Music Notation and Terminology
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Title: Music Notation and Terminology
Author: Karl Wilson Gehrkens
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In this e-text, a superscript is indicated by a carat (^)
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MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY
by
KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.
Associate Professor of School Music
Oberlin Conservatory of Music
[Illustration: [publisher logo]]
The A. S. Barnes Company
New York 1914
Copyright, 1914, by
The A. S. Barnes Company
PREFACE
The study of _music notation and terminology_ by classes in
conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools
is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such
courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which
might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the
really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in
music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more
systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more
_intelligent_ class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to
establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after
having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a
concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most
of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of
which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps
knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly
and economically to others.
To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the
author has been for several years gathering material from all available
sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in
related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only
some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but
will also enable him to see more clearly _why_ certain terms have the
meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the
derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their
definition.
The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of
terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own
individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that
important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For
this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would
probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would
satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.
In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to
use such words as _note_, _tone_, et cetera with at least a fair degree
of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be
criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his
opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be
profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been
inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large
extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is
well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of
edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually
begin to come, the _need_ of reform must be felt by a fairly large
number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few
musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the
changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful
thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points
at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought
to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and
that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.
It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the
teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms
studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter
purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.
It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have
been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear
and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt
or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an
almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's
Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the
arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,
Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice,
Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable
advice along certain specific lines.
K.W.G.
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, _June, 1913_
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.--Some Principles of Correct Notation 1
1. Note.
2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
4. Use of cross-stroke.
5. Rest.
6. G Clef.
7. F Clef and C Clef.
8. Sharp and double-sharp.
9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
10. Tie.
11. Dot after a note.
CHAPTER II.--Symbols of Music Defined 5
12. Staff and Great Staff.
13. Leger Lines.
14. Staff degrees.
15. Clef.
16. Treble and bass Clefs.
17. Movable C Clef.
18. Sharp.
19. Flat.
20. Double-sharp and double-flat.
CHAPTER III.--Symbols of Music Defined (_continued_) 8
21. Natural
22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
27. Enharmonic.
28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
29. Rests.
30. Lists of notes and rests.
31. English names for.
32. Less common forms.
33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
34. Bar.
35. Double-bar.
CHAPTER IV.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. 13
36-40. Signs for repetition.
41. Continuation.
42. Rest.
43. Pause.
44. Hold.
45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
48. Octave names.
CHAPTER V.--Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (_continued_) 17
49-51. Dots after notes.
52. Dots over or under notes.
53. Dash over note.
54. Tie.
55. Slur.
56. Slur or tie with dots.
57. Dash over note.
58. Dash and dot over note.
59. Accent marks.
60. m.d., m.g., etc.
61. Arpeggio.
62. Messa di voce.
63. Violin bow signs.
CHAPTER VI.--Embellishments 22
64. Definition and kinds.
65. Trill.
66-68. Mordent.
69-72. Turn.
73, 74. Appoggiatura.
75. Acciaccatura.
CHAPTER VII.--Scales 27
76. Definition, and old forms.
77. Origin.
78. Key.
79. Three general classes.
80. Diatonic, defined.
81. Major diatonic.
82. Tetrachords.
83. The fifteen positions.
CHAPTER VIII.--Scales (_continued_) 33
84. Minor diatonic.
85. Original form.
86. Harmonic minor.
87. Melodic minor.
88. Eleven positions.
89. Relative minor.
90. Tonic minor.
91. Diatonic scale names.
92. Syllable-names.
93. Chromatic scale.
94. Nine positions.
95. Whole-step scale.
CHAPTER IX.--Auxiliary Words and Endings 42
CHAPTER X.--Measure 44
97. Definition.--Two essential characteristics.
Rhythm vers measure.
98. Syncopation.
99. Simple and compound measures.
100. Commonest varieties.
101. Other varieties.
102. Rare varieties.
103. The signs, C and [cut-time symbol].
CHAPTER XI.--Tempo 48
104. Misuses of the word "time."
105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
and "tempo."
108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.
CHAPTER XII.--Tempo (_continued_) 52
110-119. Tempo-terms.
CHAPTER XIII.--Dynamics 56
120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.
CHAPTER XIV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles 62
132. Definition of form.
133. Basis of form.
134. Difference between form and style.
135. Introductory.
136. Two styles.
137. Monophonic music.
138. Polyphonic music.
139. Counterpoint.
140. Imitation.
141. Canon.
142. School round.
143. Fugue.
CHAPTER XV.--Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (_continued_) 67
144. Phrase-section.
145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
146. Primary forms.
147. Theme.
148. Thematic development.
149. Rondo.
150. Suite.
151. Dances in suite.
152. Scherzo.
153. Sonata.
154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
155. Concerto.
156. Symphony.
157. Sonata-form.
158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
159. Program music.
160. Symphonic or tone poem.
CHAPTER XVI.--Terms Relating to Vocal Music 76
161. Anthem.
162. A capella.
163. Motet.
164. Choral.
165. Mass.
166. Cantata.
167. Oratorio.
168. Opera.
169. Libretto.
170. Recitative.
171. Aria.
172. Lied.
173. Ballad.
174. Folk-song.
175. Madrigal.
176. Glee.
177. Part-song.
CHAPTER XVII.--Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals 82
178. The four elements of music.
179. Rhythm.
180. Melody.
181. Harmony.
182. Timbre.
183. Interval--harmonic and melodic.
184. Number name and specific name.
185. Prime.
186. Second.
187. Third.
188. Fourth.
189. Fifth.
190. Sixth.
191. Seventh.
192. Octave.
193. Ninth.
194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
195. Inverted intervals.
CHAPTER XVIII.--Chords, Cadences, etc. 87
196. Chord. Triad. Root.
197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
198. The Common chords.
199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
200. Figured bass.
201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
202. Cadence.
203. Authentic cadence.
204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
205. Plagal cadence.
206. Half-cadence.
207. Deceptive cadence.
208. Sequence.
209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
210. Suspension.
211. Retardation.
212. Anticipation.
213. Pedal point.
214. Close and open position.
215. Transposition.
CHAPTER XIX.--Miscellaneous Terms 95
CHAPTER XX.--Miscellaneous Terms (_continued_) 98
APPENDIX A.--The History of Music Notation 101
APPENDIX B.--Musical Instruments 112
1. Two classes.
2. Piano.
3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
6. Band.
7. Orchestra.
8. The stringed instruments.
9. Wood-wind.
10. Brass.
11. Percussion.
12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
13. Books recommended.
14. Violin.
15. Viola.
16. Violoncello.
17. Double-bass.
18. Flute.
19. Piccolo.
20. Oboe family.
21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
22. French horn.
23. Trumpet.
24. Cornet.
25. Trombone.
26. Tuba.
27. Kettle-drum.
28. Harp.
APPENDIX C.--Acoustics 131
1. Definition.
2. Sound, production of.
3. Sound, transmission of.
4. Rate of travel.
5. Intensification of.
6. Classification of.
7. Tones, properties of.
8. Pitch.
9. Intensity.
10. Quality.
11. Overtones.
12. Equal temperament.
13. Standards of pitch.
APPENDIX D.--Terminology Reform 139
APPENDIX E.--Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149
PRONOUNCING INDEX 159
CHAPTER I
SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION
1. The _note_ (from _nota_--Latin--a mark or sign) consists of either
one, two, or three parts, ([Illustration]) these being referred to
respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called _tail_ or
cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned
up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] [Illustration] The hook is
always on the right side.[2] [Illustration]
[Footnote 1: It should be noted at the outset that this statement
regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and
also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically
to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied
music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus
[note symbol]. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and
for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here
recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is
best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according
to which _printed_ music is notated, in order to avoid those
non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which
will otherwise be unavoidable.]
[Footnote 2: An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of
unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side,
thus [Illustration].]
In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with
a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board
they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an
inch long, turned on its side.
2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following
_rules for turning stems_ apply: (1) If the note-head is _below_ the
third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is _above_ the
third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is _on_ the
third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the
symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The
following examples will illustrate these points.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper
part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that
the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano
and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by _one_
performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices
have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in
common as in Fig. 3.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written
in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by
_one cross-stroke_. In such a case all the stems must of course be
turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of
the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus _stroked_ may be of
the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.
[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to
each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)
5. _Rests_, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by
using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The
double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space
unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff
they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may
be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on
the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the
_third_ space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.
6. The _G clef_ should be begun at the second line rather than below the
staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it
most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by
dividing it into two parts, thus, [Illustration]. The descending stroke
crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular
part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.
7. The _F clef_ is made either thus, [bass clef symbol], or thus, [old
bass clef symbol], the dots being placed one on either side of the
fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef
marks. The C _clef_ has also two forms, [C clef symbol] and [tenor clef
symbol].
8. The _sharp_ is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy
slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right,
[sharp]. The sharp should never be made thus, [Illustration].
The _double sharp_ is made either thus [double-sharp symbol] or [old
double-sharp symbol], the first form being at present the more common.
9. The _flat_ is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the
curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The _double flat_
consists of two flats,[3] [flat][flat]. The _natural_ or _cancel_ is
made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus [Illustration].
[Footnote 3: It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat
suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross
([symbol]) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure
was the Greek letter B, made thus, [Greek: b], and its use would make
our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.]
10. The _tie_ usually connects the _heads_ of notes, thus [tie symbol].
11. The _dot after a note_ always appears on a space, whether the
note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot
after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space _above_
that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below
it if the following note is lower.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
_Note._--Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a
theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly,
_drill_ is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by
asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from
verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,
"Key of B[flat], three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a
quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure,
SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure,
LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure,
high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise
dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc.,
are corrected. The _pitch names_ may be dictated instead of
the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be
provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other
keys.
CHAPTER II
SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED
12. A _staff_ is a collection of parallel lines, together with the
spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six
spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line,
third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and
space below (_i.e._, space below the first line), first space, second
space, third space, fourth space, and space above.
The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of
the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied
to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line
between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.
13. The _extent of the staff_ may be increased either above or below by
the addition of short lines called _leger lines_,[4] and notes may be
written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.
[Footnote 4: The word _leger_ is derived from the French word _LÉGER_,
meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the
leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter--_i.e._, less solid in
color--than the printed lines of the staff itself.]
14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines
if any) are often referred to as _staff degrees_, _i.e._, each separate
line and space is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of
a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."
15. A _clef_[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches
are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, _e.g._, the G clef
shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but
that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef
similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the
first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.
[Footnote 5: The word _clef_ is derived from _CLAVIS_--a key--the
reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the
meaning of the staff, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the
puzzle.]
The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of
the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the
pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first
inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see Appendix A, p.
101. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Appendix I" in original.]
16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the
_treble staff_, and when the F clef is used, as the _bass staff_. Such
expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble
clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but
are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing
from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and
spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]
[Footnote 6: The Germans use the same pitch designations as we do with
two exceptions, viz., our B is called by them H, and our B[flat] is
called B. The scale of C therefore reads: C, D, E, F, G, A, H, C; the
scale of F reads F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F. The signatures are in all cases
written exactly as we write them.
In France and Italy where the "fixed DO" system is in vogue, pitches are
usually referred to by the syllable names; _e.g._, C is referred to as
DO (or UT), D as RE, etc.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
17. _The movable C clef_ [C clef symbol] or [tenor clef symbol],
formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes,
viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello,
viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many
leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This
latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part
is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the
tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.
The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and
9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is
placed represents "middle C."
[Illustration: Fig. 7. Soprano clef.]
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Alto clef.]
[Illustration: Fig. 9. Tenor clef.]
18. A _sharp_ is a character which causes the degree of the staff with
which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it
otherwise would.
Thus in Fig. 10 (_a_) the fifth line and first space represent
the pitch F, but in Fig. 10 (_b_) these same staff degrees
represent an entirely different tone--F[sharp]. The student
should note that the sharp does not then _raise_ anything; it
merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than
it otherwise would. There is just as much difference between F
and F[sharp] as between B and C, and yet one would never think
of referring to C as "B raised"!
[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
19. A _flat_ is a character that causes the degree of the staff with
which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it
otherwise would. (See note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion
here.)
20. A _double-sharp_ causes the staff degree on which it is placed to
represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp.
Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed
to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any
flat.
Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff
degrees that have already been sharped or flatted, therefore
their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent
pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower
than would be represented by those same degrees in their
diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (_b_) the first space in
its diatonic condition[7] represents F-sharp, and the
double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a
pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, _i.e._,
F-double-sharp.
[Footnote 7: The expression "diatonic condition" as here used refers to
the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words
after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the
diatonic scale.]
CHAPTER III
SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED (_Continued_)
21. The _natural_[8] (sometimes called _cancel_) annuls the effect of
previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the
measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the
combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often
found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also
the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the
double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a
composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is
shown.
