← catalogue

A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School

by Catharine Esther Beecher · English · Gutenberg #21829 · 770,790 chars · public domain (US)

The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School
    
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School

Author: Catharine Esther Beecher


        
Release date: June 14, 2007 [eBook #21829]
                Most recently updated: January 2, 2021

Language: English

Original publication: New-York: Harper & Brothers, 82 Cliff Street, 1845

Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/21829

Credits: E-text prepared by Jason Isbell, Karen Dalrymple, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON DOMESTIC ECONOMY; FOR THE USE OF YOUNG LADIES AT HOME AND AT SCHOOL ***


E-text prepared by Jason Isbell, Karen Dalrymple, and the Project
Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)



Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
      file which includes the original illustrations.
      See 21829-h.htm or 21829-h.zip:
      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/8/2/21829/21829-h/21829-h.htm)
      or
      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/8/2/21829/21829-h.zip)


Transcriber's note:

      Page numbers 10 and 370 were skipped in the original text;
      they are not missing. There were two pages 355 and 356 in
      the original; the two between page 354 and the first page
      355 have been renumbered 354a and 345b and references to
      them in the text changed accordingly.

      Printer errors were corrected silently and hyphenation was
      made consistent, but variant spellings have been preserved.





A TREATISE ON DOMESTIC ECONOMY,

For the Use of Young Ladies at Home, and at School.

by

MISS CATHERINE E. BEECHER.

Revised Edition,
With Numerous Additions and Illustrative Engravings.







New-York:
Harper & Brothers, 82 Cliff Street.
1845.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by
Thomas H. Webb, & Co.,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.




TO

AMERICAN MOTHERS,

whose intelligence and virtues have inspired admiration and respect,
whose experience has furnished many valuable suggestions, in this work,
whose approbation will be highly valued, and whose influence, in
promoting the object aimed at, is respectfully solicited, this work is
dedicated, by their friend and countrywoman,

THE AUTHOR.






PREFACE

TO THE THIRD EDITION.


The author of this work was led to attempt it, by discovering, in her
extensive travels, the deplorable sufferings of multitudes of young
wives and mothers, from the combined influence of _poor health_, _poor
domestics_, _and a defective domestic education_. The number of young
women whose health is crushed, ere the first few years of married life
are past, would seem incredible to one who has not investigated this
subject, and it would be vain to attempt to depict the sorrow,
discouragement, and distress experienced in most families where the wife
and mother is a perpetual invalid.

The writer became early convinced that this evil results mainly from the
fact, that young girls, especially in the more wealthy classes, _are not
trained for their profession_. In early life, they go through a course
of school training which results in great debility of constitution,
while, at the same time, their physical and domestic education is almost
wholly neglected. Thus they enter on their most arduous and sacred
duties so inexperienced and uninformed, and with so little muscular and
nervous strength, that probably there is not _one chance in ten_, that
young women of the present day, will pass through the first years of
married life without such prostration of health and spirits as makes
life a burden to themselves, and, it is to be feared, such as seriously
interrupts the confidence and happiness of married life.

The measure which, more than any other, would tend to remedy this evil,
would be to place _domestic economy_ on an equality with the other
sciences in female schools. This should be done because it _can_ be
properly and systematically taught (not _practically_, but as a
_science_), as much so as _political economy_ or _moral science_, or any
other branch of study; because it embraces knowledge, which will be
needed by young women at all times and in all places; because this
science can never be _properly_ taught until it is made a branch of
_study_; and because this method will secure a dignity and importance in
the estimation of young girls, which can never be accorded while they
perceive their teachers and parents practically attaching more value to
every other department of science than this. When young ladies are
taught the construction of their own bodies, and all the causes in
domestic life which tend to weaken the constitution; when they are
taught rightly to appreciate and learn the most convenient and
economical modes of performing all family duties, and of employing time
and money; and when they perceive the true estimate accorded to these
things by teachers and friends, the grand cause of this evil will be
removed. Women will be trained to secure, as of first importance, a
strong and healthy constitution, and all those rules of thrift and
economy that will make domestic duty easy and pleasant.

To promote this object, the writer prepared this volume as a _text-book_
for female schools. It has been examined by the Massachusetts Board of
Education, and been deemed worthy by them to be admitted as a part of
the Massachusetts School Library.

It has also been adopted as a text-book in some of our largest and most
popular female schools, both at the East and West.

The following, from the pen of Mr. George B. Emmerson, one of the most
popular and successful teachers in our country, who has introduced this
work as a text-book in his own school, will exhibit the opinion of one
who has formed his judgment from experience in the use of the work:

"It may be objected that such things cannot be taught by books. Why not?
Why may not the structure of the human body, and the laws of health
deduced therefrom, be as well taught as the laws of natural philosophy?
Why are not the application of these laws to the management of infants
and young children as important to a woman as the application of the
rules of arithmetic to the extraction of the cube root? Why may not the
properties of the atmosphere be explained, in reference to the proper
ventilation of rooms, or exercise in the open air, as properly as to the
burning of steel or sodium? Why is not the human skeleton as curious and
interesting as the air-pump; and the action of the brain, as the action
of a steam-engine? Why may not the healthiness of different kinds of
food and drink, the proper modes of cooking, and the rules in reference
to the modes and times of taking them, be discussed as properly as rules
of grammar, or facts in history? Are not the principles that should
regulate clothing, the rules of cleanliness, the advantages of early
rising and domestic exercise, as readily communicated as the principles
of mineralogy, or rules of syntax? Are not the rules of Jesus Christ,
applied to refine _domestic manners_ and preserve a _good temper_, as
important as the abstract principles of ethics, as taught by Paley,
Wayland, or Jouffroy? May not the advantages of neatness, system, and
order, be as well illustrated in showing how they contribute to the
happiness of a family, as by showing how they add beauty to a copy-book,
or a portfolio of drawings? Would not a teacher be as well employed in
teaching the rules of economy, in regard to time and expenses, or in
regard to dispensing charity, as in teaching double, or single entry in
bookkeeping? Are not the principles that should guide in constructing a
house, and in warming and ventilating it properly, as important to young
girls as the principles of the Athenian Commonwealth, or the rules of
Roman tactics? Is it not as important that children should be taught the
dangers to the mental faculties, when over-excited on the one hand, or
left unoccupied on the other, as to teach them the conflicting theories
of political economy, or the speculations of metaphysicians? For
ourselves, we have always found children, especially girls, peculiarly
ready to listen to what they saw would prepare them for future duties.
The truth, that education should be _a preparation for actual, real
life_, has the greatest force with children. The constantly-recurring
inquiry, 'What will be _the use_ of this study?' is always satisfied by
showing, that it will prepare for any duty, relation, or office which,
in the natural course of things, will be likely to come.

"We think this book extremely well suited to be used as a text-book in
schools for young ladies, and many chapters are well adapted for a
reading book for children of both sexes."

To this the writer would add the testimony of a lady who has used this
work with several classes of young girls and young ladies. She remarked
that she had never known a school-book that awakened more interest, and
that some young girls would learn a lesson in this when they would study
nothing else. She remarked, also, that when reciting the chapter on the
construction of houses, they became greatly interested in inventing
plans of their own, which gave an opportunity to the teacher to point
out difficulties and defects. Had this part of domestic economy been
taught in schools, our land would not be so defaced with awkward,
misshapen, inconvenient, and, at the same time, needlessly expensive
houses, as it now is.

Although the writer was trained to the care of children, and to perform
all branches of domestic duty, by some of the best of housekeepers, much
in these pages is offered, not as the result of her own experience, but
as what has obtained the approbation of some of the most judicious
mothers and housekeepers in the nation. The articles on Physiology and
Hygiene, and those on horticulture, were derived from standard works on
these subjects, and are sanctioned by the highest authorities.

_The American Housekeeper's Receipt Book_ is another work prepared by
the author of the Domestic Economy, in connexion with several
experienced housekeepers, and is designed for a supplement to this work.
On pages 354a and 354b will be found the Preface and Analysis of
that work, the two books being designed for a complete course of
instructions on every department of Domestic Economy.

The copyright interest in these two works is held by a board of
gentlemen appointed for the purpose, who, after paying a moderate
compensation to the author for the time and labour spent in preparing
these works, will employ all the remainder paid over by the publishers,
to aid in educating and locating such female teachers as wish to be
employed in those portions of our country, which are most destitute of
schools.

The contract with the publisher provides that the publisher shall
guaranty the sales and thus secure against any losses for bad debts, for
which he shall receive five _per cent_. He shall charge twenty per cent.
for commissions paid to retailers, and also the expenses of printing,
paper, and binding, at the current market prices, and make no other
charges. The net profits thus determined are then to be divided equally,
the publishers taking one half, and paying the other half to the board
above mentioned.





CONTENTS.


PREFACE,                                                              7


CHAPTER I.

PECULIAR RESPONSIBILITIES OF AMERICAN WOMEN.

American Women should feel a peculiar Interest in Democratic
Institutions. The Maxim of our Civil Institutions. Its Identity
with the main Principle of Christianity. Relations involving
Subordination; why they are needful. Examples. How these Relations
are decided in a Democracy. What decides the Equity of any Law or
Institution. The Principle of Aristocracy. The Tendency of
Democracy in Respect to the Interests of Women. Illustrated in the
United States. Testimony of De Tocqueville. Miss Martineau's
Misrepresentations. In what Respects are Women subordinate? and
why? Wherein are they equal or superior in Influence? and how are
they placed by Courtesy? How can American Women rectify any real
Disadvantages involved in our Civil Institutions? Opinion of De
Tocqueville as to the Influence and Example of American Democracy.
Responsibilities involved in this View, especially those of
American Women,                                                       25


CHAPTER II.

DIFFICULTIES PECULIAR TO AMERICAN WOMEN.

A Law of Moral Action to be noted. Its Application. Considerations
to be borne in Mind, in appreciating peculiar Trials. Application
to American Women. Difference between this and Aristocratic
Countries. How this affects the Interests of American Women. Effect
of Wealth, in this Country, on Domestic Service. Effects on the
Domestic Comfort of Women. Second peculiar Trial of American Women.
Extent of this Evil. The Writer's Observation on this Point.
Effects on the Anticipations of Mothers and Daughters. Infrequency
of Healthful Women in the Wealthy Classes. Causes which operate to
undermine the Female Constitution. Excitement of Mind. Course of
Intellectual Training. Taxation, in Domestic Life, of American
Mothers and Housekeepers. Exercise and Fresh Air needful to
balance Mental Excitement. Defect in American, compared with
English, Customs, in this Respect. Difference in the Health and
Youthfulness of Appearance between English and American Mothers.
Liabilities of American Women to the uncommon Exposures of a New
Country. Remarks of De Tocqueville and the Writer on this Point,      38


CHAPTER III.

REMEDIES FOR THE PRECEDING DIFFICULTIES.

First Remedy suggested. Obligations of Wealthy Ladies on this
Point. How a Dearth of Domestics may prove a Blessing. Second
Remedy. Domestic Economy should be taught in Schools. Third Remedy.
Reasons for endowing Colleges and Professional Schools. Similar
Reasons exist for endowing Female Institutions. Present Evils in
conducting Female Education. A Sketch of a Model Female
Institution. Accommodations provided. Mode of securing Exercise to
Pupils. Objections to this answered. Calisthenics. Course of
Intellectual Discipline adopted. Mode of Division of Labor adopted.
Example of Illinois in Regard to Female Education. Economy of
Health and Time secured by such Institutions. Plan suggested for
the Early Education of Young Girls. Last Remedy suggested,            48


CHAPTER IV.

ON DOMESTIC ECONOMY AS A BRANCH OF STUDY.

Impediment to making Domestic Economy a Study at School. First
Reason why it should be so made. State of Domestic Service
precarious. Second Reason. Examples illustrating. Third Reason.
Questions asked. First Objection; how answered. Next Objection; how
answered. Next Objection; how answered. Last Reason,                  63


CHAPTER V.

ON THE CARE OF HEALTH.

Importance of a Knowledge of the Laws of Health, and of the Human
System, to Females. Construction of the Human Frame. BONES;
their Structure, Design, and Use. Engraving and Description. Spinal
Column. Engravings of Vertebræ. Exercise of the Bones. MUSCLES;
their Constitution, Use, and Connection with the Bones. Engraving and
Description. Operation of Muscles. NERVES; their Use. Spinal
Column. Engravings and Descriptions. Distortions of the Spine.
Engravings and Descriptions. BLOOD-VESSELS; their Object.
Engravings and Descriptions. The Heart, and its Connection with the
System. Engravings and Descriptions. ORGANS OF DIGESTION AND
RESPIRATION. Engraving and Description. Process of Digestion.
Circulation of the Blood. Process of Respiration. Necessity of Pure
Air. THE SKIN. Process of Perspiration. Insensible Perspiration.
Heat of the Body. Absorbents. Importance of frequent Ablutions and
Change of Garments. Follicles of Oily Matter in the Skin. Nerves of
Feeling,                                                              68


CHAPTER VI.

ON HEALTHFUL FOOD.

Responsibility of a Housekeeper in Regard to Health and Food. The
most fruitful Cause of Disease. Gastric Juice; how proportioned.
Hunger the Natural Guide as to Quantity of Food. A Benevolent
Provision; how perverted, and its Effects. A Morbid Appetite, how
caused. Effects of too much Food in the Stomach. Duty of a
Housekeeper in Reference to this. Proper Time for taking Food.
Peristaltic Motion. Need of Rest to the Muscles of the Stomach.
Time necessary between each Meal. Exceptions of hard Laborers and
active Children. Exercise; its Effect on all parts of the Body. How
it produces Hunger. What is to be done by those who have lost the
Guidance of Hunger in regulating the Amount of Food. On Quality of
Food. Difference as to Risk from bad Food, between Healthy Persons
who exercise, and those of Delicate and Sedentary Habits.
Stimulating Food; its Effects. Condiments needed only for Medicine,
and to be avoided as Food. Difference between Animal and Vegetable
Food. Opinion of some Medical Men. Medical Men agree as to the
Excess of Animal Food in American Diet. Extracts from Medical
Writers on this Point. Articles most easily digested. The most
Unhealthful Articles result from bad cooking. Caution as to Mode of
Eating. Reason why Mental and Bodily Exertions are injurious after
a full Meal. Changes in Diet should be gradual; and why. Drink most
needed at Breakfast; and why. Dinner should be the heartiest Meal;
and why. Little Drink to be taken while eating; and why. Extremes
of Heat or Cold; why injurious in Food. Fluids immediately absorbed
from the Stomach. Why Soups are hard of Digestion. Case of Alexis
St. Martin. Why highly-concentrated Nourishment is not good for
Health. Beneficial Effects of using Unbolted Flour. Scarcity of
Wheat under William Pitt's Administration, and its Effects. Causes
of a Debilitated Constitution from the Misuse of Food,                94


CHAPTER VII.

ON HEALTHFUL DRINKS.

Responsibility of a Housekeeper in this Respect. Stimulating Drinks
not required for the Perfection of the Human System. Therefore
they are needless. First Evil in using them. Second Evil. Five
Kinds of Stimulating Articles in Use in this Country. First
Argument in Favor of Stimulants, and how answered. Second Argument;
how answered. The Writer's View of the Effects of Tea and Coffee on
American Females. Duty in Reference to Children. Black Tea the most
harmless Stimulant. Warm Drinks not needful. Hot Drinks injurious.
Effect of Hot Drinks on Teeth. Mexican Customs and their Effects
illustrating this. Opinion of Dr. Combe on this subject. Difference
between the Stimulus of Animal Food and the Stimulating Drinks
used. Common Habit of Drinking freely of Cold Water debilitating.
Persons taking but little Exercise require but little Drink,         106


CHAPTER VIII.

ON CLOTHING.

Calculations made from Bills of Mortality; and Inference from them.
Causes of Infant Mortality. Of the Circulation in Infancy. Warm
Dress for Infants; and why. Investigations in France, and Results.
Dangers from the opposite Extreme. Effects of too much Clothing.
Rule of Safety. Featherbeds; why unhealthy in Warm Weather. Best
Nightgowns for Young Children. Clothing; how to be proportioned.
Irrational Dress of Women. Use of Flannel next the Skin. Evils of
Tight Dresses to Women. False Taste in our Prints of Fashions.
Modes in which Tight Dresses operate to weaken the Constitution.
Rule of Safety as to Looseness of Dress. Example of English Ladies
in Appropriateness of Dress,                                         112


CHAPTER IX.

ON CLEANLINESS.

Importance of Cleanliness not realized, without a Knowledge of the
Nature of the Skin. Foundation of the Maxim respecting the
Healthfulness of Dirt. Office of the Skin. Other Organs which
perform similar Duties. Amount of Matter daily exhaled by the Skin.
Effect of a Chill upon the Skin, when perspiring. Illustration of
this. Effect of closing the Pores of the Skin, with Dirt or other
Matter. The Skin absorbs Matter into the Blood. Reasons for a Daily
Ablution of the whole Body. Effects of Fresh Air on Clothing worn
next the Skin. Americans compared with other Nations as to Care of
the Skin. Cautions in Regard to a Use of the Bath. How to decide
when Cold Bathing is useful. Warm Bath tends to prevent Colds; and
why. When a Bath should be taken. Advantages of General Ablutions
to Children. Care of the Teeth,                                      118


CHAPTER X.

ON EARLY RISING.

Universal Impression in Respect to this Practice. Why it should be
regarded as American and Democratic. Practice in Aristocratic
Circles in England. Appeal to American Women. First Consideration
in Favor of Early Rising. Another Physiological Reason in its
Favor. Another Reason. Time necessary for Sleep. Proper Hours for
Rising and Retiring. Evils of protracted Sleep. Testimony of Sir
John Sinclair. Another Reason for Early Rising. Responsibility of
Parents for the Health and Industry of a Family. Effects of Early
Rising on General Society,                                           122


CHAPTER XI.

ON DOMESTIC EXERCISE.

Causes which produce Delicacy and Decay of the Female Constitution.
Want of Exercise. Neglect of the Laws of Health. Want of Pure Air.
Objectionable Amusements. Sleeping by Day. Want of Exercise a
greater Cause of these Evils, than all the Others combined.
Importance of understanding the Influence of the Neglect or Abuse
of the Muscular System. Nerves of Sensation and of Motion. Both
need Exercise. Rules for Exercise. Importance of a Feeling of
Interest in taking Exercise. Walks merely for Exercise. Exercise
most proper for Young Girls. Exercise, more than any Thing else,
imparts fresh Strength and Vitality to all Parts of the Body.
Mistakes of Mothers and Teachers on this Subject. Effects of
neglecting to use the Muscles; Effects of excessive Use of them.
Effect of School Confinement and Seats. Extract from the Young
Lady's Friend. Lady Montagu. Daughter of a French Nobleman,          128


CHAPTER XII.

ON DOMESTIC MANNERS.

What are Good-manners. Defect in American Manners. Coldness and
Reserve of the Descendants of the Puritans accounted for. Cause of
the Want of Courtesy in American Manners. Want of Discrimination.
Difference of Principles regulating Aristocratic and Democratic
Manners. Rules for regulating the Courtesies founded on Precedence
of Age, Office, and Station, in a Democracy. Manners appropriate to
Superiors and Subordinates. Miss Martineau's Remarks on the
Universal Practice of Americans to give Precedence to Woman.
Peculiar Defect of Americans in this Respect. This to be remedied
in the Domestic Circle, alone. Rules of Precedence to be enforced
in the Family. Manners and Tones towards Superiors to be regulated
in the Family. Treatment of grown Brothers and Sisters by Young
Children. Acknowledgement of Favors by Children to be required.
Children to ask leave or apologize in certain Cases. Rules for
avoiding Remarks that wound the Feelings of Others. Rules of
Hospitality. Conventional Rules. Rules for Table Manners. Caution
as to teaching these Rules to Children. Caution as to Allowances to
be made for those deficient in Good-manners. Comparison of English
and American Manners, by De Tocqueville. America may hope to excel
all Nations in Refinement, Taste, and Good-breeding; and why.
Effects of Wealth and Equalisation of Labor. Allusion to the
Manners of Courts in the past Century,                               136


CHAPTER XIII.

