of winning grace, and bears the stamp not only of the creative
genius of the poet, but of the experience of the active citizen; of one
who has felt both the joys and the sufferings of human lot, and
preserved amid them the constitutional calmness, the gentle benevolence,
the tranquil, meditative piety for which he was renowned and loved by
the people among whom he lived and sang."
[Illustration: FIG. 68.--PORTRAIT STATUE OF SOPHOCLES.]
Among the Romans portrait sculpture held a position of importance. This
people had always placed great value upon the likenesses of the dead,
and from the earliest times had used different means of making them. In
the very early days of the nation the custom prevailed of making masks
of the faces of the dead in wax, and these masks were worn in the
funeral procession by one of the mourners, who also wore the dress and
insignia of the departed. The first aim in these masks was to have an
exact resemblance to the dead; and this idea was carried on through all
the eras of Roman art, and is a strong distinguishing feature between
Greek and Roman sculpture; for while the Greeks wished to reproduce the
face of one of whom they made a bust or statue, they did not hesitate to
idealize that face; but the Romans labored to make an exact likeness of
the man, leaving him in his statue as nothing more than he looked to be.
This manner of portraiture often does great injustice to its model, for
the changing expressions which come with emotions and with conversation
often illuminate the plainest faces with a rare beauty; therefore the
aim of portraiture should be to give the very most and best that can be
imagined as coming to the face which is reproduced.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--STATUE OF AUGUSTUS.]
I can speak of but a few of the almost numberless Roman portrait
sculptures.
This statue of Augustus was found in 1863 in a villa built by his wife,
Livia, about nine miles from Rome, at Porta Prima. It is a noble work,
and every minute detail of the ornamentation has a force and meaning
that can be explained. At the same time the whole work is full of
strength and dignity, which comes from the character of the man himself,
and is in no sense dependent on all the emblems of his rank and power,
with which the dress is loaded (Fig. 69). This statue is in the Vatican,
and there one can compare it with the exquisite bust known as the "Young
Augustus" and with the statue of the emperor when aged, in which he is
veiled as a priest. The study of these three sculptures, thus
fortunately near each other, is most interesting.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--AGRIPPINA THE ELDER.]
The Roman women who held important positions were frequently honored
with statues. Among those that remain none is more interesting than this
of the elder Agrippina. She was a woman of great strength and equally
great purity of character, and as we study this statue we can easily
understand that she could perform the duties of a general when occasion
demanded this service, and when that necessity was past could nurse the
sick and wounded with all the tenderness of a true womanly nature. It is
in every way a noble work of art, combining grace, dignity, and the
aristocratic refinement of a high-born lady. The drapery of this and
other similar statues is very beautiful, and fully satisfies all
artistic demands. We have full proof that such garments were in actual
use by the women of Greece and Rome (Fig. 70).
It was not unusual for the great men and women of Rome to be represented
in portrait statues with the attributes of gods and goddesses. Livia
appears as Ceres, Julia as Flora, and so on; and during the best days of
Roman art these statues were very beautiful. But at last they, like all
other sculptures, grew less and less worthy, until they became
positively absurd, and lacked any power to command our admiration.
What is thus true of portrait sculpture is true of all Roman art. Its
decline kept step with the decline of the nation, and both fell at
length into a pitiable state of feebleness and corruption. From this we
are glad to turn to the study of Christian art, which, even in its
primary struggles, when groping its way through ignorance and
helplessness, was still a living thing, and held the promise of a new
life--a _renaissance_ of that which had gradually died in Greece and
Rome.
CHAPTER IV.
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be
said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the
Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and
is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon
it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries
earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of
Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence
of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by
side.
After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced
to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of
their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with
the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with
horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed
that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the
commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in
the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened
that when the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they
employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than
sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early
Christian art.
The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St.
Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there
are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were
found in the catacombs.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--STATUE OF ST. PETER.]
The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is
held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they
enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads
against the extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some
antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as
to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from
the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was
made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century
as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian
Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This
statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable
excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71).
The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the
decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in
bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken
from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such
as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As
time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the
Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were
crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the
meaning of the whole more clear.