[Footnote 8: It has already been noted (p. 6, Note) that in the German
scale our b-flat is called b, and our b is called H. From this
difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the H (now
made [natural]) to show that _any_ staff-degree is in _natural_
condition, _i.e._, not sharped or flatted.]
[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning
of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is
written. They are called collectively the _key-signature_.
23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the
major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what
key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the
major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is
almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last
bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is
in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then
it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key.
Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is
clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as
surely in E minor.
[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring
in the course of the composition (_i.e._, after the key signature) are
called _accidentals_, whether they actually cause a staff degree to
represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a
notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15,
measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.
[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
25. In the case of a _tie across a bar_ an accidental remains in force
until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first
measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent
the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space
continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second
measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will
represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.
[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches
different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the
beginner in the study of music notation. These rules are quoted from
"The Worcester Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice.
1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18.
2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19.
3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20.
4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21.
5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22.
6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23.
[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
[Illustration: Fig. 21.]
[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
27. When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word
_enharmonic_ is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on
keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same.
This word _enharmonic_ is used in such expressions as enharmonic change,
enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic
relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning,
viz.--a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.
28. A _note_ is a character expressing relative duration, which when
placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a
certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is
shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time
it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus _e.g._, a
half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a
specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a period of time twice
as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition.
29. A _rest_ is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a
certain relative length.
30. The _notes and rests in common use_ are as follows:
[symbol] Whole-note. An open note-head without stem.
[symbol] Half-note. An open note-head with stem.
[symbol] Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem.
[symbol] Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook.
[symbol] Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks.
[symbol] Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks.
[symbol] Whole-rest.
[symbol] Half-rest.
[symbol] Quarter-rest.
[symbol] Eighth-rest.
[symbol] Sixteenth-rest.
[symbol] Thirty-second-rest.
31. The _English names_ for these notes are:
Whole-note--semi-breve.
Half-note--minim.
Quarter-note--crotchet.
Eighth-note--quaver.
Sixteenth-note--semi-quaver.
Thirty-second-note--demi-semi-quaver.
The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of
nomenclature: _e.g._, _semi-breve rest_, etc.
32. _Sixty-fourth_ and _one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes_ are
occasionally found, but are not in common use. The _double-whole-note_
(_breve_), made [breve symbol] or [old breve symbol], is still used,
especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as
the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to
indicate a tone having four beats.
33. The _whole-rest_ has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the
other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a
_measure-rest_, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the
measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in
two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the
whole-rest fills the entire measure, having a value sometimes greater,
sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this
peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed _Takt-pausa_
(measure-rest) by the Germans.
34. A _bar_ is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into
measures. The word _bar_ is often used synonymously with _measure_ by
orchestral conductors and others; thus, "begin at the fourteenth bar
after J." This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect.
35. A _double-bar_ consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at
least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of
a division, movement, or entire composition.
CHAPTER IV
ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC.
36. A _double bar_ (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots
indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at
only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the
marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second
time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be
repeated.
[Illustration]
37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the
repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.
[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
38. The Italian word _bis_ is occasionally used to indicate that a
certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming
obsolete.
39. The words _da capo_ (_D.C._) mean literally "from the head," _i.e._,
repeat from the beginning. The words _dal segno_ (_D.S._) indicate a
repetition from the sign ([segno symbol] or [segno symbol]) instead of
from the beginning.
In the case of both _D.C._ and _D.S._ the word _fine_ (meaning literally
_the end_) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the
repeated section is to terminate. The fermata ([fermata symbol]) was
formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed
at present.
_D.C._ (_sin_[9]) _al fine_ means--repeat from the beginning
to the word "fine."
[Footnote 9: The word _sin_ is a contraction of the Italian
word _sino_, meaning "as far as" or "until"; in the term given
above (Sec. 39) it is really superfluous as the word _al_
includes in itself both preposition and article, meaning "to
the."]
_D.C. al_ [fermata symbol] means--repeat to the fermata (or
hold).
_D.C. senza repetizione_, or _D.C. ma senza repetizione_,
[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "repetitione"] both
mean--repeat from the beginning, but without observing other
repeat marks during the repetition.
_D.C. e poi la coda_ means--repeat the first section only to
the mark [coda symbol], then skip to the coda. (See p. 74,
Sec. 157, for discussion of _coda_).
40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can
be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers
(especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain _signs of
repetition_. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in
the following examples.
[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.
[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
41. The word _simile_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "similie"]
(sometimes _segue_) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is
to be continued, as _e.g._, staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing
in violin music, etc. The word _segue_ is also occasionally used to show
that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be
continued.
42. _When some part is to rest for two or more measures_ several methods
of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated
thus [Illustration]. Three measures thus [Illustration]. Four measures
thus [Illustration]. Rests of more than four measures are usually
indicated in one of the following ways: [Illustration]. Sometimes the
number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus;
[Illustration].
43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words _lunga
pausa_, or simply the word _lunga_, are sometimes written over a rest to
show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such
expressions are found only in ensemble music, _i.e._, music in which
several performers are engaged at the same time.
44. The _fermata_ or _hold_ [fermata symbol] over a note or chord
indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the
prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of
the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over
a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the
word _fine_ is employed at present, but this usage has practically
disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest
between two sections of a composition.
45. The sign _8va......_ (an abbreviation of _all'ottava_,
[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "al ottava" in original.] literally
at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be
sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below
the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be
sounded an octave lower. The term _8va bassa_ has also this latter
signification.
46. Sometimes the word _loco_ (in place) is used to show that the part
is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more
often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.
47. The sign _Col 8_ (_coll'ottava_--with the octave) shows that the
tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded _with_ the tones
indicated by the printed notes. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error
"col ottava" in original.]
48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular
name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in the octave are
referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure
will make this system clear:
[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
Thus _e.g._, "great G" (written simply G), is the G represented by the
first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the
fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written [2-lined g symbol]),
is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff.
Three-lined C, (written [3-lined c symbol]), is represented by the
second added line above the treble staff, etc. The _one-lined octave_
may be described as the octave from _middle C_ to the B represented by
the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is
referred to as "one-lined." Thus--_one-lined_ D, _one-lined_ G, etc.
In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub
octave (or sub-contra octave as it is often called) are
referred to as C_2, D_2, E_2, etc.; those in the contra octave
as C_1, D_1, etc.; in the great octave, as c^1, d^1, etc.; in
the small octave as c^2, d^2, etc.
CHAPTER V
ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC., (_Continued_)
49. _A dot after a note_ shows that the value of the note is to be half
again as great as it would be without the dot, _i.e._, the value is to
be three-halves that of the original note.
[Illustration]
50. _When two dots follow the note_ the second dot adds half as much as
the first dot has added, _i.e._, the entire value is seven-fourths that
of the original note.
[Illustration]
51. _When three dots follow the note_ the third dot adds one-half the
value added by the second, _i.e._, the entire value of the triple-dotted
note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note.
[Illustration]
52. _A dot over or under a note_ is called the _staccato mark_ and
indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.
[Illustration] In music for organ and for some other instruments the
staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on
the character of the instrument.
On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato
effect is usually secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow
for each tone; in the case of harp and drum the hand is
quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus
stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often
prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the
keys are released.
53. _The wedge-shaped dash over the note_ (staccatissimo) was formerly
employed to indicate a tone still more detached than that indicated by
the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at
present. [Illustration]
54. _A tie_ is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call
for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone
having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. _E.g._, a
half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in
duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied
would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note.
(See examples under Sections 49, 50, and 51).
Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows
an example of the _enharmonic[10] tie_.
[Footnote 10: For definition of enharmonic see p. 10, Sec. 27.]
[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
55. The _slur_ is used in so many different ways that it is impossible
to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes
very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very
long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common
uses of the slur are:
A. _To indicate legato_ (sustained or connected) _tones_, as contrasted
with staccato (detached) ones.
In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in
one bow; in music for the voice and for wind instruments it
implies singing or playing them in one breath.
B. _As a phrase-mark_, in the interpretation of which the first tone of
the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in
value.
This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when
the phrase is short (as in the two-note phrase), and when the
tones constituting the phrase are of short duration, _e.g._,
the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately as
written in Fig. 33.
[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow
tempi, the slur merely indicates legato, _i.e._, sustained or
connected rendition. Fig. 34 illustrates such a case.
[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to
generalize regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be
in the direction of using the slur (_in instrumental music_)
as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood that unless
there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be
performed in a connected manner.
C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one
syllable of text. See Fig. 35.
[Illustration: Fig. 35. MENDELSSOHN (_S. Paul_) re-mem-bers His
chil-dren.]
In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same
thing is often indicated by _stroking_ the stems together as
in Fig. 36. This can only be done in cases where the natural
grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed.
[Illustration: Fig. 36. ev-er and ev-er, for ev-er and]
D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur
is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group.
See Fig. 37 (_a_)
The most common of these irregular note-groups is the
_triplet_, which consists of three notes to be performed in
the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. Sometimes
the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (_b_). In
such a case the first two of the three notes composing the
triplet are considered to be tied.
[Illustration: Fig. 37.]
When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as
well as the slur) may be omitted.
Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the
names commonly applied, follow.
[Illustration: Doublet. Quintuplet or Quintolet. Sextuplet or
Sextolet. Septolet or Septimole.]
56. The _combination of slur or tie and dots_ over the notes indicates
that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.
[Illustration]
This effect is sometimes erroneously termed _portamento_ (lit.
_carrying_), but this term is more properly reserved for an
entirely different effect, _viz._, when a singer, or player on
a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one
(or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the
diatonic tones between the two melody tones.
57. The horizontal _dash over a note_ [Illustration] indicates that the
tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also
sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no
longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained.
This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments.
58. The combination of _dash and dot over a note_ [Illustration]
indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from
its neighboring tones.
59. _Accent marks_ are made in a variety of fashions. The most common
forms follow. [horizontal accent symbol] [vertical accent symbol] _sf_
_fz_. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated
from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative
amount of stress.
60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to
indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The
abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main
droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the
right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g.
(main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed.
61. _The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord_ [Illustration]
indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of
simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being
sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is
called _arpeggio playing_. When the wavy line extends through the entire
chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord
are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if
there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the
lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played
simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.
[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the
Italian word _arpa_ (meaning harp), and from this word _arpa_
and its corresponding verb _arpeggiare_ (to play on the harp)
are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in
instrumental music. Among these are--arpeggiamento,
arpeggiando, arpeggiato, etc., all of these terms referring to
a _harp style_ of performance, the tones being sounded one
after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as
on the piano.
62. The sign [crescendo-decrescendo symbol] over a note indicates that
the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as
gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music
this effect is called _messa di voce_.
63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign
[down-bow symbol] indicates down-bow and the sign [up-bow symbol]
up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written [cello
down-bow symbol].
CHAPTER VI
EMBELLISHMENTS
64. _Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agréments_) are ornamental tones,
either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs.
The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or
shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto),
inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura.
Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing
these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the
different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the
most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted
interpretations.
65. The _trill (or shake_) consists of the rapid alternation of two
tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two
tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the
next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the
composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore
be either a half-step or a whole-step.
Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone
(represented by the printed note) or with the one above is a
matter of some dispute among theorists and performers, but it
may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the
subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than
on the tone above. Fig. 40.
When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the
degree above, it is of course understood that the trill begins
on the tone above. Fig. 41.
The trill is indicated by the sign [trill symbol].
[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
The above examples would be termed _perfect trills_ because they close
with a turn. By inference, an _imperfect trill_ is one closing without a
turn.
66. The _mordent_ [mordent symbol] consists of three tones; first the
one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the
diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again.
[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
67. The _double (or long) mordent_ has five tones (sometimes seven)
instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular
mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.)
In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as
quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being
subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed.
[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
68. The _inverted mordent_ [inverted mordent symbol] (note the absence
of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is
replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes
called a "transient shake" because it is really only a part of the more
elaborate grace called "trill." (See Fig. 44.)
[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the
last two embellishments described, might be largely obviated
if the suggestion of a recent writer[11] to call the one the
_upward mordent_, and the other the _downward mordent_ were to
be universally adopted.
[Footnote 11: Elson--Dictionary of Music, article _mordent_.]
69. The _turn_ consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone
above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the
tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.
When the sign ([turn symbol] or [fancy turn symbol]) occurs over a note
of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones
of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a
slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and
the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has
expired. (Fig. 46.)
[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
70. _When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note_ the
principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value,
then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this
case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See
Fig. 47.)
[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
The student should note the difference between these two
effects; in the case of a turn _over_ the note the turn comes
at the beginning, but in the case of the sign _after_ the note
the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time
taken by the embellishment is taken from the time-value of
the principal note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary
of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit.
p. 274.
71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when
written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but
when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).
[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
72. In the _inverted turn_ the order of tones is reversed, the lowest
one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and
the principal tone again, last.