ON THE PRESERVATION OF A GOOD TEMPER IN A HOUSEKEEPER.

Influence of a Housekeeper on Domestic Happiness. Contrasts to
illustrate. Sympathy. Influence of Tones. Allowances to be made for
Housekeepers. Considerations to aid in regulating Temper and Tones.
First; Her Duties to be regarded as Dignified, Important, and
Difficult. Second; She should feel that she really has Great
Difficulties to meet and overcome. Third; She should deliberately
calculate upon having her Plans interfered with, and be prepared
for the Emergency. Fourth; All her Plans should be formed
consistently with the Means at Command. Fifth; System, Economy, and
Neatness, only valuable when they tend to promote the Comfort and
Well-being of the Family. Sixth; Government of Tones of Voice. Some
Persons think Angry Tones needful. They mistake. Illustration.
Scolding, Unlady-like, and in Bad Taste. A Forgiving Spirit
necessary. Seventh and Last Consideration offered; Right View of a
Superintending Providence. Fretfulness and Complaining sinful,       148


CHAPTER XIV.

ON HABITS OF SYSTEM AND ORDER.

Question of the Equality of the Sexes, frivolous and useless.
Relative Importance and Difficulty of the Duties a Woman is called
to perform. Her Duties not trivial. More difficult than those of
the Queen of a great Nation. A Habit of System and Order necessary.
Right Apportionment of Time, General Principles. Christianity to be
the Foundation. Intellectual and Social Interests to be preferred
to Gratification of Taste or Appetite. The Latter to be last in our
Estimation. No Sacrifice of Health allowable. Neglect of Health a
Sin in the Sight of God. Regular Season of Rest appointed by the
Creator. Divisions of Time. Systematic Arrangement of House
Articles and other Conveniences. Regular Employment for each Member
of a Family. Children can be of great Service. Boys should be
taught Family Work. Advantage to them in Afterlife. Older Children
to take Care of Infants of a Family,                                 155


CHAPTER XV.

ON GIVING IN CHARITY.

No Point of Duty more difficult to fix by Rule, than Charity. First
Consideration;--Object for which we are placed in this World. How to
be perfectly happy. Self-denying Benevolence. Important Distinction.
Second Consideration;--Natural Principles not to be exterminated,
but regulated and controlled. All Constitutional Propensities good,
and designed to be gratified. Their Abuses to be guarded against.
Third Consideration;--Superfluities sometimes proper, and sometimes
not. Fourth Consideration;--No Rule of Duty right for One and not
for All. The Opposite of this Principle tested. Some Use of
Superfluities necessary. Physical Gratifications should always be
subordinate to Social, Intellectual, and Moral Advantages.
Difficulties in the Way. Remarks upon them. Plan for Keeping an
Account of Necessaries and Superfluities. Untoward Results of our
Actions do not always prove that we deserve Blame. Examples of
Conformity to the Rules here laid down. General Principles to guide
in deciding upon Objects of Charity. Parable of Good Samaritan. Who
are our Neighbors. Those most in Need to be first relieved.
Intellectual and Moral Wants more necessary to be supplied than
Physical. Not much Need of Charity in supplying Physical Wants in
this Country. System of Associated Charities, in which many small
Sums are combined. Indiscriminate Charity--Very injurious to
Society, as a General Rule. Exceptions. Impropriety of judging of
the Charities of Others,                                             167


CHAPTER XVI.

ON ECONOMY OF TIME AND EXPENSES.

_Economy of Time._ Value of Time. Right Apportionment of Time. Laws
appointed by God for the Jews. Proportions of Property and Time the
Jews were required to devote to Intellectual, Benevolent, and
Religious Purposes. The Levites. The weekly Sabbath. The Sabbatical
Year. Three sevenths of the Time of the Jews devoted to God's
Service. Christianity removes the Restrictions laid on the Jews,
but demands all our Time to be devoted to our own best Interests
and the Good of our Fellow-men. Some Practical Good to be the
Ultimate End of all our Pursuits. Enjoyment connected with the
Performance of every Duty. Great Mistake of Mankind. A Final
Account to be given of the Apportionment of our Time. Various Modes
of economizing Time. System and Order. Uniting several Objects in
one Employment. Employment of Odd Intervals of Time. We are bound
to aid Others in economizing Time. _Economy in Expenses._ Necessity
of Information on this Point. Contradictory Notions. General
Principles in which all agree. Knowledge of Income and Expenses.
Every One bound to do as much as she can to secure System and
Order. Examples. Evils of Want of System and Forethought. Young
Ladies should early learn to be systematic and economical.
Articles of Dress and Furniture should be in Keeping with each
other, and with the Circumstances of the Family. Mistaken Economy.
Education of Daughters away from Home injudicious. Nice Sewing
should be done at Home. Cheap Articles not always most economical.
Buying by wholesale economical only in special cases. Penurious
Savings made by getting the Poor to work cheap. Relative
Obligations of the Poor and the Rich in Regard to Economy. Economy
of Providence in the Unequal Distribution of Property. Carelessness
of Expense not a Mark of Gentility. Beating down Prices improper in
Wealthy People. Inconsistency in American would-be Fashionables,     180


CHAPTER XVII.

ON HEALTH OF MIND.

Intimate Connection between the Body and Mind. Brain excited by
improper Stimulants taken into the Stomach. Mental Faculties then
affected. Example of a Person having lost a Portion of his Skull.
Causes of Mental Diseases. Want of Oxygenized Blood. Fresh Air
absolutely necessary. Excessive Exercise of the Intellect or
Feelings a Cause of Derangement. Such Attention to Religion, as
prevents the Performance of other Duties, wrong. Teachers and
Parents should look to this. Unusual Precocity in Children usually
the Result of a Diseased Brain. Parents generally add Fuel to this
Fever. Idiocy often the Result, or the Precocious Child sinks below
the Average of Mankind. This Evil yet prevalent in Colleges and
other Seminaries. A Medical Man necessary in every Seminary. Some
Pupils always needing Restraint in Regard to Study. A Third Cause
of Mental Disease, the Want of Appropriate Exercise of the Various
Faculties of the Mind. Extract from Dr. Combe. Examples of Wealthy
Ladies. Beneficial Results of active Intellectual Employments.
Indications of a Diseased Mind,                                      195


CHAPTER XVIII.

ON THE CARE OF DOMESTICS.

No Subject on which American Women need more Wisdom, Patience,
Principle, and Self-control. Its Difficulties. Necessary Evils.
Miseries of Aristocratic Lands. Wisdom of Conforming to Actual
Circumstances. How to judge correctly respecting Domestics. They
should be treated as we would expect to be under similar
Circumstances. When Labor is scarce, its Value is increased.
Instability of Domestics; how it may be remedied. Pride and
Insubordination; how remedied. Abhorrence of Servitude a National
Trait of Character. Domestics easily convinced of the Appropriateness
of different Degrees of Subordination. Example. Domestics may be
easily induced to be respectful in their Deportment, and appropriate
in their Dress. Deficiencies of Qualifications for the Performance
of their Duties; how remedied. Forewarning, better than Chiding.
Preventing, better than finding Fault. Faults should be pointed
out in a Kind Manner. Some Employers think it their Office and Duty
to find Fault. Domestics should be regarded with Sympathy and
Forbearance,                                                         204


CHAPTER XIX.

ON THE CARE OF INFANTS.

Necessity of a Knowledge of this Subject, to every Young Lady.
Examples. Extracts from Doctors Combe, Bell, and Eberle. Half the
Deaths of Infants owing to Mismanagement, and Errors in Diet.
Errors of Parents and Nurses. Error of administering Medicines to
Children, unnecessarily. Need of Fresh Air, Attention to Food,
Cleanliness, Dress, and Bathing. Cholera Infantum not cured by
Nostrums. Formation of Good Habits in Children,                      213


CHAPTER XX.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN.

Physical Education of Children. Remark of Dr. Clark, and Opinion of
other Medical Men. Many Popular Notions relating to Animal Food for
Children, erroneous. The Formation of the Human Teeth and Stomach
does not indicate that Man was designed to live on Flesh. Opinions
of Linnæus and Cuvier. Stimulus of Animal Food not necessary to
Full Developement of the Physical and Intellectual Powers.
Examples. Of Laplanders, Kamtschatkadales, Scotch Highlanders,
Siberian Exiles, Africans, Arabs. Popular Notion that Animal Food
is more Nourishing than Vegetable. Different Opinions on this
Subject. Experiments. Opinions of Dr. Combe and others. Examples of
Men who lived to a great Age. Dr. Franklin's Testimony. Sir Isaac
Newton and others. Albany Orphan Asylum. Deleterious Practice of
allowing Children to eat at short Intervals. Intellectual Training.
Schoolrooms. Moral Character. Submission, Self-denial, and
Benevolence, the three most important Habits to be formed in Early
Life. Extremes to be guarded against. Medium Course. Adults
sometimes forget the Value which Children set on Trifles. Example.
Impossible to govern Children, properly, without appreciating the
Value they attach to their Pursuits and Enjoyments. Those who
govern Children should join in their Sports. This the best way to
gain their Confidence and Affection. But Older Persons should never
lose the Attitude of Superiors. Unsteadiness in Government.
Illustrations. Punishment from unsteady Governors, does little
Good. Over-Government. Want of Patience and Self-control in Parents
and Governors. Example of Parents more effectual than their
Precepts. Formation of Habits of Self-denial in Early Life. Denying
Ourselves to promote the Happiness of Others. Habits of Honesty and
Veracity. Habits of Modesty. Delicacy studiously to be cherished.
Licentious and Impure Books to be banished. Bulwer a Licentious
Writer, and to be discountenanced,                                   220


CHAPTER XXI.

ON THE CARE OF THE SICK.

Women frequently called upon to direct in Cases of Indisposition.
Extremes to be avoided. Grand Cause of most Diseases, Excess in
Eating and Drinking. Fasting useful. Extracts from Doctors Burne
and Combe. Necessity of a Woman's Understanding the Nature and
Operation of Common Medicines. Simple Electuary. Discretion
required. Useful Directions in Regard to Nursing the Sick. Fresh
Air absolutely necessary. Frequent Ablutions important. Dressing a
Blister. Arrangements to be made beforehand, when practicable.
Importance of Cleanliness; Nothing more annoying to the Sick, than
a want of it. Necessity of a proper Preparation of Food, for the
Sick. Physicians' Directions to be well understood and implicitly
followed. Kindness, Patience, and Sympathy, towards the Sick,
important. Impositions of Apothecaries. Drugs to be locked up from
the Access of Children,                                              234


CHAPTER XXII.

ON ACCIDENTS AND ANTIDOTES.

Medical Aid should be promptly resorted to. Suffocation, from
Substances in the Throat. Common Cuts. Wounds of Arteries, and
other severe Cuts. Bruises. Sprains. Broken Limbs. Falls. Blows on
the Head. Burns. Drowning. Poisons:--Corrosive Sublimate; Arsenic,
or Cobalt; Opium; Acids; Alkalies. Stupefaction from Fumes of
Charcoal, or from entering a Well, Limekiln, or Coalmine.
Hemorrhage of the Lungs, Stomach, or Throat. Bleeding of the Nose.
Dangers from Lightning,                                              240


CHAPTER XXIII.

ON DOMESTIC AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL DUTIES.

Indefiniteness of Opinion on this Subject. Every Person needs some
Recreation. General Rules. How much Time to be given. What
Amusements proper. Those should always be avoided, which cause Pain,
or injure the Health, or endanger Life, or interfere with important
Duties, or are pernicious in their Tendency. Horse-racing,
Circus-riding, Theatres, and Gambling. Dancing, as now conducted,
does not conduce to Health of Body or Mind, but the contrary.
Dancing in the Open Air beneficial. Social Benefits of Dancing
considered. Ease and Grace of Manners better secured by a System of
Calisthenics. The Writer's Experience. Balls going out of Fashion,
among the more refined Circles. Novel-reading. Necessity for
Discrimination. Young Persons should be guarded from Novels. Proper
Amusements for Young Persons. Cultivation of Flowers and Fruits.
Benefits of the Practice. Music. Children enjoy it. Collections of
Shells, Plants, Minerals, &c. Children's Games and Sports. Parents
should join in them. Mechanical Skill of Children to be encouraged.
Other Enjoyments. Social Enjoyments not always considered in the
List of Duties. Main Object of Life to form Character. Family
Friendship should be preserved. Plan adopted by Families of the
Writer's Acquaintance. Kindness to Strangers. Hospitality. Change of
Character of Communities in Relation to Hospitality. Hospitality
should be prompt. Strangers should be made to feel at their Ease,    244


CHAPTER XXIV.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES.

Importance to Family Comfort of well-constructed Houses. Rules for
constructing them. Economy of Labor. Large Houses. Arrangement of
Rooms. Wells and Cisterns. Economy of Money. Shape and Arrangement
of Houses. Porticoes, Piazzas, and other Ornaments. Simplicity to
be preferred. Fireplaces. Economy of Health. Outdoor Conveniences.
Doors and Windows. Ventilation. Economy of Comfort. Domestics.
Spare Chambers. Good Taste. Proportions. Color and Ornaments.
_Plans of Houses and Domestic Conveniences._ Receipts for
Whitewash,                                                           258


CHAPTER XXV.

ON FIRES AND LIGHTS.

Wood Fires. Construction of Fireplaces. Firesets. Building a Fire.
Wood. Cautions. Stoves and Grates. Cautions. Stovepipes. Anthracite
Coal. Bituminous Coal. Proper Grates. Coal Stoves. _On Lights._
Lamps. Oil. Candles. Lard. Pearlash and Water for cleansing Lamps.
Care of Lamps. Difficulty. Articles needed in trimming Lamps.
Astral Lamps. Wicks. Dipping Wicks in Vinegar. Shades. Weak Eyes.
Entry Lamps. Night Lamps. Tapers. Wax Tapers for Use in Sealing
Letters. To make Candles. Moulds. Dipped Candles. Rush Lights,       280


CHAPTER XXVI.

ON WASHING.

All needful Accommodations should be provided. Plenty of Water,
easily accessible, necessary. Articles to be provided for Washing.
Substitutes for Soft Water. Common Mode of Washing. Assorting
Clothes. To Wash Bedding. Feathers. Calicoes. Bran-water.
Potato-water. Soda Washing. Soda Soap. Mode of Soda Washing.
Cautions in Regard to Colored Clothes, and Flannels. To Wash Brown
Linen, Muslins, Nankeen, Woollen Table-Covers and Shawls, Woollen
Yarn, Worsted and Woollen Hose. To Cleanse Gentlemen's Broadcloths.
To make Ley, Soft Soap, Hard Soap, White Soap, Starch, and other
Articles used in Washing,                                            284


CHAPTER XXVII.

ON STARCHING, IRONING, AND CLEANSING.

To prepare Starch. Glue and Gum Starch. Beef's or Ox-Gall.
Starching Muslins and Laces. To Cleanse or Whiten Silk Lace, or
Blond, and White Lace Veils. _On Ironing._ Articles to be provided
for Ironing. Sprinkling, Folding, and Ironing,                       292


CHAPTER XXVIII.

ON WHITENING, CLEANSING, AND DYEING.

To Whiten Articles and Remove Stains from them. Mixtures to Remove
Stains and Grease. To Cleanse Silk Handkerchiefs and Ribands; Silk
Hose or Gloves; Down and Feathers; Straw and Leghorn Hats. _On
Coloring._ Pink, Red, Yellow, Blue, Green, Salmon, Buff, Dove,
Slate, Brown, Black, and Olive Colors,                               296


CHAPTER XXIX.

ON THE CARE OF PARLORS.

Proper Arrangement of Rooms. Shades and Colors. Carpets, Curtains,
and other Furniture, should be selected with Reference to each
other. Laying down Carpets. Blocks to prevent Sofas and Tables from
rubbing against Walls, and to hold Doors open. Footstools. Sweeping
Carpets. Tealeaves. Wet Indian Meal. Taking up and cleansing
Carpets. Washing Carpets. Straw Matting. Pictures and Glasses.
Curtains and Sofas. Mahogany Furniture. Unvarnished Furniture;
Mixtures for. Hearths and Jambs. Sweeping and Dusting Parlors,       302


CHAPTER XXX.

ON THE CARE OF BREAKFAST AND DINING-ROOMS.

Large Closet necessary. Dumb Waiter, or Sliding Closet. Furniture
for a Table. On Setting a Table. Rules for doing it properly;--for
Breakfast and Tea; for Dinner. On Waiting at Table. On Carving and
Helping at Table,                                                    306


CHAPTER XXXI.

ON THE CARE OF CHAMBERS AND BEDROOMS.

Importance of well-ventilated Sleeping-rooms. Debility and
Ill-health caused by a Want of Pure Air. Chamber Furniture. Cheap
Couch. Bedding. Feathers, Straw, or Hair, Mattresses. To Make a
Bed. Domestics should be provided with Single Beds, and Washing
Conveniences. On Packing and Storing Articles. To Fold a
Gentleman's Coat and Shirt, and a Frock. Packing Trunks. Carpet
Bags. Bonnet Covers. Packing Household Furniture for Moving,         311


CHAPTER XXXII.

ON THE CARE OF THE KITCHEN, CELLAR, AND STOREROOM.

Importance of a Convenient Kitchen. Floor should be painted. Sink
and Drain. Washing Dishes. Conveniences needed. Rules. Kitchen
Furniture. Crockery. Iron Ware. Tin Ware. Wooden Ware. Basket Ware.
Other Articles. On the Care of the Cellar. Storeroom. Modes of
Destroying Insects and Vermin,                                       317


CHAPTER XXXIII.

ON SEWING, CUTTING, AND MENDING.

Importance of Young Girls being taught various Kinds of Stitching.
Directions for doing various Kinds of Work. Work-Baskets, and their
Contents. On Cutting and Fitting Garments. Silks. Cotton and Linen.
Old Silk Dresses quilted for Skirts. Flannel; White should be
colored. Children's Flannels. Nightgowns. Wrappers. Bedding.
Mending,                                                             324


CHAPTER XXXIV.

ON THE CARE OF YARDS AND GARDENS.

On the Preparation of Soil. For Pot-Plants. On the Preparation of a
Hot-Bed. Planting Flower-Seeds. To plant Garden-Seeds. Transplanting.
To Re-pot House-Plants. On laying out Yards. Gardens. Flower-Beds.
Bulbs and Tuberous Roots. List of Various Kinds of Flowers, in
Reference to Color, and Height. Annuals. Climbing Plants. Perennials.
Herbaceous Roots. Shrubs; List of those most suitable for adorning
a Yard. Roses; Varieties of. Shade-Trees. Time for Transplanting.
Trees. Care of House Plants,                                         331


CHAPTER XXXV.

ON THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

Different Modes of Propagation;--By Offsets; Cuttings; Layers;
Budding, or Inoculating; Ingrafting;--Whip-Grafting; Split-Grafting;
Stock-Grafting. Pruning. Thinning,                                   341


CHAPTER XXXVI.

ON THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.

Value of Attention to this Subject. Preparation of Soil. Planting
of Seeds. Budding, Grafting, and Transplanting. Training the Limbs.
Attention to the Soil. Manuring. Filberts. Figs. Currants.
Gooseberries. Raspberries. Strawberries. Grapes. To Preserve Fruit;
Modes of Preserving Fruit-Trees. Fire Blight. Worms,                 347


CHAPTER XXXVII.

MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS.

Women should know how to take proper Care of Domestic Animals. Care
of a Horse. Care of a Cow. Poultry. Cautions for Winter. Smoky
Chimneys. House-Cleaning. Parties. Invitations. Comfort of Guests.
Flower-Baskets. Fire-Boards. Water-proof Shoes. Earthen Ware.
Cements, &c. &c.                                                     351


NOTE.--Cooking,                                                      354


GLOSSARY,                                                            355


INDEX,                                                               371




LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.


