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Title: The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia, Volume 1 of 28

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The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia

A. This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in
the Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants.  In
Phoenician, a, like the symbols for e and for o, did not
represent a vowel, but a breathing; the vowels originally were
not represented by any symbol.  When the alphabet was adopted by
the Greeks it was not very well fitted to represent the sounds
of their language.  The breathings which were not required in
Greek were accordingly employed to represent some of the vowel
sounds, other vowels, like i and u, being represented by
an adaptation of the symbols for the semi-vowels y and w.
The Phoenician name, which must have corresponded closely to
the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by the Greeks in the form
Alpha (alpsa). The earliest authority for this, as for the
names of the other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama
(grammatike Ieoria) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of
Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names
of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d.

The form of the letter has varied considerably.  In the
earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions
(the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest
Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th
or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus--@.  In
the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles
the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be
distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle
at which the cross line is set-- @, &c. From the Greeks of
the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them
has passed to the other nations of western Europe.  In the
earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription found
in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a
golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET).
Fine letters are still identical in form with those of the
western Greeks.  Latin develops early various forms, which
are comparatively rare in Greek, as @, or unknown, as
@.  Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy
did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks
as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the
Etruscans.  In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions
is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form
@, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece
(Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically) .

In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short
sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte
a; English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding
precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be
ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the
terminology of H. Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107).
Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically
unchanged.  On the other hand, the long sound of a in the
Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which
in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as
the original e-sound (see ALPHABET: Greek). The vowel
sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has,
in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are
not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and
also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same
language.  Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about
twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in
English.  In general it may be said that the chief changes
which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from
(1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound
produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther
forward.  The rounding is often produced by combination with
rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the
rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into
the formation of the vowel sound.  Rounding has also been
produced by a following l-sound, as in the English fall,
small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds,
2nd ed., sec. sec.  906, 784).  The effect of fronting is seen in
the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original
name of the Medes, Madoi, with a in the first syllable
(which survives in Cyprian Greek as Madoi), is changed
into Medoi (Medoi), with an open e-sound instead
of the earlier a.  In the later history of Greek this
sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with
i (as in English seed). The first part of the process
has been almost repeated by literary English, a (ah)
passing into e (eh), though in present-day pronunciation
the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei
except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. sec.  783).

In English a represents unaccented forms of several
words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and or various
prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New
English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888), vol. i. p. 4. (P. GI.)

As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions
and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in
music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this
use is derived from its being the first of the litterae
nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority.

In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal
affirmative proposition in the general form ``all x is y.''
The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular
affirmative ``some x is y,'' the universal negative ``no x
is y,'' and the particular negative ``some x is not y.''
The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels
of the two Latin verbs AffIrmo (or AIo), ``I assert,'' and
nEgO, ``I deny.'' The use of the symbols dates from the 13th
century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek
logicians.  A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.).

In Shipping, A1 is a symbol used to dennote quality of
construction and material.  In the various shipping registers
ships are classed and given a rating after an official
examination, and assigned a classification mark, which
appears in addition to other particulars in those registers
after the name of the ship.  See SHIPBUILDING. It is
popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence.

AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers.
The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to
the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger.-ach; Scand. a, aa,
pronounced o).  The following are the more important
streams of this name:--Two rivers in the west of Russia, both
falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated
between them; a river in the north of France, falling into
the sea below Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer;
and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and
Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and
Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian
Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at
Herford, the Munster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others.

AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted
his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war,
in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.  In
1855 he became professor of jurisprudence at the university of
Copenhagen.  In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission
for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation
law of 1882 is mainly his work.  In 1879 he was elected a member
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university
that he won his reputation.  Among his numerous juridical
works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse
af Ejendomsret, Bemaerkinger om Rettigheder over Ting
(Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872); Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger,
Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen,
1876).  Aagesen was Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law
at the university, and in this department his researches were
epoch-making.  All his pupils were profoundly impressed by
his exhaustive examination of the sources, his energetic
demonstration of his subject and his stringent search after
truth.  His noble, imposing, and yet most amiable personality
won for him, moreover, universal affection and respect.

See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.  Brog.  Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Szmlade
Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1863). (R. N. B.)

AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani
names for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifalia,
plants extensively cultivated in India on account of the
reddish dye-stuff which their roots contain.  The name
is also applied to the dye, but the common trade name
is Suranji. Its properties are due to the presence
of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is compounded
from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthraquinone.

AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop,
and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south
bank of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the
Cattegat.  Pop. (1901) 31,457.  The situation is typical of
the north of Jutland.  To the west the Linifjord broadens
into an irregular lake, with low, marshy shores and many
islands.  North-west is the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the
mirage is seen in summer.  South-east lies the similar Lille
Vildmose.  A railway connects Aalborg with Hjorring,
Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, and with Aarhus and
the lines from Germany to the south.  The harbour is good
and safe, though difficult of access.  Aalborg is a growing
industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and
fish.  An old castle and some picturesque houses of the
17th century remain.  The Budolphi church dates mostly from
the middle of the 18th century, while the Frue church was
partially burnt in 1894, but the foundation of both is of
the 14th century or earlier.  There are also an ancient
hospital and a museum of art and antiquities.  On the north
side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, connected with Aalborg
by a pontoon and also by an iron railway bridge, one of the
finest engineering works in the kingdom.  Aabborgt received
town privileges in 1342 and the bishopric dates from 1554.

AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,
pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian
Alps, about 50 m.  E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway
communication with Ulm and Cannstatt.  Pop. 10,000.  Woollen
and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon
looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the
neighbourhood.  There are several schools and churches, and a
statue of the poet Christian Schubart.  Aalen was a free imperial
city from 1360 to 1802, when it was annexed to Wurttemberg.

AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 145
m.  N. by E. from Bergen.  Pop. (1900) 11,672.  It occupies
two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and
Norvo, which enclose the picturesque harbour.  Founded
in 1824, it is the principal shipping-place of Sondmore
district, and one of the chief stations of the herring
fishery.  Aalesund is adjacent to the Jorund and Geiranger
fjords, frequented by tourists.  From Oje at the head of
Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nordfjord, and
from Merck on Geiranger another strikes inland to Otta, on
the railway to Liilehammer and Christiania.  Aalesund is a
port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle
and Hamburg, and Trondhjem.  A little to the south of the
town are the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the
founder, in the 9th century, of the dynasty of the dukes of
Normandy.  On the 23rd of January 1904, Aalesund was the
scene of one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations
to which Norwegian towns, built largely of wood, have been
subject.  Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding
the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the
night at the notice of a few minutes.  Hardly any lives were
lost, but the sufferings of the people were so terrible that
assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, and by the
German government, while the British government also offered it.

AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, was born
at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government official.
Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after reaching
manhood, he became successively secretary of the Embassy in
Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under Reshid
Pasha.  In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand vizier,
but after a short time retired into private life.  During the
Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio
of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha,
and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of
Vienna.  Again becoming in that year grand vizier, an office
he filled no less than five times, he represented Turkey
at the congress of Paris in 1856.  In 1867 he was appointed
regent of Turkey during the sultan's visit to the Paris
Exhibition.  Aali Pasha was one of the most zealous advocates
of the introduction of Western reforms under the sultans Abdul
Mejid and Abdul Aziz.  A scholar and a linguist, he was a
match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against whom
he successfully defended the interests of his country.  He
died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871.

AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both
rises and ends entirely within Switzerland.  Its total
length (including all bends) from its source to its junction
with the Rhine is about 181 m., during which distance it
descends 5135 ft., while its drainage area is 6804 sq.
m.  It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in the canton of
Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass.  It runs E. to the Grimsel
Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, forming on the
way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), past
Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a
plain.  A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands
into the lake of Brienz, where it becomes navigable.  Near
the west end of that lake it receives its first important
affluent, the Lutschine (left), and then runs across the
swampy plain of the Bodoli, between Interlaken (left) and
Unterseen (right), before again expanding in order to form
the Lake of Thun.  Near the west end of that lake it receives
on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined
by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and
then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is
built.  It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly
direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left)
turns N. till near Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the
Hagneck Canal into the Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of
which it issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs E. to
Buren.  Henceforth its course is N.E. for a long distance,
past Soleure (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the
right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger, right),
Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhr on the
right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the
right.  A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first the
Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or Linth
(right).  It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an
affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume
when they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.)

AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau.  In 1900
it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly
Protestants.  It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the
right bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range
of the Jura.  It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31
m.  N.W. of Zurich.  It is a well-built modern town, with
no remarkable features about it.  In the Industrial Museum
there is (besides collections of various kinds) some good
painted glass of the 16th century, taken from the neighbouring
Benedictine monastery of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed
1841---the monks are now quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in
Tirol).  The cantonal library contains many works relating to
Swiss history and many MSS. coming from the suppressed Argovian
monasteries.  There are many industries in the town, especially
silk-ribbon weaving, foundries, and factories for the manufacture
of cutlery and scientific instruments.  The popular novelist
and historian, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of
his life here, and a bronze statue has been erected to his
memory.  Aarau is an important military centre.  The slopes
of the Jura are covered with vineyards.  Aarau, an ancient
fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 1415, and in 1798 became
for a time the capital of the Helvetic republic.  Eight miles
by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths of Schinznach,
just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, the
original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.)

AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Dutch name for
the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see
EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named.  Among them
is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from
South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus)
of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt.  In form
these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout,
with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with
strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and
the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually.  The
greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at
the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils
open.  The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long
extensile tongue.  The measurements of a female taken in the
flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large
individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all.  In colour the
Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty
and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has
a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the
shorter tail and longer head and ears.  These animals are of
nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near
ant-hills.  The strong claws make a hole in the side of the
ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile
tongue.  Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the
flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked.

AARD-WOLF (earth-wolf), a South and East African carnivorous
mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a
small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharpe
ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the
neck and back.  It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and
feeds on decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites.

AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss
cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.),
whence its name.  Its total area is 541.9 sq. m., of which
517.9 sq. m. are classed as ``productive'' (forests covering
172 sq. m. and vineyards 8.2 sq. m.).  It is one of the least
mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land,
to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which
rise low hills.  The surface of the country is beautifully
diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating
with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its
tributaries.  It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of
Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rheinfelden there are
very extensive saline springs.  Just below Brugg the Reuss
and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined
castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden (with
fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman
settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch].  The total population
in 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but
numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990
Jews.  The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while
other important towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591
inhabitants), Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349
inhabitants), Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588
inhabitants).  Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton,
straw-plaiting, tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and
salmon-fishing in the Rhine being among the chief industries.
As this region was, up to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg
power, we find here many historical old castles (e.g.
Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and former monasteries (e.g.
Wettingen, Muri), founded by that family, but suppressed in
1841, this act of violence being one of the main causes
of the civil war called the ``Sonderbund War,'' in 1847 in
Switzerland.  The cantonal constitution dates mainly from
1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council
of five members is made by a direct vote of the people.  The
legislature consists of members elected in the proportion of
one to every 1100 inhabitants.  The ``obligatory referendum''
exists in the case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the
right of ``initiative'' in proposing bills or alterations
in the cantonal constitution.  The canton sends 10 members
to the federal Nationalrat, being one for every 20,000,
while the two Standerate are (since 1904) elected by
a direct vote of the people.  The canton is divided into
eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes.


1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss
Confederates.  Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen,
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts,
named the Freie Amter or ``free bailiwicks'' (Mellingen,
Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden,
were ruled as ``subject lands'' by all or certain of the
Confederates.  In 1798 the Bernese bit became the canton of
Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the remainder forming the
canton of Baden.  In 1803, the two halves (plus the Frick
glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic)
were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then
admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation.

See also Argovia (published by the Cantonal Historical
Society), Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau,
2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische
Strohindustrie, Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt.
Burganlagen und Wehrbauten d.  Kant.  Argau (fine illustrated
work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 1904--1906; W. Merz and
F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d.  Kant. Argau, 3 vols.,
Aarau, 1898--1905; J. Muller, Der Aargau, 2 vols., Zurich,
1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthumer, Atarau, 1877; E.
Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.)

AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the
east coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port;
the second largest town in the kingdom, and capital of
the amt (county) of Aarhus.  Pop. (1901) 51,814.  The
district is low-lying, fertile and well wooded.  The town
is the junction of railways from all parts of the country.
The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is
exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports.
The cathedral of the 13th century (extensively restored) is
the largest church in Denmark.  There is a museum of art and
antiquities.  To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a picturesque
region extends west from the railway junction of Skanderborg,
including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa,
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding
500 ft. in the Himmelbjerg.  The railway traverses this
pleasant district of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern
town having one of the most attractive situations in the
kingdom.  The bishopric of Aarhus dates at least from 951.

AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish
priesthood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites
out of Egypt (see EXODUS; MOSES) . The greater part of
his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives,
which carry back existing conditions and beliefs to the
time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary
hierarchical institutions in the events of that period.
Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah)
to meet Moses at the ``mount of God'' (Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he
plays only a secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's
court.  After the ``exodus'' from Egypt a striking account
is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount
(Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the
side of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working
rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16).
Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when
Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of
the Law (xxiv. 12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the
prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at
the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see
CALF, GOLDEN). This was regarded as an act of apostasy
which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration
of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut.
ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the
preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series
of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii.
seq.).  Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8
seq. compared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some
obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were
prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.).  In
what way they had not ``sanctified'' (an allusion in the
Hebrew to Kadesh ``holy'') Yahweh is quite uncertain, and
it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the
sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3;
cp.  Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have
died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor; the latter is
an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23,
xxxiii. 37; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the
traditional scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7).

Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to
have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a
place for Aaron in certain incidents.  In the account of the
contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.),
Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful
whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving
narratives.  It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice
mentioned in Deuteronomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The
post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of
Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position
by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of
the other tribes (Num. xvii.; for parallels see Gray comm.
ad loc., p. 217).  The latter story illustrates the growth
of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of
priestly ritual: the old account of Korah's revolt against the
authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a)
the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (b)
the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites
against the rest of the Levites, a development which can
scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.).

Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality
known after the grandson as the ``hill of Phinehas'' (Josh.
xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of
either.  The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin)
is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the
priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of
Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have
belonged.  The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical
names and those of clans related to Moses is very noteworthy,
and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's
sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (1 Chron. iv.
17) with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In
view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of
interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the
historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy.  He may
well have been the traditional head of the priesthood, and
R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was
the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol.  Stud.,
1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder
of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which
still remains quite obscure: and unless Aaron (Aharon) is
based upon Aron, ``ark'' (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P.
N. Land), names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are,
apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin.

For the literature and a general account of the Jewish
priesthood, see the articles LEVTTES and PRIEST. . (S. A. C.)

AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall flowering
plants (``hag taper,', ``golden rod,'' &c.).  In architecture
the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting leaves,
or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the
Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8).

AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a
celebrated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces.
His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan
van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years,
as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of
France.  He took a considerable part in the negotiations of
the twelve years' truce in 1606.  His conduct of affairs having
displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by
Oldenbarneveldt in 1616.  Such was the hatred he henceforth
conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his
very utmost to effect his ruin.  He was one of the packed
court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to
death.  For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain
rests on the memory of Aarssens.  He afterwards became the
confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, and
afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their
conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic.  He was sent
on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and
displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu
ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time.

AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and
lexicographer, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore,
Norway, on the. 5th of August 1813.  His father, a small
peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826.  He was
brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all
his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an
elementary school in his native parish.  In 1833 he entered
the household of H. C. Thoresen the husband of the eminent
writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Hero, and here he picked up
the elements of Latin.  Gradually, and by dint of infinite
patience and concentration, the young peasant became master
of many languages, and began the scientific study of their
structure.  About 1841 he had freed himself from all the
burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with
the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; his
first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in
the Sondmore language (1843) . His remarkable abilities now
attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his
studies undisturbed.  His Grammar ofthe Norwegian Dialects
(1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken
to every part of the country.  Aasen's famous Dictionary
of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in
1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation
of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did
no less than construct, out of the different materials at his
disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal for
Norway.  With certain modifications, the most important of which
were introduced later by Aasen himself, this artificial language
is that which has been adopted ever since by those who write in
dialect, and which later enthusiasts have once more endeavoured
to foist upon Norway as her official language in the place of
Dano-Norwegian.  Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite
dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas,
The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered
as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the
last half-century, from Vinje down to Garborg.  Aasen continued
to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary.  He
lived very quietly in lodgings in Christiania, surrounded by
his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into
wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the
peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular
party.  Quite early in his career, 1842, he had begun to
receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention
to his philological investigations; and the Storthing--.
conscious of the national importance of his woth---treated hm
in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in
years.  He continued his investigations to the last, but it
may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary,
he added but little to his stores.  Ivar Aasen holds perhaps
an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has
invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language
which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that
they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons
and their songs.  He died in Christiania on the 23rd of
September 1896, and was buried with Public honours. (E. G.)

AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the
eleventh of the civil year of the Jews.  It approximately
Corresponds to the period of the 15th of July to the 15th of
August.  The word is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the
Jews with other calendar names after the Babylonian exile.
Tradition ascribes the death of Aaron to the first day of Ab.
On the ninth is kept the Fast of Ab, or the Black Fast, to
bewail the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadrezzar
(586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70).

ABA. (1) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and Cabled
after, Antoine d'Abbadie; (2) a rough homespun manufactured in
Bulgariai (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin Arabs.

ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of
classical writers), a nomad tribe of African ``Arabs,, of Hamitic
origin.  They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea,
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile.  They call
themselves ``sons of the Jinns.'' With some of the clans of
the Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they
represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location
to-day is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman
times.  They were constantly at war with the Romans, who at
last subsidized them.  In the middle ages they were known as
Beja (q.v.), and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to
Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda.  From time immemorial
they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian
desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar.  To-day many of
them are employed in the telegraph service across the Arabian
desert.  They intermarried with the Nuba, and settled in small
Colonies at Shendi and elsewhere long before the Egyptian
invasion (A.D. 1820-1822).  They are still great trade
carriers, and visit very distant districts.  The Ababda of
Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by an hereditary
``chief.'' Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive he pays no
tribute.  Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a portion of the
road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from Bedouin
robbers.  The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to him.
The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, who
visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have since
diminished, having probably amalgamated with the Bisharin,
their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a powerful
nation.  The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with
Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued
contact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion
of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect,
ToBedawiet.  Those of Kosseir will not speak this before
strangers, as they believe that to reveal the mysterious
dialect would bring ruin on them.  Those nearest the Nile
have much fellah blood in them.  As a tribe they claim an Arab
origin, apparently through their sheikhs.  They have adopted
the dress and habits of the fellahin, unlike their kinsmen
the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who go practically naked.  They
are neither so fierce nor of so fine a physique as these
latter.  They are lithe and well built, but small: the average
height is little more than 5 ft., except in the sheikh clan,
who are obviously of Arab origin.  Their complexion is more
red than black, their features angular, noses straight and hair
luxuriant.  They bear the character of being treacherous and
faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be honest
in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, never
beg.  Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy after
the British occupation of Egypt.  The chief settlements are in
Nubia, where they live in villages and employ themselves in
agriculture.  Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then
hawk the salt fish in the interior.  Others are pedlars,
while charcoal burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums
and drugs, especially in senna leaves, occupy many.  Unlike
the true Arab, the Ababda do not live in tents, but build
huts with hurdles and mats, or live in natural caves, as
did their ancestors in classic times.  They have few horses,
using the camel as beast of burden or their ``mount'' in
war.  They live chiefly on milk and durra, the latter
eaten either raw or roasted.  They are very superstitious,
believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family
if a girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes
on her mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his
home far from his wife's village.  In the Mahdist troubles
(1882-1898) many ``friendlies'' were recruited from the tribe.

For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN,
HADENDOA, KABBABish; and the following authorities:---Sir
F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond.
1891); Giuseppe Sergi, Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe
Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian
Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by
Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Russegger, Die
Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.)

ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis,
which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.). .

ABACUS (Gr. abax, a slab Fr. abaque, tailloir), in
architecture, the upper member of the capital of a column.
Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface
for the architrave or arch it has to carry.  In the Greek Doric
order the abacus is a plain square slab.  In the Roman and
Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding.  In the
Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the
capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a
carved ovolo moulding.  In later examples the abacus is square,
except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly
curved over the same.  In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic
capital, the abacus is square with a fillet On the top of an
ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.  In the Greek
Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave
and its angles canted (except in one or two exceptional Greek
capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle); and the same
shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corinthian and
Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding
carved.  In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with
the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the
same was retained in France during the medieval period; but
in England,in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded
abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th centuries
was transformed into an octagonal one.  The diminutive of
Abacus, ABACISCUS, is applied in architecture to the chequers
or squares of a tessellated pavement . ``Abacus'' is also the
name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical
calculations; pebbles, hits of bone or coins being used as
counters.  Fig. 1 shows a Roman abacus taken from an ancient
monument.  It contains seven long and seven shorter rods
or bars, the former having four perforated beads running
on them and the latter one.  The bar marked 1 indicates
units, X tens, and so on up to millions.  The beads on the
shorter bars denote fives,--five units, five tens, &c. The
rod O and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces;
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce.

The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles
the Roman abacus in its construction and use.  Computations
are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory running
on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board,
fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in
teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in English schools.

FIG. 2.--Chinese Swan-Pan.  The name of ``abacus'' is also
given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the ``logical
machine,'' analogous to the mathematical abacus.  It is
constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of
logical terms with their negatives, and, further, the way in which
these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes
or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the
solution of logical problems.  These instruments are all more
or less elaborate developments of the ``logical slate,'' on
which were written in vertical columns all the combinations
of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a
definite number of terms.  These were compared with any given
premises, and those which were incompatible were crossed
off.  In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a
single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a
key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed
at will, in accordance with any given series of premises.
The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S.
Jevons (Element.  Lessons in Logic, C. xxiii.), John Venn
(see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), and Allan
Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp.
303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883).

ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning ``destruction.'' In poetry
it comes to mean ``place of destruction,'' and so the
underworld or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6; Prov. xv. 11). In Rev.
ix. 11 Abaddon ((Abaddon) is used of hell personified,
the prince of the underworld.  The term is here explained
as Apollyon (q.v.), the ``destroyer.', W. Baudissin
(Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo padie) notes that Hades and
Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are employed as personal names,
just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, shamayim (``heaven''),
and makom (``place'') among the Rabbins, are used of God.

ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of
Fars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile
plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m.
from the former and 170 m. from the latter place.  Pop.
4000.  It is the chief place of the Abadeh-Iklid district,
which has 30 villages; it has telegraph and post offices,
and is famed for its carved wood-work, small boxes, trays,
sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear and box trees.

ABAE (rabai), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in
Greece, famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo,
one of those consulted by Croesus (Herod. i. 46). It was
rich in treasures (Herod. viii. 33), but was sacked by the
Persians, and the temple remained in a ruined state.  The
oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans
before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple seems to have
been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was in a very
dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35), though
some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple,
was undertaken by Hadrian.  The sanctity of the shrine
ensured certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull.
Corresp.  Hell. vi. 171), and these were confirmed by the
Romans.  The polygonal wabs of the acropolis may still be
seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill
standing about 500 ft. above the little plain of Exarcho;
one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls
below.  The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the
town.  An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are
a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the
British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found.

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163i Journal
of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). . (E. GR.)

ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian
government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m.  S.S.W.
of Krasnoyarsk, in lat. 54 deg. 20' N., long. 91 deg. 40' E. This is
considered the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and
is remarkable for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues
of men from seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics.
Peter the Great had a fort built here in 1707.  Pop. 2000.

ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various
species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family, with a
richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl.  This sort
of Haliotis is also commonly called ``ear-shell,'' and in
Guernsey ``ormer'' (Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer).
The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and
other places on the southern Californian coast, and when
polished makes a beautiful ornament.  The mollusc itself is
often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan.

ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR,
the ``rivers of Damascus'' (2 Kings v. 12), now generally
identified with the Barada (i.e. ``cold'') and the A`waj
(i.e. ``crooked'') respectively, though if the reference
to Damascus be limited to the city, as in the Arabic
version of the Old Testament, Pharpar would be the modern
Taura.  Both streams run from west to east across the plain of
Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose
themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the
borders of the great Arabian desert.  John M'Gregor, who gives
an interesting description of them in his Rob Roy on the
Jordan, affirmed that as a work of hydraulic engineering,
the system and construction of the canals, by which the Abana
and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might be considered as
one of the most complete and extensive in the world.  As the
Barada escapes from the mountains through a narrow gorge,
its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or ``rivers'', the
name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana.

ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE VILLE D',
(1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne.  He was
Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and organized
the defence of the Tuileries for the 10th of August.  Commanded
by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss guards, he
refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent
to Orleans to be tried.  At the end of August the Assembly
ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to
be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude
Fournier, ``the American.'' At Versailles they learned of the
massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners
were murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792.
Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.

ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to
abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent
to mettrea bandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of
another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order,
decree, ``ban''), in law, the relinquishment of an interest,
claim, privilege or possession.  Its signification varies
according to the branch of the law in which it is employed,
but the more important uses of the word are summarized below.

ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of proceedings
commenced in the High Court of Justice either because the
plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action
or for other reasons.  Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875,
considerable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor
might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring
another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT); but since 1875
this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who
has deilvered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes
to abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only
on condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter.

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the ship
or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive
total loss of the thing insured.  For the requisites and
effects of abandonment in this sense See INSURANCE, MARINE.

ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under
DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a
young child under the age of two, which is an indictable
misdemeanour, is dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO.

ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE is the ceasing to reside permanently
in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new
domicile.  The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding
whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be
inferred from the facts of each individual case.  See DOMICILE.

ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some
accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of
way, free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT.

ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in England
recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a
railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it.

ABANO, PIETRO D, (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE
APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher,
was born at the Italian town from which he takes his name
in 1250, or, according to others, in 1246.  After studying
medicine and philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where
he speedily gained a great reputation as a physician, and
availed himself of it to gratify his avarice by refusing
to visit patients except for an exorbitant fee.  Perhaps
this, as well as his meddling with astrology, caused him to
be charged with practising magic, the particular accusations
being that he brought back into his purse, by the aid of the
devil, all the money he paid away, and that he possessed the
philosopher's stone.  He was twice brought to trial by the
Inquisition; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and he
died (1316) before the second trial was completed.  He was
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed
and burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public
proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in
effigy.  In his writings he expounds and advocates the medical
and philosophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian
writers.  His best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum
quae inter philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472;
V.enice, 1476), and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472),
of which a French translation was published at Lyons in 1593.

ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei; it is 6 m.  S.W.
by rail from Padua.  Pop. (1901) 4556.  Its hot springs and
mud baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Ronlans
as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the
ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato
dei Bagni d' Abano, Padua, 1789).  An oracle of Geryon lay
near, and the so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i.,
Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and
used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century.

ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet
of Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770
B.C., or two or three centuries later.  According to
the legend, he travelled throughout the country, living
without food and riding on a golden arrow, the gift of
the god; he healed the sick, foretold the future, worked
miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague (Herod. iv. 36;
Iamblichus, De Fit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas credits him
with several works: Scythian oracles, the visit of Apollo to
the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose theogony.

ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the
surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round
the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.

ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the
Late Latin battere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or
doing away with; a term used especially in various legal phrases.

ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to
a person or public authority injured by a public nuisance
of destroying or removing it, provided no breach of the
peace is committed in doing so.  In the case of private
nuisances abatement is also allowed provided there be no
breach of the peace, and no damage be occasioned beyond
what the removal of the nuisance requires. (See NUISANCE.)

ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death of
the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before
the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of
possession.  It differs from intrusion, which is a similar
entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for life, to
the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man; and from
disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent expulsion
of a person seised of the freehold. (See FREEHOLD.)

ABATEMENT OE DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable assets
(see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to
satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate
proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.  Also, in
the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which
they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the
legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given
specially to any particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities
are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.


ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the
defeating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of
fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency
of the parties suing, pleaded by the defendant.  It did not
involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action
subsisting.  In criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at
one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was
set up for the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed,
by alleging misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant.
Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law
Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the
truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered
description of the defendant unnecessary.  All pleas in abatement
are now abolished (R.S.G.  Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING.

ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action
abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any
of the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues,
and does not become defective by the assignment, creation or
devolution of any estate or title pendente lite (R.S.C. Order
17, r. 1). Criminal proceedings do not abate on the death of
the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown, but
the crown itself may bring about their termination without any
decision on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor.

ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act
1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has
power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light
which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse.

ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a
custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on
account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses.  The rate and
conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the
Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK; REBATE.)

ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some
kind of degradation or dishonour.  It is called also rebatement.

ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512--1571), a celebrated
fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at
Bologna.  He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted
in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552--1571).  His
pictures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace
and natural colouring.  Some of his easel pieces in oil are
in different collections; one of the finest, in the Dresden
Gallery, represents the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul.

ABATIS,ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning
a heap of material thrown), a term in field fortification
for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid
in a row, with the tops directed towards the enemy and
interlaced or tied with wire.  The abatis is used alone or
in combination with wire-entanglements and other obstacles.

ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often
employed in English as an equivalent of ``slaughter-house''
(q.v.), the place where animals intended for food are killed.

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1679-1767), a learned Frenchman, was born of
Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc.  His father died when
he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the
edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him
educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his
escape.  For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in
the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last reached Geneva,
where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from
the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their
flight.  Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in
languages, physics and theology.  In 1698 he went to Holland,
and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P. Jurieu and J.
Basnage.  Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac
Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his
discoveries.  Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of
his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when
sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, ``You are
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me.'' The reputation
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring
to return to Geneva.  There from 1715 he rendered valuable
assistance to a society that had been formed for translating
the New Testament into French.  He declined the offer of
the chair of philosophy in the university in 1723, but
accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the
city of his adoption.  Here he died at a good old age, in
1767.  Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful
versatility.  Whatever chanced to be discussed,it used to be
said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell of more modern
times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular
study.  Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises,
addressed to him, in his Nouvelle Heloise, a fine panegyric;
and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come
to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen
Abauzit.  Little remains of the labours of this intellectual
giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers
that came into their possession, because their own religious
opinions were different.  A few theological, archaeological
abd astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the
Journal Helvetique and elsewhere, and he contributed
several papers to Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique
(1767).  He wrote a work throwing doubt on the canonical
authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a reply
from Dr Leonard Twells.  He also edited and made valuable
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la republique de Geneve.
A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in
1770 (OEuvres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London
in 1773 (OEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them
were translated into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774).

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J.
Senebier's HIstoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's
Miscellanies, and W. Orme's Bibliotheca Biblica (1824).

'ABAYE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (q.v.),
born in the middle of the 3rd century.  He died in 339.

'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of thc Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study
of the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led
to the compilation of the Talmud.  He is commonly known as Rab.

ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on the
downfall of the western caliphate.  It lasted from about 1023
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was
singularly active and typical of its time.  The founder of
the house was Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in
1023.  He was the chief of an Arab family settled in the city
from the first days of the conquest.  The Beni-abbad were not
of ancient descent, though the poets, whom they paid largely,
made an illustrious pedigree for them when they had become
powerful.  They were, however, very rich.  Abd-ul-Qasim gained
the confidence of the townsmen by organizing a successful
resistance to the Berber soldiers of fortune who were grasping
at the fragments of the caliphate.  At first he professed to
rule only with the advice of a council formed of the nobles,
but when his power became established he dispensed with this
show of republican government, and then gave himself the
appearance of a legitimate title by protecting an impostor
who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When Abd-ul-Qasim
died in 1042 he had created a state which, though weak in
itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about
it.  He had made his family the recognized leaders of the
Mahommedans of Arab and native Spanish descent against
the Berber element, whose chief was the king of Granada.
Abbad, surnamed El Motaddid, his son and successor, is
one of the most remarkable figures in Spanish Mahommedan
history.  He had a striking resemblance to the Italian princes
of the later middle ages and the early renaissance, of the
stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti.  El Motaddid was a poet and
a lover of letters, who was also a poisoner, a drinker of
wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the utmost degree.  Though
he waged war all through his reign he very rarely appeared in
the field, but directed the generals, whom he never trusted,
from his ``lair'' in the fortified palace, the Alcazar of
Seville.  He killed with his own hand one of his sons who had
rebelled against him.  On one occasion he trapped a number
of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into visiting
him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot room
of a bath.  It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the
enemies he had killed--those of the meaner men to be used as
flower-pots, while those of the princes were kept in special
chests.  His reign until his death on the 28th of February
1069 was mainly spent in extending his power at the expense
of his smaller neighbours, and in conflicts with his chief
rival the king of Granada.  These incessant wars weakened the
Mahommedans, to the great advantage of the rising power of
the Christian kings of Leon and Castile, but they gave the
kingdom of Seville a certain superiority over the other little
states.  After 1063 he was assailed by Fernando El Magno of
Castile and Leon, who marched to the gates of Seville, and
forced him to pay tribute.  His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim
Abenebet---who reigned by the title of El Motamid--was the
third and last of the Abbadides, He was a no less remarkable
person than his father and much more amiable.  Like him he was
a poet, and a favourer of poets.  El Motamid went, however,
considerably further in patronage of literature than his father,
for he chose as his favourite and prime minister the poet Ibn
Ammar.  In the end the vanity and featherheadedness of Ibn
Ammar drove his master to kill him.  El Motamid was even
more influenced by his favourite wife, Romaica, than by his
vizir.  He had met her paddling in the Guadalquivir, purchased
her from her master, and made her his wife.  The caprices
of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of Motamid in his
efforts to please her, form the subject of many stories.
In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the
Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be
as faithless as his father.  His wars and his extravagance
exhausted his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by
taxes.  In 1080 he brought down upon himself the vengeance of
Alphonso VI. of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental
barbarity.  He had endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the
Christian king with false money.  The fraud was detected by a
Jew, who was one of the envoys of Alphonso.  El Motamid, in
a moment of folly and rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned
the Christian members of the mission.  Alphonso retaliated
by a destructive raid.  When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085,
El Motamid called in Yusef ibn Tashfin, the Almoravide (see
SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES). During the six years
which preceded his deposition in 1091, El Motamid behaved
with valour on the field, but with much meanness and political
folly.  He endeavoured to curry favour with Yusef by betraying
the other Mahommedan princes to him, and intrigued to secure
the alliance of Alphonso against the Almoravide.  It was
probably during this period that he surrendered his beautiful
daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who made her his
concubine, and is said by some authorities to have married
her after she bore him a son, Sancho.  The vacillations and
submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate
which overtook his fellow-princes.  Their scepticism and
extortion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef
a ``fetva'' authorzing him to remove them in the interest of
religion.  In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville.  El
Motamid, who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his
sons to surrender the fortresses they still held, in order
to save his own life.  He died in prison in Africa in 1095.

AUTHORITIES.--Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne,
Leiden, 1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum
Arabum loci de Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. II.)

ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON D', (1810-1897), and ARNAUD MICHEL
D', (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their travels in
Abyssinia during the first half of the 19th century.  They
were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish
mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815.  The parents
removed to France in 1818, and there the brothers received
a careful scientific education.  In 1835 the French Academy
sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results
being published at a later date (1873) under the title of
Observations relatives a! la physique du globe faites au
Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger Abbadie spent some
time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two brothers started for
Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February 1838.  They visited
various parts of Abyssinia, including the then little-known
districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together and
sometimes separately.  They met with many difficulties and
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues,
Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed
in favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries.  After
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography,
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their
materials for publication.  The younger brother, Arnaud, paid
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853.  The more distinguished
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies
relating both to his geographical results and his political
intrigues.  He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who
impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to
Kana.  But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers
have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts,
though wrong in his contention--hotly contested by Beke--that
the Blue Nile was the main stream.  The topographical results
of his explorations were published in Paris in 1860-1873 in
Geodesie d'Ethiopie, full of the most valuable information and
illustrated by ten maps.  Of the Geographie de l'Ethiopie
(Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published.  In Un
Catalogue raisonne de manuscrits ethiopiens (Paris, 1859)
is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by
Antoine.  He also compiled various vocabularies, including
a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the
Latin version, in 1860.  He published numerous papers dealing
with the geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient
inscriptions.  Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques
he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations
made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red
Sea and the Levant.  The general account of the travels of
the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the
title of Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie. Both brothers
received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in
1850.  Antoine was a knight of the Legion of Honour and a
member of the Academy of Sciences.  He died in 1897, and
bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding 40,000 francs
a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its
producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million
stars.  His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.)

ABBADIE, JAKOB (1654?-1727), Swiss Protestant divine,
was born at Nay in Bern.  He studied at Sedan, Saumur and
Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen.  After spending
some years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church,
where he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied
Marshal Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became
minister of the French church in the Savoy, London.  His
strong attachment to the cause of King William appears in
his elaborate defence of the Revolution (Defense de la
nation britannique, 1692) as well as in his history of the
conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la grande conspiration
d'Angleterre). The king promoted him to the deanery of Killaloe
in Ireland.  He died in London in 1727.  Abbadie was a man
of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but is best known
by his religious treatises, several of which were translated
from the original French into other languages and had a wide
circulation throughout Europe.  The most important of these are
Traite de la verite de la religion chretienne (1684); its
continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ
(1689); and L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692).

'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.)
who flourished c. 279-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the
study of Greek by Jews.  He was famous as a collector of
traditional lore, and is very often cited in the Talmud.

ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses benJoseph), French
rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of
the 13th century.  He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace
(Heb.  Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the
name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel.  The descendant
of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself
to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself
acquainted with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides
as well as with the Talmud.  In Montpellier, where he lived
from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence
of Aristotelian rationalism, which, through the medium of
the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old
Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and
revelation.  He, therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards
collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e. ``Jealousy
Offering'') called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Adret
of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy.  Ben Adret,
with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a
letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the
study of philosophy to those who were less than thirty years
of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal
section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret in
1305.  The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain
and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study
of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish
rabbis.  On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip
IV. in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he
published the letters connected with the controversy.  His
subsequent history is unknown.  Beside the letters, he was
the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.

AUTHORITIES.--Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L.
Bislichis (Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins francais,
pp. 647 foll.; Perles, Salomo ben Abrahann ben Adereth,
pp. 15-54; Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v. ``Abba Mari.''

ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun
Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning
dynasty.  As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim Pasha
(q.v.), his real or supposed uncle.  The death of Ibrahim
in November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August
following, on the death of Mehemet Alh--who had been deposed
in July 1848 on account of mental weakness,--Abbas succeeded
to the pashalik.  He has been generally described as a mere
voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish
gentleman of the old school.  He was without question a
reactionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his
time shut up in his palace.  He undid, as far as lay in his
power, the works of his grandfather, good and bad.  Among
other things he abolished trade monopolies, closed factories
and schools, and reduced the strength of the army to 9000
men.  He was inaccessible to adventurers bent on plundering
Egypt, but at the instance of the British government
allowed the construction of a railway from Alexandria to
Cairo.  In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha Palace by two
of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said Pasha.

ABBAS II. (1874-- ), khedive of Egypt.  Abbas Hilmi Pasha,
great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the 14th of
July 1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive
of Egypt on the 8th of January 1892.  When a boy he visited
England, and he had an English tutor for some time in
Cairo.  He then went to school in Lausanne, and from there
passed on to the Theresianum in Vienna.  In addition to
Turkish, his mother tongue, he acquired fluency in Arabic,
and a good conversational knowledge of English, French and
German.  He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden
death of his father raised him to the Khedivate; and he was
barely of age according to Turkish law, which fixes majority
at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne.  For
some time he did not co-operate very cordially with Great
Britain.  He was young and eager to exercise his new
power.  His throne and life had not been saved for him by the
British, as was the case with his father.  He was surrounded
by intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for
some time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary
as his great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt
to understand the importance of British counsels.  He paid
a second visit to England in 1900, during which he frankly
acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt,
and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to
co-operate with the British officials administering Egyptian
affairs.  The establishment of a sound system of native
justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest
of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous irrigation
works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound education,
each received his approval and all the assistance he could
give.  He displayed more interest in agriculture than in
statecraft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah,
near Cairo, would have done credit to any agricultural
show in England; at Montaza, near Alexandria, he created
a similar establishment.  He married the Princess Ikbal
Hanem and had several children.  Mahommed Abdul Mouneim,
the heir-apparent, was born on the 20th of February 1899.

ABBAS I. (e. 1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called
the Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1586) . In the
midst of general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of
Khorasan, and obtained possession of the Persian throne in
1586.  Determined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country,
he first directed his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs,
who occupied and harassed Khorasan.  After a long and severe
struggle, he regained Meshed, defeated them in a great battle
near Herat in 1597, and drove them out of his dominions.  In
the wars he carried on with the Turks during nearly the whole
of his reign, his successes were numerous, and he acquired,
or regained, a large extent of territory.  By the victory he
gained at Bassora in 1605 he extended his empire beyond the
Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was forced to cede Shirvan and
Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies of the Turks and Tatars
were completely defeated near Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas
made peace on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing
the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a year's siege in
1623.  In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from the Portuguese,
by the assistance of the British, and much of its trade was
diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was named after the
shah.  When he died, his dominions reached from the Tigris
to the Indus.  Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his
successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his court and
of the buildings which he erected, but also by his reforms in
the administration of his kingdom.  He encouraged commerce,
and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did much
to facilitate it.  To foreigners, especially Christians, he
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony
and Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his
confidence.  His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds
of tyranny and cruelty.  His own family, especially, suffered
from his fits of jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and
the eyes of his other children were put out, by his orders.

See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir
Robert Sherley, &c. (London, 1823); Sir C. R. Markham,
General Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874).

ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad,
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan
empire.  The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim
to the throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652),
the eldest uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they
regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as
opposed to the Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya.  Throughout
the second period of the Omayyads, representatives of this
family were among their most dangerous opponents, partly by
the skill with which they undermined the reputation of the
reigning princes by accusations against their orthodoxy,
their moral character and their administration in general,
and partly by their cunning manipulation of internecine
jealousies among the Arabic and non-Arabic subjects of the
empire.  In the reign of Merwan II. this opposition culminated
in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent
from Abbas, who, supported hy the province of Khorasan, achieved
considerable successes, but was captured (A.D. 747) and died
in prison (as some hold, assassinated).  The quarrel was taken
up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu'l-Abbas
as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on the Greater Zab
(750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was proclaimed caliph.

The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual
strife and the development of luxury and the liberal arts,
in place of the old-fashioned austerity of thought and
manners.  Mansur, the second of the house, who transferred
the seat of government to Bagdad, fought successfully against
the peoples of Asia Minor, and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid
(786--809) and Mamun (813-833) were periods of extraordinary
splendour.  But the empire as a whole stagnated and then decayed
rapidly.  Independent monarchs established themselves in
Africa and Khorasan (Spain had remained Omayyad throughout),
and in the north-west the Greeks successfully encroached.
The ruin of the dynasty came, however, from those Turkish
slaves who were constituted as a royal bodyguard by Moqtasim
(833-842).  Their power steadily grew until Radi (934-941) was
constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Mahommed
b.  Raik.  Province after province renounced the authority
of the caliphs, who were merely lay figures, and finally
Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad (Feb. 28th, 1258).
The Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority,
confined to religious matters, in Egypt under the Mamelukes,
but the dynasty finally disappeared with Motawakkil III., who
was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople by Selim I.

See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a
detailed account of the dynasty will be found.

ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a
younger son of the shah, Feth Ali, but on account of his
mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed
him.  Entrusted with the government of a part of Persia, he
sought to rule it in European fashion, and employed officers
to reorganize his army.  He was soon at war with Russia, and
his aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon,
anxious to checkmate one another in the East.  Preferring
the friendship of France, Abbas continued the war against
Russia, but his new ally could give him very little assistance,
and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous
peace.  He gained some successes during a war between Turkey
and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked his
army, and a treaty was signed in 1823.  His second war with
Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of
success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some
territory.  When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought
to restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was
nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the
task died at Meshed in 1833.  In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed
Mirza, succeeded Feth Ali as shah.  Abbas was an intelligent
prince, possessed some literary taste, and it noteworthy
on account of the comparative simplicity of his life.

ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government of
Tiflis, 50 m.  S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65
m.  E. of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped
valley.  It has hot sulphur baths (93 1/2 deg. -118 1/2 deg.
Fahr.) and an astronomical observatory (4240 ft.).

ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in
Istria, 56 m.  S.E. of Trieste by rail.  Pop. (1900) 2343.  It
is situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at
the foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded
by beautiiul woods of laurel.  The average temperature is 50 deg.
Fahr. in winter, and 77 deg.  Fahr. in summer.  The old abbey,
San Giacomo della Priluca, from which the place derives its
name, has been converted into a villa.  Abbazia is frequented
annually by about 16,000 visitors.  The whole sea-coast to
the north and south of Abbazia is rocky and picturesque,
and contains several smaller winter-resorts.  The largest
of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situated 5 m. to the south.

ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot),
the female superior of an abbey or convent of nuns.  The
mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess
correspond generally with those of an abbot (q.v.). The
office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the
sisters from their own body.  The abbess is solemnly admitted
to her office by episcopal benediction, together with the
conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life,
though liable to be deprived for misconduct.  The council of
Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of
profession.  Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience
of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the
bishop.  As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the
spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot.
She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate.  In
England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that
of Becanfield in 694, where they signed before the presbyters.

By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and
nuns.  This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France
and Spain, and even to Rome itself.  At a later period, A.D.
1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the government
of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior.

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (Aebtissin)
has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the
heads of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as
Stifte, i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home
and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth,
called canonesses (Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen.
This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and
is sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses.

ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12
m. from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m.  N,W. of
Amiens on the Northern railway.  Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906)
18,971.  It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is
built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the
river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The
streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old
structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark
archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St
Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  The
original design was not completed.  The nave has only two bays
and the choir is insignificant.  The facade is a magnificent
specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic
towers.  Abbeville has several other old churches and an
hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century.  Among
the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois
Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.
There is a statue of Admiral Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief
square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal
college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition
to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning,
sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on;
there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade.

Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first
appears in history during the 9th century.  At that time
belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards
governed by the counts of Ponthieu.  Together with that county,
it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French
families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo,
from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of
England.  French and English were its masters by turns till
1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of
Burgundy.  In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France,
and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in
the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown.

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was born at
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of April 1852.  He left
the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the
age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing
house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company
with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph
Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an
illustrator.  In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England
to gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert
Herrick.  These, published in 1882, attracted much attention,
and were followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She
Stoops to Conquer (1887), for a volume of Old Songs
(1889), and for the comedies (and a few of the tragedies) of
Shakespeare.  His water-colours and pastels were no less
successful than the earlier illustrations in pen and ink.
Abbey now became closely identified with the art life of
England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of Painters
in Water-Colours in 1883.  Among his water-colours are ``The
Evil Eye'' (1877); ``The Rose in October'' (1879); ``An Old
Song'' (1886); ``The Visitors'' (1890), and ``The Jongleur''
(1892).  Possibly his best known pastels are ``Beatrice,''
``Phyllis,'' and ``Two Noble Kinsmen.'' In 1890 he made his
first appearance with an oil painting, ``A May Day Morn,'' at
the Royal Academy in London.  He exhibited ``Richard duke of
Gloucester and the Lady Anne'' at the Royal Academy in 1896,
and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in
1898.  Apart from his other paintings, special mention must
be made of the large frescoes entitled ``The Quest of the Holy
Grail,'' in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied
for some years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward
VII. to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many
portraits elaborately grouped.  The dramatic subjects, and the
brilliant colouring of his on pictures, gave them pronounced
individuality among the works of contemporary painters.
Abbey became a member not only of the Royal Academy, but also
of the National Academy of Design of New York, and honorary
member of the Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale
des Beaux Arts (Paris), the American Water-Colour Society,
etc.  He received first class gold medals at the International
Art Exhibition of Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898,
at the Paris Exhibitions of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in
1903; and was made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour.

ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a
monastery, or conventual establishment, under the government
of an ABBOT or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from
an abbey in that the superior bore the name of prior instead
of abbot. This was the case in all the English conventual
cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury, Ely, Norwich, &c., where the
archbishop or bishop occupied the abbot's place, the superior
of the monastery being termed prior.  Other priories were
originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots
of which they continued subordinate; but in later times the
actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost.

The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTICISM)
with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or
huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the abode
of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or singular
asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement.
The formation of such communities in the East does not date
from the introduction of Christianity.  The example had been
already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt.

In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics
were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another,
at no great distance from some village, supporting themselves
by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the
surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the
poor.  Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution,
drove them farther and farther away from the abodes of men
into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts.  The deserts
of Egypt swarmed with the ``cells'' or huts of these
anchorites.  Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid
during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the most
celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and
his power as an exorcist.  His fame collected round him a
host of followers, emulous of his sanctity.  The deeper he
withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples
became.  They refused to be separated from him, and built
their ceils round that of their spiritual father.  Thus arose
the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living
each in his own little dwelling, united together under one
superior.  Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History,
vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), ``without any conscious
design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode
of living in common, Coenobitism.'' By degrees order was
introduced in the groups of huts.  They were arranged in
lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a
street.  From this arrangement these lines of single cells
came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes."

The real founder of coenobian koinos, common, and bios,
life) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian
of the beginning of the 4th century.  The first community
established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper
Egypt.  Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000
monks.  Within fifty years from his death his societies could
reckon 50,000 members.  These coenobia resembled vilIages,
peopled by a hard-working religious community, ail of one
sex.  The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest
character.  Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.R. iii.
14), contained three monks.  They took their chief meal in a
common refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually
fasted.  They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their
faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table
before them.  The monks spent all the time, not devoted to
religious services or study, in manual labour.  Palladius,
who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the
4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of
Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4
carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners.  Each separate
community had its own oeconomus or steward, who was subject
to a chief oeconomus stationed at the head establishment.
All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and
by him shipped to Alexandria.  The money raised by the sale
was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the
communities, and what was over was devoted to charity.  Twice
in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at
the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite
(``the chief of the fold,'' from miandra, a fold), and at
the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the
year.  The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian
institution.  We learn many details concerning those in the
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings.  The monks
lived in separate huts, kalbbia, forming a religious hamlet
on the mountain side.  They were subject to an abbot, and
observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their
common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour
was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors,)
Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms.