The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the
museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the
finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who
were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour
before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses
the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the
shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of
the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing
of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses
causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of
Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den. Besides these there are the
Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will
show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the
subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or
apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of
Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums.
In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by
the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city
with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the
Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to
decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a
column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also
erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and
about 543 A.D. set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of
himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of
brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have
of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called
the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St.
Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in
pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the
Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this
purpose.
But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of
statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which
long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into
special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to
making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these
carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the
episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and
552 (Fig. 72).
This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from
the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these
are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of
framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds
among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic
manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater
number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups
and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of
which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections.
Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for
writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the
ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul
Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon
it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where--the
circus gates being thrown open--the animals rush into the arena to be
slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from
the life of Christ and other religious themes.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FROM THE CATHEDRA OF MAXIMIANUS.]
About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for
church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels
used for the Holy Sacrament were made of it, magnificent covers for
church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given
to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to
the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from
Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it
went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been
practised somewhat by the earlier Christians.
[Illustration: FIG. 73.--DIPTYCH. _Zurich._]
During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the
different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of
this sort. Altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates, which
were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming
antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth
are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief,
ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and
even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also
made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and
smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the
church--incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or
caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches
and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved,
and are of great interest in the study of art.
Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even
grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the
subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner.
Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons,
cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces
represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case
the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can
understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that
gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In
truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in
many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the
industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to
understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had
attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of
the world so completely, for in these mediaeval days it existed nowhere
on the face of the earth.
About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold
an important place in the art of Germany, and as architecture now
received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze
figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the
decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the
medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again
brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the
principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in
various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind
are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or
wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met.
The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its
uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every
department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of
zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the
Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the
nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had
before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more
individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had
done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world
seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with
strength and activity.
With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and
sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be
separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with
the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention,
and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with
statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon
extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the
altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved
stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly
ornamented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess
the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and
the period known as the _Romanesque_ was thus ushered in.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--FROM THE FACADE OF CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.]
We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the
faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic
sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which
had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which
followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in
sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful,
yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a
hopeful and important change.
Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic
progress; but France was not far behind; and, indeed, in the cathedral
of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals
of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque.
In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the
head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the
classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had
degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.)
Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid
examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took
the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange
that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first
works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had
come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or
in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both
the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great
revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts.
However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any
other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to
have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than
did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer;
but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength
by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from
northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different
spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering
summits of the Alps.
About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the
northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language
had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own
tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the
Provencal poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it
was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national
feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it
resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of
Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle
which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets
and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram
and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing
centuries.
At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in
North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had
the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the
importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both
architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so
arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its
turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture.
Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference
to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were
fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited
to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as
one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one
side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the
costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment
fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the
figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the
classic robes of the Greeks.
The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by
the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and
painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately
tinted. Colors were used with care, and often served to conceal the
defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color
was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown
upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this
polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called.
The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than
formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central
and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the
saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to
whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New
symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and
months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits
of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous
representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts
were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with
grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of
this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For
example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of
sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers
and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a
charming variety of life-like ornament was the result.
The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the
first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development.
Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff,
perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions,
had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief
from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time.
The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of
thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best example of church
building of its time, and its facade the most beautiful structure of the
Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great
portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various
other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a
forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the
architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast
amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the
statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and
awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant
figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural
folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite
unknown before this time.
In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ
which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every
portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember
that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic
times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in
the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the
fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated.
It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the
statues of mediaeval date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if
the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures
were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last
Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among
the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the
Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section
of it is here given (Fig. 75).
There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and
the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions
are all that could be desired in any age of art. The forms are in good
proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and
supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the
Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of
mediaeval art.
[Illustration: FIG. 75.--FROM THE NORTH TRANSEPT OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.]
Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of
the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two
periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from
the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work
with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the
union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of
sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure.
Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great
variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian
cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in
the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to
show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate the working of the
supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings.
But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental
sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues
still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were
many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the
statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard Coeur de Lion, who died in
1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to
the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue;
the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the
emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something
about this statue which appeals to us--a human element which had been
sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries.
