Textiles, for Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools
by William H. Dooley · English · Gutenberg #24077 · 512,799 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: Textiles, for Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools
Author: William H. Dooley
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TEXTILES
For Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic
Arts Schools; Also Adapted to Those
Engaged in Wholesale and Retail
Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and
Dressmaker's Trades
by
WILLIAM H. DOOLEY
Principal Lowell Industrial School
Lowell, Mass.
Revised Edition
With Experiments
D. C. Heath & Company
Boston New York Chicago
Copyright, 1910, 1912, and 1914, by
D. C. Heath and Company
[Illustration: COTTON PLANT]
PREFACE
The author established and since its inception has been in charge of
the first industrial school for boys and girls in Massachusetts. At an
early date he recognized the need of special text-books to meet the
demand of young people who are attending vocational schools. There are
plenty of books written on textiles for technical school students and
advanced workers. But the author has failed to find a book explaining
the manufacture and testing of textiles for commercial, industrial,
domestic arts, and continuation schools, and for those who have just
entered the textile or allied trades. This book is written to meet
this educational need. Others may find the book of interest,
particularly the chapters describing cotton, woolen, worsted, and silk
fabrics.
The author is under obligations to Mr. Franklin W. Hobbs, treasurer of
the Arlington Mills, for permission to use illustrations and
information from literature published by the Arlington Mills; to Mr.
S. H. Ditchett, editor of _Dry Goods Economist_, for permission to use
information from his publication, "Dry Goods Encyclopedia"; to the
editor of the _Textile Mercury_; to Frank P. Bennett, of the _American
Wool and Cotton Reporter_, for permission to use information from
"Cotton Fabrics Glossary"; and to the instructors of the Lawrence
Industrial School for valuable information. In addition, information
has been obtained from the great body of textile literature, which the
author desires to acknowledge.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
FIBERS
PAGE
Animal Fibers--Wool, Silk, Mohair. Vegetable--Cotton,
Flax, Jute, Hemp. Mineral--Asbestos, Tinsel, Metallic.
Remanufactured Material--Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract,
and Flocks. Artificial Fibers--Spun Glass, Artificial
Silk, Slag Wool. Structure of Wool. Characteristics of
Wool. Classification of Wool. Carpet and Knitting Wools.
Sheep Shearing. Variation in Weight of Fleeces. Shipping
the Fleeces. Value of Wool Business. Saxony and Silesian
Wool, Australian Wool, Port Philip Wool, Sydney Wool,
Adelaide Wool, Van Wool from Tasmania, New Zealand Wool,
Cape Wools, Wools from South America, Russian Wool, Great
Britain Wools, Lincoln, Leicester, Southdown, Shropshire;
Cashmere Wools, Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools, Cheviot
Wool, Welsh Wools, Shetland Wools, Irish Wools, Mohair,
Alpaca Wool. How Wool is Marketed 1
CHAPTER II
WOOL SORTING
Sorting. Classing Grades of Wool. Merino Wool. Difference
between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool. Pulled Wool. Delaine
Wool. Wool Sorter. Wool Washing, Wool Drying, Oiling.
Burring and Carbonizing. Bur Picker, Blending 16
CHAPTER III
WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS
Wool Substitutes and Waste Remanufactured--Noils, Shoddy,
and Mungo. Methods of Producing Shoddy and Mungo--Dusting,
Sorting, Seaming, Oiling, Grinding. Extract Wool. Flocks 32
CHAPTER IV
WORSTED YARN
Carding, Combing. Worsted Tops--Gill Boxes. Different
methods of Spinning--Bradford or English System, French
System. Structure of Worsted Yarn. Uses of Worsted Yarn.
Counts of Worsted Yarn 39
CHAPTER V
WOOLEN YARN
Operations in Producing Woolen Yarn--Washing, Carding,
Spinning, Mule Spinning. Counts of Woolen Yarn. Uses of
Woolen Yarn 50
CHAPTER VI
WEAVING
Preparatory to Weaving--Warp. Weaving--Weaving Processes,
Classes of Weave--Plain or Homespun Weave, Twill, Satin
Weaves, Figure Weaving (Jacquard apparatus), Double Cloth,
Pile Weaving, Gauze Weaving, Lappet Weaving 53
CHAPTER VII
DYEING AND FINISHING
Dyeing. Wool Dyeing, Piece Dyed, Cross Dyed, Yarn Dyed.
Style--Designing, Finishing, Perching, Burling, Mending,
Fulling, Crabbing, Tentering, Napping, Pressing. Theories
of Coloring in Textile Design. Various Methods of
Employing Fancy Shades. Adulteration 65
CHAPTER VIII
WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS
Albatross, Alpaca, Corded Alpaca, Angora, Astrakhan,
Bandanna, Beaver (Fur Beaver), Bedford Cord, Beige,
Bindings, Bombazine, Bottany, Boucle, Broadcloth, Bunting,
Caniche, Cashmere, Cashmere Double, Cassimere, Castor,
Challis, Cheviot (Diagonal or Chevron), Chinchilla,
Chudah, Corduroy, Côte Cheval, Coupure, Covert, Delaine,
Doeskin, Drap d'Été, Empress Cloth, Épingline, Etamine,
Felt, Flannel, Dress Flannel, French Flannel, Shaker
Flannel, Indigo Blue, Mackinaw, Navy Twilled Flannel, Silk
Warp, Baby Flannel. Florentine, Foule, Frieze, Gloria,
Granada, Grenadine, Henrietta Cloth, Homespun, Hop
Sacking, Jeans, Kersey, Kerseymere, Linsey Woolsey,
Melrose, Melton, Meltonette, Merino, Mohair Brilliantine,
Montagnac, Orleans, Panama Cloth, Prunella, Sacking,
Sanglier, Sebastopol, Serge, Shoddy, Sicilian, Sultane,
Tamise, Tartans, Thibet, Tricot, Tweed, Veiling, Venetian,
Vigogne (Vicuña), Vigoureux, Voiles, Whipcord, Worsted
Diagonals, Zephyr, Zibeline 83
CHAPTER IX
COTTON
Rough Peruvian, East Indian, Egyptian, Sea Island.
American Crop--Planting, Picking, Ginning--Roller Gins,
Saw Gins. Cotton Gin. Information on the Leading Growths
of Cotton. Grades--Full Grades, Half Grades, Quarter
Grades. Varieties--Sea Island (selected), Sea Island
(ordinary), Florida Sea Island, Georgia, Egyptian, Peeler,
Orleans or Gulf Upland, Texas 105
CHAPTER X
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN
Picker Room, Carding Machine, Combing, Drawing. Flyer
Frames--Intermediate Frame, Roving Frame, Fine or Jack
Frame Spinning--Mule Spinning, Ring Spinning 125
CHAPTER XI
THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING
Manufacturing Processes. Thread Numbers. Sizing. Cotton
Finishing--Bleaching, Starching, Calendering, Mercerizing.
Characteristics of fine Cotton Cloth 139
CHAPTER XII
KNITTING
Knitting Machines. Stripe Knitting, Knitting Cotton,
Knitting Silk, Hosiery Manufacture, Finishing Process 153
CHAPTER XIII
LACE
Needlepoint Lace. Pillow Lace. Lace Terms Defined 164
CHAPTER XIV
COTTON FABRICS
Albatross, Awning, Batiste, Bourrette, Bedford Cord,
Buckram, Calico, Cambric, Canvas, Chambray, Cheesecloth,
Chiné, Chintz, Cotton Flannel, Crash, Crêpe, Crepon,
Cretonne, Crinoline, Damask, Denim, Diaper, Dimity, Domet,
Duck, Drill, Eolienne, Etamine, Flannelette, Fustian,
Galatea Cloth, Gauze, Gingham, Italian Cloth, Jaconet,
Khaki, Lawn, Lingerie, Linon, Long Cloth, Madras, Moreen,
Mull, Mummy, Muslin, Nainsook, Organdie, Osnaburg,
Percale, Percaline, Piqué, Poplin, Plumetis, Rep, Sateen,
Scrim, Silesia, Souffle, Swiss, Tape, Tarletan, Terry
Cloth, Zephyr Gingham 173
CHAPTER XV
FLAX
Physical Structure. Uses. Mechanical Processes--Crushing
or Beating, Breaking, Scutching, Hackling, Bleaching.
Characteristics of Good Linen, Notes on Table Linen 193
CHAPTER XVI
HEMP
Bast Fibers, Sisal Hemp, Manila Hemp, Ramie, Jute 199
CHAPTER XVII
SILK
Cocoons. Raw Silk. Silk-producing Countries--China, Japan,
Italy, Southern France, Greece, Turkey, Western Asia.
Throwing. Thrown Silk--Tram, Crêpe Yarn. Embroidery Silk.
Sewing Silk. Silk Waste, Spun Silk, Floss Silk. Ribbons,
Silk Thread, Silk Cord. Dyeing Yarns. Silk Dyeing. Logwood
Black Silk Dyeing--(1) Boiling Off, (2) Mordanting, (3)
Blue Bottoming, (4) "Weighting" Bath, (5) Mordanting, (6)
Dyeing. Colored Silks. Mixed Silk Fabrics. Ribbons,
Velvets, Printing, Finishing, Waterproofing 203
CHAPTER XVIII
PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS
Alma, Barège, Bengaline, Berber, Brocade, Brocatel,
Bombazine, Chenille, Chiffon, China Silk, Crêpe, Crêpe de
Chine, Eolienne, Foulard, Glacé, India Silk, Japanese
Silk, Jersey Cloth, Meteor, Moire, Mozambique, Organzine,
Panne, Peau de Soie, Plush, Pongee, Popeline, Poplin,
Figured Poplin, Terry Poplin, Sarsenet, Satin, Soleil,
Taffeta, Tulle, Velour, Velvet, Velveteen, Tabby Velvet,
Voile 219
CHAPTER XIX
ARTIFICIAL SILK
Silk Cotton, Artificial Silk, Tests 230
CHAPTER XX
SUBSTITUTES FOR COTTON
Wool Pulp, Ramie, Pineapple Fibers, Spun Glass, Metallic
Threads, Slag Wool, Asbestos 232
APPENDIX
Determining Style of Weave. Tests for Strength and
Elasticity. Determining Count of Warp and Filling,
Shrinkage, Weight. Tests for Constituents of Warp and
Filling, for Vegetable and Animal Fibers. Acid Test.
Cotton Distinguished from Linen, Silk from Wool,
Artificial Silk from Silk. Test for Shoddy. Determination
of Dressing. Test for Permanence of Dyes 235
History of Textiles. History of the Organization of
Textile Industries. History of Manufacturing. History of
Lace 245
EXPERIMENTS
Experiments 1 to 62 267
Sources of Supply 319
Index 323
TEXTILES
CHAPTER I
FIBERS
All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing are called
_textiles_ and are made of either long or short fibers. These fibers
can be made into a continuous thread. When two different sets of
threads are interlaced, the resulting product is called cloth.
The value of any fiber for textile purposes depends entirely upon the
possession of such qualities as firmness, length, curl, softness,
elasticity, etc., which adapt it for spinning. The number of fibers
that possess these qualities is small, and may be classified as
follows:
_Animal Fibers:_ Wool, Silk, Mohair.
_Vegetable Fibers:_ Cotton, Flax, Jute, Hemp, etc.
_Mineral Fibers:_ Asbestos, Tinsel, and other metallic fibers.
_Remanufactured Material:_ Noils, Mungo, Shoddy, Extract, and Flocks.
_Artificial Fibers:_ Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, and Slag Wool.
=The Structure of Wool.= A large part of the people of the world have
always used wool for their clothing. Wool is the soft, curly covering
which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and similar animals, such as
the goat and alpaca. Wool fiber when viewed under the microscope is
seen to consist roughly of three parts:
1st. Epidermis, or outer surface, which is a series of scales lying
one upon the other.
2d. Cortex, or intermediate substance, consisting of angular,
elongated cells, which give strength to the wool.
3d. Medulla, or pith of the fiber.
[Illustration: WOOL FIBER
Highly magnified]
=Difference between Wool and Hair.= Not all animal fibers are alike.
They vary in fineness, softness, length, and strength, from the finest
Merino wool to the rigid bristles of the wild boar. At just what point
it can be said that the animal fiber ceases to be wool and becomes
hair, is difficult to determine, because there is a gradual and
imperceptible gradation from wool to hair.[1] The distinction between
wool and hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and wavy
delicacy of the woolen fiber, combined with its highly serrated
surface--upon which the luster of the wool depends.
=Characteristics of Wool.= The chief characteristic of wool is its
felting or shrinking power. This felting property from which wool
derives much of its value, and which is its special distinction from
hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fiber, but mainly upon
the scales with which the fiber is covered. These scales or points
are exceedingly minute, ranging from about 1,100 to the inch to nearly
3,000. The stem of the fiber itself is extremely slender, being less
than one thousandth of an inch in diameter. In good felting wools the
scales are more perfect and numerous, while inferior wools generally
possess fewer serrations, and are less perfect in structure.
In the process of felting the fibers become entangled with one
another, and the little projecting scales hook into one another and
hold the fibers closely interlocked. The deeper these scales fit into
one another the closer becomes the structure of the thread.
=Classification of Wool.= The various kinds of wool used in commerce
are named either from the breed of the sheep or from the country or
locality in which the sheep are reared. Thus we get Merino wool from
Merino sheep, while English, American, and Australian wools are named
from the respective countries. As the result of cross breeding of
different sheep in different parts of the world, under different
climatic conditions, physical surroundings, and soil, there exist a
great many varieties of wool. The wool of commerce is divided into
three great classes: (1) Short wool or clothing wool (also called
carding wool), seldom exceeding a length of two to four inches; (2)
long wool or combing wool, varying from four to ten inches; (3) carpet
and knitting wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse.
The distinction between clothing or carding wools on the one hand, and
combing wools on the other, is an old one. Combing wools are so
called because they are prepared for spinning[2] into yarn by the
process of "combing"--that is, the fibers are made to lie parallel
with one another preparatory to being spun into thread. Carding
wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are
shorter than combing wools, and in addition they possess to a much
greater degree the power of felting--that is, of matting together in a
close compact mass. Combing wools, on the other hand, are not only
longer than the carding wools, but they are also harder, more wiry,
and less inclined to be spiral or kinky. It must be understood,
however, that under the present methods of manufacture, short wools
may be combed and spun by the French method of spinning just as the
long wools are combed and spun by the Bradford or English system.
Carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest, coarsest, and harshest
sorts of wools. They come principally from Russia, Turkey, China,
Greece, Peru, Chili, etc., and from the mountain districts of England
and Scotland. Carpet wools approach more nearly to hair than other
wools. The only staple of this class produced in the United States is
grown on the original Mexican sheep of the great Southwest. Few of
these Mexican sheep are left, for they have been improved by cross
breeding, but they constitute the foundation stock of most of our
Western flocks, which now produce superior clothing and combing wool.
=Sheep Shearing.= In order to get an idea of the importance of the
sheep industry in the United States, one must take a glance at its
condition in the big states of the West. Wyoming has more than
4,600,000 sheep within its borders. Montana, which held the record
until 1909, has 4,500,000 sheep. Then comes Idaho with 2,500,000,
Oregon with 2,000,000, and so on down the list until the nation's
total reaches 40,000,000 sheep, four-fifths of which are west of the
Missouri river.
[Illustration: SHEEP SHEARING]
To harvest the wool from such an enormous number of backs is a task
that calls for expert shearers, men who can handle the big shears of
the machine clippers with a skill that comes from long practise. The
shearing must be done at the right time of the year. If the wool is
clipped too early, the sheep suffer from the cold; if the shearing
comes too late, the sheep suffer from intense heat, and in either case
are bound to lose weight and value.
To meet the exacting conditions a class of men has risen expert in the
sheep-shearing business. These shearers begin work in southern and
middle California, Utah, etc. Another month finds them busy in the
great sheep states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon, where they
find steady employment until July, when they go to the ranges of
Canada. In this way the shearers keep busy nearly all the year, and at
high wages.
The Mexicans are particularly expert with the hand shears, though this
form of clipping is being done away with, owing to the installation of
power plants for machine shearing. These plants are installed at
various points on the great sheep ranges. Long sheds are erected and
shafting extends down both sides of the shearing place. Twenty or more
shearers will be lined up in one of these sheds, each man operating a
clipping machine connected with the shafting. The sheep are brought in
from the range in bands of 2,500 or more, and are put in the corrals
adjoining the shearing sheds. Then they are driven down chutes to the
shearers.
A shearer reaches into a small corral behind him and pulls out a
sheep. With a dexterous fling the animal is put in a sitting posture
between the shearer's knees, and then the steel clippers begin
clipping off the wool. The machine-shearing saves much wool, as it
gets closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly. In fact,
some sheep owners say that the increased weight of their fleeces at
each shearing is enough to pay the extra expense of running a power
plant.
As fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers they are run along
a narrow chute and each one is branded. The branding mark is usually a
letter painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly seen
when they are coming through a chute. The mark remains on the fleece
and is always easily distinguished.
=Fleece.= There is a great variation in the weight of fleeces. Some
sheep, such as those on the best ranges in Oregon, Montana, and
Wyoming, will average an eight-pound fleece full of natural oil, while
sheep from the more sterile alkaline ranges of New Mexico will not
average much more than five pounds of wool.
The shearing season on the plains is much like the threshing season in
agricultural communities. With a crew of first-class shearers working
in a shearing shed, it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool.
Boys are kept busy picking up the fleeces, tying them into compact
bundles, and throwing them to the men who have been assigned to the
task of filling the wool sacks. These sacks, which hold about 400
pounds, are suspended from a wooden framework, and as fast as the
fleeces are thrown in, they are tramped down until the sacks will not
hold a pound more. Most of the sacks are shipped to warehouses in such
wool centers as Casper, Wyoming, or Billings, Montana, the latter
place being the greatest wool shipping center in the world. Here they
are sold to Eastern buyers, who examine the clips at their leisure and
make their bids.
=Value of Wool Business.= Some idea of the fortunes at stake in the
wool business can be gathered from the fact that the total wool
product of the country in 1909 was valued at $78,263,165. It is
expected that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good year
will pay all a sheepman's running expenses, such as hire of herders,
cost of shearing, etc. He then has the sale of his lambs as clear
profit. Enormous fortunes are being made in the sheep business in the
west, owing to the high price of wool and mutton.
=Saxony and Silesian Wool.= Among wools of all classes the Saxony and
Silesian take the first place, and for general good qualities,
fineness, and regularity of fiber, they are unequalled. The fiber is
short in staple, possesses good felting properties, and is strong and
elastic. This wool is used chiefly in the manufacture of cloths where
much milling[3] is required, such as superfines and dress-faced
fabrics.
=Australian Wools.= Australia furnishes wools of a superior character,
and some of the choicest clips rival the Saxony and Silesian wools.
They are used both for worsted[4] and woolen yarns. They are generally
strong and of an elastic character, possess numerous serrations, and
are of good color, with good felting properties. The principal
Australian wools are Port Philip, Sydney, and Adelaide wools. These
are the best brands imported from that country.
=Port Philip Wool.= Port Philip wool is suitable for either worsted or
woolen yarns. The fiber is not quite as fine as Saxony, but it makes a
good thread, is fairly sound in staple, and is of good length and
color. It is very wavy and serrated. The longest and best of this wool
is used for the very finest worsted yarns, and will spin up to 130's
counts.[5] The sheep are descendants of the original Spanish Merino.
Cross bred Port Philip wool is from the same Merino sheep crossed with
Leicesters, which yield a medium quality fleece of sound fiber and
good quality for spinning counts from 40's to 56's. The yarn has a
bright, clear appearance.