Santa Laura, Mount Athos.

The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of
space and convenience of access from one part of the community
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium.  Large
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls,
capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which
all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more
open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters.  The usual
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent
of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the designation of a
monastery generally, being converted into a female saint).

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is
surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing
an area of between 3 and 4 acres.  The longer side extends to
a length of about 500 feet.  There is only one main entrance,
on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron
doors.  Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant
feature in the monasteries of the Levant.  There is a small
postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open
courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister
galleries of wood or stone.  The outer court, which is much the
larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the
kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory
(G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied
guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is
surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells
(II).  In the centre of this court stands the catholicon
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of
the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed
narthex.  In front of the church stands a marble fountain
(F), covered by a dome supported on columns.  Opening from
the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in
the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform
building, about 100 feet each way, decorated within with
frescoes of saints.  At the upper end is a semicircular
recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace

                                                  A. Gateway.
                                                  B. Chapels.
                                                  C. Guest-house.
                                                  D. Church.
                                                  E. Cloister.
                                                  F. Fountain.
                                                  G. Refectory.
                                                  H. Kitchen.
                                                  I. Cells.
                                                  K. Storehouses.
                                                  L. Postern gate.
                                                  M. Tower.
FIG. 1.---Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir).

at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or
abbot.  This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the
oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells.

Vatopede

St Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vatopede
also on Mount Athos.  This enormous establishment covers at
least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many separate buildings
within its massive walls that it resembles a fortified town.  It
lodges above 300 monks, and the establishment of the hegumenos is
described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign prince.
The immense refectory, of the same cruciform shape as that of
St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at its 24 marble tables.

The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir,
shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and
two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery.

Benedictine.

Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development
to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480).  His rule was
diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation
on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and
every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far
exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and
splendour.  Few great towns in Italy were without their
Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great
centres of population in England, France and Spain.  The number
of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is
amazing.  Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no
fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order
alone.  The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly
arranged ofter one plan, modified where necessary (as at
Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the
steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local
circumstances.  We have no existing examples of the earlier
monasteries of the Benedictine order.  They have all yielded
to the ravages of time and the violence of man.  But we
have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the
great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820,
which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a
monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th
century.  This curious and interesting plan has been made
the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 1844) and by
Professor Robert Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp.
86-117.  To the latter we are indebted for the substance of
the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced
from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved

 FIG. 2.---Plan of Coptic Monastery.
A. Narthex. B. Church.
C. Corridor, with cells on each side.
D. Staircase.

in the archives of the convent.  The general apperance
of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with
streets running between them.  It is evidently planned in
compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that,
if possible, the monastery should contain within itself
every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more
intimately connected with the religious and social life of its
inmates.  It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables
and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying
on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to
obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits.

The general distribution of the buildings may be thus
described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies
the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square.  The
buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into
groups.  The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the
religious life of the community.  In closest connexion with
the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the
monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for
eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social
intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary
conference.  These essential elements of monastic life
are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered
arcade, affording communication sheltered ftom the elements
between the various buildings.  The infirmary for sick monks,
with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the
east.  In the same group with the infirmary is the school for
the novices.  The outer school, with its headmaster's house
against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the
convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house,
that he might have a constant eye over them.  The buildings
devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one
for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks
visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and
pilgrims.  The first and third are placed to the right and
left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium
for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the
church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor
on the south side next to the farm buildings.  The monks are
lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the
church.  The group of buildings connected with the material
wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west
of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic
buildings.  The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a
passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected
with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther
away.  The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to
workshops, stables and farm-buildings.  The buildings, with some
exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but
the church were probably erected of wood.  The whole includes
thirty-three separate blocks.  The church (D) is cruciform,
with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either
extremity.  That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular
colonnade, leaving an open ``paradise'' (E) between it and
the wall of the church.  The whole area is divided by screens
into various chapels.  The high altar (A) stands immediately
to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar
of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in
the western apse.  A cylindrical campanile stands detached
from the church on either side of the western apse (FF).

The ``cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the

 FIG. 3.--Ground-plan of St


  CHURCH.                          U. House for blood-letting.
  A. High altar.                   V. School.
  B. Altar of St Paul.             W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
  C. Altar of St Peter.            X1X1. Guest-house for those
  D. Nave.                                  of superior rank
  E. Paradise.                     X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.
  FF. Towers.                      Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.
  MONASTIC BUILDINGS
  G. Cloister.                     MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
  H. Calefactory, with             Z. Factory.
     dormitory over.               a. Threshing-floor
  I. Necessary.                    b. Workshops.
  J. Abbot's house.                c, c. Mills.
  K. Refectory.                    d. Kiln.
  L. Kitchen.                      e. Stables.
  M. Bakehouse and brewhouse.      f Cow-sheds.
  N. Cellar.                       g. Goat-sheds.
  O. Parlour.               (over. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.
  P1. Scriptorium with library  k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's
  P2. Sacristy and vestry.                     sleeping-chambers.
  Q. House of Novices--1.chapel;   l. Gardener's house
    2. refectory; 3. calefactory;  m,m. Hen and duck house.
    4. dormitory; 5. master's room n. Poultry-keeper's house.
    6. chambers.                   o. Garden.
  R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in   q. Bakehouse for sacramental
     the house of novices.
  S. Doctor's house.               s, s, s. Kitchens.
  T. Physic garden.                t, t, t. Baths.


church has on its east side the ``pisalis'' or ``calefactory',
(H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by
flues beneath the floor.  On this side in later monasteries
we invariably find the chapterhouse, the absence of
which in this plan is somewhat surprising.  It appears,
however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the
north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a
chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long
sides.  Above the calefactory is the ``dormitory'' opening
into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks
to attend the nocturnal services with readiness.  A passage
at the other end leads to the ``necessarium'' (I), a portion
of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme
care.  The southern side is occupied by the ``refectory''
(K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen
(L) is reached.  This is separated from the main buildings
of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with
a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and
the sleeping-rooms of the servants.  The upper story of the
refectory is the ``vestiarium,'' where the ordinary clothes of
the brethren were kept.  On the western side of the cloister
is another two story building (N). The cellar is below,
and the larder and store-room above.  Between this building
and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and
by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the
``parlour'' for interviews with visitors from the external
world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the
``scriptorium'' or writing-room (P1), with the library above.

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in
itself.  Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual
buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or
chapel on one side, placed back to back.  A detached building
belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen.  One of these
diminutive convents is appropriated to the ``oblati'' or novices
(Q), the other to the sick monks as an ``imfirmary'' (R).

The ``residence of the physicians'' (S) stands contiguous to the
infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of
the monastery.  Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store,
and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill.  The ``house
for bloodletting and purging'' adjoins it on the west (U).

The ``outer school,'' to the north of the convent area, contains
a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or
partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed
the dwellings of the scholars.  The head-master's house (W)
is opposite, built against the side wall of the church.  The
two ``hospitia'' or `' guest-houses'' for the entertainment
of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large
common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by
sleeping-apartments.  Each is provided with its own brewhouse
and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has
a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and
stables for their horses.  There is also an ``hospitium'' for
strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y).

Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent
area to the south, stands the `factory'' (Z), containing
workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii),
cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers,
fullers, smiths and goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the
rear.  On this side we also find the farmbuildings, the large
granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse
(d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds
(f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i),
together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k).
At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and
poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n).
Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the
names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic,
celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in
all.  In the same way the physic garden presents the names
of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of
the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, &c., planted there.

Canterbury Cathedral.

A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its
annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved
in the Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College,
Cambridge.  As elucidated by Professor Willis,1 it exhibits
the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th century,
and enables us to compare it with that of the 9th as seen at St
Gall.  We see in both the same general principles of arrangement,
which indeed belong to all Benedictine monasteries, enabling
us to determine with precision the disposition of the various
buildings, when little more than fragments of the walls
exist.  From some local reasons, however, the cloister and
monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far
more commonly the case, on the south of the church.  There is
also a separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall.

The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate
groups.  The church forms the nucleus.  In immediate contact
with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the
group of buildings devoted to the monastic life.  Outside of
these, to the west and east, are the ``halls and chambers
devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every
monastery was provided, for the purpose of receiving as
guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity,
travellers, pilgrims or paupers.'' To the north a large
open court divides the monastic from the menial buildings,
intentionally placed as remote as possible from the conventual
buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bakehouse,
brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of the
establishment.  At the greatest possible distance from the
church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary
department.  The almonry for the relief of the poor,
with a great hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium.

The most important group of buildings is naturally that devoted
to monastic life.  This includes two Cloisters, the great
cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with
the daily life of the monks,---the church to the south, the
refectory or frater-house here as always on the side opposite
to the church, and farthest removed from it, that no sound or
smell of eating might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the
east the dormitory, raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the
chapter-house adjacent, and the lodgings of the cellarer to the
west.  To this officer was committed the provision of the
monks' daily food, as well as that of the guests.  He was,
therefore, appropriately lodged in the immediate vicinity of
the refectory and kitchen, and close to the guest-hall.  A
passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the smaller
or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm
monks.  Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of
the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and
chancel of an aisled church.  Beneath the dormitory, looking
out into the green court or herbarium, lies the ``pisalis''
or ``calefactory,'' the common room of the monks.  At its
north-east corner access was given from the dormitory to the
necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman
hall, 145 ft. long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats.  It
was, in common with all such offices in ancient monasteries,
constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and
health, a stream of water running through it from end to
end.  A second smaller dormitory runs from east to west for
the accommodation of the conventual officers, who were bound
to sleep in the dormitory.  Close to the refectory, but outside
the cloisters, are the domestic offices connected with it:
to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, surmounted by a
lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to the west, the
butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small kitchen of its
own.  Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are two
lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall,
at which the monks washed before and after taking food.

The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three
groups.  The prior's group ``entered at the south-east angle
of the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the
cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or
nobility who were assigned to him.'' The cellarer's buildings
were near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary visitors
of the middle class were hospitably entertained.  The inferior
pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the north hall or almonry,
just within the gate, as far as possible from the other two.

Westminster Abbey.

Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine
abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they
can be traced, with those described above.  The cloister and
, monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister,
was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door.  On the
eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised
on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south
transept.  The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the
cloister.  The small cloister lles to the south-east of
the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have
the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the
refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers.  The
abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance,
close to the inner gateway.  Considerable portions of this
remain, including the abbot's parlour. celebrated as ``the
Jerusalem Chamber,'' his hall, now used for the Westminster
King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond.

York.

St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed,
exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements.  The precincts
are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides,
the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth
side.  The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the
north.  Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now
the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid
their devotions immediately on their arrival.  Near the
gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T).
The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to
enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the
cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I),
the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other
principal apartments.  The infirmary has perished completely.

Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements,
dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of
Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the
cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of

                             FIG. 4

 St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins.
 A. Church.                        O. Offices.
 B. Chapter-house.                 P. Cellars.
 C. Vestibule to ditto.            Q. Uncertain.
 E. Library or scriptorium.        R. Passage to abbot's house.
 F. Calefactory.                   S. Passage to common house.
 G. Necessary.                     T. Hospitium.
 H. Parlour.                       U. Great gate.
 I. Refectory.                     V. Porter's lodge.
 K. Great kitchen and court.       W. Church of St Olaf.
 L. Cellarer's office.             X. Tower.
 M. Cellars.                       Y. Entrance from Bootham.
 N. Passage to cloister.


as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrangements
deduced from the examples described may be regarded as invariable.

The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of
decay and revival.  With growth in popular esteem came increase
in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness.  The
first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was
relaxed, until by the 10th century the decay of discipline
was so complete in France that the monks are said to have
been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict,
and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at
all.  The reformation of abuses generally took the form of
the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more
stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural
arrangements.  One of the earliest of these reformed orders
was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little
village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about
A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William,
duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of
Beaume.  He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as
the founder of the order.  The fame of Cluny spread far and
wide.  Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the
old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation
to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in
large numbers, all owing allegiance to the ``archabbot,''
established at Cluny.  By the end of the 12th century the
number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various
countries of western Europe amounted to 2000.  The monastic
establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive
and magnificent in France.  We may form some idea of its
enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, A.D.
1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals,

         FIG. 5--Abbey of Cluny, from


 A. Gateway.        F. Tomb of St Hugh.  M. Bakehouse.
 B. Narthex.        G. Nave.             N. Abbey buildings.
 C. Choir.          H. Cloister.         O. Garden.
 D. High-altar.     K. Abbot's house.    P. Refectory.
 E. Retro-altar.    L. Guest-house.


a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the
Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three
of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders
and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and
six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their
attendants, were lodged withn the monastery without disarranging
the monks, 400 in number.  Nearly the whole of the abbey
buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away
at the close of the 18th century.  When the annexed ground-plan
was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the
monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt.