[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
73. The _appoggiatura_ (lit. _leaning note_) consists of an ornamental
tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone
until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this
ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone.
The appoggiatura was formerly classified into _long
appoggiatura_ and _short appoggiatura_, but modern writers
seem to consider the term "short appoggiatura" to be
synonymous with acciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusion the
word _acciaccatura_ will be used in this sense, and defined
under its own heading.
[Footnote 12: In organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean
that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded
together, the former being then instantly released, while the latter is
held to its full time-value.]
74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly
cited, viz.:
(1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into
halves, then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of
the printed note. (Fig. 50.)
(2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves
being therefore not possible), the appoggiatura receives
two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)
(3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller
denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first
of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)
[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
75. The _acciaccatura_ (or short appoggiatura) is written like the
appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem.
[Illustration] It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as
quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone.
The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the
stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I,
p. 96.)
The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of
to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the
interpretation of music written in previous centuries. In the
early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce
graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not
capable of sustaining tone for any length of time; but with
the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great
sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal music of a
new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with
Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less
and less, and when found now are usually written out in full
in the score instead of being indicated by signs.
CHAPTER VII
SCALES
76. A _scale_ (from _scala_, a Latin word meaning _ladder_; Ger.
_Ton-leiter_) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing
according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of
tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first
tone--the _key-tone_ or _tonic_. (See p. 28, Sec. 78; also note 1 at
bottom of p. 38.)
Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical
eras, the point of resemblance among them all being the fact
that they have all more or less recognized the _octave_ as the
natural limit of the series. The difference among the various
scales has been in the selection of intervals between the
scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within
the octave. Thus _e.g._, in our major scale the intervals
between the tones are all whole-steps except two (which are
half-steps), and the result is a scale of _eight_ tones
(including in this number both the key-tone and its octave):
but in the so-called _pentatonic_ scale of the Chinese and
other older civilizations we find larger intervals (_e.g._,
the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number of
tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of
the older Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are
arranged as follows:
1 whole 2 whole 3 step-and- 4 whole 5 step-and- 6
step step a-half step a-half
The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding
approximately with C--D--E--G--A--C in our modern system.
The term _pentatonic_ is thus seen to be a misnomer since the
sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series, just
as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales.
The following Chinese tune (called "Jasmine") is based on the
pentatonic scale.
[Illustration]
77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind
the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one
has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather
the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which
were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and
systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or
arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is
recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some
sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the
development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed,
and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors
of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of
such scales.
78. A _key_ is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both
melodically and harmonically) about a central tone--the key tone. The
word _tonality_ is often used synonymously with _key_ in this sense.
The difference between _key_ and _scale_ is therefore this,
that while both _key_ and _scale_ employ the same tone
material, by _key_ we mean the material in general, without
any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by _scale_
we mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular
ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this
connection also that not all scales present an equally good
opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality
or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale
possess the necessary characteristics for being used as
tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor
scales are so used.
79. There are _three general classes of scales_ extant at the present
time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]
[Footnote 13: If strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the
whole-tone scale should be called the "whole-step" scale.]
80. The word _diatonic_ means "through the tones" (_i.e._, through the
tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our
modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as
one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one
exception to this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in
the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See p.
33, Sec. 86.)
81. A _major diatonic scale_ is one in which the intervals between the
tones are arranged as follows:
1 whole 2 whole 3 half 4 whole 5 whole 6 whole 7 half 8
step step step step step step step
In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals
between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all
the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said
to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic
scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C[sharp] or D[flat],
D, D[sharp] or E[flat], E, F, F[sharp] or G[flat], G, G[sharp] or
A[flat], A, A[sharp] or B[flat], B, but in each case it is the same
scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then
one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different
positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of
different pitches.
82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two
identical series of four tones each; _i.e._, the first four tones of the
scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and
these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the
last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first
four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to
as the _lower tetrachord_[14] and the upper four tones as the _upper
tetrachord_.
[Footnote 14: The word _tetrachord_ means literally "four strings" and
refers to the primitive instrument, the four strings of which were so
tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect
fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as
the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of
division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between
the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but
the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones,
the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest.]
[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any
_sharp_ scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of
the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any
_flat_ scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See
Figs. 54 and 55.
[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
[Illustration: Fig. 55.]
83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written
in fifteen different positions, as follows:
[Illustration]
It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning
on F[sharp] and G[flat] call for the same keys on the piano, _i.e._,
while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the
same. The scales of C[sharp] and D[flat] likewise employ the same tones.
When two scales thus employ the same tones but differ in notation they
are said to be _enharmonic_, (cf. p. 38, Sec. 93.)
_Note_.--The student is advised to adopt some uniform method
of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given
above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the
notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end
as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and
signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is
attained. _E.g._, E--F[sharp]--G[sharp]--A--B--C[sharp]--D[sharp]--E;
signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.
CHAPTER VIII
SCALES (_Continued_)
84. The _minor diatonic scale_ is used in several slightly different
forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones
(which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every
case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four
half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale
and this difference in size has given rise to the designation _major_
for the scale having the larger third, and _minor_ for the scale having
the smaller one.
85. _The original (or primitive) form_ of the minor scale has its tones
arranged as follows.
1 whole 2 half 3 whole 4 half 5 half 6 whole 7 whole 8
step step step step step step step
As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being
derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of
a "leading tone" it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only,
and is therefore little used at present.
86. _The harmonic minor scale_ is like the primitive form except that it
substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the
older (_i.e._, the primitive) form. This change was made because the
development of writing music in several parts (particularly _harmonic_
part-writing) made necessary a "leading tone," _i.e._, a tone with a
strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In
order to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the
interval between _seven_ and _eight_ had to be reduced in size to a
half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of
the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and
seventh tones of the scale.
1 whole 2 half 3 whole 4 whole 5 half 6 step and 7 half 8
step step step step step a half step
87. _The melodic minor scale_ substitutes a tone one half-step higher
than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change
is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the
primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised
sixth") was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a
step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the return to the
primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too
much like the tonic major scale.
[Footnote 15: The step-and-a-half (augmented second) is "unmelodic"
because it is the same size as a _minor third_ and the mind finds it
difficult to take in as a _second_ (notes representing it being on
adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third.]
1 whole 2 half 3 whole 4 whole 5 whole 6 whole 7 half 8
step step step step step step step
7 whole 6 half 5 whole 4 whole 3 half 2 whole 1
step step step step step step
This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in
vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of
the augmented second.
88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five
flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of
these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to
be _in the minor mode_. It will be noted that the first four tones are
alike in all three forms; _i.e._, the lower tetrachord in the minor
scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord.
The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.
[Illustration]
_Note._--The student is advised to recite the _harmonic form_
of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major
scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the
key-signature. _E.g._,--E--F[sharp]--G--A--B--C--D[sharp]--E;
signature, one sharp, F.
89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to
be its _relative minor_. _E.g._,--e is the relative minor of G, c of
E[flat], d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor
key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale
unless accompanied by the word _minor_. Relative keys are therefore
defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys,
as are also A and f[sharp], etc.
90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is
referred to as its _tonic minor_. Thus, _e.g._, c with three flats in
its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural
condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps,
etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.
91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are
often referred to by specific names, as follows:
1. _Tonic_--the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic
is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key, _i.e._,
it is _the_ tone.)
2. _Super-tonic_--above the tone.
3. _Mediant_--midway between tonic and dominant.
4. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant. (This name does not
refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to
the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant
tone--the under dominant--just as the fifth above is the upper
dominant).
5. _Dominant_--the governing tone. (From the Latin word
_dominus_ meaning _master_.)
6. _Super-dominant_--above the dominant. Or
_Sub-mediant_--midway between tonic and sub-dominant.
7. _Leading tone_--the tone which demands resolution to the
tonic (one-half step above it).
8. _Octave_--the eighth tone.
92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales
in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]
[Footnote 16: These syllables are said to have been derived originally
from the initial syllables of the "Hymn to Saint John," the music of
which was a typical Gregorian chant. The application of these syllables
to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given
below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for
the six tones of the _hexachord_ then recognized; when the octave scale
was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the
last line (s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone.
[Illustration: _Ut_ que-ant lax-is _Re_-so-na-re fi-bris _Mi_-ra
ges-to-rum _Fa_-mu-li tu-o-rum _Sol_-ve pol-lu-ti _La_-bi-i re-a-tum
Sanc-te Jo-han-nes.]]
Major--DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.
Minor[17]--original--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.
harmonic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.
melodic--LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA,
SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.
[Footnote 17: A considerable number of teachers (particularly those who
did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the
tonic of the minor scale _la_, insisting that both major and minor tonic
should be called _do_. According to this plan the syllables used in
singing the harmonic minor scale would be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, TI,
DO.
There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales
must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be
referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an
association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a
closing point--a _home tone_. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be
RE, in the Phrygian, MI, etc.]
It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and
pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in
these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed to _DO_ as
early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of
producing a good singing tone on _ut_. For the same reason and
also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the
same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in
England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to
TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by
teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate
tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH,
etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this
country and the tendency seems to be toward still further
simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable
that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will
be made in the near future, one such change that seems
especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the
second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable
may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform
vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending
chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.
93. The _chromatic scale_[18] is one which proceeds always by
half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what
tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the
piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19] which are enharmonically the
same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated
in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the
matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.
[Footnote 18: The student should differentiate between the so-called
"tonality" scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are
actually used as a basis for "key-feeling" with the familiar experience
of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and
on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of
the chromatic scale.]
[Footnote 19: Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the
"five pairs of tones" above referred to are the most common. Thus
E[sharp] and F are enharmonically the same, as are also C[flat] and B,
C[sharp] and B[double-sharp], etc.]
Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article _chromatic_) recommends
writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in
chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage
occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will
be D[flat], as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic;
the next will be E[flat], the minor third of the key; the next
F[sharp], the major third of the super-tonic--all of which can
occur without causing modulation--and the remaining two will
be A[flat] and B[flat], the minor sixth and seventh of the
key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning
with C would be spelled--C, D[flat], D, E[flat], E, F,
F[sharp], G, A[flat], A, B[flat], B, C--the form being the
same both ascending and descending. This is of course written
exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of
such a form is its definiteness.
94. For _sight-singing purposes_ the chromatic scale[20] is usually
written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps,
(in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones
in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The
chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this
standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in
sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student
of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of
modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones
[sharp]4 and [flat]7 are quite universally used in both ascending and
descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would
more nearly represent actual usage if in each case [sharp]4 (FI) were
substituted for [flat]5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if [flat]7
(TE) were substituted for [sharp]6 (LI) in the ascending form.
[Footnote 20: The word _chromatic_ means literally _colored_ and was
first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer
could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions, _i.e._, could
get more _color_ than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were
not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and
soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in
modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present
time--first, to embellish a melody; second, to modulate to another key.]
[Illustration]
_Note._--In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing
standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process;
first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and
descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting
accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the
above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been
represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them
from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.
95. The _whole-step scale_ (the third type mentioned in Sec. 79) is, as
its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones
consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of
tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E,
F[sharp] or G[flat], A[flat], B[flat], C. This scale has been used
somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition
represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any
progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English
writer[21] on this subject may be interesting to the student who is
puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:
"The student of some interesting modern developments will also
speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called
whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed
instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament,
unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument
can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave
which is in tune with the starting note, unless he
deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters
it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of
the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would
be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the
pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of
tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the
pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string
players were to face the practically impossible drudgery of
studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from
the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's
notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the
scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads
founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon
this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of
_Tristan_ (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone
scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from
a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the
pure scale inbred in him."
[Footnote 21: Stanford--Musical Composition (1911) p. 17.]
There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether
Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the
difference between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22] but even so, there
is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never
become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact
that it offers no possibility of _inculcating tonality feeling_, which
has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality
scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and
relaxation--an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no
such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable
therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are _purposely
intended to be_ vague and indefinite--the impressionistic style of music
writing.
[Footnote 22: Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that
the _tempered_ scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists
and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation
for a _pure_ (_i.e._, _untempered_) scale in vocal and in string music
is somewhat of a myth.]
CHAPTER IX
AUXILIARY WORDS AND ENDINGS
96. Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and
endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical
effects.
_A_--preposition--variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.
_A cappella_--in church style.
_A capriccio_--at the fancy of the performer.
_À deux mains_--for two hands.
_A mezza voce_--with half voice.
_À la_, or _alla_--in the manner of. _Alla marcia_--in the style of a
march.
_Assai_--very, or very much. _Allegro assai_--very fast.
_Ben_--well. _Ben marcato_--well marked.
_Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo_--with, or with the.
_Con amore_--with tenderness.
_Colla voce_--with the voice.
_Come_--as, like. _Come primo_--as at first.
_Contra_--against. In compound words means "an octave below."
_Da_--from. _Da Capo_--from the head.