=Sydney Wools.= Sydney wools are moderately fine in fiber and of
medium length. They are rather deficient in strength, uneven in color,
and often contain yellow locks which make them undesirable when
required for dyeing light shades. They are used for nearly the same
purpose as Port Philip wools, but do not spin quite as far in worsted
yarns, nor are they equal in milling qualities.
=Adelaide Wool.= Adelaide wool has a reputation for sound Merinos,
the average quality being a little lower than for the Port Philip and
Sydney wools. Its fiber is moderately fine, but not of uniform length;
its color is not so good, and it contains a large amount of yolk.[6]
Adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods, weft (filling)[7] yarn
up to 60's, and certain worsted warps.[7] It is used for medium
fancy woolens.
=Van Wool from Tasmania.= The climate of this island is well suited to
the growing of wool, and produces excellent qualities, fine in fiber,
of good length, and strong in the staple, which will spin as high
counts as 70's and 80's worsted. This wool is useful for mixing with
other good wools. Its color is very white, which makes it a useful
wool for dyeing light shades. Its milling properties are good, and the
shorter sorts are suitable for woolens.
=New Zealand Wools= are very supple, which make them valuable to the
spinner. These wools are suitable for almost all classes of Merino and
crossbred yarns. They are of good length, sound staple, have good
felting properties, and are of good color. They are useful for
blending with mungo and shoddy, to give to these remanufactured
materials that springy, bulky character which they lack.
=Cape Wools.= Cape Colony and Natal produce merino wool that is
somewhat short in staple, rather tender, and less wavy than some other
wools. The sheep are not so well cared for, and are fed on the leaves
of a small shrub. The absence of grass leaves the ground very sandy,
and this makes the fleece heavy and dirty. Its color is fair, but it
lacks elasticity. It is used chiefly to cheapen blends[8] of 60's
top.[9] The short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and
hosiery, and is also used for shawls and cloths where felting is not
an essential feature.
[Illustration: MERINO SHEEP]
=Wools from South America.= These wools are of the same standard of
excellence as the Australian wools, but they are generally deficient
in strength and elasticity. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo wools are
fairly fine in fiber, but lack strength and elasticity, and are
deficient in milling properties; they are also burry. The climate
suits the sheep well, and the feed is good, but the careless methods
of classing and packing have earned for these wools a poor reputation
that is well deserved.
The best 60's wool is combed in oil, but a large portion of the
shorter is combed and used in thick counts,--20's to 36's worsted for
the hosiery trade.
=Russian Wool.= The staple of this is generally strong, and the fibers
are of a medium thickness; the color is milky white. It is useful to
blend with Australian or other good wools. It produces a good yarn,
and is very often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics that
require to be finished in the natural color.
=Great Britain Wools.= These may be divided into three groups: (1)
long wools, of which the Lincoln and Leicester are typical examples;
(2) short wools, which include Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, and
others; and (3) wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep, such
as the Cheviot, Scotch Blackface, Shetland, Irish, and Welsh.
=Lincoln Wool= is a typical wool obtained from the long wool sheep,
and noted for its long, lustrous fiber, which is silky and strong. The
staple varies from ten to eighteen inches in length, and the average
fleece will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight.
=Leicester Wool= has a somewhat finer fiber than Lincoln. It is a
valuable wool, of good color, uniform and sound in staple, curly, with
good, bright luster and no dark hairs. While luster wools are grown
extensively in England, they also grow in Indiana and Kentucky, and
are commonly known in the trade as braid wool.
=Southdown= is one of the most valuable of short staple wools. It
possesses a fine hair, is close and wavy, and fairly sound in staple,
but rather deficient in milling qualities. The shorter varieties are
carded and made into flannels and other light fabrics, while the
longer qualities are used in the production of worsted goods. The
weight of a Southdown fleece averages from four to five pounds.
[Illustration: WOOL MARKET AT BUENOS AYRES]
=Shropshiredown= wool is of good quality, with strong, fine, lustrous
fiber, of good length. It resembles Southdown, but is not as lustrous
as mohair, the natural colors being either white, black, brown, or
fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.
=Cashmere Wool= is the fine, woolly, extremely soft, white or gray fur
of the Cashmere goat which is bred in Thibet. There are two kinds of
fiber obtained: one, which is really the outer covering, consists of
long tufts of hair; underneath this is the Cashmere wool of commerce,
a soft, downy wool of a brownish-gray tint, with a fine, silky fiber.
It is used for making the costly oriental (Indian) shawls and the
finest wraps.
=The Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools= are fairly fine in fiber and
soft, but slightly deficient in strength and elasticity.
=Cheviot Wool= may be taken as representative of the hilly breeds of
sheep. It is an average wool, with staple of medium length, soft, and
with strong and regular fiber; it is of a good, bright color, and
possesses desirable milling properties, being used for both woolen and
worsted, but chiefly in the fancy woolen trade. The average weight of
the fleece is about 4-1/2 pounds. The black-faced or Highland breed
yields a medium wool, coarser and more shaggy than the Cheviot, and
varying much in quality. It is almost all used in the production of
rugs, carpets, and blankets.
=Welsh Wools= lack waviness and fineness of fiber. They are chiefly
used for flannels.
=Shetland Wools= are similar in character to Welsh wools, but slightly
finer in fiber and softer. They are used in the manufacture of knitted
goods, such as shawls and wraps. They lack felting properties.
=Irish Wools= possess a strong, thick hair of moderate length and fine
color. They are similar in many respects to the Welsh wools, and are
often classed with them. They are used in the production of low and
medium tweeds--fancy woolen cloths not requiring small yarns or
milling qualities.
=Mohair= is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora goat, which
derives its name from the district of Asia Minor from which it comes.
These animals have also been successfully bred in Spain and France.
The hair is pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, and possesses
a high luster. It is used in making plushes, velvets, astrakhans, and
curled fabrics, also half silk goods and fine wraps.
=Alpaca Wool= is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep, which is a species
of llama. The staple is of good length and soft, but is not quite as
lustrous as mohair, the natural colors being either white, black,
brown, or fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.
=How Wool is Marketed.= The bulk of the wool of commerce comes into
the market in the form of fleece wool, the product of a single year's
growth, and cut from the body of the animal usually in April or May.
The first and finest clip, called lamb's wool, may be taken from the
young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months. All subsequently cut
fleeces are known as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less
value than the first clip.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Hair is straight and glossy, stronger and smoother than wool, and
grows sometimes as long as twenty inches.
[2] Spinning is a process by which long or short fibers are twisted
into a continuous thread.
[3] A process of finishing cloth by condensing the fibers so as to
make the cloth stronger and firmer.
[4] See footnote, page 39.
[5] The size of yarn is technically called the "counts" and is based
on the number of 560 yard lengths required to weigh one pound. In this
case 130's count = 130 × 560, or 72,800 yards of yarn to a pound.
[6] An encrusting compound of dirt and grease formed on the fleece.
[7] See page 54.
[8] Mixtures.
[9] After wool fibers are combed they are called top.
CHAPTER II
WOOL SORTING
Fleece wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in bundles and must
be sorted. This process consists in sorting and classifying the fibers
of the fleece. Not only do the various species of sheep furnish widely
different qualities of wool, but different qualities are obtained from
the same animal, according to the part of the body from which the wool
is taken. This variation in some instances is very marked, and
sometimes is greater than that which separates the wools of the
different breeds of sheep. Hence the sorting and classing of wool
become necessary for the production of good, sound yarn of even
quality.
An attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result in the
spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory yarns. As many as
twelve or fourteen sorts may be obtained from one fleece (by very fine
sorting), but generally not more than five or seven are made. The
following table shows the relative qualities of wools from the various
parts of a Merino sheep:
1 and 2. _Head_ (_top and sides_): The wools grown on these parts are
remarkable for length of staple, softness, and uniformity of
character. They are usually the choicest wools in the fleece.
3. _Upper part of the back:_ This also is a wool of good, sound
quality, resembling in staples Nos. 1 and 2, but not as soft or as
fine of fiber.
4. _Loin and back:_ The staple here is comparatively short, not as
fine, but generally of unvarying character, sometimes rather tender.
[Illustration: SORTING ROOM]
5. _Upper parts of legs:_ This wool is medium in length but coarse of
fiber, and has a tendency to hang in loose, open locks. It is
generally sound, but likely to contain vegetable matter.
6. _Upper portion of the neck:_ The staple clipped from this part of
the neck is of an inferior quality, frequently faulty and irregular in
growth, and contains twigs, thorns, etc.
7. _Central part of the neck:_ This wool is similar to No. 6 but
rather tender in staple.
8. _Belly:_ This wool is from under the sheep, between the fore and
hind legs. It is short and dirty, poor in quality, and generally
tender.
9. _Root of tail:_ In this wool the fibers are coarse, short, and
glossy.
10. _Lower parts of the legs:_ This wool is generally dirty and
greasy, the staple having no wave and lacking fineness. It is
generally burry and contains much vegetable matter.
11. _Front of Head_; 12. _Throat_; 13. _Chest:_ The wools from these
parts are sometimes classed together, all having the same
characteristics. The fiber is stiff, straight, coarse, and covered
with fodder.
14. _Shins:_ This is another short, thick, straight wool of glossy
fiber, commonly known as shanks.
=Classing.= Classing is a grading of the fleeces, and is usually, but
not always, a process preliminary to sorting. It is an important part
of sorting, and when well done greatly facilitates the making of good,
uniform matchings.
=Grades of Wool.= In the grading of wool no set standard of quality
exists. The same classification may be applied in different years, or
in different localities, to qualities of wool showing much variation,
the best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for the lower
grades. The highest quality of wool in the United States is found on
full-blooded Merino sheep.
=Merino Wool.= The Merino sheep was bred for wool and not mutton. The
fleece of this breed is fine, strong, elastic, and of good color; it
also possesses a high felting power. Though naturally short, it is now
grown to good length and the fleece is dense. The Merino sheep is a
native of Spain, and Spain was for a long period the chief country of
its production. It was also in past centuries extensively bred in
England and English wool owes much to the Merino for the improvement
it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds of English sheep. It
was also introduced into Saxony and was highly bred there, and Saxony
soon came to surpass Spanish wool in fineness, softness, and felting
properties. The Merino was introduced into the United States at the
beginning of the nineteenth century. By 1810, 5,000 Merino sheep had
been imported and these 5,000 sheep formed the basis of most of the
fine wool-producing flocks of our country to-day.
The terms half blood, three-eighths blood, and quarter blood refer to
the full-blooded Merino standard. As the scale descends the wool
becomes coarser, the wool of a quarter blood usually being a
comparatively coarse fiber. The general classifications of fine,
medium, coarse, and low, refer to the relative fineness of Merino
combing wools. These distinctions naturally overlap according to the
opinion of the parties in transactions. Picklock XXX and XX represent
the highest grades of clothing wool, the grade next lower being X, and
then Nos. 1 and 2. These again are used in connection with the
locality from which the wool is grown, as Ohio XX, Michigan X, New
York No. 1, etc.
=Difference Between Lamb's and Sheep's Wool.= One of the first points
to be understood in wool sorting is the difference between the wool of
lambs and one-year-old sheep, and that of sheep two or more years old.
Lamb's wool is naturally pointed at the end, because it has never been
clipped. It is termed hog or hoggett wool, and is more valuable when
longer, of about fourteen months' growth. It is finer in quality and
possesses more waviness, which is a help in the process of spinning.
The wool of sheep two or more years old is known as wether. The ends
of the fiber from such sheep are thick and blunted, on account of
having been previously cut. It is necessary to be able to tell at once
a hog fleece from a wether, and this can be done in two ways: by
examining the ends of the fiber to see if they are pointed; or by
pulling a staple out of the fleece. If it is wether, the staple will
come out clean, without interfering to any extent with those around
it; but if hog, some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is
being pulled. Hog wool is generally more full of dirt, moss, straw,
and other vegetable matter.
=Dead Wool= is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep that have died.
=Pulled Wool.= Pulled wool is wool from the pelts[10] as they come
from the slaughter-houses of large packing plants. These pelts are
thrown into vats of water and left to soak for twenty-four hours to
loosen the dirt which has become matted into the wool. From these
vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which the wool
issues perfectly clean and white. The pelts are next freed from any
particles of flesh or fat which may have adhered to them, and are then
taken to the "painting" room. Here they are laid flesh side up and
carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the roots of the
wool. This preparation is allowed to remain on the pelts for
twenty-four hours, when it is cleaned off and the pelts taken to the
"pulling" room. Each wool puller stands before a small wooden
framework over which the pelt is thrown, and the wool, being all
thoroughly loosened by the "paint" preparation, is easily and quickly
pulled out by the handful. As it is pulled it is thrown into barrels
conveniently arranged according to grade and length.
When a barrel is filled, it is transferred to a large room across
which are several rows of wire netting, raised about three feet from
the floor. Each sheet of netting is about six feet wide. Here the wool
is piled on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is
forced underneath it by means of a blower. Meanwhile it is worked over
by men with rakes, and soon dries. When thoroughly dry, it is raked up
and taken to the storeroom, where it is dumped into bins. Here it
usually remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold, when
it is bagged. The bags of wool ultimately find their way to the woolen
mill or sampling house. Sometimes the fleece will retain its fleece
form, but usually it breaks up. The wool contains lime and has to be
specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime from
absorbing the cleansing substances used for scouring the wool.
=Delaine Wool= is a variety of fine, long combing wool.
=Cotty Wool=, or cotts, is wool from sheep that have been exposed to
severe weather and lack of nourishment, and for these reasons have
failed to throw off the yolk necessary to feed the wool. As a result
it becomes matted or felted together, and is hard and brittle and
almost worthless.
=Wool Sorter.= The sorter begins by placing the fleece upon his board
or table, always arranging it so that he faces the north, as this
gives the most constant light and no glare of the sun. The fleece thus
spread out shows a definite dividing line through the center. The
sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to analyze their different
qualities. The number of sorts is determined by the requirements of
the manufacturer who, in purchasing his wool, buys those grades that
will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present use, and
that leave in stock the smallest number of sorts and least weight for
which he has no immediate use. The sorter then removes all extraneous
matter adhering to the fleece, such as straw, twigs, and seeds, and
cuts off the hard lumps of earth, tar, or paint, which, if not removed
at this time, will dissolve in the scouring process and stain the
wool. With these preliminaries finished, he proceeds to cast out the
locks, according to quality, into baskets or skeps provided for that
purpose. After skirting or taking off the outside edges of the fleece,
usually known as brokes, and the legs and tail, known as breech, he
separates the other portions from the better qualities.
[Illustration: SORTED WOOL IN PILES READY TO BE TRANSPORTED TO THE
DEGREASING PLANT]
Picklock, prime, choice, super, head, downrights, seconds, breech,
etc., are some of the terms used. Picklock comprises the choicest
qualities; prime is similar to picklock, but slightly inferior; choice
is true staple, but not as fine in fiber; super is similar to choice,
but as a rule not as valuable; head includes the inferior sorts from
this part of the sheep; downrights come from the lower parts of the
sides; seconds consist of the best wool clipped from the throat and
breast; breech, the short, coarse fibers obtained from the skirting
and edgings of the fleece.
In the worsted trade different names are used. The terms generally
adopted are: blue, from the neck; fine, from the shoulders; neat, from
the middle of the sides and back; brown-drawings, from the haunches;
breech, from the tail and hind legs; cowtail, when the breech is very
strong; brokes, from the lower part of the front legs and belly, which
are classed as super, middle, and common.
Fine, short wools are sorted according to the number of counts of yarn
they are expected to spin, as 48's, 60's, 70's, and so on. Thus we see
there are different methods of indicating qualities in different
districts, and also of indicating differences of qualities between the
woolen and worsted branches of the trade.
It may be noted that the quality of the wool varies in the same way as
the quality of the flesh. The shoulder is finest in grain and most
delicate, so the wool is finer in fiber. There is more wear and tear
for the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders, hence the wool is
longer and stronger; about the neck the wool is short, to prevent the
sheep from being weighted down while eating, etc.; the wool on the
back becomes rough and thin, being most exposed to the rain. From the
foregoing it will be readily seen that there is necessity for careful
sorting, in order to insure obtaining an even running yarn, and
subsequently a uniform quality of fabrics.
=Wool Washing.= Fleece wool as it comes into the market is either in
the "grease," that is, unwashed and with all the dirt which gathers on
the surface of the greasy wool; or it is received as washed wool, the
washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep shearing. Wool,
unlike cotton, cannot be worked into yarn without being thoroughly
cleansed of its impurities. These impurities consist of greasy and
sweaty secretions, of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber. Combined
with dirt, sand, etc., which adhere to the wool, these secretions form
an encrusting compound, known as yolk, which acts as a natural
preservative to the wool, keeping it soft and supple. This compound,
with other extraneous matter, must be removed before the wool is in a
workable condition. The amount of yolk varies, the greatest amount
being found in fine, short wools from the warm climates. In
long-staple wool the amount of yolk is comparatively small.
[Illustration: WASHING ROOM]
Various methods of removing these impurities have been tried; one is
the use of absorbent substances, such as fossil meal, alumina, etc.,
to withdraw the greasy matter, so that the remaining impurities can be
easily removed by washing. In other methods, naphtha or similar
solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool fats. This is followed
by washing in tepid water to dissolve the potash salts, leaving the
dirt to fall away when the other substances are no longer present. To
work this method with safety requires a costly and intricate plant
with skilled supervision. The method which is practically in universal
use is washing the wool in alkaline solutions, properties of which
combine with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emulsion which is
easily washed off from the wool.
Great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the washing
process, as the luster may be destroyed and a brownish-yellow tint
given to the wool, the spinning properties very seriously injured, the
softness destroyed, or the fiber dissolved. Some wools are easy to
wash, requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature; other wools
are cleansed with great difficulty. A note, therefore, should be made
of any particular brand or class of wool requiring special attention,
to serve as a guide in the treatment of future lots. The danger lies
in using unsuitable agents,--hard water, excessive temperatures,
strong reagents, etc.
Caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on wool as they eat
into it and destroy its vitality. Carbonate alkalies are less severe.
Whatever cleansing substances are used, it is essential that they
should be free from anything that is likely to injure the wool--that
they remove the impurities and still preserve all the qualities in the
wool. If the washing is properly performed the alkaline portion of the
yolk is removed, leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber.
If the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as "unmerchantable
washed." "Tub washed" is the term applied to fleeces which are broken
up and washed more or less by hand. Scoured wool is tub washed with
warm water and soap, and then thoroughly rinsed in cold water until
nothing remains but the clean fiber.
[Illustration: DEGREASING PLANT--REMOVING GREASE FROM WOOL]
An improved method of washing wool by hand is to have a series of
tanks with pressing rollers attached to each tank: the wool is
agitated by means of forks, and then passed to the pressing rollers
and into each tank in succession. The tanks are usually five in
number, and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the upper to
the lower tank. Upon leaving the pressing rollers the excess of water
is driven off in a hydro extractor[11] and the wool is beaten into a
light, fluffy condition by means of a wooden fan or beater.
=Wool Drying.= The process of drying wool is not intended to be
carried to such an extent that the wool will be in an absolutely dry
state, for in such a condition it would be lusterless, brittle, and
discolored. It is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of
moisture since it is hygroscopic, and to remove it entirely would
result in partial disintegration of the fibers. Buyers and sellers
have a recognized standard of moisture, 16 per cent. If, on the other
hand, it is left too wet, the fibers will not stand the pulling strain
in the succeeding operations, and if not broken, they are so unduly
stretched that they have lost their elasticity.