The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable
resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast
dimensions.  It was 656 ft. high.  The nave (G) had double
vaulted aisles on either side.  Like Lincoln, it had an
eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with
apsidal chapels to the east.  The western transept was 213
ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft.  The choir terminated in
a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also
semicircular.  The western entrance was approached by an
ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of
no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a
stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross.  To the
south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense
size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the
case.  On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory
(P), an immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide,
accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of
tables.  It was adorned with the portraits of the chief
benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects.  The
end wall displayed the Last Judgment.  We are unhappily unable
to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The
abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the
entrance-gate.  The guest-house (L) was close by.  The bakehouse
(M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size.

English Cluniac

The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of
Lewes, founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077.  Of
this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist.
The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre,
Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire.  Ground-plans of both are
given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show
several departures from the Benedictine arrangement.  In
each the prior's house is remarkably perfect.  All Cluniac
houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors
of that nation.  They did not secure their independence nor
become ``abbeys'' till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac
revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived.
The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral
ruin.  With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac
foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in
discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed.

Cistercian

The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in
the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion,
and a longer and more honourable existence.  Owing its real
origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedictines, in
the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorsetshire,
educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its
name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost
inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and
Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order
are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety
of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies,
subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the
first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux
(de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116.  The rigid self-abnegation,
which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation
of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and
other buildings erected by them.  The characteristic of the
Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied
plainness.  Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and
that was to be very low.  Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets
were prohibited.  The triforium was omitted.  The windows
were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to
decorate them with stained glass.  All needless ornament was
proscribed.  The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of
iron.  The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced
in all that met the eye.  The same spirit manifested itself
in the choice of the sites of their monasteries.  The more
dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared,
the more did it please their rigid mood.  But they came
not merely as ascetics, but as improvers.  The Cistercian
monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered
valleys.  They always stand on the border of a stream; not
rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it.  These
valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different
aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their
retirement.  Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets,
wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features.  The
``bright valley,'' Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known
as the ``valley of Wormwood,'' infamous as a den of robbers.
``It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that
at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on
beech leaves.''-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.)

Clairvaux

All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the
locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan.  The
general arrangement and distribution of the various
buildings, which went to make up one of these vast
establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own
abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given.  It will be observed
that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall,
furnished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive
works.  The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water,
artificially diverted from the small rivulets which flow
through the precincts, furnishing the establishment with
an abundant supply in every part, for the litigation of
the gardens and orchards, the sanitary requirements of the
brotherhood and for the use of the offices and workshops.

The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall,
running from N. to S., into an outer and inner ward,--the
former containing the menial, the latter the monastic
buildings.  The precincts are entered by a gateway (P), at
the extreme western extremity, giving admission to the lower
ward.  Here the barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops
and workmen,s lodgings were placed, without any regard to
symmetry, convenience being the only consideration.  Advancing
eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the

    FIG. 6.--.Clairvaux, No. 1 (Cistercian), General


  A. Cloisters.         I. Wine-press and       O. Public presse.
  B. Ovens, and corn          hay-chamber       P. Gateway.
       oil-mills        K. Parlour              R. Remains of old monastery
  C. St Bernard's cell. L. Workshops and.
  D. Chief entrance.         workmen's lodgings S. Oratory.
  E. Tanks for fish.                            V. Tile-works.
  F. Guest-house.       M. Slaughter-house.     X. Tile-kiln.
  G. Abbot's house.     N. Barns and stables.   V. Water-courses.
  H. Stables.


outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communication
between the two.  On passing through the gateway, the outer
court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade
of the monastic church in front.  Immediately on the right
of entrance was the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to
the guest-house (F). On the other side of the court were the
stables, for the accommodation of the horses of the guests
and their attendants (H). The church occupied a central
position.  To the south was the great cloister (A),
surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and farther to
the east the smaller cloister, opening out of which were
the infirmary, novices' lodgings and quarters for the aged
monks.  Still farther to the east, divided from the monastic
buildings by a wall, were the vegetable gardens and orchards,
and tank for fish.  The large fish-ponds, an indispensable
adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the formation
of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and
which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these
vast establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls.

Plan No. 2 furninshes the ichnography of the distinctly
monastic buildings on a larger scale.  The usually unvarying
arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us to accept
this as a type of the monasteries of this order.  The church
(A) is the chief feature.  It consists of a vast nave of
eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept and short
apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb in
all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and
usually square.) To the east of each limb of the transept
are two square chapels, divided according to Cistercian
rule by solid walls.  Nine radiating chapels, similarly
divided, surround the apse.  The stalls of the monks,
forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays of the
nave.  There was a second range of stalls in the extreme
western bays of the nave for the fratres conversi, or lay
brothers.  To the south of the church, so as to secure as
much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably placed,
except when local reasons forbade it.  Round the cloister
(B) were ranged the buildings connected with the monks' daily
life.  The chapter-house (C) always opened out of the east
walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept.

      FIG. 7.--Clairvaux, No. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic


  A. Church.            L. Lodgings of novices.   S. Cellars and storehouses.
  B. Cloister.
  C. Chapter-house.     M. Old guest-house.       T. Water-course.
  D. Monks' parlour.    N. Old abbot's lodgings.  U. Saw-mill and oil mill
  E. Calefactory.
  F. Kitchen and court. O. Cloister of            V. Currier's shop.
  G. Refectory.            supernumerary monks.
  H. Cemetery.                                    X. Sacristy.
  I. Little cloister.   P. Abbot's hall.          Y. Little library.
  K. Infirmary.         Q. Cell of St Bernard.    Z. Undercroft of dormitory.
                        R. Stables.


In Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided
by pillars and arches into two or three aisles.  Between
it and the transept we find the sacristy (X), and a small
book-room (Y) armariolum, where the brothers deposited the
volumes borrowed from the library.  On the other side of the
chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D) communicating
with the courts and buildings beyond.  This was sometimes
known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the
privilege of conversation here.  Here also, when iscipline
became relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission,
were allowed to display their goods.  Beyond this we often
find the calefactorium or day-room--an apartment warmed
by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half
frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after
the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease
their sandals and get themselves ready for the work of the
day.  In the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the
south cloister walk, adjoining the refectory.  The place usually
assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substructure of the
dormitory (Z). The dormitory, as a rule, was placed on the
east side of the cloister, running over the calethetory and
chapter-house, and joined the south transept, where a flight
of steps admitted the brethren into the church for nocturnal
services.  Opening out of the dormitory was always the
necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and
cleanliness, a water-course invariably running from end to
end.  The refectory opens out of the south cloister at G.
The position of the refectory is usually a marked point of
difference between Benedictine and Cistercian abbeys.  In the
former, as at Canterbury, the refectory ran east and west
parallel to the nave of the church, on the side of the cloister
farthest removed from it.  In the Cistercian monasturies, to
keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from
the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south,
at right angles to the axis of the church.  It was often
divided, sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three
aisles.  Outside the refectory door, in the cloister,
was the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands at
dinner-time.  The buildings belonging to the material life of
the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the
church, to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer
court was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery
and larder, and the important adjunct of a stream of running
water.  Farther to the west, projecting beyond the line of
the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments
(SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above which was
the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and
separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various
workshops, which convenience repuired to be banished to
the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned
by water, and a currier's shop (V), where the sandals
and leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired.

Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small
cloister (l), opening from the north side of which were eight
small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works
for the library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible
by a turret staircase.  To the south of the small cloister
a long hall will be noticed.  This was a lecture-hall, or
rather a hall for the religious disputations customary among the
Cistercians.  From this cloister opened the infirmary (K),
with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and other
dependencies.  At the eastern verge of the vast group of buildings
we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister
near the novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M).
Detached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was the
original abbot's house (N), with its dining-hall (P). Closely
adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of the whole
establishment should be constantly over those who stood the
most in need of his watchful care,--those who were training
for the monastic life, and those who had worn themselves
out in its duties,--was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed
buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the
establishment.  The cemetery, the last resting-place of the
brethren, lay to the north side of the nave of the church (H).

It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement of
a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly defined
system, and admirably adapted to its purpose.  The base court
nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging to
the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of
labour.  Advancing into the inner court, the buildings`devoted
to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those
connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren,
--the kitchen, cellars, &c.,--form a court of themselves
outside the cloister and quite detached from the church.
The church refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging
to the professional life of the brethren surround the great
cloister.  The small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells,
library, hall for disputations, &c., is the centre of the
literary life of the community.  The requirements of sickness
and old age are carefully provided for in the infirmary
cloister and that for the aged and infirm members of the
establishment.  The same group contains the quarters of the novices.

This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the
illustration of the mother establishment of Citeaux.

Citeaux.

A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to
the gate of the monastery. reached by an avenue of trees.  On
one side of the gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably
the almonry, with a dormitory above for the lower class of
guests.  On the other side is a chapel (D). As soon as the
porter heard a stranger knock at the gate, he rose, saying,
Deo gratias, the opportunity for the exercise of hospitality
being regarded as a cause for thankfulness.  On opening the
door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing --Benedicite.
He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the
abbot.  However important the abbot's occupations might
be, he at once hastened to receive him whom heaven had
sent.  He also threw himself at his guest's feet, and
conducted him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the
gate.  After a short prayer, the abbot committed the guest
to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was
to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he
might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner
gatehouse (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court
(T), round which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c.
On the eastern side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers,
fratres conversi (G), detached from the cloister, with
cellars and storehouses below.  At H, also outside the monastic
buildings proper, was the abbot's house, and annexed to it the
guest-house.  For these buildings there was a separate door
of entrance into the church (S). The large cloister, with its
surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects
the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from
the base court.  The long gabled building on the east side of
the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter-house
and calefactory, with the monks' dormitory above (M),
communicating with the south transept of the church.  At L
was the staircase to the dormitory.  The small cloister is at
W, where were the carols or cells of the scribes, with the
library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase.  At R we see
a portion of the infirmary.  The whole precinct is surrounded
by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches,

            FIG. 8.---Bird's-eye view of


 A. Cross.            H. Abbot's house.            R. Infirmary.
 B. Gate-house.       I. Kitchen.                  S. Door to the church
 C. Almonry.          K. Refectory.                   for the lay brothers.
 D. Chapel.           L. Staircase to dormitory.
 E. Inner gate-house.                              T. Base court.
 F. Stable.           M. Dormitory.                V. Great cloister.
 G. Dormitory of lay  N. Church.                   W. Small cloister.
        brethren.     P. Library.                  X. Boundary wall.


through which streams of water are introduced.  It will
be noticed that the choir of the church is short, and has
a square end instead of the usual apse.  The tower, in
accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very low.  The windows
throughout accord with the studied simplicity of the order.

Kirkstall Abbey.

The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such extensive
and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall,
Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same
plan, with slight local variations.  As an example, we give
the groundplan of Kirkstall Abbey. which is one of the best
preserved.  The church here is of the Cistercian type, with
a short chancel of two squares, and transepts with three
eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls (2 2 2).
The whole is of the most studied plainness.  The windows
are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium.  The
cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the
nave.  On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house
(5), between which and the south transept is a small
sacristy (3), and on the other side two small apartments,
one of which was probably the parlour (6). Beyond this
stretches southward the calefactory or day-room of the monks
(14).  Above this whole range of building runs the monks'
dormitory, opening by stairs into the south transept of the
church.  At the other end were the necessaries.  On thc south
side of the cloister we have the remains of the old refectory
(11), running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west,
and the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the
inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual
in Cistercian houses, from north to south.  Adjacent to this
apartment are the remains of the kitchen, pantry and buttery.
The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near the refectory
entrance.  The western side of the cloister is, as usual,
occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper story
the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the

      FIG. 9 Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire


 1. Church.                         10. Common room.
 2. Chapels.                        11. Old refectory.
 3. Sacristy.                       12. New refectory.
 4. Cloister.                       13. Kitchen court.
 5. Chapter-house.                  14. Calefactory or day-room.
 6. Parlour.                        15. Kitchen and offices.
 7. Punishment cell (?).            16-19. Uncertain; perhaps offices
 8. Cellars, with dormitories for            connected with the infirmary.
      conversi over.
 9. Guest-house.                    20. Infirmary or abbot's house.


south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the
walls and foundations of a secondary group of considerable
extent.  These have been identified either with the hospitium
or with the abbot's house, but they occupy the position in
which the infirmary is more usually found.  The hall was
a very spacious apartment, measuring 83 ft. in length by
48 ft. 9 in. in breadth, and was divided by two rows of
columns.  The fish-ponds lay between the monastery and
the river to the south.  The abbey mill was situated
about 80 yards to the north-west.  The millpool may be
distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill stream.