_Di_--by, with, of, for. _Di bravura_--with daring.
_Di molto_--exceedingly--very much. _Allegro di molto_--exceedingly
rapid.
_Doppio_--double. _Doppio movimento_--double movement.
_E, ed, et_--and. _Cresc. et accel._--louder and faster.
_Ensemble_--together, the opposite of solo.
_Il, La, l', le_--the. _Il basso_--the bass. _L'istesso tempo_--the same
speed.
_Il più_--the most. _Il più forte possible_--as loudly as possible.
_Issimo_--Italian superlative ending. _Forte_--_fortissimo_.
_Ino, etto_--Italian diminutive endings. _Andante_--_andantino_.
_Poco_--_pochetto_.
_Meno_--less. _Meno forte_--less loud.
_Mente_--the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb.
_Largo largamente_.
_Mezzo_ or _mezza_--half, or medium. _Mezzo forte_--medium loud.
_Molto_--much, or very much. _Molto cresc._--very much louder.
_Nel, nella, etc._--in the, or at the. _Nel battere_--at the down beat.
_Non_--not. _Non tanto_--not too much.
_Ossia_--or else. _Ossia più facile_--or else more easily.
_Per_--for. _Per il violino_--for the violin.
_Peu_--little. _Un peu cresc._--a little increase in tone.
_Più_--more. _Più forte_--more loudly.
_Poco_--little. _Poco a poco_--little by little.
_Poi_--then. _E poi la coda_--and then the coda.
_Possibile_--possible. _Forte possibile_--as loudly as possible.
[Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "possible" for Italian
"possibile".]
_Quasi_--in the manner of. _Allegro quasi andante_--a fairly rapid
movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.
_Sans_--without. _Sans pedales_--without pedals.
_Sempre_--always, or continually. _Sempre forte_--a long passage to be
played forte throughout its entirety.
_Senza_--without. _Senza accompagnamento_--without accompaniment.
_Sino, sin_--as far as. See p. 14, note.
_Solo_--alone. Opposite of ensemble.
_Sub_--under or lower. _Sub-dominant_--the under dominant.
_Tanto_--same as _troppo_, q.v.
_Tre_--three. _Tre corde_--three strings.
_Très_--very. _Très vivement_--very lively.
_Troppo_--too much. _Non tanto allegro_, or _non troppo allegro_--not
too fast.
_Una, un, uno_--one, or a. _Una corda_--one string. _Un peu_--a little.
A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student
greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping
to look up each individual one.
CHAPTER X
MEASURE
97. From the standpoint of the eye, a _measure_ is that portion of the
staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less
than a measure, as _e.g._, at the beginning and end of a movement); but
from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not
possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.
_Measures_ are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each
group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The
strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.
Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical
measure:
(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always
actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the
rest;
(2) Certain rhythmic figures ([Illustration], etc.) which form the
actual musical content of these groups.
The student will note the essential difference between rhythm
and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a
series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of
these beats according to some specified system. In listening
to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the _rhythm_
equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats
into--_one_, two | _one_, two |--etc., while B feels the
groups as--_one_, two, _three_, four | _one_, two, _three_,
four |--etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing,
inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain
extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have
adopted for practical purposes.
98. In _syncopation_ the normal system of accenting is temporarily
suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part
of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary
interruption of a normal series of accents, _i.e._, accenting a beat
that is usually not accented. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 56, measure _one_ has
the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure,
(strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure _three_
has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.
[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
99. Measures are usually classified as _simple_ and _compound_. A
_simple measure_ is one which has but a single accent, _i.e._, the
measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two
main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat
measure. A _compound measure_ is (as its name implies) one made up by
combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single
measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal
compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as
compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and
twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.
An English writer[23] classifies measures as duple, triple, or
quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which
each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided
into halves ([Illustration] etc.) and that a compound measure
is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note,
whose value can be divided into three parts, ([Illustration]).
There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as
to the meaning of the words _simple_ and _compound_ when
applied in this connection, the principal question at issue
being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or
whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures,
either by placing two of these in a group or by the
elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats,
as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way
out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true--but
in different compositions. That is, it is frequently
impossible to tell whether a composition that is being
listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet
it _is_ sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however,
one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between
two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to
leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat
measure as a compound variety.
[Footnote 23: Pearse--Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.]
100. The _commonest varieties of measure_ are:
1. _Duple_ (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in
which there are two beats, the first one being accented.
Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24]
two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.
[Footnote 24: For explanation of terminology, see p. 48, Sec.
106.]
2. _Triple_, (the old perfect measure), in which there are
three beats, the first one being accented, the second and
third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth,
three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.
3. _Quadruple_, in which there are four beats, the first and
third being accented (primary accent on _one_, secondary
accent on _three_), the second and fourth unaccented. (See
note above, under Sec. 99.)
4. _Sextuple_, in which there are six beats, the first and
fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is
always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note
having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures
[Illustration] are identical in effect with [Illustration].
101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but
these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures
respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is
thought of as a triplet. [Illustration] is identical in effect with
[Illustration].
102. _Quintuple_ (five-beat) and _septuple_ (seven-beat) measures are
occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic.
The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of
two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition),
while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or
of three and four.
103. The sign [common-time symbol] is usually understood to mean
four-quarter measure, and the sign [cut-time symbol], two-half measure,
but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to
indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign
[cut-time symbol] always indicates that a half-note has a beat. [Double
cut-time symbol] may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure
but this is rare.
The student will note that the sign [common-time symbol] is
not a _letter_ C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating
two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect)
measure. See Appendix A, p. 106. [Transcriber's Note: page
number missing in original.]
CHAPTER XI
TEMPO
104. The word _time_ in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused,
having been used to indicate:
(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."
(2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."
(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and
inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain
_changes in terminology_ as noted in Sections 105, 106, and 107. Such
changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if
our musical terminology is to be at all exact.
105. The _first of the changes_ mentioned in the above paragraph is to
substitute the word _rhythm_ for the word _time_ when correcting
mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. _E.g._, "Your _rhythm_ in the
third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Your
_time_--was wrong."
106. The _second change_ mentioned would eliminate such blind and
misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four
time," "six-eight time," etc., and substitute therefor such
self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter
measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc. _E.g._,
"The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in
_four-quarter measure_."
107. The _third change_ referred to above would substitute the word
_tempo_ (plural--_tempi_) for the word _time_ in all allusions to rate
of speed. _E.g._, "The scherzo was played in very rapid _tempo_."
The word _tempo_ has been used in this connection so long by
professional musicians that there can be no possible objection
to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there
is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in
all countries where modern music (_i.e._, civilized music) is
performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the
popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology.
Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried
to break down this popularity by using their own respective
vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in
spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite
universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if
we are to have a _music notation_ that is universal, so that
an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a
German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain
number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be
understood by all, _i.e._, a music terminology that is
universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is
the most universally known in this particular at the present
time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be
retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
108. There are several _ways of finding the correct tempo_ of a
composition:
1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of
many compositions. Thus _e.g._, the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's
Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or
some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at
the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they
will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at
which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is
undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in
spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the
mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving
metronomic indications.
[Footnote 25: To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the
weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more
than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will
not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be
taken to a jeweller to be regulated.]
2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is
to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that
"feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is
perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is
open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment,
and sound scholarship.
3. A third method of finding tempi is through the
interpretation of certain words used quite universally by
composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the
general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method
is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same
word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of
speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor
or performer must fall back on the second method cited
above--_i.e._, individual judgment.
109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions
relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful
in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he
conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of
the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is
absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in
groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:
1. _Grave_ (lit. weighty, serious), _larghissimo_,
_adagissimo_, and _lentissimo_--indicating the very slowest
tempo used in rendering music.
2. _Largo_,[26] _adagio_,[27] and _lento_--indicating quite a
slow tempo.
[Footnote 26: Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the
Latin word _largus_, meaning large, broad.]
[Footnote 27: Adagio means literally at ease.]
3. _Larghetto_ (_i.e._, _a little largo_) and _adagietto_ (_a
little adagio_)--a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as
_largo_, etc.
4. _Andante_ (going, or walking, as contrasted with running)
and _andantino_--indicating a moderately slow tempo.
_Andantino_ is now quite universally taken slightly faster
than _andante_, in spite of the fact that if _andante_ means
"going," and if "_ino_" is the diminutive ending, then
_andantino_ means "going less," _i.e._, more slowly!
5. _Moderato_--a moderate tempo.
6. _Allegro_ and _allegretto_[28]--a moderately quick tempo,
_allegretto_ being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo
somewhat slower than _allegro_.
[Footnote 28: There has been some difference of opinion as to
which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an
analysis tells us that if _allegro_ means quick, and if _etto_
is the diminutive ending, then _allegretto_ means a little
quick--_i.e._, slower than _allegro_. These two terms are,
however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the
matter is a mere waste of breath.]
The word _allegro_ means literally happy, joyous, and this
literal meaning is still _sometimes_ applicable, but in the
majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.
7. _Vivo_, _vivace_, (lit. lively)--a tempo between _allegro_
and _presto_.
8. _Presto_, _prestissimo_, _vivacissimo_, and _prestissimo
possibile_--the most rapid tempo possible.
CHAPTER XII
TEMPO (_Continued_)
110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one
another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with
their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression
not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms
defined in paragraph 109 and recalling the use of certain auxiliary
terms quoted in Chapter IX.
_Largo assai_--very slow.
_Largo di molto_--very slow.
_Largo ma non troppo_--slow, but not too slow.
_Largo un poco_--slow, but not so slow as _largo_. (_Cf.
larghetto_.)
_Lentemente_--slowly.
_Lentando_--with increasing slowness.
_Très lentement_--very slowly.
_Lentissamente_--very slowly.
_Lentissamamente_--very slowly.
_Lento assai_--very slowly.
_Lento a capriccio_--slowly but capriciously.
_Lento di molto_--very slowly.
_Andante affettuoso_--moderately slow, and with tenderness and
pathos. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "affetuoso" in
original.]
_Andante amabile_--moderately slow, and lovingly.
_Andante cantabile_--moderately slow, and in singing style.
_Andante grazioso_--moderately slow, and gracefully.
_Andante maestoso_--moderately slow, and majestically.
_Andante con moto_--slightly faster than _andante_.
_Andante (ma) non troppo_--not too slowly.
_Andante pastorale_--moderately slow, and in simple and
unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).
_Andante quasi allegro_--almost as rapid in tempo as
_allegro_; (lit. an _andante_ in the style of _allegro_).
_Andante sostenuto_--moderately slow and sustained.
_Allegrissimo_--much faster than _allegro_. (The superlative
degree of _allegro_.)
_Allegro agitato_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated
style.
_Allegro appassionata_--a moderately rapid tempo, and in
passionate style.
_Allegro assai_ (very _allegro_)--faster than _allegro_.
_Allegro commodo_--a conveniently rapid tempo.
_Allegro con brio_--an _allegro_ played in brilliant style.
Faster than _allegro_.
_Allegro con fuoco_--an _allegro_ played with fire, _i.e._,
with extreme animation. Faster than _allegro_.
_Allegro con spirito_--an _allegro_ performed with spirit.
_Allegro con moto_--faster than _allegro_.
_Allegro di bravura_--an _allegro_ performed in brilliant
style, _i.e._, demanding great skill in execution.
_Allegro furioso_ (furiously)--quicker than _allegro_; very
brilliant.
_Allegro giusto_--an _allegro_ movement, but in exact rhythm.
_Allegro ma grazioso_--an _allegro_ played in graceful style.
_Allegro (ma) non tanto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
rapid.
_Allegro (ma) non troppo_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
rapid.
_Allegro (ma) non presto_--an _allegro_ movement, but not too
rapid.
_Allegro moderato_--slower than _allegro_.
_Allegro vivace_--faster than _allegro_.
_Presto assai_--as rapidly as possible.
_Presto (ma) non troppo_--a _presto_ movement, but not too
rapid.
111. There are certain _terms which indicate a modification of the
normal tempo_ of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a)
those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those
which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions
of these two classes are shown below.
(_a_) Terms indicating a slower tempo.
1. Terms indicating a _gradual_ retard.
_Ritenente_, (_rit._), _ritenuto_ (_rit._), _ritardando_
(_rit._), _rallentando_ (_rall._), _slentando_.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
slower _at once_.
_Più lento_ (lit. more slowly), _meno mosso_ (lit. less
movement).
3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase
in power.
_Largando_, _allargando._ These words are both derived from
_largo_, meaning large, broad.
(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59,
Sec. 127.)
The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2
as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each
measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little
slower than the preceding one, while such terms as _più lento_
and _meno mosso_ indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly
slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some
composers (_e.g._, Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had
this same distinction in mind between _rallentando_ and
_ritardando_ on the one hand, and _ritenuto_ and _ritenente_
on the other, considering the former (_rall._ and _rit._) to
indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter
(_ritenuto_ and _ritenente_) to indicate a definitely slower
rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate
between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be
worth while for the student to try to remember the
distinction.