1. The Human Skeleton, showing the Connection of the Bones
of the System,                                                        70

2, 3, 4. The Cervical, Dorsal, and Lumbar, Vertebræ,                  72

5. Muscles of the Arm,                                                74

6. Vertical Section of the Skull and Spinal Column, side view,        77

7. View of the same as seen from behind,                              77

8. Ramifications of the Nerves,                                       79

9, 10, 11. Natural and Distorted Spines,                              81

12. Vascular System, or Blood-Vessels,                                82

13. The Two Sides of the Heart, separated,                            85

14. The Heart, with its two Sides united, as in Nature,               86

15. The Heart, with the great Blood-Vessels, on a larger scale,       87

16. Organs of Digestion and Respiration,                              88

17. Elevation of a Cottage of Fine Proportions,                      262

18. Ground-plan of the same,                                         262

19. Arrangement of one Side of a Room                                263

20. Fireplace and Mantelpiece,                                       265

21. Elevation of a Cottage on a different Plan from the former,      265

22. Ground-plan of the same,                                         266

23, 24. Ground-plan and Second Story of a two-story Cottage,         267

25. Front Elevation of the latter Cottage,                           268

26. Front Elevation, on a different Plan,                            268

27, 28. Plans of First and Second Stories of the latter Elevation,   269

29, 30. Plans of First and Second Stories of a larger House,         270

31. Front Elevation of a very convenient Cottage,                    271

32. Ground-plan of the same,                                         272

33. Cottage of Daniel Wadsworth, Esq., near Hartford, Conn.,         274

34. Accommodations for securing Water with the least Labor,          275

35. Back-door Accommodations,                                        276

36. Latticed Portico,                                                277

37. Sliding Closet, or Dumb Waiter,                                  278

38. Cheap Couch,                                                     312

39. Plan of a Flower-Bed,                                            334

40. Budding,                                                         343

41. Grafting,                                                        344

42. Stock-Grafting,                                                  345




DOMESTIC ECONOMY.




CHAPTER I.

THE PECULIAR RESPONSIBILITIES OF AMERICAN WOMEN.


There are some reasons, why American women should feel an interest in
the support of the democratic institutions of their Country, which it is
important that they should consider. The great maxim, which is the basis
of all our civil and political institutions, is, that "all men are
created equal," and that they are equally entitled to "life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness."

But it can readily be seen, that this is only another mode of expressing
the fundamental principle which the Great Ruler of the Universe has
established, as the law of His eternal government. "Thou shalt love thy
neighbor as thyself;" and "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to
you, do ye even so to them," are the Scripture forms, by which the
Supreme Lawgiver requires that each individual of our race shall regard
the happiness of others, as of the same value as his own; and which
forbid any institution, in private or civil life, which secures
advantages to one class, by sacrificing the interests of another.

The principles of democracy, then, are identical with the principles of
Christianity.

But, in order that each individual may pursue and secure the highest
degree of happiness within his reach, unimpeded by the selfish interests
of others, a system of laws must be established, which sustain certain
relations and dependencies in social and civil life. What these
relations and their attending obligations shall be, are to be
determined, not with reference to the wishes and interests of a few, but
solely with reference to the general good of all; so that each
individual shall have his own interest, as well as the public benefit,
secured by them.

For this purpose, it is needful that certain relations be sustained,
which involve the duties of subordination. There must be the magistrate
and the subject, one of whom is the superior, and the other the
inferior. There must be the relations of husband and wife, parent and
child, teacher and pupil, employer and employed, each involving the
relative duties of subordination. The superior, in certain particulars,
is to direct, and the inferior is to yield obedience. Society could
never go forward, harmoniously, nor could any craft or profession be
successfully pursued, unless these superior and subordinate relations be
instituted and sustained.

But who shall take the higher, and who the subordinate, stations in
social and civil life? This matter, in the case of parents and children,
is decided by the Creator. He has given children to the control of
parents, as their superiors, and to them they remain subordinate, to a
certain age, or so long as they are members of their household. And
parents can delegate such a portion of their authority to teachers and
employers, as the interests of their children require.

In most other cases, in a truly democratic state, each individual is
allowed to choose for himself, who shall take the position of his
superior. No woman is forced to obey any husband but the one she chooses
for herself; nor is she obliged to take a husband, if she prefers to
remain single. So every domestic, and every artisan or laborer, after
passing from parental control, can choose the employer to whom he is to
accord obedience, or, if he prefers to relinquish certain advantages, he
can remain without taking a subordinate place to any employer.

Each subject, also, has equal power with every other, to decide who
shall be his superior as a ruler. The weakest, the poorest, the most
illiterate, has the same opportunity to determine this question, as the
richest, the most learned, and the most exalted.

And the various privileges that wealth secures, are equally open to all
classes. Every man may aim at riches, unimpeded by any law or
institution which secures peculiar privileges to a favored class, at the
expense of another. Every law, and every institution, is tested by
examining whether it secures equal advantages to all; and, if the people
become convinced that any regulation sacrifices the good of the majority
to the interests of the smaller number, they have power to abolish it.

The institutions of monarchical and aristocratic nations are based on
precisely opposite principles. They secure, to certain small and favored
classes, advantages, which can be maintained, only by sacrificing the
interests of the great mass of the people. Thus, the throne and
aristocracy of England are supported by laws and customs, which burden
the lower classes with taxes, so enormous, as to deprive them of all the
luxuries, and of most of the comforts, of life. Poor dwellings, scanty
food, unhealthy employments, excessive labor, and entire destitution of
the means and time for education, are appointed for the lower classes,
that a few may live in palaces, and riot in every indulgence.

The tendencies of democratic institutions, in reference to the rights
and interests of the female sex, have been fully developed in the United
States; and it is in this aspect, that the subject is one of peculiar
interest to American women. In this Country, it is established, both by
opinion and by practice, that woman has an equal interest in all social
and civil concerns; and that no domestic, civil, or political,
institution, is right, which sacrifices her interest to promote that of
the other sex. But in order to secure her the more firmly in all these
privileges, it is decided, that, in the domestic relation, she take a
subordinate station, and that, in civil and political concerns, her
interests be intrusted to the other sex, without her taking any part in
voting, or in making and administering laws. The result of this order of
things has been fairly tested, and is thus portrayed by M. De
Tocqueville, a writer, who, for intelligence, fidelity, and ability,
ranks second to none.

"There are people in Europe, who, confounding together the different
characteristics of the sexes, would make of man and woman, beings not
only equal, but alike. They would give to both the same functions,
impose on both the same duties, and grant to both the same rights. They
would mix them in all things,--their business, their occupations, their
pleasures. It may readily be conceived, that, by _thus_ attempting to
make one sex equal to the other, both are degraded; and, from so
preposterous a medley of the works of Nature, nothing could ever result,
but weak men and disorderly women.

"It is not thus that the Americans understand the species of democratic
equality, which may be established between the sexes. They admit, that,
as Nature has appointed such wide differences between the physical and
moral constitutions of man and woman, her manifest design was, to give a
distinct employment to their various faculties; and they hold, that
improvement does not consist in making beings so dissimilar do pretty
nearly the same things, but in getting each of them to fulfil their
respective tasks, in the best possible manner. The Americans have
applied to the sexes the great principle of political economy, which
governs the manufactories of our age, by carefully dividing the duties
of man from those of woman, in order that the great work of society may
be the better carried on.

"In no country has such constant care been taken, as in America, to
trace two clearly distinct lines of action for the two sexes, and to
make them keep pace one with the other, but in two pathways which are
always different. American women never manage the outward concerns of
the family, or conduct a business, or take a part in political life; nor
are they, on the other hand, ever compelled to perform the rough labor
of the fields, or to make any of those laborious exertions, which
demand the exertion of physical strength. No families are so poor, as to
form an exception to this rule.

"If, on the one hand, an American woman cannot escape from the quiet
circle of domestic employments, on the other hand, she is never forced
to go beyond it. Hence it is, that the women of America, who often
exhibit a masculine strength of understanding, and a manly energy,
generally preserve great delicacy of personal appearance, and always
retain the manners of women, although they sometimes show that they have
the hearts and minds of men.

"Nor have the Americans ever supposed, that one consequence of
democratic principles, is, the subversion of marital power, or the
confusion of the natural authorities in families. They hold, that every
association must have a head, in order to accomplish its object; and
that the natural head of the conjugal association is man. They do not,
therefore, deny him the right of directing his partner; and they
maintain, that, in the smaller association of husband and wife, as well
as in the great social community, the object of democracy is, to
regulate and legalize the powers which are necessary, not to subvert all
power.

"This opinion is not peculiar to one sex, and contested by the other. I
never observed, that the women of America considered conjugal authority
as a fortunate usurpation of their rights, nor that they thought
themselves degraded by submitting to it. It appears to me, on the
contrary, that they attach a sort of pride to the voluntary surrender of
their own will, and make it their boast to bend themselves to the yoke,
not to shake it off. Such, at least, is the feeling expressed by the
most virtuous of their sex; the others are silent; and in the United
States it is not the practice for a guilty wife to clamor for the rights
of woman, while she is trampling on her holiest duties."

"Although the travellers, who have visited North America, differ on a
great number of points, they agree in remarking, that morals are far
more strict, there, than elsewhere.[A] It is evident that, on this
point, the Americans are very superior to their progenitors, the
English." "In England, as in all other Countries of Europe, public
malice is constantly attacking the frailties of women. Philosophers and
statesmen are heard to deplore, that morals are not sufficiently strict;
and the literary productions of the Country constantly lead one to
suppose so. In America, all books, novels not excepted, suppose women to
be chaste; and no one thinks of relating affairs of gallantry."

"It has often been remarked, that, in Europe, a certain degree of
contempt lurks, even in the flattery which men lavish upon women.
Although a European frequently affects to be the slave of woman, it may
be seen, that he never sincerely thinks her his equal. In the United
States, men seldom compliment women, but they daily show how much they
esteem them. They constantly display an entire confidence in the
understanding of a wife, and a profound respect for her freedom."

They have decided that her mind is just as fitted as that of a man to
discover the plain truth, and her heart as firm to embrace it, and they
have never sought to place her virtue, any more than his, under the
shelter of prejudice, ignorance, and fear.

"It would seem, that in Europe, where man so easily submits to the
despotic sway of woman, they are nevertheless curtailed of some of the
greatest qualities of the human species, and considered as seductive,
but imperfect beings, and (what may well provoke astonishment) women
ultimately look upon themselves in the same light, and almost consider
it as a privilege that they are entitled to show themselves futile,
feeble, and timid. The women of America claim no such privileges."

"It is true, that the Americans rarely lavish upon women those eager
attentions which are commonly paid them in Europe. But their conduct to
women always implies, that they suppose them to be virtuous and refined;
and such is the respect entertained for the moral freedom of the sex,
that, in the presence of a woman, the most guarded language is used,
lest her ear should be offended by an expression. In America, a young
unmarried woman may, alone, and without fear, undertake a long journey."

"Thus the Americans do not think that man and woman have either the
duty, or the right, to perform the same offices, but they show an equal
regard for both their respective parts; and, though their lot is
different, they consider both of them, as beings of equal value. They do
not give to the courage of woman the same form, or the same direction,
as to that of man; but they never doubt her courage: and if they hold
that man and his partner ought not always to exercise their intellect
and understanding in the same manner, they at least believe the
understanding of the one to be as sound as that of the other, and her
intellect to be as clear. Thus, then, while they have allowed the social
inferiority of woman to subsist, they have done all they could to raise
her, morally and intellectually, to the level of man; and, in this
respect, they appear to me to have excellently understood the true
principle of democratic improvement.

"As for myself, I do not hesitate to avow, that, although the women of
the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic
life, and their situation is, in some respects, one of extreme
dependence, I have nowhere seen women occupying a loftier position; and
if I were asked, now I am drawing to the close of this work, in which I
have spoken of so many important things done by the Americans, to what
the singular prosperity and growing strength of that people ought mainly
to be attributed, I should reply,--_to the superiority of their women_."

This testimony of a foreigner, who has had abundant opportunities of
making a comparison, is sanctioned by the assent of all candid and
intelligent men, who have enjoyed similar opportunities.

It appears, then, that it is in America, alone, that women are raised to
an equality with the other sex; and that, both in theory and practice,
their interests are regarded as of equal value. They are made
subordinate in station, only where a regard to their best interests
demands it, while, as if in compensation for this, by custom and
courtesy, they are always treated as superiors. Universally, in this
Country, through every class of society, precedence is given to woman,
in all the comforts, conveniences, and courtesies, of life.

In civil and political affairs, American women take no interest or
concern, except so far as they sympathize with their family and personal
friends; but in all cases, in which they do feel a concern, their
opinions and feelings have a consideration, equal, or even superior, to
that of the other sex.

In matters pertaining to the education of their children, in the
selection and support of a clergyman, in all benevolent enterprises, and
in all questions relating to morals or manners, they have a superior
influence. In such concerns, it would be impossible to carry a point,
contrary to their judgement and feelings; while an enterprise, sustained
by them, will seldom fail of success.

If those who are bewailing themselves over the fancied wrongs and
injuries of women in this Nation, could only see things as they are,
they would know, that, whatever remnants of a barbarous or aristocratic
age may remain in our civil institutions, in reference to the interests
of women, it is only because they are ignorant of them, or do not use
their influence to have them rectified; for it is very certain that
there is nothing reasonable, which American women would unite in asking,
that would not readily be bestowed.

The preceding remarks, then, illustrate the position, that the
democratic institutions of this Country are in reality no other than
the principles of Christianity carried into operation, and that they
tend to place woman in her true position in society, as having equal
rights with the other sex; and that, in fact, they have secured to
American women a lofty and fortunate position, which, as yet, has been
attained by the women of no other nation.

There is another topic, presented in the work of the above author, which
demands the profound attention of American women.

The following is taken from that part of the Introduction to the work,
illustrating the position, that, for ages, there has been a constant
progress, in all civilized nations, towards the democratic equality
attained in this Country.

"The various occurrences of national existence have every where turned
to the advantage of democracy; all men have aided it by their exertions;
those who have intentionally labored in its cause, and those who have
served it unwittingly; those who have fought for it, and those who have
declared themselves its opponents, have all been driven along in the
same track, have all labored to one end;" "all have been blind
instruments in the hands of God."

"The gradual developement of the equality of conditions, is, therefore,
a Providential fact; and it possesses all the characteristics of a
Divine decree: it is universal, it is durable, it constantly eludes all
human interference, and all events, as well as all men, contribute to
its progress."

"The whole book, which is here offered to the public, has been written
under the impression of a kind of religious dread, produced in the
author's mind, by the contemplation of so irresistible a revolution,
which has advanced for centuries, in spite of such amazing obstacles,
and which is still proceeding in the midst of the ruins it has made.

"It is not necessary that God Himself should speak, in order to
disclose to us the unquestionable signs of His will. We can discern them
in the habitual course of Nature, and in the invariable tendency of
events."

"If the men of our time were led, by attentive observation, and by
sincere reflection, to acknowledge that the gradual and progressive
developement of social equality is at once the past and future of their
history, this solitary truth would confer the sacred character of a
Divine decree upon the change. To attempt to check democracy, would be,
in that case, to resist the will of God; and the nations would then be
constrained to make the best of the social lot awarded to them by
Providence."

"It is not, then, merely to satisfy a legitimate curiosity, that I have
examined America; my wish has been to find instruction by which we may
ourselves profit." "I have not even affected to discuss whether the
social revolution, which I believe to be irresistible, is advantageous
or prejudicial to mankind. I have acknowledged this revolution, as a
fact already accomplished, or on the eve of its accomplishment; and I
have selected the nation, from among those which have undergone it, in
which its developement has been the most peaceful and the most complete,
in order to discern its natural consequences, and, if it be possible, to
distinguish the means by which it may be rendered profitable. I confess,
that in America I saw more than America; I sought the image of democracy
itself, with its inclinations, its character, its prejudices, and its
passions, in order to learn what we have to fear, or to hope, from its
progress."

It thus appears, that the sublime and elevating anticipations which have
filled the mind and heart of the religious world, have become so far
developed, that philosophers and statesmen are perceiving the signs, and
are predicting the approach, of the same grand consummation. There is a
day advancing, "by seers predicted, and by poets sung," when the curse
of selfishness shall be removed; when "scenes surpassing fable, and yet
true," shall be realized; when all nations shall rejoice and be made
blessed, under those benevolent influences, which the Messiah came to
establish on earth.

And this is the Country, which the Disposer of events designs shall go
forth as the cynosure of nations, to guide them to the light and
blessedness of that day. To us is committed the grand, the responsible
privilege, of exhibiting to the world, the beneficent influences of
Christianity, when carried into every social, civil, and political
institution; and, though we have, as yet, made such imperfect advances,
already the light is streaming into the dark prison-house of despotic
lands, while startled kings and sages, philosophers and statesmen, are
watching us with that interest, which a career so illustrious, and so
involving their own destiny, is calculated to excite. They are studying
our institutions, scrutinizing our experience, and watching for our
mistakes, that they may learn whether "a social revolution, so
irresistible, be advantageous or prejudicial to mankind."

There are persons, who regard these interesting truths merely as food
for national vanity; but every reflecting and Christian mind, must
consider it as an occasion for solemn and anxious reflection. Are we,
then, a spectacle to the world? Has the Eternal Lawgiver appointed us to
work out a problem, involving the destiny of the whole earth? Are such
momentous interests to be advanced or retarded, just in proportion as we
are faithful to our high trust? "What manner of persons, then, ought we
to be," in attempting to sustain so solemn, so glorious a
responsibility?

But the part to be enacted by American women, in this great moral
enterprise, is the point to which special attention should here be
directed.

The success of democratic institutions, as is conceded by all, depends
upon the intellectual and moral character of the mass of the people. If
they are intelligent and virtuous, democracy is a blessing; but if they
are ignorant and wicked, it is only a curse, and as much more dreadful
than any other form of civil government, as a thousand tyrants are more
to be dreaded than one. It is equally conceded, that the formation of
the moral and intellectual character of the young is committed mainly to
the female hand. The mother forms the character of the future man; the
sister bends the fibres that are hereafter to be the forest tree; the
wife sways the heart, whose energies may turn for good or for evil the
destinies of a nation. Let the women of a country be made virtuous and
intelligent, and the men will certainly be the same. The proper
education of a man decides the welfare of an individual; but educate a
woman, and the interests of a whole family are secured.

If this be so, as none will deny, then to American women, more than to
any others on earth, is committed the exalted privilege of extending
over the world those blessed influences, which are to renovate degraded
man, and "clothe all climes with beauty."

No American woman, then, has any occasion for feeling that hers is an
humble or insignificant lot. The value of what an individual
accomplishes, is to be estimated by the importance of the enterprise
achieved, and not by the particular position of the laborer. The drops
of heaven which freshen the earth, are each of equal value, whether they
fall in the lowland meadow, or the princely parterre. The builders of a
temple are of equal importance, whether they labor on the foundations,
or toil upon the dome.

Thus, also, with those labors which are to be made effectual in the
regeneration of the Earth. And it is by forming a habit of regarding the
apparently insignificant efforts of each isolated laborer, in a
comprehensive manner, as indispensable portions of a grand result, that
the minds of all, however humble their sphere of service, can be
invigorated and cheered. The woman, who is rearing a family of
children; the woman, who labors in the schoolroom; the woman, who, in
her retired chamber, earns, with her needle, the mite, which contributes
to the intellectual and moral elevation of her Country; even the humble
domestic, whose example and influence may be moulding and forming young
minds, while her faithful services sustain a prosperous domestic
state;--each and all may be animated by the consciousness, that they are
agents in accomplishing the greatest work that ever was committed to
human responsibility. It is the building of a glorious temple, whose
base shall be coextensive with the bounds of the earth, whose summit
shall pierce the skies, whose splendor shall beam on all lands; and
those who hew the lowliest stone, as much as those who carve the highest
capital, will be equally honored, when its top-stone shall be laid, with
new rejoicings of the morning stars, and shoutings of the sons of God.