The theory which underlies the drying process is that dry air is
capable of absorbing moisture, hence by circulating currents of dry
air in and around wet wool, the absorbing power of the air draws off
the moisture. For continuous drying free circulation is a necessity,
as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and incapable of
taking up more moisture. Warming the air increases its capacity to
absorb moisture; thus a higher temperature is capable of drying the
wool much quicker than the same volume of air would at a low
temperature. A free circulation of air at 75 to 100 degrees F., evenly
distributed, and with ample provision for the escape of the saturated
air, is essential for good work.
=Oiling.= After being scoured wool generally has to be oiled before it
is ready for the processes of spinning, blending, etc. As delivered
from the drying apparatus, the wool is bright and clean, but somewhat
harsh and wiry to the touch, owing to the removal of the yolk which is
its natural lubricant. To render it soft and elastic, and to improve
its spinning qualities, the fiber is sprinkled with lard oil or olive
oil. As the oil is a costly item, it is of consequence that it be
equally distributed and used economically. To attain this end various
forms of oiling apparatus have been invented, which sprinkle the oil
in a fine spray over the wool, which is carried under the sprinkler by
an endless cloth.
=Burring and Carbonizing.= After wool has been washed and scoured it
frequently happens that it cannot be advanced to the succeeding
operations of manufacture because it is mixed with burs, seeds,
leaves, slivers, etc., which are picked up by the sheep in the
pasture. These vegetable impurities injure the spinning qualities of
the stock, for if a bur or other foreign substance becomes fastened in
the strand of yarn while it is being spun, it either causes the thread
to break or renders it bunchy and uneven. For removing burs, etc.,
from the wool two methods are pursued: the one purely mechanical, the
other chemical, and known respectively as burring and carbonizing.
=Bur Picker.= For the mechanical removing of burs a machine called the
bur picker is employed. In this machine the wool is first spread out
into a thin lap or sheet; then light wooden blades, rotating rapidly,
beat upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into pieces. The
pieces fall down into the dust box or upon a grating beneath the
machine, and are ejected together with a good deal of the wool
adhering to them. Often the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and
these are scattered through the stock.
=Process of Carbonizing.= For the complete removal of all foreign
vegetable substances from wool the most effective process is
carbonizing, in which the burs, etc., are burned out by means of acid
and a high degree of heat. The method of procedure is as follows: The
wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours, the acid bath being placed
in cement cisterns or in large lead-lined tubs and not made strong
enough to injure the fiber of the wool. During the immersion the stock
is frequently stirred. Next, the wool is dried and then placed in an
enclosed chamber and subjected to a high temperature (75 degrees C.).
The result of this process is that all the vegetable matter contained
in the wool is "carbonized" or burned to a crisp, and on being
slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust. This dust is removed
from the wool by various simple processes. The carbonizing process was
first introduced in 1875, though it made but slight headway against
the old burring method until after 1880.
=Blending.= Pure wool of but one quality is not often used in the
production of woven fabrics, so, before the raw material is ready for
spinning into yarn, or for other processes by which it is worked into
useful forms, it is blended. Wools are blended for many reasons (among
which cheapness figures prominently), the added materials consisting
usually of shoddy, mungo, or extract fibers. Ordinarily, however,
blending has for its object the securing of a desired quality or
weight of cloth. The question of color, as well as quality, also
determines blending operations, natural colored wools being frequently
intermixed to obtain particular shades for dress goods, tweeds,
knitting yarns, etc. Stock dyed wools are also blended for the
production of mixed colors, as browns, grays, Oxfords, etc. There is
practically no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtainable by
mixing two or more colors of wool together. The various quantities of
wool to be blended are spread out in due proportion in the form of
thin layers, one on top of the other, and then passed through a
machine called the teaser. The teaser consists of a combination of
large and small rollers, thickly studded with small pins, which open
the wool, pull it apart, and thoroughly intermix it. A blast of air
constantly plays upon the wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and
pins in opening out the fibers. The material is subjected to this
operation several times and is finally delivered in a soft, fleecy
condition, ready to be spun into yarn.
FOOTNOTES:
[10] Skins.
[11] A wire cage enclosed in a metallic shell which revolves at a high
speed causing sixty or seventy per cent of the moisture to be removed.
CHAPTER III
WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS
=Remanufactured= wool substitutes are extensively used in the
manufacture of woolen and worsted goods. There is no need for the
prejudice that is sometimes met regarding these reclaimed materials,
for by their use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed. If
the immense quantity of these materials were wasted, countless persons
would be unable to afford proper clothing, as it is difficult to
estimate what the price of wool would be; and it is also doubtful if a
sufficient quantity could be produced to supply the need. In almost
all instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special purpose
of producing cloths at a much lower price.
The cloths made from waste products, such as noils, are not much
inferior in quality to those produced from the wool from which the
noils are obtained; but the great majority of cloths made from other
waste products are much inferior. The following are the most important
substitutes: noils, shoddy, mungo, extract-wool, and flocks.
=Noils= are the rejected fibers from the process of combing the
different wools and hairs; thus, wool noils are from the sheep, mohair
noils from the Angora goat, and alpaca noils from the Peruvian sheep.
Noils are divided into classes, namely, long-wool noils, short or
fine-wool noils, mohair noils, and alpaca noils. They are all obtained
in the process of combing, that is, the process which separates the
long from the short fibers; the former are known as the "top," and are
used in worsted and in the production of mohair and alpaca yarns;
while the latter are used to advantage in the production of many
different kinds of woolen fabrics. With the exception of length, noils
are practically of the same quality as the tops from which they are
taken.
Long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools as Leicester and
similar wools. These noils, like the wool from which they are
obtained, are much coarser in quality and fiber than the short-wool
noils. Occasionally, when strength is required in the fabric, these
noils are used, and they are also mixed with short-wool noils. Many of
the cheviot fabrics are made exclusively of these noils. They are also
mixed with shoddy and cotton in the production of dark-colored
fabrics, and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a fibrous
appearance they are extremely useful.
Short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable, and are obtained from
combing Australian and other fine wools. The number and variety of
uses to which they are put are innumerable. They are used to advantage
in the plain and fancy woolen trade, in the manufacture of shawls and
plain woolens of a soft nature, and are also suitable for mixing with
cotton in the production of twist threads.
Mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing of these
materials. They are lacking in felting properties, but are lustrous
and possess strength, and are most valuable in the manufacture of
fabrics where strength and luster are required. These noils are used
in the production of yarns for Kidderminster carpets, as yarns for
these carpets must possess strength, brightness, and thickness of
fiber. They are also used in combination with shoddy and cotton to
produce weft or filling yarns for a lower quality of goods.
=Shoddy= and =Mungo= are in reality wool products, or wool fiber which
has previously passed through the processes of manufacture whereby its
physical structure has been considerably mutilated. These were first
produced about sixty years ago. Shoddy is higher in value than mungo.
The value and quality of the waste or rags from which it is made
determine the quality or value of the material. Shoddy is derived from
waste or rags of pure unmilled woolens, such as flannels, wraps,
stockings, and all kinds of soft goods.
=Mungo= is made from rags of hard or milled character and is much
shorter in fiber than shoddy. Its length, varying from one-quarter to
three-quarters of an inch, can be regulated by the treatment the rags
receive, and by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding
machine. Both shoddy and mungo may be divided into classes. Mungo is
divided into two classes, namely, new and old mungo. New mungo is made
from rags chiefly composed of tailor's clippings, unused pattern-room
clippings, etc. Old mungo is made from cast-off garments, etc. By a
careful selection of the rags previous to grinding, it is possible to
make a large number of qualities, and a great variety of colors and
shades without dyeing. Owing to their cheapness shoddy and mungo are
used in cloths of low and medium qualities. Shoddies are utilized in
fabrics of the cheviot class and in the production of backing yarns.
Mungoes of the best quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade, in
both warp and weft, but chiefly in union and backed fabrics.
=Method of Producing Shoddy and Mungo.= Before the fibrous mungo is
obtained, the rags have to pass through the following necessary
preliminary operations:
_A. Dusting._ This is carried on in a shaking machine, which consists
of a cylinder possessing long and strong spikes, which are enclosed,
having underneath a grating to allow the dust to pass through. The
dust is then driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that
purpose.
_B. Sorting._ All rags, both old and new, must be sorted, and
considerable care must be exercised in this operation, as on this work
alone depends the obtaining of different qualities and shades, as well
as the securing of the production of a regular and uniform product.
_C. Seaming._ This is only necessary with the rags procured from
garments. It is simply removing the cotton threads from the seams, and
any metallic or hard substances from the rags.
_D. Oiling._ The rags are oiled to soften them and make them more
pliable, and thus to facilitate the grinding.
_E. Grinding._ This is the principal operation, and the rags are made
fibrous in this process. The machine by which this is effected is made
up of the following parts: feed apron, fluted rollers, swift, and a
funnel for conveying the material out of the machine. The principal
features of the machine are the swift and its speed. The swift is
enclosed in a framework, and is about forty-two inches in diameter and
eighteen inches wide, thus possessing a surface area of 2,376 square
inches, containing from 12,000 to 14,000 fine strong iron spikes. The
speed of the swift may be from 600 to 800 revolutions per minute. The
rags are fed by placing them on the traveling feed apron, and are thus
conveyed to the fluted rollers. As they emerge from the rollers they
are presented to the swift, and by strong iron teeth, moving with
exceedingly high surface velocity, they are torn thread from thread
and fiber from fiber. The fluted rollers run very slowly, and the rags
are held while the swift carries out this operation. By means of the
strong current of air created by the high speed of the swift, the
mungo is expelled from the machine through the funnel into a specially
arranged receptacle. If by any chance the machine should be
overcharged, that is, if too many rags are passing through the
rollers, the top fluted roller is raised up, and the rags are simply
carried, or thrown by the swift, over into a box on the opposite side
of the machine without being subjected to the tearing process. The top
roller is weighted by levers with weights attached to keep it in
position, thus bringing downward pressure to bear upon it, as it is
driven simply by friction. By the adjustment of the feed rollers in
relation to the swift, the length of the fiber may be varied to a
small degree.
=Extract Wool.= This is obtained from union cloths, that is, from
cloths having a wool weft and warp of cotton, etc., also from cloths
having the same material for warp, but possessing a woolen or mungo
warp or filling, etc. It is the wool fiber that is required. Therefore
the vegetable matter (cotton) must be extracted from it by the process
of carbonizing. To effect this, the tissue or rags are steeped in a
solution of sulphuric acid and water and then subjected to heat in an
enclosed room. The water is evaporated, leaving the acid in a
concentrated form, which acts upon the cotton, converting it into
powder. The powder readily becomes separated, and thus the cotton is
eliminated. The material that is left is well washed to remove all
acid, dried, and then passed through a miniature carder, to impart to
it the appearance of a woolly and a softer fabric.
=Flocks.= These are of three kinds, and are waste products of the
milling, cropping, and raising operations. The most valuable are those
derived from the fulling mill, being clean and of a bright color. They
are chiefly used by sail spinners, and in the manufacture of low grade
cloths of a cheviot class. White flocks are suitable for blending with
wool, and as a rule command a fair price. Raising flocks are those
obtained from the dressing or raising gigs, and are applied to
purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are used. Cutting
or cropping flocks are the short fibers which are removed from the
cloths in this operation. They are practically of no value to the
textile manufacturer, being unfit for yarn production, but are used
chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing "flock-papers," which
are papers with raised figures resembling cloth, made of poor wool,
and attached with a gluey varnish.
[Illustration: CARD ROOM
1. Automatic Feed.
2. Bur Guards.
3. Bur Tray.
4. 1st Top Divider.
5. 2d Top Divider.
6. Workers.
7. Strippers.
8. Doffer Cylinder.
9. Main Cylinders.
10. Main Card Drive on 2d Main Cylinder Shaft.
11. 1st Lickerin.
12. 2d Lickerin.
13. 3d Lickerin.
14. 4th Lickerin.
15. Fancy Hood.]
CHAPTER IV
WORSTED YARNS
=Carding.= After the wool is washed it undergoes a number of
operations before it is finished into worsted or woolen yarn.[12] The
first step in the manufacturing of worsted yarn is to pass the washed
wool through a worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders
covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame. The effect of these
cylinders on the wool is to disengage the wool fibers, make them
straight, and form a "sliver" or strand. It is now ready for the
combing machine.
=Combing.= The process of combing consists of subjecting the card
sliver to the operations of the automatic wool comber, which
straightens the fibers and removes all short and tufted pieces of
wool. Combing is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies
perfectly straight, and that all fibers follow one after the other in
regular order.
=Comb.= A comb is a complicated machine. The principal feature is a
large metal ring with rows of fine steel pins (pin circles), which is
made to revolve horizontally within the machine. By various devices
the wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of tufts. The
fibers of the tufts by an intricate process are separated into long
and short lengths, and a set of rollers draws each out separately and
winds it into a continuous strand called "tops." On leaving the
comber, the wool is free from short fibers, specks, and foreign
substances, and presents a fine, flowing, and lustrous appearance. The
short combed-out wool is called noils, and is used in making carpet
yarns, ground up into shoddy stock, or utilized in spinning fancy
yarns.
=Worsted Tops.= American textile manufacturers are finding it
advantageous to have their combing done by those who make the work a
specialty rather than to do it themselves. In the manufacture of tops
all varieties of combing wools are used: Australian, Merino, and
Crossbred wools, South American Merino and Crossbred wools, Cape
Merino wools, Merino and Crossbred wools grown in the United States,
the lustrous wools of pure English blood, Mohair from Asiatic Turkey,
and Alpaca from the Andes. Tops are sold to worsted spinneries.[13]
Many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools, either sorted or
unsorted as they may desire, to a combing mill, where the wool is put
into top at a lower price than that at which most spinneries can do
their own combing. By means of the naphtha process a larger amount of
top from a given amount of wool can be secured than by any other
process, and in addition, a top in better condition for drawing and
spinning.
[Illustration: COMB ROOM
1. Driving pulley on horizontal shaft (2).
3. Boxes containing bevel gears.
4. Pillars.
5. Driving pulley for dabbing motion.
6. Boxes containing dabbing-brush mechanism.
7. Dabbing brushes.
8. Star or stroker wheels.
9. Large circle containing rows of pins.
10. Drawing-off apron and rollers for large circle.
11. Brass boxes or conductors.
12. Guides for comb ball ends.
13. Comb balls (4 ends each).
14. Fluted wooden rollers on which comb balls rest.
15. Comb leg (4 in number).
16. Foundation plate.]
In a strand of combed wool, called top, no single fiber lies across
the strand; all lie in the direction of the length. This order is
preserved until the fibers have been converted into yarn, which is
accomplished by passing through "gill boxes." These gill boxes are
machines with bars of iron having upon their surface two rows of
minute steel pins, by this means kept perfectly straight. The bars on
which they are placed are worked on screws between two sets of
rollers. The wool enters between the first set of rollers, and, as it
passes through, is caught by one of these gills that is raised up for
the purpose, being succeeded by others as the rollers revolve. These
gills are moved forward on screws in the direction of the other set of
rollers, and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber perfectly
straight. The second set of rollers is termed the draught rollers,
since by them the wool, after passing through the front rollers, is
drawn out and reduced in thickness. This is accomplished because the
second rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first
rollers, the speed being regulated according to the length of the
wool, and the thickness of the yarn to be produced. These gills are
used in the production of worsted yarn until the size of the rope of
wool has been so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any
fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness. A worsted
yarn is, consequently, a straight yarn, or a yarn produced from
perfectly straight fibers.
[Illustration: GILLING
1. Cans containing Comb Ends or Sliver.
2. Balling Head.
3. Stock from Balling Head No. 2.
4. Screws for applying pressure to Back Rollers.
5. Screws for applying pressure to Front Rollers.
6. Faller Screws situated between No. 4 and No. 5.
7. Guard for covering gears which drive Back Rollers.
8. Guard covering gears which drive Balling Head.
9. Balling Head.]
The combing of wool may be dispensed with in some cases, although
such a yarn is not in common use. When combing is dispensed with, the
gills, in connection with the draught of the rollers, make the fibers
straight, and produce a worsted yarn, although such a yarn has a
tendency to be uneven and knotty.
Before the wool can be spun it must be made into roving of a suitable
thickness. This is done by passing it, after being combed, through a
series of operations termed drawing, whose functions are to produce a
gradual reduction in thickness at each stage. Although the number of
machines varies according to the kind of wool to be treated, still the
same principle applies to all.
=Spinning.= The process of spinning is the last in the formation of
yarn or thread, the subsequent operations having for their object the
strengthening of the yarn by combining two or more strands and
afterward arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for which the
yarn is required. It is also the last time that the fibers are
mechanically drawn over each other or drafted, and this is invariably
done from a single roving. The humidity and temperature of the
spinning room must be adjusted to conditions. Each spinner is provided
with a wet and dry thermometer so that the best temperature can be
ascertained. The most suitable heat and humidity can only be obtained
by comparison and observation. A dry and warm atmosphere causes the
wool to become charged with electricity and then the fibers repel each
other.
[Illustration: WORSTED SPINNING. "BRADFORD SYSTEM"
1. Bobbins containing Worsted Yarn.
2. Conical shape caps placed on top of spindles.
3. Tin Wings fastened to Eyeboard.
4. Eyeboard containing pot eyes, through which yarn passes to the bobbin.
5. Scratch fluted front rollers.
6. Leather covered Pressing Rollers for No. 5 Rollers.
7. Smooth metal Pressing Rollers for Back Rollers.
8. Large Front Roller Gear.
9. Pulley for driving Twist gear.
10. Spools of Roving held by a series of pegs.
11. Spindle bands.
12. Sifter plate or rail.]
Worsted yarn is spun by two different methods known respectively as
the Bradford or English system and the French system. The difference
in these systems of spinning worsteds lies principally in the drawing
and spinning processes, a radically different class of machinery being
used for each. The combing process is practically the same in both
cases, but the wool is combed dry for the French system, and by the
English method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being combed. The
result of the English method is the production of a smooth level yarn
in which the fibers lie nearly parallel to each other. The yarn made
according to the French system is somewhat fuzzier and more woolly. On
account of the absence of oil, the shrinkage of French spun worsted is
considerably less than that made by the Bradford system.
=Characteristics of Worsted Yarn.= The unique structure of worsted
yarn makes it invaluable in the production of textile fabrics in which
luster and uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics. The
methods by which worsted is formed render it capable of sustaining
more tension in proportion to its size than the pure woolen yarn. This
feature, combined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-eminent
position in the manufacture of fine coatings, dress goods, etc. The
method of arranging the fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is
such as to produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and fibrous
surface, which destroys to a large degree the clearness of the pattern
effect in the woven piece. In the construction of worsted yarn the
fibers are arranged in a parallel relationship to each other,
resulting in the production of a smooth, hard yarn having a
well-defined surface; hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or marked
type is possible by its use. There is, in a word, more scope for
pattern effects, since the level and regular structure of the yarn
imparts a distinction to every part of a woven design. From this
peculiarity arises the great variety of effects seen in the worsted
dress fabrics, coatings, trouserings, etc., both in colored patterns
and in fabrics of one shade throughout.
[Illustration: SPOOL ROOM
1. Jack Spooler frame.
2. Drum upon which Jack Spool rests.
3. Jack Spool.
4. Guides for spool ends.
5. Spools containing yarn.
6. Pressers which rest on spools to prevent slack ends.
7. Spool creel.]
[Illustration: FRENCH SPINNING
1. Balling heads.
2. Bobbins upon which stock is wound.
3. Rub or condenser aprons.
4. Gearing for driving rub motion.
5. Shipper rod and handles.
6. Bobbins held in place in creel by skewers.
7. Weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers.]
Worsted yarn can be made of pure wool; and as a rule, the wool used in
the English system is of fairly good length and uniform staple, for if
otherwise it is only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun
straight. Shorter wool can be combed and spun under the French
system, and this is the reason why the French system of spinning is
being introduced. On the other hand, in the spinning of woolen yarns
great length of staple is not essential, for the machinery employed
will work the small fibers.