(_b_) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.
1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.
_Accelerando_, _affrettando_ [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
misspelling "affretando" in original] (this term implies some
degree of excitement also), _stringendo_, _poco a poco
animato_.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely
faster at once.
_Più allegro_, _più tosto_, _più mosso_, _stretto_, _un poco
animato_.
112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been
suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some
such expression as _a tempo_ (lit. in time), _a tempo primo_ (lit. in
the first time), _tempo primo_, or _tempo_.
113. _Tempo rubato_ (or _a tempo rubato_) means literally _in robbed
time_, _i.e._, duration taken from one measure or beat and given to
another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to
any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the
score.
The terms _ad libitum_, (_ad lib._), _a piacere_, and _a capriccio_,
also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer.
_Ad libitum_ means at liberty; _a piacere_, at pleasure; and _a
capriccio_, at the caprice (of the performer).
114. The term _tempo giusto_ is the opposite of _tempo rubato_ (and of
the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally _in exact
time_. (_Tempo giusto_ is sometimes translated _quite rapidly_,[29] but
this is very unusual.)
[Footnote 29: Bussler--Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.]
115. _L'istesso tempo_ means--at the same rate of speed. _E.g._, when a
measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note
from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried
through the entire movement.
116. _Tenuto_ (_ten._) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to
its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to
show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used
merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone--_i.e._, to give it its
full value.
117. _Veloce_ means--swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages
(_e.g._, cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without
much regard for measure rhythm. The words _rapidamente_, _brillante_ and
_volante_ (flying) have the same meaning as _veloce_.
118. The following _expressions referring to tempo_ are also in common
use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already
defined.
_Con moto_--with motion; _i.e._, not too slow.
_Pesante_--slowly, heavily.
_Doppio movimento_--twice as rapid as before.
_Tempo ordinario_--in ordinary tempo.
_Tempo commodo_--in convenient tempo.
_Sempre lento malinconico assai_--always slowly and in a very
melancholy style.
_Animando_, _animato_, _con anima_--with animation.
_Agitato_--agitated.
119. _Tempo di marcia_ is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783)
as equivalent to _andante_, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives _tempo di
menuetto_ as equivalent to _allegretto_, and _tempo di valso_ as
equivalent to _allegro moderato_ (which he regards as indicating a more
rapid tempo than _allegretto_).
CHAPTER XIII
DYNAMICS
120. The word _dynamics_ (cf. dynamic--the opposite of static) as used
in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power
(_i.e._, the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.
As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to
_dynamics_ are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to
indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not
possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be.
Thus _dynamics_, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on
the taste of the performer or conductor.
The following _words referring to dynamics_ are in common use:
_Pianisissimo_ (_ppp_)--as softly as possible. (It will be
noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of _piano_.)
_Pianissimo_ (_pp_)--very softly. (The superlative of
_piano_.)
_Piano_ (_p_)--softly.
_Mezzo piano_ (_mp_)--medium softly.
_Mezzo forte_ (_mf_)--medium loudly.
_Forte_ (_f_)--loudly (lit. strong).
_Fortissimo_ (_ff_)--very loudly. (The superlative of
_forte_.)
_Fortisissimo_ (_fff_)--as loudly as possible.
The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both
_piano_ and _forte_ seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative
degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even
five _p_'s or _f_'s is not desirable.
121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as
_e.g._,
_Pianissimo possibile_--as softly as possible.
_Piano assai_--very softly.
_Fortissimo possibile_--as loudly as possible.
_Forte piano_ (_fp_)--loud, followed at once by soft.
As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other
expressions relating to _dynamics_ may easily be arrived at by recalling
the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.
122. The terms _sforzando_, _forzando_, _sforzato_ and _forzato_ all
indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are
abbreviated as follows:--_sf_,_fz_, and _sfz_, the abbreviation being
placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The
signs [vertical accent symbol] and [horizontal accent symbol] are also
commonly used to indicate such an accent.
In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in
mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an
absolute meaning: the mark _sf_ occurring in the midst of a
_piano_ passage will indicate a much milder form of accent
than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a _forte_
passage.
123. The words _rinforzando_ and _rinforzato_ (abb.--_rinf._ and _rfz._)
mean literally _reinforced_, and are used to indicate a sudden increase
in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of
applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of _sforzando_,
etc.
124. _Crescendo_ (abb.--_cresc._ or [crescendo symbol]) means a gradual
increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean _loud_,
nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some
auxiliary term such as _subito_, or _molto_.
Broadly speaking there are _two varieties of crescendo_: (1) that in
which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that
in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the
preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving
forth a tone which can be varied _after it begins_. Thus _e.g._, the
human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain
wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and
gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has
been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box,
kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the
tone has once been sounded, and a _crescendo_ effect is therefore
possible only in a _passage_, in rendering which each succeeding tone is
struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety
of _crescendo_ offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed
most strikingly, as _e.g._, when a long passage begins very softly and
increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the
instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an
effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements
of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.
The difference between _sforzando_, _rinforzando_, and
_crescendo_ should now be noted: _sforzando_ indicates that a
single tone or chord is to be louder; _rinforzando_, that an
entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone;
but _crescendo_ indicates that there is to be a gradual
increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during
the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.
125. Certain _combinations of the word crescendo_ with other words are
so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:
_Crescendo al fortissimo_--keep on gradually increasing in
power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been
reached.
_Crescendo subito_--increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).
_Crescendo poco a poco_--increase in power very, very
gradually.
_Crescendo poi diminuendo_--first increase, then diminish the
tone.
_Crescendo e diminuendo_--same as _cresc. poi dim._
_Crescendo molto_--increase in power very greatly.
_Crescendo ed animando poco a poco_--growing gradually louder
in tone and quicker in _tempo_.
_Crescendo ed affrettando_--gradually louder and faster.
[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "affretando" in
original.]
_Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine_--crescendo gradually even
up to the very end.
126. _Decrescendo_ (_decresc._ or [decrescendo symbol]) means a gradual
diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of _crescendo_. The word
_diminuendo_ is synonymous with _decrescendo_.
_Decrescendo_ (or _diminuendo_) _al pianissimo_ means--decrease
gradually in power until the _pianissimo_ (or very soft) point is
reached.
127. A number of _terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo_
are in use. The most common of these are:--_mancando_, _moriente_,[30]
_morendo_, _perdendo_ (from _perdere_--to lose), _perdendosi_,
_calando_, and _smorzando_.[31] Such expressions are usually
translated--"gradually dying away."
[Footnote 30: Both _moriente_ and _morendo_ mean literally--_dying_.]
[Footnote 31: From _smorzare_ (It.)--to extinguish.]
128. In piano music the abbreviation _Ped._ indicates that the damper
pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign [damper
release symbol] shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions
this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately
indicated by the sign [damper symbol].
The term _senza sordini_ is also occasionally found in old
editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed,
while _con sordini_ shows that it is to be released. These
expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed
instruments, in which the term _con sordini_ means that the
mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be
affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both
power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does
not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed
instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes
occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even
though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier
sonatas.
129. The words _una corda_ (lit.--one string) indicate that the "soft
pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words _tre
corde_ (lit. three strings) or _tutte le corde_ (all the strings) show
that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the
fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the
hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they
strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence _una corda_), all
three strings (_tre corde_) being struck again after the release of the
pedal.
130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject
of dynamics are:
_Con alcuna licenza_--with some degree of license.
_Con amore_--with tenderness.
_Con bravura_--with boldness.
_Con celerita_--with rapidity.
_Con delicato_--with delicacy.
_Con energico_--with energy.
_Con espressione_--with expression.
_Con forza_--with force.
_Con fuoco_--with fire and passion.
_Con grand' espressione_--with great expression.
_Con grazia_--with grace.
_Con melinconia_--with melancholy. [Transcriber's Note:
archaic form of "malinconia".]
_Con passione_--with passion.
_Con spirito_--with spirit.
_Con tenerezza_--with tenderness.
_Delicato_--delicately.
_Dolce_--sweetly, gently.
_Dolcissimo_--most sweetly.
_Dolce e cantabile_--gently and with singing tone.
_Dolente_ }
_Doloroso_ } plaintively or sorrowfully.
_Espressivo_--expressively.
_Grandioso_--grandly, pompously.
_Grazioso_--gracefully.
_Giocoso_--humorously, (cf. jocose).
_Giojoso_--joyfully, (cf. joyous).
_Lacrimando_, _lacrimoso_--sorrowfully.
_Legato_--smoothly.
_Leggiero_--lightly.
_Leggierissimo_--most lightly; almost a staccato.
_Lusingando_--caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.
_Maesta_, _maestoso_--majestically.
_Martellando_, _martellato_--strongly accented,
(lit.--hammered).
_Marziale_--martial--war-like.
_Mesto_--pensively.
_Mezzo voce_--with half voice.
_Misterioso_--mysteriously.
_Parlando_--well accented or enunciated; applied to melody
playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)
_Pastorale_--in simple and unaffected style, (lit.--pastoral,
rural).
_Pomposo_--pompously.
_Precipitoso_--precipitously.
_Recitativo_--well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in
instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the
accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see p.
78.)
_Risoluto_--firmly, resolutely.
_Scherzando_, _scherzoso_, etc.--jokingly. These terms are
derived from the word _scherzo_ meaning _a musical joke_.
_Semplice_--simply.
_Sempre marcatissimo_--always well marked, _i.e._, strongly
accented.
_Sentimento_--with sentiment.
_Solenne_--solemn.
_Sotto voce_--in subdued voice.
_Spiritoso_--with spirit.
_Strepitoso_--precipitously.
_Tranquillo_--tranquilly.
_Tristamente_--sadly.
131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem
to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus
_e.g._, _crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando_,
is seen to mean merely--"increase gradually to _forte_ and accelerate a
very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly
in the interpretation of such expressions.
CHAPTER XIV
TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES
132. A _form_ in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of
a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is
easily recognized by the ear. Thus _e.g._, although every fugue is
different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement
of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the
_fugue form_ has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is
hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word _form_ is therefore seen to
be somewhat synonymous with the word _plan_ as used in architecture; it
is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the
canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.
Speaking broadly we may say that _form_ in any art consists in
the placing together of certain parts in such relations of
proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music
this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect,
as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the
work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one
whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.
133. The primal _basis of form_ is the repetition of some characteristic
effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these
repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the
same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is
accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by
introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.
134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the _difference
in meaning between_ the terms _form_ and _style_: A _form_ is a plan
for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a _style_ is
merely a manner of writing. Thus _e.g._, the _fugue_ is a
_form_--_i.e._, it is a plan, which although capable of variation in
details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but
_counterpoint_ is merely a _style_ or manner of writing (just as Gothic
architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of
several _forms_.
135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to
explain in simple language certain terms relating to _forms_ and
_styles_ which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too
meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that
the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually
be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The
article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined,
as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples
of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette--"The
Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)
136. In a very general way there may be said to be _two styles of
musical composition_, the monophonic (or homophonic)--the
one-voiced--and the polyphonic--the many voiced. The polyphonic[32]
style antedates the monophonic historically.
[Footnote 32: Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750
A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the
music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven,
and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the
polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as _e.g._,
in the later works of Beethoven.]
137. In _monophonic music_ there is one voice which has a pronounced
melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a
harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the
ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three
other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera,
modern piano piece, etc., are also largely _monophonic_, though
polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.
138. In _polyphonic music_ each voice is to a certain extent melodically
interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several
melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating
a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint,
canon, round, fugue, etc., are all _polyphonic_ in style. The word
_contrapuntal_ is often used synonymously with _polyphonic_.
(Sections 139 to 143 relate especially to terms describing
polyphonic music.)
139. _Counterpoint_ is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies
to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or
subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining
melodies."
The word _counterpoint_ comes from the three words "_punctus
contra punctum_," meaning "point against point." The word
point as here used refers to the _punctus_--one of the neumae
of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate
predecessors of modern notes.
Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in
contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part
"inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental
counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by
Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.
140. _Imitation_ is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme
previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the
term _strict imitation_ is applied, but if only approximate, then the
term _free imitation_ is used in referring to it. The repetition need
not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be _strict_; on
the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a
fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in
which the _third_ part comes in an octave _lower_ than the first part.
141. A _canon_ is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict
imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another
part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied
to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part
canon is given in Fig. 57.
[Illustration: CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE
Fig. 57. MOZART]
The word _canon_ means _law_, and was applied to this
particular form of composition because the rules relating to
its composition were invariable. It is because of this
non-flexibility that the _canon_ is so little used as a form
at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of
writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as
to give him room for the exercise of his own particular
individuality of conception, and this the _canon_ does not do.