FOOTNOTE:

[A] Miss Martineau is a singular exception to this remark. After
receiving unexampled hospitalities and kindnesses, she gives the
following picture of her entertainers. Having in other places spoken of
the American woman as having "her intellect confined," and "her morals
crushed," and as deficient in education, because she has "none of the
objects in life for which an enlarged education is considered
requisite," she says,--"It is assumed, in America, particularly in New
England, that the morals of society there are peculiarly pure. I am
grieved to doubt the fact; but I do doubt it." "The Auld-Robin-Gray
story is a frequently-enacted tragedy here; and one of the worst
symptoms that struck me, was, that there was usually a demand upon my
sympathy in such cases."--"The unavoidable consequence of such a mode of
marrying, is, that the sanctity of marriage is impaired, and that vice
succeeds. There are sad tales in country villages, here and there, that
attest this; and yet more in towns, in a rank of society where such
things are seldom or never heard of in England."--"I unavoidably knew of
more cases of lapse in highly respectable families in one State, than
ever came to my knowledge at home; and they were got over with a
disgrace far more temporary and superficial than they could have been
visited with in England."--"The vacuity of mind of many women, is, I
conclude, the cause of a vice, which it is painful to allude to, but
which cannot honestly be passed over.--It is no secret on the spot, that
the habit of intemperance is not infrequent among women of station and
education in the most enlightened parts of the Country. I witnessed some
instances, and heard of more. It does not seem to me to be regarded with
all the dismay which such a symptom ought to excite. To the stranger, a
novelty so horrible, a spectacle so fearful, suggests wide and deep
subjects of investigation."

It is not possible for language to give representations more false in
every item. In evidence of this, the writer would mention, that, within
the last few years, she has travelled almost the entire route taken by
Miss Martineau, except the lower tier of the Southern States; and,
though not meeting the same individuals, has mingled in the very same
circles. Moreover, she has _resided_ from several months to several
years in _eight_ of the different Northern and Western States, and spent
several weeks at a time in five other States. She has also had pupils
from every State in the Union, but two, and has visited extensively at
their houses. But in her whole life, and in all these different
positions, the writer has never, to her knowledge, seen even _one_
woman, of the classes with which she has associated, who had lapsed in
the manner indicated by Miss Martineau; nor does she believe that such a
woman could find admission in such circles any where in the Country. As
to intemperate women, _five_ cases are all of whom the writer has ever
heard, in such circles, and two of these many believed to be
unwarrantably suspected. After following in Miss Martineau's track, and
discovering all the falsehood, twaddle, gossip, old saws, and almanac
stories, which have been strung together in her books, no charitable
mode of accounting for the medley remains, but to suppose her the
pitiable dupe of that love of hoaxing so often found in our Country.

Again, Miss Martineau says, "We passed an unshaded meadow, where the
grass had caught fire, _every day_, at _eleven o'clock_, the preceding
Summer. This demonstrates the necessity of shade"! A woman, with so
little common sense, as to swallow such an absurdity for truth, and then
tack to it such an astute deduction, must be a tempting subject for the
abovementioned mischievous propensity.




CHAPTER II.

DIFFICULTIES PECULIAR TO AMERICAN WOMEN.


In the preceding chapter, were presented those views, which are
calculated to inspire American women with a sense of their high
responsibilities to their Country, and to the world; and of the
excellence and grandeur of the object to which their energies may be
consecrated.

But it will be found to be the law of moral action, that whatever
involves great results and great benefits, is always attended with great
hazards and difficulties. And as it has been shown, that American women
have a loftier position, and a more elevated object of enterprise, than
the females of any other nation, so it will appear, that they have
greater trials and difficulties to overcome, than any other women are
called to encounter.

Properly to appreciate the nature of these trials, it must be borne in
mind, that the estimate of evils and privations depends, not so much on
their positive nature, as on the character and habits of the person who
meets them. A woman, educated in the savage state, finds it no trial to
be destitute of many conveniences, which a woman, even of the lowest
condition, in this Country, would deem indispensable to existence. So a
woman, educated with the tastes and habits of the best New England or
Virginia housekeepers, would encounter many deprivations and trials,
which would never occur to one reared in the log cabin of a new
settlement. So, also, a woman, who has been accustomed to carry forward
her arrangements with well-trained domestics, would meet a thousand
trials to her feelings and temper, by the substitution of ignorant
foreigners, or shiftless slaves, which would be of little account to one
who had never enjoyed any better service.

Now, the larger portion of American women are the descendants of English
progenitors, who, as a nation, are distinguished for systematic
housekeeping, and for a great love of order, cleanliness, and comfort.
And American women, to a greater or less extent, have inherited similar
tastes and habits. But the prosperity and democratic tendencies of this
Country produce results, materially affecting the comfort of
housekeepers, which the females of monarchical and aristocratic lands
are not called to meet. In such countries, all ranks and classes are
fixed in a given position, and each person is educated for a particular
sphere and style of living. And the dwellings, conveniences, and customs
of life, remain very nearly the same, from generation to generation.
This secures the preparation of all classes for their particular
station, and makes the lower orders more dependent, and more subservient
to employers.

But how different is the state of things in this Country. Every thing
is moving and changing. Persons in poverty, are rising to opulence, and
persons of wealth, are sinking to poverty. The children of common
laborers, by their talents and enterprise, are becoming nobles in
intellect, or wealth, or office; while the children of the wealthy,
enervated by indulgence, are sinking to humbler stations. The sons of
the wealthy are leaving the rich mansions of their fathers, to dwell in
the log cabins of the forest, where very soon they bear away the
daughters of ease and refinement, to share the privations of a new
settlement. Meantime, even in the more stationary portions of the
community, there is a mingling of all grades of wealth, intellect, and
education. There are no distinct classes, as in aristocratic lands,
whose bounds are protected by distinct and impassable lines, but all are
thrown into promiscuous masses. Thus, persons of humble means are
brought into contact with those of vast wealth, while all intervening
grades are placed side by side. Thus, too, there is a constant
comparison of conditions, among equals, and a constant temptation
presented to imitate the customs, and to strive for the enjoyments, of
those who possess larger means.

In addition to this, the flow of wealth, among all classes, is
constantly increasing the number of those who live in a style demanding
much hired service, while the number of those, who are compelled to go
to service, is constantly diminishing. Our manufactories, also, are
making increased demands for female labor, and offering larger
compensation. In consequence of these things, there is such a
disproportion between those who wish to hire, and those who are willing
to go to domestic service, that, in the non-slaveholding States, were it
not for the supply of poverty-stricken foreigners, there would not be a
domestic for each family who demands one. And this resort to foreigners,
poor as it is, scarcely meets the demand; while the disproportion must
every year increase, especially if our prosperity increases. For, just
in proportion as wealth rolls in upon us, the number of those, who will
give up their own independent homes to serve strangers, will be
diminished.

The difficulties and sufferings, which have accrued to American women,
from this cause, are almost incalculable. There is nothing, which so
much demands system and regularity, as the affairs of a housekeeper,
made up, as they are, of ten thousand desultory and minute items; and
yet, this perpetually fluctuating state of society seems forever to bar
any such system and regularity. The anxieties, vexations, perplexities,
and even hard labor, which come upon American women, from this state of
domestic service, are endless; and many a woman has, in consequence,
been disheartened, discouraged, and ruined in health. The only wonder
is, that, amid so many real difficulties, American women are still able
to maintain such a character for energy, fortitude, and amiableness, as
is universally allowed to be their due.

But the second, and still greater difficulty, peculiar to American
women, is, a delicacy of constitution, which renders them early victims
to disease and decay.

The fact that the women of this Country are unusually subject to
disease, and that their beauty and youthfulness are of shorter
continuance than those of the women of other nations, is one which
always attracts the attention of foreigners; while medical men and
philanthropists are constantly giving fearful monitions as to the extent
and alarming increase of this evil. Investigations make it evident, that
a large proportion of young ladies, from the wealthier classes, have the
incipient stages of curvature of the spine, one of the most sure and
fruitful causes of future disease and decay. The writer has heard
medical men, who have made extensive inquiries, say, that a very large
proportion of the young women at boarding schools, are affected in this
way, while many other indications of disease and debility exist, in
cases where this particular evil cannot be detected.

In consequence of this enfeebled state of their constitutions, induced
by a neglect of their physical education, as soon as they are called to
the responsibilities and trials of domestic life, their constitution
fails, and their whole existence is rendered a burden. For no woman can
enjoy existence, when disease throws a dark cloud over the mind, and
incapacitates her for the proper discharge of every duty.

The writer, who for some ten years has had the charge of an institution,
consisting of young ladies from almost every State in the Union, since
relinquishing that charge, has travelled and visited extensively in most
of the non-slaveholding States. In these circuits, she has learned the
domestic history, not merely of her pupils, but of many other young
wives and mothers, whose sorrowful experience has come to her knowledge.
And the impression, produced by the dreadful extent of this evil, has at
times been almost overwhelming.

It would seem as if the primeval curse, which has written the doom of
pain and sorrow on one period of a young mother's life, in this Country
had been extended over all; so that the hour seldom arrives, when "she
forgetteth her sorrow for joy that a man is born into the world." Many a
mother will testify, with shuddering, that the most exquisite sufferings
she ever endured, were not those appointed by Nature, but those, which,
for week after week, have worn down health and spirits, when nourishing
her child. And medical men teach us, that this, in most cases, results
from a debility of constitution, consequent on the mismanagement of
early life. And so frequent and so mournful are these, and the other
distresses that result from the delicacy of the female constitution,
that the writer has repeatedly heard mothers say, that they had wept
tears of bitterness over their infant daughters, at the thought of the
sufferings which they were destined to undergo; while they cherished
the decided wish, that these daughters should never marry. At the same
time, many a reflecting young woman is looking to her future prospects,
with very different feelings and hopes from those which Providence
designed.

A perfectly healthy woman, especially a perfectly healthy mother, is so
unfrequent, in some of the wealthier classes, that those, who are so,
may be regarded as the exceptions, and not as the general rule. The
writer has heard some of her friends declare, that they would ride fifty
miles, to see a perfectly healthy and vigorous woman, out of the
laboring classes. This, although somewhat jocose, was not an entirely
unfair picture of the true state of female health in the wealthier
classes.

There are many causes operating, which serve to perpetuate and increase
this evil. It is a well-known fact, that mental excitement tends to
weaken the physical system, unless it is counterbalanced by a
corresponding increase of exercise and fresh air. Now, the people of
this Country are under the influence of high commercial, political, and
religious stimulus, altogether greater than was ever known by any other
nation; and in all this, women are made the sympathizing companions of
the other sex. At the same time, young girls, in pursuing an education,
have ten times greater an amount of intellectual taxation demanded, than
was ever before exacted. Let any daughter, educated in our best schools
at this day, compare the course of her study with that pursued in her
mother's early life, and it will be seen that this estimate of the
increase of mental taxation probably falls below the truth. Though, in
some countries, there are small classes of females, in the higher
circles, who pursue literature and science to a far greater extent than
in any corresponding circles in this Country, yet, in no nation in the
world are the advantages of a good intellectual education enjoyed, by so
large a proportion of the females. And this education has consisted far
less of accomplishments, and far more of those solid studies which
demand the exercise of the various powers of mind, than the education
of the women of other lands.

And when American women are called to the responsibilities of domestic
life, the degree in which their minds and feelings are taxed, is
altogether greater than it is in any other nation.

No women on earth have a higher sense of their moral and religious
responsibilities, or better understand, not only what is demanded of
them, as housekeepers, but all the claims that rest upon them as wives,
mothers, and members of a social community. An American woman, who is
the mistress of a family, feels her obligations, in reference to her
influence over her husband, and a still greater responsibility in
rearing and educating her children. She feels, too, the claims which the
moral interests of her domestics have on her watchful care. In social
life, she recognises the claims of hospitality, and the demands of
friendly visiting. Her responsibility, in reference to the institutions
of benevolence and religion, is deeply realized. The regular worship of
the Lord's day, and all the various religious meetings and benevolent
societies which place so much dependence on female influence and
example, she feels obligated to sustain. Add to these multiplied
responsibilities, the perplexities and evils which have been pointed
out, resulting from the fluctuating state of society, and the deficiency
of domestic service, and no one can deny that American women are exposed
to a far greater amount of intellectual and moral excitement, than those
of any other land. Of course, in order to escape the danger resulting
from this, a greater amount of exercise in the fresh air, and all those
methods which strengthen the constitution, are imperiously required.

But, instead of this, it will be found, that, owing to the climate and
customs of this Nation, there are no women who secure so little of this
healthful and protecting regimen, as ours. Walking and riding and
gardening, in the open air, are practised by the women of other lands,
to a far greater extent, than by American females. Most English women,
in the wealthier classes, are able to walk six and eight miles, without
oppressive fatigue; and when they visit this Country, always express
their surprise at the inactive habits of American ladies. In England,
regular exercise, in the open air, is very commonly required by the
mother, as a part of daily duty, and is sought by young women, as an
enjoyment. In consequence of a different physical training, English
women, in those circles which enjoy competency, present an appearance
which always strikes American gentlemen as a contrast to what they see
at home. An English mother, at thirty, or thirty-five, is in the full
bloom of perfected womanhood; as fresh and healthful as her daughters.
But where are the American mothers, who can reach this period unfaded
and unworn? In America, young ladies of the wealthier classes are sent
to school from early childhood; and neither parents nor teachers make it
a definite object to secure a proper amount of fresh air and exercise,
to counterbalance this intellectual taxation. As soon as their school
days are over, dressing, visiting, evening parties, and stimulating
amusements, take the place of study, while the most unhealthful modes of
dress add to the physical exposures. To make morning calls, or do a
little shopping, is all that can be termed their exercise in the fresh
air; and this, compared to what is needed, is absolutely nothing, and on
some accounts is worse than nothing.[B] In consequence of these, and
other evils, which will be pointed out more at large in the following
pages, the young women of America grow up with such a delicacy of
constitution, that probably eight out of ten become subjects of disease,
either before or as soon as they are called to the responsibilities of
domestic life.

But there is one peculiarity of situation, in regard to American women,
which makes this delicacy of constitution still more disastrous. It is
the liability to the exposures and hardships of a newly-settled country.

One more extract from De Tocqueville will give a view of this part of
the subject, which any one, familiar with Western life, will admire for
its verisimilitude.

"The same strength of purpose which the young wives of America display
in bending themselves, at once, and without repining, to the austere
duties of their new condition, is no less manifest in all the great
trials of their lives. In no country in the world, are private fortunes
more precarious, than in the United States. It is not uncommon for the
same man, in the course of his life, to rise and sink again through all
the grades which lead from opulence to poverty. American women support
these vicissitudes with a calm and unquenchable energy. It would seem
that their desires contract, as easily as they expand, with their
fortunes. The greater part of the adventurers, who migrate, every year,
to people the Western wilds, belong" "to the old Anglo-American race of
the Northern States. Many of these men, who rush so boldly onward in
pursuit of wealth, were already in the enjoyment of a competency in
their own part of the Country. They take their wives along with them,
and make them share the countless perils and privations, which always
attend the commencement of these expeditions. I have often met, even on
the verge of the wilderness, with young women, who, after having been
brought up amid all the comforts of the large towns of New England, had
passed, almost without any intermediate stage, from the wealthy abode of
their parents, to a comfortless hovel in a forest. Fever, solitude, and
a tedious life, had not broken the springs of their courage. Their
features were impaired and faded, but their looks were firm: they
appeared to be, at once, sad and resolute."

In another passage, he gives this picturesque sketch: "By the side of
the hearth, sits a woman, with a baby on her lap. She nods to us,
without disturbing herself. Like the pioneer, this woman is in the prime
of life; her appearance would seem superior to her condition: and her
apparel even betrays a lingering taste for dress. But her delicate limbs
appear shrunken; her features are drawn in; her eye is mild and
melancholy; her whole physiognomy bears marks of a degree of religious
resignation, a deep quiet of all passion, and some sort of natural and
tranquil firmness, ready to meet all the ills of life, without fearing
and without braving them. Her children cluster about her, full of
health, turbulence, and energy; they are true children of the
wilderness: their mother watches them, from time to time, with mingled
melancholy and joy. To look at their strength, and her languor, one
might imagine that the life she had given them had exhausted her own;
and still she regrets not what they have cost her. The house, inhabited
by these emigrants, has no internal partition or loft. In the one
chamber of which it consists, the whole family is gathered for the
night. The dwelling is itself a little world; an ark of civilization
amid an ocean of foliage. A hundred steps beyond it, the primeval forest
spreads its shades, and solitude resumes its sway."

Such scenes, and such women, the writer has met, and few persons realize
how many refined and lovely women are scattered over the broad prairies
and deep forests of the West; and none, but the Father above,
appreciates the extent of those sacrifices and sufferings, and the value
of that firm faith and religious hope, which live, in perennial bloom,
amid those vast solitudes. If the American women of the East merit the
palm, for their skill and success as accomplished housekeepers, still
more is due to the heroines of the West, who, with such unyielding
fortitude and cheerful endurance, attempt similar duties, amid so many
disadvantages and deprivations.

But, though American women have those elevated principles and feelings,
which enable them to meet such trials in so exemplary a manner, their
physical energies are not equal to the exertions demanded. Though the
mind may be bright and firm, the casket is shivered; though the spirit
may be willing, the flesh is weak. A woman of firm health, with the hope
and elasticity of youth, may be envied rather than pitied, as she shares
with her young husband the hopes and enterprises of pioneer life. But,
when the body fails, then the eye of hope grows dim, the heart sickens,
the courage dies; and, in solitude, weariness, and suffering, the
wanderer pines for the dear voices and the tender sympathies of a far
distant home. Then it is, that the darkest shade is presented, which
marks the peculiar trials and liabilities of American women, and which
exhibits still more forcibly the disastrous results of that delicacy of
constitution which has been pointed out. For, though all American women,
or even the greater part of them, are not called to encounter such
trials, yet no mother, who rears a family of daughters, can say, that
such a lot will not fall to one of her flock; nor can she know which
will escape. The reverses of fortune, and the chances of matrimony,
expose every woman in the Nation to such liabilities, for which she
needs to be prepared.


FOOTNOTE:

[B] So little idea have most ladies, in the wealthier classes, of what
is a proper amount of exercise, that, if they should succeed in walking
a mile or so, at a moderate pace, three or four times a week, they would
call it taking a great deal of exercise.




CHAPTER III.

REMEDIES FOR THE PRECEDING DIFFICULTIES.


Having pointed out the peculiar responsibilities of American women, and
the peculiar embarrassments which they are called to encounter, the
following suggestions are offered, as remedies for such difficulties.

In the first place, the physical and domestic education of daughters
should occupy the principal attention of mothers, in childhood; and the
stimulation of the intellect should be very much reduced. As a general
rule, daughters should not be sent to school before they are six years
old; and, when they are sent, far more attention should be paid to their
physical developement, than is usually done. They should never be
confined, at any employment, more than an hour at a time; and this
confinement should be followed by sports in the open air. Such
accommodations should be secured, that, at all seasons, and in all
weathers, the teacher can every half hour send out a portion of her
school, for sports. And still more care should be given to preserve pure
air in the schoolroom. The close stoves, crowded condition, and
poisonous air, of most schoolrooms, act as constant drains on the health
and strength of young children.

In addition to this, much less time should be given to school, and much
more to domestic employments, especially in the wealthier classes. A
little girl may begin, at five or six years of age, to assist her
mother; and, if properly trained, by the time she is ten, she can render
essential aid. From this time, until she is fourteen or fifteen, it
should be the principal object of her education to secure a strong and
healthy constitution, and a thorough practical knowledge of all kinds of
domestic employments. During this period, though some attention ought to
be paid to intellectual culture, it ought to be made altogether
secondary in importance; and such a measure of study and intellectual
excitement, as is now demanded in our best female seminaries, ought
never to be allowed, until a young lady has passed the most critical
period of her youth, and has a vigorous and healthful constitution fully
established. The plan might be adopted, of having schools for young
girls kept only in the afternoon; that their mornings might be occupied
in domestic exercise, without interfering with school employments. Where
a proper supply of domestic exercise cannot be afforded, the cultivation
of flowers and fruits might be resorted to, as a delightful and
unfailing promotive of pleasure and health.