Fountains Abbey.

Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the
largest and best preserved Cistercian houses in England.
But the earlier buildings received considerable additions
and alterations in the later period of the order, causing
deviations from the strict Cistercian type.  The church
stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the
buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the
stream.  We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the
three-aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from
its eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q)
and buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk.

     FIG. 10.--Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey,


 A. Nave of the church.     N. Cellar.              Z. Gate-house.
 B. Transept.               O. Brewhouse.              ABBOT'S HOUSE.
 C. Chapels.                P. Prisons.                 1. Passage
 D. Tower.                  Q. Kitchen.                 2. Great hall.
 E. Sacristy.               R. Offices.                 3. Refectory.
 F. Choir.                  S. Refectory.               4. Refectory.
 G. Chapel of nine alters.  T. Buttery.                 5. Storehouse.
 H. Cloister.               U. Cellars and storehouses. 6. Chapel.
 I. Chapter-house.          V. Necessary.               7. Kitchen.
 K. Base court.             W. Infirmary (?).           8. Ashpit.
 L. Calefactory.            X. Guest-houses.            9. Yard.
 M. Water-course.           Y. Mill bridge.            10. Kitchen tank.


Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure
(U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and
store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi
above.  This building extended across the river.  At its S.W.
corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above
the swiftly flowing stream.  The monks' dormitory was in its
usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the
transept.  As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed
the position of the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and
calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless there is some
error in its designation) above the river to the west, adjoining
the guest-houses (XX).  We may also call attention to the
greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York,
1203-1211, and carried on by his successor, terminating, like
Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot
John of Kent, 1220-1247, and to the tower (D), added not long
before the dissolution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very
unusual position at the northern end of the north transept.
The abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of
this class of buildings in the kingdom, stands south to the
east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided by
the kitchen court (R), surrounded by the ordinary domestic
offices.  A considerable portion of this house was erected on
arches over the Skell.  The size and character of this house,
probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious
house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks
the wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern
simplicity of the original foundation.  The hall (2) was one
of the most spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval
times, measuring 170 ft. by 70 ft.  Like the hall in the
castle at Winchester, and Westminster Hall, as originally
built, it was divided by 18 pillars and arches, with 3
aisles.  Among other apartments, for the designation of which
we must refer to the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or
chapel, 46 1/2 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen (7), 50 ft. by 38
ft.  The whole arrangements and character of the building
bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the humble
father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by vows to a
life of poverty and self-denying toil.  In the words of Dean
Milman, ``the superior, once a man bowed to the earth with
humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit
bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot
on his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver
cross before him, travelling to take his place amid the
lordliest of the realm.'' --(Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 330.)

Austin Canons.

The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so
called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive
peculiarities.  This order had its first seat in England at
Colchester, where a house for Austin canons was founded about
A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely.  As an order
of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks
and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish
priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length
to accommodate large congregations.  The choir is usually
long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ Church
(Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham,
&c., is destitute of aisles altogether.  The nave in the northern
houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton,
Brinkburn and Lanercost.  The arrangement of the monastic
buildings followed the ordinary type.  The prior's lodge was
almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave.

Bristol Cathedral.

The annexed plan of the Abbey of St Augustine's at Bristol,
now the cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement
of the buildings, which departs very little from the
ordinary Benedictine type.  The Austin canons' house at
Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size
and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of
which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for
possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date.

Premonstratensians.

The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had
as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect
remaining are those of Easby.  Yorkshire, and Bayham, Kent.
The head house of the order in England was Welbeck.  This order
was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D.
1119, by Norbert (born at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c.
1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest
of Coucy in the diocese of Laon.  The order spread widely.
Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and
Palestine.  It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in
the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its
members sank into indolence and luxury.  The Premonstratensians
were brought to England shortly after A.D. 1140, and were
first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber.
The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the
edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly
irregular.  The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the
church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions
round it.  But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not
rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made
to sprawl in a very awkward fashion.  The church follows
the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern
abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the
north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless.  Each
transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.

The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or
choir.  The latter terminated in a three-sided apse.  This church
is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its
length.  Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is

    FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol


 A. Church.            H. Kitchen.         S. Friars' lodging.
 B. Great cloister.    I. Kitchen court.   T. King's hall.
 C. Little cloister.   K. Cellars.         V. Guest-house.
 D. Chapter-house.     L. Abbot's hall.    W. Abbey gateway.
 E. Calefactory.       P. Abbot's gateway. X. Barns, stables, &c
 F. Refectory.         R. Infirmary.       Y. Lavatory.
 G. Parlour.


not more than 25 ft. broad.  Stern Premonstratensian canons
wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions;
therefore they built their church like a long room.

Carthusians.

The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno,
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and
arrangement of a monastic institution.  The principle of this
order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life,
demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan.  This
plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve
companions at the original institution at Chartreux, near
Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments
throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the order
had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity
of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence
of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the
Certosas of Pavia and Florence.  According to the rule of
St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived
in the most absolute solitude and silence.  Each occupied a
small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden
surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or
cloister.  In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk
passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving
his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church,
except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the
refectory.  The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian
monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England,
from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited
in the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet-le-Duc.

Clermont.

The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished
at intervals with watch towers (R) . The enclosure is divided
into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a
cloister, from from which the cottages of the monks (I) open,
is musch the larger.  The two courts are divided by the main
buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary
(A), divided from B, the monks' choir, by a screen with two
altars, the smaller cloister to the south (S) surrounded by
the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X)---these buildings
occupying their normal position--and the chapel of Pontgibaud
(K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the
relectory, accessible ftom the outer court without entering the
cloister.  To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy
(L), and the side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior
(a), with its garden.  The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy
the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the
west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent
(O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before
it.  This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P),
the stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns
and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T).
At Z is the prison.  In this outer court, in all the earlier
foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in
addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and
inner courts are connected by a long passage (F), wide enough
to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the
brethren with fuel.  The number of cells surrounding the great

                                                A. Church.
                                                B. Monks' choir.
                                                C. Prior's garden.
                                                D. Great cloister.
                                                E. Chapter-house.
                                                F. Passage.
                                                G. Prior's lodgings.
                                                H. Dovecot.
                                                I. Cells.
                                                K. Chapel of Pontgibaud.
                                                L. Sacristy.
                                                M. Chapel.
                                                N. Stables.
                                                O. Gateway.
                                                P. Guest-chambers.
                                                Q. Barns and granaries.
                                                R. Watch-tower.
                                                S. Little cloister.
                                                T. Bakehouse.
                                                V. Kitchen.
                                                X. Refectory.
                                                Y. Cemetery.
                                                Z. Prison.
                                                a. Cell of subprior
                                                b. Garden of do.
          FIG. 12.--Carthusian monastery of Clermont.

cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan.
Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room
(C), warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D),
furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and
a closet (E). Between the cell and the cloister gallery (A)
is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the inmate of the
cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his
meditations.  The superior had free access to this corridor, and
through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being
seen.  At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily
allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that
purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards.  H is the
garden, cultivated by the occupant of the cell.  At K is the
wood-house.  F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end.


The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation
in all the charter-houses of western Europe.  The Yorkshire
Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland, the
young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of
England, during the revival of the popularity of the order,
about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English
example.  It is characterized by all the simplicity of the
order.  The church is a modest building, long, narrow and
aisleless.  Within the wall of enclosure are two courts.
The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual
arrangement of church, refectory, &c., opening out of a
cloister.  The buildings are plain and solid.  The northern
court contains the cells, 14 in number.  It is surrotmded by a
double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft.
apart.  Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells;
low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the
ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the
side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the
back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the
monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse
of his garden to the ``eremus'' beyond.  By the side of the
door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily
pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an
angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look
out.  A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement
belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at Miraflores, near
Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480.

                                                A. Cloister gallery.
                                                B. Corridor.
                                                C. Living-room.
                                                D. Sleeping-room.
                                                E. Closets.
                                                F. Covered walk.
                                                G. Necessary.
                                                H. Garden.
                                                I. Hatch.
                                                K. Wood-house.
             FIG. 13--Carthusian cell, Clermont.

There were only nine Carthusian houses in England.  The
earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded
by Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into
England.  The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of
Sheen or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D.
1414.  The, dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated
to have been remarkably large.  The great court measured
300 ft. by 250 ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.;
the hall was 110 ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth.  The
most celebrated historically is the Charter house of London,
founded by Sir Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which
is preserved by the famous public school established on the
site by Thomas Sutton A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming.

Mendicant Friars.

An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without
some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching
Friars, including the Black Friars or Dominicans, the Grey
or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or
Austin, Friars.  These orders arose at the beginning of the
13th century, when the Benedictines, together with their
various reformed branches, had terminated their active
mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new religious
revival.  Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns,
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their
buildings to the requirements of the site.  Regularity of
arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had
studied it.  Their churches, built for the reception of
large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form
a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder
orders in ground-plan and character.  They were usually long
parallelograms unbroken by transepts.  The nave very usually
consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls
of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the
congregation.  The constructional choir is often wanting,
the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with
a continuous range of windows.  The east end was usually
square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal
apse.  We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of
great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave.  This arrangement
is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries
afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of
ground-plan.  The friars' churches were at first destitute of
towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers
were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir.  The
Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good
example.  The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally
peculiar and characteristic.  We miss entirely the regularity
of the buildings of the earlier orders.  At the Jacobins at
Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church
of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense
length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across
the area before the west front of the church.  At Toulouse the
nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal,
with radiating chapel.  The refectory stretches northwards at
right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the
church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east.

Norwich.  Gloucester.

As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at
Norwich, and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at
Gloucester, may be mentioned.  The church of the Black
Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the
nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles.  In
this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at
Reading.  The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower
between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished.  Thc
cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the
north.  The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the
cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated
church.  The refectory is on the west side and on the south
the dormitory of the 13th century.  This is a remarkably good
example.  There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided
by partitions, the bases of which remain.  On the east side
was the prior's house, a building of later date.  At the Grey
or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in
having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of
windows.  There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir.

Hulne.

Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a
good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first
of the order in England, founded A.D. 1240.  The church
is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by
only 26 ft. wide.  The cloisters are to the south, with
the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory
over.  The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the
cloister.  The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to
which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual
area.  The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites
in London is still standing.  It is of Decorated date, and
has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and
graceful arcade.  Some fragments of the south walk of the
cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of
Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still
standing.  Of the Black Friars all has perished but the
name.  Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of
the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of
the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris:---``The friars
who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences
as the palaces of kings.  These are they who, enlarging day
by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty
walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently
transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very
fundamental rules of their profession.'' Allowance must here be
made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity.

Cells.

Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller
establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic
colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted on some
outlying estate.  As an example, we may refer to the small
religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, a cell of the great
Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in the valley of the
Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln.  This consists
of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part
formed the chapel and the western contained the apartments of
the handful of monks of which it was the home.  To the east
may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and
mill-lead.  These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house,
were called Obedientiae. The plan given by Viollet-le-Duc
of the Priory of St Jean des Bons Hommes, a Cluniac cell,
situated between the town of Avallon and the village of
Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised
every essential feature of a monastery,---chapel, cloister,
chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the
recognized arrangement.  These Cluniac obedientiae differed
from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of
penitentiary.  Here they were placed under the authority of a
prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling
the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as
farmservants.  The outlying farming establishments belonging to
the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges.
They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers
under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother
Hospitaller ---the granges, like their parent institutions,
affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers.

AUTHORITIES.--Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir,
Architecture monastique (1852--1856); Veollet-le-Duc,
Dictionnaire raisonnee de l'architecture francaise;
Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); Kraus,
Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.)

ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945-1004), a
learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He distinguished
himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was especially
proficient in science as known in his time.  He spent two
years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey.  After
his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire
(988).  He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious
(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a
threatened papal interdict.  He was killed at La Reole in
1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt.  He wrote an
Epitomie de vitis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial
treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol.
139).  His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in
which much of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great
importance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially
with reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139).