For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have
successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the
present time composers have as it were created their own
forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that
no one but the composer himself could recognize the form _as_
a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough
extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal.
The result is that in much present-day music it is very
difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar
design, and the impression made by such music is in
consequence much less definite than that made by music of the
classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state
of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is
necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of
structure to make the art work capable of standing as a
universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression
of some particular composer or of some period of composition.
142. The common _school round_ is an example of canon, each voice
repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice
is going on with its melody. The _round_ is therefore defined as a
variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the
subject.
143. The _fugue_ (Latin, _fuga_ = flight) is a form of contrapuntal
composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key,
_i.e._, a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the
answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called
"the question"), but is usually not so.
The _fugue_ differs from the canon also in that the subject is
given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the
canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going
on. The _fugue_ is not nearly so strict in form as the canon
and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing
musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in _form_ and yet be
very poor music; this same statement might of course be made
about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.
CHAPTER XV
TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES (_Continued_)
(Sections 144 to 160 relate particularly to terms used in
descriptions of _monophonic_ music[33].)
[Footnote 33: There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as
to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of
forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy
even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter
consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author
to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and
the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the
volume called _Musical Form_, by Bussler-Cornell.]
144. A _phrase_ is a short musical thought (at least two measures in
length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The
typical _phrase_ is four measures long. The two-measure _phrase_ is
often called _section_. The word _phrase_ as used in music terminology
corresponds with the same word as used in language study.
145. A _period_ is a little piece of music typically eight measures
long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined
divisions of a larger form. The _period_ (when complete in itself) is
the smallest monophonic form.
The essential characteristic of the _regular period_ is the fact that it
usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called _antecedent_ and
_consequent_ or _thesis_ and _antithesis_), the first phrase giving rise
to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key,
deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of
completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.
The second half of the period is sometimes a literal
repetition of the first half, in all respects except the
cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one
of the elements--rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs.
58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost
invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes)
the more obvious the form of the period, while the more
complex the music, the less regular the period.
[Illustration: Fig. 58. MOZART]
[Illustration: Fig. 59. SCHUBERT]
146. The _primary forms_ are built up by combining two or more periods.
The _small two-part primary form_ (often called _song-form_ or
_Lied-form_) consists of two periods so placed that the second
constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of
this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the
first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity.
The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are
"Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."
[Illustration: BEETHOVEN]
The _small three-part primary form_ is like the two-part primary form
except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated
between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure
phrase.
The _large two- and three-part primary forms_ usually have
sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise
similar in construction.
These various _primary forms_ are used in constructing many
varieties of compositions, among them the _theme and
variations_, the _polka_, the _waltz_, the _march_, etc., as
well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets,
etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be
regular here because the form of vocal music is largely
dependent upon the structure of the text.
147. A _theme_ is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue,
as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes
it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are
made, as _e.g._, in the familiar _theme and variations_.
148. _Thematic development_ consists in taking a short theme (or several
short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and
contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality
changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a
composition. Fig. 60 _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ show how the theme
given in Fig. 60 (_a_) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are
hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied
without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic
development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as
analyzed in Appendix E. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Sec. 3" in
original.]
[Illustration: Fig. 60.]
For further illustrations of development in the case of this
same theme, see--Christiani--The Principles of Expression in
Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing
themes have been adapted.
149. A _rondo_ is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in
which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same
form (_i.e._, not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme
being separated by contrasting material.
The _rondo_ is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been
used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic
construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in
dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first
subject again; (6) second subject, in _tonic key_; (7) coda (or ending).
The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and
contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was
the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily
solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is
readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of
all--the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of
sonatas or sonatinas.
150. A _suite_ is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in
nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an
introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to
secure contrast of movement--a quick dance being usually followed by a
slower one.
The suite is interesting to students of the development of
music as being the first form _in several movements_ to be
generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity
from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the
eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata,
whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
The _suite_ was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord,
clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvo[vr]ák, Lachner,
Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.
151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:
_Allemande_--duple or quadruple measure.
_Bolero_--triple measure.
_Bourée_--duple or quadruple measure.
_Chaconne_--triple measure.
_Courante_--a very old dance in triple measure.
_Csardas_--Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.
_Gavotte_--quadruple measure.
_Gigue_ (or _jig_)--duple measure.
_Habanera_--Spanish dance in triple measure.
_Minuet_--slow dance in triple measure.
_Mazurka_--Polish dance in triple measure.
_Polonaise_--Polish dance in triple measure.
_Rigaudon_--lively dance in duple or triple measure.
_Sarabande_--triple measure.
_Tarantella_--swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
The _allemande_ is especially interesting to students of music form
because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the
sonata-allegro (_i.e._, the first movement of the sonata). The
_sarabande_ and _courante_ are likewise interesting as the prototypes of
the second movement, and the _bourée_, _minuet_, etc., for their
connection with the third movement.
152. The _scherzo_ (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental
composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the
sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an
independent piece.
153. A _sonata_ is an instrumental composition of three or more
movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always
in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity
of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a
broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its
name from the fact that its first movement is cast in _sonata-form_.
(See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)
When the _sonata_ has four movements, these are usually arranged as
follows:
1. A quick movement (_allegro_, _presto_, etc.), often
preceded by a slower introduction.
2. A slow movement (_largo_, _andante_, _adagio_, etc.).
3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case
the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is
played.
4. A quick movement--the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes
another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of
contrasting rhythms.
154. A _trio_ is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin,
and cello), while a _quartet_ is a sonata for four instruments, the most
common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins,
viola, and violoncello.
The term _chamber music_ is often applied to instrumental music for
trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are
suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.
The words _trio_ and _quartet_ are also applied to vocal works
for three and four voices respectively, these having no
relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word
_trio_ is also applied to the middle section of minuets,
scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage
of writing this part for three instruments only.
155. A _concerto_ is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral
accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt
it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for
a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements
in the _concerto_.
The great majority of _concertos_ are for piano and orchestra,
but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and
other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment)
have also been written. A few modern composers have applied
the term _concerto_ to certain large organ works (with no
orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for
just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so
contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly
justifiable.
When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra),
this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that
there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should
be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been
arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).
156. A _symphony_ is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its
construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of
much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal
and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the
highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.
The _symphony_ was accepted as a standard form in the time of
Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn
himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827),
reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine
Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers
whose works are at present being performed include Schumann,
Tschaikowsky, and Dvo[vr]ák.
The word _symphony_ was formerly used synonymously with _ritornelle_,
both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of
vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.
157. _Sonata-form_ (sometimes called _sonata-allegro_) is a plan for the
construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies,
etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third
division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.
These _three parts of sonata-form_ with their usual
subdivisions are:
I. EXPOSITION
(1) Principal theme (or first subject).
(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).
(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly
related key.
(4) Closing group.
(5) Coda.
II. DEVELOPMENT SECTION
Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost
infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of
thematic development. (See Sec. 148).
III. RECAPITULATION (OR REPRISE)
Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the
_exposition_, but differing from this first section in one
essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary
theme in a _related_ key, the entire recapitulation is in the
_principal_ key. This third section is always followed by a
coda (which may either be very short or quite extended),
bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.
The second part of _sonata-form_ (the development section) is
sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three
divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an
opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and
inventive skill. It is principally because of this development
section that the sonata is so far superior as a _form_ to its
predecessors. For an analyzed example of _sonata-form_, see
Appendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and
go through the first movements with a view to finding at least
the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the
form will of course be so irregular that all the parts
indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of
the scheme will always be present.
158. A _sonatina_, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs
from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development,
the second section being of slight importance as compared with the
corresponding section of a sonata.
A _grand sonata_ is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually
large dimensions.
159. _Program music_ is instrumental music which is supposed to convey
to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in
him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the
composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general
idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a
poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer,
but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except
the title of the composition.
_Program music_ represents a mean between _pure music_ (cf.
the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and
_descriptive music_ (in which actual imitations of bird-calls,
whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses,
the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most
program music is written for the orchestra, examples being
Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.
160. A _symphonic poem_ (or _tone poem_) is an orchestral composition of
large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying
the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often
characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also
examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the
entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it
occurs to the particular moods expressed by the _program_ at those
points.
The _symphonic poem_ was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has
since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saëns and
others. It came into existence as a part of the general
movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata
successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to
invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way,
but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in
his own individual way.
CHAPTER XVI
TERMS RELATING TO VOCAL MUSIC
161. An _anthem_ is a sacred choral composition, usually based on
Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental
accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five,
six, eight, or more.
[Footnote 34: A _liturgy_ is a prescribed form or method of conducting a
religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as _e.g._, the
holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the _musical_
liturgy.]
The word _anthem_ is derived from _antifona_ (or _antiphona_),
meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, _i.e._,
_antiphonally_, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.
A _full anthem_ is one containing no solo parts; a _solo anthem_ is one
in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a _verse
anthem_ is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for
concerted solo voices (_i.e._, trios, quartets, etc.).
162. _A capella_ (sometimes spelled _cappella_) or _alla capella music_
is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.
This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the
fact that in the early days of the church all singing was
unaccompanied.
163. _A motet_ is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It
has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular
music. The motet is intended for _a capella_ performance, but is often
given with organ accompaniment.
164. A _choral_ is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is
usually harmonized in four voices. The _choral_ (sometimes spelled
_chorale_) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and
a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American
hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a
pause at the end of each line of text.
165. The _mass_ is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper
in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology
of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when
a composer writes a musical _mass_, and which form the basis of the
celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows:
[Footnote 35: It should be understood that this statement refers to the
service called "the high mass" only, there being no music at all in
connection with the so-called "low mass."]
_Kyrie._
_Gloria_ (including the _Gratias agimus_, _Qui tollis_,
_Quoniam_, _Cum Sancto Spirito_).
_Credo_ (including the _Et Incarnatus_, _Crucifixus_, and _Et
Resurrexit_).
_Sanctus_ (including the _Hosanna_).
_Benedictus._
_Agnus Dei_ (including the _Dona nobis_).
The _requiem mass_ is the "mass for the dead" and differs
considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem
_masses_ have been written by many of the great composers
(Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these
_masses_ are so complex that they are not practicable for the
actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only
by large choral societies, as concert works.
166. A _cantata_ is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the
text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written
for piano, organ, or orchestra.
When sacred in character the _cantata_ differs from the
oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually
having definite characters, and in being written for church
use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.
When secular in subject the _cantata_ differs from the opera
in not usually having definite characters, and in being always
rendered without scenery or action.
Examples of the _sacred cantata_ are: Stainer's "The
Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and
Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of the _secular cantata_ are:
Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."
167. An _oratorio_ is a composition on a large scale for chorus,
soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious
subject. The _oratorio_, as noted above, is not intended for the church
service, but is written for concert performance.
168. An _opera_ is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and
orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It
is a drama set to music.
_Grand opera_ is opera with a serious plot, in which
everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.
_Opera comique_ is a species of opera in which part of the
dialog is spoken and part sung. _Opera comique_ is not
synonymous with _comic opera_, for the plot of opera comique
is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction
between the terms _grand opera_ and _opera comique_ is being
broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first
given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to
those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.
A _comic opera_ is a humorous opera, the plot providing many
amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It
corresponds with the _comedy_ in literature.
A _light opera_ is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in
which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the
amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as
trivial as the plot.
The term _music drama_ was used by Wagner in referring to his
own _operas_, and is also sometimes applied to other modern
_operas_ in which the dramatic element is supposed to
predominate over the musical.
169. A _libretto_ (lit.--little book) is the word-text of an opera,
oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.
170. _Recitative_ is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios,
and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main
characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both
rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by
musical considerations.
_Recitative_ undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the
priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when
applied to the opera it became an important means of securing
dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action
of the play moved along rapidly. _Recitative_ is thus seen to
be a species of musical declamation.
In the early examples of _recitative_ there was scarcely any
accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello)
being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full
chords were played they were not written out in the score, but
were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain
signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass," p. 85, Sec. 200.)
But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly
different style of _recitative_ was invented, and in this type
the orchestra was employed much more freely in the
accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of
the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while
singing. This new style was called _recitativo stromento_
(_i.e._, accompanied recitative), while the original type was
called _recitativo secco_ (_i.e._, dry recitative).
During the last century the style of _recitative_ has been
still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used
the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting
melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal
part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in
this latest phase of _recitative_, it is the word-text that
decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part.
Fig. 61 shows an example of _dry recitative_, taken from "The
Messiah."
[Illustration: ALTO VOICE. Be-hold! a vir-gin shall con-ceive,
and bear a son, and shall call his name Em-man-u-el; God with
us.]
171. _Aria_ is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but
its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the
recitative. In the _aria_ the word-text is usually entirely subordinate
to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills,
runs, etc.
The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as
"coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not all _arias_ are
coloratura in style.
The familiar solos from The Messiah--"Rejoice Greatly," and
"The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style.