=Uses of Worsted Yarn.= Worsted yarn may be used in any of the
following fabrics:
1. Combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework and knitting, as Berlin,
Zephyr, and Saxony wools.
2. Cloth made from combed wool not classified according to material.
_a._ Fabrics of all wool--serge, bunting, rep, dress
goods, with weave effects.
_b._ Wool and Cotton--union goods, serge linings,
lathing.
_c._ Wool and Silk--rich poplin, pongee, henrietta,
bombazine.
_d._ Alpaca and Mohair--alpaca, mohair dress goods,
lusters, braids, laces.
=Counts.= Yarn is measured by a system of "counts"--the number of
yards of yarn to the pound. The counts of worsted yarn are based on
the number of hanks in one pound, each hank containing 560 yards. Thus
No. 30 worsted yarn consists of 30 hanks of 560 yards each, or 16,800
yards to the pound.
FOOTNOTES:
[12] The distinct difference between worsted and woolen yarns is that
worsted yarn is made of fibers that are parallel, while the fibers of
woolen yarn run in all directions. The worsted yarn is stronger.
[13] Mills that manufacture worsted yarn.
CHAPTER V
WOOLEN YARN
In manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary operation is performed
to arrange the wool fibers so that they will lie smoothly and parallel
to each other. In the case of woolen yarn every operation is performed
so as to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and
overlap each other.
To produce yarn of the woolen type a set of machinery entirely
different from that used in worsted manufacture is necessary. The wool
is carded, but no attempt is made to get the fibers parallel. The
reduction in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon the
so-called drawing frame, but by a mule frame where the drawing and
twisting are done at the same operation. As neither combs nor gills
are employed, there is not the same smooth, level yarn, but one which
possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance that makes the
woolen yarn so valuable.
The operation is as follows:
=Carding.= After washing the material for woolen yarn, it is passed
through three carding processes, and from the last of them is taken
direct to the spinning frame to be made into yarn. The object of
woolen carding is different from carding in any other textile
manufacture.
In most processes of carding the fibers are subjected to a "combing"
principle, and the aim is to lay the fibers parallel. Woolen carding
aims to open the raw wool fiber, and put it in a perfectly loose
condition, without leaning toward any definite arrangement.
The carding machines are called, respectively, first, second, and
third breaker. Each machine consists of a complicated series of
card-covered cylinders of different sizes, running at different rates
of speed--sometimes in the same and sometimes in an opposite
direction. These rollers take the wool from one another in regular
order until it is finally delivered from the third breaker in a soft,
fluffy rope or roll called a sliver. This sliver is wound on a bobbin,
and taken from the card to the mule spinning frame.
The sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to the mule spinning
frame where it is passed through rolls, and the sliver attenuated by
means of a traveling carriage.
=Count.= In the case of woolen yarn there are numerous systems for
denoting the count, varying with the locality in which it is spun and
the character of the product. In the United States there are two
systems employed, but the one in most general use is known as
"American run counts." This is based on the number of "runs," each
containing 1,600 yards to the pound. Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards
to the pound is called a 5 "run" yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the
pound is equal to a 3-1/4 "run."
In the vicinity of Philadelphia woolen yarn is based on the "cut,"
each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the count is the number of cuts
in a pound. Thus, No. 30 cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the
pound. No. 15 contains 4,500 yards to the pound.
Woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the colorings are blended
and the fibers napped, as exemplified in tweed, cheviot, doeskin,
broadcloth, beaver, frieze, chinchilla, blanket, and flannel.
CHAPTER VI
WEAVING
=Preparatory to Weaving.= Yarn is wound on bobbins on the ring or mule
spinning frame. These bobbins are transferred to a machine called a
spooler where the yarn is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making
the warp.
A warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of threads (called
ends), usually in a precisely designed order of given length, and
allowing the ends to wind over a cylinder called a beam. In order to
do this it is necessary to have spools placed in a definite position
in a frame called a creel.
Before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to weave or interlace
it with filling it must be sized. This is necessary for all single
twist warp yarns. Its primary object is to increase the strength and
smoothness of the thread, thus enabling it to withstand the strain and
friction due to the weaving operation. Other objects of sizing are the
increase of weight and bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel
of the cloth. The warp is usually sized by passing it over a roller
and through a bath of a starch mixture. The machine for sizing is
called a slasher. The warp is now ready to have the ends drawn in and
placed in the loom.
=Weaving.= Every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct
systems of threads, known as the warp and filling (weft), which are
interlaced with each other to form a fabric. The warp threads run
lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling runs across from
side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling threads
interlace with each other is known as the weave. When the word "end"
is used in connection with weaving it always signifies the warp
thread, while each filling thread is called a pick. The fineness of
the cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to the inch.
The fabrics produced by weaving are named by the manufacturers or
merchants who introduce them. Old fabrics are constantly appearing
under new names, usually with some slight modification to suit the
public taste.
=Weaving Processes.= In order to understand the different kinds of
weaves it is necessary to know, or at least to understand, the process
of forming cloth, called weaving. This is done in a machine called a
loom. The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam, the
cloth-roll, the heddles, and their mounting, the reed. The warp-beam
is a wooden cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound. The
threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the
front of the loom, and are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or
group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) of a
heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more
groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the
motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of
the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means
of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are
controlled by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time
the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made
between the threads of warp, through which the shuttle is thrown.
[Illustration: A SIMPLE HAND-LOOM
Showing frame, warp beam, cloth-roll, heddles, and reed]
The filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is fastened in the
shuttle and which permits the yarn to unwind as it passes to and fro.
As fast as each filling thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed
close to the previous one by means of a reed which advances toward and
recedes from the cloth after each passage of the shuttle. This is done
to make the cloth firm. There are various movements on the loom for
controlling the tension of the warp, for drawing forward or taking up
the cloth as it is produced, and for stopping the loom in the case of
breakage of the warp thread or the running out of the filling thread.
Weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms or by steam-power in
power-looms, but the arrangements for both are to a certain extent the
same. A great number of different kinds of power-looms are
manufactured for producing the various classes of textiles in use at
the present time. These looms are distinguished by the name of the
material which they are designed to weave, as the ribbon-loom,
blanket-loom, burlaps- and sacking-loom, plush-loom, double-cloth
loom, rug-loom, fancy cotton-loom, silk-loom, worsted-loom, etc.
Weaving is distinct from knitting, netting, looping, and braiding,
which are operations depending on the interlacing of a single thread,
or single set of threads, while weaving is done with two distinct and
separate sets of threads.
[Illustration: MAIN WEAVE ROOM
1. Warp beam containing warp.
2. Lease Rods.
3. Harnesses.
4. Dobby Head motion to lift harnesses.
5. Jacquard Head motion.
6. Cards containing design--working in connection with Jacquard Head
motion.
7. Whip Roll.]
=Classes of Weave.= The character of the weave offers the best basis
for classification of woven goods. Nearly all the varieties of cloth
may be classified from the following weaves:
(1) Plain-weaving,
(2) Twill-weaving,
(3) Satin-weaving,
(4) Figure-weaving,
(5) Double-cloth-weaving,
(6) Pile-weaving,
(7) Gauze-weaving,
(8) Lappet-weaving.
=Plain or Homespun Weave.= Plain cloth is the simplest cloth that can
be woven. In this weave one series of threads (filling) crosses
another series (warp) at right angles, passing over one and under one
in regular order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the threads.
This combination makes a strong and firm cloth, but does not give a
close or a heavy fabric, as the threads do not lie as close and
compact as they do in other weaves. In plain cloth, if not fulled or
shrunk in the finish, the result is a fabric perforated with large or
small openings according to the size or twist of yarn used. If heavy
or coarse threads are used the perforations will be large; if finer
threads, the perforations will be smaller.
This weave is used in the production of sheeting, muslin, lawn,
gingham, broadcloth, taffeta, etc. In plain weaving it is possible to
produce stripes by the use of bands of colored warp, and checks where
both warp and weft are parti-colored. This weave is commonly used when
the cloth is intended to be ornamented with printed patterns. In
weaving cloth of only one color but one shuttle is used, while for the
production of checks, plaids, etc., two or more shuttles are required.
[Illustration: GIRL DRAWING EACH THREAD OF WARP THROUGH THE REED AND
HARNESS READY TO BE PLACED ON LOOM
A, warp beam. B, warp. C, harness frame]
=Twill Weave.= A twill weave has diagonal lines across the cloth. In
this class of weaves the filling yarn or threads pass over 1 and under
2, or over 1 and under 3, 4, 5, or 6, or over 2 or 3 and under 1, 2,
3, or 4, or over 4 and under 4, 3, 6, etc. Each filling thread does
not pass under and over the same set of warp threads, as this would
not give the desired interlacings. Instead the order of interlacing
moves one thread to the right or left with each filling thread that is
woven. If there are the same number of threads to an inch in warp and
filling, twill lines will form an angle of 45 degrees; if the warps
are closer together than the filling, the angle will be steeper; if
the filling threads are closer together the lines will approach more
nearly the horizontal. Different effects are obtained in patterns by
variation in the sizes of the yarn and twist, by the use of heavy
threads to form cords, ribs, etc., and by the mixture of vari-colored
materials in the yarn. Often one form of twill-weave is combined with
another to produce a fancy twill-weave. The object of the
twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a fabric, or to
ornament it. The disposition of the threads permits the introduction
of more material into the cloth, and hence renders it heavier, and of
closer construction than in the case of plain-weaving.
=Satin Weaves.= The object of a satin weave is to distribute the
interlacings of the warp and filling in such a manner that no trace of
the diagonal (twill) line will be seen on the face of the cloth. In
weaving a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under 1 and
over 4, 7, 9, 11, or more if a larger plush satin is required. The
raising of the warp end to allow the filling to pass under is done in
such a way as to prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth. The
result is that practically all of the filling is on the face of the
cloth. This is called a filling-face satin weave. A warp-face satin
weave may be produced by reversing the order; in this case practically
all of the warp is brought to the face of the cloth. In this way a
worsted warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that practically
all of the warp would show on the cloth, and give it the appearance of
a worsted fabric. A number of classes of silk goods are made in this
way, with a silk filling covering a cotton warp.
This weave produces an even, close, smooth surface, capable of
reflecting the light to the best advantage, and having a lustrous
appearance which makes it resemble satin cloth. Satin cloth is made of
silk using a satin weave.
Satin weaves are used very largely in producing different styles of
cotton and silk fabrics, and are also frequently found in woolen
goods. They are more extensively used in the manufacture of damask and
table-covers than for any other class of goods. Satin stripes are
frequent in madras, shirtings, and fancy dress goods in connection
with plain and figured weaves.
=Figure Weaving.= To produce complicated and irregular patterns in the
loom a large number of different openings (sheds) must be made in the
warp, and to secure such a large number an attachment is placed on top
of the loom called a Jacquard apparatus. The Jacquard is merely an
apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads, by which each
separate one can be made to move independently of any of the others.
It is provided with weighted strings attached to each of the warp
threads. The weighted strings are controlled by wire needles which are
in turn controlled by perforated cards. Each motion of the loom
changes their position and allows some needles to go through the holes
in the cards, thus drawing up the warp, while others strike the card
and leave the warp down. In this way the perforations of the cards
determine the figure of the patterns. The Jacquard is chiefly used to
produce patterns of great width in which all or most of the threads
in the pattern move independently. For the weaving of elaborate
effects and flowing lines it is practically indispensable. All
elaborate designs are classed under the name of Jacquards.
=Double Cloth.= Double cloth is a descriptive term applied in weaving
to fabrics produced by combining two single cloths into one. Each one
of these single cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and
filling, the combination being effected in the loom by interlacing
some of the warp or filling threads of one cloth into the other cloth
at certain intervals, thus fastening them securely together. The
reasons for making double-cloths are many. Sometimes it is done to
reduce the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper materials for
the cloth forming the back; again it may be to produce double-face
fabric; it allows great freedom for the formation of colored patterns
which may or may not correspond in pattern on both sides; it is the
basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for making pillow cases,
pockets, seamless grain bags, etc.; more frequently, the object is to
increase the bulk or strength of certain kinds of fabrics, such as
heavy overcoatings, cloakings, pile-fabrics, golf-cloth, rich silk,
etc.
=Pile Weave.= A pile weave is a general term under which are classed
numerous varieties of cloth woven with a pile surface, as plush,
velvet, velveteen, and carpeting of various kinds. Turkish towels are
an excellent illustration of pile weaving. A pile surface is a closely
set, elastic face covering various kinds of woolen, silk, and cotton
fabrics, and consists of threads standing close together, either in
the form of loops or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to
form a uniform and even surface. In the production of a pile fabric a
third thread is introduced into the weaving and formed into loops
usually by carrying it over the wires laid across the breadth of the
cloth. The wires are afterward drawn out, leaving the loops standing;
the loops may then be cut so as to form a cut pile, as in velvet and
plush, or they may be left in their original form as in Brussels
carpet and Turkish towels.
=Gauze Weaving.= In gauze weaving all the warp threads are not
parallel to each other, but are made to intertwist more or less among
themselves, thereby favoring the production of light, open fabrics, in
which many ornamental lace-like combinations can be obtained. Two sets
of warp threads are used, one being the ground warp and the other the
"douping," the latter performing the entwining process. Gauze is
especially characterized by its openness and yields the lightest and
strongest fabric with the least material. When gauze is combined with
plain weaving it is styled "leno." Gauze fabrics are designed for
women's summer gowns, flounces, window-curtains, etc.
=Lappet Weaving.= Lappet weaving, really a form of embroidery, is used
for producing small designs on cloth by means of needles placed in a
sliding-frame, the figures being stitched into the warp. Elaborate
figures are beyond the range of lappet weaving, but there are many
small effects that can be economically produced in this manner, such
as the detached spots in dotted swiss, and narrow and continuous
figures running more or less into stripes. This form of weaving
imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and gauze fabrics.
CHAPTER VII
DYEING AND FINISHING
=Dyeing.= When a fabric or fiber is impregnated with a uniform color
over its whole surface, it is said to be "simply dyed." On the other
hand, if distinct patterns or designs in one or more colors have been
impressed upon a fabric, it is called printing.
Vegetable dyes were formerly used, but since the coal tar dyes have
been discovered the latter are used entirely. Over fourteen thousand
colors have been produced from coal tar. Different fibers and fabrics
attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force. Wool and silk attract
better than cotton and linen.
=Wool Dyeing.= The methods of dyeing wool differ considerably from
those employed for cotton and other vegetable fibers. They may be
divided into three parts: piece dyed, cross dyed, and yarn dyed.
Piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray or natural state,
and then cleansed and dyed in the piece to such colors as are
required. They are woven in plain weaves and in a great variety of
twills--in fact, in all styles of weaves--and are also made on the
Jacquard loom. The principal fabrics in this classification are all
wool serges, cheviots, hopsackings, suitings, satines, prunellas,
whipcords, melroses, Venetian broadcloths, zibelines, rainproof
cloths; nun's veiling, canvases, grenadines, albatrosses, crêpes, and
French flannels; silk warp Henriettas, voiles, and sublimes. Whenever
it is possible, it is better to dye textile fabrics in the form of
woven pieces than in the yarn. During the process of weaving it is
impossible to avoid getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color used in
weaving. Piece dyeing is the cheapest method of applying color to
textiles. The chief fault of piece dyeing is the danger of cloud
spots, stains, etc., which do not appear in the other two methods.
Then again in the case of thick, closely woven goods the dyestuff does
not penetrate into the fabric, and the interior remains nearly white.
The cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller into a dye vat.
Small pieces or "swatches" are taken from the ends of the fabric, and
compared with the pattern. For it must be remembered that no two lots
of crude dyes are of equal strength, and the wools and cottons of
different growths and seasons vary greatly, so that the use of a fixed
quantity of dye to a given amount of goods will not always give the
exact shade. In comparing a sample with the pattern the two are placed
side by side below the eyes (reflected light), and then held up to the
light and the eye directed along the surface. A judgment must be
formed quickly, as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it
unable to perceive fine shades of difference.
[Illustration: DYE ROOM
1. Dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs.
2. Rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound.
3. Cloth leaving dye tub--being wound upon No. 2 cylinder.]
=Cross Dyed.= Cross-dyed goods may be described as fabrics woven with
black or colored cotton warps and wool or worsted filling and
afterwards dyed in the piece. Since cotton has not the same attraction
for dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric woven
with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be identical in depth of
color, tone, and brightness. In some cases it is possible to dye a
mixed fabric at a single operation, but the usual process is to dye
the wool in yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the color
of the wool as possible. In the weaving operation the wool is thrown
to the surface. In another method the warp is dyed and woven with a
white wool or worsted filling, and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff
that will not affect the cotton. In this way the cotton does not take
the wool dye, but retains its original color. This class of work is
generally used in mohair, alpaca, and luster fabrics, because the
natural brilliancy of the luster wool, alpaca, or mohair in the
filling is not impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the
goods were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven. The
principal cloths in this classification are cotton, warp figured
melroses, Florentines, glacés, brilliantines, lusters, alpacas, and
mohairs; rainproof cloths, and fancy waistings, and in these may be
found the same great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be
found in the piece-dyed goods already described.
=Yarn Dyed.= Yarn-dyed goods differ from those previously described in
that they are made of yarns that are dyed before being woven, or yarns
spun from dyed wool. Wool may be dyed in the raw state (fleece),
slubbing, or yarn. Fleece dyeing is preferable for goods intended to
stand friction, and that in spite of wear and tear must preserve their
color. It is preferred for dark colored goods where much friction is
to be encountered, but is seldom used for light colors, since these
would be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture. In this
case every fiber is colored uniformly all over. The yarn from this
wool and the cloth woven from it are dyed through and through and do
not become grayish or whitish by wear and tear.
Slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing, for the dyestuff
penetrates the loosely twisted roving, and if unevenly dyed, the
subsequent operations equalize most thoroughly the irregularities in
color.
Yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks, plaids, and suitings,
and in their manufacture the drop box loom (a loom with two or more
shuttles) is used. Goods manufactured under this classification
include cotton warp checks and mixtures; all wool homespuns, mixture
coatings and suitings, storm skirtings, rainproof cloths. These goods
are made in a great variety of weaves, the effect in each being
secured by the color and the weave.
Piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-dyed fabrics by
unraveling threads of each kind. In the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the
dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of
piece-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as
completely as the yarn-dyed fabric.
=Textile Printing.= Printed fabrics such as print cloths can generally
be distinguished by observing the back side of the cloth. If the
figure or pattern on the face of the cloth does not penetrate through
to the back but only shows the outline, the fabric has been printed.
Fabrics are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers on
which the pattern is engraved.
The attraction of cotton for coloring is generally feebler than that
of wool or silk. Few of the natural dyestuffs attach themselves
permanently without use of a mordant. A mordant is a substance which
has an affinity for, or which can penetrate, the fiber to be colored,
and which possesses the power of combining with the dyestuff and thus
forming an insoluble compound upon the fiber. Cotton is dyed in an
unspun state, and also as yarn or spun thread, either in the hank or
skein. Silk is dyed in unspun skeins, although to a considerable
extent it is also dyed in the piece.
=Styles.= Since styles and designs are constantly changing it is
necessary for the mills to meet this demand by producing new styles.
Some of the patterns which are at this time considered to be in the
best style would have appeared much out of date two or three years
ago, while perhaps a few years hence, the patterns which are now
almost obsolete will, with some changes, become the most popular
sellers of the season. As the mill officials or designers are not out
among the trade, they are not in a position to judge what lines or
patterns would most likely appeal to the market. This information is
obtained by the "styler" of the selling house. The styler receives all
the latest foreign samples and fashion papers from abroad, and often
goes or sends his representative to Europe to ascertain what goods,
designs, and colors are taking well over there. The selling agent or
styler then supplies the designing department of the mill with all the
samples, information, and suggestions necessary in getting out the
samples.