And it is to that class of mothers, who have the best means of securing
hired service, and who are the most tempted to allow their daughters to
grow up with inactive habits, that their Country and the world must
look for a reformation, in this respect. Whatever ladies in the
wealthier classes decide shall be fashionable, will be followed by all
the rest; but, while they persist in the aristocratic habits, now so
common, and bring up their daughters to feel as if labor was degrading
and unbecoming, the evils pointed out will never find a remedy. It is,
therefore, the peculiar duty of ladies, who have wealth, to set a proper
example, in this particular, and make it their first aim to secure a
strong and healthful constitution for their daughters, by active
domestic employments. All the sweeping, dusting, care of furniture and
beds, the clear starching, and the nice cooking, should be done by the
daughters of a family, and not by hired servants. It may cost the mother
more care, and she may find it needful to hire a person for the express
purpose of instructing and superintending her daughters, in these
employments; but it should be regarded as indispensable to be secured,
either by the mother's agency, or by a substitute.

It is in this point of view, that the dearth of good domestics in this
Country may, in its results, prove a substantial blessing. If all
housekeepers, who have the means, could secure good servants, there
would be little hope that so important a revolution, in the domestic
customs of the wealthy classes, could be effected. And so great is the
natural indolence of mankind, that the amount of exercise, needful for
health, will never be secured by those who are led to it through no
necessity, but merely from rational considerations. Yet the pressure of
domestic troubles, from the want of good domestics, has already
determined many a mother, in the wealthy classes, to train her daughters
to aid her in domestic service; and thus necessity is compelling mothers
to do what abstract principles of expediency could never secure.

A second method of promoting the same object, is, to raise the science
and practice of Domestic Economy to its appropriate place, as a regular
study in female seminaries. The succeeding chapter will present the
reasons for this, more at large. But it is to the mothers of our
Country, that the community must look for this change. It cannot be
expected, that teachers, who have their attention chiefly absorbed by
the intellectual and moral interests of their pupils, should properly
realize the importance of this department of education. But if mothers
generally become convinced of this, their judgement and wishes will meet
the respectful consideration they deserve, and the object will be
accomplished.

The third method of securing a remedy for the evils pointed out, is, the
endowment of female institutions, under the care of suitable trustees,
who shall secure a proper course of education. The importance of this
measure cannot be realized by those, who have not turned their attention
to this subject; and for such, the following considerations are
presented.

The endowment of colleges, and of law, medical, and divinity, schools,
for the other sex, is designed to secure a thorough and proper
education, for those who have the most important duties of society to
perform. The men who are to expound the laws, the men who have the care
of the public health, and the men who are to communicate religious
instruction, should have well-disciplined and well-informed minds; and
it is mainly for this object that collegiate and professional
institutions are established. Liberal and wealthy individuals contribute
funds, and the legislatures of the States also lend assistance, so that
every State in this Nation has from one to twenty such endowed
institutions, supplied with buildings, apparatus, a library, and a
faculty of learned men to carry forward a superior course of
instruction. And the use of all these advantages is secured, in many
cases, at an expense, no greater than is required to send a boy to a
common school and pay his board there. No private school could offer
these advantages, without charging such a sum, as would forbid all but
the rich from securing its benefits. By furnishing such superior
advantages, on low terms, multitudes are properly educated, who would
otherwise remain in ignorance; and thus the professions are supplied,
by men properly qualified for them.

Were there no such institutions, and no regular and appropriate course
of study demanded for admission to the bar, the pulpit, and to medical
practice, the education of most professional men would be desultory,
imperfect, and deficient. Parents and children would regulate the course
of study according to their own crude notions; and, instead of having
institutions which agree in carrying on a similar course of study, each
school would have its own peculiar system, and compete and conflict with
every other. Meantime, the public would have no means of deciding which
was best, nor any opportunity for learning when a professional man was
properly qualified for his duties. But as it is, the diploma of a
college, and the license of an appointed body of judges, must both be
secured, before a young man feels that he has entered the most promising
path to success in his profession.

Our Country, then, is most abundantly supplied with endowed
institutions, which secure a liberal education, on such low terms as
make them accessible to all classes, and in which the interests of
education are watched over, sustained, and made permanent, by an
appropriate board of trustees.

But are not the most responsible of all duties committed to the charge
of woman? Is it not her profession to take care of mind, body, and soul?
and that, too, at the most critical of all periods of existence? And is
it not as much a matter of public concern, that she should be properly
qualified for her duties, as that ministers, lawyers, and physicians,
should be prepared for theirs? And is it not as important, to endow
institutions which shall make a superior education accessible to all
classes,--for females, as for the other sex? And is it not equally
important, that institutions for females be under the supervision of
intelligent and responsible trustees, whose duty it shall be to secure a
uniform and appropriate education for one sex as much as for the other?
It would seem as if every mind must accord an affirmative reply, as soon
as the matter is fairly considered.

As the education of females is now conducted, any man or woman who
pleases, can establish a female seminary, and secure recommendations
which will attract pupils. But whose business is it to see that these
young females are not huddled into crowded rooms? or that they do not
sleep in ill-ventilated chambers? or that they have healthful food? or
that they have the requisite amount of fresh air and exercise? or that
they pursue an appropriate and systematic course of study? or that their
manners, principles, and morals, are properly regulated? Parents either
have not the means, or else are not qualified to judge; or, if they are
furnished with means and capacity, they are often restricted to a choice
of the best school within reach, even when it is known to be exceedingly
objectionable.

If the writer were to disclose all that can truly be told of
boarding-school life, and its influence on health, manners, disposition,
intellect, and morals, the disclosure would both astonish and shock
every rational mind. And yet she believes that such institutions are far
better managed in this Country, than in any other; and that the number
of those, which are subject to imputations in these respects, is much
less than could reasonably be expected. But it is most surely the case,
that much remains to be done, in order to supply such institutions as
are needed for the proper education of American women.

In attempting a sketch of the kind of institutions which are demanded,
it is very fortunate that there is no necessity for presenting a theory,
which may, or may not, be approved by experience. It is the greatest
honor of one of our newest Western States, that it can boast of such an
Institution, endowed, too, wholly by the munificence of a single
individual. A slight sketch of this Institution, which the writer has
examined in all its details, will give an idea of what can be done, by
showing what has actually been accomplished.

This Institution[C] is under the supervision of a Board of Trustees, who
hold the property in trust for the object to which it is devoted, and
who have the power to fill their own vacancies. It is furnished with a
noble and tasteful building, of stone, so liberal in dimensions and
arrangement, that it can accommodate ninety pupils and teachers, giving
one room to every two pupils, and all being so arranged, as to admit of
thorough ventilation. This building is surrounded by extensive grounds,
enclosed with handsome fences, where remains of the primeval forest
still offer refreshing shade for juvenile sports.

To secure adequate exercise for the pupils, two methods are adopted. By
the first, each young lady is required to spend a certain portion of
time in domestic employments, either in sweeping, dusting, setting and
clearing tables, washing and ironing, or other household concerns.

Let not the aristocratic mother and daughter express their dislike of
such an arrangement, till they can learn how well it succeeds. Let them
walk, as the writer has done, through the large airy halls, kept clean
and in order by their fair occupants, to the washing and ironing-rooms.
There they will see a long hall, conveniently fitted up with some thirty
neatly-painted tubs, with a clean floor, and water conducted so as to
save both labor and slopping. Let them see some thirty or forty merry
girls, superintended by a motherly lady, chatting and singing, washing
and starching, while every convenience is at hand, and every thing
around is clean and comfortable. Two hours, thus employed, enable each
young lady to wash the articles she used during the previous week, which
is all that is demanded, while thus they are all practically initiated
into the arts and mysteries of the wash-tub. The Superintendent remarked
to the writer, that, after a few weeks of probation, most of her young
washers succeeded quite as well as those whom she could hire, and who
made it their business. Adjacent to the washing-room, is the ironing
establishment; where another class are arranged, on the ironing-day,
around long, extended tables, with heating-furnaces, clothes-frames, and
all needful appliances.

By a systematic arrangement of school and domestic duties, a moderate
portion of time, usually not exceeding two hours a day, from each of the
pupils, accomplished all the domestic labor of a family of ninety,
except the cooking, which was done by two hired domestics. This part of
domestic labor it was deemed inexpedient to incorporate as a portion of
the business of the pupils, inasmuch as it could not be accommodated to
the arrangements of the school, and was in other respects objectionable.

Is it asked, how can young ladies paint, play the piano, and study, when
their hands and dresses must be unfitted by such drudgery? The woman who
asks this question, has yet to learn that a pure and delicate skin is
better secured by healthful exercise, than by any other method; and that
a young lady, who will spend two hours a day at the wash-tub, or with a
broom, is far more likely to have rosy cheeks, a finely-moulded form,
and a delicate skin, than one who lolls all day in her parlor or
chamber, or only leaves it, girt in tight dresses, to make fashionable
calls. It is true, that long-protracted daily labor hardens the hand,
and unfits it for delicate employments; but the amount of labor needful
for health produces no such effect. As to dress, and appearance, if neat
and convenient accommodations are furnished, there is no occasion for
the exposures which demand shabby dresses. A dark calico, genteelly
made, with an oiled-silk apron, and wide cuffs of the same material,
secures both good looks and good service. This plan of domestic
employments for the pupils in this Institution, not only secures regular
healthful exercise, but also aids to reduce the expenses of education,
so that, with the help of the endowments, it is brought within the reach
of many, who otherwise could never gain such advantages.

In addition to this, a system of Calisthenic[D] exercises is introduced,
which secures all the advantages which dancing is supposed to effect,
and which is free from the dangerous tendencies of that fascinating and
fashionable amusement. This system is so combined with music, and
constantly varying evolutions, as to serve as an amusement, and also as
a mode of curing distortions, particularly all tendencies to curvature
of the spine; while, at the same time, it tends to promote grace of
movement, and easy manners.

Another advantage of this Institution, is, an elevated and invigorating
course of mental discipline. Many persons seem to suppose, that the
chief object of an intellectual education is the acquisition of
knowledge. But it will be found, that this is only a secondary object.
The formation of habits of investigation, of correct reasoning, of
persevering attention, of regular system, of accurate analysis, and of
vigorous mental action, is the primary object to be sought in preparing
American women for their arduous duties; duties which will demand not
only quickness of perception, but steadiness of purpose, regularity of
system, and perseverance in action.

It is for such purposes, that the discipline of the Mathematics is so
important an element in female education; and it is in this aspect,
that the mere acquisition of facts, and the attainment of
accomplishments, should be made of altogether secondary account.

In the Institution here described, a systematic course of study is
adopted, as in our colleges; designed to occupy three years. The
following slight outline of the course, will exhibit the liberal plan
adopted in this respect.

In Mathematics, the whole of Arithmetic contained in the larger works
used in schools, the whole of Euclid, and such portions from Day's
Mathematics as are requisite to enable the pupils to demonstrate the
various problems in Olmsted's larger work on Natural Philosophy. In
Language, besides English Grammar, a short course in Latin is required,
sufficient to secure an understanding of the philosophy of the language,
and that kind of mental discipline which the exercise of translating
affords. In Philosophy, Chemistry, Astronomy, Botany, Geology and
Mineralogy, Intellectual and Moral Philosophy, Political Economy, and
the Evidences of Christianity, the same textbooks are used as are
required at our best colleges. In Geography, the most thorough course is
adopted; and in History, a more complete knowledge is secured, by means
of charts and textbooks, than most of our colleges offer. To these
branches, are added Griscom's Physiology,[E] Bigelow's Technology, and
Jahn's Archæology, together with a course of instruction in polite
literature, for which Chambers's English Literature is employed as the
text-book, each recitation being attended with selections and
criticisms, from teacher or pupils, on the various authors brought into
notice. Vocal Music, on the plan of the Boston Academy, is a part of the
daily instructions. Linear drawing, and pencilling, are designed also
to be a part of the course. Instrumental Music is taught, but not as a
part of the regular course of study.

To secure the proper instruction in all these branches, the division of
labor, adopted in colleges, is pursued. Each teacher has distinct
branches as her department, for which she is responsible, and in which
she is independent. One teacher performs the duties of a _governess_, in
maintaining rules, and attending to the habits and manners of the
pupils. By this method, the teachers have sufficient time, both to
prepare themselves, and to impart instruction and illustration in the
class-room. In this Institution it is made a direct object of effort _to
cure defects_ of _character and habits_. At the frequent meetings of the
Principal and teachers, the peculiarities of each pupil are made the
subjects of inquiry; and methods are devised for remedying defects
through the personal influence of the several teachers. This, when thus
made a direct object of combined effort, often secures results most
gratifying and encouraging.

One peculiarity of this Institution demands consideration. By the method
adopted here, the exclusive business of educating their own sex is, as
it ever ought to be, confined to females. The Principal of the
Institution, indeed, is a gentleman; but, while he takes the position of
a father of the family, and responsible head of the whole concern, the
entire charge of instruction, and most of the responsibilities in regard
to health, morals, and manners, rest upon the female teachers, in their
several departments. The Principal is the chaplain and religious
teacher; and is a member of the board of instructors, so far as to have
a right to advise, and an equal vote, in every question pertaining to
the concerns of the School; and thus he acts as a sort of regulator and
mainspring in all the various departments. But no one person in the
Institution is loaded with the excessive responsibilities, which rest
upon one, where a large institution of this kind has a Principal, who
employs and directs all the subordinate assistants. The writer has
never before seen the principle of the division of labor and
responsibility so perfectly carried out in any female institution; and
she believes that experience will prove that this is the true model for
combining, in appropriate proportions, the agency of both sexes in
carrying forward such an institution. There are cases where females are
well qualified, and feel willing to take the place occupied by the
Principal; but such cases are rare.

One thing more should be noticed, to the credit of the rising State
where this Institution is located. A female association has been formed,
embracing a large portion of the ladies of standing and wealth, the
design of which, is, to educate, gratuitously, at this, and other
similar, institutions, such females as are anxious to obtain a good
education, and are destitute of the means. If this enterprise is
continued, with the same energy and perseverance as has been manifested
during the last few years, that State will take the lead of her sister
States in well-educated women; and if the views in the preceding pages
are correct, this will give her precedence in every intellectual and
moral advantage.

Many, who are not aware of the great economy secured by a proper
division of labor, will not understand how so extensive a course can be
properly completed in three years. But in this Institution, none are
received under fourteen; and a certain amount of previous acquisition is
required, in order to admission, as is done in our colleges. This
secures a diminution of classes, so that but few studies are pursued at
one time; while the number of well-qualified teachers is so adequate,
that full time is afforded for all needful instruction and illustration.
Where teachers have so many classes, that they merely have time to find
out what the pupils learn from books, without any aid from their
teachers, the acquisitions of the pupils are vague and imperfect, and
soon pass away; so that an immense amount of expense, time, and labor,
is spent in acquiring or recalling what is lost about as fast as it is
gained.

Parents are little aware of the immense waste incurred by the present
mode of conducting female education. In the wealthy classes, young girls
are sent to school, as a matter of course, year after year, confined,
for six hours a day, to the schoolhouse, and required to add some time
out of school to learning their lessons. Thus, during the most critical
period of life, they are for a long time immured in a room, filled with
an atmosphere vitiated by many breaths, and are constantly kept under
some sort of responsibility in regard to mental effort. Their studies
are pursued at random, often changed with changing schools, while book
after book (heavily taxing the parent's purse) is conned awhile, and
then supplanted by others. Teachers have usually so many pupils, and
such a variety of branches to teach, that little time can be afforded to
each pupil; while scholars, at this thoughtless period of life, feeling
sure of going to school as long as they please, manifest little interest
in their pursuits.

The writer believes that the actual amount of education, permanently
secured by most young ladies from the age of ten to fourteen, could all
be acquired in one year, at the Institution described, by a young lady
at the age of fifteen or sixteen.

Instead of such a course as the common one, if mothers would keep their
daughters as their domestic assistants, until they are fourteen,
requiring them to study one lesson, and go out, once a day, to recite it
to a teacher, it would abundantly prepare them, after their
constitutions are firmly established, to enter such an institution,
where, in three years, they could secure more, than almost any young
lady in the Country now gains by giving the whole of her youth to school
pursuits.

In the early years of female life, reading, writing, needlework,
drawing, and music, should alternate with domestic duties; and one hour
a day, devoted to some study, in addition to the above pursuits, would
be all that is needful to prepare them for a thorough education after
growth is attained, and the constitution established. This is the time
when young women would feel the value of an education, and pursue their
studies with that maturity of mind, and vividness of interest, which
would double the perpetuity and value of all their acquisitions.

The great difficulty, which opposes such a plan, is, the want of
institutions that would enable a young lady to complete, in three years,
the liberal course of study, here described. But if American mothers
become convinced of the importance of such advantages for their
daughters, and will use their influence appropriately and efficiently,
they will certainly be furnished. There are other men of liberality and
wealth, besides the individual referred to, who can be made to feel that
a fortune, expended in securing an appropriate education to American
women, is as wisely bestowed, as in founding colleges for the other sex,
who are already so abundantly supplied. We ought to have institutions,
similar to the one described, in every part of this Nation; and funds
should be provided, for educating young women destitute of means: and if
American women think and feel, that, by such a method, their own trials
will be lightened, and their daughters will secure a healthful
constitution and a thorough domestic and intellectual education, the
appropriate expression of their wishes will secure the necessary funds.
The tide of charity, which has been so long flowing from the female hand
to provide a liberal education for young men, will flow back with
abundant remuneration.

The last method suggested for lessening the evils peculiar to American
women, is, a decided effort to oppose the aristocratic feeling, that
labor is degrading; and to bring about the impression, that it is
refined and lady-like to engage in domestic pursuits. In past ages, and
in aristocratic countries, leisure and indolence and frivolous pursuits
have been deemed lady-like and refined, because those classes, which
were most refined, countenanced such an opinion. But whenever ladies of
refinement, as a general custom, patronise domestic pursuits, then
these employments will be deemed lady-like. It may be urged, however,
that it is impossible for a woman who cooks, washes, and sweeps, to
appear in the dress, or acquire the habits and manners, of a lady; that
the drudgery of the kitchen is dirty work, and that no one can appear
delicate and refined, while engaged in it. Now all this depends on
circumstances. If a woman has a house, destitute of neat and convenient
facilities; if she has no habits of order and system; if she is remiss
and careless in person and dress;--then all this may be true. But, if a
woman will make some sacrifices of costly ornaments in her parlor, in
order to make her kitchen neat and tasteful; if she will sacrifice
expensive dishes, in order to secure such conveniences for labor as
protect from exposures; if she will take pains to have the dresses, in
which she works, made of suitable materials, and in good taste; if she
will rise early, and systematize and oversee the work of her family, so
as to have it done thoroughly, neatly, and in the early part of the day;
she will find no necessity for any such apprehensions. It is because
such work has generally been done by vulgar people, and in a vulgar way,
that we have such associations; and when ladies manage such things, as
ladies should, then such associations will be removed. There are
pursuits, deemed very refined and genteel, which involve quite as much
exposure as kitchen employments. For example, to draw a large landscape,
in colored crayons, would be deemed very lady-like; but the writer can
testify, from sad experience, that no cooking, washing, sweeping, or any
other domestic duty, ever left such deplorable traces on hands, face,
and dress, as this same lady-like pursuit. Such things depend entirely
on custom and associations; and every American woman, who values the
institutions of her Country, and wishes to lend her influence in
extending and perpetuating such blessings, may feel that she is doing
this, whenever, by her example and influence, she destroys the
aristocratic association, which would render domestic labor degrading.


FOOTNOTES:

[C] The writer omits the name of this Institution, lest an inference
should be drawn which would be unjust to other institutions. There are
others equally worthy of notice, and the writer selects this only
because her attention was especially directed to it as being in a new
State, and endowed wholly by an individual.

[D] From two Greek words,--[Greek: kalos], _kalos_, beauty, and [Greek:
sthenos], _sthenos_, strength, being the union of both. The writer is
now preparing for the press, an improved system, of her own invention,
which, in _some_ of its parts, has been successfully introduced into
several female seminaries, with advantage. This plan combines singing
with a great variety of amusing and graceful evolutions, designed to
promote both health and easy manners.

[E] This work, which has gone through numerous editions, and been
received by the public with great favour, forms No. lxxxv. of the
"Family Library," and No. lvii. of the "School District Library," issued
by the publishers of this volume. It is abundantly illustrated by
engravings, and has been extensively introduced as a school text-book.