172. A _lied_ (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the
melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the
effect of the whole.
Strictly speaking the word _lied_ means "a poem to be sung,"
and this meaning will explain at once the difference between
the _lied_ on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and
aria on the other, for in the _lied_ the text is of great
importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the
recitative the text was important but the music very slight,
and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the
music held the center of interest.
The most pronounced characteristic of the _lied_ is the fact that it
usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing
from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this
"single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the
poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to
this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has
then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more
vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as
often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as
through the expressiveness of the voice part.
The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the
same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which
each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the
"continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger.
durch-componiert).
173. A _ballad_ was originally a short, simple song, the words being in
narrative style, _i.e._, the word-text telling a story. In the earlier
_ballads_ each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune
(strophe form), but in the _art-ballad_ as developed by Loewe and others
the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the
composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the
events described by the poem. These later _ballads_ are in consequence
neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied
itself.
174. A _folk-song_ is a short song sung by and usually originating among
the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually _simplicity_,
this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one).
The text of the _folk-song_ is usually based on some event connected
with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical
and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru
the Rye, are examples of _folk-songs_.
There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a
song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a
real _folk-song_: recent writers seem to be taking the
sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the
characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it
remains popular for some time among the common people, then it
is just as much a _folk-song_ whether the composer happens to
be known or not.
175. A _madrigal_ is a secular vocal composition having from three to
eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually
sung a capella.
176. A _glee_ is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being
usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having
more than one movement. The _glee_ may be either gay or sad in mood, and
seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.
177. A _part-song_ is a composition for two or more voices, (usually
four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in
polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's
"Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of the _part-song_, as is
also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The term _part-song_ is often
loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.
CHAPTER XVII
RHYTHM, MELODY, HARMONY AND INTERVALS
178. The _four elements_ commonly attributed to music (in the order of
their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or
tone-color).
179. _Rhythm_ is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more
specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and
non-accented beats (or pulses)--according to some specified
measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be
at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm
possible. (See p. 44, Sec. 97.)
180. A _melody_ is a succession of single tones of various pitches so
arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and
pleasing to the ear.
The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized
compositions is often referred to as "the melody."
181. _Harmony_ is the science of chord construction and combination.
The term _harmony_ refers to tones sounding simultaneously,
_i.e._, to _chords_, as differentiated from tones sounding
consecutively, as in melody. The word _harmony_ may therefore
be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded
as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a
_succession_ of such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is
possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody
or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern
music have developed together and the style of present-day
melody is directly based upon the development that has
recently taken place in harmonic construction.
_Harmony_ (as contrasted with _counterpoint_) first began to
be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., _i.e._, at
the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when
form was established, and when our modern major and minor
scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was
composed on a contrapuntal basis.
182. _Timbre_ is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to
distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or voice) from a tone
produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.
The word _timbre_ is synonymous with the terms _quality of
tone_, and _tone quality_ (Ger.--Klang-farbe), the excuse for
using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an
idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse
would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word
would be eliminated) if the single word _quality_ were to be
adopted as the equivalent of _timbre_. Thus, _e.g._, the
soprano voice singing c' has a _quality_ different from the
contralto voice singing the same tone.
(The remainder of this chapter and all of Chapter XVIII deal
with terms commonly encountered in the study of _harmony_.
Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales,
but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively
treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the
next topic in harmony study, viz.--the interval.)
183. An _interval_ is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If
the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an _harmonic
interval_, but if sounded consecutively the result is a _melodic
interval_. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic
interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a
melodic interval.
[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in
mind:
(1) The _number name_ of the interval (third, fifth, sixth,
etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the
diatonic scale. Thus the interval C--E is a _third_ because E
is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic
scale. C--G is a _fifth_ because G is the fifth tone above C
in the diatonic scale.
It should be noted however that the same _number-names_ apply
even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified
by sharps, flats, etc. Thus _e.g._, C--G[sharp] is still a
_fifth_, as are also C[sharp]--G[flat] and C[flat]--G[sharp].
(2) In determining the _specific_ name of any interval
(_perfect_ fifth, _major_ third, etc.), the half-step and
whole-step (often referred to respectively as _minor second_,
and _major second_) are used as units of measurement.
The _half-step_ is usually defined as "the smallest usable
interval between two tones." Thus, C--C[sharp] is a
_half-step_, as are also B--C, F--G[flat], etc.
A _whole-step_ consists of two half-steps. C--D is a
_whole-step_, as are also B[flat]--C, E--F[sharp],
F[sharp]--G[sharp], G[flat]--A[flat], etc.
The expressions _half-step_ and _whole-step_ are much to be
preferred to _half-tone_ and _whole-tone_, as being more clear
and definite. Thus _e.g._, the sentence "The two tones are a
_half-step_ apart" is much better than "The two tones are a
_half-tone_ apart."
185. A _prime_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
properly represented by the same degree of the staff.
A _perfect prime_ is one whose tones have the same pitch.
Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would
offer an example.
An _augmented prime_ is one whose second tone is one half-step
higher than the first. Ex. C--C[sharp].
186. A _second_ is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line
and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and
fourth space.)
A _minor second_ is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B--C.
A _major second_ is one comprising two half-steps. Ex.
B--C[sharp].
An _augmented second_ is one comprising three half-steps. Ex.
F--G[sharp].
187. A _third_ is an interval comprising two seconds.
A _diminished third_ has two minor seconds (_i.e._, two
half-steps). C--E[double-flat].
A _minor third_ has one minor and one major second (_i.e._,
three half-steps). C--E[flat].
A _major third_ has two major seconds (_i.e._, four
half-steps). C--E.
188. _A fourth_ is an interval comprising three seconds.
A _diminished fourth_ has two minor and one major second.
C[sharp]--F.
A _perfect fourth_ has one minor and two major seconds. C--F.
An _augmented fourth_ (tritone) has three major seconds.
C--F[sharp].
189. A _fifth_ is an interval comprising four seconds.
A _diminished fifth_ has two minor and two major seconds.
C--G[flat].
A _perfect fifth_ has one minor and three major seconds. C--G.
An _augmented fifth_ has four major seconds. C--G[sharp].
190. A _sixth_ is an interval comprising five seconds.
A _minor sixth_ has two minor and three major seconds.
C--A[flat].
A _major sixth_ has one minor and four major seconds. C--A.
An _augmented sixth_ has five major seconds. C--A[sharp].
191. A _seventh_ is an interval comprising six seconds.
A _diminished seventh_ has three minor and three major
seconds. C--B[double-flat].
A _minor seventh_ has two minor and four major seconds.
C--B[flat].
A _major seventh_ has one minor and five major seconds. C--B.
192. An _octave_ is an interval comprising seven seconds.
A _diminished octave_ has three minor and four major seconds.
C--C[flat].
_A perfect octave_ has two minor and five major seconds. C--C.
An _augmented octave_ has one minor and six major seconds.
C--C[sharp].
193. A _ninth_ is usually treated as a second, a _tenth_ as a third,
etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a _fifteenth_.
194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between
each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals
are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.
[Illustration: Fig. 64.]
In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller
than _major_ is always _minor_, while that next smaller than _perfect_
or _minor_ is always _diminished_: but that the interval next larger
than both _major_ and _perfect_ is _augmented_.
195. An interval is said to be _inverted_ when the tone originally the
upper becomes the lower. Thus C--E, a major third, inverted becomes
E--C, a minor sixth.
CHAPTER XVIII
CHORDS, CADENCES, ETC.
196. A _chord_ is a combination of several tones sounding together and
bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the
_triad_, which consists of a fundamental tone called the _root_, with
the third and fifth above it. C--E--G is a triad, as are also D--F--A,
F--A--C, and G--B--D.
197. Triads are classified as _major_, _minor_, _diminished_, or
_augmented_.
A _major triad_ has a major third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._,
it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex.
C--E--G.
A _minor triad_ has a minor third and a perfect fifth, _i.e._,
it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex.
C--E[flat]--G.
A _diminished triad_ has a minor third and a diminished fifth,
_i.e._, it is a minor third with another minor third on top of
it. Ex. C--E[flat]--G[flat].
An _augmented triad_ has a major third and an augmented fifth,
_i.e._, it is a major third with another major third on top of
it. Ex. C--E--G[sharp].
198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V,
are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the
_common chords_. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to
show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral
(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of
the scale. Thus _e.g._, the large I shows that the triad on the first
tone (in major) is a _major triad_, the small II shows that the triad
on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this
clear.
[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
The triads in the minor scale are as follows:
[Illustration]
199. A triad is said to be _in fundamental position_ when its root is
the lowest tone. It is said to be in the _first inversion_ when the
_third_ is the lowest tone, and in the _second inversion_ when the fifth
is the lowest tone. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 66 the same chord (C--E--G) is
arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position,
at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.
[Illustration: Fig. 66.]
200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to
show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, _e.g._, the figure 6
over a bass note means that the note given is the _third_ of a chord,
the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: _i.e._, the
chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the
figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the _fifth_ of the chord,
the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the
note given; _i.e._, the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.
The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called _figured
bass_ (or _thorough bass_) _notation_. An example of a _figured bass_ is
given in Fig. 67.
[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
_Thorough bass notation_ was formerly used extensively in
writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having
to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an
interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's
music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these
works the chords have been printed in full and the signs
omitted.
201. A _seventh chord_ consists of a fundamental tone with its third,
fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A _ninth chord_
consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.
202. A _cadence_ is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers
to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.
The word _cadence_ is derived from _cadere_, a Latin word
meaning to _fall_, the reference being to the falling of the
voice (_i.e._, the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close
of a sentence.
203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on
I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V--I
is called the _authentic cadence_.
204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is
that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the
_root_ of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the
cadence is called _perfect_[36] _authentic_, and when the third or
fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called
_imperfect authentic_. Fig. 68 shows the chord G--B--D cadencing to
C--E--G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a _perfect
authentic cadence_, but the last two (c) and (d) are _imperfect
authentic_.
[Footnote 36: Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental
"Treatise on Harmony") consider the V--I cadence to be the only one
which may legitimately be called _perfect_, but the majority of writers
seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be
either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted
above.]
[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
205. A _plagal cadence_ is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by
the sub-dominant chord (IV--I). The _plagal cadence_ (sometimes called
the _church cadence_, or _amen cadence_), like the authentic, is
described as being _perfect_ when the soprano of the tonic chord is the
root of that chord, and _imperfect_ when the soprano of the final chord
is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F--A--C
cadencing to C--E--G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a
_perfect plagal cadence_, the last two are _imperfect plagal_.
[Illustration: Fig. 69.]
206. A _half-cadence_ occurs when the dominant chord is used as the
final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord.
This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is
not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in
the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the _half-cadence_ at the close
of such a phrase.
[Illustration: Fig. 70. BACH]
207. A _deceptive cadence_ is the progression of the dominant chord to
some other chord than the tonic, the word _deceptive_ implying that the
ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do
so. The most common form of _deceptive cadence_ is that in which V (or
V^7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of
the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71
gives an example.
[Illustration: Fig. 71. WM. MATHER]
208. A _sequence_ is a succession of similar harmonic progressions,
these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part.
See Fig. 72.
[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
The word _sequence_ is also applied to a succession of similar melodic
progressions, as in Fig. 73.
[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
209. _Modulation_ is a change of key without any break in the continuity
of chords or melody tones. _Harmonic modulations_ are usually effected
through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to
both keys. Examples of both _harmonic_ and _melodic modulations_ are
shown in Figs. 74 and 75.
[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
The chord most frequently used in modulating is the _dominant seventh_,
_i.e._, a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key.
In the key of C this chord is G--B--D--F; in the key of D it is
A--C[sharp]--E--G; in the key of A[flat] it is E[flat]--G--B[flat]--D[flat],
etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 75.]
210. A _suspension_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later
replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (_a_).
[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
211. A _retardation_ is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the
suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77
(_a_).
[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
The "regular chord tone" to which both suspension and retardation
resolve is called the _tone of resolution_.
212. The _anticipation_ is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest
of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (_a_).
[Illustration: Fig. 78.]
213. A _pedal point_ (or _organ point_) is a tone sustained through a
succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it
usually belongs. The term _pedal point_ originated in organ playing,
(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are
playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to
any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used
in this way. See Fig. 79.
[Illustration: Fig. 79. SCHUMANN]
214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written
close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an
octave apart), the term _close position_ is applied. But when the upper
voices are not written close together, the term _open position_ is
applied.
215. By _transposition_ is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of
music in some other key than the original. Thus _e.g._, if a song
written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the
accompanist sometimes _transposes_ it to a lower key (as F or E), thus
causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when
the same song was played in the original key.
CHAPTER XIX
MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
_A battuta_--with the beat; in strict rhythm. [Transcriber's Note:
Corrected error "battua" in original.]
_À quatre mains_--for four hands.
_Accompagnamento_--the accompaniment.
_All'unisono_--in unison.