But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis
were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were
sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French
sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the
Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the
heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of
Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who
died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and
they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all
France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these.
In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which
went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new
Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France.
Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about
the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not until the very end
of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in
the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon
France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In
Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was
one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that
could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French
manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are
still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed
architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig.
76.)
[Illustration: FIG. 76.--FROM THE WEST FACADE, STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.]
There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin,
at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the
architect of the west facade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and
the transparent drapery, which reminds us of the same effects in
antique sculpture, is beautifully executed.
In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270,
there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in
spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues
of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this
cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of
the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the
progress of art here was much less rapid than in France.
Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was
the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic
art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient
in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture.
[Illustration: FIG. 77.--DUKE ROBERT OF NORMANDY.]
The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century,
when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new
choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was
erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry
III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king
summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and
portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that
day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries,
it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble
those whose memories they honored, far more than other nations had
done. The illustration given here, with its air of life--almost of
motion--is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77).
The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the
interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but
in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of
sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward
the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain.
With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in
the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer
held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the
imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects
in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a
development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an
improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features
which were attractive.
In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper
meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the
citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to
art along with others.
This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they
attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their
works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated
that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which
the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had
already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of
Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism,
more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of
himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout
feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that
art was elevated in its tone.
There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted
details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from
suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects.
For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits
or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and
burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these
powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with
such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of
eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century,
that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the
thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline.
In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at
Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the
Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the
art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works
of the Nuremberg sculptors.
At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den
Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the
city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the
dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the
most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art.
We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time;
Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, Wuerzburg, Cologne, and many other
German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its
character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a
tendency toward decline, are its prominent features.
In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used
for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and
freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very
attractive (Fig. 78).
[Illustration: FIG. 78.--IVORY RELIEF. HUNTING SCENE.]
In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of
art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done
in the thirteenth century--so many new churches built and so many older
ones remodelled--is one reason for this change. In this direction there
was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed
by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However,
there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already
begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was
accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet
completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank
and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased
in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied.
During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in
France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes
of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous.
Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was CLAUX SLUTER, who was the
favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that
duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of
the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other
works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had
a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have
established a school the effects of which endured long after his time.
In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century.
Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine.
Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the
principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to
the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been
confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the
monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to
mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced;
but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the
monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The
costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque
air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline
which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It
compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and
the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a
monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art.
As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of
the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was
that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than
in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle
Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art
as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget
themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his
works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and
not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the
northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in
them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form.
In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches.
Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the
Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not
give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings
which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view,
and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and
sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of
the merits of each art.
So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the
church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and
tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered
with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly
sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for
Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored;
sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and
sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps.
However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other
lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were
employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of
the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important;
but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of
the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and
other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the
many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The
council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great
opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the
sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones
with great clearness.
As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the
progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of
separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our
attention is NICOLA PISANO, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207,
and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and
sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment
as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served
this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed
as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony.
In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief
representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its
place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at
Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist,
and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian
sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.)
[Illustration: FIG. 79.--RELIEF BY NICOLA PISANO. _Lucca._]
During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly
employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established
his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the
Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have
given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca;
and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied
the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful
advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of
his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism
when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its
sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.)
Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains
of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was
completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art
of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit
for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to
live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits
to Pisa--four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was
completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great
influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had
amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano
had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the
south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena.
[Illustration: FIG. 80.--RELIEF FROM THE PULPIT AT PISA. _Nicola
Pisano._]
In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La
Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last
work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that
city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of
the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the
figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that
laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most
valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that
it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has
suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration.
In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an
untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his
associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty.
Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were
the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow
to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles;
founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the
degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study;
so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all
profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an
ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in
selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an
indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience
to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now
in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to
design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace
or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in
both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his
edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his
bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models
long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all
classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man--one to
whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in
gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the
same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature."
FRA GUGLIELMO D'AGNELLO (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of
Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be
said of his works after his master's death.
GIOVANNI PISANO (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil
of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under
some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred
the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic
action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an
architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when
twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for
the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace
there.
After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni
in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in
the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina,
because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown
of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy o
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