=Construction of Cloth.= In reproducing a sample of cloth in the mill
it is necessary that the construction of the cloth be first known,
that is, there must be ascertained the width, warp ends, and picks per
inch, the number or size of the yarn used for the warp, the number
that is used for the filling, and the number of ounces per yard or
yards per pound. Then the interlacings of the threads in the sample
must be picked out in order to get the design or weave on the design
paper, from which the data are obtained for regulating the movement of
the harness or heddles. Design paper is paper ruled by lines into a
number of squares. An imitation of the cloth can be produced on this
paper by showing the interlacings of the warp and filling. This is
done by filling in certain squares with paint, or pencil marks, while
the others are left empty. In practical work it is the general custom
to make a cross with a pencil to indicate the squares that are to be
filled in, thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling
thread at this point. When a square is left blank it shows that the
warp thread is under the filling at this point. When a warp thread is
up on a certain pick, the harness which controls this thread must be
raised on this pick.
=Finishing.= The fabric as it comes from the loom is in an imperfect
condition for use. When worsted fabrics leave the loom they require
but few and simple finishing operations, and in this respect differ
much from woolen cloths, which require elaborate finishing operations.
The finishing processes of woolen and worsted cloths are similar. The
following description of processes and machines gives a clear idea of
the necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or worsted
cloth; for particular styles of finish the processes must be varied in
accordance with the particular requirements of the style of fabric in
hand.
=Perching.= The fabric as it comes from the loom receives a perching
and measuring inspection at the weave room before leaving for the
finishing room. This examination is to detect quickly such
imperfections as require prompt attention at the loom.
=Burling.= Every knot that has been tied in the threads during
winding, dressing, beaming, and weaving, must be looked for and felt
for during burling, carefully drawn to the surface of the cloth, and
then clipped off with the scissors, leaving the ends long enough so
that no space without a thread will occur. Threads which are found
loose on the face or back of cloth, caused by the weaver having tied
in a broken end, should be cut off and not pulled off. All places
where threads are not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl
(mender) can adjust such places. The cloth is subjected to perching
again. It is examined for imperfections, and when these are found,
they are marked with chalk to call the attention of the menders to
such places.
=Mending.= The object of darning or mending is to make all repairs in
the structure of the cloth before the process of fulling. The mender
must have a good eye for colors necessary to produce various effects
and for the interlacing of the threads. More exact work is required
for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing afterward,
than in dealing with a face finish fabric, where the nap is to be
raised and will cover many imperfections so that they will never be
noticed in the finished cloth.
=Fulling.= The object of fulling is to render woolen and worsted
goods stronger and firmer in body. Fulling is similar to felting, the
principal object of each being to condense the fibers, thereby
increasing the firmness. Certain varieties of woolens are fulled
nearly one-half their original width and length. The process of
fulling includes three steps: cleansing, scouring, and condensing the
fibers of the cloth. The object of scouring is to get rid of oil used
preparatory to spinning, and to remove from the cloth stains and the
sizing used in dressing the warp. The cloth is first saturated with
hot water and soap, and is then scoured and rubbed between the
slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to eighteen hours,
according to the character of goods and the amount of shrinkage
desired. The more prolonged the operation, the more the material
shrinks. When sufficiently fulled, the length of cloth is scoured to
free it from soap. This is done with water, warmed at first, but
gradually cooled, until at the end the cloth is worked in cold water.
Next the cloth is stretched uniformly in all directions, so that it
may dry evenly without wrinkles or curls. Sometimes the cloth is
placed in a hot-air chamber to hasten the drying. The fulling or
shrinking is effected by the application of moisture, heat, and
pressure. Every one is familiar with the fact that woolen blankets,
flannels, and hosiery tend to contract with frequent washings, gaining
in thickness and solidity what they lose in elasticity. Such shrinkage
is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigorously in hot water and
then allowed to cool suddenly. This change is due to the physical
properties of the wool fiber.
Such goods as beavers, kerseys, meltons, and fancy cassimeres are
seldom fulled more than one-sixth of their woven width, while worsted
goods are shrunk but a small fraction of their woven width. The amount
of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many varieties of
cloth. In the treatment of broadcloth, doeskin, and all nap finished
woolens, the fulling is carried to a point where the fibers become
densely matted, obliterating all traces of the weave and giving the
cloth the appearance of felt.
=Crabbing.= After the cloth has been dried in the hydro extractor,
where it throws off superfluous moisture, it must be stretched full
width for the future finishing processes, and "set" at this width.
Crabbing consists of two operations, first the loosening process, then
the setting process. Goods are run on a cylinder, then passed over
several rolls, and are kept tight so as to avoid wrinkles. The
cylinders are immersed in hot water and the goods are allowed to
rotate in this water for about twenty minutes, after which they are
taken out for one or two hours. They are then returned to the machine
for about twenty-five minutes and are subjected to boiling and also to
additional pressure. The boiling water sets the fabric and the
additional pressure gives the desired finish.
=Tentering.= The object of tentering[14] is to straighten and level
the fabric. After the cloth leaves the tentering machine it has lost
its natural moisture, and is not at all fitted, as far as fiber
condition is concerned, for the napping. To bring it into a fit state
for this operation it is passed through a trough containing a brush
which gives it the desired moisture. It is then ready for napping.
=Napping.= Most cloths at this stage of finishing are more or less
unsightly on account of long and irregular fibers on the surface. A
nap may be raised on the surface of a fabric for various reasons: in
order to render the material warmer, softer, or more pleasant to the
touch, as in the case of blankets and flannels intended to be worn
next to the body; or for the purposes of increasing the durability of
the fabric, as in the case of melton, kersey, broadcloth, and similar
goods; or a nap may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber
from the underlying structure in order to leave the pattern of the
cloth well defined and free from hairiness. The covering of nap over
the surface of the fabric tends to conceal many defects caused by
imperfect yarns and faulty weaving. Coarse, inferior yarns at best
produce an unsightly fabric, but when the cloth constructed of such
threads is finished with a fine, delicate nap the surface takes on a
softer and richer appearance. Not only are the defects in the
structure concealed, but the material is rendered more sightly and
desirable and appears to be more expensive than it really is.
The operation of napping is performed by passing the cloth in a
tightly stretched condition over a revolving cylinder covered with
teasels or steel hooks. These thousands of little hooks scratch the
entire surface of the cloth, opening up the short fibers and covering
the whole with a nap. Since the fibers are of different lengths it is
necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then pass it through the
shearing machine in order to make an even and uniform length. The
shearing machine acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either
cuts the nap completely or leaves a pile surface. The cloth is cleaned
by passing through a brushing machine.
=Pressing Machine.= The fabric now requires consolidating and lustering,
or "smarting up" in appearance--practically pressing--before it is
forwarded to the warehouse. This is done by passing the cloth over a
pressing roll heated to a high temperature. Having obtained a
satisfactory luster, it is necessary to fix this by winding the cloth on
rollers and allowing dry steam to pass through the piece. This fixes a
permanent luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as to prevent
shrinkage. The cloth is now packed and sent to the jobbers or tailors to
be cut up into suits.
=Theories of Coloring in Textile Design.= The three primary elements
of textile design are weave, combination of form, and blend of colors.
They enter either separately or in connection with each other into
every species of loom effect. Weave relates specifically to the build
or structure of the cloth and is an indispensable factor in any type
of cloth. Schemes of weaves will produce in one operation an even and
firm cloth, decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists of
minute parts but which is pronounced and decided in combination.
Combination of forms is a surface decoration obtained by uniting
straight and curved lines. Color brightens and improves the qualities
of the design. In fact, the discarding of color shades would diminish
the elegance of the design and impoverish its appearance and would
practically destroy the woolen industry. Whether the pattern be
stripe, check, figure, or intermingled effect, it obtains its outline
and detail from methods of coloring adopted. In worsted there is a
larger diversity of weave design than in woolen; but still colors are
very extensively employed to develop effects due to weave and form,
and also to impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth.
Patterns in dress fabrics, shirtings, and other articles made entirely
of cotton are frequently mere combinations of fancy shades, while
fabrics composed of silk and jute materials, including silk ties,
handkerchiefs, etc.--in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are
used--show that coloring and its combinations in all woven product
embellished with design, are elements which give tone and character to
the styles. Though the cloth may be soft to the touch, substantially
made, of uniform structure, and skilfully finished, yet a lack of
brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully detracts from the
appearance of the pattern that these qualities alone are not
sufficient.
On subjecting cotton, silk, wool, and worsted goods to inspection,
color is found to have a different tone or cast in each fabric. Fancy
colors in cotton, while decidedly firm and clear in effect, are
non-lustrous, raw, and dull in toning. Silk colorings, on the
contrary, possess both compactness and brilliancy; woolen colorings
have a unique depth and saturation of hue characteristic of the
material employed in the manufacture of woolen goods; while worsted
colorings are bright, definite, and smart in appearance.
These differences are due to the physical properties of the several
fibers. Thus a filament of silk is transparent and shines like smooth
glass when light falls upon it; that of wool is solid and opaque in
the center, but its exterior consists of a multitude of
semi-transparent scales which, when of large dimensions and uniformly
arranged--as in the best qualities of wool--reflect light with a small
amount of dispersion and impart to the woven material a lustrous
aspect. Cotton has no such partially transparent sheath. What light is
reflected is so broken up that the color is poor. Compare three plain
woven crimson textures made of silk, wool, and cotton respectively.
The first literally shines; luster, brilliance, and richness are the
elements of its coloring. Though bright, it lacks that fulness and
depth of color which belongs to the wool product, whose millions of
filaments, closely compounded, all tinted alike, possess a peculiar
bloom and weight of color not to be found either in the silk or cotton
article. Lastly, take the crimson calico. How deficient in warmth and
richness it seems to be, after examining the woolen and silk texture!
It is dull and has a raw and deficient character.
The various methods of employing fancy shades in patterns obtained in
the loom may be briefly summarized:
I. In mixture cloths, for suitings, coatings, etc.
_a._ By combining or blending various colors of
materials.
_b._ By combining several classes of twist threads.
II. In plain, twilled, mat, and fancy weave designs for trouserings,
coatings, suitings, jackets, dresses, costumes, flannels, shirtings,
etc.
_a._ By introducing colors into the warp, forming
stripes.
_b._ By introducing colors into the filling, producing
spotted patterns.
_c._ By introducing colors into both warp and filling,
giving checks, broken styles, etc.
III. In figured designs for dresses, vestings, etc.
_a._ By using one or several series of extra warp yarn.
_b._ By using one or several series of extra filling.
Dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes when regarded
from the standpoint of fashion--staples and fancies. Staples are those
fabrics which are made of the same construction year in and year out.
They vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion.
The Staples are:
Brilliantines,
Sicilians,
Mohairs,
Imperial Serges,
Storm Serge,
Cheviots,
Panamas,
Batistes,
Taffetas,
Voile,
Nun's Veiling,
Cashmere,
Shepherd Checks.
The Fancies are:
Produced through
Variation of weave,
Variation of color,
Variation of color and weave:
Brocades,
Cuspettes,
Meliores,
Hopsacking, etc.
Coloring includes:
Stripes,
Checks,
Plaids,
Malenges,
Mixtures.
Prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers made homespun clothes
and wore them till they had passed their period of usefulness. The
average consumption of wool at that time averaged not more than three
pounds per capita. As wealth increased the home loom and
spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted by the mill and factory. The
different textile manufacturers at length found that competition was
so keen that it was necessary to adulterate, particularly any fabric
that was popular. The classes of goods that are most adulterated are
the expensive fabrics, those of wool and silk. There are such changes
of fashion in dress at the present day that garments composed of
materials formerly considered good enough are often thrown aside as
old-fashioned when only half worn. Manufacturers cater to the whims
and fancies of people and import to this country foreign styles. The
rapidly changing styles cause people to throw upon the market a great
amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn.
[Illustration: SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE SELLING AGENT OF A LARGE MILL]
The result is that there is not wool enough to provide the public
with clothing made of new wool. The requirement per capita has risen
to six pounds. The immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does
not find its way into the paper mills, but rather into the shoddy
mill, where it is remanufactured into cloth again, or where part of
the fiber is mixed with good wool to make "pure wool" cloth. In other
words, the rapidly changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of
wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration which is being
practised in modern cloth manufacture. This adulteration furthermore
is becoming more and more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid
improvements made in the finishing processes of cloth manufacture.
Hence the necessity for people to know how and why adulteration
occurs, how it affects prices, and what are the means of detecting it.
Shoddy is considered a legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted
goods. The following adulterations are not legitimate unless sold as
such:
1. Cotton combed with wool.
2. Thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted during the process of
drawing.
3. Cotton threads of the same color as the wool or worsted used as
filling or warp.
4. Cotton veneered with wool.
5. Cotton threads of the same color as wool used in weaving.
FOOTNOTE:
[14] Tentering is carried on in the English mills.
CHAPTER VIII
WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS[15]
=Albatross.= A dress fabric of worsted warp and worsted filling; of
open texture and fancy weaves.
=Alpaca.= A thin fabric of close texture made from the fibers of an
animal of the llama species; mixed with silk or with cotton. It is
usually woven with cotton warp and mohair filling. Imitations of all
cotton are manufactured and sold under this name.
=Corded Alpaca.= Corded weave, lengthwise of the piece, cotton warp
alpaca filling; one of the first products of the American loom.
=Angora.= The fiber of this goat is commercially known as mohair. The
skins are largely used in the making of children's muffs, for the
scalps of dolls, and for trimming coats and capes. Carriage robes also
claim a good share of the skins; the hair, being nearly one foot in
length, makes them beautiful and serviceable. The fiber enters largely
into that class of goods known as Astrakhan, Crepons, Plushes,
Brilliantines, Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and many other fabrics
usually sold as all wool or worsted, according to the mode of
preparing the stock before spinning into yarn. It is found in the
finest of silk and worsted fabrics for ladies' wear, also in linings,
mittens, and fine cloaking and overcoating. It is noted especially for
its water repelling qualities, its beauty, and high luster; and not so
much for its warmth-retaining properties, for which wool stands
unequalled.
=Astrakhan.= A fabric manufactured from Astrakhan fiber; of a curly,
wavy surface applied to a curly faced cloth resembling Astrakhan
fleece.
=Bandanna.= From the Indian _bandanna_, to bind or tie. In dyeing, the
cloth is tied in knots when dipped, and thus has a clouded effect.
=Beaver.= A heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool, with a finish on
the surface to resemble the fur of the animal by that name.
=Fur Beaver.= Similar in many respects to Beaver, but having on its
surface a long, dense nap, in imitation of the fur of the Beaver. Used
for overcoats, cloaks, and capes.
=Bedford Cord.= A fine woolen fabric, with fine recesses running with
the piece, and extensively used for ladies' dress goods. An all wool
cloth of close texture for gentlemen's clothing. The recesses may also
be made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling.
=Beige.= Cloth of undyed or natural wool. The name is the French word
for "natural."
=Bindings.= A species of narrow fabric of silk, worsted or cotton, for
binding the edges of garments, the bottom of dress skirts, etc.
=Bombazine.= A twilled fabric of which the warp is silk and the
filling is worsted.
=Bottany.= A term applied to worsted yarns made from bottany wool. It
is considered the finest of all worsted yarns, and is used for fine
fabrics of close texture.
=Boucle.= Curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in such a way as to
show the curl makes boucle. The word is French for curl.
=Broadcloth.= Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven material with a
satin finish. The best qualities are called satin broadcloth.
The origin of broadcloth dates back to early times, the first
historical mention of it being made in 1641. In America, among the
first products manufactured by the colonial woolen mills were black
and colored broadcloths, and these (with satinets) formed the
distinctive character of American woolen fabrics at that time. They
were honestly made of pure, fine-fibered Saxony wool, and sold as high
as $6.50 per yard.
The warp and filling are made of carded wool so that the web (cloth)
will shrink or full evenly. The stock is generally dyed in the raw
state when used for men's wear. When taken from the loom it does not
have the smooth, lustrous appearance which is its distinctive feature.
It is rough and dull colored, with the threads showing plainly. To
improve its appearance it is first subjected to the action of the
fulling mill, with the result that the fibers of the warp and weft
become entangled to such an extent that the cloth never unravels. Then
the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close, in order to
produce a smooth, even surface. Next it is successively wetted,
steamed, calendered, and hot pressed for the purpose of bringing out
the luster. It is commonly twill woven, but is sometimes plain,
finished with a slightly napped and lustrous face. It must have a
bright, beaver finish, and be close and felty in the weave.
The broadcloth used for women's clothing is of a lighter weight and is
generally piece dyed. It is used for ladies' suits, coats, and
gentlemen's evening dress suits, frock coats, and tuxedos. It is
expensive; prices range from $1.75 to $3.50 per yard in ladies'
broadcloth, and higher for men. The price depends on the quality of
wool used, and uniformity of the nap and perfection of the finish.
=Bunting.= A plain even thread weave of mohair, wool, or worsted, used
mostly for making flags. The name is from German, _bunt_, meaning
variegated or gay colored.
=Caniche.= A name given to curled wool fabric showing the effect of
the coat of the caniche, a French dog.
=Cashmere.= A cloth made from the hair of the Cashmere goat. The face
of the fabric is twilled, the twills being uneven and irregular
because of the unevenness of the yarn. Cashmere yarn was first hand
spun. The goats are grown for their wool in the vale of Cashmere in
the Himalaya Mountains.
=All Wool Cashmere.= As no material by this name exists there can be
no definition. When the term is used in defining a fabric, it is a
delusion and a snare.
=Cashmere Double.= A cloth having Cashmere twill on one side or face
and poplin cord on the reverse.
=Cassimere.= The name is a variation of Cashmere. Cassimere, when
properly made, is of Cashmere wool. Usually a twill weave.
=Castor.= Same as beaver, of a light weight.
=Challis.= (Also spelled _challie_.) A name given to a superior dress
fabric of silk and wool first manufactured at Norwich, England, in
1832. In texture the original material was soft, thin, fine, and
finished without gloss. When first introduced it ranked among the best
and most elegant silk and wool textures manufactured. It was composed
of fine materials, and instead of giving it a glossy surface, such as
is usually produced from silk and fine wool, the object was to make it
without luster. The name is now applied to an extremely light weight
summer dress fabric, composed of either cotton or wool, or a mixture
of these fabrics. In structure it is both plain woven and figured, the
ornamental patterns being produced either in the loom or yarn, dyed or
printed. It is not sized. All wool challis does not differ essentially
from the old-fashioned muslin delaine. Most challis patterns are
copied from the French silks, and this accounts in part for their
tasteful designs and artistic effects. French challis is a material
similar to the above, though usually characterized by a more glossy
finish.
=Cheviot.= A descriptive term of somewhat loose application, being
used indiscriminately of late years to denote almost any sort of stout
woolen cloth finished with a rough and shaggy surface. Originally the
fabric known as cheviot was woven in England, from the strong, coarse
wool of the Cheviot sheep, whence the name.
It is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of cheviot or "pulled
wool," slightly felted, with a short even nap on the surface and a
supple feel. Worsted cheviots, in plain colorings or of fancy effects,
are manufactured from combed yarn. Woolen cheviots are made from
carded yarn. The greater portion of this class of goods in carded
yarns contains little or no new wool in its make-up. Shoddy, mungo,
and a liberal mixture of cotton to hold it together, blended in the
many colorings, help to cover the deception. Prices range from 50
cents to $3.00. The material is plain or twill woven, and has many of
the qualities of serge.