_Alla breve_--2/2 measure.
The term _alla breve_ is also sometimes used as a tempo
indication, to show a rate of speed so great that a half-note
has a beat, _i.e._, only two beats in a measure--hence twice as
fast as before.
_Alla capella_--usually the same as a capella (see p. 76, Sec. 162) but
sometimes _used_ in the same sense as _alla breve_.
_Alla marcia_--in march style.
_Alla zingara_--in gypsy style.
_Alt_--see _in alt_.
_Alto_--the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e''.
The word _alto_ is derived from the Latin word _altus_, meaning
_high_, the term being formerly applied to the highest male
voice, which originally sang (and still does so in many male
choirs) the alto part.
_Animato come sopra_--in animated style as above.
_Antiphony_ (_antiphonal_)--the responsive singing of two choirs,
usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the
chancel.
_Arabesque_--an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic
style.
The term _arabesque_ is derived from the word _Arabian_, and
was originally applied to a style of decoration.
_Arioso_--in the style of an air or song, _i.e._, a flowing, vocal
style.
_Attacca_--attack the next division without any pause.
_Attacca subito_--same as _attacca_.
_Attacca subito il seguente_--attack at once that which follows.
[Transcriber's Note: In last 3 entries, corrected misspelling "attaca"
in original.]
_Attack_--the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun.
_Bagpipe_--A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a
combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the
continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the
melody is being played on the higher reeds.
_Barcarole_ (or _barcarolle_)--a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or
instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song.
_Baritone_ (or _barytone_)--the male voice having a range between that
of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g'.
_Bass_--the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e'.
_Basso_--same as _bass_.
_Berceuse_--a cradle song.
_Binary form_--a form in two parts.
_Binary measure_--a measure having two beats.
_Bis_--twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.)
_Brace_--the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones
represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is
often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined;
as--"Begin with the upper _brace_."
_Broken chord_--a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously,
as _e.g._, in an accompaniment group.
_Broken octave_--an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead
of simultaneously.
_Cacophony_--harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially _incorrect_
combinations of tones. The opposite of _euphony_.
_Cadenza_--A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition,
introduced just before the close of a movement. The _cadenza_ was
formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of
displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have
usually written their own _cadenzas_.
_Cantabile_--in a singing style.
_Cantando_--same as _cantabile_.
_Canto_--the highest voice part; _i.e._, the soprano part.
Note the derivation of _canto_, _cantabile_, etc., from the
Latin word _cantus_, meaning a _song_.
_Carol_--a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter
or Christmas festivities. The word _carol_ meant originally _a dance_,
hence the _happy_ character of songs of this type.
_Catch_--a round set to humorous words.
_Chromatic_ (noun)--a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not
belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are
replacing the word _chromatic_ in this sense with the term _intermediate
tone_, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually
used for ornamental purposes as a _chromatic_, or to effect a
modulation. Thus _e.g._, "F[sharp] is the _intermediate tone_ between F
and G in the key of C."
_Clavichord_--an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in
appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of
metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The
_clavichord_ was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of
the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is
now played on the modern piano.
_Colla voce_--with the voice: _i.e._, play the accompaniment according
to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the
rhythm indicated in the score.
_Colla parte_--same as _colla voce_.
_Coloratura_--florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of
singing employed in rendering such passages. (See p. 76, Sec. 171.)
_Consonance_--A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring
no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of
finality. The major triad C--E--G is an example of a consonant chord.
_Contralto_--same as _alto_.
_Con variazioni_--with variations.
_Direct_--a sign ([direct symbol]) placed at the end of the last staff
on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to
be. This sign is now practically obsolete.
_Dirge_--a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a
chant used in the "office for the dead," which begins--_Dirige Domine,
Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam_ (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way
in Thy sight).
_Discord_--an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones.
_Dissonance_--a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling
of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some
other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf.
consonance.) The diminished triad C--E[flat]--G[flat] is an example of a
dissonant chord.
_Divisi_--divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the
sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison
are now to divide into two or more parts.
_Duet_--a composition for two performers. (From the It. word
_due_--two.)
_École_--a school or style of composition or performance.
_Etude_--a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a
study, but intended for artistic performance.
_Euphony_--agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From
the Greek word meaning _well-sounding_.)
_Facile_--easy.
_Fanfare_--a trumpet call.
_Fantasia_--An instrumental composition not based on any regular form.
_Fiasco_--a complete failure or breakdown.
This use of the word _fiasco_ (which means in Italian a flask,
or bottle) is said to have reference to the bursting of a
bottle, the complete ruin of the bottle being compared with
the complete failure of a performance.
_Gamut_--all the tones of a scale.
_Glissando_--playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along
over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word
is derived from the French word _glisser_--to glide.
_Harpsichord_--one of the immediate predecessors of the piano.
_Humoresque_--a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. _fantasia_.)
_Idyl_--a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style.
_In alt_--pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus
_e.g._, "C in alt" is the C represented by the second added line above
the treble staff.
_In altissimo_--pitches in the octave above the _alt_ octave.
_Instrumentation_--see _orchestration_.
_Interlude_--a short movement between two larger movements.
_Loco_--place; _i.e._, play as written. (See p. 15, Sec. 46.)
_Lunga trillo_--a long trill.
CHAPTER XX
MISCELLANEOUS TERMS (_Continued_)
_Lyric_--a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to
instrumental pieces of like character.
_Maggiore_--major.
_Marcato il canto_--the melody well marked; _i.e._, subdue the
accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.
_Melos_--melody. This word _melos_ is also applied to the peculiar style
of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See _recitative_ (p. 75,
Sec. 170).
_Mellifluous_--pleasing; pleasant sounding.
_Menuetto, menuet_--same as _minuet_. (See p. 68, Sec. 151.)
_Mezzo soprano_--a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat
lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''.
_Minore_--minor.
_Nocturne_ (sometimes spelled _nocturn_, _notturna_, _nokturne_,
etc.)--a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental
composition, usually for piano solo.
_Nuance_--delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics
which make the rendition of music more expressive.
_Obbligato_ (sometimes incorrectly spelled _obligato_)--an accessory
melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).
The word _obbligato_ (It. _bound_, or _obliged_) refers to the
fact that this is usually a melody of independent value, so
important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance.
_Offertory_ (sometimes spelled _offertoire_, or _offertorium_)--a piece
of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the
church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short,
simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above
purpose.
_Opus_--work; used by composers to designate the order in which their
compositions were written, as _e.g._, Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.
_Orchestration_--the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an
intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the
orchestral instruments.
_Ossia_--or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer
to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a
player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.
_Overture_--(from _overt_--open)--an instrumental prelude to an opera or
oratorio. The older _overtures_ were independent compositions and bore
no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern
music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the _overture_ introduces the
principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the
introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The
word _overture_ is sometimes applied to independent orchestral
compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the _Hebrides
Overture_ by Mendelssohn.
_Pizzicato_--plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments,
and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone
being secured by _plucking_ the string.
_Polacca_--a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.
_Polonaise_--same as _polacca_.
_Postlude_--(lit. after-play)--an organ composition to be played at the
close of a church service.
_Prelude_--(lit. before-play)--an instrumental composition to be played
at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera,
etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of
somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. _preludes_ by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)
_Prière_--a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French
composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.
_Quintole, quintuplet_--a group of five notes to be performed in the
time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one
accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five
tones.
_Religioso, religiosamente_--in a devotional style.
_Requiem_--the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so
called from its first word _requiem_ which means _rest_. (See p. 77,
Sec. 165.)
_Rhapsody_--an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an
improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces
based on gypsy themes.
_Ribattuta_--a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is
gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See
Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.) [Transcriber's Note: Corrected
misspelling "Ribbatua" in original.]
_Ritornello, ritornelle_--a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or
postlude, in a vocal composition, as _e.g._, in an operatic aria or
chorus.
_Schottische_--a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the
_polka_.
_Sec, secco_--dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative
(see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an
instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly
dropped.
_Score_--a term used in two senses:
1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or
conductor wishes to call attention; as _e.g._, "Begin with the
_lower score_, third measure." The word _brace_ is also
frequently used in this sense.
2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be
performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a
single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The
term _vocal score_ usually means all chorus parts together
with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the
terms _full score_ and _orchestral score_ refer to a complete
assemblage of _all parts_, each being printed on a separate
staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together.
_Senza replica, senza repetizione_--without repetition; a term used in
connection with such indications as _D.C._, _D.S._, etc., which often
call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the
term _senza replica_ indicating that the smaller repeats included within
the larger division are not to be observed the second time.
[Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "senza repetitione" in
original.]
_Serenade, serenata_--an evening song.
_Sextet_--a composition for six voices or instruments.
_Sextuplet_--a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily
given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of
_triplets_ in having but one accent.
_Simile, similiter_--the same; indicating that the same general effect
is to be continued.
_Solfeggio, solfège_--a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or
on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose
is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often
applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.
_Sopra_--above.
_Soprano_--the highest female voice. Range approximately b--c'''.
_Sostenuto_--sustained or connected; the opposite of _staccato_.
_Sotto_--under. _E.g._, _sotto voce_--under the voice, _i.e._, with
subdued tone.
_Solmization_--sight-singing by syllable.
_Staccato_--detached; the opposite of _legato_.
_Subito_--suddenly.
_Tenor_--the highest male voice. Range approximately d--c''.
_Tenuto_--(from _teneo_, to hold)--a direction signifying that the tones
are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.
_Toccata_--a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually
characterized by much rapid staccato playing.
_Triplet_--a group of three tones, to be performed in the time
ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet
is always slightly accented.
_Tutti_--(derived from _totus_, _toti_, Latin--all)--a direction
signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally
to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.
APPENDIX A
THE HISTORY OF MUSIC NOTATION
Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and
development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on
this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in
the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for
example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red
line across the page, this line representing the pitch _f_ (fourth line,
bass staff), the _neumae_ (the predecessors of our modern _notes_)
standing either for this pitch _f_, or for a higher or lower pitch,
according to their position _on_ the line, or _above_ or _below_ it.
"Another line," continues this writer, "this time of yellow color, was
soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle
C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the _letters_ F and
C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F
and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries."[37]
[Footnote 37: Elson--Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that
the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a
letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from
this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this
particular letter stood.
[Footnote 38: Goddard--The Rise of Music, p. 177.]
A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was
not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in
sight-singing "points were placed at definite distances above the words
and above and below one another." "In this system ... everything
depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and
the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line
across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree
from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of
their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the
scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added,
colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first."
[Footnote 39: Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."]
It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing
happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament,
not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine
which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general
statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now
and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly,
consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men
in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in
details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point
is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing,
increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact
system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development
of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate
scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the
result as we have it to-day.
Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of
music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three
fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately
bound up with the development of _music_ itself in that period. These
three stages are:
(1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet
for representing fixed pitches.
(2) The period of the neumae.
(3) The period of staff notation.
Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of
the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably
accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of
writing "measured music" nor did it give the eye any opportunity of
grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and
downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been
abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was
about this time that certain _accent marks_ began to be written above
the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to
indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward
stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a
fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were
added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation
which thus grew up was called "neume notation," the word _neume_
(sometimes spelled _neuma_, or _pneuma_) being of Greek origin and
meaning a _nod_ or _sign_.
This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek
letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor
definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system,
that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the
eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a
hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone
(the so-called _diastematic system_), and this was a great aid to the
eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on
the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time.
Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at
sight as our modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to
recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by
ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal
music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the
dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly
in connection with the "plain-song melodies" of the Church, and since
the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in
reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite
duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called
"measured music" (cf. invention of opera, development of independent
instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief
disadvantages of the system.
The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of
Music are:
"(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum).
(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a
falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of
performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The
others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of
them...."
Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will
readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape
or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of
writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not
readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we
observe the greatest weakness of the neume system--its lack of
uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical
ideas for universal interpretation.
Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give
the beginner a general idea of their appearance.
Virga [virga symbol] or [virga symbol]. Punctus [punctus
symbol] or [punctus symbol]. Pes [pes symbol] or [pes symbol].
Clinis [clinis symbol] or [clinis symbol].
As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in
several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and
counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas
on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to
invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most
interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the
spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the
words _tone_ and _semi-tone_ at the beginning of the line to indicate
the scale interval. An example will make this clear.
[Illustration]
This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of
the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the
singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in
early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more
definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until
the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent
definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the
neumae) to indicate relative duration-values--it was only when this
combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be
universally used.
Just how the transition from _neume_ to _staff_ notation was made no one
knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a
gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that
any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff
notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk
named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we
are indebted, however, for the invention of the syllables (UT, RE, MI,
etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for
sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition
to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article _notation_.) It will now
be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination
of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together
with a new element--the staff, emphasizing the idea that _higher tones_
are written _higher_ on the staff than lower ones. The development of
the neumes into notes of various shapes indicatin
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