CHAPTER IV.

ON DOMESTIC ECONOMY AS A BRANCH OF STUDY.


The greatest impediment to making Domestic Economy a branch of study,
is, the fact, that neither parents nor teachers realize the importance,
or the practicability of constituting it a regular part of school
education.

It is with reference to this, that the first aim of the writer will be,
to point out some of the reasons for introducing Domestic Economy as a
branch of female education, to be studied at school.

The first reason, is, that there is no period, in a young lady's life,
when she will not find such knowledge useful to herself and to others.
The state of domestic service, in this Country, is so precarious, that
there is scarcely a family, in the free States, of whom it can be
affirmed, that neither sickness, discontent, nor love of change, will
deprive them of all their domestics, so that every female member of the
family will be required to lend some aid, in providing food and the
conveniences of living; and the better she is qualified to render it,
the happier she will be, and the more she will contribute to the
enjoyment of others.

A second reason, is, that every young lady, at the close of her
schooldays, and even before they are closed, is liable to be placed in a
situation, in which she will need to do, herself, or to teach others to
do, all the various processes and duties detailed in this work. That
this may be more fully realized, the writer will detail some instances,
which have come under her own observation.

The eldest daughter of a family returned from school, on a visit, at
sixteen years of age. Before her vacation had closed, her mother was
laid in the grave; and such were her father's circumstances, that she
was obliged to assume the cares and duties of her lost parent. The care
of an infant, the management of young children, the superintendence of
domestics, the charge of family expenses, the responsibility of
entertaining company, and the many other cares of the family state, all
at once came upon this young and inexperienced schoolgirl.

Again; a young lady went to reside with a married sister, in a distant
State. While on this visit, the elder sister died, and there was no one
but this young lady to fill the vacant place, and assume all the cares
of the nursery, parlor, and kitchen.

Again; a pupil of the writer, at the end of her schooldays, married, and
removed to the West. She was an entire novice in all domestic matters;
an utter stranger in the place to which she removed. In a year, she
became a mother, and _her health failed_; while, for most of the time,
she had no domestics, at all, or only Irish or Germans, who scarcely
knew even the names, or the uses, of many cooking utensils. She was
treated with politeness by her neighbors, and wished to return their
civilities; but how could this young and delicate creature, who had
spent all her life at school, or in visiting and amusement, take care of
her infant, attend to her cooking, washing, ironing, and baking, the
concerns of her parlor, chambers, kitchen, and cellar, and yet visit and
receive company? If there is any thing that would make a kindly heart
ache, with sorrow and sympathy, it would be to see so young, so amiable,
so helpless a martyr to the mistaken system of female education now
prevalent. "I have the kindest of husbands," said the young wife, after
her narrative of sufferings, "and I never regretted my marriage; but,
since this babe was born, I have never had a single waking hour of
freedom from anxiety and care. O! how little young girls know what is
before them, when they enter married life!" Let the mother or teacher,
whose eye may rest on these lines, ask herself, if there is no cause for
fear that the young objects of her care may be thrown into similar
emergencies, where they may need a kind of preparation, which as yet has
been withheld.

Another reason for introducing such a subject, as a distinct branch of
school education, is, that, as a general fact, young ladies _will not_
be taught these things in any other way. In reply to the
thousand-times-repeated remark, that girls must be taught their domestic
duties by their mothers, at home, it may be inquired, in the first
place, What proportion of mothers are qualified to teach a _proper_ and
_complete_ system of Domestic Economy? When this is answered, it may be
asked, What proportion of those who are qualified, have that sense of
the importance of such instructions, and that energy and perseverance
which would enable them actually to teach their daughters, in all the
branches of Domestic Economy presented in this work?

It may then be asked, How many mothers _actually do_ give their
daughters instruction in the various branches of Domestic Economy? Is it
not the case, that, owing to ill health, deficiency of domestics, and
multiplied cares and perplexities, a large portion of the most
intelligent mothers, and those, too, who most realize the importance of
this instruction, actually cannot find the time, and have not the
energy, necessary to properly perform the duty? They are taxed to the
full amount of both their mental and physical energies, and cannot
attempt any thing more. Almost every woman knows, that it is easier to
do the work, herself, than it is to teach an awkward and careless
novice; and the great majority of women, in this Country, are obliged to
do almost every thing in the shortest and easiest way. This is one
reason why the daughters of very energetic and accomplished housekeepers
are often the most deficient in these respects; while the daughters of
ignorant or inefficient mothers, driven to the exercise of their own
energies, often become the most systematic and expert.

It may be objected, that such things cannot be taught by books. This
position may fairly be questioned. Do not young ladies learn, from
books, how to make hydrogen and oxygen? Do they not have pictures of
furnaces, alembics, and the various utensils employed in _cooking_ the
chemical agents? Do they not study the various processes of mechanics,
and learn to understand and to do many as difficult operations, as any
that belong to housekeeping? All these things are explained, studied,
and recited in classes, when every one knows that little practical use
can ever be made of this knowledge. Why, then, should not that science
and art, which a woman is to practise during her whole life, be studied
and recited?

It may be urged, that, even if it is studied, it will soon be forgotten.
And so will much of every thing studied at school. But why should that
knowledge, most needful for daily comfort, most liable to be in demand,
be the only study omitted, because it may be forgotten?

It may also be objected, that young ladies can get such books, and
attend to them out of school. And so they can get books on Chemistry and
Philosophy, and study them out of school; but _will_ they do it? And why
ought we not to make sure of the most necessary knowledge, and let the
less needful be omitted? If young ladies study such a work as this, in
school, they will remember a great part of it; and, when they forget, in
any emergency, they will know where to resort for instruction. But if
such books are not put into schools, probably not one in twenty will see
or hear of them, especially in those retired places where they are most
needed. And is it at all probable, that a branch, which is so lightly
esteemed as to be deemed unworthy a place in the list of female studies,
will be sought for and learned by young girls, who so seldom look into
works of solid instruction after they leave school? So deeply is the
writer impressed with the importance of this, as a branch of female
education, at school, that she would deem it far safer and wiser to omit
any other, rather than this.

Another reason, for introducing such a branch of study into female
schools, is, the influence it would exert, in leading young ladies more
correctly to estimate the importance and dignity of domestic knowledge.
It is now often the case, that young ladies rather pride themselves on
their ignorance of such subjects; and seem to imagine that it is vulgar
and ungenteel to know how to work. This is one of the relics of an
aristocratic state of society, which is fast passing away. Here, the
tendency of every thing is to the equalisation of labor, so that all
classes are feeling, more and more, that indolence is disreputable. And
there are many mothers, among the best educated and most wealthy
classes, who are bringing up their daughters, not only to know how to
do, but actually to do, all kinds of domestic work. The writer knows
young ladies, who are daughters of men of wealth and standing, and who
are among the most accomplished in their sphere, who have for months
been sent to work with a mantuamaker, to acquire a practical knowledge
of her occupation, and who have at home learned to perform all kinds of
domestic labor.

And let the young women of this Nation find, that Domestic Economy is
placed, in schools, on equal or superior ground to Chemistry,
Philosophy, and Mathematics, and they will blush to be found ignorant of
its first principles, as much as they will to hesitate respecting the
laws of gravity, or the composition of the atmosphere. But, as matters
are now conducted, many young ladies know how to make oxygen and
hydrogen, and to discuss questions of Philosophy or Political Economy,
far better than they know how to make a bed and sweep a room properly;
and they can "construct a diagram" in Geometry, with far more skill than
they can make the simplest article of female dress.

It may be urged, that the plan suggested by the writer, in the previous
pages, would make such a book as this needless; for young ladies would
learn all these things at home, before they go to school. But it must be
remembered, that the plan suggested cannot fully be carried into effect,
till such endowed institutions, as the one described, are universally
furnished. This probably will not be done, till at least one generation
of young women are educated. It is only on the supposition that a young
lady can, at fourteen or fifteen years of age, enter such an
institution, and continue there three years, that it would be easy to
induce her to remain, during all the previous period, at home, in the
practice of Domestic Economy, and the limited course of study pointed
out. In the present imperfect, desultory, varying, mode of female
education, where studies are begun, changed, partially learned, and
forgotten, it requires nearly all the years of a woman's youth, to
acquire the intellectual education now demanded. While this state of
things continues, the only remedy is, to introduce Domestic Economy as a
study at school.

It is hoped that these considerations will have weight, not only with
parents and teachers, but with young ladies themselves, and that all
will unite their influence to introduce this, as a popular and universal
branch of education, into every female school.




CHAPTER V.

ON THE CARE OF HEALTH.


There is no point, where a woman is more liable to suffer from a want of
knowledge and experience, than in reference to the health of a family
committed to her care. Many a young lady, who never had any charge of
the sick; who never took any care of an infant; who never obtained
information on these subjects from books, or from the experience of
others; in short, with little or no preparation; has found herself the
principal attendant in dangerous sickness, the chief nurse of a feeble
infant, and the responsible guardian of the health of a whole family.

The care, the fear, the perplexity, of a woman, suddenly called to
these unwonted duties, none can realize, till they themselves feel it,
or till they see some young and anxious novice first attempting to meet
such responsibilities. To a woman of age and experience, these duties
often involve a measure of trial and difficulty, at times deemed almost
insupportable; how hard, then, must they press on the heart of the young
and inexperienced!

There is no really efficacious mode of preparing a woman to take a
_rational_ care of the health of a family, except by communicating that
knowledge, in regard to the construction of the body, and the laws of
health, which is the basis of the medical profession. Not that a woman
should undertake the minute and extensive investigation requisite for a
physician; but she should gain a general knowledge of first principles,
as a guide to her judgement in emergencies when she can rely on no other
aid. Therefore, before attempting to give any specific directions on the
subject of this chapter, a short sketch of the construction of the human
frame will be given, with a notice of some of the general principles, on
which specific rules in regard to health are based. This description
will be arranged under the general heads of BONES, MUSCLES, NERVES,
BLOOD-VESSELS, ORGANS OF DIGESTION AND RESPIRATION, and THE SKIN.


BONES.

The bones are the most solid parts of the body. They are designed to
protect and sustain it, and also to secure voluntary motion. They are
about two hundred and fifty in number, (there being sometimes a few more
or less,) and are fastened together by cartilage, or gristle, a
substance like the bones, but softer, and more elastic.

In order to convey a more clear and correct idea of the form, relative
position, and connection, of the bones constituting the human framework,
the engraving on page 70, (Fig. 1,) is given.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.]

By the preceding engraving, it will be seen, that the _cranium_, or
_skull_, consists of several distinct pieces, which are united by
sutures, (or seams,) as represented by the zigzag lines; _a_, being the
_frontal bone_; _b_, the _parietal bone_; _c_, the _temporal bone_; and
_d_, the place of the _occipital bone_, which forms the back part of the
head, and therefore is not seen in the engraving. The _nasal bones_, or
bones of the nose, are shown at _e_; _f_, is the _cheek bone_; _g_, the
_upper_, and _h_, the _lower, jaw bones_; _i_, _i_, the _spinal column_,
or back bone, consisting of numerous small bones, called _vertebræ_;
_j_, _j_, the seven _true ribs_, which are fastened to the spine,
behind, and by the _cartilages_, _k_, _k_, to the _sternum_, or _breast
bone_, _l_, in front; _m_, _m_, are the first three _false ribs_, which
are so called, because they are not united directly to the breast bone,
but by cartilages to the seventh true rib; _n_, _n_, are the lower two
_false_, which are also called _floating, ribs_, because they are not
connected with the breast bone, nor the other ribs, in front; _o_, _o_,
_p_, _q_, are the bones of the _pelvis_, which is the foundation on
which the spine rests; _r_, _r_, are the _collar bones_; _s_, _s_, the
_shoulder blades_; _t_, _t_, the bones of the _upper arm_; _u_, _u_, the
_elbow joints_, where the bones of the upper arm and fore arm are united
in such a way that they can move like a hinge; _v_ _w_, _v_ _w_, are the
bones of the _fore arm_; _x_, _x_, those of the _wrists_; _y_, _y_,
those of the _fingers_; _z_, _z_, are the round heads of the thigh
bones, where they are inserted into the sockets of the bones of the
pelvis, giving motion in every direction, and forming the _hip joint_; a
b, a b, are the _thigh bones_; c, c, the _knee joints_; d e, d e, the
_leg bones_; f, f, the _ankle joints_; g, g, the _bones of the foot_.

The bones are composed of two substances,--one animal, and the other
mineral. The animal part is a very fine network, called the _cellular
membrane_. In this, are deposited the harder mineral substances, which
are composed principally of carbonate and phosphate of lime. In very
early life, the bones consist chiefly of the animal part, and are then
soft and pliant. As the child advances in age, the bones grow harder, by
the gradual deposition of the phosphate of lime, which is supplied by
the food, and carried to the bones by the blood. In old age, the hardest
material preponderates; making the bones more brittle than in earlier
life.

As we shall soon have occasion to refer, particularly, to the spinal, or
vertebral column, and the derangement to which it is liable, we give, on
page 72, representations of the different classes of vertebræ; viz. the
_cervical_, (from the Latin, _cervix_, the neck,) the _dorsal_, (from
_dorsum_, the back,) and _lumbar_, (from _lumbus_, the loins.)

[Illustration: Fig. 2.]

Fig. 2, represents one of the _cervical vertebræ_. Seven of these,
placed one above another, constitute that part of the spine which is in
the neck.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.]

Fig. 3, is one of the _dorsal vertebræ_, twelve of which, form the
central part of the spine.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

Fig. 4, represents one of the _lumbar vertebræ_, (five in number,)
which are immediately above the sacrum. These vertebræ are so fastened,
that the spine can bend, in any direction; and the muscles of the trunk
are used in holding it erect, or in varying its movements.

By the drawings here presented, it will be seen, that the vertebræ of
the neck, back, and loins, differ somewhat in size and shape, although
they all possess the same constituent parts; thus, A, in each,
represents the body of the vertebræ; B, the articulating processes, by
which each is joined to its fellow, above and below it; C, the spinous
process, or that part of the vertebræ, which forms the ridge to be felt,
on pressure, the whole length of the centre of the back. The back bone
receives its name, _spine_, or _spinal column_, from these spinous
processes.

It is the universal law of the human frame, that _exercise_ is
indispensable to the health of the several parts. Thus, if a
blood-vessel be tied up, so as not to be used, it shrinks, and becomes a
useless string; if a muscle be condemned to inaction, it shrinks in
size, and diminishes in power; and thus it is also with the bones.
Inactivity produces softness, debility, and unfitness for the functions
they are designed to perform. This is one of the causes of the curvature
of the spine, that common and pernicious defect in the females of
America. From inactivity, the bones of the spine become soft and
yielding; and then, if the person is often placed, for a length of time,
in positions that throw the weight of the body unequally on certain
portions of the spine, they yield to this frequent compression, and a
distortion ensues. The positions taken by young persons, when learning
to write or draw, or to play on the guitar, harp, or piano, and the
position of the body when sleeping on one side, on high pillows, all
tend to produce this effect, by throwing the weight of the body
unequally, and for a length of time, on particular parts of the spine.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.]


MUSCLES.

The muscles are the chief organs of motion, and consist of collections
of fine fibres or strings, united in casings of membrane or thin skin.
They possess an elastic power, like India rubber, which enables them to
extend and contract. The red meat in animals consists of muscles. Every
muscle has connected with it nerves, veins, and arteries; and those
designed to move the bones, are fastened to them by tendons at their
extremities. The muscles are laid over each other, and are separated by
means of membranes and layers of fat, which enable them to move easily,
without interfering with each other.

The figure on page 74, represents the muscles of the arm, as they appear
when the skin and fat are removed. The muscles _a_ and _b_ are attached,
at their upper ends, to the bone of the arm, and by their lower ends to
the upper part of the fore arm, near the elbow joint. When the fibres of
these muscles contract, the middle part of them grows larger, and the
arm is bent at the elbow. The muscle _c_, is, in like manner, fastened,
by its upper end, to the shoulder blade and the upper part of the arm,
and by its lower end to one of the bones of the fore arm, near the
elbow. When the arm is bent, and we wish to straighten it, it is done by
contracting this muscle. The muscles _d_, _d_, are fastened at one end
near the elbow joint, and at the other near the ends of the fingers; and
on the back of the hand are reduced in size, appearing like strong
cords. These cords are called _tendons_. They are employed in
straightening the fingers, when the hand is shut. These tendons are
confined by the ligament or band, _e_, which binds them down, around the
wrist, and thus enables them to act more efficiently, and secures beauty
of form to the limb. The muscles at _f_, are those which enable us to
turn the hand and arm outward. Every different motion of the arm has one
muscle to produce it, and another to restore the limb to its natural
position. Those muscles which bend the body are called _flexors_; those
which straighten it, _extensors_. When the arm is thrown up, one set of
muscles is used; to pull it down, another set: when it is thrown
forward, a still different set is used; when it is thrown back,
another, different from the former; when the arm turns in its socket,
still another set is used; and thus every different motion of the body
is made by a different set of muscles. All these muscles are compactly
and skilfully arranged, so as to work with perfect ease. Among them, run
the arteries, veins, and nerves, which supply each muscle with blood and
nervous power, as will be hereafter described. The size and strength of
the muscles depend greatly on their frequent exercise. If left inactive,
they grow thin and weak, instead of giving the plumpness to the figure,
designed by Nature. The delicate and feeble appearance of many American
women, is chiefly owing to the little use they make of their muscles.
Many a pale, puny, shad-shaped girl, would have become a plump, rosy,
well-formed person, if half the exercise, afforded to her brothers in
the open air, had been secured to her, during childhood and youth.


NERVES.

The nerves are the organs of sensation. They enable us to see, hear,
feel, taste, and smell; and also combine with the bones and muscles in
producing motion.

The first engraving, on p. 77, (Fig. 6,) is a vertical section of the
skull, and of the spinal column, or back bone, which supports the head,
and through which runs the spinal cord, whence most of the nerves
originate. It is a side view, and represents the head and spine, as they
would appear, if they were cut through the middle, from front to back.
Fig. 7, exhibits them as they would appear, if viewed from _behind_. In
Fig. 6, _a_, represents the _cerebrum_, or great brain; _b_, the
_cerebellum_, or little brain, which is situated directly under the
great brain, at the back and lower part of the head; _c_, _d_, _e_, is
the spinal marrow, which is connected with the brain at _c_, and runs
through the whole length of the spinal column. This column consists, as
has already been stated, of a large number of small bones, _f_, _f_,
called _vertebræ_, laid one above another, and fastened together by
_cartilage_, or _gristle_, _g_, between them.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.]

[Illustration: Fig. 7.]

Between each two vertebræ, or spinal bones, there issues from the
spine, on each side, a pair of nerves. The lower broad part of the
spine, (see _p_, Fig. 1, p. 70, and Fig. 7, p. 77,) is called the
_sacrum_; in this, are eight holes, through which the lower pairs of
nerves pass off.

The nerves of the head and lungs run directly from the brain; those of
all other parts of the body proceed from the spine, passing out in the
manner already mentioned.

The nerves which thus proceed from the spine, branch out, like the limbs
and twigs of a tree, till they extend over the whole body; and, so
minutely are they divided and arranged, that a point, destitute of a
nerve, cannot be found on the skin.

Some idea of the ramifications of the nerves, may be obtained by
reference to the following engraving, (Fig. 8.) In this, A, A,
represents the _cerebrum_, or great brain; B, B, the _cerebellum_, or
little brain; (see also _a_, _b_, in Fig. 6;) C, C, represents the union
of the fibres of the cerebrum; D, D, the union of the two sides of the
cerebellum; E, E, E, the spinal marrow, which passes through the centre
of the spine, (as seen at _c_, _d_, _e_, in Fig. 6;) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
branches of the nerves going to different parts of the body. As the
nerves are the organs of sensation, all _pain_ is an affection of some
portion of the nerves. The health of the nerves depends very greatly on
the exercise of the muscles, with which they are so intimately
connected. This shows the reason why the _headache_, _tic douloureux_,
diseases of the _spine_, and other nervous affections, are so common
among American women. Their inactive habits, engender a debility of the
nervous system, and these diseases follow, as the consequence.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.]