The distinguishing feature of cheviot, whatever the grade of cloth, is
the finish, of which there are two kinds. One is known as the "rough"
finish, and the other as the "close" finish. Real cheviot is a
rough-finished fabric, composed of a strong, coarse wool and fulled to
a considerable degree. The process of finishing cheviot is simple, and
practically the same methods are followed for both the "rough" and the
"close" styles. On leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap
and water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it may contain.
It is then fulled, which consists in shrinking the cloth both in
length and breadth, thus rendering the texture heavier and denser.
Next it is "gigged" or napped. This is accomplished by passing the
face of the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp
pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the yarn. This
operation is continued until a nap more or less dense is raised over
the entire surface.
From the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing machine, the revolving
blades of which cut the long, irregular nap down to a uniform level.
Sometimes the style of finish called for is that approaching a
threadbare cassimere, and in this case great care is necessary to
prevent the blades from cutting the yarn. In the rough finish the nap,
although sparingly raised, is comparatively long. Having been napped
and sheared, the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects,
then brushed, pressed, and highly steamed. When measured, rolled, and
steamed, it is ready for market, and is used mostly for ladies' and
gentlemen's suitings. The pattern and design are light stripes and
checks of small dimensions. Cheviot is a name given to many materials
used for suiting.
=Chinchilla.= Heavy coating with rough wavy face. The name is Spanish
for a fur-bearing animal of the mink species.
=Chudah.= Applied to billiard cloth; relates to color. Chudah is the
Hindoo name of a bright green cloth.
=Corduroy.= Heavy corded cotton material used for servants' livery.
The name is from the French _Corde du Roi_--king's cords.
=Côte Cheval.= In France corded cloth for riding costumes, such as
Bedford cord, is called côte cheval, the application being through
_cheval_, horse; _côte_, ribbed or lined.
=Coupure.= Coupure is French for cut through. Coupure or cut cashmere
is a cashmere weave showing lines cut through the twills lengthwise of
the piece.
=Covert.= Heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed shades, used in
England for men's overcoats worn while riding to covert in fox
hunting.
=Delaine.= From the French "of wool"; applies to the most primitive
weave of plain wool yarn. Thirty years ago delaine was the staple
dress goods stock. It was made in solid colors.
=Diagonal Cheviot.= Same as cheviot, only in the weaving the pattern
is marked by zigzag lines or stripes.
=Doeskin.= Of the broadcloth range, made with shiny napped face, soft
finish, as the pelt of a doe.
=Drap d'Été.= A heavy cashmere or double warp merino, with the back
teasled or scratched, used mostly for clergymen's clothing and in
lighter weights for women's dresses. The name is French for "cloth of
summer."
=Empress Cloth.= Similar to poplin; made of hard twisted worsted
filling and cotton warp. Was made a success in the early seventies of
the last century by the Empress Eugenie of France. Empress cloth was a
staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines.
=Épingline.= A fine corded fabric of wool or silk, showing the cords
woven close together and appearing as if lined with a pin point. This
application is from _épingle_, French for pin.
=Etamine.= French name for bolting or sifting cloth, made of silk for
sifting flour; applied to mesh or net weaves in America.
=Felt.= Fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass or mixture of
wool into a flat mat. The name is from the process. To felt is to mix
and press into shape.
=Flannel.= Wales appears to have been the original home of flannel,
and history informs us that this was the only textile produced in that
country for hundreds of years. It is constructed either of cotton or
wool, or of an intermixture of these fibers, and is a coarse-threaded,
loosely woven, light-weight fabric, more or less spongy and elastic,
with an unfinished, lusterless surface. Generally speaking all grades
of plain colored flannel are piece dyed, the soft open texture of the
goods permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the web as
in the yarn. Flannels are subjected to several finishing operations,
such as fulling, teaseling, pressing, and stretching. Flannels do not
require a great deal of fulling. All that is necessary is enough to
give a degree of stability and body to the goods.
=Dress Flannel.= All wool fabric used chiefly for women's winter
dresses; also called flannel suiting. It has a diversity of qualities,
colors, and styles of finish. It is commonly put up in double fold,
width from twenty-six to fifty inches.
=French Flannel.= A fine, soft twill, woven variety dyed in solid
shades, and also printed with patterns after the manner of calico;
used for morning gowns, dressing sacques, waists, etc.
=Shaker Flannel.= A variety of white flannel finished with
considerable nap, composed of cotton warp and woolen weft.
=Indigo Blue.= A superior all wool grade used in the manufacture
of men's suits and particularly for the uniform of members of the
G. A. R.
=Mackinaw.= The name applied to an extra heavy blanket-like material
used in cold climates by miners and lumbermen for shirts and
underwear.
=Navy Twilled Flannel.= A heavy all wool variety commonly dyed indigo
blue, commonly used in the manufacture of overshirts for out-door
laborers, firemen, sailors, and miners.
=Silk Warp Flannel.= A high grade, pure variety of flannel woven with
a silk warp and a fine woolen weft. It is a very soft, light-weight,
loosely woven flannel and runs only in narrow widths, twenty-seven
inches. If the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the texture
is rendered hard and firm, the cloth thus losing its softness and
elasticity. In the teaseling process it is necessary for the nap to be
raised only slightly, and this is commonly done in the direction of
the grain or twist of the warp. The perfection of a flannel finish
lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth, but in its full, rich
softness. Sometimes the nap is sheared, but more often it is pressed
down flat upon the face of the cloth. After a thorough drying, and
careful examination for defects, the goods are rolled on boards, and
are ready for market. It is used for infants' wear and shawls, for
undergarments, bed coverings, and also to some extent for outer
garments in weights and styles adapted for that purpose.
=Baby Flannel.= A very light-weight variety woven of fine, soft wool,
smooth finish, bleached pure white.
=Florentine.= A heavy twilled mohair fabric for men's wear which is
sold largely to Italy and Spain. The name is from Florence, Italy.
=Foule.= A twilled, unsheared cloth; that is, the face appears to be
unsinged, and shows the woolly roughness in a slight degree. The cloth
when woven in the gray is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in
soapsuds and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes in
a steel plate. The name is from _fouler_, French, to full or shrink.
=Frieze.= Frieze is a coarse, heavy cloth with a curly surface and
made at first of lamb's wool. It is now made from coarse grades of
wool. It is thick and heavily napped, and is used in the manufacture
of warm outer garments, particularly for men's wear. It was named
after the people of Friesland in Holland in the 13th century, and is
famous to-day as an Irish fabric. Irish frieze has extraordinary
durability, and the fibers are the longest and strongest made. The
weave is plain, small twill, or herring bone. When not of a solid
color it is usually a mixture, the colors being mixed in the raw
state. The wool is dyed in the raw state in mass, then doubled after
spinning.
=Gloria.= Plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and cotton; first
made for umbrella covering. Name means bright.
=Granada.= Popular weave of mohair, made in coating weight for
Spanish trade. Granada is a city in Spain.
=Grenadine.= Originally a plain, openwork, net-like fabric of silk,
mohair, cotton, or wool. We have grenadines in Jacquards and in set
patterns. The name is an adaptation of Granada.
=Henrietta Cloth.= A twilled cashmere of light weight and high finish,
originally made with silk warp and wool filling in Yorkshire, England.
The name was given in honor of Henrietta Maria of England, Queen of
Charles I. The silk warp, hand-woven fabric was first produced about
the year 1660.
=Homespun.= A rough, loosely woven material made from coarse yarn. It
is soft but rather clumsy. A general term used to designate cloth spun
or wrought at home. The homespun of the present day is a woolen fabric
in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before the introduction of
textile machinery. It is made of a coarse, rough, and uneven thread;
usually of plain weave and no felting. It was woven by the early
settlers of the Eastern and Southern States. It is now used as woolen
suiting for men's wear and in various kinds of coarse, spongy, shaggy
cloth for women's gowns.
=Hop Sacking.= A coarse bagging made commonly of a combination of hemp
and jute, used for holding hops during transportation. The name hop
sacking is also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made from
different classes of yarn. It is made of carded woolen fabric of the
plainest kind. The cloth is characterized by an open weave, and a
square check-like mesh, the structure being designed to imitate that
of the coarse jute bagging. It has very little finish, is usually dyed
in solid colors, and is used for women's and children's dresses.
=Jeans.= Cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric. In cotton used for
linings, in wool for men's cheap clothing. The name is from a Genoese
coin, relating to the price of the cloth; so much for one jean.
=Kersey.= A very heavy, felted, satin finish woolen cloth made with
the cotton weave or cross twill for face, and cotton weave or four
harness satin for back. It was originally made with fine Merino lamb's
wool for face, and somewhat coarser grade for back. The cheaper grades
are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and shoddy, with low grades
of shoddy and mungo for back. It is named from an English town,
Kersey, where from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large
woolen trade was carried on. The Kersey of early history was a coarse
cloth, known under different names, and before knitting was used for
stockings. In the construction of Kersey the cloth is woven a few
inches wider in the loom (and correspondingly longer) than it is to
appear in the finished state. This is done in order that the meshes
may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering of threads.
Previous to fulling, however, the face of the cloth is gigged to
produce a good covering for the threads by forming a light nap, which
is fitted in. In the fulling operation, which comes next, the cloth is
shrunk to its proper width and density, usually to a degree rendering
it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads, so
closely are they matted together. Fulling is followed by gigging, and
in this process a nap more or less heavy is raised on the face of the
goods by means of teasels. The cloth is run through the gig several
times and then sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap
short, even, and of uniform length. Great care is exercised in the
shearing, as the nap must be cropped quite close and yet not expose
the threads or cut the face. The next operation is scouring or
steaming, in which live steam is forced through every part of the
goods for the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool. In
case the goods are to be piece dyed, the dyeing follows scouring.
After steaming, the cloth is thoroughly matted and gigged again, care
being taken to avoid stirring up the ground nap. It is then dried and
the nap briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in one
direction. Again the cloth is slightly steamed and primed, face up.
The result of this treatment is the production of a texture firm, yet
pliable, with a highly lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough
or threadbare. Kersey is used for overcoats.
=Kerseymere.= Light weight twilled worsted; same derivative of name as
Kersey.
=Linsey Woolsey.= Coarse cloth of linen and wool used as skirtings by
the British peasantry. The name is from the components of the cloth.
=Melrose.= Double twilled silk and wool fabric; named for Melrose, a
town on the Tweed, in Scotland.
=Melton.= A thick, heavy woolen fabric with short nap, feeling
somewhat rough. Meltons are made firm in the loom. The weaves for
single cloth meltons are usually plain, and three or four harness
twill. For double cloths the plain weave is used, or a weave with a
plain face and a one-third weave on the back. All trace of the weave
is destroyed in the finishing. The colors usually black or dark blue.
=Meltonette.= A cloth of the same general appearance as melton, of
light weight, for women's wear.
=Merino.= A fabric woven of the wool of the Merino sheep, twilled on
both sides, the twill being uneven. Merino resembles cashmere.
=Mohair Brilliantine.= A dress fabric resembling alpaca, of superior
quality, and sometimes finished on both sides. The name is from the
Arabic _mukayyan_, cloth of goat's hair. It is made from the long,
silky hair of the Angora goat of Asia Minor, a species which is being
introduced into the United States. The fabric has a hard, wiry feel,
and if made from the pure material has a high luster. It has cotton
warp and luster worsted filling. The weave is plain ground, or with a
small Jacquard figure, and when a very lustrous fabric is wanted, the
warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling yarn. The warp and
filling yarns are dyed previous to weaving. They may be of the same
color or different colors. The contrast of colors in connection with
the weave gives the fabric a pretty effect. Fabrics made with dyed
yarns are usually given a dry finish, that is, simply run through the
press and cylinder heated, after which they are rolled and then
packed. Those made with undyed filling are first scoured, then dyed,
after which they are run through a rotary press with fifty or sixty
pounds of steam heat. Mohair brilliantine is used for dress goods.
=Montagnac= is heavy overcoating. The French _montagne_, for mountain,
is the origin of the name, being for mountain wear.
=Orleans.= Cloth of cotton warp and bright wool fulling, made in
Orleans, France. Many of the so-called alpacas and mohairs of to-day
are Orleans. These fabrics are mostly cross-dyed, that is, fabrics
with warp and filling of different shades. After weaving they are
cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glacé effects.
=Panama Cloth= is a plain weave worsted fabric of no uniform
construction or finish. Fabrics sold under this name vary
considerably. They are of solid colors, usually piece dyed, and are
used for suitings.
=Prunella.= From the French _prunelle_, which means plum, a stout
worsted material named from its color, which is a purplish shade
similar to that of a ripe plum. The name was originally applied to a
kind of lasting of which clergymen's gowns were made. It is now used
to denote a variety of rich, satin-faced worsted cloth employed for
women's dresses. The fibers are worsted. Prunella is dyed either in
piece or yarn state and is hand finished.
=Sacking.= Plain solid color flannel in special shades for women's
dressing sacks, also applied to a fabric made of hemp for grain sacks.
=Sanglier.= A plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair yarn, closely
woven, with a rough finished surface. Sanglier is French for wild
boar, the hairy, wiry cloth resembling the coat of the animal.
=Sebastopol.= A twill-faced cloth named from Sebastopol, the Russian
fortified town captured by the English and French in 1855.
=Serge.= Under this name are classed a large number of fabrics of
twill construction. In weight and texture a modern serge resembles
flannel, except that it is twill woven and composed of fine yarn
finished with a smoother surface. Serge comes from the Italian word
_sergea_, meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk. Serges are woven of
worsted, of silk, or of cotton yarn, and variously dyed, finished, and
ornamented, as silk serge, serge suiting, storm serge, mohair serge,
etc. Worsted serges of various kinds and degrees have been known since
the twelfth century. Worsted serge appears to have come into general
use as a material for men's wear in the sixteenth century. Modern
serges vary but little from those made two centuries ago. They are
dyed in a great variety of colors. On leaving the loom the cloth is
washed and scoured with soap and water to remove the dirt and oil (if
these remain the cloth will not take the dye properly). After dyeing,
it is passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure, which
renders the surface more regular and even and of a better luster. This
process accomplishes more than is required, for it produces a bloom on
the surface which will show rain specks when in the garment, if it is
allowed to remain. This is ordinary serge. In order to make storm
serge it is necessary to remove part of the bloom, and to accomplish
this the cloth is steamed sufficiently to neutralize the effect of
pressing. Steaming deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain
showing on the cloth. The wearing qualities of serge are good, but it
gets a shine easily. It is used for dress goods and suitings. Serge
suiting used for men's clothing is a variety of light, wiry, worsted
yarn woven with a flat twill, and dyed black or in shades of blue,
fifty-four inches in width. Mohair serge is woven with a cotton warp
and a mohair filling, thirty-two inches in width. This is dyed in a
variety of colors and largely used as lining material for women's
clothes, men's coats, and overcoats. Storm serge, designed to
withstand exposure to stormy weather, is a coarse variety of worsted
dress goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities. The
twill is wider, the texture stouter, and the surface rougher and
cleaner than that of ordinary serge. Iridescent serge is a variety of
worsted dress goods woven with warp and filling of different colors,
causing a shimmering or iridescent effect. Cravenette serge is a fine
twilled variety having a firm, closely woven texture, dyed black and
in colors, and is used for women's gowns, men's summer suits, etc.
Serge de Barry is a high-grade dress goods of fine texture, with fine
twill, and wiry feel.
=Shoddy= is made from old woolen stockings or rags, shredded or picked
by hand or machine, to render the yarn suitable for spinning a second
time, or to give a fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or
cotton warp. The name has come to mean cheap, make-believe.
=Sicilian.= Heavy weight cotton warp, mohair filled cloth. Sicilienne,
the proper name, was made in the Island of Sicily as a heavy ribbed,
all silk fabric.
=Sultane.= Twilled cloth of silk and wool; finished in the rough, not
singed or sheared. The name is from Sultana, the first wife of the
Sultan.
=Tamise.= Similar to etamine, with a very close mesh, made first of
silk and wool. _Tamis_ is French for sieve.
=Tartans.= Plaids of the Scottish clans worn by men in the Highlands
of Scotland as a diagonal scarf, fastened on one shoulder and crossing
the body. Each clan had a distinctive tartan or plaid. The name was
adapted from the French _tiretaine_, a thin woolen checked cloth.
=Thibet.= Heavy, coarse weave of goat's hair, made by the Thibetans in
Asia for men's wear.
=Tricot.= A heavy, compound fabric characterized by a line effect
running warp way or filling way of the piece, usually produced with
either woolen or worsted yarn. Tricot was originally a name given to
fabrics made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting, and is the
French word meaning knitting. The term was later applied to materials
made on a knitting frame and now known as jersey cloth. Since 1840 the
name tricot has been applied to finely woven woolen cloth, the weave
of which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted fabric.
The fabric is composed of woolen and worsted fibers, sometimes with
cotton warp woven so as to hide the cotton in finishing. The tricot
line is similar to the rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is
not so pronounced. All tricots are constructed with two sets of warp
thread and are characterized by a texture which, while dense, is
singularly elastic, in this respect being somewhat similar to heavy
jersey cloth. Tricots are commonly dyed in plain colors, and are
finished clear so as to show the filling. When intended for trousers
they are ornamented with small, neat patterns.
=Tweed.= A rough unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible
texture, of wool or cotton and wool, usually of yarn of two or more
shades; originally the product of the weavers on the bank of the river
Tweed in Scotland. The face of the cloth presents an unfinished
appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.
=Veiling= includes light weight, usually plain weave fabrics of
various constructions; generally made with singed or polished yarns.
They are in solid colors. The use is designated by the name.
=Venetian.= Venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton warp and worsted
filling; named from Venetia, a country around Venice. The warp yarns
are firmly twisted, the twist being in the opposite direction to the
twist in the filling yarn. Venetian is a trade term of wide
application, in use since early times as a descriptive title for
various fabrics, textures, and garments. One of the many varieties is
a species of twill weaving in which the lines or twills are of a
rounded form and arranged in a more or less upright position, hence a
closely woven worsted cloth. The name is also applied to other
fabrics, as a twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a
worsted filling known as Italian cloth. It is dyed in plain colors and
is piece or yarn dyed for men. For women's wear it has light weight
and plain colors with mixed effects and closely sheared nap. It is
finished smooth so as to show the yarns prominently. Venetian cloth
has not so much felting as broadcloth; it shows the weave more, but
has the same lustrous finish.
=Vigogne= or =Vicuña=. A soft wool cloth of the cheviot order, with
teasled face, made from the wool of the vicuña, a South American
animal. Vigogne is the French name for the animal.
=Vigoureux.= A name applied to a plain or twill mixture, woven of
undyed natural wool yarns. The French spinners found that the
strongest yarns were those of the undyed wool. Sometimes two or more
shades or tones are spun into one thread. The name is French for
strong.
=Voiles.= Voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made with hard
twisted yarns. As clear a face as possible is secured in finishing,
the cloth being singed or sheared closely if the yarns are not made
comparatively free from loose fibers before being woven. Voiles are
dyed in solid colors, and are used principally for dress goods.
=Whipcord.= Hard twisted worsted twills, either solid or mixed colors.
The name is from the hard twisted lash of a whip.
=Worsted Diagonals= are characterized by prominent weave effects
running diagonally across the cloth. The goods are usually of a solid
color, and are given a finish which brings the weave into prominence.
Diagonals are used for suitings.
=Unfinished worsted= is a fabric woven with yarn with very little
twist in it, and finished so as to make it appear covered with loose
fibers, concealing the twill effect. After leaving the loom the cloth
is placed in a fulling machine which condenses the fibers, thus
increasing the density. It is then passed over hot presses after a
slight shearing.