See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885);
Cuissard-Gaucheron, ``L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du 10
siecle,'' in Memoires de la societe de l'Orleanais, xiv.
(Orleans, 1875); A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France.

ABBOT, EZRA (1819--1884), American biblical scholar, was
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April
1819.  He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in
1847, at the request of Prof.  Andrews Norton, went to
Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until
1856.  He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from
1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card
catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary
dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics
under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic
catalogue.  From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor
of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard
Divinity School.  His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, thoygh his
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive
list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future
life, appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of
a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages
(1862), and published separately in 1864.  His publications,
though always of the most thorough and scholarly character,
were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews,
dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, Unitarian
controversial treatises, &c.; but he took a more conspicuous
and more personal part in the preparation (with the Baptist
scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition
of Dr (afterwards Sir) William Smith's Dictionary of the
Bible (1867-1870), to which he contributed more than 400
articles besides greatly improving the bibliographical
completeness of the work; was an efficient member of the
American revision committee employed in connexion with the
Revised Version (1881-1885) of the King James Bible; and aided
in the preparation of Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to
the revised Greek New Testament of Tischendorf.  His principal
single production, representing his scholarly method and
conservative conclusions, was The Authorship af the Fourth
Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second edition, by J. H.
Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a lecture, and
in spite of the compression due to its form, up to that time
probably the ablest defence, based on external evidence,
of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the completest
treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.
Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from
Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. . He
died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 21st of March 1884.

See S. J. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884).

ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of
Canterbury, was born on the 19th of October 1562, at Guildford in
Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker.  He studied, and
then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master of
University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester in
1600.  He was three times vice-chancellor of the university,
and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version
of the New Testament.  In 1608 he went to Scotland with the
earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches
of England and Scotland.  He so pleased the king (James
I.) in this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and
Coventry in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month
afterwards, and in less than a year was raised to that of
Canterbury.  His puritan instincts frequently led him not
only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics, but also into
courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he
opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard
against the earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon,
he forbade the reading of the declaration permitting Sunday
sports.  He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match
between the elector palatine and the Princess Elizabeth,
and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the prince
of Wales with the infanta of Spain.  This policy brought
upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he had previously
come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the
king himself never forsook him.  In 1622, while hunting in
Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt from his
cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the
keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly
distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled
melancholy.  His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of
this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued
that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of
hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical
person could lawfully indulge.  The king had to refer the
matter to a commission of ten, though he said that ``an angel
might have miscarried after this sort.'' The commission was
equally divided, and the king gave a casting vote in the
archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or
dispensation.  After this the archbishop seldom appeared
at the council, chiefly on account of his infirmities.  He
attended the king constantly, however, in his last illness,
and performed the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I.
His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Dr Robert
Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February 1626-1627, in
which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a
general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance
even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to
deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in
commission.  The need of summoning parliament, however,
soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's
powers.  His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived
from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in
undisputed ascendancy.  He died at Croydon on the 5th of August
1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where
he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of L. 300 a
year.  Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view
and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists.  He
wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his
discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was
reprinted in 1845.  His Geography, or a Brief Description
of the Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions.

The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England.

ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as ``The
Puritan,'' has been oddly and persistently mistaken for
others.  He has been described as a clergyman, which he never
was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his
writings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities
as by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury.  One of the
sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he
was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a
different family altogether.  He was son or grandson (it is
not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington,
East Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603--1604,
his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of
Pickering.  Of his early life and training nothing is
known.  He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote,
Warwickshire, and as his monument, which may still be seen
in the church there, tells, he bravely held the manor house
against Princes Rupert and Maurice during the civil war.  As
a layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of rare
ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique
place in the literature of the period.  The terseness of his
Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to
understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with the usual
prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators.  His
Vindiciae Sabbathi (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting
influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy.  His Brief
Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date
shows, was posthumous.  He died on the 2nd of February 1648.

AUTHORITIES--MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all
of the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington;
Dugdale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730 p. 1099; Wood's
Athenae (Bliss), ii.141, 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath.

ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?-1662?), English Puritan divine.  Noted
as this worthy was in his own time, and representative in
various ways, he has often since been confounded with others,
e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury.  He is also wrongly
described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he
acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles
dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe out Sinne
and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had ``received all'' his
``worldly maintenance,'' as well as ``best earthly countenance',
and ``fatherly incouragements.', The worldly maintenance
was the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in
Kent.  He had received his education at Cambridge, where he
proceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford.  In
1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book
historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells
us, ``I have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above
fifty years, and in the place of my allotment two and twenty
full.'' The former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or
perhaps 1587-1588 ---the ``Armada'' year---as his birth-time;
the latter to 1616-1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull
London and her Sisters (1626), he describes himself as
formerly ``assistant to a reverend divine . . . now with
God,'' and the name on the margin is ``Master Haiward of Wool
Church (Dorset).'' This was doubtless previous to his going to
Cranbrook.  Very remarkable and effective was Abbot's
ministry at Cranbrook, where his parishioners were as his
own ``sons and daughters'' to him.  Yet, Puritan though he
was, he was extremely and often unfairly antagonistic to
Nonconformists.  He remained at Cranbrook until 1643, when,
Parliament deciding against pluralities of ecclesiastical
offices, he chose the very inferior living of Southwick,
Hants, as between the one and the other.  He afterwards
succeeded the ``extruded'' Udall of St Austin's, London,
where according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in
1657.  He disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662.
Robert Abbot's books are conspicuous amongst the productions
of his time by their terseness and variety.  In addition to
those mentioned above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's
Catechism for her Children (1646), and A Christian Family
builded by God, or Directions for Governors of Families (1653).

AUTHORITIES.--.Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's
Sufferings, ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323;
Palmer's Nonconf.  Mem. ii. 218, which confuses him most
oddly of all with one of the ejected ministers of 1662.

ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798--1843), English actor, was born in
Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath
in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808.  At Covent
Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his
first decided success.  He Was Pylades to Macready's Orestes
in Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made
his first appearance at that theatre (1816).  He created the
parts of Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius
(1820) and of Modus in his Hunchback (1832).  In 1827 he
organized the company, including Macready and Miss Smithson,
which acted Shakespeare in Paris.  On his return to London
he played Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830).  Two of
Abbot's melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great
(1817) and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at
Covent Garden.  He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland.

ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac
abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late
Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence
of the Lat. form to abbat, used abternatively till the end
of the 17th century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and
chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the
East hegumenos or archimandrite.  The title had its origin
in the monasteries of Syria, whence it spread through the
East, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as
the designation of the head of a monastery.  At first it was
employed as a respectful title for any monk, as we learn from St
Jerome, who denounced the custom on the ground that Christ had
said, ``Call no man father on earth'' (in Epist. ad Gal.
iv. 6, in Matt. xxiii. 9), but it was soon restricted to the
superior.  The name ``abbot,'' though general in the West,
was never universal.  Among the Dominicans, Carmelites,
Augustinians, &c., the superior was called Praepositus,
``provost,'' and Prior; among the Franciscans, Custos,
``guardian''; and by the monks of Camaldoi, Major.

In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction
of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined.
Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over
several, each of which had its own abbot as well.  Cassian
speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under
him, a number exceeded in other cases.  By the rule of St
Benedict, which, until the reform of Cluny, was the norm
in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one
community.  The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to
frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of
the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising
jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely
recognized.  New styles were devised to express this new
relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called abbas
abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the tities
abbas generails, or magister or minister generalis.

Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot
any exception.  All orders of clergy, therefore, even the
``doorkeeper,', took precedence of him.  For the reception
of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the
abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest
church (Nocellae, 133, c. ii.).  This rule naturally proved
inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at
a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination
of abbots.  This innovation was not introduced without a
struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent
with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of
the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost
universally to have become deacons, if not presbyters.  The
change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of
abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th
century, and partially so up to the 11th.  Ecclesiastical
councils were, however, attended by abbots.  Thus at that
held at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of
Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops,
and, c A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a
canon, inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend
councils.  Examples are not uncommon in Spain and in England
in Saxon times.  Abbots were permitted by the second council
of Nicaea, A.D. 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior
orders.  This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong
prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down,
eventually monks, almost without exception, took holy orders.

Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and
continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th
century.  The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg.
xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight.
The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot
from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins,
at the council of Arles, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims
and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal
control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of
abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th
century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or
altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible
to the pope alone, received an impulse from Gregory the
Great.  These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had
grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually
creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop
of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his
diocese.  In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed
precedence of the archbishop of Cologne.  Abbots more and
more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the
prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and
others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and
sandals.  It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres
was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th
century, but the documents on which this claim is based are
not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453).  The
first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II.
in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of
the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The
mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's,
Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury,
Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester,
St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey,
Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster,
Winchcombe, St Mary's York.  Of these the precedence was
originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in
A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the
abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought
up.  Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of
Westminster.  To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained
that their mitre should be made of less costly materials,
and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon
entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral
staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating
that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.

The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed
by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be
specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran
council, A.D. 1123.  In the East, abbots, if in priests'
orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have
seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787,
to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but
gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims,
until we find them in A.D. 1489 permitted by Innocent
IV. to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate.  Of
course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting
their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.

When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose
the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right
of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks
themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the
election and the benediction of the new abbot.  In abbeys
exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and
benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house
being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to
Rome.  By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity
was in some undefined way required; but this seems never
to have been practically enforced.  It was necessary that
an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate
birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable
candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another
convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others,
one also who had learned how to command by having practised
obedience.  In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed
to name his own successor.  Cassian speaks of an abbot in
Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example
in the case of St Bruno.  Popes and sovereigns gradually
encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the
pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in
France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other
houses, chiefs of their order.  The election was for life,
unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of
his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the
pope or the bishop.  The ceremony of the formal admission of
a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by
the consuetudinary of Abingdon.  The newly elected abbot was
to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed
barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a
procession.  After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel
and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir,
into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his
commissary, and placed in his stall.  The monks, then kneeling,
gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the
mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office.  He then put
on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and
the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon.

The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited,
however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general
establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control.  As a
rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act
without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty
to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were
withdrawn.  Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind
submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into
a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the
individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by
Cassian and others,--- e.g. a monk watering a dry stick,
day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge
rock immensely exceeding his powers.  St Jerome, indeed, lays
down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his
monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things,
and perform whatever they commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eustoch. de
custod. virgin.). So despotic did the tyranny become in the
West, that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to
restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their
monks and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St
Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very slight
offences.  An abbot also had the power of excommunicating
refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their abbess.

The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence
by the brethren of his house.  When he appeared either in
church or chapter all present rose and bowed.  His letters
were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the
king.  If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to
kneel.  No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his
permission.  The highest place was naturally assigned to him,
both in church and at table.  In the East he was commanded to
eat with the other monks.  In the West the rule of St Benedict
appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain
guests and strangers.  This permission opening the door to
luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that
the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with
the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a
guest.  These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual
to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature
abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the
inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots.  When the
abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited
upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting
them.  At St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the
centre of the high table, and was served on silver plate, and
sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of
quality.  When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule
of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table,
provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were
to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be
the same as that of the monks.  But by the 10th century the
rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of
abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire.  They
sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and
assumed a secular dress.1 This was a necessary consequence of
their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at
that time only natural.  With the increase of wealth and power,
abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and
become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by
celibacy.  Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with
their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and
huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester,
c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in
harehunting.  In magnificence of equipage and retinue the
abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm.  They rode
on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings,
carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of
attendants.  The bells of the churches were rung as they
passed.  They associated on equal terms with laymen of the
highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and
pursuits.  This rank and power was, however, often used most
beneficially.  For instance, we read of Whiting, the last
abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII.,
that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as
many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent
to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides
others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the universities.
His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the
nation.  He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at
one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a
week.  He had his country houses and fisheries, and when
he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to
upwards of 100 persons.  The abbots of Cluny and Vendome
were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church.

In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred
to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system,
as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and
under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king,
Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas
Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular
officials.  Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa
was called Abbas Populi. Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives
us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c.

Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensores, abbacomites, abbates laici,
abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi,
abbatiarii, or sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome
of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century
onwards.  The practice of commendation, by which---to meet
a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were
handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection,
early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of
rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam.
During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting
these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th
century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly
established.  Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam
by Hugh Capet.  The example of the kings was followed by the
feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession
permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation
whatever.  In England the abuse was rife in the 8th
century, as may be gathered from the ac

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