It can be seen, by a reference to the side view, represented on page
77, (Fig. 6,) that the spine is naturally curved back and forward.
When, from want of exercise, its bones are softened, and the muscles
weakened, the spine acquires an improper curve, and the person becomes
what is called _crooked_, having the neck projected forward, and, in
some cases, having the back convex, where it should be concave. Probably
one half of the American women have the head thus projecting forward,
instead of carrying it in the natural, erect position, which is both
graceful and dignified.

The curvature of the spine, spoken of in this work as so common, and as
the cause of so many diseases among American women, is what is
denominated the _lateral curvature_, and is much more dangerous than the
other distortion. The indications of this evil, are, the projection of
one shoulder blade more than the other, and, in bad cases, one shoulder
being higher, and the hip on the opposite side more projecting, than the
other. In this case, the spine, when viewed from behind, instead of
running in a straight line, (as in Fig. 7 and 9,) is curved somewhat, as
may be seen in Figures 10 and 11.

This effect is occasioned by the softness of the bones, induced by want
of exercise, together with tight dressing, which tends to weaken the
muscles that are thus thrown out of use. Improper and long continued
positions in drawing, writing, and sleeping, which throw the weight of
the body on one part of the spine, induce the same evil. This distortion
is usually accompanied with some consequent disease of the nervous
system, or some disarrangement of the internal organs.

By comparing Figures 9 and 11, the difference between a natural and
distorted spine will be readily perceived. In Fig. 10, the curved line
shows the course of the spine, occasioned by distortion; the
perpendicular line, in this and Fig. 11, indicates the true direction of
the spine; the horizontal lines show that one shoulder and hip are
forced from their proper level.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.]

[Illustration: Fig. 10.]

[Illustration: Fig. 11.]


BLOOD-VESSELS.

The blood is the fluid into which our food is changed, and which is
employed to minister nourishment to the whole body. For this purpose, it
is carried to every part of the body, by the arteries; and, after it has
given out its nourishment, returns to the heart, through the veins.

The subjoined engraving, (Fig. 12,) which presents a rude outline of the
vascular system, will more clearly illustrate this operation, as we
shall presently show.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.]

Before entering the heart, the blood receives a fresh supply of
nourishment, by a duct which leads from the stomach. The arteries have
their origin from the heart, in a great trunk, called the _aorta_, which
is the parent of all the arteries, as the spinal marrow is the parent of
the nerves which it sends out. When the arteries have branched out into
myriads of minute vessels, the blood which is in them passes into as
minute veins; and these run into each other, like the rills and branches
of a river, until they are all united in two great veins, which run into
the heart. One of these large receivers, called the _vena cava
superior_, or _upper vena cava_, brings back the blood from the arms and
head, the other, the _vena cava inferior_, or _lower vena cava_, brings
back the blood from the body and lower limbs.

In the preceding figure, H, is the heart, which is divided into four
compartments; two, called _auricles_, used for receiving the blood, and
two, called _ventricles_, used for sending out the blood. A, is the
_aorta_, or great artery, which sends its branches to every part of the
body. In the upper part, at _a_, _a_, _a_, are the main branches of the
_aorta_, which go to the head and arms. Below, at _a_, _a_, are the
branches which go to the lower limbs. The branches which set off at X,
X, are those by which the intestines are supplied by vessels from the
_aorta_. Every muscle in the whole body, all the organs of the body, and
the skin, are supplied by branches sent off from this great _artery_.
When the blood is thus dispersed through any organ, in minute vessels,
it is received, at their terminations, by numerous minute veins, which
gradually unite, forming larger branches, till they all meet in either
the upper or lower _vena cava_, which returns the blood to the heart. V
I, is the _vena cava inferior_, which receives the blood from the veins
of the lower parts of the body, as seen at v, v. The blood, sent into
the lower limbs from the _aorta_, is received by minute veins, which
finally unite at v, v, and thus it is emptied through the lower _vena
cava_ into the heart: _o_, _o_, represent the points of entrance of
those tributaries of the _vena cava_, which receive that blood from the
intestines, which is sent out by the _aorta_ at X, X. In the upper part,
V S, is the _vena cava superior_, which receives the blood from the head
and arms; v, v, v, are the tributaries of the upper _vena cava_, which
bring the blood back from the head and arms; _d_, _d_, represents the
course of the _thoracic duct_, a delicate tube by which the chyle is
carried into the blood, as mentioned on page 89; _t_, shows the place
where this duct empties into a branch of the _vena cava_.

It thus appears, that wherever a branch of the _aorta_ goes to carry
blood, there will be found a tributary of the upper or lower _vena
cava_, to bring it back.

The succeeding engravings, will enable the reader to form a more
definite idea of this important function of the system,--the circulation
of the blood. The heart, in man, and in all warm-blooded animals, is
double, having two auricles and two ventricles. In animals with cold
blood, (as fishes,) the heart is single, having but one auricle and one
ventricle. Fig. 13, represents the double heart as it appears when the
two sides are separated, and also the great blood-vessels; those on the
left of the figure being on the right side of the body, and _vice
versa_. The direction of the blood is represented by the arrows. A,
represents the _lower vena cava_, returning the blood from the lower
parts of the body, and L, the _upper vena cava_, returning the blood
from the head and arms. B, is the _right sinus_, or _auricle_, into
which the returned blood is poured. From this cavity of the heart, the
blood is carried into the _right ventricle_, C; and from this ventricle,
the _pulmonary arteries_, D, convey into the lungs the blood which is
returned from the body. These five vessels, A, B, C, D, and L, belong to
the right side of the heart, and contain the venous or dark-colored
blood, which has been through the circulation, and is now unfit for the
uses of the system, till it has passed through the lungs.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.]

When the blood reaches the lungs, and is exposed to the action of the
air which we breathe, it throws off its impurities, becomes bright in
color, and is then called arterial blood. It then returns to the left
side of the heart, (on the right of the engraving,) by the pulmonary
veins E, E, (also seen at _m_, _m_, Fig. 15,) into the left auricle F,
whence it is forced into the ventricle, G. From the left ventricle,
proceeds the _aorta_, H, H, which is the great artery of the body, and
conveys the blood to every part of the system. I, J, K, are branches of
the aorta, going to the head and arms.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.]

Fig. 14, represents the heart, with its two sides united as in nature;
and will be understood from the description of Fig. 13.

On the opposite page, Fig. 15, represents the heart, with the great
blood-vessels, on a still larger scale; _a_, being the _left ventricle_;
_b_, the _right ventricle_; _c_, _e_, _f_, the _aorta_, or great artery,
rising out of the left ventricle; _g_, _h_, _i_, the branches of the
aorta, going to the head and arms; _k_, _l_, _l_, the _pulmonary
artery_, and its branches; _m_, _m_, _veins of the lungs_, which bring
the blood back from the lungs to the heart; _n_, _right auricle_; _o_,
_vena cava inferior_; _p_, veins returning blood from the liver and
bowels; _q_, the _vena cava superior_; _r_, the _left auricle_; _s_, the
left _coronary artery_, which distributes the blood exclusively to the
substance of the heart.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.]


ORGANS OF DIGESTION AND RESPIRATION.

Digestion and respiration are the processes, by which the food is
converted into blood for the nourishment of the body. The engraving on
the next page (Fig. 16) shows the organs by which these operations are
performed.

In the lower part of the engraving, is the stomach, marked S, which
receives the food through the _gullet_, marked G. The latter, though in
the engraving it is cut off at G, in reality continues upwards to the
throat. The stomach is a bag composed of muscles, nerves, and
blood-vessels, united by a material similar to that which forms the
skin. As soon as food enters the stomach, its nerves are excited to
perform their proper function of stimulating the muscles. A muscular
(called the _peristaltic_) motion immediately commences, by which the
stomach propels its contents around the whole of its circumference, once
in every three minutes.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.]

This movement of the muscles attracts the blood from other parts of the
system; for the blood always hastens to administer its supplies to any
organ which is called to work. The blood-vessels of the stomach are soon
distended with blood, from which the _gastric juice_ is secreted by
minute vessels in the coat of the stomach. This mixes with the food,
and reduces it to a soft pulpy mass, called chyme. It then passes
through the lower end of the stomach, into the intestines, which are
folded up in the abdomen, and the upper portion, only, of which, is
shown in the engraving, at A, A. The organ marked L, L, is the liver,
which, as the blood passes through its many vessels, secretes a
substance called _bile_, which accumulates in the gall-bladder, marked
B. After the food passes out of the stomach, it receives from the liver
a portion of bile, and from the _pancreas_ the _pancreatic juice_. The
pancreas does not appear in this drawing, being concealed behind the
stomach. These two liquids separate the substance which has passed from
the stomach, into two different portions. One is a light liquid, very
much like cream in appearance, and called _chyle_, of which the blood is
formed; the other is a more solid substance, which contains the refuse
and useless matter, with a smaller portion of nourishment; and this,
after being further separated from the nourishing matter which it
contains, is thrown out of the body. There are multitudes of small
vessels, called _lacteals_, which, as these two mixed substances pass
through the long and winding folds of the intestines in the abdomen,
absorb the chyle, and convey it to the _thoracic duct_, which runs up
close by the spine, and carries the chyle, thus received, into a branch
of the _vena cava superior_, at _t_, whence it is mingled with the blood
going into the heart. In this engraving, the _lacteals_ and _thoracic
duct_ are not shown; but their position is indicated by the dotted
lines, marked X, Y; X, being the lacteals, and Y, the thoracic duct.

In the upper half of the engraving, H represents the heart; _a_, the
commencement of the _aorta_; _v c s_, the termination of the _vena cava
superior_. On each side of the heart, are the lungs; _l l_, being the
left lobe, and _r l_, the right lobe. They are composed of a network of
air-vessels, blood-vessels, and nerves. W, represents the _trachea_, or
_windpipe_, through which, the air we breathe is conducted to the lungs.
It branches out into myriads of minute vessels, which are thus filled
with air every time we breathe. From the heart, run the _pulmonary
arteries_, marked _p a_. These enter the lungs and spread out along-side
of the branches of the air-vessels, so that every air-vessel has a small
artery running side by side with it. When the two _vena cavas_ empty the
blood into the heart, the latter contracts, and sends this blood,
through these pulmonary arteries, into the lungs.

As the air and blood meander, side by side, through the lungs, the
superabundant carbon and hydrogen of the blood combine with the oxygen
of the air, forming carbonic acid gas, and water, which are thrown out
of the lungs at every expiration. This is the process by which the chyle
is converted into arterial blood, and the venous blood purified of its
excess of carbon and hydrogen. When the blood is thus prepared, in the
lungs, for its duties, it is received by the small _pulmonary veins_,
which gradually unite, and bring the blood back to the heart, through
the large _pulmonary veins_, marked _p v_, _p v_.

On receiving this purified blood from the lungs, the heart contracts,
and sends it out again, through the _aorta_, to all parts of the body.
It then makes another circuit through every part, ministering to the
wants of all, and is afterwards again brought back by the veins to
receive the fresh chyle from the stomach, and to be purified by the
lungs.

The throbbing of the heart is caused by its alternate expansion and
contraction, as it receives and expels the blood. With one throb, the
blood is sent from the right ventricle into the lungs, and from the left
ventricle into the aorta.

Every time we inspire air, the process of purifying the blood is going
on; and every time we expire the air, we throw out the redundant carbon
and hydrogen, taken from a portion of the blood. If the waist is
compressed by tight clothing, a portion of the lungs be compressed, so
that the air-vessels cannot be filled. This prevents the perfect
purification and preparation of the blood, so that a part returns back
to the heart unfitted for its duties. This is a slow, but sure, method,
by which the constitution of many a young lady is so undermined that she
becomes an early victim to disease and to the decay of beauty and
strength. The want of _pure air_ is another cause, of the debility of
the female constitution. When air has been rendered impure, by the
breath of several persons, or by close confinement, it does not purify
the blood properly. Sleeping in close chambers, and sitting in crowded
and unventilated schoolrooms, are frequent causes of debility in the
constitution of young persons.


OF THE SKIN.

The skin is the covering of the body, and has very important functions
to perform. It is more abundantly supplied with nerves and blood-vessels
than any other part; and there is no spot of the skin where the point of
the finest needle would not pierce a nerve and blood-vessel. Indeed, it
may be considered as composed chiefly of an interlacing of minute nerves
and blood-vessels, so that it is supposed there is more nervous matter
in the skin, than in all the rest of the body united, and that the
greater portion of the blood flows through the skin.

The whole animal system is in a state of continual change and
renovation. Food is constantly taken into the stomach, only a portion of
which is fitted for the supply of the blood. All the rest has to be
thrown out of the system, by various organs designed for this purpose.
These organs are,--the lungs, which throw off a portion of useless
matter when the blood is purified; the kidneys, which secrete liquids
that pass into the bladder, and are thrown out from the body by that
organ; and the intestines, which carry off the useless and more solid
parts of the food, after the lacteals have drawn off the chyle. In
addition to these organs, the skin has a similar duty to perform; and as
it has so much larger a supply of blood, it is the chief organ in
relieving the body of the useless and noxious parts of the materials
which are taken for food.

Various experiments show, that not less than a pound and four ounces of
waste matter is thrown off by the skin every twenty-four hours. This is
according to the lowest calculation. Most of those, who have made
experiments to ascertain the quantity, represent it as much greater; and
all agree, that the skin throws off more redundant matter from the body,
than the whole of the other organs together. In the ordinary state of
the skin, even when there is no apparent perspiration, it is constantly
exhaling waste matter, in a form which is called _insensible
perspiration_, because it cannot be perceived by the senses. A very cool
mirror, brought suddenly near to the skin, will be covered, in that
part, with a moisture, which is this effluvium thus made visible. When
heat or exercise excites the skin, this perspiration is increased, so as
to be apparent to the senses. This shows the reason why it is so
important frequently to wash the entire surface of the body. If this be
neglected, the pores of the skin are closed by the waste matter thrown
from the body, and by small particles of the thin scarfskin, so that it
cannot properly perform its duties. In this way, the other organs are
made to work harder, in order to perform the labor the skin would
otherwise accomplish, and thus the lungs and bowels are often
essentially weakened.

Another office of the skin, is, to regulate the heat of the body. The
action of the internal organs is constantly generating heat; and the
faster the blood circulates, the greater is the heat evolved. The
perspiration of the skin serves to reduce and regulate this heat. For,
whenever any liquid changes to a vapor, it absorbs heat from whatever is
nearest to it. The faster the blood flows, the more perspiration is
evolved. This bedews the skin with a liquid, which the heat of the body
turns to a vapor; and in this change, that heat is absorbed. When a
fever takes place, this perspiration ceases, and the body is afflicted
with heat. Insensible perspiration is most abundant during sleep, after
eating, and when friction is applied to the skin. Perspiration is
performed by the terminations of minute arteries in every part of the
skin, which exude the perspiration from the blood.

The skin also performs another function. It is provided with a set of
small vessels, called _absorbents_, which are exceedingly abundant and
minute. When particular substances are brought in contact with the skin,
these absorbents take up some portions and carry them into the blood. It
is owing to this, that opium, applied on the skin, acts in a manner
similar to its operation when taken into the stomach. The power of
absorption is increased by friction; and this is the reason that
liniments are employed, with much rubbing, to bruises and sprains. The
substance applied is thus introduced into the injured part, through the
absorbents. This shows another reason for frequent washing of the skin,
and for the frequent changes of the garment next the skin. Otherwise
portions of the noxious matter, thrown out by the skin, are reabsorbed
into the blood, and are slow but sure causes of a decay of the strength
of the system.

The skin is also provided with small follicles, or bags, which are
filled with an oily substance. This, by gradually exuding over the skin,
prevents water from penetrating and injuring its texture.

The skin is also the organ of touch. This office is performed through
the instrumentality of the nerves of feeling, which are spread over all
parts of the skin.

This general outline of the construction of the human frame is given,
with reference to the practical application of this knowledge in the
various cases where a woman will be called upon to exercise her own
unaided judgement. The application will be further pointed out, in the
chapters on Food, Dress, Cleanliness, Care of the Sick, and Care of
Infants.




CHAPTER VI.

ON HEALTHFUL FOOD.


The person who decides what shall be the food and drink of a family, and
the modes of preparation, is the one who decides, to a greater or less
extent, what shall be the health of that family. It is the opinion of
most medical men, that intemperance in eating is the most fruitful of
all causes of disease and death. If this be so, the woman who wisely
adapts the food and cooking of her family to the laws of health, removes
the greatest risk which threatens the lives of those under her care.

To exhibit this subject clearly, it will be needful to refer, more
minutely, to the organization and operation of the digestive organs.

It is found, by experiment, that the supply of gastric juice, furnished
from the blood, by the arteries of the stomach, is proportioned, not to
the amount of food put into the stomach, but to the wants of the body;
so that it is possible to put much more into the stomach than can be
digested. To guide and regulate in this matter, the sensation called
_hunger_ is provided. In a healthy state of the body, as soon as the
blood has lost its nutritive supplies, the craving of hunger is felt,
and then, if the food is suitable, and is taken in the proper manner,
this sensation ceases, as soon as the stomach has received enough to
supply the wants of the system. But our benevolent Creator, in this, as
in our other duties, has connected enjoyment with the operation needful
to sustain our bodies. In addition to the allaying of hunger, the
gratification of the palate is secured, by the immense variety of food,
some articles of which are far more agreeable than others.

This arrangement of Providence, designed for our happiness, has become,
either through ignorance, or want of self-control, the chief cause of
the various diseases and sufferings, which afflict those classes who
have the means of seeking a variety to gratify the palate. If mankind
had only one article of food, and only water to drink, though they would
have less enjoyment in eating, they would never be tempted to put any
more into the stomach, than the calls of hunger required. But the
customs of society, which present an incessant change, and a great
variety of food, with those various condiments which stimulate appetite,
lead almost every person very frequently to eat merely to gratify the
palate, after the stomach has been abundantly supplied, so that hunger
has ceased.

When too great a supply of food is put into the stomach, the gastric
juice dissolves only that portion which the wants of the system demand.
The remainder is ejected, in an unprepared state; the absorbents take
portions of it into the system; and all the various functions of the
body, which depend on the ministries of the blood, are thus gradually
and imperceptibly injured. Very often, intemperance in eating produces
immediate results, such as colic, headaches, pains of indigestion, and
vertigo. But the more general result, is, a gradual undermining of all
parts of the human frame; thus imperceptibly shortening life, by so
weakening the constitution, that it is ready to yield, at every point,
to any uncommon risk or exposure. Thousands and thousands are passing
out of the world, from diseases occasioned by exposures, which a healthy
constitution could meet without any danger. It is owing to these
considerations, that it becomes the duty of every woman, who has the
responsibility of providing food for a family, to avoid a variety of
tempting dishes. It is a much safer rule, to have only one kind of
healthy food, for each meal, than the abundant variety which is usually
met at the tables of almost all classes in this Country. When there is
to be any variety of dishes, they ought not to be successive, but so
arranged, as to give the opportunity of selection. How often is it the
case, that persons, by the appearance of a favorite article, are tempted
to eat, merely to gratify the palate, when the stomach is already
adequately supplied. All such intemperance wears on the constitution,
and shortens life. It not unfrequently happens, that excess in eating
produces a morbid appetite, which must constantly be denied.

But the organization of the digestive organs demands, not only that food
be taken in proper quantities, but that it be taken at proper times.

It has before been shown, that, as soon as the food enters the stomach,
the muscles are excited by the nerves, and the _peristaltic motion_
commences. This is a powerful and constant exercise of the muscles of
the stomach, which continues until the process of digestion is complete.
During this time, the blood is withdrawn from other parts of the system,
to supply the demands of the stomach, which is laboring hard with all
its muscles. When this motion ceases, and the digested food has
gradually passed out of the stomach, Nature requires that it should have
a period of repose. And if another meal be eaten, immediately after one
is digested, the stomach is set to work again, before it has had time to
rest, and before a sufficient supply of gastric juice is provided.