=Finished Worsted= is woven with yarn with a considerable twist, and
finished in such a way as to show the construction of the cloth
clearly. The finishing consists simply of scouring the cloth and not
fulling it and then passing it through hot water baths between heavy
rolls to remove all the soap. It is then sheared and pressed.
=Zephyr.= Light worsted yarn, also light weight cotton gingham. Zephyr
is Greek for the light west wind.
=Zibeline.= A cloth manufactured with Merino lamb's wool for warp, and
a light wool mixed with camel's hair for filling; or, worsted warp and
camel's hair for filling; or either of the foregoing warps and a
mixture of wool, camel's hair, and fine cashmere for filling. The long
cashmere hair spreads over the surface. Used for ladies' tailor-made
coats or suits, according to weight. The name is derived from the
Latin word _sabellum_, meaning sable, and was applied originally to a
variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the same as sable.
Zibeline has long hairs on its right side, some grades being almost
like fur.
FOOTNOTE:
[15] SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In connection with the study of fabrics
the author has found it advisable to have the pupils insert in a blank
book a sample of the fabric they are studying. In this way the pupil
can examine both the filling (weft) and warp threads.
CHAPTER IX
COTTON
=Cotton.= Cotton is the most important vegetable fiber used in
spinning. The cotton fiber is a soft, downy substance which grows
around the cotton seed. When examined under the microscope it appears
as a long twisted cell. Owing to the fact that the cotton-plant yields
so readily to the varying conditions of soil and climate, there is a
large variety of cottons, each having some peculiarity which is
considered enough to place it in a distinct class. An idea of the
number of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the fact
that the United States Department of Agriculture has recorded about
one hundred and thirty varieties. The most important varieties are:
_Gossypium herbaceum_, _G. arboreum_, _G. hirsutum_, _G. barbadense_,
and _G. peruvianum_. The botanical name of a plant is divided into two
parts: first the family name, followed by the species name.
The _Gossypium herbaceum_ grows from four to six feet in height and
bears a yellow flower. The seeds are covered with a short gray down.
The fiber it bears is classed as short. It is found in Egypt, Asia
Minor, Arabia, India, and China. The short-stapled variety of Egyptian
cotton is from this species.
The _G. arboreum_ when full grown attains a height from fifteen to
twenty feet. The seed is covered with a greenish fur and is enveloped
in a fine, silky down, yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt,
Arabia, and China.
The _G. hirsutum_ is a shrubby plant, its maximum height being about
six feet. The young pods are hairy, and the seeds are numerous and
covered with a firmly adhering green down. It is probable that this is
the original of the green-seeded cotton which is now cultivated so
extensively in the Southern States of America, and which forms the
bulk of the supply from that source.
The _G. peruvianum_ is similar to the _G. barbadense_. The Brazilian
and Peru cottons are from this species.
The _G. barbadense_ grows from six to fifteen feet high; its flowers
are yellow and its seeds black and smooth, being quite destitute of
the hair that distinguishes other members of the species. It is a
native of Barbadoes or has been cultivated there for a long time.
Cottons of the finest texture belong to this species--Sea Island and
Florida cottons--from which our finest yarns are spun, and it is used
chiefly in the manufacture of fine lace. The long-stapled Egyptian and
several other varieties are said to be from this stock.
=Cotton Growing Countries.= The most suitable situation for growing
cotton is between 35 degrees north and 40 degrees south of the
equator. The chief cotton growing countries of the world in order of
importance are: United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. Cotton is
also grown in the following countries, but in no quantity or quality
comparable with the four named above--West Indies, west coast of
Africa, Asia Minor, China, and Queensland.
The best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or sandy soil, which
receives and retains the heat, and at the same time preserves a good
supply of moisture. Cold, damp days are not suitable for its growth,
while deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk. The best
climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost and snow are of
short duration, dews are heavy, and the sun bright, warm, and regular.
New soils generally produce the best cotton. The character of the
cotton fiber is dependent upon three things, the species of the plant,
the nature of the soil, and the locality in which it is grown.
=Rough Peruvian.= The nature of this cotton is harsh and wiry and
resembles wool so nearly that it is almost exclusively used to mix
with woolen fabrics. The staple is rough and generally strong, and is
of a springy tendency, _i.e._, it does not lie close like American.
=East Indian.= India depends upon the monsoon for its moisture, and
the success or failure of the crop is decided by that phenomenon of
nature. Indian cottons as a rule are coarser and shorter than American
cottons. The land is prepared before the breaking of the monsoon, and
the planting begins after it. There is not the same care bestowed upon
the cultivation of the Indian cotton, nor are such improved methods
practised as in America. The ancient routine of past generations
still persists, and as a consequence the yield per acre is less than
one-half that of America. Moreover the acreage planted is only about
two-thirds that of America. The better growths of East Indian cotton
were once largely used in this country for filling, owing to their
good color and cleanliness; but of late years the consumption has
steadily decreased, owing chiefly to the increased takings by the
Indian mills, also to the exports to China and Japan, and to the
preference shown by English spinners for American cotton.
=Egyptian Cotton.= Egyptian cotton, on account of its long staple and
silky gloss, is imported in considerable quantities. Egyptian is
largely used in the manufacture of hosiery, and also for mixing with
worsted yarn. Owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with silk, and
on account of its strength it is made into the finer sewing threads.
Egyptian cotton is sometimes so charged with grease that it has a
greasy smell; and to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it
with whitening. It has been observed that velvets woven (or piled)
with Egyptian filling do not finish as well as when picked with yarns
made from American cotton, the reason for this being that the greasy
nature of the Egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength, causing
different shades in the finished goods. This greasy nature is said to
be due to two things: (1) the fertility of the soil; (2) the extent to
which the cell walls of the fibers are developed.
In addition to cotton, other crops are grown in Egypt--rice, sugar,
beans, barley, onions, etc.--and the acreage devoted to cotton is
regulated to some extent by the prospects as to which crops are likely
to pay best. It is calculated that not more than one-third of the area
is usually devoted to cotton.
=Sea Island Cotton.= This is the finest growth of cotton, and it
commands the highest price. The staple, which is long and silky,
varies in length from one and a half to two and a half inches. It is
used for making fine muslins, laces, spool cotton, and other fabrics,
and is also largely mixed with silk. It is said that this cotton was
first introduced into America in 1786 from the Bahama Islands, whither
it had been brought from the West Indies. It was first cultivated in
Georgia, where it was found that the small islands running along the
coast were best adapted for its growth, hence the name "Sea Island."
It was also grown on the uplands of Georgia, but although remaining
good, the quality deteriorated. Counts as high as four hundred are
occasionally spun in Sea Island cotton.
=Other Varieties.= Cotton grown in the Southern States under widely
varying conditions of the soil, climate, and care in cultivation,
naturally varies in length, strength, and other qualities of staple.
Cotton known as "Uplands" or "Boweds" varies in length from
three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is used for filling;
this is grown in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
and Tennessee. Cotton used for twist is grown in Texas, Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the length of the staple varies from
one to one and three-sixteenths inches. In the swampy and bottom
lands in some of the states (notably Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi,
and Arkansas), cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and
one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches. In addition to these, there
are especially long stapled growths, known as "Extras," "Allen Seed,"
and "Peelers," which measure one and three-eighths to one and
five-eighths inches. Of late there has been an extensive demand for
long-stapled American cotton (one and three-sixteenths to one and
one-half inches), owing to the development of fine spinning.
=Cotton Raising.= Cotton is planted with a machine, which puts it
under the ground about one and one-half to two inches. It is not
planted as corn is, that is, dropped so far apart, but is planted in a
continuous stream. After the cotton comes up out of the ground, when
it is about three inches high, it is hoed by ordinary labor with a
hoe, and is cut out or, rather, thinned. This is called "chopping out"
and is for the purpose of removing the inferior or weak plants until
only one strong plant is left. The distance between the plants depends
on the nature of the plant, frequently about twelve inches being left
between them.
=The American Crop.= The first step taken is the preparation of the
ground for planting. This begins in the southern part of Texas as
early as the middle of January, in Florida about the third week; in
Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana, about the beginning of
February; in Arkansas, Tennessee, and South Carolina from about the
middle of February to the beginning of March. Actual planting begins
according to latitude, principally from the middle of March to the
middle of April, and ends in the first half of May. These dates,
however, are dependent upon the state of the weather. When the weather
is unusually wet the start is late. The plant suffers from the rank
growth of grass and weeds, and extra labor is required to keep the
fields clean. In abnormally hot weather, especially after rains, the
plant sheds its leaves, thus exposing the bolls, which fall off,
whereupon replanting becomes necessary. In addition to injuries by the
weather the cotton-plant is subject to depredations by insects. Of
late years the greatest pest has been the Mexican boll weevil.
The cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after planting. An early
bloom is taken as a sign of good crops. When the crop is an early one,
picking may commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the
latter half of July; but the usual date is the beginning of August,
following on in the various districts in succession until the early
part of September. The plant goes on fruiting as long as the weather
is mild and open. It finishes in the early regions about the beginning
of December, the others following through December and closing in the
later regions about the middle of January. Frosts play an important
part in the ultimate yield. An early killing frost over the entire
belt would curtail the size of the crop by 500,000 bales in a season,
as was the case in 1909 when about 32,000,000 acres were planted.
Light frosts and late frosts do little harm to the cotton-plant; in
fact it is contended that the late frosts do much good under certain
conditions of the crop, by opening the bolls that otherwise would not
open, and thus adding to the quantity of the late pickings. The effect
of frost upon the lint so picked is to produce tinged and stained
cotton. Early killing frosts occur in some seasons in the early part
of November, when much of the yield may be curtailed. When killing
frosts occur late in the season, when the fruiting is practically
over, it has little or no effect upon the yield except as regards the
color.
The ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages, the bolls nearest
the ground maturing first, then those around the middle of the plant,
and lastly the top crop. Pods half ripe are often forced open and the
fiber sent on with good cotton. East Indian is more highly charged
with unripe cotton than American. The work of picking is not heavy,
but becomes tedious from its sameness. Each hand as he goes to the
field is supplied with a large basket and a bag. The basket is left at
the head of the cotton row, the bag being suspended from the picker's
shoulder by a strap, and used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from
the boll. When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and this
routine continued throughout the day. Each hand picks from 140 to 180
pounds of cotton per day. The average yield in the South varies from
500 to 600 pounds per acre. Every boll of cotton contains seeds
resembling unground coffee; when these have been removed by the gin,
there remains about one-third the weight of the boll in clean cotton.
[Illustration: PICKING COTTON]
=Ginning.= The next operation to which cotton is subjected is that of
ginning, or separating the seeds from the fiber. This work was
formerly accomplished by hand, and so great was the quantity of seeds
that frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman in separating
them from one pound of cotton. At the present day the devices for
separating the lint from the seed are of two classes: roller gins and
saw gins. The former device is the more ancient, having been used from
the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its simplest form it consists of
two rollers made of metal or hard wood, fixed in rude frames, through
which the cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process. An
improved form of the roller gin is at present used for cleaning the
long-staple Sea Island cotton. The saw gin, which works on an entirely
different principle, is the machine which, with its improvements and
modifications, has separated the seed from fiber almost exclusively
for one hundred years of American cotton growing. In this machine the
seed cotton is fed into a box, one side of which is formed of a
grating of metal strips set close together, leaving a narrow opening
from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. Into these openings a
row or "gang" of thin circular saws project mounted upon a revolving
mandrel. The long, protruding teeth of the saws, whirling rapidly,
catch the fibers, and pull them away from the seeds. The latter, being
too large to pass through the openings of the grating, roll downward
and out of the machine. The lint, removed from the row of saws by a
revolving brush, passes between rollers and is delivered from the
machine in the form of a lap or bat.
This machine is responsible for much of the "nep" (or knots) found in
American cotton, which is caused when the machine is overcharged. The
Whitney gin will turn through more cotton than any other type of
machine, and will clean from 200 to 300 pounds per hour. When the
machine is running at high speed the tendency is to string and knot
the cotton.
[Illustration: COTTON GIN
The upper figure shows Whitney's invention. The lower figure shows a
later form.]
The working of the ordinary gin is as follows: The wagon loaded with
cotton is driven under a galvanized spout called the sucker, through
which there is a suction of air which draws the cotton into the gins.
In each of the gins there are seventy circular saws revolving on one
shaft. These saws are about one inch apart, and the teeth go through
the gin breast, much as if one were to put the teeth of one comb into
the teeth of another comb. This process takes the lint cotton off the
seed, and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the lint flute,
into the condenser, and into the box, where it is revolved and made
into a bale. While the lint is going through this process, the seeds,
being heavier and smaller, draw to the bottom of the gins, fall into
an auger which is operated by a belt, and then are dropped into a
conveyor and carried to the seed pile or houses. The lint goes in one
direction and the seed in another.
When the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin, it is covered with
a lint of cotton. In order to remove this the seeds are put through a
delinter, which takes off the small, short fiber from the seeds,
leaving them clean. This seed is then put through a huller which takes
off the outside hull or thick skin. The kernel is then put through a
hydraulic press, which squeezes the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves
the "meal." Cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes, such as making
olive oil, butter or oleomargarine, lard, etc. Of late an experiment
has been made with the meal for use in the place of flour, and has
been pronounced a success. Seed crushing has now become an important
industry, with the cotton crop each year amounting to between
12,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales of 450 pounds each.
=The Cotton Gin.= The cotton gin was invented in 1792 by Eli Whitney,
a citizen of Georgia, but a native of Massachusetts. The importance of
this invention to the cotton industry of the world cannot be
overestimated. It was the one thing needed to insure a sufficient
supply of raw material to meet the requirements of newly invented
machinery for spinning and weaving. The result of Whitney's invention
was the rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the United
States, and its permanent establishment as one of the leading staples
of the country.
=Cotton Bales.= After the cotton is ginned and baled it is shipped to
the mill. The standard size of a cotton bale in the United States is
54 × 27 × 27 inches, and contains nearly 500 pounds. To produce this
bale over 1,600 pounds of seed cotton are required. The bales are
wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with sheet-iron bands, this
covering adding about twenty-five pounds to the weight of the bale.
The Bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a self-feeding press,
which receives the lap of lint from the gin between two heavy rollers.
The fiber is rolled upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press
out nearly all the air, and forms a package of uniform shape and size
throughout, having a diameter of fourteen to sixteen inches. The bales
are covered with cotton cloth, held in place by small wire hoops. It
is claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this process that
the bales are practically fireproof and waterproof.
Egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar to the American
bale, but the average weight is over 700 pounds.
The Indian bales, which are more closely compressed than the American,
usually weigh 400 pounds.
Cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the shape of a bale.
The method is to purchase from cotton brokers, samples being furnished
to the buyer from which to make selection.
[Illustration: STOREHOUSES]
The commercial value of cotton is determined by its length, fineness,
strength, pliability, smoothness, regularity, color, and cleanliness.
As a rule, the cotton that is the longest is also the finest, but by
no means the strongest. Thus, Sea Island cotton has the longest staple
with the least diameter, and Hinganghat (an Indian cotton) is much
inferior to it in both respects. The strength of the latter, however,
is 50 per cent greater than the strength of Sea Island cotton. In
every other respect Sea Island cotton is in advance over Hinganghat
cotton. It is the most valuable, especially for the production of fine
yarns.
The most regular cotton is Orleans, in which the length of the staple
varies only a small fraction of an inch. In consequence of this there
is less loss in working Orleans than is the case with the other
cottons, owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length.
=The Leading Growths of Cotton.= In order to purchase the raw material
of the cotton manufacture, to arrange the "mixing" or have much to do
with the raw material in any other capacity, one should know as much
as possible of its characteristics; for ignorance may cause much
trouble and no little loss to those who have to spin the cotton. Each
crop differs from the previous one to a greater or less degree, as it
depends entirely upon the weather. Thus, in a very dry season there is
a "droughty crop" which, while it may be (and generally is) clean and
well up in class, will be weak, short, and of irregular fiber. In
order to obtain the desired length and strength of staple the buyer
will have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may be termed
a normal season.
[Illustration: FANCY COTTON LOOM]
Again, in a crop that is poor in class, a defect that may have been
caused by too much rain in the early or middle stages of its growth,
or by unfavorable weather for the production of cotton of good grade,
the staple will probably be all that could be desired, leafy and
small, but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain his usual grade,
especially if he requires it for good filling. Then there are seasons
when the crop turns out fairly well in class and staple, but the
cotton is wasty, dirty, or abnormally leafy; and in this case the
buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in calculating the extra
loss that will ensue.
The terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance of 4 per cent for
tares. That is, a bale of cotton weighing 400 pounds would be paid for
as 384 pounds, or should the buyer have reason to believe that the
tares are unusually heavy, he has the option of claiming the actual
tare. This is ascertained by stripping ten bales and weighing the
covering and the hoops, which means considerable work, and although it
is at the option of the buyer, it is an exception rather than the
rule.
As a result of these causes we find cotton divided into the following
grades:
=Full Grades of Cotton.= Egyptian cotton is graded as follows: extra
fine, fine, good, fully good fair, good fair, fair, middling fair,
middling.
Indian cotton is graded as follows: superfine, fine, fully good, good,
fully good fair, good fair, fully fair.
Brazilian cotton may be classed: fine, good, good fair, fair, middling
fair, middling.
American cotton has seven grades: fair, middling fair, good middling,
middling, low middling, good ordinary, and ordinary.
In addition to the full grades there are half and quarter grades. The
American cottons are graded as follows:
_Full Grades._ _Half Grades._ _Quarter Grades._
Fair, Strict middling fair, Barely fair,
Middling fair, Strict good middling, Fully middling fair,
Good middling, Strict middling, Barely middling fair,
Middling, Strict low middling, Fully good middling,
Low middling, Strict good ordinary, Barely good middling,
Good ordinary, Strict ordinary. Fully middling,
Ordinary. Barely middling,
Fully low middling,
Barely low middling,
Fully good ordinary,
Barely good ordinary.
The following are a few of the leading varieties of cotton, with the
numbers of yarn they will make:
_Cotton._ _Length._ _Warp._ _Filling._
Sea Island (selected) 1-3/4 to 2-1/4 up to 200 250 to 300
Sea Island (ordinary) 1-3/4 to 2 150 220
Florida Sea Island 1-3/4 to 2 150 220
Georgia 1-1/2 to 1-7/8 120 180
Egyptian 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 70 120
Peeler 1-1/4 to 1-3/8 50 70
Orleans or Gulf 1-1/16 to 1-1/4 40 60
Upland 1 to 1-1/8 30 45
Texas 7/8 to 1-1/16 25 35
During the last few years considerable discussion has taken place
among mill men, both in this country and abroad, bearing upon the
subject of moisture contained in baled cotton. Of course the natural
moisture in the cotton fiber varies, as might be expected, from year
to year, according to the character of the season during the picking.
The standard of moisture is based upon what is known as regain, that
is, if 100 parts of absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air, they
will absorb about 8-1/2 per cent of moisture, although a much higher
per cent is sometimes found.
In some of the small Southern mills located in the cotton raising
section, the cotton is delivered by team direct from the gin, without
going through the compress. In this way they save the greater part of
transportation expense. They also save in the strength of the cotton
fiber itself, since the process of compression injures the fiber. They
get better cotton, being nearer the source of supply and having better
opportunities for selection.
When the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale, it is necessary to cut
ties and loosen up the cotton before use. This may be done in two
ways. One method being to pull the bale apart by hand, and the other
to pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine, which loosens up
the cotton by means of beaters. It now starts on a continuous journey
through successive machines until it is made into yarn. The yarn is
made into a warp, and the warp interlaced with the filling yarn to
make cloth, and the cloth finished for the market.