The general rule, then, is, that three hours be given to the stomach for
labor, and two for rest; and in obedience to this, five hours, at least,
ought to elapse between every two regular meals. In cases where exercise
produces a flow of perspiration, more food is needed to supply the loss;
and strong laboring men may safely eat as often as they feel the want of
food. So, young and healthy children, who gambol and exercise much, and
whose bodies grow fast, may have a more frequent supply of food. But, as
a general rule, meals should be five hours apart, and eating between
meals avoided. There is nothing more unsafe, and wearing to the
constitution, than a habit of eating at any time, merely to gratify the
palate. When a tempting article is presented, every person should
exercise sufficient self-denial, to wait till the proper time for eating
arrives. Children, as well as grown persons, are often injured, by
eating between their regular meals, thus weakening the stomach, by not
affording it any time for rest.

In deciding as to _quantity_ of food, there is one great difficulty to
be met by a large portion of the community. It has been shown, that the
exercise of every part of the body is indispensable to its health and
perfection. The bones, the muscles, the nerves, the organs of digestion
and respiration, and the skin, all demand exercise, in order properly to
perform their functions. When the muscles of the body are called into
action, all the blood-vessels entwined among them are frequently
compressed. As the arteries are so contrived, that the blood cannot run
back, this compression hastens it forward, through the veins, towards
that organ. The heart is immediately put in quicker motion, to send it
into the lungs; and they, also, are thus stimulated to more rapid
action, which is the cause of that panting which active exercise always
occasions. The blood thus courses with greater celerity through the
body, and sooner loses its nourishing properties. Then the stomach
issues its mandate of hunger, and a new supply of food must be
furnished. Thus it appears, as a general rule, that the quantity of
food, actually needed by the body, depends on the amount of muscular
exercise taken. A laboring man, in the open fields, probably throws off
from his skin ten times the amount of perspirable matter, which is
evolved from the skin of a person of sedentary pursuits. In consequence
of this, he demands a far greater amount of food and drink.

Those persons, who keep their bodies in a state of health, by sufficient
exercise, can always be guided by the calls of hunger. They can eat when
they feel hungry, and stop when hunger ceases; and then they will
calculate exactly right. But the difficulty is, that a large part of
the community, especially women, are so inactive in their habits, that
they seldom feel the calls of hunger. They habitually eat, merely to
gratify the palate. This produces such a state of the system, that they
have lost the guide which Nature has provided. They are not called to
eat, by hunger, nor admonished, by its cessation, when to stop. In
consequence of this, such persons eat what pleases the palate, till they
feel no more inclination for the article. It is probable, that three
fourths of the women, in the wealthier circles, sit down to each meal
without any feeling of hunger, and eat merely on account of the
gratification thus afforded them. Such persons find their appetite to
depend almost solely upon the kind of food on the table. This is not the
case with those, who take the exercise which Nature demands. They
approach their meals in such a state that almost any kind of food is
acceptable.

The question then arises, how are persons, who have lost the guide which
Nature has provided, to determine as to the proper amount of food they
shall take?

The only rules they can adopt, are of a general nature; founded on the
principles already developed. They should endeavor to proportion their
food to the amount of the exercise they ordinarily take. If they take
but little exercise, they should eat but little food in comparison with
those who are much in the open air and take much exercise; and their
food should be chiefly vegetable, and not animal. But how often is it
seen, that a student, or a man who sits all day in an office, or a lady
who spends the day in her parlor and chamber, will sit down to a loaded
table, and, by continuing to partake of the tempting varieties, in the
end load the stomach with a supply, which a stout farmer could scarcely
digest.

But the health of a family depends, not merely on the _quantity_ of food
taken; but very much, also, on the _quality_. Some kinds of food are
very pernicious in their nature, and some healthful articles are
rendered very injurious by the mode of cooking. Persons who have a
strong constitution, and take much exercise, may eat almost any thing,
with apparent impunity; but young children, who are forming their
constitutions, and persons who are delicate, and who take but little
exercise, are very dependent for health, on a proper selection of food.

There are some general principles, which may aid in regulating the
judgement on this subject.

It is found, that there are some kinds of food which afford nutriment to
the blood, and do not produce any other effect on the system. There are
other kinds, which are not only nourishing, but _stimulating_, so that
they quicken the functions of the organs on which they operate. The
condiments used in cookery, such as pepper, mustard, and spices, are of
this nature. There are certain states of the system, when these
stimulants are beneficial; but it is only in cases where there is some
debility. Such cases can only be pointed out by medical men. But persons
in perfect health, and especially young children, never receive any
benefit from such kind of food; and just in proportion as condiments
operate to quicken the labors of the internal organs, they tend to wear
down their powers. A person who thus keeps the body working under an
unnatural excitement, _lives faster_ than Nature designed, and the
sooner the constitution is worn out. A woman, therefore, should provide
dishes for her family, which are free from these stimulating condiments,
and as much as possible prevent their use. It is also found, by
experience, that animal food is more stimulating than vegetable. This is
the reason why, in cases of fevers, or inflammations, medical men forbid
the use of meat and butter. Animal food supplies chyle much more
abundantly than vegetable food does; and this chyle is more stimulating
in its nature. Of course, a person who lives chiefly on animal food, is
under a higher degree of stimulus than if his food was chiefly composed
of vegetable substances. His blood will flow faster, and all the
functions of his body will be quickened.

This makes it important to secure a proper proportion of animal and
vegetable diet. Some medical men suppose, that an exclusively vegetable
diet is proved, by the experience of many individuals, to be fully
sufficient to nourish the body; and bring, as evidence, the fact, that
some of the strongest and most robust men in the world, are those, who
are trained, from infancy, exclusively on vegetable food. From this,
they infer, that life will be shortened, just in proportion as the diet
is changed to more stimulating articles; and that, all other things
being equal, children will have a better chance of health and long life,
if they are brought up solely on vegetable food.

But, though this is not the common opinion of medical men, they all
agree, that, in America, far too large a portion of the diet consists of
animal food. As a nation, the Americans are proverbial for the gross and
luxurious diet with which they load their tables; and there can be no
doubt that the general health of the Nation would be increased, by a
change in our customs in this respect. To take meat but once a day, and
this in small quantities, compared with the common practice, is a rule,
the observance of which would probably greatly reduce the amount of
fevers, eruptions, headaches, bilious attacks, and the many other
ailments which are produced or aggravated by too gross a diet.

The celebrated Roman physician, Baglivi, (who, from practising
extensively among Roman Catholics, had ample opportunities to observe,)
mentions, that, in Italy, an unusual number of people recover their
health in the forty days of Lent, in consequence of the lower diet which
is required as a religious duty. An American physician remarks, "For
every reeling drunkard that disgraces our Country, it contains one
hundred gluttons;--persons, I mean, who eat to excess, and suffer in
consequence." Another distinguished physician says, "I believe that
every stomach, not actually impaired by organic disease, will perform
its functions, if it receives reasonable attention; and when we perceive
the manner in which diet is generally conducted, both in regard to
_quantity_ and _variety_ of articles of food and drink, which are mixed
up in one heterogeneous mass,--instead of being astonished at the
prevalence of indigestion, our wonder must rather be, that, in such
circumstances, any stomach is capable of digesting at all."

In regard to articles which are the most easily digested, only general
rules can be given. Tender meats are digested more readily than those
which are tough, or than many kinds of vegetable food. The farinaceous
articles, such as rice, flour, corn, potatoes, and the like, are the
most nutritious, and most easily digested. The popular notion, that meat
is more nourishing than bread, is a great mistake. Good bread contains
one third more nourishment than butcher's meat. The meat is more
_stimulating_, and for this reason is more readily digested. A perfectly
healthy stomach can digest almost any healthful food; but when the
digestive powers are weak, every stomach has its peculiarities, and what
is good for one, is hurtful to another. In such cases, experiment,
alone, can decide, which are the most digestible articles of food. A
person, whose food troubles him, must deduct one article after another,
till he learns, by experience, which is the best for digestion. Much
evil has been done, by assuming that the powers of one stomach are to be
made the rule in regulating every other.

The most unhealthful kinds of food, are those, which are made so by bad
cooking; such as sour and heavy bread, cakes, pie-crust, and other
dishes consisting of fat, mixed and cooked with flour; also rancid
butter, and high-seasoned food. The fewer mixtures there are in cooking,
the more healthful is the food likely to be.

There is one caution, as to the _mode_ of eating, which seems peculiarly
needful to Americans. It is indispensable to good digestion, that food
be well chewed and taken slowly. It needs to be thoroughly chewed, in
order to prepare it for the action of the gastric juice, which, by the
_peristaltic motion_, will be thus brought into universal contact with
the minute portions. It has been found, that a solid lump of food
requires much more time and labor of the stomach, than divided
substances. It has also been found, that, as each bolus, or mouthful,
enters the stomach, the latter closes, until the portion received has
had some time to move around and combine with the gastric juice; and
that the orifice of the stomach resists the entrance of any more, till
this is accomplished. But, if the eater persists in swallowing fast, the
stomach yields; the food is then poured in more rapidly than the organ
can perform its duty of digestion; and evil results are sooner or later
developed. This exhibits the folly of those hasty meals, so common to
travellers, and to men of business, and shows why children should be
taught to eat slowly.

After taking a full meal, it is very important to health, that no great
bodily or mental exertion be made, till the labor of the stomach is
over. Intense mental effort draws the blood to the head, and muscular
exertions draw it to the muscles; and in consequence of this, the
stomach loses the supply which it requires when performing its office.
When the blood is thus withdrawn, the adequate supply of gastric juice
is not afforded, and indigestion is the result. The heaviness which
follows a full meal, is the indication which Nature gives of the need of
quiet. When the meal is moderate, a sufficient quantity of gastric juice
is exuded in an hour, or an hour and a half; after which, labor of body
and mind may safely be resumed.

When undigested food remains in the stomach, and is at last thrown out
into the bowels, it proves an irritating substance, producing an
inflamed state in the lining of the stomach and other organs. The same
effect is produced by alcoholic drinks.

It is found, that the stomach has the power of gradually accommodating
its digestive powers to the food it habitually receives. Thus, animals,
which live on vegetables, can gradually become accustomed to animal
food; and the reverse is equally true. Thus, too, the human stomach can
eventually accomplish the digestion of some kinds of food, which, at
first, were indigestible.

But any changes of this sort should be gradual; as those which are
_sudden_, are trying to the powers of the stomach, by furnishing matter
for which its gastric juice is not prepared.

In regard to the nature of the meals prepared, the breakfast should
furnish a supply of liquids, because the body has been exhausted by the
exhalations of the night, and demands them more than at any other
period. It should not be the heartiest meal, because the organs of
digestion are weakened by long fasting, and the exhalations. Dinner
should be the heartiest meal, because then the powers of digestion are
strengthened, by the supplies of the morning meal. Light and amusing
employments should occupy mind and body for an hour or more after a full
meal.

But little drink should be taken, while eating, as it dilutes the
gastric juice which is apportioned to each quantity of food as it enters
the stomach. It is better to take drink after the meal is past.

Extremes of heat or cold are injurious to the process of digestion.
Taking hot food or drink, habitually, tends to debilitate all the organs
thus needlessly excited. In using cold substances, it is found that a
certain degree of warmth in the stomach is indispensable to their
digestion; so that, when the gastric juice is cooled below this
temperature, it ceases to act. Indulging in large quantities of cold
drinks, or eating ice-creams, after a meal, tends to reduce the
temperature of the stomach, and thus to stop digestion. This shows the
folly of those refreshments, in convivial meetings, where the guests are
tempted to load the stomach with a variety, such as would require the
stomach of a stout farmer to digest, and then to wind up with
ice-creams, thus destroying whatever ability might otherwise have
existed, to digest the heavy load. The fittest temperature for drinks,
if taken when the food is in the digesting process, is blood heat. Cool
drinks, and even ice, can be safely taken at other times, if not in
excessive quantity. When the thirst is excessive, or the body weakened
by fatigue, or when in a state of perspiration, cold drinks are
injurious. When the body is perspiring freely, taking a large quantity
of cold drink has often produced instant death.

Fluids taken into the stomach are not subject to the slow process of
digestion, but are immediately absorbed and carried into the blood. This
is the reason why drink, more speedily than food, restores from
exhaustion. The minute vessels of the stomach inhale or absorb its
fluids, which are carried into the blood, just as the minute extremities
of the arteries open upon the inner surface of the stomach, and there
exude the gastric juice from the blood.

When food is chiefly liquid, (soup, for example,) the fluid part is
rapidly absorbed. The solid parts remain, to be acted on by the gastric
juice. In the case of St. Martin,[F] in fifty minutes after taking soup,
the fluids were absorbed, and the remainder was even thicker than is
usual after eating solid food. This is the reason why soups are deemed
bad for weak stomachs; as this residuum is more difficult of digestion
than ordinary food. In recovering from sickness, beef-tea and broths are
good, because the system then demands fluids to supply its loss of
blood.

Highly-concentrated food, having much nourishment in a small bulk, is
not favorable to digestion, because it cannot be properly acted on by
the muscular contractions of the stomach, and is not so minutely
divided, as to enable the gastric juice to act properly. This is the
reason, why a certain _bulk_ of food is needful to good digestion; and
why those people, who live on whale oil, and other highly-nourishing
food, in cold climates, mix vegetables and even sawdust with it, to make
it more acceptable and digestible. So, in civilized lands, bread,
potatoes, and vegetables, are mixed with more highly-concentrated
nourishment. This explains why coarse bread, of unbolted wheat, so often
proves beneficial. Where, from inactive habits, or other causes, the
bowels become constipated and sluggish, this kind of food proves the
appropriate remedy. One fact on this subject is worthy of notice. Under
the administration of William Pitt, for two years or more, there was
such a scarcity of wheat, that, to make it hold out longer, Parliament
passed a law, that the army should have all their bread made of unbolted
flour. The result was, that the health of the soldiers improved so much,
as to be a subject of surprise to themselves, the officers, and the
physicians. These last came out publicly, and declared, that the
soldiers never before were so robust and healthy; and that disease had
nearly disappeared from the army. The civic physicians joined and
pronounced it the healthiest bread; and, for a time, schools, families,
and public institutions, used it almost exclusively. Even the nobility,
convinced by these facts, adopted it for their common diet; and the
fashion continued a long time after the scarcity ceased, until more
luxurious habits resumed their sway. For this reason, also, soups,
gellies, and arrow-root, should have bread or crackers mixed with them.
We thus see why children should not have cakes and candies allowed them
between meals. These are highly-concentrated nourishments, and should be
eaten with more bulky and less nourishing substances. The most
indigestible of all kinds of food, are fatty and oily substances;
especially if heated. It is on this account, that pie-crust, and
articles boiled and fried in fat or butter, are deemed not so healthful
as other food.

The following, then, may be put down as the causes of a debilitated
constitution, from the misuse of food. Eating _too much_, eating _too
often_, eating _too fast_, eating food and condiments that are _too
stimulating_, eating food that is _too warm_ or _too cold_, eating food
that is _highly-concentrated_, without a proper admixture of less
nourishing matter, and eating food that is _difficult of digestion_.


FOOTNOTE:

[F] The individual here referred to,--Alexis St. Martin,--was a young
Canadian, of eighteen years of age, of a good constitution, and robust
health, who, in 1822, was accidentally wounded by the discharge of a
musket, which carried away a part of the ribs, lacerated one of the
lobes of the lungs, and perforated the stomach, making a large aperture,
which never closed; and which enabled Dr. Beaumont, (a surgeon of the
American army, stationed at Michilimackinac, under whose care the
patient was placed,) to witness all the processes of digestion and other
functions of the body, for several years. The published account of the
experiments made by Dr. B., is highly interesting and instructive.




CHAPTER VII.

ON HEALTHFUL DRINKS.


Although intemperance in eating is probably the most prolific cause of
the diseases of mankind, intemperance in drink has produced more guilt,
misery, and crime, than any other one cause. And the responsibilities of
a woman, in this particular, are very great; for the habits and
liabilities of those under her care, will very much depend on her
opinions and practice.

It is a point fully established by experience, that the full
developement of the human body, and the vigorous exercise of all its
functions, can be secured without the use of stimulating drinks. It is,
therefore, perfectly safe, to bring up children never to use them; no
hazard being incurred, by such a course.

It is also found, by experience, that there are two evils incurred, by
the use of stimulating drinks. The first, is, their positive effect on
the human system. Their peculiarity consists in so exciting the nervous
system, that all the functions of the body are accelerated, and the
fluids are caused to move quicker than at their natural speed. This
increased motion of the animal fluids, always produces an agreeable
effect on the mind. The intellect is invigorated, the imagination is
excited, the spirits are enlivened; and these effects are so agreeable,
that all mankind, after having once experienced them, feel a great
desire for their repetition.

But this temporary invigoration of the system, is always followed by a
diminution of the powers of the stimulated organs; so that, though in
all cases this reaction may not be perceptible, it is invariably the
result. It may be set down as the unchangeable rule of physiology, that
stimulating drinks (except in cases of disease) deduct from the powers
of the constitution, in exactly the proportion in which they operate to
produce temporary invigoration.

The second evil, is, the temptation which always attends the use of
stimulants. Their effect on the system is so agreeable, and the evils
resulting are so imperceptible and distant, that there is a constant
tendency to increase such excitement, both in frequency and power. And
the more the system is thus reduced in strength, the more craving is the
desire for that which imparts a temporary invigoration. This process of
increasing debility and increasing craving for the stimulus that removes
it, often goes to such an extreme, that the passion is perfectly
uncontrollable, and mind and body perish under this baleful habit.

In this Country, there are five forms in which the use of such
stimulants is common; namely, _alcoholic drinks_, _tea_, _coffee_,
_opium mixtures_, and _tobacco_. These are all alike, in the main
peculiarity of imparting that extra stimulus to the system, which tends
to exhaust its powers.

Multitudes in this Nation are in the habitual use of some one of these
stimulants; and each person defends the indulgence by these arguments:

First, that the desire for stimulants is a natural propensity, implanted
in man's nature, as is manifest from the universal tendency to such
indulgences, in every nation. From this, it is inferred, that it is an
innocent desire, which ought to be gratified, to some extent, and that
the aim should be, to keep it within the limits of temperance, instead
of attempting to exterminate a natural propensity.

This is an argument, which, if true, makes it equally proper to use
opium, brandy, tea, or tobacco, as stimulating principles, provided they
are used temperately. But, if it be granted that perfect health and
strength can be gained and secured without these stimulants, and that
their peculiar effect is to diminish the power of the system, in exactly
the same proportion as they stimulate it, then there is no such thing as
a temperate use, unless they are so diluted, as to destroy any
stimulating power; and in this form, they are seldom desired.

The other argument for their use, is, that they are among the good
things provided by the Creator, for our gratification; that, like all
other blessings, they are exposed to abuse and excess; and that we
should rather seek to regulate their use, than to banish them entirely.

This argument is based on the assumption, that they are, like healthful
foods and drinks, necessary to life and health, and injurious only by
excess. But this is not true; for, whenever they are used in any such
strength as to be a gratification, they operate, to a greater or less
extent, as stimulants; and, to just such extent, they wear out the
powers of the constitution; and it is abundantly proved, that they are
not, like food and drink, necessary to health. Such articles are
designed for medicine, and not for common use. There can be no argument
framed to defend the use of one of them, which will not equally defend
all. That men have a love for being stimulated, after they have once
felt the pleasurable excitement, and that Providence has provided the
means for securing it, are arguments as much in favor of alcohol, opium,
and tobacco, as of coffee and tea. All that can be said in favor of the
last-mentioned favorite beverages, is, that the danger in their use is
not so great. Let any one, who defends one kind of stimulating drink,
remember, then, that he uses an argument, which, if it be allowed that
stimulants are not needed, and are injurious, will equally defend all
kinds; and that all which can be said in defence of tea and coffee, is,
that they _may_ be used, so weak, as to do no harm, and that they
actually have done less harm than some of the other stimulating
narcotics.

The writer is of opinion, that tea and coffee are a most extensive cause
of much of the nervous debility and suffering endured by American women;
and that relinquishing such drinks would save an immense amount of such
suffering. But there is little probability that the present generation
will make so decided a change in their habits, as to 

Showing first 200,000 characters. Full text: gutenberg.org/ebooks/21829