Not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn, for certain
conditions are necessary to manufacture good yarn. If the atmosphere
is too warm or too dry, the fibers will become brittle and will not
twist well; if too wet they collapse and stick. Lancashire County,
England, seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton spinning. It
has just the right climate, a moist temperature, and copious water
supply. There are hills on the east of the valley, forming a water
shed, and the town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay,
that holds the water, allowing it to evaporate just fast enough to
keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the fibers for
weaving. Countries that have not these conditions are obliged to
produce them by artificial means--humidifying, etc.
[Illustration: PICKER ROOM
1. Hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into Picker.
2. "Lap" showing how the cotton is prepared for the card.
3. Picker Machine (complete).]
CHAPTER X
MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN
[Illustration: PICKER ROOM--SHOWING END VIEW OF PICKER
1. Lap of Cotton.]
=Picker Room.= The first step in the conversion of the bale of cotton
into yarn consists in giving the cotton fibers a thorough cleaning.
This is accomplished by feeding the cotton to a series of picker
machines called in order, bale breaker, cotton opener and automatic
feeder, breaker picker, intermediate picker, and finisher picker.
These machines pull to shreds the matted locks and wads of cotton (as
we find them in the bale), beat out the dirt, stones, and seeds, and
finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon the cylinders;
this batting passes from one machine to another until it issues from
the finisher picker as a downy roll or lap.
(Sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill.)
[Illustration: CARD ROOM
1. Roving Can--receptacle to hold the sliver. After it is filled it
is transferred to either ribbon lap machine or drawing frame.
2. Cylinder of the card. The cotton is on this cylinder in the form
of a web.]
=Carding Machine.= When the lap of cotton leaves the picker it goes to
the carding machine, where it is combed into parallel fibers by means
of a revolving cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing.
As the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or lap from
the picker, it is supposed to have been freed from a considerable
quantity of sand, seed, etc., but there still remain nep, fine leaf,
and short fibers, which are removed during carding.
On leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a gossamer-like web
thirty-nine inches broad. This web next passes through small "eyes,"
which condense it into a narrow band about an inch in width, known as
card sliver.
When a lap is delivered from the finisher picker, it should weigh a
given number of ounces per yard. The method of ascertaining the weight
is to make each lap a standard number of yards in length and weigh
each lap. The machine can be regulated so as to give the desired
weight per yard.
=Combing.= When an extremely fine and strong yarn is required, in
addition to carding, the fibers are also subjected to the process of
"combing." This may be said to be merely a continuation of the carding
process to a more perfect degree. The chief object is to extract all
fibers below a certain required length, and cast them aside as
"waste." This is done in order to secure the very best fibers
calculated to give the strongest and best results in the spun yarn.
The process of combing follows carding. The card delivers the cotton
in the form of a sliver or strand, while the combing machine requires
the fibers to be delivered to it in the form of sheets, nine to twelve
inches wide. This is done by taking a number of card slivers and
forming a lap of them by passing the sliver through a sliver lap
machine. The laps are passed through the comber. This machine consists
essentially of a series of rollers, nippers, and rows of metal teeth.
By the action of these, the short fibers are separated and combed out,
and the long ones arranged in parallel order in the form of a thin,
silky strand, in which condition it is sent to the drawing frames to
be drawn out. Of course it must be understood that a combing machine
is used by only a small percentage of cotton spinners. For ordinary
purposes a sufficiently good quality can be made without a comber. As
there is from 15 to 35 per cent waste to this operation it may be
readily seen that it is costly, and limited entirely to the production
of the very best and finest yarns, such as those intended for sewing
or machine thread, fine hosiery, lace curtains, underwear, imitation
silks, and fine grades of white goods. There are combing machines that
comb short staple cotton.
=Drawing.= The cans containing the slivers are taken from the card or
combing machine (as the case may be) to the drawing frame. The object
of this machine is mainly to equalize the slivers, combining a number
of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly. The
condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb is such that a
slight pull will lay them perfectly straight or parallel, and this
pull is given by the drawing frame rollers. Of course the fibers
coming from the comb are parallel, but it is necessary to alternate
them by the drawing. The drawing frame is a machine consisting of a
number of sets of rollers, the front roller having a greater speed
than the rear ones.
[Illustration: COTTON COMB ROOM
1. The cotton in the form of a "lap" ready to pass through the comb.]
The slivers, which are as nearly as possible the same weight per
yard, are combined together in the drawing and emerge from the pair of
front rollers as one sliver weighing the same number of grains per
yard as a single sliver fed up at the back. This process is repeated
two or three times, according to requirements, the material then being
referred to as having passed through so many "heads" of drawing. It is
not unusual to pass Indian and American cotton through three
deliveries.
The object of all the processes thus far described has been that of
cleaning (in the picker), arranging the fibers in a parallel position
to each other, making uniform, and drawing out the stock. In every
case the stock delivered from a machine is lighter than when fed into
it, and contains just twist enough to hold it together and prevent its
being stretched or strained when unwound from the bobbin, and fed into
the next machine. The minimum amount of twist in roving is desirable
for the reason that it permits the stock to be drawn out more easily
and uniformly, the little twist that is put in the roving by the
slubber being practically eliminated when it is passed through the
rolls of the intermediate. The same applies in the case of the roving
passing from the roving to the spinning frame.
=Fly Frames.= The process in the manufacture of yarn after the cotton
has passed through the drawing frame consists of further attenuation
of the sliver, but as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as
is possible without breakage, a small amount of "twist" is introduced
to allow of the continued drawing out of the sliver.
From the drawing frame, the drawing passes through two, three, or four
fly frames, according to the number of yarn to be made. All these
machines are identical in principle and construction, and differ only
in the size of some of the working parts. They are the slubber,
intermediate, roving,--and fine or jack frame-fine, and the function
of each is to draw and twist.
[Illustration: ROVING DEPARTMENT
1. Slubber machine, showing sliver of cotton passing through the
rolls and then given a twist while it is wound on the bobbin.]
=Intermediate Frame.= The function of the intermediate frame is to
receive the slightly twisted rove from the slubber and add thereto a
little more twist and draft. The rove is taken from two bobbins to
one spindle in the machine, an arrangement which tends to insure
strength and uniformity. The principle of the machine is in other
respects the same as that of the slubbing frame.
=Roving Frame.= The function of the roving frame is to receive the
twisted rove from the intermediate and add more twist and draft,
thereby further attenuating the rove. As in the intermediate frame the
rove is generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle.
=Fine or Jack Frame.= This machine is used when fine yarns have to be
made. It is built on the same principle as the preceding frames, the
only difference being that a finer rove is made from which finer
numbers of yarn can be spun. As in the slubber, intermediate, and
roving frames, the rove is taken from two bobbins for one spindle.
=Spinning.= In the manufacture of single ply yarn the final process is
that of spinning, which consists in drawing out the cotton roving to
the required size, and giving it the proper amount of twist necessary
to make the yarn of the required strength. While the spinning frame is
built on entirely different principles from the roving, intermediate,
or slubber frame, the object of each machine is the same as that of
the spinning frame. The principal point of difference is the amount of
twist imparted to the cotton roving.
[Illustration: ROVING ROOM
1. A drawing frame showing the sliver of cotton passing through the
machine.
2. A slubber showing the sliver passing through and wound on bobbins.
3. Roving machine showing the cotton passing from one bobbin through
the roller to another.]
The objects of the spinning process are:
1. Completion of the drawing out of the cotton roving to the required
size.
2. Insertion of the proper amount of twist to give the thread
produced strength.
Excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue wear and tear on
the machine.
There are two methods of spinning: ring spinning and mule spinning.
The mule spinning is the older form. There are but few mule frames in
operation in this country.
=Mule Spinning.= The function of mule spinning is to spin on the bare
spindle, or upon the short paper tubes, when such are required to form
a base for the cop bottom. The mule will spin any counts of yarn
required, and is especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and
"cover" are essentials. Hosiery yarns are produced on the ordinary
cotton mule and are very soft spun.
The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the back of the
machine, the stands of roving being passed through the rolls and drawn
out in the same manner as at the roving frame. The spindles are
mounted on a carriage which moves backward and forward in its relation
to the rolls, the distance roved being about five feet. When the
spindles are moving away from the frame the stock is being delivered
by the rolls, the speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls
being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension. The twist is
put in the yarn at the same time.
[Illustration: SPINNING ROOM. COTTON DEPARTMENT
1. Humidifier--an apparatus to give off moisture.
2. Spinning frames--showing the cotton as it comes from the roving
frame and passes through the spinning frame.]
When the spindles reach their greatest distance from the rolls, the
latter are automatically stopped and the direction of the motion of
the spindle carriage reversed. The yarn is wound on the spindle while
the carriage is being moved back toward the rolls, the motion of the
rolls being stopped in the meanwhile, the spindles revolving only fast
enough to wind up the thread that has been spun during the outward
move of the carriage.
The mule is a much more complicated machine than the ring frame, its
floor space is much greater, and more skilled help is required for its
operation. Under ordinary conditions it is not practical to spin finer
yarn than No. 60s on a ring, while as high as No. 500s is said to have
been spun on a mule. The same number of yarn can be spun on a mule
with less twist than on the ring. This is important in hosiery yarn.
Ring spinning is used for coarse numbers, and has greater production
and requires less labor than mule spinning. Ring-spinning yarn is used
for warp purposes.
=Ring Spinning.= The function of ring spinning is to draw out the rove
and spin it into yarn on a continuous system. The yarn made is spun
upon bobbins.
The ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having the carriage
replaced by a ring, from which the machine takes its name. The ring is
from one and one-half to three inches in diameter, grooved inside and
out, and is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter D,
called the "traveller." Its office is to constitute a drag upon the
yarn, by means of which the latter is wound upon a bobbin. Its size
and weight depend on the counts of yarns to be spun; coarse yarns
demand the largest ring and heaviest traveller.
[Illustration: MULE ROOM
1. Stocks from Finisher ready to be spun upon the mule.
2. Front Rollers with weight levers.
3. Clearers for Front Rollers.
4. Faller shafts containing Sickles.
5. Spindles.
6. Spun Yarn wound on cops.
7. Covers for carriage.
8. Body of carriage.
9. Drawing out band.
10. One of the wheels for the carriage.]
CHAPTER XI
THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING
=Thread.= In general a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool, silk,
etc., spun out to considerable length, is called thread. In a specific
sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns
firmly united by twisting. Thread is used in some kinds of weaving,
but its principal use is for sewing, for which purpose it is composed
of either silk, cotton, or flax. Thread made of silk is technically
known as sewing silk; that made of flax is known as linen thread;
while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool
cotton. These distinctions, while generally observed by trade, are not
always maintained by the public.
The spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade from that made
before the sewing machine came into general use. The early thread was
but three cord, and contained such a large number of knots, thin
places, etc., that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the
machines, so manufacturers were called upon to produce a thread that
would be of the same thickness in every twist. This was effected by
making the thread of six cords instead of three, thereby producing a
smoother and more uniform strand.
=Manufacturing Processes.= The raw cotton for the manufacture of
thread must be of long staple. If the fiber is short the thread made
of it will be weak, and hence unsuited for the purposes required of
it. Ordinary cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the better
grades of spool cotton on account of the shortness of its fiber.
Egyptian and Sea Island cotton are used because they have a much
longer fiber and are softer in texture. The raw cotton comes to the
factory packed in great bales, and is usually stored away for some
months before it is used. The first step in the conversion of the bale
of cotton into thread consists in giving the fiber a thorough
cleaning. This is accomplished by feeding it to a series of pickers
which pull the matted locks and wads to shreds, beat out the dirt and
seeds, and roll the cotton in the form of batting upon cylinders until
it issues from the finisher lap machines as a downy roll or lap.
The lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms, where it is combed
into parallel fibers by means of a revolving cylinder covered with
fine wire teeth, sometimes 90,000 of them to the square foot. On
leaving the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like web
thirty-nine inches broad. This web is next passed through a small
"eye" which condenses it into a narrow band about an inch in width,
known as the sliver. By this time the fiber has been so drawn out that
one yard of the original lap has become 360 yards of the sliver. The
sliver now looks almost perfect, but if it were spun it would not make
good thread. It is necessary to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as
possible, so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the
strand per inch. Besides this, the remaining dirt and short fibers
must be removed and the knots and kinks in the fibers straightened
out. To accomplish these objects the cotton must be "combed." First,
the slivers are passed through several sets of rollers, each set
moving faster than the preceding, so that the strands are drawn out
fine and thin. In this condition the cotton passes to a doubling
frame, and from thence to the lapping frame, a device combining six
laps into one and drawing the whole out into one fine, delicate, ropy
lap.
[Illustration: WARP ROOM
1. Beam on which the warp is wound.
2. Warp.
3. Creel.
4. Spools in the creel.]
The comber now takes the lap and combs out all the impurities and
short fibers, at a sacrifice of about one-fifth of the material; next,
it combines six of these fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one. A
number of these rolls are then drawn out by another machine twelve
times as long as they were before and twisted together on a slubbing
frame. This last drawing reduces the roll to about the thickness of
zephyr yarn. After being further doubled and twisted, the yarn, or
roll, is ready for the mule spinner, which accomplishes by means of
hundreds of spindles and wheels what the housewife once did with her
spinning wheel. The mule, however, does the work of more than 1,000
hand spinners and takes up much less space. On this machine 900
spindles take the yarn from 1,800 bobbins, and by means of
accelerating rollers and a carriage draw out and twist it to the
proper fineness for the size of thread wanted. Having passed through
the complex processes of cleansing, combing, drawing, and spinning,
the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various sizes, and the real
work of thread making, which is a distinct art from yarn making,
begins.
The thread-making process is briefly as follows: The yarn is doubled
and twisted; then three of such yarns are twisted together, which give
the six-fold combination for six-cord thread. For a three-cord thread
three yarns are twisted together. After the twisting is completed the
thread is reeled into skeins having a continuous length of 4,000 to
12,000 yards, according to the size, and is then sent to the
examining department where it is rigidly inspected. Every strand is
looked over, and any found to be defective are laid aside, so that
when the thread is put on the market it shall be as perfect as care
and skill can make it.
At this stage of the work the skeins of thread are of the pale cream
color common to all unbleached cotton goods, and are technically known
as "in the gray." They therefore have to be bleached pure white or
dyed in fast colors. The skeins, whether intended for white or colored
thread, are first placed in large, steam-tight iron tanks and boiled.
Here the thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six or
seven hours; when removed it is perfectly clean, but still retains the
brownish gray color of unbleached cotton. It then goes into a bath of
chloride of lime and is bleached as white as snow. The skeins are next
drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chloride. Another
boiling, another bleaching, a bath of soapsuds, and the final rinsing,
complete the cleansing and whitening process. Those skeins intended
for colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and placed in tanks
filled with suitably prepared dyeing solutions.
[Illustration: TWISTING ROOM
1. Humidifier.
2. Twister machine.
3. Boxes containing spools of cotton, ready to be put in creel and
form warp.]
From the bleaching and dyeing departments the skeins of thread go
back to the mill to be wound on the bobbins, and from the bobbins
finally on the small wooden spools. The automatic winding machines can
be regulated to wind any given number of yards. The small spools are
fastened on pivots, the thread from the bobbins fastened on the
spools, and the machines set in motion. At the required number of
yards the spools stop revolving. The ordinary spool of cotton thread
contains 200 yards, and when this has been wound on, the thread is cut
with a knife by an attendant, who also cuts the little nick in the rim
of the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread. Thread mills
commonly print their own labels, and these are affixed to the spools
by special machinery with remarkable rapidity. From the labeling
machine the spools go to an inspector, who examines each one for
imperfections, and any that are found faulty are discarded. When
packed in pasteboard boxes or in cabinets the thread is ready for
market.
=Thread Numbers.= Spool cotton for ordinary use is made in sizes
ranging from No. 8 coarse to No. 200 fine. In cotton yarn numbering,
the fineness of the spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks,
each containing 840 yards, which are required to weigh one pound, as
illustrated in the following table:
When 1 hank of cotton yarn ( 840 yds.) weigh 1 lb. it is No. 1
" 10 " " " " ( 8,400 yds.) " " " " 10
" 16 " " " " (13,440 yds.) " " " " 16
" 30 " " " " (25,200 yds.) " " " " 30
" 50 " " " " (42,000 yds.) " " " " 50
" 100 " " " " (84,000 yds.) " " " " 100
The early manufactured thread was three cord, and took its number from
the size of the yarn from which it was made. No. 60 yarn made No. 60
thread, though in point of fact the actual caliber of No. 60 thread
would equal No. 20 yarn, being three No. 60 strands combined
together. When the sewing machine came into the market as the great
consumer of thread, spool cotton had to be made a smoother and more
even product than had previously been necessary for hand needles. This
was accomplished by using six strands instead of three, the yarns
being twice as fine. As thread numbers were already established, they
were not altered for the new article, and consequently at the present
time No. 60 six-cord, for example, and No. 60 three-cord are identical
in size, though in reality No. 60 six-cord is formed of No. 120 yarns.
It is relatively smoother, more even, and stronger than the three-cord
grade. All sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands, each of
the latter being twice as fine as the number of the thread as
designated by the label. Three-cord spool cotton is made of three
strands of yarn, each of the same number as the thread.
=Sizing.= In textile manufacturing, sizing is the process of
strengthening warp yarns by coating them with a preparation of starch,
flour, etc., in order that they may withstand the weaving process
without chafing or breaking. The operation of sizing is also often
resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton and linen fabrics,
which are sized or dressed with various mixtures in order to create an
appearance of weight and strength where these qualities do not exist,
or, if present, only in a small degree. The object in sizing warp yarn
before weaving is to enable that process to be performed with the
minimum of threads breaking. Judicious sizing adds to the strength of
the yarn by filling up the spaces between the fibers, and by binding
the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main part. In order
to accomplish this a number of ingredients are used in the size
preparation, as no single material used alone gives satisfactory
results. The filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the
adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with sufficient
hardness to resist the continual chafing of the shuttles, reeds, and
harnesses during the process of weaving. Flour and starch in a liquid
state are used for this purpose, but owing to the liability to mildew,
flour is not so much used as starch. Both of these materials, however,
make the yarn brittle, and other ingredients are combined with them to
overcome the brittleness. For a softener on heavy weight goods nothing
has been found superior to good beef tallow. On light-weight goods the
softener giving the most general satisfaction is paraffin.
When properly made the size preparation is a smooth mass of uniform
consistence, free from lumps of any kind, and from all sediment and
odor. Starch--the principal material which gives body to any
size--requires the most careful treatment. It is first mixed with cold
water into a smooth, creamy milk, which is slowly poured into the
necessary quantity of boiling water until a clear, uniform paste is
formed. Then the softeners are added, such as soaps, oils, and animal
fats; next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred in and some
form of preservative, usually chloride of zinc or salicylic acid. The
mass is then thoroughly stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with
mechanical stirrers. The size may be applied to the yarn either hot or
cold. When applied hot it penetrates into the interior, filling up
every space between the fibers, binding all together, and forming a
hard coating on the surface of the thread. A thorough washing or
steaming serves to remove all the size from the woven fabric.
[Illustration: FINISHING ROOM]
=Cotton Finishing.= Cotton fabrics, like other textiles, after leaving
the loom must be subjected to various finishing processes so as to
bring them into commercial condition. On piece-dyed goods part of the
finishing is done before and part after the dyeing process. Each class
of fabrics has definite finishing processes. In some cases weighting
materials are added to the fabric so as to hide more or less its
actual construction. Cotton fabrics just from the loom present a soft
and open structure, more so than other textiles. Therefore it is
necessary to use proper finishing materials and processes which will
fill up the openings or interstices as produced in the fabric by the
interlacing of warp and filling, and at the same time give to the
fabric a certain amount of stiffness
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